document_title: The Sims FreePlay

question_text: what's the highest level on sims freeplay

question_tokens: what 's the highest level on sims freeplay

text: The Sims FreePlay

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017)

text: In The Sims FreePlay, players "build" and design houses and customize and create (a maximum of 34) virtual people called Sims. Players can control their Sims to satisfy their wishes, and let them complete different kinds of actions to gain Simoleons, Lifestyle Points, and Social Points (all three currencies in the game). The game runs in real-time, and takes real time to complete actions.[3] All actions must be instructed by players, unlike in the Windows version, where Sims have some degree of autonomy. Players can progress through 55 levels to unlock content (such as furniture for the Sims’ houses) that can be purchased with the virtual currencies previously mentioned. Families of Sims can have children, provided there is one adult; there is a limit on the amount of allowable couples[citation needed] due to a limit on the people in the player's town. However, if the player buys items from the online store, they become a VIP that will allow them to increase the number of Sims they can have in their town. In the game, there are "quests" that players are required to complete, as well as optional quests ("discovery quests") that they may choose to pursue. Sims must bake a cake to age, until completion of a certain quota of discovery quests. To make, a cake takes 24 hours and costs 5 Lifestyle Points.

text: Development[edit]

text: Updates[edit]

text: The game is regularly updated with new content,[4] and has many events and competitions announced at FreePlay's official Facebook page. Updates commonly include elements from various expansion packs and stuff packs from the main series.[citation needed]

text: As of April 2017, Windows Phones no longer receive updates from the game.


document_title: Term of office

question_text: how long can an american president stay in office

root

text: Term of office

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Being the origin of the Westminster system, aspects of the United Kingdom's system of government are replicated in many other countries.

tag: p

text: Monarch[edit]

text: The monarch serves as head of state until his or her death or abdication.

text: House of Commons[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following dissolution of the Parliament, a general election is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament, though an individual's term may be cut short by death or resignation. An MP elected in a by-election mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing re-election at the next general election.

text: The Septennial Act 1715 provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned; this maximum period was reduced to five years by the Parliament Act 1911. Prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the Prime Minister's request. Early dissolutions occurred when the make-up of Parliament made forming government impossible (as occurred in 1974), or, more commonly, when the incumbent government reasoned an early general election would improve their re-election chances (e.g. 2001). The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years. Early dissolution is still possible, but under much more limited circumstances.

text: Because the government and Prime Minister are effectively indirectly elected through the Commons, the terms of Parliaments and MPs do not directly apply to offices of government, though in practice these are affected by changes in Parliament. While, strictly speaking, a Prime Minister whose incumbency spans multiple Parliaments only serves one, unbroken, term of office, some writers may refer to the different Parliaments as separate terms.[1]

text: House of Lords[edit]

text: Hereditary peers and life peers retain membership of the House of Lords for life, though members can resign or be expelled. Lords Spiritual hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric (e.g. George Carey, made Baron Carey of Clifton the day after he ceased being Archbishop of Canterbury).

text: Devolved administrations[edit]

text: The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are variations on the system of government used at Westminster.

text: The office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the Scottish Government and the Welsh Assembly Government there are fixed terms for which the legislatures can sit. This is imposed at four years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, which has not happened yet.

text: Other elected offices[edit]

text: Offices of local government other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years.

text: United States[edit]

text: Federal[edit]

text: In the United States, the president of the United States is elected indirectly through the United States Electoral College to a four-year term, with a term limit of two terms (totaling eight years) or a maximum of ten years if the president acted as president for two years or less in a term where another was elected as president, imposed by the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1951.

text: U.S. Representatives serve two-year terms. U.S. Senators serve six-years terms.

text: Federal judges have different terms in office. Article I judges; such as those that sit on the United States bankruptcy courts, United States Tax Court, and United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, and certain other federal courts and other forms of adjudicative bodies serve limited terms: The Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces for 15 years, bankruptcy courts for 14. However, the majority of the federal judiciary; Article III judges, such as those of the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and federal district courts; serve for life.

text: State and territories[edit]

text: The terms of office for officials in state governments varies according to the provisions of state constitutions and state law.

text: The term for state governors is four years in all states but Vermont and New Hampshire; the Vermont and New Hampshire governors serve for two years.

text: The National Conference of State Legislatures reported in January 2007 that among state legislatures [1]:

text:
44 states had terms of office for the lower house of the state legislature (often termed the state House of Representatives) at two years. Five (Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, and North Dakota) had terms of office at four years. (The Nebraska Legislature is an exception and has a unicameral legislature with members elected for four years.)
37 states had terms of office for the upper house of the state legislature (often termed the state Senate) at four years. Twelve (Arizona, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont) had terms of office at two years.

tag: ul

text: Among territories of the United States:

text:
In the American Samoa Fono, members of the House serve two-year terms while members of the Senate serve six-year terms.
Members of both chambers of the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico have four-year terms.
Members of both chambers of the Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature have two-year terms.
The Legislature of Guam and Legislature of the Virgin Islands are unicameral and Senators have two-year terms.

text: Members of Council of the District of Columbia serve a four-year term.

text: Canada[edit]

text: As a former British territory following the Westminster System, there are many similarities with the United Kingdom, although with some variations based on local customs, the federal system of government and the absentee monarch.

text: Monarch[edit]

text: Being a Commonwealth realm, Canada shares a monarch with the United Kingdom and 14 other countries, who serves as head of state of all 16 realms until their death or abdication.

text: Viceroys[edit]

text: The Governor General is appointed by the monarch as his/her personal representative on the advice of the Prime Minister, and serves for an indefinite term, though the normal convention is 5 years. Similarly, the Lieutenant Governors, who represent the monarch at the provincial level, are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister (usually also with consultation of the relevant provincial premier), and generally also serve 5 year terms by convention. The territories have Commissioners, who are not representatives of the monarch, but are instead appointed by and represent the Governor-in-Council (i.e. the federal cabinet), and conventionally serve for about 5 years.

text: House of Commons[edit]

text: Similar to the United Kingdom, MPs serve for the duration of the Parliament. They may resign before the end of a Parliament or be elected in by-elections during the middle of a Parliament.

text: Under the Constitution Act, 1867, a Parliament may last for a maximum of 5 years from the most recent election before expiring, although all Parliaments to date have been dissolved before they could expire. Bill C-16, introduced in the 39th Parliament, provided for fixed election dates every 4 years on the third Monday in October, beginning in 2009. However, the Prime Minister may still advise the Governor General to dissolve Parliament at any time.

text: As in the United Kingdom, the cabinet and head of government are indirectly elected based on the composition of the House of Commons, they are not technically affected by the terms of legislators or Parliaments. In practice however, the terms of government office holders are affected by changes in the House of Commons, and those who serve for multiple consecutive Parliaments are generally considered to have served a single term. The term of a government generally ends when it is defeated on a confidence matter or the governing party fails to gain enough seats in a general election.

text: Senate[edit]

text: Senators are appointed to the Canadian Senate to represent a province by the Governor General of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister, and serve until the mandatory retirement age of 75. Senators appointed before the passage of the British North America Act, 1965 served for life. Senators may also resign from office or be expelled from the Senate.

text: Provincial and Territorial Legislatures[edit]

text: Provincial legislatures and the legislature of the Yukon function very similarly to the federal House of Commons. MLAs (called MPPs in Ontario, MNAs in Quebec, and MHAs in Newfoundland and Labrador) serve for the duration of the legislature, though they may resign before the legislature is dissolved or be elected in by-elections between general elections. The legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut operate using a consensus model, but are similar otherwise. The premiers and their cabinets are selected in the same way as in the House of Commons, and like at the federal level, the term of a provincial government can be ended by defeat in a general election or the loss of the legislature's confidence.

text: All provincial legislatures except that of Nova Scotia have fixed-term election legislation in place, as does the legislature of the Northwest Territories. Premiers may also advise Lieutenant Governors to dissolve legislatures at any time before the prescribed election date.

text: Terms of office by country[edit]

text:
Heads of state

Upper houses

Lower houses and heads of government

Legend

Not applicable
Varies
Until removed

<3
3
4
5
6
7
>7

tag: table

text: Numbers in years unless stated otherwise. Note that some countries where fixed-term elections are uncommon, the legislature is almost always dissolved earlier than its expiry date. "Until removed from office" refers to offices that don't have fixed terms; in these cases, the officeholder(s) may serve indefinitely until death, abdication, resignation, retirement, or forcible removal from office (such as impeachment).

text: In cases where the head of government is a different person from the head of state, its term of office is identical to the chamber that elected it (the legislature if it is unicameral, or most usually the lower house if it is bicameral), unless it doesn't survive a vote of no confidence.

text:
Country
Head of state
Members of the upper house*
Members of the lower (or sole) house

 Afghanistan
5
3, 4 and 5
5

 Albania
5
N/A
4

 Algeria
5
N/A
5

 Andorra
Until removed from office (Bishop of Urgel); 5 (President of France)
N/A
4

 Angola
5
N/A
5

 Antigua and Barbuda
Until removed from office
5
5

 Argentina
4
6
4

 Armenia
5
N/A
5

 Australia
Until removed from office
6
3

 Austria
6
4 to 6
5

 Azerbaijan
5
N/A
5

 Bahamas
Until removed from office
5
5

 Bahrain
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Bangladesh
5
N/A
5

 Barbados
Until removed from office
5
5

 Belarus
5
4
4

 Belgium
Until removed from office
5
4

 Benin
5
N/A
5

 Bhutan
Until removed from office
5
5

 Bolivia
5
5
5

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
4
4
4

 Botswana
5
N/A
5

 Brazil
4
8
4

 Bulgaria
5
N/A
4

 Burkina Faso
5
N/A
5

 Burundi
5
5
5

 Brunei
Until removed from office
N/A
Until removed from office

 Cambodia
Until removed from office
6
5

 Cameroon
7
N/A
5

 Canada
Until removed from office
Until removed from office
5

 Cape Verde
5
N/A
5

 Central African Republic
5
N/A
5

 Chad
5
N/A
4

 Chile
4
8
4

 China
5
N/A
5

 Colombia
4
4
4

 Congo
7
6
5

 Comoros
5
N/A
5

 Ivory Coast
5
N/A
5

 Costa Rica
4
N/A
4

 Croatia
5
N/A
4

 Cuba
5
N/A
5

 Cyprus
5
N/A
5

 Czech Republic
5
6
4

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
5
5
4

 Denmark
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Djibouti
6
N/A
5

 Dominica
5
N/A
5

 Dominican Republic
4
4
4

 Ecuador
4
N/A
4

 Egypt
4
N/A
5

 El Salvador
5
N/A
3

 Equatorial Guinea
5
N/A
5

 Estonia
5
N/A
4

 Ethiopia
6
N/A
5

 Fiji
5
5
5

 Finland
6
N/A
4

 France
5
6
5

 Gabon
7
6
5

 Gambia
5
N/A
5

 Georgia
5
N/A
4

 Germany
5
4 to 5
4

 Ghana
4
N/A
4

 Greece
5
N/A
4

 Grenada
Until removed from office
5
5

 Guatemala
4
N/A
4

 Guinea
5
N/A
5

 Guinea-Bissau
5
N/A
5

 Guyana
5
N/A
5

 Haiti
5
6
4

 Honduras
4
N/A
4

 Hungary
5
N/A
4

 Iceland
4
N/A
4

 India
5
6
5

 Indonesia
5
5
5

 Iran
4
N/A
4

 Iraq
4
N/A
4

 Ireland
7
5
5

 Israel
7
N/A
4

 Italy[2]
7
5
5

 Jamaica
Until removed from office
5
5

 Japan
Until removed from office
6
4

 Jordan
Until removed from office
4
4

 Kazakhstan
5
6
5

 Kenya
5
5
5

 Kiribati
4
N/A
4

 Kuwait
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Kyrgyzstan
6
N/A
5

 Laos
5
N/A
5

 Latvia
4
N/A
4

 Lebanon
4
N/A
4

 Lesotho
Until removed from office
5
5

 Liberia
6
9
6

 Liechtenstein
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Lithuania
5
N/A
4

 Luxembourg
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Macedonia
5
N/A
4

 Madagascar
5
4
4

 Malawi
5
N/A
5

 Malaysia
5
3
5

 Maldives
5
N/A
5

 Mali
5
N/A
5

 Malta
5
N/A
5

 Marshall Islands
4
N/A
4

 Mauritania
5
N/A
5

 Mauritius
5
N/A
5

 Mexico
6
6
3

 F.S. Micronesia
4
N/A
2, 4

 Monaco
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Mongolia
4
N/A
4

 Moldova
4
N/A
4

 Montenegro
5
N/A
4

 Morocco
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Mozambique
5
N/A
5

 Myanmar
5
5
5

 Namibia
5
N/A
5

 Nauru
4
N/A
3

   Nepal
5
6
5

 Netherlands
Until removed from office
4
4

 New Zealand
Until removed from office
N/A
3

 Nicaragua
5
N/A
5

 Nigeria
4
4
4

 Niger
4
4
4

 North Korea
5
N/A
5

 Norway
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Oman
Until removed from office
4
4

 Pakistan
5
6
5

 Palau
4
4
4

 Palestine
4
N/A
4

 Panama
5
N/A
5

 Papua New Guinea
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Paraguay
5
5*
5

 Peru
5
N/A
5

 Philippines
6
6
3

 Poland
5
4
4

 Portugal
5
N/A
4

 Qatar
Until removed from office
N/A
N/A

 Romania
5
4
4

 Russia
6
N/A
5

 Rwanda
7
N/A
5

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Saint Lucia
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Samoa
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 San Marino
0.5 (6 months)
N/A
5

 São Tomé and Príncipe
5
N/A
4

 Senegal
5
5
5

 Serbia
5
N/A
4

 Seychelles
5
N/A
5

 Sierra Leone
5
N/A
5

 Singapore
6
N/A
5

 Slovakia
5
N/A
4

 Slovenia
5
5
4

 Solomon Islands
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Somalia
4
N/A
4

 South Africa
5
5
5

 South Korea
5
N/A
4

 South Sudan
5
 ?
 ?

 Spain
Until removed from office
4
4

 Sri Lanka
5
N/A
5

 Sudan
5
6
6

 Suriname
5
N/A
5

 Swaziland
Until removed from office
5
5

 Sweden
Until removed from office
N/A
4

  Switzerland
4
4
4

 Syria
7
N/A
4

 Taiwan
4
N/A
4

 Tajikistan
7
5
5

 Tanzania
5
N/A
5

 Thailand
Until removed from office
6
4

 Timor-Leste
5
N/A
5

 Togo
5
N/A
5

 Tonga
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Trinidad and Tobago
5
5
5

 Tunisia
5
N/A
5

 Turkey
5
N/A
4

 Turkmenistan
5
N/A
5

 Tuvalu
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Uganda
5
N/A
5

 Ukraine
5
N/A
4

 United Arab Emirates
Until removed from office
Until removed from office
5

 United Kingdom
Until removed from office
Until removed from office
5

 United States
4
6
2

 Uruguay
5
5
5

 Uzbekistan
7
5
5

 Vanuatu
5
N/A
4

  Vatican City
Until removed from office
N/A
Until removed from office

 Venezuela
6
N/A
5

 Vietnam
5
N/A
5

 Yemen
7
N/A
6

 Zambia
5
N/A
5

 Zimbabwe
5
5
5

text: *Excludes senators for life.


document_title: Get on Up (film)

question_text: who played young james brown in get on up

text: Get on Up (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Get on Up is told using a nonlinear narrative as if through James Brown's stream of consciousness, including asynchronous events and frequent breaks in the fourth wall. The film opens in 1993 with James Brown walking through a darkened hallway as an audience chants his name. He hears the voices of people he knew throughout his life. The film then cuts to 1988 in Augusta, Georgia; James learns that his private bathroom in a strip mall he owns was used without his consent. As James confronts and then forgives the trespasser, James accidentally fires a shotgun, attracting the police.

text: During the 1960s, James and his band decide to travel to Vietnam to show support to the black troops, where they put on a well-received show. In 1939, James is raised in the woods by his parents (Susie and Joe Brown), whose marriage is fraught with financial struggles and physical abuse. Later he performs in a singing group, The Famous Flames, formed by Bobby Byrd, whose family sponsored his release from prison, a penalty he paid for stealing a suit. James lives with the Byrd family and becomes lead singer of Bobby's group. In 1964, manager Ben Bart convinces them to let The Rolling Stones close The T.A.M.I. Show instead of The Flames. The Flames upstage the Stones, and, exiting the stage, James tells the Stones, "Welcome to America". In James' childhood, Susie leaves Joe, and Joe threatens her with a gun and keeps James. Joe continues to abuse James until Joe joins the army. James is left living with and working for his Aunt Honey, who runs a brothel. At her home, he attends church and enjoys the choir.

text: At the age of 17, James steals a suit, is arrested, and receives a 5-to-13-year prison sentence. In prison, James sees a group of singers performing. His enthusiastic reaction incites a riot wherein both he and one of the singers, Bobby Byrd, are injured. Bobby invites James into the Byrd household. Years later, James joins Bobby's gospel group and they put on a show at a club as The Famous Flames, following a performance by Little Richard. Another flashback from James's childhood shows him and other black boys forced into a battle royal boxing match while a band plays. Inspired by the funky band, James wins the match.

text: In the 1950s, James and Bobby meet an agent from King Records, with whom The Flames record their first single, "Please, Please, Please", on the Federal Records label in 1956. King Records executive Syd Nathan initially mocks the song but appreciates James's vocals. Ben Bart becomes James' manager, calling him the true voice of the group. The records are labelled as "James Brown and His Famous Flames", leading all the members except Bobby to quit. James and Bobby form a new band with Maceo Parker, Pee Wee Ellis, Nafloyd Scott, and Baby Roy. The Famous Flames singing group is also re-formed, replacing the members that quit. The Flames perform at the Apollo Theater to an excited audience. After the show, Bobby tells James that a lady claiming to be his mother is there. As a young child, James had seen Susie with a soldier, to whom she claimed she didn't know James. Aunt Honey consoled James, saying that his mother was a fool and James would someday be rich.

text: James has a child, Teddy, with his first wife Velma. He later divorces her and marries Dee-Dee. On one occasion, the couple hosts a Christmas event. Afterwards, James hits Dee-Dee for wearing a revealing outfit. In an attempt to reach out to the black community, James records the song "Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud" (1968) with a group of children. James convinces the Boston Garden's manager to not cancel a performance following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.. Several people try to get on stage; security guards intercede until James controls the audience.

text: Over time, James manages the band poorly, and they all quit. Ben dies of a heart attack. Bobby muses about a career as a lead singer, leading to a heated argument with Brown, who tells Bobby that, although Bobby's wife Vicki Anderson (who was a featured singer in Brown's Revue) could be a major solo performer, Bobby could not. Angry and upset, Bobby fires back at Brown, and after Brown makes some cruel statements, finally leaves him for good. Backtracking several years, to an incident at the Apollo, Brown's mother Susie appears backstage during a Flames concert and expresses her love for James despite her reluctance to be a mother. After she leaves, Bobby comes back in, sees James having a breakdown, and heeds his request to take care of Susie. In 1973, James learns Teddy has been killed in a car accident. Immediately before the incident at the strip mall, James smokes a joint laced with PCP. The police chase James and arrest him.

text: In 1993, James meets Bobby for the first time since Teddy's funeral to give him tickets to his show. James walks onto the stage through a darkened hall. He sees visions of people from his life chanting his name. His performance of "Try Me (I Need You)" moves Bobby and his wife Vicki to tears, and the audience cheers.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Chadwick Boseman as James Brown[6]

Jamarion and Jordan Scott as young James Brown[7]

Nelsan Ellis as Bobby Byrd[8]
Dan Aykroyd as Ben Bart[9]
Viola Davis as Susie Brown[10]
Lennie James as Joseph "Joe" Brown[11]
Fred Melamed as Syd Nathan
Jamal Batiste as John "Jabo" Starks
Craig Robinson as Maceo Parker[9]
Jill Scott as Deidre "Dee-Dee" Jenkins[9]
Octavia Spencer as Aunt Honey Washington[10]
Josh Hopkins as Ralph Bass[12]
Brandon Mychal Smith as Little Richard[13]
Tika Sumpter as Yvonne Fair[14]
Aunjanue Ellis as Vicki Anderson
Tariq Trotter as Pee Wee Ellis
Aloe Blacc as Nafloyd Scott
Keith Robinson as Baby Roy[15]
Nick Eversman as Mick Jagger[16]
J.D. Evermore as Seminar Presenter
Ahna O'Reilly as Reporter
James DuMont as Corporal Dooley[17]
Stacey Scowley as Penelope White
Liz Mikel as Gertrude Sanders
Aaron Jay Rome as Frankie Avalon
Clyde Jones as Daddy Grace
Joe T. Blankenship as Alan Leeds
Michael Papajohn as 1949 Cop
Kirk Bovill as Announcer[18]
Aakomon Jones as Bobby Bennett [19][20]
John Benjamin Hickey as Richard
Allison Janney as Kathy
Jamell Richardson as Jimmy Nolen
Justin Hall as Bootsy Collins
David Carzell as Catfish Collins
Jason Davis as Mayor Kevin White
Billy Slaughter as Pool Cleaner
Charles R. Rooney as President Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Production[edit]

text: Imagine Entertainment listed a James Brown biopic in development in 2000, with a script titled Star Time written by Steven Baigelman.[21] Mick Jagger joined on as a producer, and Jez and John-Henry Butterworth were brought on to rewrite the script, titled Superbad. Spike Lee was set to direct but development[22] stalled in 2006 over music licensing[23] and finance issues.[24] It was revived in 2012[23] when Jagger read a recent draft by the Butterworth brothers.[25] John-Henry Butterworth was fascinated by the period concept of celebrity in preparing to write. “When James was becoming famous, you had to hide where you came from and be squeaky clean. Whereas if he were an artist launching his career now his upbringing and what happened to him would be right there in the press release. Everyone knows how many times 50 Cent has been shot.”[23] The script took some liberties and includes at least one scene involving fabricated incidents.[26] Lee vacated the directors position[27] and on October 22, 2012, it was announced that Tate Taylor (The Help) was set to direct the untitled biopic about James Brown, to be produced by Mick Jagger and Imagine Entertainment's Brian Grazer.[4] On August 29, 2013, Universal Pictures set October 17, 2014 as a release date for the film, previously untitled.[28] Later, on November 13, Universal shifted the release date of the biopic from October to August 1, 2014.[5]

text: Casting[edit]

text: On August 26, 2013, Universal selected Chadwick Boseman to play the lead role of James Brown.[6] Boseman did all of his own dancing and some singing.[29] The soundtrack is live recordings of James Brown.[29] On September 17, Universal announced an open casting call for actors, musicians, and extras for different roles in the biopic, which was held on September 21.[30] On September 30, Taylor cast Viola Davis to play Susie Brown and Octavia Spencer to play Aunt Honey.[10] On October 21, Nelsan Ellis joined the cast of film to portray Bobby Byrd, Brown's long-time friend.[8] Lennie James joined the cast on October 23, to play the role of Brown's father Joseph "Joe" James.[11] Jill Scott and Dan Aykroyd were added on October 31; Scott played Brown's wife while Aykroyd played Ben Bart, the President of one of New York City's largest talent agencies Universal Attractions Agency.[9]

text: On November 3, Universal added Keith Robinson to the film to portray the role of Baby Roy, a member of Brown's band.[15] On November 14, Tika Sumpter also joined the cast, to play singer Yvonne Fair.[14] There was a rumor that Taraji P. Henson was to join the film to play Tammi Terrell.[31] Nick Eversman joined the cast on November 19, to play Mick Jagger.[16] On December 9, 2013, it became public that Brandon Mychal Smith was selected to portray Brown's musical idol, Little Richard.[32] On December 20, Josh Hopkins joined the film to portray the role Ralph Bass, a music producer.[12] After the shooting wrapped up in Natchez, MS, the production was looking for extras to begin a shoot on January 6, 2014, filming a concert scene set in Paris in 1971.[33] There was another call on January 6, 2014 for extras to film some daytime scenes in Jackson on January 7, 2014.[34]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Shooting began on November 4, 2013 in Natchez, Mississippi, in and around Natchez through the end of the year, and then in Jackson, Mississippi.[35] On December 20, 2013, the film wrapped up shooting in Natchez. Crews were set to take a holiday break and then return to filming from January 6–24, 2014 in Jackson.[33][36] Filming got on track again on January 6, 2014 in Jackson.[34] On January 13, 2014, press posted the news that crews had filmed large scenes at Thalia Mara Hall, and they shot other scenes at Mississippi Coliseum, Capitol Street, and some of the restaurants in Jackson.[37] In total Get on Up was shot in 49 days.[23]

text: Release[edit]

text: On September 1, 2014, it was announced that the film would be the opening film of the 2014 Zurich Film Festival.[38]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: On March 13, 2014, Universal released some photos and a first official trailer of the film.[39][40] A second official trailer was released on May 20.[41]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Get on Up was met with positive reviews from critics, with praise mainly going to Boseman's performance. The film currently has a rating of 80% on the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 150 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10. The site's consensus reads: "With an unforgettable Chadwick Boseman in the starring role, Get on Up offers the Godfather of Soul a fittingly dynamic homage".[42] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 71 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[when?][43] Additionally, Brandon Smith received praise from critics for his brief but memorable role as Little Richard.[44][45][46]

text: Less favorable reviews include "Get On Up is a cagey, shapeless James Brown biopic" by Ignatiy Vishnevetsky, who rated the film D+ at The A.V. Club,[47] Several other critics noted key facts and incidents omitted in the film,[48] in articles such as "The Social Activist Side of James Brown You Won’t See In Get On Up",[49] "The Great Man Theory of Funk: Get On Up shows us James Brown the unstoppable personality, but skimps on James Brown the musician",[50] and "12 Crazy James Brown Moments You Won't See in Get on Up".[51]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film grossed $13,585,915 during its opening weekend, finishing in third place at the domestic box office behind fellow new release Guardians of the Galaxy ($94,320,883) and Lucy ($18,252,590).[52]

text: As of September 22, 2014, Get on Up has grossed $30,569,935, against a $30 million budget.[3]


document_title: Kelly Kapoor

question_text: who does kelly end up with on the office

text: Kelly Kapoor

text: Overview[edit]

text: Kelly Kapoor is a customer service representative at the Scranton branch of fictitious paper distributor Dunder Mifflin. Kelly is the office chatterbox, usually on topics that a teenager might discuss, such as boys, dating, and celebrity gossip. She has said that she wants to get married, and that she cannot wait to "get pregnant and have babies." Her closest counterpart in the British series is Donna, although they are not similar in terms of personality.

text: Biography[edit]

text: Kelly is an Indian American although she frequently makes incorrect statements about her heritage or religion. Her parents were brought together through an arranged marriage and she has three living sisters, as well as another who died.

text: She tends to engage in long-winded, one-sided conversations on relatively trivial subjects, often to the chagrin of Toby Flenderson, with whom she shares the annex, situated off the main office. Sometimes, it appears that Kelly plays dumb, as evidenced by a conspiratorial wink to the camera in "Boys and Girls." She enjoys shopping, especially online, as seen in "The Coup" and in "Dunder Mifflin Infinity" and she also loves clothing, as seen in "The Coup" and "Women's Appreciation."

text: Kelly spent a year in a juvenile hall for stealing her ex-boyfriend's father's boat.

text: Seasons 1–2[edit]

text: Kelly is portrayed in Season 1 very differently than later in the series. Rather than being loquacious and adolescent, she is just a mild-mannered employee who is just another target of branch Manager Michael Scott's stereotypes. She is first featured in the episode "Diversity Day," where Michael conducts a diversity training seminar for his employees. When Michael suggests everyone state a race they are sexually attracted to, Dwight immediately responds "White and Indian," which gets a curious (and rather alarmed) look from her. Kelly leaves to go to a customer meeting and comes back in the middle of a game where everyone in the room has to put a card with a specific race on their forehead (with the race being unknown to themselves), and then must treat everyone as if they were the race on their card. Michael, frustrated that no one is playing properly, attempts to demonstrate how to play, by approaching Kelly as she walks into the room and speaking in a stereotypical Indian accent. He starts to get offensive, mentioning various Indian stereotypes, such as convenience stores and trying to offer her "some of my googi googi," to which Kelly responds by slapping him and walking away.[5]

text: Kelly's race subjects her to embarrassing and insulting references from Michael. For instance, she wins the "Spicy Curry" award at the 8th Annual Dundie Awards. She angrily questions an evasive Michael about why she got the award. She dresses up as Dorothy from The Wizard of Oz on Halloween, which prompts Michael to say, "Interesting take on Dorothy" followed by his suggesting that she wear a soccer uniform and dress like Jess Bhamra, a character of Indian descent in Bend It Like Beckham.

text: During the company "Christmas Party," Kelly gives a possibly inebriated kiss to Dwight, possibly due to his comment in "Diversity Day," although this plot line did not develop (Dwight was already dating Angela). Instead, Kelly was involved in a wildly uneven relationship with Ryan Howard, the office temp. She hinted (often with little subtlety) that she wanted to marry him and have children as soon as possible, though he was strongly opposed to it and was not especially interested in her. The relationship was often rocky, as Kelly suffocated Ryan with her almost aggressively perky behavior. She tells Jim in "The Carpet" that she likes Beyoncé, pink (the color), Pink (the singer), basically anything that is awesome, hot dogs, and snowcones. In the episode "Take Your Daughter To Work Day," we see Kelly's manipulative side, after she witnessed Stanley's teenage daughter shadowing Ryan. Kelly lies and tells Stanley that Ryan flirted with the teenager, after which Stanley berates Ryan. In the season finale "Casino Night," Ryan wearily admits to Jim that he is still dating Kelly.[6]

text: Seasons 3–4[edit]

text: At the Hindu Diwali festival, Kelly's parents criticize her choice in Ryan for not being committed to marriage and family and for not making enough money ("Diwali"); they suggest that she go for a particular, more successful man of Indian descent. When Jim Halpert sees Kelly for the first time after the merger between the Stamford and Scranton branches, he asks her what has been going on in her life, to which Kelly responds by gossiping excitedly about Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes's daughter Suri and Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie's daughter Shiloh; when Jim reaffirms his question of what has been going on with her life, she blankly replies that she just told him. She joins Pam and Karen's party in "A Benihana Christmas" with Ryan.

text: Hurt by Ryan's comments in "Business School," Michael moves Ryan's desk next to Kelly's as a form of punishment. Kelly is excited by the move, though she and Ryan bicker (and passionately make up) frequently. In "The Negotiation," Kelly reveals that Ryan once laughed at her during a date when a boy on a Ferris wheel spilled his milkshake on her. Ryan just replies "Well, that was funny; that's why." She also questions Ryan's bravery, mentioning that he once called her for help when he thought there was a "murderer" in his apartment. All this bickering makes Toby wonder in a talking head interview if Michael purposely put Ryan and Kelly together next to him just to punish him. Toby comments, "If he did... genius."

text: Despite her often frivolous and immature behavior, Kelly is seen in a rare professional capacity in "Product Recall." She trains Oscar, Angela, and Kevin for taking customer service phone calls after an obscene watermark is printed on Dunder Mifflin paper, prompting too many complaint calls for Kelly alone to answer. She is very enthusiastic about this new task, and mentions that sometimes when she is bored she will make up a name for herself or talk in an accent (such as imitating Bridget Jones) while on the phone. Unlike Angela, who cannot bring herself to follow Kelly's advice and say "I'm sorry" to irate customers, Kelly demonstrates notable skill at soothing the angry callers.

text: In "The Job," Ryan abruptly ends his relationship with Kelly after receiving a promotion to the corporate headquarters. According to a short NBC advertisement that aired after the season, Kelly spent much of the summer crying, and her days in the office were spent under her desk not speaking or associating with anyone.[7]

text: Kelly spends most of season four getting over her breakup with Ryan and beginning a new relationship with Darryl Philbin. In "Dunder Mifflin Infinity," Kelly attempts to reunited with Ryan by telling him she is pregnant with his child. Kelly is overjoyed when Ryan agrees to have dinner with her, but the plan backfires when he learns that she is not actually pregnant. When he confronts her about it, she does not understand why the lie would upset him and is surprised and upset when he refuses to date her again. Ryan later asks Corporate to have her job outsourced to India.

text: A relationship sparks with warehouse foreman Darryl, after he protects Kelly from Dwight's anger over her purchasing paper online while he was trying to beat the website in sales. She delightedly confesses that she did not really need paper; she just loves the cute and friendly seeming website because she gets to hear the sound effect and the text that says "Thanks for shopping with Dunder Mifflin!"

text: In the episode "Money," Kelly and Darryl kiss in the conference room in front of Ryan, confirming their relationship. Kelly does not seem to have forgiven Ryan, however, during a grammar discussion of objective and subjective case, Kelly complains that Ryan used her "as an object." Darryl seems at times much less enthusiastic about the relationship, evoking Ryan's previous attitude toward Kelly. He declines to go on a date with her in favor of spending time with his daughter, and when Kelly presents him with an ultimatum (her or his daughter), he does not change his mind. However, he complains in a talking head interview that Kelly primarily seems interested in him when Ryan is around. He also gives her some rare straight talk, showing that he can view their relationship in a mature way. A bemused Kelly tells the cameras, "Darryl Philbin is the most complicated man that I have ever met. I mean who says exactly what they're thinking? What kind of game is that?"

text: In the episodes "Local Ad" and "The Deposition," it becomes clearer that Kelly and Darryl are dating. In the latter episode, Kelly becomes confrontational and insulting towards Pam when Darryl keeps beating Jim at ping-pong. Pam finally gets fed up and challenges Kelly to a game. However, it becomes clear immediately that Kelly and Pam are evenly matched at ping-pong, as they both are abysmal.

text: In "Goodbye, Toby," Kelly shows that she still bears a grudge against Ryan, who has been arrested on charges of fraud. She describes in detail how she looks forward to visiting Ryan in prison, where the other inmates would be sure to check her out and tell Ryan that they wish they had an ex-girlfriend as hot as her.[8]

text: Seasons 5–6[edit]

text: In season five, Ryan seems to have a renewed interest in Kelly. However, she is still dating Darryl. In "Customer Survey," she changes Jim and Dwight's customer survey scores because they did not attend her America's Got Talent wrap party. They explain this to Michael, however he lets her off the hook after she had stated both that she was raped and loved Michael's tie. He says that he can relate to her because he often had trouble getting people to come to his parties as well. Michael comments that she often says she was raped when she is caught in a problem. She pretends to start crying, but they both end up laughing. In "Business Trip," Ryan moves back to the annex with Kelly in preparation for Pam's return. Kelly says she has no intention of getting back together with Ryan given the way he treated her, but the two are later seen passionately kissing. Ryan helps Kelly send a message to Darryl saying their relationship is over, and Darryl responds saying "it's cool." Kelly is overjoyed while Ryan is shocked and Darryl happily walks to his truck. Kelly and Ryan confirm that they are dating again. In the next episode, Ryan allegedly takes a trip to Thailand so they break up again. A confused Kelly agrees to give him money and have sex with him one more time before he goes.

text: Later, in "The Duel," after Angela remarks of her delight that two men are fighting over her, Kelly responds, "I guess people have fewer choices as they get older." In "Lecture Circuit Part 1" Dwight finds out from her personal record that she was in juvenile hall for almost two years, the reason being that she stole her boyfriend's dad's boat after he broke up with her. In Blood Drive, when she notices how upset Michael is, she sits with him, until it is closing time. When Michael quits his job, Kelly shows interest in her new boss, Charles, as does Angela. Kelly quickly befriends the new receptionist, Erin.[9] As of the beginning of season six, she is once again dating Ryan.

text: Season 7[edit]

text: In the season 7 premiere "Nepotism," Kelly is encouraged by Dwight to attend the minority executive training program from Yale. Dwight originally encouraged her in hopes to become her svengali but later regrets his decision.

text: In "Counseling," Kelly is the one who comes up with the idea that Dwight should Pretty Woman the Steamtown Mall, but when Jim says that it is a good idea, she does not remember what she said. In a talking-head interview, she admits to the camera that she knows she talks a lot, so she's learned to tune herself out.

text: In "Sex Ed," she considers Meredith "gross" for having genital herpes. In a deleted scene, she asks Jim to open up a jar of Fluff for her. While Jim is having trouble opening it, Kelly rambles about how she's not sure if Ryan is capable of true love, because he told her if he was stuck in heaven and she was stuck in hell, he would not live with her in hell. When Jim is unable to open the jar, he hands it back to her, to which she responds with "you're just gonna hand it back to me?"

text: In the beginning of "The Sting," when Oscar rides into the office on his bicycle that is the same model as Lance Armstrong's, Kelly says she feels awkward because she is on Sheryl Crow's side (referring to their breakup). Later, when Michael announces to the office that rival salesman Danny Cordray has been hired as their new traveling manager, Kelly mumbles "F**k me."

text: In "The Search," during the cold open, Ryan and Kelly announced to the office that they were getting a divorce, having married over a week earlier on the spur of the moment. They said the break-up was mutual, but after getting little reaction to their news, Ryan declared that the split was not amicable. After the divorce Ryan and Kelly continued to date.

text: Season 8–9[edit]

text: In Season 8, wanting to get Kelly away from Ryan, Pam sets her up with Cece's pediatrician, Ravi. When Ryan forces her to choose between the two, she chooses Ravi.

text: At the beginning of Season 9, it was revealed that Kelly and Ravi got engaged and moved to Miami, Ohio. Kelly quit her job at Dunder-Mifflin, mistakenly believing she was moving to Miami, Florida, with Ravi.

text: In "Finale," it is revealed that Kelly is married to Ravi but she leaves him when Ryan returns, and they reunite. Ryan originally had a baby named Drake who had been left with him by its mother who Ryan had been dating, but he leaves him with Ravi when he and Kelly run away together. Both Kaling and Novak returned as guests for the series finale.


document_title: Atmosphere of Jupiter

question_text: largest of the jovian planets that shows a great red spot

question_tokens: largest of the jovian planets that shows a great red spot

text: Atmosphere of Jupiter

text: Vertical structure[edit]

text: The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere.[13] Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior.[3] This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar.[3]

text: Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10 bars, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere.[4] In scientific literature, the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes—a "surface" of Jupiter.[3] As with Earth, the top atmospheric layer, the exosphere, does not have a well defined upper boundary.[14] The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately 5,000 km above the "surface".[15]

text: The vertical temperature variations in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause,[16] which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds (or 1 bar level), where the pressure and temperature are about 0.1 bar and 110 K.[4][17] In the stratosphere, the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere, at an altitude and pressure of around 320 km and 1 μbar.[4] In the thermosphere, temperatures continue to rise, eventually reaching 1000 K at about 1000 km, where pressure is about 1 nbar.[18]

text: Jupiter's troposphere contains a complicated cloud structure.[19] The upper clouds, located in the pressure range 0.6–0.9 bar, are made of ammonia ice.[20] Below these ammonia ice clouds, denser clouds made of ammonium hydrosulfide or ammonium sulfide (between 1–2 bar) and water (3–7 bar) are thought to exist.[21][22] There are no methane clouds as the temperatures are too high for it to condense.[19] The water clouds form the densest layer of clouds and have the strongest influence on the dynamics of the atmosphere. This is a result of the higher condensation heat of water and higher water abundance as compared to the ammonia and hydrogen sulfide (oxygen is a more abundant chemical element than either nitrogen or sulfur).[13] Various tropospheric (at 200–500 mbar) and stratospheric (at 10–100 mbar) haze layers reside above the main cloud layers.[21][23] The latter are made from condensed heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or hydrazine, which are generated in the upper stratosphere (1–100 μbar) from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation (UV).[19] The methane abundance relative to molecular hydrogen in the stratosphere is about 10−4,[15] while the abundance ratio of other light hydrocarbons, like ethane and acetylene, to molecular hydrogen is about 10−6.[15]

text:
Jupiter's thermosphere is located at pressures lower than 1 μbar and demonstrates such phenomena as airglow, polar aurorae and X-ray emissions.[24] Within it lie layers of increased electron and ion density that form the ionosphere.[15] The high temperatures prevalent in the thermosphere (800–1000 K) have not been fully explained yet;[18] existing models predict a temperature no higher than about 400 K.[15] They may be caused by absorption of high-energy solar radiation (UV or X-ray), by heating from the charged particles precipitating from the Jovian magnetosphere, or by dissipation of upward-propagating gravity waves.[25] The thermosphere and exosphere at the poles and at low latitudes emit X-rays, which were first observed by the Einstein Observatory in 1983.[26] The energetic particles coming from Jupiter's magnetosphere create bright auroral ovals, which encircle the poles. Unlike their terrestrial analogs, which appear only during magnetic storms, aurorae are permanent features of Jupiter's atmosphere.[26] The thermosphere was the first place outside the Earth where the trihydrogen cation (H+
3) was discovered.[15] This ion emits strongly in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum, at wavelengths between 3 and 5 μm; this is the main cooling mechanism of the thermosphere.[24]

text: Chemical composition[edit]

text:
Elemental abundances relative to hydrogen
in Jupiter and Sun[2]

Element
Sun
Jupiter/Sun

He/H
0.0975
0.807 ± 0.02

Ne/H
1.23 × 10−4
0.10 ± 0.01

Ar/H
3.62 × 10−6
2.5 ± 0.5

Kr/H
1.61 × 10−9
2.7 ± 0.5

Xe/H
1.68 × 10−10
2.6 ± 0.5

C/H
3.62 × 10−4
2.9 ± 0.5

N/H
1.12 × 10−4
3.6 ± 0.5 (8 bar)
3.2 ± 1.4 (9–12 bar)

O/H
8.51 × 10−4
0.033 ± 0.015 (12 bar)
0.19–0.58 (19 bar)

P/H
3.73 × 10−7
0.82

S/H
1.62 × 10−5
2.5 ± 0.15

text:
Isotopic ratios in Jupiter and Sun[2]

Ratio
Sun
Jupiter

13C/12C
0.011
0.0108 ± 0.0005

15N/14N
<2.8 × 10−3
2.3 ± 0.3 × 10−3
(0.08–2.8 bar)

36Ar/38Ar
5.77 ± 0.08
5.6 ± 0.25

20Ne/22Ne
13.81 ± 0.08
13 ± 2

3He/4He
1.5 ± 0.3 × 10−4
1.66 ± 0.05 × 10−4

D/H
3.0 ± 0.17 × 10−5
2.25 ± 0.35 × 10−5

text: The composition of Jupiter's atmosphere is similar to that of the planet as a whole.[2] Jupiter's atmosphere is the most comprehensively understood of those of all the gas giants because it was observed directly by the Galileo atmospheric probe when it entered the Jovian atmosphere on December 7, 1995.[27] Other sources of information about Jupiter's atmospheric composition include the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO),[28] the Galileo and Cassini orbiters,[29] and Earth-based observations.[2]

text:
The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are molecular hydrogen (H
2) and helium.[2] The helium abundance is 0.157 ± 0.004 relative to molecular hydrogen by number of molecules, and its mass fraction is 0.234 ± 0.005, which is slightly lower than the Solar System's primordial value.[2] The reason for this low abundance is not entirely understood, but some of the helium may have condensed into the core of Jupiter.[20] This condensation is likely to be in the form of helium rain: as hydrogen turns into the metallic state at depths of more than 10,000 km, helium separates from it forming droplets which, being denser than the metallic hydrogen, descend towards the core. This can also explain the severe depletion of neon (see Table), an element that easily dissolves in helium droplets and would be transported in them towards the core as well.[30]

text: The atmosphere contains various simple compounds such as water, methane (CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3) and phosphine (PH3).[2] Their abundances in the deep (below 10 bar) troposphere imply that the atmosphere of Jupiter is enriched in the elements carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and possibly oxygen[b] by factor of 2–4 relative to the Sun.[c][2] The noble gases argon, krypton and xenon also appear in abundance relative to solar levels (see table), while neon is scarcer.[2] Other chemical compounds such as arsine (AsH3) and germane (GeH4) are present only in trace amounts.[2] The upper atmosphere of Jupiter contains small amounts of simple hydrocarbons such as ethane, acetylene, and diacetylene, which form from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation and charged particles coming from Jupiter's magnetosphere.[2] The carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water present in the upper atmosphere are thought to originate from impacting comets, such as Shoemaker-Levy 9. The water cannot come from the troposphere because the cold tropopause acts like a cold trap, effectively preventing water from rising to the stratosphere (see Vertical structure above).[2]

text: Earth- and spacecraft-based measurements have led to improved knowledge of the isotopic ratios in Jupiter's atmosphere. As of July 2003, the accepted value for the deuterium abundance is 2.25 ± 0.35 × 10−5,[2] which probably represents the primordial value in the protosolar nebula that gave birth to the Solar System.[28] The ratio of nitrogen isotopes in the Jovian atmosphere, 15N to 14N, is 2.3 × 10−3, a third lower than that in the Earth's atmosphere (3.5 × 10−3).[2] The latter discovery is especially significant since the previous theories of Solar System formation considered the terrestrial value for the ratio of nitrogen isotopes to be primordial.[28]

text: Zones, belts and jets[edit]

text: The visible surface of Jupiter is divided into several bands parallel to the equator. There are two types of bands: lightly colored zones and relatively dark belts.[6] The wider Equatorial Zone (EZ) extends between latitudes of approximately 7°S to 7°N. Above and below the EZ, the North and South Equatorial belts (NEB and SEB) extend to 18°N and 18°S, respectively. Farther from the equator lie the North and South Tropical zones (NtrZ and STrZ).[6] The alternating pattern of belts and zones continues until the polar regions at approximately 50 degrees latitude, where their visible appearance becomes somewhat muted.[31] The basic belt-zone structure probably extends well towards the poles, reaching at least to 80° North or South.[6]

text: The difference in the appearance between zones and belts is caused by differences in the opacity of the clouds. Ammonia concentration is higher in zones, which leads to the appearance of denser clouds of ammonia ice at higher altitudes, which in turn leads to their lighter color.[16] On the other hand, in belts clouds are thinner and are located at lower altitudes.[16] The upper troposphere is colder in zones and warmer in belts.[6] The exact nature of chemicals that make Jovian zones and bands so colorful is not known, but they may include complicated compounds of sulfur, phosphorus and carbon.[6]

text: The Jovian bands are bounded by zonal atmospheric flows (winds), called jets. The eastward (prograde) jets are found at the transition from zones to belts (going away from the equator), whereas westward (retrograde) jets mark the transition from belts to zones.[6] Such flow velocity patterns mean that the zonal winds decrease in belts and increase in zones from the equator to the pole. Therefore, wind shear in belts is cyclonic, while in zones it is anticyclonic.[22] The EZ is an exception to this rule, showing a strong eastward (prograde) jet and has a local minimum of the wind speed exactly at the equator. The jet speeds are high on Jupiter, reaching more than 100 m/s.[6] These speeds correspond to ammonia clouds located in the pressure range 0.7–1 bar. The prograde jets are generally more powerful than the retrograde jets.[6] The vertical extent of jets is not known. They decay over two to three scale heights[a] above the clouds, while below the cloud level, winds increase slightly and then remain constant down to at least 22 bar—the maximum operational depth reached by the Galileo Probe.[17]

text: The origin of Jupiter's banded structure is not completely clear, though it may be similar to that driving the Earth's Hadley cells. The simplest interpretation is that zones are sites of atmospheric upwelling, whereas belts are manifestations of downwelling.[32] When air enriched in ammonia rises in zones, it expands and cools, forming high and dense clouds. In belts, however, the air descends, warming adiabatically as in a convergence zone on Earth, and white ammonia clouds evaporate, revealing lower, darker clouds. The location and width of bands, speed and location of jets on Jupiter are remarkably stable, having changed only slightly between 1980 and 2000. One example of change is a decrease of the speed of the strongest eastward jet located at the boundary between the North Tropical zone and North Temperate belts at 23°N.[7][32] However bands vary in coloration and intensity over time (see below). These variations were first observed in the early seventeenth century.[33]

text: Specific bands[edit]

text: The belts and zones that divide Jupiter's atmosphere each have their own names and unique characteristics. They begin below the North and South Polar Regions, which extend from the poles to roughly 40–48° N/S. These bluish-gray regions are usually featureless.[31]

text: The North North Temperate Region rarely shows more detail than the polar regions, due to limb darkening, foreshortening, and the general diffuseness of features. However, the North-North Temperate Belt (NNTB) is the northernmost distinct belt, though it occasionally disappears. Disturbances tend to be minor and short-lived. The North-North Temperate Zone (NNTZ) is perhaps more prominent, but also generally quiet. Other minor belts and zones in the region are occasionally observed.[34]

text: The North Temperate Region is part of a latitudinal region easily observable from Earth, and thus has a superb record of observation.[35] It also features the strongest prograde jet stream on the planet—a westerly current that forms the southern boundary of the North Temperate Belt (NTB).[35] The NTB fades roughly once a decade (this was the case during the Voyager encounters), making the North Temperate Zone (NTZ) apparently merge into the North Tropical Zone (NTropZ).[35] Other times, the NTZ is divided by a narrow belt into northern and southern components.[35]

text: The North Tropical Region is composed of the NTropZ and the North Equatorial Belt (NEB). The NTropZ is generally stable in coloration, changing in tint only in tandem with activity on the NTB's southern jet stream. Like the NTZ, it too is sometimes divided by a narrow band, the NTropB. On rare occasions, the southern NTropZ plays host to "Little Red Spots". As the name suggests, these are northern equivalents of the Great Red Spot. Unlike the GRS, they tend to occur in pairs and are always short-lived, lasting a year on average; one was present during the Pioneer 10 encounter.[36]

text: The NEB is one of the most active belts on the planet. It is characterized by anticyclonic white ovals and cyclonic "barges" (also known as "brown ovals"), with the former usually forming farther north than the latter; as in the NTropZ, most of these features are relatively short-lived. Like the South Equatorial Belt (SEB), the NEB has sometimes dramatically faded and "revived". The timescale of these changes is about 25 years.[37]

text: The Equatorial Region (EZ) is one of the most stable regions of the planet, in latitude and in activity. The northern edge of the EZ hosts spectacular plumes that trail southwest from the NEB, which are bounded by dark, warm (in infrared) features known as festoons (hot spots).[38] Though the southern boundary of the EZ is usually quiescent, observations from the late 19th into the early 20th century show that this pattern was then reversed relative to today. The EZ varies considerably in coloration, from pale to an ochre, or even coppery hue; it is occasionally divided by an Equatorial Band (EB).[39] Features in the EZ move roughly 390 km/h relative to the other latitudes.[40][41]

text: The South Tropical Region includes the South Equatorial Belt (SEB) and the South Tropical Zone. It is by far the most active region the planet, as it is home to its strongest retrograde jet stream. The SEB is usually the broadest, darkest belt on Jupiter; it is sometimes split by a zone (the SEBZ), and can fade entirely every 3 to 15 years before reappearing in what is known as an SEB Revival cycle. A period of weeks or months following the belt's disappearance, a white spot forms and erupts dark brownish material which is stretched into a new belt by Jupiter's winds. The belt most recently disappeared in May 2010.[42] Another characteristic of the SEB is a long train of cyclonic disturbances following the Great Red Spot. Like the NTropZ, the STropZ is one of the most prominent zones on the planet; not only does it contain the GRS, but it is occasionally rent by a South Tropical Disturbance (STropD), a division of the zone that can be very long-lived; the most famous one lasted from 1901 to 1939.[43]

text: The South Temperate Region, or South Temperate Belt (STB), is yet another dark, prominent belt, more so than the NTB; until March 2000, its most famous features were the long-lived white ovals BC, DE, and FA, which have since merged to form Oval BA ("Red Jr."). The ovals were part of South Temperate Zone, but they extended into STB partially blocking it.[6] The STB has occasionally faded, apparently due to complex interactions between the white ovals and the GRS. The appearance of the South Temperate Zone (STZ)—the zone in which the white ovals originated—is highly variable.[45]

text: There are other features on Jupiter that are either temporary or difficult to observe from Earth. The South South Temperate Region is harder to discern even than the NNTR; its detail is subtle and can only be studied well by large telescopes or spacecraft.[46] Many zones and belts are more transient in nature and are not always visible. These include the Equatorial band (EB),[47] North Equatorial belt zone (NEBZ, a white zone within the belt) and South Equatorial belt zone (SEBZ).[48] Belts are also occasionally split by a sudden disturbance. When a disturbance divides a normally singular belt or zone, an N or an S is added to indicate whether the component is the northern or southern one; e.g., NEB(N) and NEB(S).[49]

text: Dynamics[edit]

text: Circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth. The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface. Therefore, convection may occur throughout the planet's outer molecular envelope. As of 2008, a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed. Any such theory needs to explain the following facts: the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter's equator, the strong prograde jet observed at the equator, the difference between zones and belts, and the origin and persistence of large vortices such as the Great Red Spot.[7]

text: The theories regarding the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere can be broadly divided into two classes: shallow and deep. The former hold that the observed circulation is largely confined to a thin outer (weather) layer of the planet, which overlays the stable interior. The latter hypothesis postulates that the observed atmospheric flows are only a surface manifestation of deeply rooted circulation in the outer molecular envelope of Jupiter.[50] As both theories have their own successes and failures, many planetary scientists think that the true theory will include elements of both models.[51]

text: Shallow models[edit]

text: The first attempts to explain Jovian atmospheric dynamics date back to the 1960s.[50][52] They were partly based on terrestrial meteorology, which had become well developed by that time. Those shallow models assumed that the jets on Jupiter are driven by small scale turbulence, which is in turn maintained by moist convection in the outer layer of the atmosphere (above the water clouds).[53][54] The moist convection is a phenomenon related to the condensation and evaporation of water and is one of the major drivers of terrestrial weather.[55] The production of the jets in this model is related to a well-known property of two dimensional turbulence—the so-called inverse cascade, in which small turbulent structures (vortices) merge to form larger ones.[53] The finite size of the planet means that the cascade can not produce structures larger than some characteristic scale, which for Jupiter is called the Rhines scale. Its existence is connected to production of Rossby waves. This process works as follows: when the largest turbulent structures reach a certain size, the energy begins to flow into Rossby waves instead of larger structures, and the inverse cascade stops.[56] Since on the spherical rapidly rotating planet the dispersion relation of the Rossby waves is anisotropic, the Rhines scale in the direction parallel to the equator is larger than in the direction orthogonal to it.[56] The ultimate result of the process described above is production of large scale elongated structures, which are parallel to the equator. The meridional extent of them appears to match the actual width of jets.[53] Therefore, in shallow models vortices actually feed the jets and should disappear by merging into them.

text: While these weather–layer models can successfully explain the existence of a dozen narrow jets, they have serious problems.[53] A glaring failure of the model is the prograde (super-rotating) equatorial jet: with some rare exceptions shallow models produce a strong retrograde (subrotating) jet, contrary to observations. In addition, the jets tend to be unstable and can disappear over time.[53] Shallow models cannot explain how the observed atmospheric flows on Jupiter violate stability criteria.[57] More elaborated multilayer versions of weather–layer models produce more stable circulation, but many problems persist.[58] Meanwhile, the Galileo Probe found that the winds on Jupiter extend well below the water clouds at 5–7 bar and do not show any evidence of decay down to 22 bar pressure level, which implies that circulation in the Jovian atmosphere may in fact be deep.[17]

text: Deep models[edit]

text: The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976.[59][60] His model was based on another well-known feature of fluid mechanics, the Taylor–Proudman theorem. It holds that in any fast-rotating barotropic ideal liquid, the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis. The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior. Therefore, the planet's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders, each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others.[61] Those latitudes where the cylinders' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts.

text: The deep model easily explains the strong prograde jet observed at the equator of Jupiter; the jets it produces are stable and do not obey the 2D stability criterion.[61] However it has major difficulties; it produces a very small number of broad jets, and realistic simulations of 3D flows are not possible as of 2008, meaning that the simplified models used to justify deep circulation may fail to catch important aspects of the fluid dynamics within Jupiter.[61] One model published in 2004 successfully reproduced the Jovian band-jet structure.[51] It assumed that the molecular hydrogen mantle is thinner than in all other models; occupying only the outer 10% of Jupiter's radius. In standard models of the Jovian interior, the mantle comprises the outer 20–30%.[62] The driving of deep circulation is another problem. The deep flows can be caused both by shallow forces (moist convection, for instance) or by deep planet-wide convection that transports heat out of the Jovian interior.[53] Which of these mechanisms is more important is not clear yet.

text: Internal heat[edit]

text: As has been known since 1966,[63] Jupiter radiates much more heat than it receives from the Sun. It is estimated that the ratio between the power emitted by the planet and that absorbed from the Sun is 1.67 ± 0.09. The internal heat flux from Jupiter is 5.44 ± 0.43 W/m2, whereas the total emitted power is 335 ± 26 petawatts. The latter value is approximately equal to one billionth of the total power radiated by the Sun. This excess heat is mainly the primordial heat from the early phases of Jupiter's formation, but may result in part from the precipitation of helium into the core.[64]

text: The internal heat may be important for the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere. While Jupiter has a small obliquity of about 3°, and its poles receive much less solar radiation than its equator, the tropospheric temperatures do not change appreciably from the equator to poles. One explanation is that Jupiter's convective interior acts like a thermostat, releasing more heat near the poles than in the equatorial region. This leads to a uniform temperature in the troposphere. While heat is transported from the equator to the poles mainly via the atmosphere on Earth, on Jupiter deep convection equilibrates heat. The convection in the Jovian interior is thought to be driven mainly by the internal heat.[65]

text: Discrete features[edit]

text: Vortices[edit]

text: The atmosphere of Jupiter is home to hundreds of vortices—circular rotating structures that, as in the Earth's atmosphere, can be divided into two classes: cyclones and anticyclones.[8] Cyclones rotate in the direction similar to the rotation of the planet (counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern); anticyclones rotate in the reverse direction. However, unlike in the terrestrial atmosphere, anticyclones predominate over cyclones on Jupiter—more than 90% of vortices larger than 2000 km in diameter are anticyclones.[66] The lifetime of Jovian vortices varies from several days to hundreds of years, depending on their size. For instance, the average lifetime of an anticyclone between 1000 and 6000 km in diameter is 1–3 years.[67] Vortices have never been observed in the equatorial region of Jupiter (within 10° of latitude), where they are unstable.[11] As on any rapidly rotating planet, Jupiter's anticyclones are high pressure centers, while cyclones are low pressure.[38]

text: The anticyclones in Jupiter's atmosphere are always confined within zones, where the wind speed increases in direction from the equator to the poles.[67] They are usually bright and appear as white ovals.[8] They can move in longitude, but stay at approximately the same latitude as they are unable to escape from the confining zone.[11] The wind speeds at their periphery are about 100 m/s.[10] Different anticyclones located in one zone tend to merge, when they approach each other.[69] However Jupiter has two anticyclones that are somewhat different from all others. They are the Great Red Spot (GRS)[9] and the Oval BA;[10] the latter formed only in 2000. In contrast to white ovals, these structures are red, arguably due to dredging up of red material from the planet's depths.[9] On Jupiter the anticyclones usually form through merges of smaller structures including convective storms (see below),[67] although large ovals can result from the instability of jets. The latter was observed in 1938–1940, when a few white ovals appeared as a result of instability of the southern temperate zone; they later merged to form Oval BA.[10][67]

text: In contrast to anticyclones, the Jovian cyclones tend to be small, dark and irregular structures. Some of the darker and more regular features are known as brown ovals (or badges).[66] However the existence of a few long–lived large cyclones has been suggested. In addition to compact cyclones, Jupiter has several large irregular filamentary patches, which demonstrate cyclonic rotation.[8] One of them is located to the west of the GRS (in its wake region) in the southern equatorial belt.[70] These patches are called cyclonic regions (CR). The cyclones are always located in the belts and tend to merge when they encounter each other, much like anticyclones.[67]

text: The deep structure of vortices is not completely clear. They are thought to be relatively thin, as any thickness greater than about 500 km will lead to instability. The large anticyclones are known to extend only a few tens of kilometers above the visible clouds. The early hypothesis that the vortices are deep convective plumes (or convective columns) as of 2008 is not shared by the majority of planetary scientists.[11]

text: Great Red Spot[edit]

text: The Great Red Spot (GRS) is a persistent anticyclonic storm, 22° south of Jupiter's equator; observations from Earth establish a minimum storm lifetime of 350 years.[72][73] A storm was described as a "permanent spot" by Gian Domenico Cassini after observing the feature in July 1665 with his instrument-maker Eustachio Divini.[74] According to a report by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1635, Leander Bandtius, whom Riccioli identified as the Abbot of Dunisburgh who possessed an "extraordinary telescope", observed a large spot that he described as "oval, equaling one seventh of Jupiter's diameter at its longest." According to Riccioli, "these features are seldom able to be seen, and then only by a telescope of exceptional quality and magnification."[75] The Great Spot has been nearly continually observed since the 1870s, however.

text: The GRS rotates counter-clockwise, with a period of about six Earth days[76] or 14 Jovian days. Its dimensions are 24,000–40,000 km east-to-west and 12,000–14,000 km north-to-south. The spot is large enough to contain two or three planets the size of Earth. At the start of 2004, the Great Red Spot had approximately half the longitudinal extent it had a century ago, when it was 40,000 km in diameter. At the present rate of reduction, it could potentially become circular by 2040, although this is unlikely because of the distortion effect of the neighboring jet streams.[77] It is not known how long the spot will last, or whether the change is a result of normal fluctuations.[78]

text: According to a study by scientists at the University of California, Berkeley, between 1996 and 2006 the spot lost 15 percent of its diameter along its major axis. Xylar Asay-Davis, who was on the team that conducted the study, noted that the spot is not disappearing because "velocity is a more robust measurement because the clouds associated with the Red Spot are also strongly influenced by numerous other phenomena in the surrounding atmosphere."[79]

text: Infrared data have long indicated that the Great Red Spot is colder (and thus, higher in altitude) than most of the other clouds on the planet;[80] the cloudtops of the GRS are about 8 km above the surrounding clouds. Furthermore, careful tracking of atmospheric features revealed the spot's counterclockwise circulation as far back as 1966 – observations dramatically confirmed by the first time-lapse movies from the Voyager flybys.[81] The spot is spatially confined by a modest eastward jet stream (prograde) to its south and a very strong westward (retrograde) one to its north.[82] Though winds around the edge of the spot peak at about 120 m/s (432 km/h), currents inside it seem stagnant, with little inflow or outflow.[83] The rotation period of the spot has decreased with time, perhaps as a direct result of its steady reduction in size.[84] In 2010, astronomers imaged the GRS in the far infrared (from 8.5 to 24 μm) with a spatial resolution higher than ever before and found that its central, reddest region is warmer than its surroundings by between 3–4 K. The warm airmass is located in the upper troposphere in the pressure range of 200–500 mbar. This warm central spot slowly counter-rotates and may be caused by a weak subsidence of air in the center of GRS.[85]

text: The Great Red Spot's latitude has been stable for the duration of good observational records, typically varying by about a degree. Its longitude, however, is subject to constant variation.[86][87] Because Jupiter's visible features do not rotate uniformly at all latitudes, astronomers have defined three different systems for defining the longitude. System II is used for latitudes of more than 10°, and was originally based on the average rotation rate of the Great Red Spot of 9h 55m 42s.[88][89] Despite this, the spot has 'lapped' the planet in System II at least 10 times since the early 19th century. Its drift rate has changed dramatically over the years and has been linked to the brightness of the South Equatorial Belt, and the presence or absence of a South Tropical Disturbance.[90]

text: It is not known exactly what causes the Great Red Spot's reddish color. Theories supported by laboratory experiments suppose that the color may be caused by complex organic molecules, red phosphorus, or yet another sulfur compound. The GRS varies greatly in hue, from almost brick-red to pale salmon, or even white. The higher temperature of the reddest central region is the first evidence that the Spot's color is affected by environmental factors.[85] The spot occasionally disappears from the visible spectrum, becoming evident only through the Red Spot Hollow, which is its niche in the South Equatorial Belt (SEB). The visibility of GRS is apparently coupled to the appearance of the SEB; when the belt is bright white, the spot tends to be dark, and when it is dark, the spot is usually light. The periods when the spot is dark or light occur at irregular intervals; in the 50 years from 1947 to 1997, the spot was darkest in the periods 1961–1966, 1968–1975, 1989–1990, and 1992–1993.[91] In November 2014, an analysis of data from NASA's Cassini mission revealed that the red color is likely a product of simple chemicals being broken apart by sunlight in the planet's upper atmosphere [92][93]

text: The Great Red Spot should not be confused with the Great Dark Spot, a feature observed near Jupiter's north pole in 2000 by the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft.[94] A feature in the atmosphere of Neptune was also called the Great Dark Spot. The latter feature, imaged by Voyager 2 in 1989, may have been an atmospheric hole rather than a storm. It was no longer present in 1994, although a similar spot had appeared farther to the north.[95]

text: Oval BA[edit]

text: Oval BA is a red storm in Jupiter's southern hemisphere similar in form to, though smaller than, the Great Red Spot (it is often affectionately referred to as "Red Spot Jr.", "Red Jr." or "The Little Red Spot"). A feature in the South Temperate Belt, Oval BA was first seen in 2000 after the collision of three small white storms, and has intensified since then.[96]

text: The formation of the three white oval storms that later merged into Oval BA can be traced to 1939, when the South Temperate Zone was torn by dark features that effectively split the zone into three long sections. Jovian observer Elmer J. Reese labeled the dark sections AB, CD, and EF. The rifts expanded, shrinking the remaining segments of the STZ into the white ovals FA, BC, and DE.[97] Ovals BC and DE merged in 1998, forming Oval BE. Then, in March 2000, BE and FA joined together, forming Oval BA.[96] (see White ovals, below)

text: Oval BA slowly began to turn red in August 2005.[98] On February 24, 2006, Filipino amateur astronomer Christopher Go discovered the color change, noting that it had reached the same shade as the GRS.[98] As a result, NASA writer Dr. Tony Phillips suggested it be called "Red Spot Jr." or "Red Jr."[99]

text: In April 2006, a team of astronomers, believing that Oval BA might converge with the GRS that year, observed the storms through the Hubble Space Telescope.[100] The storms pass each other about every two years, but the passings of 2002 and 2004 did not produce anything exciting. Dr. Amy Simon-Miller, of the Goddard Space Flight Center, predicted the storms would have their closest passing on July 4, 2006.[100] On July 20, the two storms were photographed passing each other by the Gemini Observatory without converging.[101]

text: Why Oval BA turned red is not understood. According to a 2008 study by Dr. Santiago Pérez-Hoyos of the University of the Basque Country, the most likely mechanism is "an upward and inward diffusion of either a colored compound or a coating vapor that may interact later with high energy solar photons at the upper levels of Oval BA."[102] Some believe that small storms (and their corresponding white spots) on Jupiter turn red when the winds become powerful enough to draw certain gases from deeper within the atmosphere which change color when those gases are exposed to sunlight.[103]

text: Oval BA is getting stronger according to observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2007. The wind speeds have reached 618 km/h; about the same as in the Great Red Spot and far stronger than any of the progenitor storms.[104][105] As of July 2008, its size is about the diameter of Earth—approximately half the size of the Great Red Spot.[102]

text: Oval BA should not be confused with another major storm on Jupiter, the South Tropical Little Red Spot (LRS) (nicknamed "the Baby Red Spot" by NASA[106]), which was destroyed by the GRS.[103] The new storm, previously a white spot in Hubble images, turned red in May 2008. The observations were led by Imke de Pater of the University of California, at Berkeley, US.[107] The Baby Red Spot encountered the GRS in late June to early July 2008, and in the course of a collision, the smaller red spot was shredded into pieces. The remnants of the Baby Red Spot first orbited, then were later consumed by the GRS. The last of the remnants with a reddish color to have been identified by astronomers had disappeared by mid-July, and the remaining pieces again collided with the GRS, then finally merged with the bigger storm. The remaining pieces of the Baby Red Spot had completely disappeared by August 2008.[106] During this encounter Oval BA was present nearby, but played no apparent role in destruction of the Baby Red Spot.[106]

text: Storms and lightning[edit]

text: The storms on Jupiter are similar to thunderstorms on Earth. They reveal themselves via bright clumpy clouds about 1000 km in size, which appear from time to time in the belts' cyclonic regions, especially within the strong westward (retrograde) jets.[109] In contrast to vortices, storms are short-lived phenomena; the strongest of them may exist for several months, while the average lifetime is only 3–4 days.[109] They are believed to be due mainly to moist convection within Jupiter's troposphere. Storms are actually tall convective columns (plumes), which bring the wet air from the depths to the upper part of the troposphere, where it condenses in clouds. A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about 100 km; as they extend from a pressure level of about 5–7 bar, where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located, to as high as 0.2–0.5 bar.[110]

text: Storms on Jupiter are always associated with lightning. The imaging of the night–side hemisphere of Jupiter by Galileo and Cassini spacecraft revealed regular light flashes in Jovian belts and near the locations of the westward jets, particularly at 51°N, 56°S and 14°S latitudes.[111] On Jupiter lighting strikes are on average a few times more powerful than those on Earth. However, they are less frequent; the light power emitted from a given area is similar to that on Earth.[111] A few flashes have been detected in polar regions, making Jupiter the second known planet after Earth to exhibit polar lightning.[112]

text: Every 15–17 years Jupiter is marked by especially powerful storms. They appear at 23°N latitude, where the strongest eastward jet, that can reach 150 m/s, is located. The last time such an event was observed was in March–June 2007.[110] Two storms appeared in the northern temperate belt 55° apart in longitude. They significantly disturbed the belt. The dark material that was shed by the storms mixed with clouds and changed the belt's color. The storms moved with a speed as high as 170 m/s, slightly faster than the jet itself, hinting at the existence of strong winds deep in the atmosphere.[110]

text: Disturbances[edit]

text: The normal pattern of bands and zones is sometimes disrupted for periods of time. One particular class of disruption are long-lived darkenings of the South Tropical Zone, normally referred to as "South Tropical Disturbances" (STD). The longest lived STD in recorded history was followed from 1901 until 1939, having been first seen by Percy B. Molesworth on February 28, 1901. It took the form of darkening over part of the normally bright South Tropical zone. Several similar disturbances in the South Tropical Zone have been recorded since then.[113]

text: Hot spots[edit]

text: One of the most mysterious features in the atmosphere of Jupiter are hot spots. In them the air is relatively free of clouds and heat can escape from the depths without much absorption. The spots look like bright spots in the infrared images obtained at the wavelength of about 5 μm.[38] They are preferentially located in the belts, although there is a train of prominent hot spots at the northern edge of the Equatorial Zone. The Galileo Probe descended into one of those equatorial spots. Each equatorial spot is associated with a bright cloudy plume located to the west of it and reaching up to 10,000 km in size.[6] Hot spots generally have round shapes, although they do not resemble vortexes.[38]

text: The origin of hot spots is not clear. They can be either downdrafts, where the descending air is adiabatically heated and dried or, alternatively, they can be a manifestation of planetary scale waves. The latter hypotheses explains the periodical pattern of the equatorial spots.[6][38]

text: Observational history[edit]

text: Early astronomers, using small telescopes, recorded the changing appearance of Jupiter's atmosphere.[23] Their descriptive terms—belts and zones, brown spots and red spots, plumes, barges, festoons, and streamers—are still used.[114] Other terms such as vorticity, vertical motion, cloud heights have entered in use later, in the 20th century.[23]

text: The first observations of the Jovian atmosphere at higher resolution than possible with Earth-based telescopes were taken by the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft. The first truly detailed images of Jupiter's atmosphere were provided by the Voyagers.[23] The two spacecraft were able to image details at a resolution as low as 5 km in size in various spectra, and also able to create "approach movies" of the atmosphere in motion.[23] The Galileo Probe, which suffered an antenna problem, saw less of Jupiter's atmosphere but at a better average resolution and a wider spectral bandwidth.[23]

text: Today, astronomers have access to a continuous record of Jupiter's atmospheric activity thanks to telescopes such as Hubble Space Telescope. These show that the atmosphere is occasionally wracked by massive disturbances, but that, overall, it is remarkably stable.[23] The vertical motion of Jupiter's atmosphere was largely determined by the identification of trace gases by ground-based telescopes.[23] Spectroscopic studies after the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 gave a glimpse of the Jupiter's composition beneath the cloud tops. The presence of diatomic sulfur (S2) and carbon disulfide (CS2) was recorded—the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S2 in any astronomical object— together with other molecules such as ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), while oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers.[115]

text: The Galileo atmospheric probe, as it plunged into Jupiter, measured the wind, temperature, composition, clouds, and radiation levels down to 22 bar. However, below 1 bar elsewhere on Jupiter there is uncertainty in the quantities.[23]

text: Great Red Spot studies[edit]

text: The first sighting of the GRS is often credited to Robert Hooke, who described a spot on the planet in May 1664; however, it is likely that Hooke's spot was in the wrong belt altogether (the North Equatorial Belt, versus the current location in the South Equatorial Belt). Much more convincing is Giovanni Cassini's description of a "permanent spot" in the following year.[116] With fluctuations in visibility, Cassini's spot was observed from 1665 to 1713.[117]

text: A minor mystery concerns a Jovian spot depicted around 1700 on a canvas by Donato Creti, which is exhibited in the Vatican.[118][119] It is a part of a series of panels in which different (magnified) heavenly bodies serve as backdrops for various Italian scenes, the creation of all of them overseen by the astronomer Eustachio Manfredi for accuracy. Creti's painting is the first known to depict the GRS as red. No Jovian feature was officially described as red before the late 19th century.[119]

text: The present GRS was first seen only after 1830 and well-studied only after a prominent apparition in 1879. A 118-year gap separates the observations made after 1830 from its 17th-century discovery; whether the original spot dissipated and re-formed, whether it faded, or even if the observational record was simply poor are unknown.[91] The older spots had a short observational history and slower motion than that of the modern spot, which make their identity unlikely.[118]

text: On February 25, 1979, when the Voyager 1 spacecraft was 9.2 million kilometers from Jupiter it transmitted the first detailed image of the Great Red Spot back to Earth. Cloud details as small as 160 km across were visible. The colorful, wavy cloud pattern seen to the west (left) of the GRS is the spot's wake region, where extraordinarily complex and variable cloud motions are observed.[120]

text: White ovals[edit]

text: The white ovals that were to become Oval BA formed in 1939. They covered almost 90 degrees of longitude shortly after their formation, but contracted rapidly during their first decade; their length stabilized at 10 degrees or less after 1965.[121] Although they originated as segments of the STZ, they evolved to become completely embedded in the South Temperate Belt, suggesting that they moved north, "digging" a niche into the STB.[122] Indeed, much like the GRS, their circulations were confined by two opposing jet streams on their northern and southern boundaries, with an eastward jet to their north and a retrograde westward one to the south.[121]

text: The longitudinal movement of the ovals seemed to be influenced by two factors: Jupiter's position in its orbit (they became faster at aphelion), and their proximity to the GRS (they accelerated when within 50 degrees of the Spot).[123] The overall trend of the white oval drift rate was deceleration, with a decrease by half between 1940 and 1990.[124]

text: During the Voyager fly-bys, the ovals extended roughly 9000 km from east to west, 5000 km from north to south, and rotated every five days (compared to six for the GRS at the time).[125]