document_title: Thermocouple

question_text: what is the maximum temperature can be measured using platinum tungsten thermometer

question_tokens: what is the maximum temperature can be measured using platinum tungsten thermometer

text: Thermocouple

text: Principle of operation[edit]

text: In 1821, the German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when different metals are joined at the ends and there is a temperature difference between the joints, a magnetic field is observed. At the time Seebeck referred to this as thermo-magnetism. The magnetic field he observed was later shown to be due to thermo-electric current. In practical use, the voltage generated at a single junction of two different types of wire is what is of interest as this can be used to measure temperature at very high and low temperatures. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the types of wire used. Generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range and care must be taken to obtain a usable measurement. Although very little current flows, power can be generated by a single thermocouple junction. Power generation using multiple thermocouples, as in a thermopile, is common.

text: The standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown in the figure. Briefly, the desired temperature Tsense is obtained using three inputs—the characteristic function E(T) of the thermocouple, the measured voltage V, and the reference junctions' temperature Tref. The solution to the equation E(Tsense) = V + E(Tref) yields Tsense. These details are often hidden from the user since the reference junction block (with Tref thermometer), voltmeter, and equation solver are combined into a single product.

text: Physical principle: Seebeck effect[edit]

text:
The Seebeck effect refers to an electromotive force whenever there is a temperature gradient in a conductive material. Under open-circuit conditions where there is no internal current flow, the gradient of voltage (

∇

V

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}V}

) is directly proportional to the gradient in temperature (

∇

T

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}T}

):

text:
where

S
(
T
)

{\displaystyle S(T)}

 is a temperature-dependent material property known as the Seebeck coefficient.

text: The standard measurement configuration shown in the figure, shows four temperature regions and thus four voltage contributions:

text:
Change from

T

m
e
t
e
r

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}

 to

T

r
e
f

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}

, in the lower copper wire.
Change from

T

r
e
f

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}

 to

T

s
e
n
s
e

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}

, in the alumel wire.
Change from

T

s
e
n
s
e

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}

 to

T

r
e
f

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}

, in the chromel wire.
Change from

T

r
e
f

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}

 to

T

m
e
t
e
r

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}

, in the upper copper wire.

text:
The first and fourth contributions cancel out exactly, because these regions involve the same temperature change and an identical material. As a result,

T

m
e
t
e
r

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {meter} }}

 does not influence the measured voltage. The second and third contributions do not cancel, as they involve different materials.

text: The measured voltage turns out to be

text:
where

S

+

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{+}}

 and

S

−

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{-}}

 are the Seebeck coefficients of the conductors attached to the positive and negative terminals of the voltmeter, respectively (chromel and alumel in the figure).

text: Characteristic function[edit]

text:
An integral does not need to be performed for every temperature measurement. Rather, the thermocouple's behaviour is captured by a characteristic function

E
(
T
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}

, which needs only to be consulted at two arguments:

text: In terms of the Seebeck coefficients, the characteristic function is defined by

text:
The constant of integration in this indefinite integral has no significance, but is conventionally chosen such that

E
(
0

∘

C

)
=
0

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(0\,{}^{\circ }{\rm {C}})=0}

.

text:
Thermocouple manufacturers and metrology standards organizations such as NIST provide tables of the function

E
(
T
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}

 that have been measured and interpolated over a range of temperatures, for particular thermocouple types (see External links section for access to these tables).

text: Requirement for a reference junction[edit]

text:
To obtain the desired measurement of

T

s
e
n
s
e

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}

, it is not sufficient to just measure

V

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle V}

. The temperature at the reference junctions

T

r
e
f

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}

 must be already known. Two strategies are often used here:

text:
"Ice bath" method: The reference junction block is immersed in a semi-frozen bath of distilled water at atmospheric pressure. The precise temperature of the melting point phase transition acts as a natural thermostat, fixing

T

r
e
f

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}

 to 0 °C.
Reference junction sensor (known as "cold junction compensation"): The reference junction block is allowed to vary in temperature, but the temperature is measured at this block using a separate temperature sensor. This secondary measurement is used to compensate for temperature variation at the junction block. The thermocouple junction is often exposed to extreme environments, while the reference junction is often mounted near the instrument's location. Semiconductor thermometer devices are often used in modern thermocouple instruments.

text:
In both cases the value

V
+
E
(

T

r
e
f

)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle V+E(T_{\mathrm {ref} })}

 is calculated, then the function

E
(
T
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}

 is searched for a matching value. The argument where this match occurs is the value of

T

s
e
n
s
e

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle T_{\mathrm {sense} }}

.

text: A less common strategy is to use a hot reference junction. Historically, this was commonly found in temperature-critical processing plants where large numbers, often in the hundreds, of thermocouples were installed. It permitted the wiring from the field to the instrumentation or control room to be done using copper cable. Temperature control of the hot reference was either by an electrically heated, precision RTD controlled system or occasionally by a bimetallic controlled steam heater (in hazardous areas).[citation needed]

text: Practical concerns[edit]

text:
Thermocouples ideally should be very simple measurement devices, with each type being characterized by a precise

E
(
T
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}

 curve, independent of any other details. In reality, thermocouples are affected by issues such as alloy manufacturing uncertainties, aging effects, and circuit design mistakes/misunderstandings.

text: Circuit construction[edit]

text:
A common error in thermocouple construction is related to cold junction compensation. If an error is made on the estimation of

T

r
e
f

{\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {ref} }}

, the same error will be carried over to the temperature measurement. For the simplest measurements, thermocouple wires are connected to copper far away from the hot or cold point whose temperature is measured; the cold junction is then assumed to be, at room temperature, but that temperature can vary.[4]

text: Junctions should be made in a reliable manner, but there are many possible approaches to accomplish this. For low temperatures, junctions can be brazed or soldered, however it may be difficult to find a suitable flux and this may not be suitable at the sensing junction due to the solder's low melting point. Reference and extension junctions are therefore usually made with screw terminal blocks. For high temperatures, a common approach is a spot weld or crimp using a durable material.[5] A common myth regarding thermocouples is that junctions must be made cleanly without involving a third metal, to avoid unwanted added emfs.[6] This may result from another common misunderstanding that the voltage is generated at the junction.[7] In fact, the junctions should in principle have uniform internal temperature, therefore no voltage is generated at the junction. The voltage is generated in the thermal gradient, along the wire.

text: A thermocouple produces small signals, often microvolts in magnitude. Precise measurements of this signal require an amplifier with low input offset voltage and with care taken to avoid thermal emfs from self-heating within the voltmeter itself. If the thermocouple wire has a high resistance for some reason (poor contact at junctions, or very thin wires used for fast thermal response), the measuring instrument should have high input impedance to prevent an offset in the measured voltage. A useful feature in thermocouple instrumentation will simultaneously measure resistance and detect faulty connections in the wiring or at thermocouple junctions.

text: Metallurgical grades[edit]

text:
While a thermocouple wire type is often described by its chemical composition, the actual aim is to produce a pair of wires that follow a standardized

E
(
T
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}

 curve.

text: Impurities affect each batch of metal differently, producing variable Seebeck coefficients. To match the standard behaviour, thermocouple wire manufacturers will deliberately mix in additional impurities to "dope" the alloy, compensating for uncontrolled variations in source material.[5] As a result, there are standard and specialized grades of thermocouple wire, depending on the level of precision demanded in the thermocouple behaviour. Precision grades may only be available in matched pairs, where one wire is modified to compensate for deficiencies in the other wire.

text:
A special case of thermocouple wire is known as "extension grade", designed to carry the thermoelectric circuit over a longer distance. Extension wires follow the stated

E
(
T
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle E(T)}

 curve but for various reasons they are not designed to be used in extreme environments and so they cannot be used at the sensing junction in some applications. For example, an extension wire may be in a different form, such as highly flexible with stranded construction and plastic insulation, or be part of a multi-wire cable for carrying many thermocouple circuits. With expensive noble metal thermocouples, the extension wires may even be made of a completely different, cheaper material that mimics the standard type over a reduced temperature range.[5]

text: Aging of thermocouples[edit]

text: Thermocouples are often used at high temperatures and in reactive furnace atmospheres. In this case, the practical lifetime is limited by thermocouple aging. The thermoelectric coefficients of the wires in a thermocouple that is used to measure very high temperatures may change with time, and the measurement voltage accordingly drops. The simple relationship between the temperature difference of the junctions and the measurement voltage is only correct if each wire is homogeneous (uniform in composition). As thermocouples age in a process, their conductors can lose homogeneity due to chemical and metallurgical changes caused by extreme or prolonged exposure to high temperatures. If the aged section of the thermocouple circuit is exposed to a temperature gradient, the measured voltage will differ, resulting in error.

text: Aged thermocouples are only partly modified, for example being unaffected in the parts outside the furnace. For this reason, aged thermocouples cannot be taken out of their installed location and recalibrated in a bath or test furnace to determine error. This also explains why error can sometimes be observed when an aged thermocouple is pulled partly out of a furnace—as the sensor is pulled back, aged sections may see exposure to increased temperature gradients from hot to cold as the aged section now passes through the cooler refractory area, contributing significant error to the measurement. Likewise, an aged thermocouple that is pushed deeper into the furnace might sometimes provide a more accurate reading if being pushed further into the furnace causes the temperature gradient to occur only in a fresh section.[8]

text: Types[edit]

text:
Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry standards. Selection of the combination is driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties, stability, and output. Different types are best suited for different applications. They are usually selected on the basis of the temperature range and sensitivity needed. Thermocouples with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower resolutions. Other selection criteria include the chemical inertness of the thermocouple material and whether it is magnetic or not. Standard thermocouple types are listed below with the positive electrode (assuming

T

sense

>

T

ref

{\displaystyle T_{\text{sense}}>T_{\text{ref}}}

) first, followed by the negative electrode.

text: Nickel-alloy thermocouples[edit]

text: Type E[edit]

text: Type E (chromel–constantan) has a high output (68 µV/°C), which makes it well suited to cryogenic use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic. Wide range is −50 °C to +740 °C and narrow range is −110 °C to +140 °C.

text: Type J[edit]

text: Type J (iron–constantan) has a more restricted range (−40 °C to +750 °C) than type K but higher sensitivity of about 50 µV/°C.[2] The Curie point of the iron (770 °C)[9] causes a smooth change in the characteristic, which determines the upper temperature limit.

text: Type K[edit]

text: Type K (chromel–alumel) is the most common general-purpose thermocouple with a sensitivity of approximately 41 µV/°C.[10] It is inexpensive, and a wide variety of probes are available in its −200 °C to +1350 °C (−330 °F to +2460 °F) range. Type K was specified at a time when metallurgy was less advanced than it is today, and consequently characteristics may vary considerably between samples. One of the constituent metals, nickel, is magnetic; a characteristic of thermocouples made with magnetic material is that they undergo a deviation in output when the material reaches its Curie point, which occurs for type K thermocouples at around 185 °C.

text: They operate very well in oxidizing atmospheres. If, however, a mostly reducing atmosphere (such as hydrogen with a small amount of oxygen) comes into contact with the wires, the chromium in the chromel alloy oxidizes. This reduces the emf output, and the thermocouple reads low. This phenomenon is known as green rot, due to the color of the affected alloy. Although not always distinctively green, the chromel wire will develop a mottled silvery skin and become magnetic. An easy way to check for this problem is to see whether the two wires are magnetic (normally, chromel is non-magnetic).

text: Hydrogen in the atmosphere is the usual cause of green rot. At high temperatures, it can diffuse through solid metals or an intact metal thermowell. Even a sheath of magnesium oxide insulating the thermocouple will not keep the hydrogen out.[11]

text: Type M[edit]

text: Type M (82%Ni/18%Mo–99.2%Ni/0.8%Co, by weight) are used in vacuum furnaces for the same reasons as with type C (described below). Upper temperature is limited to 1400 °C. It is less commonly used than other types.

text: Type N[edit]

text: Type N (Nicrosil–Nisil) thermocouples are suitable for use between −270 °C and +1300 °C, owing to its stability and oxidation resistance. Sensitivity is about 39 µV/°C at 900 °C, slightly lower compared to type K.

text: Designed at the Defence Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO) of Australia, by Noel A. Burley, type-N thermocouples overcome the three principal characteristic types and causes of thermoelectric instability in the standard base-metal thermoelement materials:[12]

text:
A gradual and generally cumulative drift in thermal EMF on long exposure at elevated temperatures. This is observed in all base-metal thermoelement materials and is mainly due to compositional changes caused by oxidation, carburization, or neutron irradiation that can produce transmutation in nuclear reactor environments. In the case of type-K thermocouples, manganese and aluminium atoms from the KN (negative) wire migrate to the KP (positive) wire, resulting in a down-scale drift due to chemical contamination. This effect is cumulative and irreversible.
A short-term cyclic change in thermal EMF on heating in the temperature range about 250–650 °C, which occurs in thermocouples of types K, J, T, and E. This kind of EMF instability is associated with structural changes such as magnetic short-range order in the metallurgical composition.
A time-independent perturbation in thermal EMF in specific temperature ranges. This is due to composition-dependent magnetic transformations that perturb the thermal EMFs in type-K thermocouples in the range about 25–225 °C, and in type J above 730 °C.

text: The Nicrosil and Nisil thermocouple alloys show greatly enhanced thermoelectric stability relative to the other standard base-metal thermocouple alloys because their compositions substantially reduce the thermoelectric instabilities described above. This is achieved primarily by increasing component solute concentrations (chromium and silicon) in a base of nickel above those required to cause a transition from internal to external modes of oxidation, and by selecting solutes (silicon and magnesium) that preferentially oxidize to form a diffusion-barrier, and hence oxidation-inhibiting films.[13]

text: Type T[edit]

text: Type T (copper–constantan) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200 to 350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement, since only copper wire touches the probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no Curie point and thus no abrupt change in characteristics. Type-T thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 µV/°C. Note that copper has a much higher thermal conductivity than the alloys generally used in thermocouple constructions, and so it is necessary to exercise extra care with thermally anchoring type-T thermocouples.

text: Platinum/rhodium-alloy thermocouples[edit]

text: Types B, R, and S thermocouples use platinum or a platinum/rhodium alloy for each conductor. These are among the most stable thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity than other types, approximately 10 µV/°C. Type B, R, and S thermocouples are usually used only for high-temperature measurements due to their high cost and low sensitivity.

text: Type B[edit]

text: Type B (70%Pt/30%Rh–94%Pt/6%Rh, by weight) thermocouples are suited for use at up to 1800 °C. Type-B thermocouples produce the same output at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting their use below about 50 °C. The emf function has a minimum around 21 °C, meaning that cold-junction compensation is easily performed, since the compensation voltage is essentially a constant for a reference at typical room temperatures.[14]

text: Type R[edit]

text: Type R (87%Pt/13%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples are used up to 1600 °C.

text: Type S[edit]

text: Type S (90%Pt/10%Rh–Pt, by weight) thermocouples, similar to type R, are used up to 1600 °C. Before the introduction of the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), precision type-S thermocouples were used as the practical standard thermometers for the range of 630 °C to 1064 °C, based on an interpolation between the freezing points of antimony, silver, and gold. Starting with ITS-90, platinum resistance thermometers have taken over this range as standard thermometers.[15]

text: Tungsten/rhenium-alloy thermocouples[edit]

text: These thermocouples are well suited for measuring extremely high temperatures. Typical uses are hydrogen and inert atmospheres, as well as vacuum furnaces. They are not used in oxidizing environments at high temperatures because of embrittlement.[16] A typical range is 0 to 2315 °C, which can be extended to 2760 °C in inert atmosphere and to 3000 °C for brief measurements.[17]

text: Type C[edit]

text: (95%W/5%Re–74%W/26%Re, by weight)[16]

text: Type D[edit]

text: (97%W/3%Re–75%W/25%Re, by weight)[16]

text: Type G[edit]

text: (W–74%W/26%Re, by weight)[16]

text: Others[edit]

text: Chromel–gold/iron-alloy thermocouples[edit]

text: In these thermocouples (chromel–gold/iron alloy), the negative wire is gold with a small fraction (0.03–0.15 atom percent) of iron. The impure gold wire gives the thermocouple a high sensitivity at low temperatures (compared to other thermocouples at that temperature), whereas the chromel wire maintains the sensitivity near room temperature. It can be used for cryogenic applications (1.2–300 K and even up to 600 K). Both the sensitivity and the temperature range depend on the iron concentration. The sensitivity is typically around 15 µV/K at low temperatures, and the lowest usable temperature varies between 1.2 and 4.2 K.

text: Type P (noble-metal alloy)[edit]

text: Type P (55%Pd/31%Pt/14%Au–65%Au/35%Pd, by weight) thermocouples give a thermoelectric voltage that mimics the type K over the range 500 °C to 1400 °C, however they are constructed purely of noble metals and so shows enhanced corrosion resistance. This combination is also known as Platinel II.[18]

text: Platinum/molybdenum-alloy thermocouples[edit]

text: Thermocouples of platinum/molybdenum-alloy (95%Pt/5%Mo–99.9%Pt/0.1%Mo, by weight) are sometimes used in nuclear reactors, since they show a low drift from nuclear transmutation induced by neutron irradiation, compared to the platinum/rhodium-alloy types.[19]

text: Iridium/rhodium alloy thermocouples[edit]

text: The use of two wires of iridium/rhodium alloys can provide a thermocouple that can be used up to about 2000 °C in inert atmospheres.[19]

text: Pure noble-metal thermocouples Au–Pt, Pt–Pd[edit]

text: Thermocouples made from two different, high-purity noble metals can show high accuracy even when uncalibrated, as well as low levels of drift. Two combinations in use are gold–platinum and platinum–palladium.[20] Their main limitations are the low melting points of the metals involved (1064 °C for gold and 1555 °C for palladium). These thermocouples tend to be more accurate than type S, and due to their economy and simplicity are even regarded as competitive alternatives to the platinum resistance thermometers that are normally used as standard thermometers.[21]

text: Skutterudite thermocouples[edit]

text: NASA is developing a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator in which the thermocouples would be made of skutterudite, which can function with a smaller temperature difference than the current tellurium designs. This would mean that an otherwise similar RTG would generate 25% more power at the beginning of a mission and at least 50% more after seventeen years. NASA hopes to use the design on the next New Frontiers mission.[22]

text: Comparison of types[edit]

text: The table below describes properties of several different thermocouple types. Within the tolerance columns, T represents the temperature of the hot junction, in degrees Celsius. For example, a thermocouple with a tolerance of ±0.0025×T would have a tolerance of ±2.5 °C at 1000 °C.

text:
Type
Temperature range (°C)
Tolerance class (°C)
Color code

Continuous
Short-term
One
Two
IEC[23]
BS
ANSI

Low
High
Low
High

K
0
+1100
−180
+1300
−40 – 375: ±1.5
375 – 1000: ±0.004×T
−40 – 333: ±2.5
333 – 1200: ±0.0075×T

J
0
+750
−180
+800
−40 – 375: ±1.5
375 – 750: ±0.004×T
−40 – 333: ±2.5
333 – 750: ±0.0075×T

N
0
+1100
−270
+1300
−40 – 375: ±1.5
375 – 1000: ±0.004×T
−40 – 333: ±2.5
333 – 1200: ±0.0075×T

R
0
+1600
−50
+1700
0 – 1100: ±1.0
1100 – 1600: ±0.003×(T − 767)
0 – 600: ±1.5
600 – 1600: ±0.0025×T

Not defined

S
0
+1600
−50
+1750
0 – 1100: ±1.0
1100 – 1600: ±0.003×(T − 767)
0 – 600: ±1.5
600 – 1600: ±0.0025×T

Not defined

B
+200
+1700
0
+1820
Not available
600 – 1700: ±0.0025×T
No standard
No standard
Not defined

T
−185
+300
−250
+400
−40 – 125: ±0.5
125 – 350: ±0.004×T
−40 – 133: ±1.0
133 – 350: ±0.0075×T

E
0
+800
−40
+900
−40 – 375: ±1.5
375 – 800: ±0.004×T
−40 – 333: ±2.5
333 – 900: ±0.0075×T

Chromel/AuFe
−272
+300
N/A
N/A
Reproducibility 0.2% of the voltage.
Each sensor needs individual calibration.

text: Thermocouple insulation[edit]

text: The wires that make up the thermocouple must be insulated from each other everywhere, except at the sensing junction. Any additional electrical contact between the wires, or contact of a wire to other conductive objects, can modify the voltage and give a false reading of temperature.

text: Plastics are suitable insulators for low temperatures parts of a thermocouple, whereas ceramic insulation can be used up to around 1000 °C. Other concerns (abrasion and chemical resistance) also affect the suitability of materials.

text: When wire insulation disintegrates, it can result in an unintended electrical contact at a different location from the desired sensing point. If such a damaged thermocouple is used in the closed loop control of a thermostat or other temperature controller, this can lead to a runaway overheating event and possibly severe damage, as the false temperature reading will typically be lower than the sensing junction temperature. Failed insulation will also typically outgas, which can lead to process contamination. For parts of thermocouples used at very high temperatures or in contamination-sensitive applications, the only suitable insulation may be vacuum or inert gas; the mechanical rigidity of the thermocouple wires is used to keep them separated.

text: Table of insulation materials[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Type of Insulation
Max. continuous temperature
Max. single reading
Abrasion resistance
Moisture resistance
Chemical resistance

Mica–glass tape
649 °C/1200 °F
705 °C/1300 °F
Good
Fair
Good

TFE tape, TFE–glass tape
649 °C/1200 °F
705 °C/1300 °F
Good
Fair
Good

Vitreous-silica braid
871 °C/1600 °F
1093 °C/2000 °F
Fair
Poor
Poor

Double glass braid
482 °C/900 °F
538 °C/1000 °F
Good
Good
Good

Enamel–glass braid
482 °C /900 °F
538 °C/1000 °F
Fair
Good
Good

Double glass wrap
482 °C/900 °F
427 °C/800 °F
Fair
Good
Good

Non-impregnated glass braid
482 °C/900 °F
427 °C/800 °F
Poor
Poor
Fair

Skive TFE tape, TFE–glass braid
482 °C/900 °F
538 °C/1000 °F
Good
Excellent
Excellent

Double cotton braid
88 °C/190 °F
120 °C/248 °F
Good
Good
Poor

"S" glass with binder
704 °C/1300 °F
871 °C/1600 °F
Fair
Fair
Good

Nextel ceramic fiber
1204 °C/2200 °F
1427 °C/2600 °F
Fair
Fair
Fair

Polyvinyl/nylon
105 °C/221 °F
120 °C/248 °F
Excellent
Excellent
Good

Polyvinyl
105 °C/221 °F
105 °C/221 °F
Good
Excellent
Good

Nylon
150 °C/302 °F
130 °C/266 °F
Excellent
Good
Good

PVC
105 °C/221 °F
105 °C/221 °F
Good
Excellent
Good

FEP
204 °C/400 °F
260 °C/500 °F
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent

Wrapped and fused TFE
260 °C/500 °F
316 °C/600 °F
Good
Excellent
Excellent

Kapton
316 °C/600 °F
427 °C/800 °F
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent

Tefzel
150 °C/302 °F
200 °C/392 °F
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent

PFA
260 °C/500 °F
290 °C/550 °F
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent

T300*
300 °C
–
Good
Excellent
Excellent

text: Temperature ratings for insulations may vary based on what the overall thermocouple construction cable consists of.

text: Note: T300 is a new high-temperature material that was recently approved by UL for 300 °C operating temperatures.

text: Applications[edit]

text: Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, from −270 up to 3000 °C (for a short time, in inert atmosphere).[17] Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, other industrial processes and fog machines. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For such applications thermistors, silicon bandgap temperature sensors and resistance thermometers are more suitable.

text: Steel industry[edit]

text: Type B, S, R and K thermocouples are used extensively in the steel and iron industries to monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process. Disposable, immersible, type S thermocouples are regularly used in the electric arc furnace process to accurately measure the temperature of steel before tapping. The cooling curve of a small steel sample can be analyzed and used to estimate the carbon content of molten steel.

text: Gas appliance safety[edit]

text: Many gas-fed heating appliances such as ovens and water heaters make use of a pilot flame to ignite the main gas burner when required. If the pilot flame goes out, unburned gas may be released, which is an explosion risk and a health hazard. To prevent this, some appliances use a thermocouple in a fail-safe circuit to sense when the pilot light is burning. The tip of the thermocouple is placed in the pilot flame, generating a voltage which operates the supply valve which feeds gas to the pilot. So long as the pilot flame remains lit, the thermocouple remains hot, and the pilot gas valve is held open. If the pilot light goes out, the thermocouple temperature falls, causing the voltage across the thermocouple to drop and the valve to close.

text: Some combined main burner and pilot gas valves (mainly by Honeywell) reduce the power demand to within the range of a single universal thermocouple heated by a pilot (25 mV open circuit falling by half with the coil connected to a 10–12 mV, 0.2–0.25 A source, typically) by sizing the coil to be able to hold the valve open against a light spring, but only after the initial turning-on force is provided by the user pressing and holding a knob to compress the spring during lighting of the pilot. These systems are identifiable by the "press and hold for x minutes" in the pilot lighting instructions. (The holding current requirement of such a valve is much less than a bigger solenoid designed for pulling the valve in from a closed position would require.) Special test sets are made to confirm the valve let-go and holding currents, because an ordinary milliammeter cannot be used as it introduces more resistance than the gas valve coil. Apart from testing the open circuit voltage of the thermocouple, and the near short-circuit DC continuity through the thermocouple gas valve coil, the easiest non-specialist test is substitution of a known good gas valve.

text: Some systems, known as millivolt control systems, extend the thermocouple concept to both open and close the main gas valve as well. Not only does the voltage created by the pilot thermocouple activate the pilot gas valve, it is also routed through a thermostat to power the main gas valve as well. Here, a larger voltage is needed than in a pilot flame safety system described above, and a thermopile is used rather than a single thermocouple. Such a system requires no external source of electricity for its operation and thus can operate during a power failure, provided that all the other related system components allow for this. This excludes common forced air furnaces because external electrical power is required to operate the blower motor, but this feature is especially useful for un-powered convection heaters. A similar gas shut-off safety mechanism using a thermocouple is sometimes employed to ensure that the main burner ignites within a certain time period, shutting off the main burner gas supply valve should that not happen.

text: Out of concern about energy wasted by the standing pilot flame, designers of many newer appliances have switched to an electronically controlled pilot-less ignition, also called intermittent ignition. With no standing pilot flame, there is no risk of gas buildup should the flame go out, so these appliances do not need thermocouple-based pilot safety switches. As these designs lose the benefit of operation without a continuous source of electricity, standing pilots are still used in some appliances. The exception is later model instantaneous (aka "tankless") water heaters that use the flow of water to generate the current required to ignite the gas burner; these designs also use a thermocouple as a safety cut-off device in the event the gas fails to ignite, or if the flame is extinguished.

text: Thermopile radiation sensors[edit]

text: Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation, typically visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It is possible to measure radiative intensities of only a few μW/cm2 with commercially available thermopile sensors. For example, some laser power meters are based on such sensors; these are specifically known as thermopile laser sensor.

text: The principle of operation of a thermopile sensor is distinct from that of a bolometer, as the latter relies on a change in resistance.

text: Manufacturing[edit]

text: Thermocouples can generally be used in the testing of prototype electrical and mechanical apparatus. For example, switchgear under test for its current carrying capacity may have thermocouples installed and monitored during a heat run test, to confirm that the temperature rise at rated current does not exceed designed limits.

text: Power production[edit]

text: A thermocouple can produce current to drive some processes directly, without the need for extra circuitry and power sources. For example, the power from a thermocouple can activate a valve when a temperature difference arises. The electrical energy generated by a thermocouple is converted from the heat which must be supplied to the hot side to maintain the electric potential. A continuous transfer of heat is necessary because the current flowing through the thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to cool down and the cold side to heat up (the Peltier effect).

text: Thermocouples can be connected in series to form a thermopile, where all the hot junctions are exposed to a higher temperature and all the cold junctions to a lower temperature. The output is the sum of the voltages across the individual junctions, giving larger voltage and power output. In a radioisotope thermoelectric generator, the radioactive decay of transuranic elements as a heat source has been used to power spacecraft on missions too far from the Sun to use solar power.

text: Thermopiles heated by kerosene lamps were used to run batteryless radio receivers in isolated areas.[25] There are commercially produced lanterns that use the heat from a candle to run several light-emitting diodes, and thermoelectrically-powered fans to improve air circulation and heat distribution in wood stoves.

text: Process plants[edit]

text: Chemical production and petroleum refineries will usually employ computers for logging and for limit testing the many temperatures associated with a process, typically numbering in the hundreds. For such cases, a number of thermocouple leads will be brought to a common reference block (a large block of copper) containing the second thermocouple of each circuit. The temperature of the block is in turn measured by a thermistor. Simple computations are used to determine the temperature at each measured location.

text: Thermocouple as vacuum gauge[edit]

text: A thermocouple can be used as a vacuum gauge over the range of approximately 0.001 to 1 torr absolute pressure. In this pressure range, the mean free path of the gas is comparable to the dimensions of the vacuum chamber, and the flow regime is neither purely viscous nor purely molecular.[26] In this configuration, the thermocouple junction is attached to the centre of a short heating wire, which is usually energised by a constant current of about 5 mA, and the heat is removed at a rate related to the thermal conductivity of the gas.

text: The temperature detected at the thermocouple junction depends on the thermal conductivity of the surrounding gas, which depends on the pressure of the gas. The potential difference measured by a thermocouple is proportional to the square of pressure over the low- to medium-vacuum range. At higher (viscous flow) and lower (molecular flow) pressures, the thermal conductivity of air or any other gas is essentially independent of pressure. The thermocouple was first used as a vacuum gauge by Voege in 1906.[27] The mathematical model for the thermocouple as a vacuum gauge is quite complicated, as explained in detail by Van Atta,[28] but can be simplified to:

text: where P is the gas pressure, B is a constant that depends on the thermocouple temperature, the gas composition and the vacuum-chamber geometry, V0 is the thermocouple voltage at zero pressure (absolute), and V is the voltage indicated by the thermocouple.

text: The alternative is the Pirani gauge, which operates in a similar way, over approximately the same pressure range, but is only a 2-terminal device, sensing the change in resistance with temperature of a thin electrically heated wire, rather than using a thermocouple.


document_title: Fall Out Boy

question_text: where did the band fall out boy get their name

root

text: Fall Out Boy

text: History

text: 2001–2002: Early years

text: Fall Out Boy was formed in 2001 in the Chicago suburb of Wilmette, Illinois by friends Pete Wentz and Joe Trohman. Wentz was a "visible fixture" of the relatively small Chicago hardcore punk scene of the late 1990s, performing in various groups such as Birthright, Extinction and First Born, as well the metalcore band Arma Angelus and the more political Racetraitor, "a band that managed to land the covers of Maximumrocknroll and Heartattack fanzines before releasing a single note of music."[1] Wentz was growing dissatisfied with the changing mores of the community, which he viewed as a transition from political activism to an emphasis on moshing and breakdowns.[1] With enthusiasm in Arma Angelus waning, he created a pop punk side project with Trohman as an "easy and escapist" project.[1] Trohman met Patrick Stump, then a drummer for grindcore band Xgrinding processX[2] and a host of other bands that "never really managed," at a Borders bookstore in Wilmette.[3] While discussing Neurosis with a friend, Stump interrupted the conversation to correct their classification of the band in a conversation that soon shifted to the new band.[3] Stump, viewing it as an opportunity to try out with "local hardcore celebrity" Wentz, directed Trohman to his MP3.com page, which contained sung-through acoustic recordings.[3] Stump intended to try out as a drummer, but Trohman urged him to bring out his acoustic guitar; he impressed the duo with songs from Saves the Day's Through Being Cool. While Wentz wanted Racetraitor bandmate Andy Hurley in the group as drummer, Hurley appeared uninterested and too busy.[3]

tag: p

text: The band's first public performance came in a cafeteria at DePaul University alongside Stilwell and another group that performed Black Sabbath in its entirety.[4] The band's only performance with guitarist John Flamandan and original drummer Ben Rose was in retrospect described as "goofy" and "bad," but Trohman made an active effort to make the band work, picking up members for practice.[4] Wentz and Stump argued over band names; the former favored verbose, tongue-in-cheek names while the latter desired to reference Tom Waits in name.[4] After creating a short list of names that included "Fall Out Boy," a fictional character from The Simpsons and Bongo Comics, friends voted on the name. The band's second performance, at a southern Illinois university with The Killing Tree, began with Wentz introducing the band under a name Stump recalled as "very long."[4] According to Stump, an audience member yelled out, "Fuck that, no, you're Fall Out Boy!," and the band were credited later in the show under that name by Killing Tree frontman Tim McIlrath. As the group looked up to McIlrath, and Trohman and Stump were "die-hard" Simpsons fans, the name stuck.[4][5] The group's first cassette tape demo was recorded in Rose's basement, but the band later set off for Wisconsin to record a proper demo with 7 Angels 7 Plagues drummer Jared Logan, whom Wentz knew through connections in the hardcore scene.[4]

text: Several more members passed through the group, including drummer Mike Pareskuwicz of Subsist and guitarist T.J. "Racine" Kunasch.[4] While Stump at this point felt uninterested in the group, Wentz was, according to Uprising Records owner Sean Muttaqi, viewing the group as "the thing that would make him famous. He had a clear vision."[4] Wentz was "singularly focused on taking things to the next level," and threw the band into promotion via early social media. Muttaqi got word of the demo and wanted to release half of it as a split extended play with Hurley's band Project Rocket, which the band viewed as competition.[4] Uprising desired to release an album with the emerging band, which to that point had only written three songs. With the help of Logan, the group attempted to put together a collection of songs in two days, and recorded them as Fall Out Boy's Evening Out with Your Girlfriend. The rushed recording experience and underdeveloped songs left the band discontent.[4] When the band set off to Smart Studios in Madison, Wisconsin to record three songs for a possible split 7-inch with 504 Plan, engineer Sean O'Keefe suggested the band record the trio with Hurley.[6] Hurley was also recording an EP with his new group the Kill Pill in Chicago the same day, but raced to Madison to lay down drums for Fall Out Boy. "It was still a fill-in thing but when Andy sat in, it just felt different. It was one of those "a-ha" moments," recalled Wentz.[6]

text: 2003–2004: Early success and Take This to Your Grave

text: The band booked a two-week tour with Spitalfield, but Pareskuwicz was unable to get time off from work and Kunasch was kicked out of the band as the group "had all gotten sick of him."[6] Kunasch was temporarily replaced by friend Brandon Hamm on guitar, alongside drummer Chris Envy from the recently disbanded Showoff, but both quit prior to the kickoff of the tour.[6] The band invited Hurley instead to fill-in once more, while Stump borrowed one of Trohman's guitars for the trek. While most shows were cancelled, the band played any show possible: "Let's just get on whatever show we can. You can pay us in pizza," remembered Wentz.[6] As the tour concluded, the general consensus was that Hurley would be the band's new drummer, and the band began to shop around the three songs from the group's unreleased split as a demo to record labels. The band members set their sights on pop punk labels, and attempted with considerable effort to join Drive-Thru Records.[7] A showcase for label co-founders went largely mediocre, and the band were offered to sign to side label Rushmore, an offer that the members of the band declined. They got particularly far in discussions with The Militia Group and Victory Records, and Bob McLynn of Crush Management became the band's first manager.[8] The band re-entered the studio with O'Keefe to record several more tracks to create label interest. Wentz felt "in the backseat" in writing the songs and temporarily questioned his place in the group, but Stump argued in his favor: "No! That's not fair! Don't leave me with this band! Don't make me kind of like this band and then leave it! That's bullshit!"[8]

text: The band's early tour vehicle was a "tiny V6 that was running on three cylinders, and it was not getting enough air, so it would drive really slowly," recalled Wentz. "We had to turn on the hot air to reach the speed limit, so we had the heat on all the time in 120 degree weather. It was so hot it melted the plastic molding around the windows. When it rained, we'd get all wet."[5] John Janick of Fueled by Ramen had heard an early version of a song online and cold-called the band members at their apartment, first reaching Stump and later talking to Wentz for an hour.[8] Rob Stevenson from Island Records eventually offered the band a "first-ever incubator sort of deal," in which they gave the band money to sign with Fueled by Ramen for the group's one-off debut, knowing they could "upstream" the band to radio on the sophomore record.[8] Fueled by Ramen, at the time the smallest of independent labels clamoring to sign the band, would effectively release the group's debut album and help build the band's ever-expanding fanbase before the group moved to Island.[8] The band again partnered with O'Keefe at Smart Studios, bringing together the three songs from the demo and recording an additional seven songs in nine days. The band, according to Stump, didn't "sleep anywhere that we could shower [...] There was a girl that Andy's girlfriend at the time went to school with who let us sleep on her floor, but we'd be there for maybe four hours at a time. It was crazy."[9][10] As the band progressed and the members' roles became more defined, Wentz took lyrics extremely seriously in contrast to Stump, who had been the group's primary lyricist up to that point.[11] Arguments during the recording sessions led to what "most reductively boils down to Wentz writing the lyrics and Stump writing the melodies."[3]

text: The band's debut album, Take This to Your Grave, was issued by Fueled by Ramen in May 2003. Previously, one of the band's earliest recordings, Evening Out with Your Girlfriend, had not seen release until shortly before Grave in March 2003, when the band had gained considerable momentum. "Our record was something being rushed out to help generate some interest, but that interest was building before we could even get the record out," said Sean Muttaqi.[12] The band actively tried to stop Uprising from releasing the recordings (as the band's relationship with Muttaqi had grown sour), as the band viewed it as a "giant piece of garbage" recorded before Hurley's involvement that the band members ceased to consider the debut album of the group.[12] Gradually, the band's fanbase grew in size as the label pushed for the album's mainstream success. According to Wentz, shows began to end in a near-riot and the group were banned from several venues because the entire crowd would end up onstage.[13] The band gained positive reviews for subsequent gigs at South by Southwest (SXSW) and various tour appearances.[14] The band joined the Warped Tour for five dates in the summer of 2004, and on one date the band had only performed three songs when the stage collapsed due to the large crowd.[13] The band appeared on the cover of the August 2004 edition of Alternative Press, and listening stations at Hot Topic partially helped the album move 2,000-3,000 copies per week by Christmas 2004, at which point the label considered the band "tipping" into mainstream success.[13]

text: 2005–2006: From Under the Cork Tree

text: The band had been flooded with "hyperbolic praise," and deemed "the next big thing" by multiple media outlets.[15] Before recording the follow-up to its debut, the band released the acoustic EP/DVD My Heart Will Always Be the B-Side to My Tongue. The EP was the band's first charting on the Billboard 200 at number 153. From Under the Cork Tree was recorded in Burbank, California, and served as the first time the band had stayed in California for an extended period of time.[16] The group lived in corporate housing during the making of the album.[16] In contrast to Take This to Your Grave's rushed recording schedule, Fall Out Boy took a much more gradual pace while working on From Under the Cork Tree. It was the first Fall Out Boy record in which Stump created all the music and Wentz wrote all the lyrics, continuing the approach they took for some songs on Grave. Stump felt that this process was much more "smooth" as every member was able to focus on his individual strengths.[17] He explained: "We haven't had any of those moments when I play the music and he'll say, 'I don't like that,' and he'll read me lyrics and I'll say, 'I don't like those lyrics.' It's very natural and fun."[17] Despite this, the band had great difficulty creating its desired sound for the album, constantly scrapping new material. Two weeks before recording sessions began, the group abandoned ten songs and wrote eight more, including the album's first single, "Sugar, We're Goin Down."[15]

text: The band suffered a setback, however, when Wentz had an emotional breakdown in February 2005, culminating in an unsuccessful suicide attempt. He had withdrawn from the rest of the group, with his condition only apparent through his lyrics, and had also become obsessed with the recent Indian tsunami and his own self-doubt.[18] "It is particularly overwhelming when you are on the cusp of doing something very big and thinking that it will be a big flop," he said later. Wentz swallowed a handful of Ativan anxiety pills (he described the act as "hypermedicating") in the Chicago Best Buy parking lot.[18] After being rushed to the hospital and having his stomach pumped, Wentz moved back home to Wilmette to live with his parents.[18]

text: From Under the Cork Tree debuted and peaked at number nine on the Billboard 200 upon its May 2005 release. It was spearheaded by the band's breakthrough single, "Sugar, We're Goin' Down," reached number eight in the US Billboard Hot 100 in September 2005, and in the UK chart in February 2006, crossing over from Alternative to Pop radio.[18] "Dance, Dance," the album's second single, also was a top ten hit in the United States and was certified 3x Platinum in 2014.[14] The record's success led to stardom among teenagers in North America, and the band's first arena tour had the group playing to 10,000 people per night.[18] Rolling Stone wrote that the band's "anthems," distributed and marketed through their MySpace, connected with "skinny-jeans-wearing teen girls."[19] In support of From Under the Cork Tree, the band toured exhaustively with international tours, TRL visits, late-night television appearances and music award shows.[14] The band performed at music festivals in 2005 and 2006, including the third Nintendo Fusion Tour in the fall of 2005, joining The Starting Line, Motion City Soundtrack, Boys Night Out, and Panic! at the Disco on a 31 city tour.[20] The album earned the band a Grammy nomination for Best New Artist,[14] and has sold over 2.7 million copies in the United States, becoming the group's best-selling album.[18] "Sugar, We're Goin Down" also won the band an MTV Music Video Award.[21]

text: 2007: Infinity on High

text: In the wake of the band's multiplatinum success, the "especially extroverted" Wentz became the most publicly visible member of the band.[14][19] He confided to the press his suicide attempt and nude photos of the bassist appeared on the Internet in 2006.[19] He gained additional exposure through his clothing line, his Decaydance record label (an imprint of Fueled by Ramen), and eventually a celebrity relationship with pop singer Ashlee Simpson, which made the two tabloid fixtures in the United States.[14][19][22] Due to its increased success from the group's MTV Video Music Award, the group headlined the Black Clouds and Underdogs Tour, a pop punk event that featured The All-American Rejects, Well-Known Secret, Hawthorne Heights, and From First to Last. The tour also featured The Hush Sound for half of the tour and October Fall for half. The band played to 53 dates in the US, Canada, and the UK.[23]

text: After taking a two-month-long break following the band’s Black Clouds and Underdogs tour in promotion of the band's 2005 album From Under the Cork Tree, Fall Out Boy returned to the studio to begin work on a follow-up effort.[24] The band began writing songs for the new album while touring, and intended to quickly make a new album in order to keep momentum in the wake of its breakthrough success.[25] In early 2007, the group released its third studio album, Infinity on High, which was the band's second release on major label Island. The album marked a departure in Fall Out Boy’s sound in which the band implemented a diverse array of musical styles including funk, R&B, and flamenco.[24][26] As reported by Billboard, Fall Out Boy "drifts further from its hardcore punk roots to write increasingly accessible pop tunes," a slight departure from the group's previous more pop punk sound predominant on their 2003 effort, Take This to Your Grave.[27]

text: Infinity's first week was a major success and was the band's biggest selling week, selling 260,000 copies to debut at No. 1 on the US Billboard 200[28][29] and inside the top five worldwide. This charting was first started with lead single "The Carpal Tunnel of Love", with minor success on the Billboard charts.[30] This success was bolstered by the further-successful second single "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race", which reached No. 2 in both the US and UK as well as the top five in many other countries.[31] On the band's decision to pick the song as a single, Wentz commented "There may be other songs on the record that would be bigger radio hits, but this one had the right message."[32] "Thnks fr th Mmrs", the third single, peaked just outside the top 10 at No. 11 on the strength of sales and popular radio play, and went on to sell over two million copies in the US.[33] It found its greatest success in Australia where it charted at No. 3. In 2007, Fall Out Boy placed at No. 9 in the Top Selling Digital Artists chart with 4,423,000 digital tracks sold, according to Nielsen SoundScan.[34] The album itself has sold over two million copies worldwide and subsequently was certified Platinum in the United States.[35]

text: Fall Out Boy then headlined the 2007 Honda Civic Tour to promote the album. Though the tour was initially postponed due to personal issues,[36] it would take place with +44, Cobra Starship, The Academy Is... and Paul Wall as supporting acts. The band also headlined the Young Wild Things Tour, an international arena tour featuring Gym Class Heroes, Plain White T's and Cute Is What We Aim For.[37] Inspired by Maurice Sendak's 1963 children's book Where the Wild Things Are, the concert tour and included sets designed by artist Rob Dobi containing images from the book.[37] The band's "hugely successful" amphitheater tour to promote Infinity led to the release of the 2008 live album Live in Phoenix, consisting of live material recorded during a June 22, 2007, concert at Phoenix's Cricket Wireless Pavilion, a date of the Honda Civic Tour. The disc also a studio cover of Michael Jackson's "Beat It", with guitarist John Mayer guesting for a guitar solo. The track was released as a single and became a mainstay on the iTunes top ten.[38]

text: 2008–2009: Folie à Deux

text: The band members decided to keep publicity down during the recording of their fourth album, as the group was taken aback by such press surrounding Infinity on High.[38] Sessions proved to be difficult for the band as Wentz started taking LSD when Zach Blair lead guitarist for Rise Against made him try it at a party in April 2008. The goal in Wentz using LSD was to hope it would influence his songwriting, but it just made him distracted from writing songs, which annoyed Stump, so he stopped using LSD in August 2008. Wentz later said he had taken LSD over 50 times.[39] Stump called the making of the album "painful", noting that he and Wentz quarreled over many issues, revealing "I threw something across the room over a major-to-minor progression."[40] On previous albums, Trohman felt he and Hurley did not have enough musical freedom and that Stump and Wentz exerted too much control over the group: "I felt, 'Man, this isn't my band anymore.' It's no one's fault, and I don't want to make it seem that way. It was more of a complex I developed based off of stuff I was reading. It's hard to hear, 'Joe and Andy are just along for the ride.'"[41] To amend the situation, Trohman sat down with Stump to communicate his concerns, which led to more collaboration on Folie à Deux. "It made me feel like I owned the songs a lot more. It made me really excited about contributing to Fall Out Boy and made me find my role in the band," Trohman recalled.[41]

text: As the release of the new album approached, the band and its management found that they would have to navigate changes in the music industry, facing declining record sales, the lack of a proper outlet for exhibition of music videos, and the burgeoning US economic crisis.[42] To promote the album, Wentz launched a viral campaign in August 2008, inspired by George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), and the autocratic, overbearing Big Brother organization.[43] Folie à Deux, released in December 2008, did not perform as well commercially as its predecessor, Infinity on High. It debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 chart with first week sales of 150,000 copies during a highly competitive week with other big debuts, becoming Fall Out Boy's third consecutive top ten album.[44][45] This is in contrast to the band's more successful previous effort which shifted 260,000 copies in its opening week to debut at number one the chart.[45] Folie spent two weeks within the top 20 out of its 22 chart weeks.[44] It also entered Billboard's Rock Albums and Alternative Albums charts at number three.[44] Within two months of its release, Folie à Deux was certified Gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of 500,000 copies.[46] The lead single, "I Don't Care", reached a peak at number twenty-one on the Billboard Hot 100,[47] and was certified Platinum by the RIAA for shipments of one million copies.[48]

text: To promote the album, Fall Out Boy embarked on the Believers Never Die Tour Part Deux, which included dates in the United States and Canada.[49] The constant touring schedule became difficult for the band due to conflicting fan opinion regarding Folie à Deux: concertgoers would "boo the band for performing numbers from the record in concert", leading Stump to describe touring in support of Folie as like "being the last act at the vaudeville show: We were rotten vegetable targets in Clandestine hoods."[50] "Some of us were miserable onstage," said guitarist Joe Trohman. "Others were just drunk."[51] A greatest hits compilation, Believers Never Die – Greatest Hits, followed in the fall, and following these events, the band decided to take a break. The band's decision stemmed from disillusionment with the music industry and Stump recalled that "We found ourselves running on fumes a little bit -- creatively and probably as people, too."[52] Stump realized the band was desperate to take a break; he sat the group down and explained that a hiatus was in order if the band wanted to continue in the future.[53] All involved felt the dynamic of the group had changed as personalities developed.[53]

text: Rumors and misquotes led to confusion as to what such a break truly meant; Wentz preferred to not refer to the break as a "hiatus," instead explaining that the band was just "decompressing."[54] Fall Out Boy played its last show at Madison Square Garden on October 4, 2009. Near the end, Blink-182's Mark Hoppus shaved Wentz's head in a move Rolling Stone would later describe as a "symbolic cleansing of the past, but also the beginning of a very dark chapter for the band."[53]

text: 2010–2012: Hiatus and solo careers

text: By the time the break began, Stump was the heaviest he had ever been and loathed the band's image as an "emo" band.[55] Coming home from tour, drummer Andy Hurley "went through the darkest depression [I've] ever felt. I looked at my calendar and it was just empty."[51] Wentz, who had been abusing Xanax and Klonopin, was divorced by his wife Ashlee Simpson and returned to therapy.[51][56] "I'd basically gone from being the guy in Fall Out Boy to being the guy who, like, hangs out all day," Wentz recalled.[55] Previously known as the "overexposed, despised" leader of the band, Wentz "simply grew up," sharing custody of his son and embracing maturity: "There was a jump-cut in my life. I started thinking – like, being old would be cool."[55]

text: During the hiatus, the band members each pursued individual musical interests, which were met with "varying degrees of failure."[51] Stump was the only member of the quartet to take on a solo project while Fall Out Boy was on hiatus, recording debut album Soul Punk entirely on his own: he wrote, produced, and played every instrument for all tracks on the record. In addition, he married his longtime girlfriend and lost over sixty pounds through portion control and exercise.[57][58] Stump blew through most of his savings putting together a large band to tour behind Soul Punk, but ticket sales were sparse and the album stalled commercially.[51] During a particularly dark moment in February 2012, Stump poured his heart out in a 1500-word blog entry called "We Liked You Better Fat: Confessions of a Pariah."[50][53] In the post, Stump lamented the harsh reception of the record and his status as a "has-been" at 27. Stump revealed that fans harassed him on his solo tour, hurling insults such as "We liked you better fat," and noted that "Whatever notoriety Fall Out Boy used to have prevents me from having the ability to start over from the bottom again."[59] Aside from Soul Punk and personal developments, Stump moonlighted as a professional songwriter/producer, co-writing tracks with Bruno Mars and All Time Low, and pursued acting.[50]

text: Wentz formed electronic duo Black Cards with vocalist Bebe Rexha in July 2010. The project released one single before album delays led to Rexha's departure in 2011. Black Cards added Spencer Peterson to complete the Use Your Disillusion EP in 2012.[58] Wentz also completed writing a novel, Gray, that he had been working on for six years outside the band, and began hosting the reality tattoo competition show Best Ink.[60] Hurley ventured farther into rock during the hiatus, drumming with multiple bands over the three-year period. He continued to manage his record label, Fuck City, and drummed for bands Burning Empires and Enabler.[58] He also formed heavy metal outfit The Damned Things with Trohman, Scott Ian and Rob Caggiano of Anthrax, and Keith Buckley of Every Time I Die.[58] Despite this, the members all remained cordial to one another; Wentz was Stump's best man at his wedding.[61] The hiatus was, all things considered, beneficial for the group and its members, according to Hurley. "The hiatus helped them all kind of figure themselves out," he explained in 2013. "Especially Joe and Patrick, who were so young. And Pete is a million times better."[55]

text: 2013–2014: Reformation and Save Rock and Roll

text: Stump and Wentz met up for the first time in several years in early 2012 for a writing session. Wentz reached out to Stump after he penned his letter, as he too felt he was in a dark place and needed a creative outlet.[53] He was at first reluctant to approach Stump, likening the phone call to reconnecting with a lover after years of acrimony.[55] "I know what you need – you need your band," Wentz told Stump.[55] "I think it's kind of weird that we haven't really seen each other this year. We paid for each other's houses and you don't know my kid," Wentz remarked.[61] The result, "three or four" new songs, were shelved with near immediacy, with the two concluding that "it just wasn't right and didn't feel right."[62] Several months later, the two reconvened and wrote tracks that they felt truly represented the band in a modern form.[53] The band decided that if a comeback was in order, it must represent the band in its current form: "We didn't want to come back just to bask in the glory days and, like, and collect a few checks and pretend ... and do our best 2003 impersonation," said Stump.[63] Afterwards, the quartet held an all-day secret meeting at their manager's home in New York City where they discussed ideas and the mechanics of getting together to record.[53][62] Trohman was the last to be contacted, through a three-hour phone call from Stump. As Trohman was arguably the most excited to begin other projects, he had a list of stipulations for rejoining the band. "If I'm not coming back to this band writing music […] then I don't want to," he remarked. Stump supported Trohman's ambition saying Trohman "needed to be writing more."[61]

text: The band members' main goal was to reinvent the group's sound from scratch, creating what Trohman called a "reimagining of the band," which focuses more on pop.[55] Sessions were not without difficulties, as the band struggled initially to produce new material. Walker had doubts about the band's volatility, feeling the record would not get made following "meltdown after meltdown."[55] The entire album was recorded in secrecy from the music industry, critics, and fans of the band.[63] While specifically denying that the group's announcement was a reunion because "[the group had] never broke[n] up", the band announced a reunion tour and details of Save Rock and Roll on February 4, 2013.[64] The quartet's announcement included a photo of the group that had been taken earlier that morning of the band members huddled around a bonfire tossing copies of their back catalog into flames at the original location of Comiskey Park, the location of 1979's Disco Demolition Night, a baseball promotional event which involved destroying disco records.[65] A message on the group's website read "when we were kids the only thing that got us through most days was music. It's why we started Fall Out Boy in the first place. This isn't a reunion because we never broke up. We needed to plug back in and make some music that matters to us. The future of Fall Out Boy starts now. Save rock and roll..."[66] Save Rock and Roll debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart, with first week sales of 154,000 copies in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan.[67] The arrival of Save Rock and Roll posted the quartet's third-biggest sales week, and earned the group's second career number one on the chart.[67] The band's chart success was best described as unexpected by music journalists. Rolling Stone called the band's comeback a "rather stunning renaissance",[53] and Entertainment Weekly called the number one a "major accomplishment for a band whom many in the industry had dismissed as kings of a genre whose time had passed."[68]

text: The record's lead single, "My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light Em Up)", peaked at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100, marking the band's first top twenty single since the group's 2008 cover of Michael Jackson's "Beat It".[69] It was certified 3x Platinum in the US for over 3 million sales. Inspired in part by Daft Punk's Interstella 5555: The 5tory of the 5ecret 5tar 5ystem, the band released a music video for every song on the album in a series titled The Young Blood Chronicles between February 2013 and May 2014.[70] The band also released a hardcore punk-influenced EP, PAX AM Days, in late 2013.[71] Fall Out Boy covered Elton John's (who was featured on the Save Rock And Roll title track) song "Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting" for inclusion in the fortieth anniversary re-release edition of Goodbye Yellow Brick Road on March 25, 2014, alongside covers by different artists.[72]

text: Fall Out Boy headlined Save Rock And Roll tours (including US, Australian and European legs) and played at music festivals around the world for one and a half years. The group co-headlined Monumentour with Paramore in North America to close the Save Rock And Roll era.[73]

text: 2014–2016: American Beauty/American Psycho

text: On June 2, 2014, Wentz stated that he and Stump were writing new music: "We're writing. I was just listening to something Patrick had written in the trailer. So we're writing, finishing out the album cycle in South Africa in September." In a later interview with Rock Sound regarding the status of the album, Wentz commented "We don’t have an exact timetable yet. I have a two-week old son and Patrick has a baby on the way in October, so there’s a lot going on." as well as stating a rough release time as early 2015.[74] In December 2014 the band played radio-sponsored Christmas shows, including KROQ's Almost Acoustic Christmas.[75]

text: "Centuries" - the first single of Fall Out Boy's sixth studio album[76] - premiered on September 8, 2014 on BBC Radio 1, receiving a worldwide release the next day.[77][78] By the 2010s, there were few rock bands achieving success on mainstream radio and the charts, but "Centuries" defied the odds to peak at No. 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 13 on Billboard Mainstream Top 40.[79] Fall Out Boy also was featured on the track "Back to Earth" from Steve Aoki's second album Neon Future I, which was released on September 30, 2014.[80] Another song titled "Immortals" was released October 14, 2014, as part of the soundtrack for the Walt Disney film Big Hero 6.[81] The group remade the Chicago Bulls's anthem "Only the Bulls" with guest Lupe Fiasco. The recording of the song was released in November 2014.[82]

text: On November 24, 2014, the title of Fall Out Boy's sixth studio album was announced as American Beauty/American Psycho; the album was released on January 20, 2015. The album's title track premiered on BBC Radio 1 in the UK along with the album's title reveal.[83] American Beauty/American Psycho debuted at No. 1 on the US Billboard 200 with 192,000 first week sales and 218,000 equivalent album units, becoming Fall Out Boy's third No. 1 album.[84] The band played two small venue release shows in January 2015, in London and Chicago.[85] American Beauty/American Psycho was certified platinum in the US on March 1, 2016, after selling 1 millions units.[86] From February through March, the band played at the Australian Soundwave festival for the first time, with two additional side shows in Sydney and Brisbane.[87]

text: Fall Out Boy inducted Green Day into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on April 18, 2015.[88] On May 18, the group performed its song "Uma Thurman" with Wiz Khalifa on the 2015 Billboard Music Awards.[89] In June–August 2015, Fall Out Boy began touring across the United States with Wiz Khalifa, Hoodie Allen, and MAX on the "Boys of Zummer Tour".[90]

text: On October 1, 2015, the "American Beauty/American Psycho" European tour kicked off in Dublin, Ireland, and consisted of 12 dates with shows in the UK, Russia, and Europe.[91] On May 24, 2015 it was announced English rapper Professor Green would support Fall Out Boy on the 8-date leg of the band's UK tour. New York based dance-duo Matt and Kim were added as additional support for the UK tour.[92] On October 23, 2015, Fall Out Boy announced via Twitter the release of a re-worked version of its sixth studio album, Make America Psycho Again. The remix album features a remade version of each track from the original record, each featuring a different rapper. The album was released on October 30, 2015. It included the version of "Uma Thurman" featuring Wiz Khalifa which had been originally performed at the Billboard Music Awards.[93] On March 1, 2016, it was announced Fall Out Boy are to headline Reading and Leeds Festivals in the UK in August 2016 along with Biffy Clyro.[94]

text: 2017–present: Mania

text: On April 27, 2017, Fall Out Boy announced that their new album was set to be released on September 15, titled Mania. The first single, "Young and Menace," was released the same day.[95] The second single, "Champion," was released in the U.S. on June 22[96] and worldwide on June 23. Music videos have been posted to Vevo and YouTube for both songs. The band plans to begin the Mania Tour in North America in October of 2017 with hip hop artist blackbear[97] and actor-rapper Jaden Smith,[98] and will perform in Australia in 2018 with indie band WAAX.[99] On August 3, 2017, Patrick Stump tweeted that the album's release would be pushed back to January 19, 2018, because the band were not satisfied with the results of their work at the time.[100]

text: Musical style and influences

text: While widely considered to be a pop punk band,[101][102] Fall Out Boy has also been described as pop rock[103] emo,[104] and emo pop,[105][106] and cites emo group The Get Up Kids as an influence among many other bands. When interviewed for a retrospective article in Alternative Press at the time The Get Up Kids disbanded in 2005, Pete Wentz stated that "Fall Out Boy would not be a band if it were not for The Get Up Kids."[107] Early in the band's career, when Jared Logan was producing the group's debut album, he asked bassist Pete Wentz what sound the band desired for recording. Wentz responded by "handing over the first two New Found Glory records".[108] Wentz also cites Green Day, the Ramones, Screeching Weasel, Metallica, Earth Crisis, Gorilla Biscuits and Lifetime as influences.[109] The band acknowledges its hardcore punk roots as an influence; all four members were involved in the Chicago hardcore scene before joining Fall Out Boy.[18] Wentz described the band's affiliation with the genre by saying "I think the interesting thing is that we are all hardcore kids that are writing pop music...It gives us a different style because at our core we are always hardcore. That aspect is always going to be evident in the music. We are hardcore kids that couldn't quite cut it as hardcore kids."[18] He referred to Fall Out Boy's genre as "softcore": hardcore punk mixed with pop sensibility.[18] Lead singer Patrick Stump, however, is also influenced by artists he listened to while growing up including Prince,[110] Michael Jackson,[110] and David Bowie.[111]

text: Fall Out Boy's albums Take This to Your Grave and From Under the Cork Tree are both said to have pop punk as well as punk rock sounds and influences,[112][113] and Infinity on High features a wide range of styles and instrumentation, including orchestral arrangements ("Thnks fr th Mmrs"[114]) and a slower piano ballad ("Golden"[115]). R&B influences on Infinity on High are on songs such as "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race" and two of the album's tracks are produced by R&B singer/producer Babyface. On Folie à Deux, the group continues to evolve its sound, with less of a pop punk sound and increasing the use of piano (such as "What a Catch, Donnie",[116] "Headfirst Slide into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet",[117] and "20 Dollar Nose Bleed"[117]), synthesizers, and guest artists. The band also shows a number of influences, with "Disloyal Order of Water Buffaloes" borrowing a chord sequence from The Who song "Baba O'Riley".[118] The group has worked with many producers and artists, including The Neptunes, Timbaland, Ryan Adams, Lil Wayne and Kanye West, the latter of which Patrick Stump described as "the Prince of his generation."[119]

text: When the band returned from hiatus with Save Rock and Roll, their main goal was to reinvent the sound of the group from scratch, creating what Trohman called a "reimagining of the band", which focused more on pop and moved away from the punk aspects of their sound.[55] While mostly an album which mixes pop, rock and R&B,[120] the record was still described by Dave Simpson of The Guardian as a pop punk record, but also noted influences from Heart in the album's ballads.[121] In American Beauty/American Psycho, the band felt influences from playing with different artists and expanded on boundaries further than Save Rock and Roll did.[122] In an interview with Rolling Stone, guitarist Joe Trohman said the album has "hip hop grooves with guitars on it," with "more in your face guitar than Save Rock and Roll".[123] Annie Zaleski of Alternative Press described American Beauty/American Psycho as a "mix of fluid grooves, punky riffs and outré pop sensibilities."[122]

text: A central part of Fall Out Boy's sound is rooted in the band's lyrics, mainly penned by bassist Pete Wentz, who commonly uses irony and other literary devices to narrate personal experience and stories.[112] Wentz stated, "I write about what I’m going through most of the time, or what I imagine people are going through most of the time."[124] He draws inspiration from authors such as Charles Bukowski, Ernest Hemingway, and JT LeRoy, as well as rappers such as Lil Wayne, who he described as his primary influence while writing Infinity on High.[125][126] On Fall Out Boy's earlier works, Wentz wrote primarily about love and heartbreak.[127] Themes addressed on From Under the Cork Tree include narcissism and megalomania, while many tracks on Infinity on High discuss the ups and downs of fame.[115][125][128] While writing Folie à Deux, he explored moral dilemmas and societal shortcomings, as well as concepts such as trust, infidelity, responsibility, and commitment.[129] While the album does contain political overtones, the band wanted to avoid being overt about these themes, leaving many lyrics open to interpretation for listeners.[129]

text: Legacy

text: Fall Out Boy have been instrumental in the careers of other artists, such as Panic! at the Disco, whom Pete Wentz signed to his record label, Decaydance Records, in late 2004.[130] Several artists, such as You Me at Six[131] and Taylor Swift,[132] have created or performed covers of Fall Out Boy songs as a homage to the band.

text: The Fall Out Boy band members were the first inductees to the "Hall of Wood" at the 2015 MtvU Woodie Awards and performed a medley of five songs at the ceremony.[133] This honor is given to artists who have used MTV Woodie Awards as a "launching pad" in achieving chart topping success within their musical careers, thus influencing up and coming bands. The award also recognizes bands “sticking to their roots” and “maintaining their loyal fan base.”[134] The group had won the Woodie Award for Streaming for "Grand Theft Autumn" at the first ceremony in 2004.[135]

text: Band members

text:
Current members

Patrick Stump – lead vocals (2001–present); rhythm guitar (2002–present)
Joe Trohman – lead guitar, backing vocals (2001–present)
Pete Wentz – bass, unclean vocals, backing vocals (2001–present)
Andy Hurley – drums, percussion (2003–present)

Former members

T.J. Kunasch – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2001–2002)
Brandon Hamm – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2002)
Ben Rose – drums, percussion (2001)
Mike Pareskuwicz – drums, percussion (2001–2003)

tag: table

text: Timeline

text: Discography

text:
Take This to Your Grave (2003)
From Under the Cork Tree (2005)
Infinity on High (2007)
Folie à Deux (2008)
Save Rock and Roll (2013)
American Beauty/American Psycho (2015)
Mania (2018)

tag: ul

text: Awards and nominations

text: A select list of Fall Out Boy's awards and nominations.

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

2004
"Grand Theft Autumn/Where Is Your Boy"
MtvU Woodie Award - Streaming Artist[136]
Won

2005
"Sugar, We're Goin Down"
MTV Video Music Award - MTV2 Award

2006
"Dance, Dance"
MuchMusic Video Award - People's Choice: Favorite International Group

"Sugar, We're Goin Down"
Kerrang! Award - Best Single
Nominated

Kerrang! Award – Best Video
Won

"Dance, Dance"
Teen Choice Award – Rock Track

Teen Choice Award – Single

Fall Out Boy
Teen Choice Award – Rock Group

MTV Video Music Award – Viewer's Choice

Grammy Award for Best New Artist
Nominated

2007
"This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race"
Kerrang! Award – Best Video
Won

"Thnks fr th Mmrs"
Teen Choice Award – Single

Nickelodeon's Australian Kids' Choice Awards - Fave Song[137]

Nickelodeon's Kids' Choice Award – Single

Fall Out Boy
Teen Choice Award – Best Group

MTV Video Music Award – Best Group

Nickelodeon's Kids Choice Award - Best Band[138]
Nominated

2008
"The Take Over, the Breaks Over"
MuchMusic Video Award – People's Choice: Favorite International Video
Won

Fall Out Boy
TMF Award – Best Live International

TMF Award – Best Rock International

TMF Award – Best Alternative International

"Beat It"
MTV Video Music Award – Best Rock Video
Nominated

Fall Out Boy
Teen Choice Award – Choice Rock Group

Pete Wentz
Teen Choice Award – Choice Hotties

2009
"I Don't Care"
NRJ Music Award – Best International Band

2013
"The Phoenix"
Kerrang! Award for Best Single
Won

"My Songs Know What You Did In The Dark (Light Em Up)"
MTV Video Music Award for Best Rock Video
Nominated

Fall Out Boy
MTV Europe Music Awards - Best Alternative

2014
Fall Out Boy
People's Choice Awards - Favorite Alternative Band[139]
Won

Fall Out Boy
Billboard Music Awards - Top Rock Artist
Nominated

Save Rock and Roll
Billboard Music Awards - Top Rock Album

Fall Out Boy
Kerrang! Awards - Best International Band
Won

Save Rock and Roll Tour
Kerrang! Awards - Best Event

Pete Wentz
Kerrang! Awards - Tweeter of the Year
Nominated

Fall Out Boy
Alternative Press Award - Artist of the Year
Won

Fall Out Boy
Alternative Press Award - Best Live Band
Nominated

Save Rock and Roll
Alternative Press Award - Album of the Year

"My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light Em Up)"
Alternative Press Award - Song of the Year

Pete Wentz
Alternative Press Award - Best Bassist

Fall Out Boy & The Band Perry
CMT Music Awards - CMT Performance of the Year

Fall Out Boy
World Music Awards - World's Best Alternative Act
Won

Fall Out Boy
World Music Awards - World's Best Group
Nominated

Fall Out Boy
World Music Awards - World's Best Live Act

Save Rock and Roll
World Music Awards - World's Best Album

"My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light Em Up)"
World Music Awards - World's Best Song

"My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light Em Up)"
World Music Awards - World's Best Music Video

2015
Fall Out Boy
Billboard Music Awards - Top Rock Artist

"Centuries"
Billboard Music Awards - Top Rock Song

Teen Choice Awards - Choice Song: Group

Fall Out Boy
Teen Choice Awards - Choice Music Group: Male

"Uma Thurman"
Teen Choice Awards - Choice Rock Song

The Boys of Zummer (with Wiz Khalifa)
Teen Choice Awards - Choice Summer Tour

"Uma Thurman"
MTV Video Music Award - Best Rock Video
Won

Fall Out Boy
American Music Awards - Favorite Alternative Band

Fall Out Boy
People's Choice Awards - Favorite Group
Nominated

2016
Fall Out Boy
Billboard Music Awards - Top Rock Artist

"Uma Thurman"
Billboard Music Awards - Top Rock Song

Radio Disney Music Awards - Best Song To Dance To

Fall Out Boy
Radio Disney Music Awards - Best Music Group

Alternative Press Music Awards - Artist of the Year

Patrick Stump
Alternative Press Music Awards - Best Vocalist
Won

Fall Out Boy
Teen Choice Awards - Choice Music Group
Nominated

MTV Video Music Award - Best Rock Video


document_title: National Open University of Nigeria

question_text: where is the national open university of nigeria located

text: National Open University of Nigeria

text: History[edit]

text: The National Open University was initially established on 22 July 1983 as springboard for open and distance learning in Nigeria. It was suspended by the government on 25 April 1984. However, its resuscitation was begun on 12 April 2001 by the former President of Nigeria, Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo. At take off of the university, pioneer student enrollment stood at 32,400.[5]

text: Organisation[edit]

text: In 2011, NOUN had about 57,759 students.[3] The Vice Chancellor at the time was Prof. Vincent Tenebe .[2] The university was for years operating from its Administrative Headquarters in Victoria Island, Lagos, before its current VC, Professor Abdalla Uba Adamu, moved it to its permanent headquarters in Jabi, Abuja, in 2016. It has over 75 Study Centres throughout the country.[5] It offers over 50 programmes and 750 courses.[5]

text: By its nature as an ODL institution, NOUN does not provide lectures to students in normal classrooms except some certain study centres. The study centre in Lagos for instance provides lectures to all its Law undergraduates and supplies necessary course materials to all students after the payment of tuition fees. All the courses being offered by the university have been accredited by the National Universities Commission (NUC).

text: The Registrar serves as the Secretary to Council and Senate bodies. The Registry Department’s primary responsibility is to provide support services in the General Administration of the university with emphasis on Council affairs, Senate matters, recruitment of staff, students’ admission/welfare, staff welfare and other related activities. The current Registrar is Mr. Felix Edoka.[6]

text: Faculties and courses[edit]

text: Faculties of Science and Technology[edit]

text: Postgraduate Programmes

text: -Information Technology

text: -Digital Communication

text: -Mobile (Wireless) Communication Technology

text: -HIV/AIDS

text: -Agriculture and Extension

text: Undergraduate Programs

text: -Mathematics

text: -Computer and Mathematics (Combined Hons)

text: -Computer Science

text: -Data Management

text: -Communications Technology

text: -Agricultural Extension and Management

text: -Nursing Science

text: -Community Health

text: -Environmental Science and Resource Management (ESM)

text: -Financial Mathematics

text: -Physics

text: -Chemistry

text: -Biology

text: Faculties of Health Science[edit]

text: -Nursing

text: -Public Health

text: Faculties of Arts and Social Sciences[edit]

text: -French And International Studies

text: -Mass Communication

text: -Peace, Conflict and Resolution

text: -English Language

text: -Economics

text: -Political Science -Criminology and security studies

text: Faculties of Education[edit]

text: Undergraduate programmes:

text: -Agriculture Science

text: -Biology

text: -Chemistry

text: -Computer Science

text: -Physics

text: -Integrated Science

text: -Mathematics

text: -Business Education

text: -Primary Education

text: -Early Childhood Education

text: -English

text: -French

text: Masters Programmes

text: -Admin and Planning

text: -Science Education

text: -Education Technology

text: Faculty of Management Sciences[edit]

text: Undergraduate Courses

text: - Marketing

text: -Entrepreneurial and Business Management

text: -Accounting in collaboration with the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

text: Postgraduate courses

text: -Financial Management

text: -Business Administration

text: -Public Administration

text: -Master of Business Administration

text: -Public Administration

text: -Public Sector Management

text: Centre for Life-Long Learning and Workplace Training[edit]

text: Diploma Programmes

text: Business Communication

text: Medical Office Practice

text: Entrepreneurship

text: Financial Management

text: Marketing

text: Academic Certificate Programmes[edit]

text: Dental Office Practice

text: Computer Literacy

text: Returning Students

text: Medical Office Practice

text: Financial Management

text: Entrepreneurship

text: Marketing [7]

text: Students[edit]

text: Requirements[edit]

text: A diverse range of students from all walks of life are attracted to the National Open University of Nigeria just like other prominent Open Universities such as the Open University of United Kingdom (OU); for most courses there are no stringent entry requirements other than the ability to study at an appropriate level such as the West African Examination, and other National Diplomas to qualify for a Direct entry admission. Though most postgraduate courses require evidence of previous study and/or equivalent life experience. This fundamental open admissions policy makes undergraduate university study accessible to all.[8]

text: Undergraduates[edit]

text: While most of those studying are mature students, an increasingly large proportion of new undergraduates are aged between 17 and 25, the reduction in financial support for those attending traditional universities, coupled with the use of technologies such as and YouTube that appeal to this demographic, is believed to be behind this growth.[citation needed]

text: Immunity to strikes[edit]

text: Another reason is the Act of Parliament which established the University prohibiting any form of union either within staff or students. This has made the NOUN to be unaffected by strikes such as the ASUU strikes (which lasted for eight months) in Nigeria which ultimately extends students course duration in school unnecessarily. NOUN students have always and will continue to be immune to any form of strike.[9]

text: National Youths Service Corps Stand.

text: The NOUN made efforts to ensure its graduates below age 30 (the maximum age limit) participate in the National Youth Service Corps and Law graduates[10] proceed to the Nigerian Law School.

text: However, efforts have of recent, materialized. The University released a statement where it affirmed that students of NOUN can now enroll and be part of the NYSC program.[11]

text: Rankings and achievements[edit]

text: Latest results of University Rankings released by Ranking Web of Universities (popularly known as Webometrics) revealed another list of 100 Best Universities in Nigeria for 2015. Just as done in every other web ranking, webometrics ranking 2015 adopted search queries from search engines to rank the top universities which the National Open University ranked 23rd.[12] See: List of Nigerian Universities

text: Convocated prison inmates[edit]

text: The decision of the management and senate of National Open University Nigeria(NOUN) to establish study centres in some of the nation’s prisons has started yielding fruits as three inmates were among the over 7,000 that recently graduated from the 13-year-old institute. At its 4th convocation held in the Main Exhibition Hall of the National Theatre, Iganmu, Lagos, and witnessed by the representative of President, Goodluck Jonathan many Vice Chancellors governing council and Senates members and key stakeholders, the two inmates from the Kirikiri Maximum Prisons ended up as star attraction aside the two First-Class graduates produced by the institute for the first time.

text: But attempts by Education Review to speak with them (inmates) were strongly resisted by a female prison official. However, the Deputy Controller in charge of Kirikiri Maximum told Education Review that one of the inmates, is serving life imprisonment while the second inmate whom he could not give his name was released two weeks ago after serving his jail term. Oladapo and the other inmates just discharged were awarded BSc in Peace and Conflict Resolution, the same course the best overall student, Mrs. Anthonia Okoye (a 43-year-old mother who is one of the first two graduates to graduate with a First-Class degree at the institution) studied.[13]

text: Technological platforms[edit]

text: NOUNiLearn[edit]

text: The National Open University of Nigeria in its effort to take education to the doorstep of the Nigerian populace irrespective of their social status and the developing Economy of Nigeria has deployed and implemented iLearn portal technology to enhance student’s learning experience. The NOUN iLearn platform has been created to ease access to excellent quality education. The platform provides amongst many, the following:

text: Online class discussions organized by NOUN facilitators thereby creating a virtual classroom environment.

text: Facility for students to get answers to any questions or areas of difficulty pertaining to their course of study.

text: Networking and collaboration tools to help in community of interaction among students, facilitators, academic staff and faculty members.

text: Better study tools such as the Smart e-Book Digitized lecture video and audio materials for an enhanced student’ learning experience available on the platform.

text: Access to assignments, quizzes and self-study assessment tools.[14]

text: Examination[edit]

text: The university administers the Computer-Based-Test (CBT) form of examination to its students in their first and second years. However, Law undergraduates participate in the standard Pen-On-Paper examinations (POP) beginning from their first year of admission, with LAW111-Legal Methods in First Semester of the first year.

text: Other undergraduates also participate in the CBT system of examination in their first and second years and commence the POP examinations from their third year till the end of their respective course durations. The POP examination system applies to Post Graduate students also.

text: The CBT system of examination has however been criticised by some of the students. The CBT examination is in two categories; the multiple choice questions and fill in the gap - which is the most dreaded examination type by students all around the world.

text: The CBT system requires students to most times, memorize their textbooks in accordance with the programmed answers stored on the school's server in order to obtain full marks as computers will reject answers that do not match its programmed content.[15]

text: Assessment[edit]

text: Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs) are continuous assessments in form of Tutor Marked Assignment and it accounts for 30% of student's total score. Students are expected to answer at least four TMAs, three of which must be answered and submitted before students sit for the end of course examination

text: Final examination and grading[edit]

text: With examinations written successfully, The ‘end of course examinations’ would earn students 70% which would be added to their TMA score (30%). The time for this examination is always communicated to students.

text: Facilities[edit]

text: E-library[edit]

text: The NOUN operates an e-library at the headquarters situated at Victoria Island, Lagos, Nigeria which all students have access to after providing a valid student's identity card. Students have access to both Internet facilities, books, journals, projects, thesis of past students and other educational materials.

text: Radio station[edit]

text: The radio station broadcasts at the frequency 105.9 NOUN FM.[16] Mass Communication students also have the opportunity to intern at the studio which broadcasts on all working days.[citation needed]

text: E-courseware[edit]

text: The NOUN also provides a platform for students that needs to access its database of educational materials NOUN e-Courseware Free Download strictly for educational purposes rather than financial or commercial purposes. Books can be downloaded in PDF formats at no cost.

text: Scholarships[edit]

text: In May 2014, Ini Edo, one of the stars in the Nigerian movie industry, Nollywood made headlines when she was offered a scholarship to study Law at the National Open University. More Nollywood actresses and actors including Desmond Elliot [17] have also been offered scholarships. Chioma Chukwuka-Akpotha, Francis Duru, Doris Simeon and Sani Danja were announced as ambassadors for the NOUN. All four were presented by the Vice Chancellor Prof. Vincent A. Tenebe, with scholarships to study their courses of choice.[18] is for Candidates who are looking to apply for admission into the Institution.


document_title: List of most-followed Instagram accounts

question_text: who is the most followed man on instagram

text: Top accounts

text: All-time

text: The following table lists the top 25 most followed accounts on Instagram, with each total rounded to the nearest million followers, as well as the profession of each user and country of origin.[1][dead link]

text:
Rank

Chg

Account name

Owner

Followers(millions)

Profession

Country

1.

@instagram

Instagram

245

Social media platform

 USA

2.

@selenagomez

Selena Gomez

140

Musician and actress

 USA

3.

@cristiano

Cristiano Ronaldo

139

Footballer

 POR

4.

@arianagrande

Ariana Grande

125

Musician and actress

 USA

5.

@beyonce

Beyoncé

117

Musician and actress

 USA

6.

@kimkardashian

Kim Kardashian

115

Reality TV personality

 USA

7.

@kyliejenner

Kylie Jenner

113

Reality TV personality

 USA

8.

@therock

Dwayne Johnson

112

Actor and professional wrestler

 USA

9.

@taylorswift

Taylor Swift

111

Musician and actress

 USA

10.

@justinbieber

Justin Bieber

102

Musician

 CAN

11.

@neymarjr

Neymar

101

Footballer

 BRA

12.

@leomessi

Lionel Messi

97

Footballer

 ARG

13.

@kendalljenner

Kendall Jenner

93

Model

 USA

14.

@natgeo

National Geographic

90

Magazine

 USA

15.

@nickiminaj

Nicki Minaj

90

Musician

 TRI

16.

@nike

Nike

79

Sportswear multinational corporation

 USA

17.

@jlo

Jennifer Lopez

78

Musician and actress

 USA

18.

@khloekardashian

Khloé Kardashian

77

Reality TV personality

 USA

19.

@mileycyrus

Miley Cyrus

76

Musician and actress

 USA

20.

@katyperry

Katy Perry

71

Musician

 USA

21.

@ddlovato

Demi Lovato

71

Musician and actress

 USA

22.

@kourtneykardash

Kourtney Kardashian

66

Reality TV personality

 USA

23.

@badgalriri

Rihanna

64

Musician

 BAR

24.

@realmadrid

Real Madrid C.F.

62

Football club

 ESP

25.

@kevinhart4real

Kevin Hart

61

Comedian

 USA

As of  August 2, 2018[update]

text: By country

text: The following table lists the top 15 most followed accounts on Instagram by country of origin, with each total rounded to the nearest million followers, as well as the profession of each user.[1][dead link]

text:
Rank

Chg

Country

Account name

Owner

Followers(millions)

Profession

1.

 United States

@instagram

Instagram

245

Social media platform

2.

 Portugal

@cristiano

Cristiano Ronaldo

138

Footballer

3.

 Canada

@justinbieber

Justin Bieber

102

Musician

4.

 Brazil

@neymarjr

Neymar

101

Footballer

5.

 Argentina

@leomessi

Lionel Messi

97

Footballer

6.

 Trinidad and Tobago

@nickiminaj

Nicki Minaj

90

Musician

7.

 Barbados

@badgalriri

Rihanna

64

Musician

8.

 Spain

@realmadrid

Real Madrid C.F.

62

Football club

9.

 Colombia

@shakira

Shakira

51

Musician

10.

 United Kingdom

@davidbeckham

David Beckham

50

Footballer

11.

 Hong Kong

@9gag

9GAG

46

Social media platform

12.

 Sweden

@iamzlatanibrahimovic

Zlatan Ibrahimović

35

Footballer

13.

 Uruguay

@luissuarez9

Luis Suárez

29

Footballer

14.

 France

@chanelofficial

Chanel

29

Clothing retailer

15.

 Germany

@adidasoriginals

Adidas Originals

27

Clothing line

As of  August 2, 2018[update]