document_title: Color motion picture film

question_text: when did movies start being made in color

text: Color motion picture film

text: Overview[edit]

text: The first motion pictures were photographed using a simple homogeneous photographic emulsion that yielded a black-and-white image—that is, an image in shades of gray, ranging from black to white, corresponding to the luminous intensity of each point on the photographed subject. Light, shade, form and movement were captured, but not color.

text: With color motion picture film, information about the color of the light at each image point is also captured. This is done by analyzing the visible spectrum of color into several regions (normally three, commonly referred to by their dominant colors: red, green and blue) and recording each region separately.

text: Current color films do this with three layers of differently color-sensitive photographic emulsion coated on one strip of film base. Early processes used color filters to photograph the color components as completely separate images (e.g., three-strip Technicolor) or adjacent microscopic image fragments (e.g., Dufaycolor) in a one-layer black-and-white emulsion.

text: Each photographed color component, initially just a colorless record of the luminous intensities in the part of the spectrum that it captured, is processed to produce a transparent dye image in the color complementary to the color of the light that it recorded. The superimposed dye images combine to synthesize the original colors by the subtractive color method. In some early color processes (e.g., Kinemacolor), the component images remained in black-and-white form and were projected through color filters to synthesize the original colors by the additive color method.

text: Tinting and hand coloring[edit]

text: The earliest motion picture stocks were orthochromatic, and recorded blue and green light, but not red. Recording all three spectral regions required making film stock panchromatic to some degree. Since orthochromatic film stock hindered color photography in its beginnings, the first films with color in them used aniline dyes to create artificial color. Hand-colored films appeared in 1895 with Thomas Edison's hand-painted Annabelle's Dance for his Kinetoscope viewers.

text: Many early filmmakers from the first ten years of film also used this method to some degree. George Méliès offered hand-painted prints of his own films at an additional cost over the black-and-white versions, including the visual-effects pioneering A Trip to the Moon (1902). The film had various parts of the film painted frame-by-frame by twenty-one women in Montreuil[3] in a production-line method.[4]

text: The first commercially successful stencil color process was introduced in 1905 by Pathé Frères. Pathé Color, renamed Pathéchrome in 1929, became one of the most accurate and reliable stencil coloring systems. It incorporated an original print of a film with sections cut by pantograph in the appropriate areas for up to six colors[3] by a coloring machine with dye-soaked, velvet rollers.[5] After a stencil had been made for the whole film, it was placed into contact with the print to be colored and run at high speed (60 feet per minute) through the coloring (staining) machine. The process was repeated for each set of stencils corresponding to a different color. By 1910, Pathé had over 400 women employed as stencilers in their Vincennes factory. Pathéchrome continued production through the 1930s.[3]

text: A more common technique emerged in the early 1910s known as film tinting, a process in which either the emulsion or the film base is dyed, giving the image a uniform monochromatic color. This process was popular during the silent era, with specific colors employed for certain narrative effects (red for scenes with fire or firelight, blue for night, etc.).[4]

text: A complementary process, called toning, replaces the silver particles in the film with metallic salts or mordanted dyes. This creates a color effect in which the dark parts of the image are replaced with a color (e.g., blue and white rather than black and white). Tinting and toning were sometimes applied together.[4]

text: In the United States, St. Louis engraver Max Handschiegl and cinematographer Alvin Wyckoff created the Handschiegl Color Process, a dye-transfer equivalent of the stencil process, first used in Joan the Woman (1917) directed by Cecil B. DeMille, and used in special effects sequences for films such as The Phantom of the Opera (1925).[3]

text: Eastman Kodak introduced its own system of pre-tinted black-and-white film stocks called Sonochrome in 1929. The Sonochrome line featured films tinted in seventeen different colors including Peachblow, Inferno, Candle Flame, Sunshine, Purple Haze, Firelight, Azure, Nocturne, Verdante, Aquagreen,[6] Caprice, Fleur de Lis, Rose Doree, and the neutral-density Argent, which kept the screen from becoming excessively bright when switching to a black-and-white scene.[3]

text: Tinting and toning continued to be used well into the sound era. In the 1930s and 1940s, some western films were processed in a sepia-toning solution to evoke the feeling of old photographs of the day. Tinting was used as late as 1951 for Sam Newfield's sci-fi film Lost Continent for the green lost-world sequences. Alfred Hitchcock used a form of hand-coloring for the orange-red gun-blast at the audience in Spellbound (1945).[3] Kodak's Sonochrome and similar pre-tinted stocks were still in production until the 1970s and were used commonly for custom theatrical trailers and snipes.

text: In the last half of the 20th century, Norman McLaren, who was one of the pioneers in animated movies, made several animated films in which he directly hand-painted the images, and in some cases, also the soundtrack, on each frame of the film. This approach was previously employed in the early years of movies, late 19th and early 20th century. One of the precursors in color hand painting frame by frame was the Aragonese Segundo de Chomon, that worked with Melies.

text: Tinting was gradually replaced by natural color techniques.

text: Physics of light and color[edit]

text: The principles on which color photography is based were first proposed by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855 and presented at the Royal Society in London in 1861.[3] By that time, it was known that light comprises a spectrum of different wavelengths that are perceived as different colors as they are absorbed and reflected by natural objects. Maxwell discovered that all natural colors in this spectrum as perceived by the human eye may be reproduced with additive combinations of three primary colors—red, green, and blue—which, when mixed equally, produce white light.[3]

text: Between 1900 and 1935, dozens of natural color systems were introduced, although only a few were successful.[6]

text: Additive color[edit]

text: The first color systems that appeared in motion pictures were additive color systems. Additive color was practical because no special color stock was necessary. Black-and-white film could be processed and used in both filming and projection. The various additive systems entailed the use of color filters on both the movie camera and projector. Additive color adds lights of the primary colors in various proportions to the projected image. Because of the limited amount of space to record images on film, and later because the lack of a camera that could record more than two strips of film at once, most early motion-picture color systems consisted of two colors, often red and green or red and blue.[4]

text: A pioneering three-color additive system was patented in England by Edward Raymond Turner in 1899.[7] It used a rotating set of red, green and blue filters to photograph the three color components one after the other on three successive frames of panchromatic black-and-white film. The finished film was projected through similar filters to reconstitute the color. In 1902, Turner shot test footage to demonstrate his system, but projecting it proved problematic because of the accurate registration (alignment) of the three separate color elements required for acceptable results. Turner died a year later without having satisfactorily projected the footage. In 2012, curators at the National Media Museum in Bradford, UK, had the original custom-format nitrate film copied to black-and-white 35 mm film, which was then scanned into a digital video format by telecine. Finally, digital image processing was used to align and combine each group of three frames into one color image.[8] The result is that the whole world can now view brief motion pictures from 1902 in full color.[9]

text: Practical color in the motion picture business began with Kinemacolor, first demonstrated in 1906.[5] This was a two-color system created in England by George Albert Smith, and promoted by film pioneer Charles Urban's The Charles Urban Trading Company in 1908. It was used for a series of films including the documentary With Our King and Queen Through India, depicting the Delhi Durbar (also known as The Durbar at Delhi, 1912), which was filmed in December 1911. The Kinemacolor process consisted of alternating frames of specially sensitized black-and-white film exposed at 32 frames per second through a rotating filter with alternating red and green areas. The printed film was projected through similar alternating red and green filters at the same speed. A perceived range of colors resulted from the blending of the separate red and green alternating images by the viewer's persistence of vision.[4][10]

text: William Friese-Greene invented another additive color system called Biocolour, which was developed by his son Claude Friese-Greene after William's death in 1921. William sued George Albert Smith, alleging that the Kinemacolor process infringed on the patents for his Bioschemes, Ltd.; as a result, Smith's patent was revoked in 1914.[3] Both Kinemacolor and Biocolour had problems with "fringing" or "haloing" of the image, due to the separate red and green images not fully matching up.[3]

text: Dufaycolor additive color film was introduced in 1931. It used a mosaic of tiny RGB color filters between the emulsion and the film base to record and reproduce the color.[5]

text: By their nature, these additive systems were very wasteful of light. Absorption by the color filters involved meant that only a minor fraction of the projection light actually reached the screen, resulting in an image that was dimmer than a typical black-and-white image. The larger the screen, the dimmer the picture. For this and other case-by-case reasons, the use of additive processes for theatrical motion pictures had been almost completely abandoned by the early 1940s, though additive color methods are employed by all the color video and computer display systems in common use today.[4]

text: Subtractive color[edit]

text: The first practical subtractive color process was introduced by Kodak as "Kodachrome", a name recycled twenty years later for a very different and far better-known product. Filter-photographed red and blue-green records were printed onto the front and back of one strip of black-and-white duplitized film. After development, the resulting silver images were bleached away and replaced with color dyes, red on one side and cyan on the other. The pairs of superimposed dye images reproduced a useful but limited range of color. Kodak's first narrative film with the process was a short subject entitled Concerning $1000 (1916). Though their duplitized film provided the basis for several commercialized two-color printing processes, the image origination and color-toning methods constituting Kodak's own process were little-used.

text: The first truly successful subtractive color process was William van Doren Kelley's Prizma,[11] an early color process that was first introduced at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City on 8 February 1917.[12][13] Prizma began in 1916 as an additive system similar to Kinemacolor.

text: However, after 1917, Kelley reinvented the process as a subtractive one with several years of short films and travelogues, such as Everywhere With Prizma (1919) and A Prizma Color Visit to Catalina (1919) before releasing features such as the documentary Bali the Unknown (1921), The Glorious Adventure (1922), and Venus of the South Seas (1924). A Prizma promotional short filmed for Del Monte Foods titled Sunshine Gatherers (1921) is available on DVD in Treasures 5 The West 1898–1938 by the National Film Preservation Foundation.

text: The invention of Prizma led to a series of similarly printed color processes. This bipack color system used two strips of film running through the camera, one recording red, and one recording blue-green light. With the black-and-white negatives being printed onto duplitized film, the color images were then toned red and blue, effectively creating a subtractive color print.

text: Leon Forrest Douglass (1869–1940), a founder of Victor Records, developed a system he called Naturalcolor, and first showed a short test film made in the process on 15 May 1917 at his home in San Rafael, California. The only feature film known to have been made in this process, Cupid Angling (1918) — starring Ruth Roland and with cameo appearances by Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks — was filmed in the Lake Lagunitas area of Marin County, California.[14]

text: After experimenting with additive systems (including a camera with two apertures, one with a red filter, one with a green filter) from 1915 to 1921, Dr. Herbert Kalmus, Dr. Daniel Comstock, and mechanic W. Burton Wescott developed a subtractive color system for Technicolor. The system used a beam splitter in a specially modified camera to send red and green light to adjacent frames of one strip of black-and-white film. From this negative, skip-printing was used to print each color's frames contiguously onto film stock with half the normal base thickness. The two prints were chemically toned to roughly complementary hues of red and green,[5] then cemented together, back to back, into a single strip of film. The first film to use this process was The Toll of the Sea (1922) starring Anna May Wong. Perhaps the most ambitious film to use it was The Black Pirate (1926), starring and produced by Douglas Fairbanks.

text: The process was later refined through the incorporation of dye imbibition, which allowed for the transferring of dyes from both color matrices into a single print, avoiding several problems that had become evident with the cemented prints and allowing multiple prints to be created from a single pair of matrices.[4]

text: Technicolor's system was very popular for a number of years, but it was a very expensive process: shooting cost three times that of black-and-white photography and printing costs were no cheaper. By 1932, color photography in general had nearly been abandoned by major studios, until Technicolor developed a new advancement to record all three primary colors. Utilizing a special dichroic beam splitter equipped with two 45-degree prisms in the form of a cube, light from the lens was deflected by the prisms and split into two paths to expose each one of three black-and-white negatives (one each to record the densities for red, green, and blue).[15]

text: The three negatives were then printed to gelatin matrices, which also completely bleached the image, washing out the silver and leaving only the gelatin record of the image. A receiver print, consisting of a 50% density print of the black-and-white negative for the green record strip, and including the soundtrack, was struck and treated with dye mordants to aid in the imbibition process (this "black" layer was discontinued in the early 1940s). The matrices for each strip were coated with their complementary dye (yellow, cyan, or magenta), and then each successively brought into high-pressure contact with the receiver, which imbibed and held the dyes, which collectively rendered a wider spectrum of color than previous technologies.[16] The first animation film with the three-color (also called three-strip) system was Walt Disney's Flowers and Trees (1932), the first short live-action film was La Cucaracha (1934), and the first feature was Becky Sharp (1935).[5]

text: There were other subtractive processes, including Gasparcolor, a single-strip 3-color system developed in 1933 by the Hungarian chemist Dr. Bela Gaspar.[17]

text: The real push for color films and the nearly immediate changeover from black-and-white production to nearly all color film were pushed forward by the prevalence of television in the early 1950s. In 1947, only 12 percent of American films were made in color. By 1954, that number rose to over 50 percent.[3] The rise in color films was also aided by the breakup of Technicolor's near monopoly on the medium.

text: In 1947, the United States Justice Department filed an antitrust suit against Technicolor for monopolization of color cinematography (even though rival processes such as Cinecolor and Trucolor were in general use). In 1950, a federal court ordered Technicolor to allot a number of its three-strip cameras for use by independent studios and filmmakers. Although this certainly affected Technicolor, its real undoing was the invention of Eastmancolor that same year.[3]

text: Monopack color film[edit]

text: In the field of motion pictures, the many-layered type of color film normally called an integral tripack in broader contexts has long been known by the less tongue-twisting term monopack. For many years, Monopack (capitalized) was a proprietary product of Technicolor Corp, whereas monopack (not capitalized) generically referred to any of several single-strip color film products, certainly including various Eastman Kodak products. It appears that Technicolor made no attempt to register Monopack as a trademark with the US Patent and Trademark Office, although it certainly asserted that term as if it were a registered trademark, and it had the force of a legal agreement between it and Eastman Kodak to back up that assertion. It was a solely-sourced product, too, as Eastman Kodak was legally prevented from marketing any color motion picture film products wider than 16mm, 35mm specifically, until the expiration of the so-called "Monopack Agreement" in 1950. This, notwithstanding the facts that Technicolor never had the capability to manufacture sensitized motion picture films of any kind, nor single-strip color films based upon its so-called "Troland Patent" (which patent Technicolor maintained covered all monopack-type films in general, but monopack-type motion picture films in particular, and which Eastman Kodak elected not to contest as Technicolor was then one of its largest customers, if not its largest customer). After 1950, Eastman Kodak was free to make and market color films of any kind, particularly including monopack color motion picture films in 65/70mm, 35mm, 16mm and 8mm. The "Monopack Agreement" had no effect on color still films.

text: Monopack color films are based on the subtractive color system, which filters colors from white light by using superimposed cyan, magenta and yellow dye images. Those images are created from records of the amounts of red, green and blue light present at each point of the image formed by the camera lens. A subtractive primary color (cyan, magenta, yellow) is what remains when one of the additive primary colors (red, green, blue) has been removed from the spectrum. Eastman Kodak's monopack color films incorporated three separate layers of differently color sensitive emulsion into one strip of film. Each layer recorded one of the additive primaries and was processed to produce a dye image in the complementary subtractive primary.

text: Kodachrome was the first commercially successful application of monopack multilayer film, introduced in 1935.[18] For professional motion picture photography, Kodachrome Commercial, on a 35mm BH-perforated base, was available exclusively from Technicolor, as its so-called "Technicolor Monopack" product. Similarly, for sub-professional motion picture photography, Kodachrome Commercial, on a 16mm base, was available exclusively from Eastman Kodak. In both cases, Eastman Kodak was the sole manufacturer and the sole processor. In the 35mm case, Technicolor dye-transfer printing was a "tie-in" product.[19] In the 16mm case, there were Eastman Kodak duplicating and printing stocks and associated chemistry, not the same as a "tie-in" product. In exceptional cases, Technicolor offered 16mm dye-transfer printing, but this necessitated the exceptionally wasteful process of printing on a 35mm base, only thereafter to be re-perforated and re-slit to 16mm, thereby discarding slightly more than one-half of the end product.

text: A late modification to the "Monopack Agreement", the "Imbibition Agreement", finally allowed Technicolor to economically manufacture 16mm dye-transfer prints as so-called "double-rank" 35/32mm prints (two 16mm prints on a 35mm base that was originally perforated at the 16mm specification for both halves, and was later re-slit into two 16mm wide prints without the need for re-perforation). This modification also facilitated the early experiments by Eastman Kodak with its negative-positive monopack film, which eventually became Eastmancolor. Essentially, the "Imbibition Agreement" lifted a portion of the "Monopack Agreement's" restrictions on Technicolor (which prevented it from making motion picture products less than 35mm wide) and somewhat related restrictions on Eastman Kodak (which prevented it from experimenting and developing monopack products greater than 16mm wide).

text: Eastmancolor, introduced in 1950,[20] was Kodak's first economical, single-strip 35 mm negative-positive process incorporated into one strip of film. This rendered Three-Strip color photography relatively obsolete, even though, for the first few years of Eastmancolor, Technicolor continued to offer Three-Strip origination combined with dye-transfer printing (150 titles produced in 1953, 100 titles produced in 1954 and 50 titles produced in 1955, the very last year for Three-Strip). The first commercial feature film to use Eastmancolor was the documentary Royal Journey, released in December 1951.[20] Hollywood studios waited until an improved version of Eastmancolor negative came out in 1952 before using it; This is Cinerama was an early film which employed three separate and interlocked strips of Eastmancolor negative. This is Cinerama was initially printed on Eastmancolor positive, but its significant success eventually resulted in it being reprinted by Technicolor, using dye-transfer.

text: By 1953, and especially with the introduction of anamorphic wide screen CinemaScope, Eastmancolor became a marketing imperative as CinemaScope was incompatible with Technicolor's Three-Strip camera and lenses. Indeed, Technicolor Corp became one of the best, if not the best, processor of Eastmancolor negative, especially for so-called "wide gauge" negatives (65mm, 8-perf 35mm, 6-perf 35mm), yet it far preferred its own 35mm dye-transfer printing process for Eastmancolor-originated films with a print run that exceeded 500 prints,[21] not withstanding the significant "loss of register" that occurred in such prints that were expanded by CinemaScope's 2X horizontal factor, and, to a lesser extent, with so-called "flat wide screen" (variously 1.66:1 or 1.85:1, but spherical and not anamorphic). This nearly fatal flaw was not corrected until 1955 and caused numerous features initially printed by Technicolor to be scrapped and reprinted by DeLuxe Labs. (These features are often billed as "Color by Technicolor-DeLuxe".) Indeed, some Eastmancolor-originated films billed as "Color by Technicolor" were never actually printed using the dye-transfer process, due in part to the throughput limitations of Technicolor's dye-transfer printing process, and competitor DeLuxe's superior throughput. Incredibly, DeLuxe once had a license to install a Technicolor-type dye-transfer printing line, but as the "loss of register" problems became apparent in Fox's CinemaScope features that were printed by Technicolor, after Fox had become an all-CinemaScope producer, Fox-owned DeLuxe Labs abandoned its plans for dye-transfer printing and became, and remained, an all-Eastmancolor shop, as Technicolor itself later became.

text: Technicolor continued to offer its proprietary imbibition dye-transfer printing process for projection prints until 1975, and even briefly revived it in 1998. As an archival format, Technicolor prints are one of the most stable color print processes yet created, and prints properly cared for are estimated to retain their color for centuries.[22] With the introduction of Eastmancolor low-fade positive print (LPP) films, properly stored (at 45 °F or 7 °C and 25 percent relative humidity) monopack color film is expected to last, with no fading, a comparative amount of time. Improperly stored monopack color film from before 1983 can incur a 30 percent image loss in as little as 25 years.[23]

text: How a color film works[edit]

text: A color film is made up of many different layers that work together to create the color image. Color negative films provide three main color layers: the blue record, green record, and red record; each made up of two separate layers containing silver halide crystals and dye-couplers. A cross-sectional representation of a piece of developed color negative film is shown in the figure at the right. Each layer of the film is so thin that the composite of all layers, in addition to the triacetate base and antihalation backing, is less than 0.0003" (8 µm) thick.[24]

text: The three color records are stacked as shown at right, with a UV filter on top to keep the non-visible ultraviolet radiation from exposing the silver-halide crystals, which are naturally sensitive to UV light. Next are the fast and slow blue-sensitive layers, which, when developed, form the latent image. When the exposed silver-halide crystal is developed, it is coupled with a dye grain of its complementary color. This forms a dye "cloud" (like a drop of water on a paper towel) and is limited in its growth by development-inhibitor-releasing (DIR) couplers, which also serve to refine the sharpness of the processed image by limiting the size of the dye clouds. The dye clouds formed in the blue layer are actually yellow (the opposite or complementary color to blue).[25] There are two layers to each color; a "fast" and a "slow." The fast layer features larger grains that are more sensitive to light than the slow layer, which has finer grain and is less sensitive to light. Silver-halide crystals are naturally sensitive to blue light, so the blue layers are on the top of the film and they are followed immediately by a yellow filter, which stops any more blue light from passing through to the green and red layers and biasing those crystals with extra blue exposure. Next are the red-sensitive record (which forms cyan dyes when developed); and, at the bottom, the green-sensitive record, which forms magenta dyes when developed. Each color is separated by a gelatin layer that prevents silver development in one record from causing unwanted dye formation in another. On the back of the film base is an anti-halation layer that absorbs light which would otherwise be weakly reflected back through the film by that surface and create halos of light around bright features in the image. In color film, this backing is "rem-jet", a black-pigmented, non-gelatin layer which is removed in the developing process.[24]

text: Eastman Kodak manufactures film in 54-inch (1,372 mm) wide rolls. These rolls are then slit into various sizes (70 mm, 65 mm, 35 mm, 16 mm) as needed.

text: Manufacturers of color film for motion picture use[edit]

text: Motion picture film, primarily because of the rem-jet backing, requires different processing than standard C-41 process color film. The process necessary is ECN-2, which has an initial step using an alkaline bath to remove the backing layer. There are also minor differences in the remainder of the process. If motion picture negative is run through a standard C-41 color film developer bath, the rem-jet backing partially dissolves and destroys the integrity of the developer and, potentially, ruins the film.

text: Kodak color motion picture films[edit]

text: In the late 1980s, Kodak introduced the T-Grain emulsion, a technological advancement in the shape and make-up of silver halide grains in their films. T-Grain is a tabular silver halide grain that allows for greater overall surface area, resulting in greater light sensitivity with a relatively small grain and a more uniform shape that results in a less overall graininess to the film. This made for sharper and more sensitive films. The T-Grain technology was first employed in Kodak's EXR line of motion picture color negative stocks.[26] This was further refined in 1996 with the Vision line of emulsions, followed by Vision2 in the early 2000s and Vision3 in 2007.

text: Fuji color motion picture films[edit]

text: Fuji films also integrate tabular grains in their SUFG (Super Unified Fine Grain) films. In their case, the SUFG grain is not only tabular, it is hexagonal and consistent in shape throughout the emulsion layers. Like the T-grain, it has a larger surface area in a smaller grain (about one-third the size of traditional grain) for the same light sensitivity. In 2005, Fuji unveiled their Eterna 500T stock, the first in a new line of advanced emulsions, with Super Nano-structure Σ Grain Technology.


document_title: Be More Chill (musical)

question_text: who plays the squip in be more chill

question_tokens: who plays the squip in be more chill

root

text: Be More Chill (musical)

text: Productions[edit]

text: The musical premiered in June 2015 at the Two River Theater in Red Bank, New Jersey.[2][3]

tag: p

text: An Off-Broadway production is scheduled for July–September 2018 at the Irene Diamond Stage at the Pershing Square Signature Center.[4] This production will feature several original cast members including Stephanie Hsu, George Salazar, Gerard Canonico, Katlyn Carlson and Lauren Marcus reprising their respective roles. Will Roland of Dear Evan Hansen will play Jeremy.[5]

text: Act One[edit]

text: Jeremy signs up for the school play in an attempt to get closer to his crush, Christine Canigula. He laments his status as a social outcast and longs to be cool (“More Than Survive”). At play rehearsal that afternoon, Jeremy strikes up a conversation with Christine, who professes her love of the stage (“I Love Play Rehearsal”).

text: Jeremy runs into school bully Rich Goranski, who tells him about a pill called a “super quantum unit intel processor,” or “SQUIP.” The SQUIP implants itself in the host's brain and tells them how to act. Rich tells Jeremy how he used to be a social outcast, but with the SQUIP's help, became popular. Rich suggests that Jeremy gets one. (“The SQUIP Song”).

text: Jeremy tells Michael, his best friend, about his conversation with Rich. Michael is skeptical but reassures Jeremy that they will always be friends ("Two Player Game"). They purchase a SQUIP for Jeremy, who takes the pill with Mountain Dew, as instructed and the SQUIP activates (“The SQUIP Enters”).

text: The SQUIP tells Jeremy that it will change everything about him (“Be More Chill - [Pt. 1]”). While shopping, Jeremy runs into two popular girls from school, Brooke Lohst and Chloe Valentine, who offer him a ride home (“Do You Wanna Ride?”). However, against the SQUIP's orders, Jeremy leaves to find Michael — only for the SQUIP to tell him that Michael had left. Seeing what happened when he disobeyed the SQUIP, Jeremy vows to be more obedient ("Be More Chill - [Pt. 2]"). Jeremy heads to school the next morning with a renewed confidence ("More Than Survive - [Reprise]").

text: At rehearsals, they begin to rehearse their zombie-apocalypse version of A Midsummer Night’s Dream. During a break, Christine tells Jeremy about her feelings for a guy she knows, which turns out to be Jake ("A Guy That I’d Kinda Be Into"). After rehearsal, the SQUIP informs him that Christine won’t date him until his social standing drastically improves. The SQUIP encourages Jeremy to meet up with Brooke to use as a stepping stone to popularity. Also at the SQUIP's recommendation, Jeremy purposefully ignores Michael using a method called "optic nerve blocking", who is a link to "Jeremy 1.0" ("Upgrade").

text: Act Two[edit]

text: Act Two begins at Jake’s Halloween party where chaos ensues (“Halloween”). Jeremy arrives and meets Brooke. Chloe, who is jealous of Brooke, takes Jeremy upstairs and tries to seduce him. While Jeremy is clearly not interested, the SQUIP makes him kiss her (“Do You Wanna Hang?”) The SQUIP suddenly begins trying to warn Jeremy of something, but it can only speak Japanese, a side effect of Jeremy’s alcohol consumption.

text: Jeremy runs into a bathroom, finding Michael who is furious that he's been abandoned. Michael tells Jeremy that he researched the SQUIP and warns him about its dangers— Michael uncovers that a previous student who took one and while it improved his life a little, he landed in a mental hospital after going crazy trying to get it out. Jeremy, thinking that Michael is just jealous of his popularity, storms out after calling Michael a loser. Michael locks himself in the bathroom to cry as he mourns the loss of his only friend (“Michael in the Bathroom”).

text: Meanwhile, Jeremy meets Christine at the party and with a sudden burst of confidence, he asks her out. Christine who has found herself in an existential crisis, declines, thinking it is best for her to not see anybody else until she knows who she is. Rich meanwhile is asking around the now nearly over party if anyone has any Mountain Dew Red. Jeremy's SQUIP finally reactivates and reviews the events of the next, forcably removing Jeremy from the party immediately...

text: The next morning, Jenna Rolan, the school gossip, texts everyone with the news that Jake’s house burned down in a fire set by Rich after the party and both of them are in the hospital. The news spreads throughout the school (“The Smartphone Hour [Rich Set a Fire]”). Jeremy's SQUIP reveals its master plan — to put SQUIPs in the entire student body (“The Pitiful Children”).

text: At home, Jeremy is confronted by his father, who asks why Jeremy’s personality has changed. Jeremy reprimands his father for acting like he cares since Mr. Heere’s entire life has been on pause since his divorce. Jeremy storms out, and, shaken by Jeremy's words, Mr. Heere realizes that something is wrong and that he must take charge. He tracks down Michael and convinces him to not give up on his friendship with Jeremy (“The Pants Song”).

text: Backstage at the play, the director brings out a prop — a beaker of Mountain Dew, with SQUIPs in it. Jeremy suddenly realizes that the cast has been SQUIP'ed. At the SQUIP's prompt, Jeremy realizes that — green Mountain Dew activates a SQUIP, and Mountain Dew Red shuts it off. In the last moment Michael enters holding Mountain Dew Red. Jake, under the control of his SQUIP empties the bottle, destroying all hope of deactivating the SQUIP's. Jeremy is moments away from drinking the last drop of Mountain Dew Red left in the bottle when a SQUIP'ed Christine appears, confessing her love for Jeremy. The SQUIP reveals that Christine will now do whatever he wants. Jeremy instructs her to drink the last drop of Mountain Dew Red left, causing her to release an ear-piercing shriek, destroying all of the SQUIP's (“The Play”).

text: Jeremy wakes up in the hospital, in the same room as Rich who without his SQUIP realizes that he is bisexual and that he never needed a SQUIP to be happy. Michael and the new pants-wearing Mr. Heere arrive to visit Jeremy. Jeremy summons the courage to ask Christine out once more and she concurs. Jeremy understands that there will always be voices in his head, but his own must be the loudest (“Voices in My Head”).

text: Musical numbers[1][edit]

text:
Act 1
"Jeremy’s Theme" – Orchestra
"More Than Survive" – Jeremy, Michael, ensemble
"I Love Play Rehearsal" – Christine
"The SQUIP Song" – Rich, Ensemble
"Two-Player Game" – Michael, Jeremy
"The Squip Enters" – Ensemble
"Be More Chill Pt. 1" – Squip, Jeremy, Mall People
"Do You Wanna Ride?" – Brooke, Chloe
“Be More Chill Pt. 2” – Squip, Jeremy, Mall People
“More Than Survive (Reprise)” – Jeremy, Squip, Ensemble
“A Guy That I’d Kinda Be Into” – Christine, Jeremy, Squip, Ensemble
“The SQUIP Lurks” – Orchestra
“Upgrade” – Brooke, Squip, Jeremy, Jake, Christine, Company

Act 2
"Halloween” – Brooke, Jake, Chloe, Rich, Jenna, Company
"Do You Wanna Hang?"– Chloe
"Michael in the Bathroom" – Michael
"The Smartphone Hour" – Jenna, Chloe, Brooke, Ensemble
"The Pitiful Children” – Squip, Jeremy, Jenna, Ensemble
"The Pants Song" – Mr. Heere, Michael
"The Play" – Michael, Jake, Brooke, Chloe, Jeremy, Christine, Ensemble
"Voices in My Head" – Jeremy, Christine, Ensemble

tag: table

text: Roles and original casts[edit]

text: Major productions[5][edit]

text:
Character(s)

World Premiere Cast (2015)  Two River Theatre

Original Off-Broadway Cast (2018) Pershing Square Signature Center

Jeremy Heere

Will Connolly

Will Roland

Michael Mell

George Salazar

George Salazar

Christine Canigula

Stephanie Hsu

Stephanie Hsu

The SQUIP

Eric William Morris

Jason Tam

Chloe Valentine

Katlyn Carlson

Katlyn Carlson

Brooke Lohst

Lauren Marcus

Lauren Marcus

Rich Goranski

Gerard Canonico

Gerard Canonico

Jenna Rolan

Katie Ladner

Tiffany Mann

Jake Dillinger

Jake Boyd

Britton Smith

Mr. HeereMr. ReyesScary Stockboy

Paul Whitty

Jason "SweetTooth" Williams

text: Recording[edit]

text: The world premiere cast recorded an original cast album on July 21, 2015, which was released on October 31, 2015. [7]The cast recording will be released on vinyl from Ghostlight Records in July.[8]


document_title: The Perks of Being a Wallflower

question_text: who is charlie writing to perks of being a wallflower

text: The Perks of Being a Wallflower

text: Plot[edit]

text: The story begins with a quiet, sensitive 15-year-old boy named Charlie writing letters about his life to an unknown recipient. Charlie chooses that person because he said that he heard the person was nice and thought that this person would not be judgmental. He discusses his first year at high school, grappling with two traumatic experiences from his past: the suicide of his only middle-school friend, Michael Dobson, a year before, and the death of his favorite aunt, Helen, during his early childhood.

text: His English teacher, who encourages Charlie to call him Bill, notices Charlie's passion for reading and writing, and acts as a mentor by assigning him extracurricular books and reports. Although he is a wallflower, Charlie is befriended by two seniors: Patrick and Sam. Patrick is secretly dating Brad, a closeted football player, and Sam is Patrick's stepsister. Charlie quickly develops a crush on Sam and subsequently admits his feelings to her. It is revealed that Sam was sexually abused as a child, and she kisses Charlie to ensure that his first kiss is from someone who truly loves him.

text: In parallel, Charlie witnesses his sister's boyfriend hit her across the face, but she forbids him from telling their parents. He eventually mentions the occurrence to Bill, who tells Charlie's parents about it. Charlie's relationship with his sister rapidly deteriorates and she continues to see her boyfriend against her parents' wishes. Eventually, he discovers that his sister is pregnant and agrees to bring her to an abortion clinic without telling anyone. His sister breaks up with her boyfriend, after which her and Charlie's relationship begins to improve significantly.

text: Charlie is accepted by Sam and Patrick's group of friends and begins experimenting with tobacco, alcohol and other drugs. At a party Charlie trips on LSD. He cannot control his flashbacks of Aunt Helen, who died in a car crash on her way to buy him a birthday gift. He ends up in the hospital after falling asleep in the snow. At a regular Rocky Horror Picture Show performance, Charlie is asked to fill in as Rocky for Sam's boyfriend Craig, who is unavailable. Their friend Mary Elizabeth is impressed and asks Charlie to the Sadie Hawkins dance and they enter into a desultory relationship. The relationship ends, however, during a game of truth or dare when Charlie is dared to kiss the prettiest girl in the room. He kisses Sam, and Mary Elizabeth storms out of the room in response. Following this, Patrick suggests that Charlie stay away from Sam for a while, and the rest of the friend group shuns him. His flashbacks of Aunt Helen return.

text: Patrick and Brad's relationship is discovered by Brad's abusive father, and Brad disappears from school for a few days. Upon returning, Brad is cold and mean towards Patrick, while Patrick attempts to reconnect with him. However, when Brad derogatorily attacks Patrick's sexuality in public, Patrick physically attacks Brad until other football players join in and gang up on Patrick. Charlie joins in the fight to help Patrick, and breaks it up, regaining the respect of Sam and her friends. Patrick begins spending much of his time with Charlie and Patrick kisses Charlie impulsively and then apologizes, but Charlie understands that he is recovering from his romance with Brad. Soon Patrick sees Brad engaging with a stranger in the park and Patrick is able to move on from the relationship.

text: As the school year ends, Charlie is anxious about losing his older friends—especially Sam, who is leaving for a summer college-preparatory program and has learned that her boyfriend cheated on her. When Charlie helps her pack, they talk about his feelings for her; she is angry that he never acted on them. They begin to engage sexually, but Charlie suddenly grows inexplicably uncomfortable and stops Sam. Charlie begins to realize that his sexual contact with Sam has stirred up repressed memories of him being molested by his Aunt Helen as a little boy. Charlie shows signs of PTSD from the incident and the revelation of his abuse helps the reader understand his view of relationships and love.

text: In an epilogue, Charlie is discovered by his parents in a catatonic state and does not show any movement despite being hit reluctantly by his father. After being admitted to a mental hospital, it is revealed that Helen actually sexually abused him when he was young, and his love for her (and empathy for her troubled youth) caused him to repress his traumatic memories. This psychological damage explains his flashbacks and derealization phases throughout the book. In two months Charlie is released, and Sam and Patrick visit him. In the epilogue, Sam, Patrick and Charlie go through the tunnel again and Charlie stands up and exclaims that he felt infinite.

text: Charlie eventually comes to terms with his past: "Even if we don't have the power to choose where we come from, we can still choose where we go from there". Charlie decides to "participate" in life, and his letter-writing ends.

text: Background and writing[edit]

text: Chbosky first conceived random ideas, including "a kid standing up in a tunnel", a girl he likes, and parties he goes to.[1] After five years with these elements in mind,[1] he had the idea of writing the novel during a difficult period in his life.[2] He was experiencing an unpleasant breakup of his own[2] which led him to ask, "Why good people let themselves get treated so badly?"[3] The author tried to answer the question with the sentence "we accept the love we think we deserve". This answer meant to be an advice to remark that one is in charge of one's life as he is referring to self love, encompassing one's life and hope for the future, and not just romantic love.[4]

text: The story began when Chbosky was in school, evolving from another book on which he was working.[1] In that book he wrote the sentence, "I guess that's just one of the perks of being a wallflower", which led him to realize "that somewhere in that ... was the kid I was really trying to find."[1] Chbosky began writing the novel in the summer of 1996 while he was in college,[5] and within ten weeks he completed the story.[1] He rewrote it into two more drafts, concluding the published version in the summer of 1998.[5]

text: Charlie, whom Chbosky has said is "[his] hope in the form of a character",[2] is loosely based on the author. In the novel, Chbosky included much of his own memories from the time he lived in Pittsburgh.[6] The other characters were manifestations of people Chbosky had known throughout his life;[7] Chbosky focused on people's struggles and what they are passionate about, attempting to pin down the very nature of each of the characters[8] The characters of Sam and Patrick were an "amalgamate and celebration" of several people Chbosky has met; Sam was based on girls who confided in him, and Patrick was "all the kids I knew who were gay and finding their way to their own identity."[6]

text: Style and themes[edit]

text: The idea of anonymous letters came from a real experience; during his senior year in high school, Chbosky wrote an anonymous letter to Stewart Stern about how Rebel Without a Cause had influenced him. A year and a half later, Stern found Chbosky and became his mentor.[9] By using a series of letters from Charlie to an anonymous character, Chbosky found "the most intimate way" to talk directly to the reader.[6] He thought the letters would help him keep the story cohesive, "to convey the highs and lows of being young—one day, you're on top of the world and you’ve had the greatest of times".[6]

text: Critics have identified primary themes of teenage reality and nostalgia. According to David Edelstein of the New York Magazine, Chbosky captures the "feeling you belong when among friends, yet you'd soon be alone" and notes that "the pain of loss ... [is] almost as intense as the bliss ... it's nostalgia with an emphasis on nostos, pain [sic]."[10] Marty Beckerman of Word Riot says that The Perks of Being a Wallflower connects with young people because its scenes are "so universal and happen to so many teenagers."[11] Chbosky wanted to convey respect for teenagers, to "validate and respect and celebrate what [teenagers] are going through every day",[7] and said the novel is for "anyone who's felt like an outcast."[12]

text: Read by all ages, The Perks of Being a Wallflower is targeted at a teenage audience.[13] The book addresses a range of themes dispassionately.[11] These themes include drugs,[11] friendship, body image, first love, suicide, eating disorders and sexuality.[3] Chbosky appreciates the importance of entertainment in adolescence: "Books, songs, and movies are more than entertainment when we're young. They help all of us discover who we are, what we believe, and what we hope our life can be."[14] As such, the book contains several cultural references across all mediums: musically the book references The Smiths and Fleetwood Mac,[10][15] literarily the book references This Side of Paradise, On the Road, To Kill a Mockingbird[1][16] and theatrically the book references The Rocky Horror Picture Show.[16]

text: Publication and reception[edit]

text: The Perks of Being a Wallflower was first published on February 1, 1999[17] by Pocket Books through its MTV Books imprint.[18] It became the subsidiary's best-selling book with 100,000 copies in print as of 2000,[18] and was included on school reading lists and gathered a cult following.[19] By 2012, the novel had been published in 16 countries in 13 languages,[20] and that same year it placed at number 16 on NPR's list of the "100 Best-Ever Teen Novels".[21]

text: Critical response was mixed; Publishers Weekly called the novel "trite", dealing with "standard teenage issues" in which "Chbosky infuses a droning insistence on Charlie's supersensitive disposition."[22] Although Kirkus Review said it had "the right combination of realism and uplift", the reviewer criticized Chbosky's "rip-off" of J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye.[23] Although other reviewers made similar comparisons, Chbosky said he "was not trying to mimic [Salinger's] style as a writer";[1] he saw "how readers could compare Charlie to Salinger's Holden Caulfield", but "they are very different people with unique problems and perspectives".[1]

text: Further objections to the book include the use of "profanity", "drug abuse", "sexually explicit" scenes, and "torture". Groups like PABBIS (Parents Against Bad Books in School) work to restrict literature considered "controversial" from being accessed by younger children. The group believes these "bad books" should be moved to the adult section.[24] In 2009, Perks was repeatedly challenged for descriptions of masturbation, sexually explicit conduct, drug use, and talk of suicide and there have been multiple pushes across the United States to move this literary work from the children and young adults section to the adult section.[25] Parents have raised issues with the novel for it's "pornographic" content and "vulgarity", but others have argued that the book deals with real and common teen issues concerned with growing up, so it presents a truthful viewpoint.[26] Issues are also raised surrounding the books themes of homosexuality, as well as a "glorification" of the use of drugs and alcohol.[27]

text: Francisca Goldsmith of the School Library Journal said the novel "cleverly" makes the readers the recipients of Charlie's letters, and it "will engage teen readers for years to come."[28] Common Sense Media's Kate Pavao praised its relevant themes for teenagers: "Readers will find themselves quickly feeling sorry for the protagonist and worrying about him throughout his transformative journey."[17] For The A.V. Club, Marah Eakin wrote that although for an adult "Perks suffers from an overabundance of pure, raw angst ... unlike some more arrested development-friendly young adult fare like Harry Potter, Perks speaks to a more specific age range and does it well."[29]

text: The Perks of Being a Wallflower has appeared six times on the American Library Association's list of 10 most-frequently-challenged books for its content.[30][31] A Wisconsin school board refused to ban the book, angering local parents, and the Glen Ellyn District 41 school board in suburban Chicago unanimously voted to reinstate the novel after it was removed from eighth-grade classrooms at Hadley Junior High School because of a parent's objection to its sexual content.[32] In an interview, Chbosky said that he knew of two school boards which have banned the book (in Massachusetts and on Long Island).[30] Since he "didn't write it to be a controversial book,"[30] he was "surprised"[33] by the bans.

text: With the announcement of a film adaptation the novel received more attention; it sales increased from 88,847 copies in 2011 to 425,933 in 2012,[34] and it reached the New York Times bestseller lists.[35] It entered the Children's Paperback Books category on the June 23, 2012 list,[36] and had 1.5 million copies in print in November 2012.[35] As of May 11, 2014 it appeared on The New York Times top 10 list for the 71st non-consecutive week,[37] and was in the top 15 on the November 23 list.[38]

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: Since he wrote The Perks of Being a Wallflower, Chbosky aspired to adapt it into a film, calling this "a lifelong dream of mine".[5] After the publication of the novel, the author said he received film offers, refusing them because he "owed the fans a movie that was worthy of their love for the book".[3] In 2010 Mr. Mudd began developing a film version,[39] and the author was signed to write and direct the film by producers John Malkovich, Lianne Halfon and Russell Smith.[39] The film, shot in the Pittsburgh area from May 9 to June 29, 2011,[40] starred Logan Lerman as Charlie, Emma Watson as Sam, Ezra Miller as Patrick, and Nina Dobrev as Charlie's sister, Candace.[41]

text: It premiered on September 8, 2012 at the Toronto International Film Festival,[42] and was released theatrically in the United States by Summit Entertainment on September 21.[43] According to Metacritic it has received "generally favorable reviews", with an average of 67 out of 100 based on 36 reviews.[44] Rotten Tomatoes reported an 85% approval rate, based on 151 reviews.[45] The film grossed over $33 million worldwide[43] from a $13 million production budget.[35]


document_title: Trojan Horse

question_text: who thought of the famous trojan horse trick

text: Trojan Horse

text: Literary accounts[edit]

text: According to Quintus Smyrnaeus, Odysseus thought of building a great wooden horse (the horse being the emblem of Troy), hiding an elite force inside, and fooling the Trojans into wheeling the horse into the city as a trophy. Under the leadership of Epeius, the Greeks built the wooden horse in three days. Odysseus's plan called for one man to remain outside the horse; he would act as though the Greeks had abandoned him, leaving the horse as a gift for the Trojans. An inscription was engraved on the horse reading: "For their return home, the Greeks dedicate this offering to Athena". Then they burned their tents and left to Tenedos by night. Greek soldier Sinon was "abandoned", and was to signal to the Greeks by lighting a beacon.[2] In Virgil's poem, Sinon, the only volunteer for the role, successfully convinces the Trojans that he has been left behind and that the Greeks are gone. Sinon tells the Trojans that the Horse is an offering to the goddess Athena, meant to atone for the previous desecration of her temple at Troy by the Greeks, and ensure a safe journey home for the Greek fleet. Sinon tells the Trojans that the Horse was built to be too large for them to take it into their city and gain the favor of Athena for themselves.

text: While questioning Sinon, the Trojan priest Laocoön guesses the plot and warns the Trojans, in Virgil's famous line Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes ("I fear Greeks, even those bearing gifts"),[3] Danai (acc Danaos) or Danaans (Homer's name for the Greeks) being the ones who had built the Trojan Horse. However, the god Poseidon sends two sea serpents to strangle him and his sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus before any Trojan heeds his warning. According to Apollodorus the two serpents were sent by Apollo, whom Laocoon had insulted by sleeping with his wife in front of the "divine image".[4] In the Odyssey, Homer says that Helen of Troy also guesses the plot and tries to trick and uncover the Greek soldiers inside the horse by imitating the voices of their wives, and Anticlus attempts to answer, but Odysseus shuts his mouth with his hand.[5] King Priam's daughter Cassandra, the soothsayer of Troy, insists that the horse will be the downfall of the city and its royal family. She too is ignored, hence their doom and loss of the war.[6]

text:
Trojan War

Achilles tending the wounded Patroclus
(Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC)

The war

Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey)
Period: Bronze Age
Traditional dating: c. 1194–1184 BC
Modern dating: c. 1260–1180 BC
Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy
See also: Historicity of the Iliad

Literary sources

Iliad
Epic Cycle
Aeneid, Book 2
Iphigenia in Aulis
Philoctetes
Ajax
The Trojan Women
Posthomerica

See also: Trojan War in popular culture

Episodes

Judgement of Paris
Seduction of Helen
Trojan Horse
Sack of Troy
The Returns
Wanderings of Odysseus
Aeneas and the Founding of Rome

Greeks and allies

Agamemnon
Achilles
Helen
Menelaus
Nestor
Odysseus
Ajax
Diomedes
Patroclus
Thersites
Achaeans
Myrmidons

See also: Catalogue of Ships

Trojans and allies

Priam
Hecuba
Hector
Paris
Cassandra
Andromache
Aeneas
Memnon
Troilus
Penthesilea and the Amazons
Sarpedon

See also: Trojan Battle Order

Participant gods

Caused the war:

Eris
Zeus

On the Greek side:

Athena
Hephaestus
Hera
Hermes
Poseidon
Thetis

On the Trojan side:

Aphrodite
Apollo
Ares
Artemis
Leto
Scamander

Related topics

Homeric Question
Archaeology of Troy
Mycenae
Mycenaean warfare

v
t
e

text: This incident is mentioned in the Odyssey:

text: The most detailed and most familiar version is in Virgil's Aeneid, Book II[7] (trans. A. S. Kline).

text: Book II includes Laocoön saying: "Equo ne credite, Teucri. Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes." ("Do not trust the horse, Trojans! Whatever it is, I fear the Greeks, even bringing gifts.")

text: Well before Virgil, the story is also alluded to in Greek classical literature. In Euripides' play Trojan Women, written in 415 BC, the god Poseidon proclaims: "For, from his home beneath Parnassus, Phocian Epeus, aided by the craft of Pallas, framed a horse to bear within its womb an armed host, and sent it within the battlements, fraught with death; whence in days to come men shall tell of 'the wooden horse,' with its hidden load of warriors."[8]

text: Men in the horse[edit]

text: Thirty of the Achaeans' best warriors hid in the Trojan horse's belly and two spies in its mouth. Other sources give different numbers: The Bibliotheca 50;[9] Tzetzes 23;[10] and Quintus Smyrnaeus gives the names of 30, but says there were more.[11] In late tradition the number was standardized at 40. Their names follow:[12]

text:
Ulysseus (leader)
Acamas
Uden
Ajax the Lesser
Amphidamas
Amphimachus
Anticlus
Antimachus
Antiphates
Calchas
Cyanippus
Demophon
Diomedes
Ishana
Epeius
Eumelus
Euryalus
Eurydamas
Eurymachus
Eurypylus
Ialmenus
Idomeneus
Iphidamas
Leonteus
Machaon
Meges
Menelaus
Menestheus
Meriones
Neoptolemus
Peneleos
Philoctetes
Podalirius
Polypoetes
Sthenelus
Teucer
Thalpius
Thersander
Thoas
Thrasymedes

tag: ul

text: Factual explanations[edit]

text: There has been speculation that the Trojan Horse may have been a battering ram or other sort of siege engine resembling, to some extent, a horse, and that the description of the use of this device was then transformed into a myth by later oral historians who were not present at the battle and were unaware of that meaning of the name. Assyrians at the time used siege machines with animal names, often covered with dampened horse hides to protect against flaming arrows; it is possible that the Trojan Horse was such.[13] Pausanias, who lived in the 2nd century AD, wrote in his book Description of Greece "That the work of Epeius was a contrivance to make a breach in the Trojan wall is known to everybody who does not attribute utter silliness to the Phrygians"[14] where, by Phrygians, he means the Trojans.

text: Some authors have suggested that the gift was not a horse with warriors hiding inside, but a boat carrying a peace envoy[15]. It has been noted that the terms used to put men in the horse are those used when describing the embarkation of men on a ship, and that there are analogies between the building of ships by Paris at the beginning of the Trojan saga and the building of the horse at the end[16]; ships are called "sea-horses" once in the Odyssey[17]. Recent work from a naval archaeology perspective[18], favours the view that the Trojan Horse was indeed a ship: through analysis of the Homeric texts and of ancient boats and ships, the author contends that the hippos built by Epeus should be understood as a galley like the ones in use along the Greek and the Phoenician coasts of that time to pay tribute after the end of the wars.

text: A more speculative theory, originally proposed by Fritz Schachermeyr, states that the Trojan Horse is a metaphor for a destructive earthquake that damaged the walls of Troy and allowed the Greeks in.[19] In this theory, the horse represents Poseidon, who as well as being god of the sea was also god of horses and earthquakes. This theory is supported by the fact that archaeological digs have found that Troy VI was heavily damaged in an earthquake,[19] but is hard to square with the mythological claim that Poseidon built the walls of Troy in the first place.[20]

text: Ancient representations[edit]

text: Pictorial representations of the Trojan Horse earlier than, or contemporary to, the first literary appearances of the episode can help clarify what was the meaning of the story as perceived by its audience. There are few ancient (before 480 BC) depictions of the Trojan Horse surviving[21][22]. The earliest is on a Boeotian fibula dating from about 700 BC[23][24]. Other two are on relief pithos vases from the adjoining Grecian islands Mykonos and Tinos, both usually dated between 675 and 650 BC, the one from Mykonos (see figure) being known as the Mykonos Vase.[21][25] (Historian Michael Wood, however, dates the Mykonos Vase to the 8th century BC, some 500 years after the supposed time of the war, but before the written accounts attributed by tradition to Homer; Wood concludes from that evidence that the story of the Trojan Horse existed before those accounts were written.[26]). Referenced in both literature and art, the Trojan Horse had become synonymous with the name of Agamemnon. The house of Agamemnon claimed continuity at Cyme in Aeolia and the symbolism of the horse was stamped in the coins from this area, presumably in reference to the power of the Agamemnon lineage. Indeed, the daughter of Agamemnon of Cyme, Damodice, is credited with inventing coined money by Julius Pollux after she married King Midas - famed for turning everything he touched into gold.[27] The coins from Cyme were first circulated around 600-550 BC with the symbol of the horse reminding citizens of the glory of the Greek victory over Troy. These rough incuse horse head silver fractions, Hemiobols, are a candidate for the title of the Second Oldest coins - and the first used for retailing on a large-scale basis by the Ionian Greeks then quickly spreading Market Economics through the rest of the world.[28] For an excellent timeline graphic showing when horsehead coins started compared to other animal imagery, see Basic Electrum Types.[29] Other archaic representations of the Trojan horse are found[21] on a corinthian aryballos dating back to 560 BC[21] (see figure), on a vase fragment to 540 BC (see figure), and on an Etruscan carnelian scarab.[30]

text:
The earliest known depiction of the Trojan Horse[21], on a bronze fibula (ca. 700 BC). Note the wheels and the square openings on the horse's side.

The Mykonos vase, with one of the earliest known renditions of the Trojan Horse. (Note the depiction of the faces of hidden warriors shown on the horse's side.)

Ionia, Uncertain city (possibly Cyme, Aeolis) 600-550 BC, Hemiobol. Horse head, rough incuse.

Depiction of the Trojan Horse on a corinthian aryballos (ca. 560 b.C.) found in Cerveteri (Italy)

Warriors leaving the Trojan Horse; Fragment of an attic black-figure Krater from Orbetello (Italy); ca. 540 B.C.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Broeniman, Clifford (1996). "Demodocus, Odysseus, and the Trojan War in "Odyssey" 8". The Classical World. 90 (1): 3–13. JSTOR 4351895.
Jump up ^ Bibliotheca, Epitome, e.5.15
Jump up ^ "Virgil:Aeneid II". Poetryintranslation.com. Retrieved 2012-08-10.
Jump up ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, Epitome,Epit. E.5.18
Jump up ^ Homer, Odyssey, 4. 274-289.
Jump up ^ Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Everyman's Library, 1992. Print.
Jump up ^ "Virgil". poetryintranslation.com.
Jump up ^ "The Trojan Women, Euripides". Classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-10.
Jump up ^ Epitome 5.14
Jump up ^ Posthomerica 641–650
Jump up ^ Posthomerica xii.314-335
Jump up ^ "THE WOODEN HORSE - Greek Mythology Link". Maicar.com. Retrieved 2012-08-10.
Jump up ^ Michael Wood, in his book "In search of the Trojan war" ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3 (which was shown on BBC TV as a series)
Jump up ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece 1, XXIII,8". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-10.
Jump up ^ See pages 51-52 inTroy C. 1700-1250 BC,Nic Fields, Donato Spedaliere & Sarah S. Spedalier, Osprey Publishing, 2004
Jump up ^ See pages 22-26 in The fall of Troy in early Greek poetry and art, Michael John Anderson, Oxford University Press, 1997
Jump up ^ de Arbulo Bayona, Joaquin Ruiz (2009). "LOS NAVEGANTES Y LO SAGRADO. EL BARCO DE TROYA. NUEVOS ARGUMENTOS PARA UNA EXPLICACION NAUTICA DEL CABALLO DE MADERA" (PDF). Arqueología Náutica Mediterránea, Monografies del CASC. Girona. 8: 535–551.
Jump up ^ Tiboni, Francesco. "The Dourateos Hippos from allegory to Archaeology: a Phoenician Ship to break the Wall." Archaeologia maritima mediterranea 13.13 (2016): 91-104
^ Jump up to: a b Eric H. Cline (2013). The Trojan War: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 0199333823.
Jump up ^ Stephen Kershaw (2010). A Brief Guide to Classical Civilization. ISBN 1849018006.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Sparkes, B. A. (1971). "The Trojan Horse in Classical Art1". Greece & Rome. 18 (1): 54–70. doi:10.1017/S001738350001768X. ISSN 1477-4550.
Jump up ^ Sadurska, Anna (1986). "Equus Trojanus". Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. Zürich. 3,1: 813–817.
Jump up ^ British Museum. Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities; Walters, Henry Beauchamp (1899). Catalogue of the bronzes, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan, in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Wellesley College Library. London, Printed by order of the Trustees. p. 374.
Jump up ^ "Bronze bow fibula (brooch) with a glimpse of the Trojan Horse with wheels under feet - Images for Mary Beard's Cultural Exchange - Front Row's Cultural Exchange - BBC Radio 4". BBC. Retrieved 2017-11-03.
Jump up ^ Caskey, Miriam Ervin (Winter 1976). "Notes on Relief Pithoi of the Tenian-Boiotian Group". American Journal of Archaeology. 80 (1): 19–41. JSTOR 502935.
Jump up ^ Wood, Michael (1985). In Search of the Trojan War. London: BBC books. pp. 80; 251. ISBN 978-0-563-20161-8.
Jump up ^ The Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology, Martin Persson Nilsson, University of California Press, 1972, pg48
Jump up ^ M. Mitchiner, Ancient Trade and Early Coinage, Hawkins Publications, London, 2004, p. 214
Jump up ^ http://www.glebecoins.net/electrum/Early_Electrum/Basic_Electrum_Types/basic_electrum_types.html
Jump up ^ "Carnelian scarab | Etruscan, Populonia | Late Archaic | The Met". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 2017-11-27.

tag: ol


question_text: where is the central jute technology research institute in situated

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text:
Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibers
logo of CRIJAFType
Central Research InstituteEstablished
1953Director
Dr. Jiban Mitra (Acting)Location
Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India22°27′N 88°16′E / 22.45°N 88.26°E / 22.45; 88.26Coordinates: 22°27′N 88°16′E / 22.45°N 88.26°E / 22.45; 88.26Campus
UrbanAffiliations
Indian Council of Agricultural Research,New DelhiWebsite
Official Website

text: Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibers (CRIJAF) established in 1953, is a research institute on jute & allied fibre crops  under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research of Government of India. This institute is located in Barrackpore, West Bengal, India.


document_title: Philippine Fault System

question_text: what are the active fault line in the philippines

text: Philippine Fault System

text: Philippine Mobile Belt[edit]

text: The Philippine Mobile Belt is composed of a large number of accretionary blocks and terranes. These terranes are long and narrow like the Zambales ophiolites which is at least 400 km long and 50 km wide. The strips generally run north-south and the zones of convergence are usually demarcated by fault lines. The Philippine Mobile Belt is compressed on the west by the Eurasian Plate and two arms of the Sunda Plate, and on the east by the Philippine Sea Plate. These tectonic plates have compressed and lifted parts of the Philippines causing extensive faulting, primarily on a north-south axis. All faults in the Philippines are inter-related by the tectonic forces of the Philippine Mobile Belt, or its tectonic induced volcanism. A more complete understanding can be gained by viewing the faults in the Philippines as an inter-related Philippine Fault System.

text: Philippine Fault Zone[edit]

text: The Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ) extends 1200 km across the Philippine archipelago behind the convergent boundary of the Philippine Trench and the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate.[3] This left-lateral strike-slip fault extends NW-SE (N30 – 40 W) accommodating the lateral oblique motion of the subducting Philippine Sea Plate with respect to the Philippine Trench.[4][3] It extends from Davao Gulf in the south, bisects the Caraga region at the Agusan River basin, crosses to Leyte and Masbate islands, and traverses Quezon province in eastern Luzon before passing through Nueva Ecija up to the Ilocos region in northwest Luzon. The northern and southern extensions of the PFZ are characterized by branching faults due to brittle terminations. These horsetail faults are indicative of the lateral propagation and further development of the PFZ. The fault’s current activity can be observed in Holocene sandstone outcrops on the Mati and Davao Oriental islands.[5] The fault experiences a slip rate of approximately 2-2.5 cm/year.[6]

text: Formation[edit]

text: It is proposed that the Philippine Trench and PFZ represent a ‘shear partitioning’ mechanism, where the oblique physical motions of subduction at the convergent zone resulted in the development of the major strike-slip fault. In the Philippine Sea, the oblique motion of the subducting Philippine Sea Plate resulted in the formation of the Philippine trench and the PFZ back arc fault system. The oblique motion is accommodated by two vector components; one vector perpendicular to the converging Philippine Trench and one vector parallel to the PFZ. Approximately 30% of the oblique motion is accommodated by the PFZ while the remaining proportions are displaced along other regional tectonic features as the Philippine Sea Plate currently subducts below the Philippine archipelago at a rate of 6–8 cm/year. These two tectonic features thus correlate to a similar time of development. The formation of the PFZ was a result of two stages. The first stage began at ~10 Ma, when the northern segments of the PFZ developed due to the convergence of the China Sea Crust underneath the nearby Manila Trench. The lack of accretionary prism at the Philippine Trench is suggestive of young origin correlating to an early second stage of development (2-4 Ma) with the central PFZ proposed to have developed between 2.7 and 3.8 Ma.[3]

text: Earthquakes[edit]

text: The central Philippine Fault Zone consisting of the Guinyangan, Masbate, and Central Leyte faults are the most seismically active regions transecting the islands of Bondoc to Leyte. The northern and southern extensions of the Philippine Fault Zone experience infrequent earthquakes and often described as locked segments which are capable of larger magnitude earthquakes. The largest (M7.0) and most destructive earthquakes are generated along the Guinyangan fault every 30 to 100 years with slip rates of 20–33 mm/year as determined by GPS and historical records. Moderate earthquakes (M3.0-5.0) are observed along the Masbate fault with frequent aftershocks indicative of continued displacement and regional slip of 5–35 mm/year. The northern and southern segments of the Central Leyte fault experiences different seismic activity dependent on regional geology. While the Southern Central Leyte fault experiences moderate seismic events, the Northern Central Leyte fault creeps at approximately 25 mm/year. Historical data on the PFZ is limited due to the faults geographical location predominantly offshore, lack of complete paleoseismic data and lack of permanent Global Positioning System (GPS) that can trace movements over long periods of time.[4]

text: Other active fault systems[edit]

text:
Valley Fault System
Macolod Corridor - broad left-lateral fracture zone.
Lubang-Verde Passage Fault System - located offshore between Batangas peninsula and Mindoro Island, following the northwest-southeast alignment of Verde and Lubang islands (thus the name) and essentially strike-slip (left-lateral) fault.
Mindoro/Aglubang Fault - break in slope between mountainous western Mindoro and the flat lands of eastern.
Sibuyan Sea Fault - located offshore north of Masbate; using bathymetric (SeaMarc) and paleomagnetic data gathered in the northern section of the Sibuyan Sea, Sarewitz and Lewis (1991) were led to conclude that the Sibuyan Sea Fault is relayed with the Verde Passage Fault, both left-lateral faults, by an aborted spreading center under a transtensional tectonic regime.
Legaspi Lineament - long SE-trending linear feature emanating from Pasacao in the Ragay Gulf area, passing through Lake Bato then to Legaspi City and considering its morphological prominence and seismic activity, it deserves to be elevated in category from a less significant lineament to a fault.
Tablas Lineament - tectonic boundary between the North Palawan microcontinental block and the western edge of the Philippine Mobile Belt. It trends northerly as it separates Busuanga peninsula from the Antique Range in Panay Island, and passess offshore northwards east of Tablas Island. The present geodynamic setting of the Philippines obliges the Tablas Lineament to operate as a right-lateral strike-slip fault. Structure appears to connect with the Negros Trench southwards.
Mindanao Fault - a prominent NW-trending linear fracture zone on the western third of Mindanao Island and has 2 distinct segments, including that which separates the Daguma Range from the Cotabato Basin corresponding to the Cotabato Fault segment. This segment is highly linear and has features suggestive of normal faulting although it may have been a left lateral strike slip fault during its early history. The Quaternary Mt. Parker volcano is located at the western end of this fault and, on radar images, seems to be cut by the fault and terraces formed by Quaternary limestone mark the Daguma Range. These, together with the young morphology of incised river valleys, suggests a young age for the fault along which the Daguma Range was uplifted. Although Quaternary in age, it still has to be ascertained whether the fault is active or not (Quebral, 1994). The Sindangan Fault segment represents the northern continuation of the fault towards northern Zamboanga. Focal mechanism solutions of earthquakes offshore and narrow shear zones transecting recent gravel deposits suggest active left-lateral faulting (Pubellier and others, 1991).
Offshore Cebu-Bohol faults (?) - occasional occurrence of low to moderate magnitude, shallow-seated earthquakes between Cebu and Bohol, some capable of causing significant damage to infrastructure, is the subject of current discussions on the possible existence of active faults in the region. Such earthquake generators are most likely offshore, as there have so far been no indications of active faulting within the islands of Cebu and Bohol. Active fault studies are spearheaded by PHIVOLCS.


document_title: Arthur Treacher's

question_text: what kind of fish did arthur treacher's use

question_tokens: what kind of fish did arthur treacher 's use

text: Arthur Treacher's

text: Namesake[edit]

text: The chain is the namesake of Arthur Treacher (1894–1975), an English character actor typecast as "the perfect butler" for his performances as Jeeves, as a butler in several Shirley Temple films, and the role of Constable Jones in Walt Disney Productions' Mary Poppins.[6] At the time the chain was founded, Treacher was best known as the announcer and sidekick on the popular The Merv Griffin Show.[7] Treacher "served as a spokesman for the restaurant chain in its early years, underscoring the British character of its food."[8] In a 1975 interview, New England franchise vice president M. John Elliott claimed the fish recipe to be the actor's own, brought over from the United Kingdom.[9]

text: Franchising[edit]

text: The franchise company was started in 1969 as National Fast Food Corp. National Fast Food's principals at the time included S. Robert Davis, a real estate developer who built and leased several Colonel Sanders Kentucky Fried Chicken properties, his friend Dave Thomas, who sold his Colonel Sanders franchises back to that company for $3,000,000 and went on to found Wendy's, and L. S. Hartzog, who at the time ran a chain of bakeries selling biscuits to Colonel Sanders franchisees nationally.

text: Fisher Foods involvement[edit]

text: In 1970, Fisher Foods swapped capital with and licensed franchises from National, with a total of 550 franchises sold (106 to Fisher alone), but only 99 stores were actually in operation. Long John Silver's, Captain D's, Skipper's and Alfie's Fish & Chips likewise employed the fish franchise concept about the same time. Aided by Arthur Treacher's advertisements, these companies introduced British fish and chips to northeastern America, albeit four years after Salt's Fish & Chips (later renamed H. Salt, Esq. Authentic English Fish and Chips) introduced British fish and chips to America in California.[citation needed]

text: Aggressive expansion under Orange Co.[edit]

text: By the early 1970s, National Fast Food had become Orange Co. Under this name, Davis conducted an aggressive expansion campaign from 1972 through 1976. Lacking equity, he relied on generous sale-leaseback agreements. Under the terms of these agreements, Orange Co. would sell to investors sites for new restaurants and then sign long leases unconditionally guaranteeing to continue lease payments if the restaurants failed.[10]

text: Effect of the 'cod wars'[edit]

text: In the early 1970s, Britain and Iceland almost got into a shooting war over fishing rights after Iceland unilaterally implemented the 200-mile (370 km) fishing limit; there were numerous confrontations between vessels, some armed and others with armed escort ships. These events were called the "cod wars". Cod prices went from the low $2 range to mid-$3, which sent the low-priced fish restaurants into a tailspin, and all the companies retrenched.

text: Acquisition by Mrs. Paul's Seafood[edit]

text: On November 21, 1979, Orange Co. sold Arthur Treacher's to Mrs. Paul's. However, under the terms of its original sale-leaseback agreements, Orange Co. remained liable for millions of dollars of payments to investors.[11]

text: Mrs. Paul's promptly replaced the Icelandic cod with less expensive pollock that was oilier and of inferior quality.[12] The move exacerbated tensions with franchisees – some of whom had already withheld a total of $5 million in royalties for what they perceived to be a steadily declining level of service. Litigation arising from the conflict eventually reached the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit.[13]

text: Investor group[edit]

text: After losing the case to the franchisees and having no way to compensate them, Mrs. Paul's sold Arthur Treacher's to Lumara Foods of America Inc. in March 1982. Lumara Foods filed for reorganization under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code four months later.[14]

text: The company was subsequently bought by a group of investors and the corporate offices were relocated to Youngstown, Ohio. It went into bankruptcy in 1983. Two years later, it was merged into a shell company by Jim Cataland.

text: From 1985 to 1993, Cataland slowly expanded the company again. In 1993, money from a new group of investors was used to introduce a more modern seafood concept; to buy additional stores; and to move the company from its base operations in Youngstown, Ohio, to Jacksonville, Florida.

text: In the mid-1980s, franchises in Detroit, Michigan were converted by their owner to a new chain called Seafood Bay. Arthur Treacher's purchased six Seafood Bay locations back in 1997, but was unsuccessful in reverting them.[15]

text: The company experimented with co-branding, forming an alliance with Arby's (which got its start in the Youngstown suburb of Boardman) for co-branded locations. One such location existed in Breezewood, Pennsylvania. However, by the late 1990s, Arby's parent Triarc removed the Arthur Treacher's portions of its co-branded Arby's. Today, Arthur Treacher's primary co-branding partner is Nathan's Famous.

text: TruFoods Systems[edit]

text: The company holding the Arthur Treacher's trademark was acquired by PAT Franchise Systems, a wholly owned subsidiary of TruFoods Systems, Inc., in 2002. Nathan's Famous bought the exclusive rights to market the Arthur Treacher's trademark and sell their products co-branded with Nathan's Own concepts Kenny Rogers Roasters and Miami Subs in 2006; however, PAT Franchise Systems has a license agreement with NF Treachers to sell Arthur Treacher's Fish and Chips franchises in eight states.

text: As of 2018[update], in addition to Arthur Treacher's Fish and Chips, TruFoods Systems operated the following franchises:[16]

text:
Pudgie's Famous Chicken
Ritter's Frozen Custard
Wall St. Deli


document_title: Constitution of Texas

question_text: the first article of the texas constitution concerns

text: Constitution of Texas

text: Articles of the Texas Constitution of 1876[edit]

text: Article 1: "Bill of Rights"[edit]

text: Article 1 is the Texas Constitution's bill of rights. The article originally contained 29 sections; four sections have since been added. Some of the article's provisions concern specific fundamental limitations on the power of the state.

text: The provisions of the Texas Constitution apply only against the government of Texas. However, a number of the provisions of the U.S. Constitution are held to apply to the states as well, under the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

text: Section 4 purports to prohibit office holders from the requirements of any religious test, provided they "acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being". This conflicts with the U.S. Constitution's No Religious Test Clause, and would almost certainly be held unenforceable if challenged,[citation needed] as was a similar South Carolina requirement in Silverman v. Campbell, and a broader Maryland restriction in Torcaso v. Watkins.

text: Section 32 denies state recognition to same-sex unions, a practice which was invalidated as a consequence of Obergefell v. Hodges.

text: Article 2: "The Powers of Government"[edit]

text: Article 2 provides for the separation of powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the state government, prohibiting each branch from encroaching on the powers of the others.

text: Article 3: "Legislative Department"[edit]

text: Article 3 vests the legislative power of the state in the "Legislature of the State of Texas", consisting of the state's Senate and House of Representatives. It also lists the qualifications required of senators and representatives, and regulates many details of the legislative process.

text: As with the United States Constitution, either house may originate bills (Section 31), but bills to raise revenue must originate in the House of Representatives (Section 33).

text: Section 39 allows a bill to take effect immediately upon the Governor's signature if the bill passes both chambers by a two-thirds vote, unless otherwise specified in the bill. If the bill does not pass by this majority it takes effect on the first day of the next fiscal year (September 1).

text: Section 66 created the state's "Rainy Day Fund".

text: The article contains many substantive limitations on the power of the legislature and a large number of exceptions to those limitations. This is especially true within Section 49. The Section limits the power of the Legislature to incur debt to only specific purposes as stated in the Constitution; this has necessitated numerous amendments to this section in order to permit the Legislature (including two sections, both added in 2003 and both curiously numbered as "49-n"). In addition, Section 49a requires the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts to certify the amount of available cash on hand and anticipated revenues for the next biennium; no appropriation may exceed this amount (except in cases of emergency, and then only with a four-fifths vote of both chambers), and the Comptroller is required to reject and return to the Legislature any appropriation in violation of this requirement.

text: Article 4: "Executive Department"[edit]

text: Article 4 describes the powers and duties of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Comptroller, Commissioner of the General Land Office, and Attorney General. With the exception of the Secretary of State the above officials are directly elected in what is known as a "plural executive" system. (Although the Texas Agriculture Commissioner is also directly elected, that is the result of Legislative action, not a Constitutional requirement.)

text: Under Section 16 of this article, the Lieutenant Governor automatically assumes the power of Governor if and when the Governor travels outside of the state.

text: Article 5: "Judicial Department"[edit]

text: Article 5 describes the composition, powers, and jurisdiction of the state's Supreme Court, Court of Criminal Appeals, and District, County, and Commissioners Courts, as well as the Justice of the Peace Courts.

text: Article 6: "Suffrage"[edit]

text: Article 6 denies voting rights to minors, felons, and people who are deemed mentally incompetent by a court (though the Legislature may make exceptions in the latter two cases). It also describes rules for elections.

text: Article 7: "Education"[edit]

text: Article 7 establishes provisions for public schools, asylums, and universities. Section 1 states, "it shall be the duty of the Legislature of the State to establish and make suitable provision for the support and maintenance of an efficient system of public free schools". This issue has surfaced repeatedly in lawsuits involving the State's funding of education and the various restrictions it has placed on local school districts.

text: This Article also discusses the creation and maintenance of the Permanent University Fund (Sections 11, 11a, and 11b) and mandates the establishment of "a University of the first class" (Section 10) to be called The University of Texas, as well as "an Agricultural, and Mechanical department" (Section 13, today's Texas A&M University, which opened seven years prior to UT); it also establishes Prairie View A&M University in Section 14.

text: Article 8: "Taxation and Revenue"[edit]

text: Article 8 places various restrictions on the ability of the Legislature and local governments to impose taxes. Most of these restrictions concern local property taxes.

text: Section 1-e prohibits statewide property taxes. This Section has been the subject of numerous school district financing lawsuits claiming that other Legislative restrictions on local property taxes have created a de facto statewide property tax; the Texas Supreme Court has at times ruled that the restrictions did in fact do so (and thus were unconstitutional) and at other times ruled that they did not.

text: Texas does not have a personal income tax. Section 24 of the article, added by an amendment adopted in 1993, restricts the ability of the Legislature to impose such a tax. Under the section, a law imposing a personal income tax must be ratified in a statewide referendum to take effect; any further change in the tax must also be ratified to take effect, if it would increase the "collective liability" of all persons subject to the tax. The proceeds from the tax must first be used to reduce local school property taxes, with any remainder being used for the support of education.

text: No such restriction exists on imposition of a corporate income tax or similar tax; in May 2006 the Legislature replaced the existing franchise tax with a gross receipts tax.

text: Article 9: "Counties"[edit]

text: Article 9 provides rules for the creation of counties (now numbering 254) and for determining the location of county seats. It also includes several provisions regarding the creation of county-wide hospital districts in specified counties, as well as other miscellaneous provisions regarding airports and mental health.

text: Article 10: "Railroads"[edit]

text: Article 10 contains a single section declaring that railroads are considered "public highways" and railroad carriers "common carriers". Eight other sections were repealed in 1969.

text: Article 11: "Municipal Corporations"[edit]

text: Article 11 recognizes counties as legal political subunits of the State, grants certain powers to cities and counties, empowers the legislature to form school districts.

text: Texas operates under Dillon's Rule: counties and special districts are not granted home rule privileges, while cities and school districts have those privileges only in the limited instances specified below.

text: Sections 4 and 5 discuss the operation of cities based on population. Section 4 states that a city with a population of 5,000 or fewer has only those powers granted to it by general law; Section 5 permits a city, once its population exceeds 5,000, to adopt a charter under home rule provided the charter is not inconsistent with limits placed by the Texas Constitution or general law (the city may amend to maintain home rule status even if its population subsequently falls to 5,000 or fewer).

text: School districts may adopt home rule,[1] but none have chosen to do so.[2]

text: Article 12: "Private Corporations"[edit]

text: Article 12 contains two sections directing the Legislature to enact general laws for the creation of private corporations and prohibiting the creation of private corporations by special law. Four other sections were repealed in 1969, and a fifth section in 1993.

text: Article 13: "Spanish and Mexican Land Titles"[edit]

text: Article 13 established provisions for Spanish and Mexican land titles from the Mexican War Era to please the Mexican government.[citation needed] This article was repealed in its entirety in 1969.

text: Article 14: "Public Lands and Land Office"[edit]

text: Article 14 contains a single section establishing the General Land Office and the office of commissioner of the General Land Office. Seven other sections were repealed in 1969.

text: Article 15: "Impeachment"[edit]

text: Article 15 describes the process of impeachment and lists grounds on which to impeach judges. The House of Representatives is granted the power of impeachment.

text: Article 16: "General Provisions"[edit]

text: Article 16 contains miscellaneous provisions, including limits on interest rates, civil penalties for murder, and the punishment for bribery.

text: Section 28 prohibits garnishment of wages, except for spousal maintenance and child support payments (however, this does not limit Federal garnishment for items such as student loan payments or income taxes).

text: Section 37 provides for the constitutional protection of the mechanic's lien.

text: Section 50 provides for protection of a homestead against forced sale to pay debts, except for foreclosure on debts related to the homestead (mortgage, taxes, mechanic's liens, and home equity loans including home equity lines of credit). This section also places specific restrictions on home equity loans and lines of credit (Texas being the last state to allow them), the section:

text:
limits the amount of a home equity loan, when combined with all other loans against a home, to no more than 80 percent of the home's fair market value at the time of the loan,
requires that the advance on a home equity line of credit be at least $4,000 (even if the borrower wants to borrow less than that amount, though nothing prohibits a borrower from immediately repaying the credit line with a portion of said advance),
requires a 14-day waiting period before any loan or line of credit is effective (at the initial borrowing; later borrowings against a line of credit can still be made in less time), and
places restrictions on where closing can take place.

text: Although Texas is a right-to-work state, such protections are governed by law; the state does not have a constitutional provision related to right-to-work.

text: Article 17: "Mode of amending the Constitution of this State"[edit]

text: Notwithstanding the large number of amendments (and proposed amendments) that the Texas Constitution has had since its inception, the only method of amending the Constitution prescribed by Article 17 is via the Legislature, subject to voter approval. The Constitution does not provide for amendment by initiative, constitutional convention, or any other means. A 1974 constitutional convention required the voters to amend the Constitution to add a separate section to this Article; the section was later repealed in 1999.

text: The section also prescribes specific details for notifying the public of elections to approve amendments. It requires that the legislature publish a notice in officially approved newspapers that briefly summarizes each amendment and shows how each amendment will be described on the ballot. It also requires that the full text of each amendment be posted at each county courthouse at least 50 days (but no sooner than 60 days) before the election date.

text: Once an amendment passes it is compiled into the existing framework (i.e., text is either added or deleted), unlike the United States Constitution.

text: Attempts at revision[edit]

text: Because of the unwieldiness of the state constitution, there have been attempts to draft a new constitution or to significantly revise the existing one:

text:
The most successful of the attempts took place in 1969, when 56 separate obsolete provisions (including the entirety of Article 13, and 22 entire sections from Articles 10, 12, and 14) were successfully repealed.[3]
In 1971 the Texas Legislature placed on the November 1972 ballot an Amendment which called for the Legislature to meet in January 1974 for 90 days as a constitutional convention, for purposes of drafting a new state Constitution. The measure passed (thus adding Section 2 to Article 17; the section was later repealed in November 1999) and the Legislature met. However, even with an additional 60 days added to the session, the convention failed by a mere three votes to propose a new constitution.[3]
In 1975, the Legislature, meeting in regular session, revived much of the work of the 1974 convention and proposed it as a set of eight amendments to the existing constitution. All eight of the amendments were overwhelmingly rejected by the voters (in 250 the state's 254 counties, all eight amendments were defeated; only in Duval and Webb counties did all eight amendments pass).[3]
In 1979 the Legislature placed on the ballot four amendments which had their origins in the 1974 convention; of which three were approved by the voters:[4]

One amendment created a single property tax "appraisal district" in each county for purposes of providing a uniform appraised value for all property in a county applicable to all taxing authorities (previously, each taxing authority assessed property individually and frequently did so at dissimilar values between the authorities)
Another amendment gave to the Texas Court of Appeals criminal appellate jurisdiction (previously, the Courts had jurisdiction over civil matters only; though death penalty cases still bypass this level)
The last amendment gave the Governor of Texas limited authority to remove appointed statewide officials

In 1995, Senator John Montford drafted a streamlined constitution similar to the 1974 version. However, Montford resigned his seat to become chancellor of the Texas Tech University System, and his initiative subsequently died.[4] Later that year, though, voters approved an amendment abolishing the office of State Treasurer and moving its duties to the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts office.
In 1998, a bipartisan effort (led by Republican Senator Bill Ratliff and Democratic Representative Rob Junell) produced a rewritten constitution, with the help of students from Angelo State University (Junell's district included the San Angelo area). The second draft was submitted to the 76th Legislature, but failed to gain support in committee.[4]

text: History[edit]

text: On March 1, 1845, the US enacted a congressional joint resolution proposing the annexation of Texas to the United States (Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States, J.Res. 8, enacted March 1, 1845, 5 Stat. 797). On June 23, 1845, the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress's joint resolution, and consented to President Jones' calling of a convention to be held on July 4, 1845.[5][6] A Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it on July 4, 1845.[7] The convention debated through August 28th, and adopted the Constitution of the State of Texas on August 27, 1845.[8] The citizens of Texas approved an annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13, 1845.[citation needed] On December 29, 1845, the United States admitted the State of Texas to the Union (Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union, J.Res. 1, enacted December 29, 1845, 9 Stat. 108).

text: On June 17, 1865, President Andrew Johnson appointed Andrew Jackson Hamilton as the provisional civilian governor of the state and directed him to convene a constitutional convention restricted to loyal Americans.[9] A referendum was held on June 25, 1866, pursuant to the laws then in force on March 29, for the ratification of the amendments proposed by the convention.[10]

text: Texas adopted yet a new constitution document in 1866 once the United States accepted Texas back into the Union. Then, delegates met in 1869 and drafted a new constitution once again. This time, the newly modified law of the land aimed to protect rights for former slaves, and placed more power on centralized state power (p. 57, Practicing Texas Politics, 2015).