document_title: David

question_text: who is david's dad in the bible

question_tokens: who is david 's dad in the bible

text: David

text: Biblical account[edit]

text: Family[edit]

text: The first book of Samuel portrays David as the youngest of the eight sons of Jesse of Bethlehem. His mother is not named in any book of the Bible, but the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet daughter of Adael.[2] When the story was retold in 1 Chronicles (4th century BCE) he was made the youngest of seven sons and given two sisters, Zeruiah and Abigail. The Book of Ruth (possibly also 4th century BCE) traces his ancestry back to Ruth the Moabite.

text: David is described as cementing his relations with various political and national groups through marriage.[3] He is described as having eight wives: Michal, the second daughter of King Saul; Ahinoam the Jezreelite; Abigail the Carmelite, previously wife of Nabal; Maachah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur; Haggith; Abital; Eglah; and Bathsheba.

text: The Book of Chronicles lists his sons with his various wives and concubines. In Hebron, David had six sons: Amnon, by Ahinoam; Daniel, by Abigail; Absalom, by Maachah; Adonijah, by Haggith; Shephatiah, by Abital; and Ithream, by Eglah.[4] By Bathsheba, his sons were Shammua, Shobab, Nathan and Solomon. David's sons born in Jerusalem of his other wives included Ibhar, Elishua, Eliphelet, Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama and Eliada.[5] Jerimoth, who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies, is mentioned as another of his sons in 2 Chronicles 11:18. His daughter Tamar, by Maachah, is a key character in the incident of her rape by one of her half-brothers.

text: Narrative[edit]

text: God is angered when Saul, Israel's king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice[6] and later disobeys a divine instruction to not only kill all of the Amalekites, but to destroy also their confiscated property.[7] Consequently, God sends the prophet Samuel to anoint a shepherd, David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, to be king instead.[8]

text: God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul. Saul's courtiers recommend that he send for David, a man skillful on the lyre, wise in speech, and brave in battle. So David enters Saul's service as one of the royal armour-bearers, and plays the lyre to soothe the king.[9]

text: War comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat.[10] David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Saul's army, declares that he can defeat Goliath.[11] Refusing the king's offer of the royal armour,[12] he kills Goliath with his sling.[13] Saul inquires the name of the young hero's father.[14]

text: Saul sets David over his army. All Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him ("What else can he wish but the kingdom?").[15] Saul plots his death, but Saul's son Jonathan, one of those who loves David, warns him of his father's schemes and David flees. He goes first to Nob, where he is fed by the priest Ahimelech and given Goliath's sword, and then to Gath, the Philistine city of Goliath, intending to seek refuge with King Achish there. Achish's servants or officials question his loyalty, and David sees that he is in danger there.[16] He goes next to the cave of Adullam, where his family join him.[17] From there he goes to seek refuge with the king of Moab, but the prophet Gad advises him to leave and he goes to the Forest of Hereth,[18] and then to Keilah, where he is involved in a further battle with the Philistines. Saul plans to besiege Keilah so that he can capture David, so David leaves the city in order to protect its inhabitants.[19] From there he takes refuge in the mountainous Wilderness of Ziph.[20]

text: Jonathan meets with David again and confirms his loyalty to David as the future king. The people of Ziph notify Saul that David is taking refuge in their territory, Saul seeks confirmation and plans to capture David in the Wilderness of Maon, but his attention is diverted by a renewed Philistine invasion and David is able to secure some respite at Ein Gedi.[21] Returning from battle with the Philistines, Saul heads to Ein Gedi in pursuit of David and enters the cave where, as it happens, David and his supporters are hiding, "to attend to his needs". David realises he has an opportunity to kill Saul, but this is not his intention: he secretly cuts off a corner of Saul's robe and when Saul has left the cave he comes out to pay homage to Saul as the king and to demonstrate, using the piece of robe, that he holds no malice towards Saul. The two are thus reconciled and Saul recognises David as his successor.[22]

text: Alternatively, or (in the opinion of some commentators) subsequently,[23] Saul and David were reconciled following a similar occurrence when David was able to infiltrate Saul's camp on the hill of Hachilah and remove his spear and a jug of water from his side while he and his guards lay asleep. In this account (1 Samuel 26), David is advised by Abishai that this is his opportunity to kill Saul, but David declines, saying he will not "stretch out [his] hand against the Lord’s anointed".[24] David shows, by removing Saul's spear, that he had chance to take Saul's life but did not do so. Saul confesses that he has been wrong to pursue David, blesses him and promises that he "will do great things and surely triumph".[25] David prays that his own protection will be like his protection of Saul. The New King James Version and the New International Version both identify this episode as a second reconciliation between Saul and David[26] (with no account of any intervening dispute) but theologian Albert Barnes says the incident "is of a nature unlikely to have occurred more than once". This, it seems, was their last interview; after this they saw each other no more.[27]

text: A different tradition is recalled in 1 Samuel 27:1–4, namely that Saul ceased to pursue David because David took refuge a second time with Achish, the Philistine king of Gath.[28] Robert Jamieson, in the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary, suggests that Saul and David had "become irreconcilable" despite the reconciliations described in 1 Samuel 24 and 1 Samuel 26.[29] Achish permits David to reside in Ziklag, close to the border between Gath and Judea, from where he leads raids against the Geshurites, the Girzites and the Amalekites, but leads Achish to believe he is attacking the Israelites in Judah, the Jerahmeelites and the Kenites. Achish believes that David had become a loyal vassal, but he never wins the trust of the princes or lords of Gath and at their request Achish instructs David to remain behind to guard the camp when the Philistines march against Saul.[30] David returns to Ziklag.[31] Jonathan and Saul are killed in battle,[32] and David is anointed king over Judah.[33] In the north, Saul's son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, and war ensues until Ish-Bosheth is murdered.[34]

text: With the death of Saul's son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all of Israel.[35] He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital.[36] He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city,[37] intending to build a temple for God, but the prophet Nathan forbids it, prophesying that the temple would be built by one of his sons.[38] Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David stating, "your throne shall be established forever".[39] David wins additional victories over the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites and king Hadadezer of Aram-Zobah, after which they become tributaries.[40]

text: During a siege against the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David remains in Jerusalem. He spies a woman, Bathsheba, bathing on a nearby rooftop and summons her; she becomes pregnant.[41][42][43] The text in the Bible does not explicitly state whether Bathsheba consented or not for sex.[44][45][46] David calls her husband, Uriah the Hittite, back from the battle to rest, hoping that he will go home to his wife and the child will be presumed to be his. Uriah does not visit his wife, however, so David conspires to have him killed in the heat of battle. David then marries the widowed Bathsheba.[47] In response, Nathan prophesies the punishment that will fall upon him, stating "the sword shall never depart from your house."[48] When David acknowledges that he has sinned,[49] Nathan advises him that his sin is forgiven and he will not die,[50] but the child will.[51]  In fulfillment of Nathan's words, David's son Absalom rebels.[52] Absalom's forces are routed at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, and he is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree where, contrary to David's order, he is killed by Joab, the commander of David's army.[53] David laments the death of his favourite son: "O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!"[54] until Joab persuades him to recover from "the extravagance of his grief"[55] and to fulfil his duty to his people.[56] David returns to Gilgal and is escorted across the River Jordan and back to Jerusalem by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin.[57]

text: When David is old and bedridden, Adonijah, his eldest surviving son and natural heir, declares himself king.[58] Bathsheba and Nathan go to David and obtain his agreement to crown Bathsheba's son Solomon as king, according to David's earlier promise, and the revolt of Adonijah is put down.[59] David dies at the age of 70 after reigning for 40 years,[60] and on his deathbed counsels Solomon to walk in the ways of God and to take revenge on his enemies.[61]

text: Intertextuality in the Hebrew Bible[edit]

text: The Book of Samuel calls David a skillful harp (lyre) player[63] and "the sweet psalmist of Israel."[64] Yet, while almost half of the Psalms are headed "A Psalm of David" (also translated as "to David" or "for David") and tradition identifies several with specific events in David’s life (e.g., Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63 and 142),[65] the headings are late additions and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty.[66]

text: Psalm 34 is attributed to David on the occasion of his escape from Abimelech (or King Achish) by pretending to be insane.[67] According to the parallel narrative in 1 Samuel 21, instead of killing the man who had exacted so many casualties from him, Abimelech allows David to depart, exclaiming, "Am I so short of madmen that you have to bring this fellow here to carry on like this in front of me? Must this man come into my house?"[68]

text: History and archeology[edit]

text: The Tel Dan Stele, an inscribed stone erected by a king of Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE to commemorate his victory over two enemy kings, contains the phrase ביתדוד, bytdwd, which most scholars translate as "House of David".[69] Other scholars, such as Anson Rainey have challenged this reading,[70][71] but it is likely that this is a reference to a dynasty of the Kingdom of Judah which traced its ancestry to a founder named David.[69] The Mesha Stele from Moab, dating from approximately the same period, may also contain the name David in two places, although this is less certain than the mention in the Tel Dan inscription.[72]

text: Besides the two steles, bible scholar and egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen suggests that David's name also appears in a relief of Pharaoh Shoshenq (usually identified with Shishak in the Bible, 1 Kings 14:25-27).[73] The relief claims that Shoshenq raided places in Palestine in 925 BCE, and Kitchen interprets one place as "Heights of David", which was in Southern Judah and the Negev where the Bible says David took refuge from Saul. The relief is damaged and interpretation is uncertain.[73]

text: Apart from these, all that is known of David comes from the biblical literature. The Books of Samuel were substantially composed during the time of King Josiah at the end of the 7th century BCE, extended during the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), and substantially complete by about 550 BCE, although further editing was done even after then—the silver quarter-shekel which Saul's servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 "almost certainly fixes the date of the story in the Persian or Hellenistic period".[74] The authors and editors of Samuel drew on many earlier sources, including, for their history of David, the "history of David's rise" (1 Samuel 16:14–2 Samuel 5:10), and the "succession narrative" (2 Samuel 9–20 and 1 Kings 1–2).[75] The Book of Chronicles, which tells the story from a different point of view, was probably composed in the period 350–300 BCE, and uses Samuel as its source.[76]

text: The authors and editors of Samuel and Chronicles did not aim to record history, but to promote David's reign as inevitable and desirable, and for this reason there is little about David that is concrete and undisputed.[77] The archaeological evidence indicates that in the 10th century BCE, the time of David, Judah was sparsely inhabited and Jerusalem was no more than a small village; over the following century it slowly evolved from a highland chiefdom to a kingdom, but always overshadowed by the older and more powerful kingdom of Israel to the north.[78] The biblical evidence likewise indicates that David's Judah was something less than a full-fledged monarchy: it often calls him negid, for example, meaning "prince" or "chief", rather than melek, meaning "king"; the biblical David sets up none of the complex bureaucracy that a kingdom needs (even his army is made up of volunteers), and his followers are largely related to him and from his small home-area around Hebron.[79]

text: Beyond this, the full range of possible interpretations is available. The late John Bright, in his History of Israel (1981), takes Samuel at face value. Donald B. Redford, however, sees all reconstructions from biblical sources for the United Monarchy period as examples of "academic wishful thinking".[80] Thomas L. Thompson rejects the historicity of the biblical narrative: "The history of Palestine and of its peoples is very different from the Bible's narratives, whatever political claims to the contrary may be. An independent history of Judea during the Iron I and Iron II periods has little room for historicizing readings of the stories of I-II Samuel and I Kings."[81] Amihai Mazar however, concludes that based on recent archeological findings, like those in City of David, Khirbet Qeiyafa, Tel Dan, Tel Rehov, Khirbet en-Nahas and others "the deconstruction of United Monarchy and the devaluation of Judah as a state in 9th century is unacceptable interpretation of available historic data". According to Mazar, based on archeological evidences, the United Monarchy can be described as a "state in development".[82]

text: Some studies of David have been written: Baruch Halpern has pictured David as a lifelong vassal of Achish, the Philistine king of Gath;[83] Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman have identified as the oldest and most reliable section of Samuel those chapters which describe David as the charismatic leader of a band of outlaws who captures Jerusalem and makes it his capital.[84] Steven McKenzie, Associate Professor of the Hebrew Bible at Rhodes College and author of King David: A Biography, states the belief that David actually came from a wealthy family, was "ambitious and ruthless" and a tyrant who murdered his opponents, including his own sons.[66]

text: Critical Bible scholarship holds that the biblical account of David's rise to power is a political apology—an answer to contemporary charges against him, of his involvement in murders and regicide.[85]

text: Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman reject the idea that David ruled over a united monarchy, suggesting instead that he ruled only as a chieftain over the southern kingdom of Judah, much smaller than the northern kingdom of Israel at that time.[86] They posit that Israel and Judah were still polytheistic in the time of David and Solomon, and that much later seventh-century redactors sought to portray a past golden age of a united, monotheistic monarchy in order to serve contemporary needs.[87] They note a lack of archeological evidence for David's military campaigns and a relative underdevelopment of Jerusalem, the capital of Judah, compared to a more developed and urbanized Samaria, capital of Israel.[88][89][90]

text: Jacob L. Wright, Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible at Emory University, has written that the most popular legends about David, including his killing of Goliath, his affair with Bathsheba, and his ruling of a United Kingdom of Israel rather than just Judah, are the creation of those who lived generations after him, in particular those living in the late Persian or Hellenistic periods.[91]

text: History of interpretation in the Abrahamic religions[edit]

text: Rabbinic Judaism[edit]

text: David is an important figure in Rabbinic Judaism. Many legends have grown around the figure of David. According to one Rabbinic tradition, David was raised as the son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his father's sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school.

text: David's adultery with Bathsheba was only an opportunity to demonstrate the power of repentance, and the Talmud states that it was not adultery at all, quoting a Jewish practice of divorce on the eve of battle. Furthermore, according to Talmudic sources, the death of Uriah was not to be considered murder, on the basis that Uriah had committed a capital offense by refusing to obey a direct command from the King.[92] However, in tractate Sanhedrin, David expressed remorse over his transgressions and sought forgiveness. God ultimately forgave David and Bathsheba but would not remove their sins from Scripture.[93]

text: According to midrashim, Adam gave up 70 years of his life for the life of David.[94] Also, according to the Talmud Yerushalmi, David was born and died on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot (Feast of Weeks). His piety was said to be so great that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven.

text: Christianity[edit]

text:
King David the Prophet

King David in Prayer, by Pieter de Grebber (c. 1640)

Holy Monarch, Prophet, Reformer, Spiritual Poet and Musician, Vicegerent of God, Psalm-Receiver

Born
Bethlehem

Died
Jerusalem

Venerated in
Judaism
Christianity
Islam

Feast
December 29 – Roman Catholicism

Attributes
Psalms, Harp, Head of Goliath

text: The concept of the Messiah is important in Christianity. Originally an earthly king ruling by divine appointment ("the anointed one", as the title Messiah had it), the "son of David" became in the last two pre-Christian centuries the apocalyptic and heavenly one who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom. This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early Christianity, which interpreted the career of Jesus "by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult, in which he served as priest-king and in which he was the mediator between God and man".[95] The early Church believed that "the life of David [foreshadowed] the life of Christ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both; the shepherd life of David points out Christ, the Good Shepherd; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are typical of the five wounds; the betrayal by his trusted counsellor, Achitophel, and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ's Sacred Passion. Many of the Davidic Psalms, as we learn from the New Testament, are clearly typical of the future Messiah."[96] In the Middle Ages, "Charlemagne thought of himself, and was viewed by his court scholars, as a 'new David'. [This was] not in itself a new idea, but [one whose] content and significance were greatly enlarged by him".[97] The linking of David to earthly kingship was reflected in later Medieval cathedral windows all over Europe through the device of the Tree of Jesse, its branches demonstrating how divine kingship descended from Jesse, through his son David, to Jesus.

text: Western Rite churches (Lutheran, Roman Catholic) celebrate his feast day on 29 December, Eastern-rite on 19 December.[98] The Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches celebrate the feast day of the "Holy Righteous Prophet and King David" on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. He is also commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity, together with Joseph and James, the Brother of the Lord.

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text: In European Christian culture of the Middle Ages, David was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry. His life was thus proposed as a valuable subject for study by those aspiring to chivalric status. This aspect of David in the Nine Worthies was popularised firstly through literature, and was thereafter adopted as a frequent subject for painters and sculptors.

text: David was considered as a model ruler and a symbol of divinely-ordained monarchy throughout medieval Western Europe and Eastern Christendom. David was perceived as the biblical predecessor to Christian Roman and Byzantine emperors and the name "New David" was used as an honorific reference to these rulers.[100] The Georgian Bagratids and the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia claimed a direct biological descent from him.[101] Likewise, the Frankish Carolingian dynasty frequently connected themselves to David; Charlemagne himself occasionally used the name of David as his pseudonym.[100]

text: Islam[edit]

text: David (Arabic داود, Dāwūd) is an important figure in Islam as one of the major prophets sent by God to guide the Israelites. David is mentioned several times in the Quran, often with his son Solomon. The actual Arabic equivalent to the Hebrew Davīd is Dawūd. In the Qur'an: David killed Goliath (2:251), a giant soldier in the Philistine army. When David killed Goliath, God granted him kingship and wisdom and enforced it (38:20). David was made God's "vicegerent on earth" (38:26) and God further gave David sound judgment (21:78; 37:21–24, 26) as well as the Psalms, regarded as books of divine wisdom (4:163; 17:55). The birds and mountains united with David in uttering praise to God (21:79; 34:10; 38:18), while God made iron soft for David (34:10), God also instructed David in the art of fashioning chain-mail out of iron (21:80); an indication of the first use of Wrought iron, this knowledge gave David a major advantage over his bronze and cast iron-armed opponents, not to mention the cultural and economic impact. Together with Solomon, David gave judgment in a case of damage to the fields (21:78) and David judged the matter between two disputants in his prayer chamber (38:21–23). Since there is no mention in the Qur'an of the wrong David did to Uriah nor any reference to Bathsheba, Muslims reject this narrative.[102]

text: Muslim tradition and the hadith stress David's zeal in daily prayer as well as in fasting.[103] Qur'an commentators, historians and compilers of the numerous Stories of the Prophets elaborate upon David's concise Qur'anic narratives and specifically mention David's gift in singing his Psalms as well as his musical and vocal talents. His voice is described as having had a captivating power, weaving its influence not only over man but over all beasts and nature, who would unite with him to praise God.[104]

text: Art and literature[edit]

text: Literature[edit]

text: Literary works about David include:

text:
1681–82 Dryden's long poem Absalom and Achitophel is an allegory that uses the story of the rebellion of Absalom against King David as the basis for his satire of the contemporary political situation, including events such as the Monmouth Rebellion (1685), the Popish Plot (1678) and the Exclusion Crisis.
1893 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle may have used the story of David and Bathsheba as a foundation for the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Crooked Man. Holmes mentions "the small affair of Uriah and Bathsheba" at the end of the story.[105]
1928 Elmer Davis's novel Giant Killer retells and embellishes the biblical story of David, casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the "dirty work" of heroism and kingship. In the novel, Elhanan in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit; and Joab, David's cousin and general, took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead.
1936 William Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom! refers to the story of Absalom, David's son; his rebellion against his father and his death at the hands of David's general, Joab. In addition it parallels Absalom's vengeance for the rape of his sister Tamar by his half-brother, Amnon.
1946 Gladys Schmitt's novel David the King was a richly embellished biography of David's entire life. The book took a risk, especially for its time, in portraying David's relationship with Jonathan as overtly homoerotic, but was ultimately panned by critics as a bland rendition of the title character.
1966 Juan Bosch, a Dominican political leader and writer, wrote David: Biography of a King, as a realistic portrayal of David's life and political career.
1970 Dan Jacobson's The Rape of Tamar is an imagined account, by one of David's courtiers Yonadab, of the rape of Tamar by Amnon.
1972 Stefan Heym wrote The King David Report in which the historian Ethan compiles upon King Solomon's orders "a true and authoritative report on the life of David, Son of Jesse"—the East German writer's wry depiction of a court historian writing an "authorized" history, many incidents clearly intended as satirical references to the writer's own time.
1974 In Thomas Burnett Swann's biblical fantasy novel How are the Mighty Fallen, David and Jonathan are explicitly stated to be lovers. Moreover, Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race (possibly nephilim), one of several such races coexisting with humanity but often persecuted by it.
1980 Malachi Martin's factional novel King of Kings: A Novel of the Life of David relates the life of David, Adonai's champion in his battle with the Philistine deity Dagon.
1984 Joseph Heller wrote a novel based on David called God Knows, published by Simon & Schuster. Told from the perspective of an aging David, the humanity—rather than the heroism—of various biblical characters is emphasized. The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed, lust, selfishness, and his alienation from God, the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th-century interpretation of the events told in the Bible.
1993 Madeleine L'Engle's novel Certain Women explores family, the Christian faith, and the nature of God through the story of King David's family and an analogous modern family's saga.
1995 Allan Massie wrote King David, a novel about David's career that portrays the king's relationship to Jonathan as sexual.[106]
2015 Geraldine Brooks wrote a novel about King David, The Secret Chord , told from the point of view of the prophet Nathan.[107][108]

text: Paintings[edit]

text:
1599 Caravaggio David and Goliath
c. 1619 Caravaggio, David and Goliath

text: Sculptures[edit]

text:
1440? Donatello David
1501–04 Michelangelo, David

text: Film[edit]

text: David has been depicted several times in films; these are some of the best-known:

text:
1951 In David and Bathsheba, directed by Henry King, Gregory Peck played David.
1959 In Solomon and Sheba, directed by King Vidor, Finlay Currie played an aged King David.
1961 In A Story of David, directed by Bob McNaught, Jeff Chandler played David.
1985 In King David, directed by Bruce Beresford, Richard Gere played King David.
1996 In Dave and the Giant Pickle
2016 In Of Kings and Prophets

text: Music[edit]

text:
The traditional birthday song Las Mañanitas mentions King David as the original singer in its lyrics.
1738 George Frideric Handel's oratorio Saul features David as one of its main characters.[109]
1921 Arthur Honegger's oratorio Le Roi David with a libretto by René Morax, instantly became a staple of the choral repertoire.
1983 Bob Dylan refers to David in his song "Jokerman" ("Michelangelo indeed could've carved out your features").[110]
1984 Leonard Cohen's song "Hallelujah" has references to David ("there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord", "The baffled king composing Hallelujah") and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof") in its opening verses.
1990 The song "One of the Broken" by Paddy McAloon, performed by Prefab Sprout on the album Jordan: The Comeback, has a reference to David ("I remember King David, with his harp and his beautiful, beautiful songs, I answered his prayers, and showed him a place where his music belongs").
1991 "Mad About You", a song on Sting's the album The Soul Cages, explores David's obsession with Bathsheba from David's perspective.[111]
2000 The song "Gimme a Stone" appears on the Little Feat album Chinese Work Songs chronicles the duel with Goliath and contains a lament to Absalom as a bridge.[112]

text: Musical theater[edit]

text: 1997 King David, sometimes described as a modern oratorio, with a book and lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Alan Menken.

text: Television[edit]

text:
1997 David, a TV-film with Nathaniel Parker as King David and Leonard Nimoy as the Prophet Samuel.[113]
1997 Max von Sydow portrayed an older King David in the TV-film Solomon, a sequel to David.[114]
2009 Christopher Egan played David on Kings, a re-imagining loosely based on the biblical story.[115]
King David is the focus of the second episode of History Channel's Battles BC documentary, which detailed all of his military exploits in the bible.[116]
2013 Langley Kirkwood portrayed King David in the miniseries The Bible.

text: Playing cards[edit]

text: For a considerable period, starting in the 15th century and continuing until the 19th, French playing card manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards names taken from history or mythology. In this context, the King of Spades was often known as "David".[117][118]

text: Image gallery[edit]

text:
Study of King David, by Julia Margaret Cameron. Depicts Sir Henry Taylor, 1866.

Miniature from the Paris Psalter: David in the robes of a Byzantine emperor.

Matteo Rosselli The triumphant David.

Rembrandt, c. 1650: Saul and David.

Arnold Zadikow, 1930: The Young David displayed in the entrance of Berlin's Jewish Museum from 1933 until its loss during the Second World War.

King David, stained glass windows from the Romanesque Augsburg Cathedral, late 11th century.


document_title: Pencil

question_text: what does the b in hb pencil stand for

question_tokens: what does the b in hb pencil stand for

root

text: Pencil

text: History

text: Camel's hair pencil

text: Pencil, from Old French pincel, from Latin penicillus a "little tail" (see penis; pincellus is Latin from the post-classical period[1]) originally referred to an artist's fine brush of camel hair, also used for writing before modern lead or chalk pencils.[2]

tag: p

text: Though the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans[3] and for palm-leaf manuscripts.

text: Discovery of graphite deposit

text: As a techniqe for drawing, the closest predecesor to the pencil was Silverpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England.[4][5][6][7] This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form.[8] Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called plumbago (Latin for "lead ore").[9][10] Because the pencil core is still referred to as "lead", or a "lead", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead,[11] and the black core of pencils is still referred to as lead, even though it never contained the element lead.[12][13][14][15][16][17] The words for pencil in German (bleistift), Irish (peann luaidhe), Arabic (قلم رصاص qalam raṣāṣ), and some other languages literally mean lead pen.

text: The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required.

text: The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. The news of the usefulness of these early pencils spread far and wide, attracting the attention of artists all over the known world.[citation needed] Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum.[18] The meaning of "graphite writing implement" apparently evolved late in the 16th century.[19]

text: Wood holders added

text: Around 1560,[20] an Italian couple named Simonio and Lyndiana Bernacotti made what are likely the first blueprints for the modern, wood-encased carpentry pencil. Their version was a flat, oval, more compact type of pencil. Their concept involved the hollowing out of a stick of juniper wood. Shortly thereafter, a superior technique was discovered: two wooden halves were carved, a graphite stick inserted, and the halves then glued together—essentially the same method in use to this day.[21]

text: New pencils from graphite powder, and graphite and clay

text: The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony.[22][23][24][25]

text: English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines – the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Conté discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use.[26] In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna.[27]

text: In England, pencils continued to be made from whole sawn graphite. Henry Bessemer's first successful invention (1838) was a method of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite thus allowing the waste from sawing to be reused.[28]

text: The pencil in America

text: American colonists imported pencils from Europe until after the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin advertised pencils for sale in his Pennsylvania Gazette in 1729, and George Washington used a three-inch pencil when he surveyed the Ohio Territory in 1762.[29][better source needed] It is said[by whom?] that William Munroe, a cabinetmaker in Concord, Massachusetts, made the first American wood pencils in 1812. This was not the only pencil-making occurring in Concord. According to Henry Petroski,[citation needed] transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau discovered how to make a good pencil out of inferior graphite using clay as the binder; this invention was prompted by his father's pencil factory in Concord, which employed graphite found in New Hampshire in 1821 by Charles Dunbar.

text: Munroe's method of making pencils was painstakingly slow, and in the neighbouring town of Acton, a pencil mill owner named Ebenezer Wood set out to automate the process at his own pencil mill located at Nashoba Brook. He used the first circular saw in pencil production. He constructed the first of the hexagon- and octagon-shaped wooden casings. Ebenezer did not patent his invention and shared his techniques with anyone. One of those was Eberhard Faber of New York, who became the leader in pencil production.[30]

text: Joseph Dixon, an inventor and entrepreneur involved with the Tantiusques granite mine in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, developed a means to mass-produce pencils. By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world’s largest dealer and consumer of graphite and later became the contemporary Dixon Ticonderoga pencil and art supplies company.[31][32]

text: By the end of the 19th century, over 240,000 pencils were used each day in the US. The favoured timber for pencils was Red Cedar as it was aromatic and did not splinter when sharpened. In the early 20th century supplies of Red Cedar were dwindling so that pencil manufacturers were forced to recycle the wood from cedar fences and barns to maintain supply.

text: One effect of this was that "during World War II rotary pencil sharpeners were outlawed in Britain because they wasted so much scarce lead and wood, and pencils had to be sharpened in the more conservative manner – with knives."[33]

text: It was soon discovered that Incense cedar, when dyed and perfumed to resemble Red Cedar, was a suitable alternative and most pencils today are made from this timber which is grown in managed forests. Over 14 billion pencils are manufactured worldwide annually.[34] Less popular alternatives to cedar include basswood and alder.[33]

text: In Southeast Asia the wood Jelutong may be used to create pencils (though the use of this rainforest species is controversial).[35] Environmentalists prefer the use of Pulai – another wood native to the region and used in pencil manufacturing.[36][37]

text: Eraser attached

text: On 30 March 1858, Hymen Lipman received the first patent for attaching an eraser to the end of a pencil.[38] In 1862, Lipman sold his patent to Joseph Reckendorfer for $100,000, who went on to sue pencil manufacturer Faber-Castell for infringement.[39] In 1875, the Supreme Court of the US ruled against Reckendorfer declaring the patent invalid.[40]

text: Pencil extenders

text: Historian Henry Petroski notes that while ever more efficient means of mass production of pencils has driven the replacement cost of a pencil down, before this people would continue to use even the stub of a pencil. For those who "did not feel comfortable using a stub, pencil extenders were sold. These devices function something like a porte-crayon...the pencil stub can be inserted into the end of a shaft...Extenders were especially common among engineers and draftsmen, whose favorite pencils were priced dearly. The use of an extender also has the advantage that the pencil does not appreciably change its heft as it wears down."[33] Artists currently use extenders to maximize the use of their colored pencils.

text: Types

text: By marking material

text: By use

text: By shape

text:
Triangular (more accurately a Reuleaux triangle)
Hexagonal
Round
Bendable (flexible plastic)

tag: ul

text: By size

text: A standard, #2, hexagonal pencil is 19 cm (7.5 in) long.

text: By manufacture

text: There are also pencils which use mechanical methods to push lead through a hole at the end. These can be divided into two groups: propelling pencils use an internal mechanism to push the lead out from an internal compartment, while clutch pencils merely hold the lead in place (the lead is extended by releasing it and allowing some external force, usually gravity, to pull it out of the body). The erasers (sometimes replaced by a sharpener on pencils with larger lead sizes) are also removable (and thus replaceable), and usually cover a place to store replacement leads. Mechanical pencils are popular for their longevity and the fact that they may never need sharpening. Lead types are based on grade and size; with standard sizes being 2.00 mm (0.079 in), 1.40 mm (0.055 in), 1.00 mm (0.039 in), 0.70 mm (0.028 in), 0.50 mm (0.020 in), 0.35 mm (0.014 in), 0.25 mm (0.0098 in), 0.18 mm (0.0071 in), and 0.13 mm (0.0051 in) (ISO 9175-1)—the 0.90 mm (0.035 in) size is available, but is not considered a standard ISO size.[citation needed]

text: Pioneered by Taiwanese stationery manufacturer Bensia Pioneer Industrial Corporation in the early 1970s, the product is also known as Bensia Pencils, stackable pencils or non-sharpening pencils. It is a type of pencil where many short pencil tips are housed in a cartridge-style plastic holder. A blunt tip is removed by pulling it from the writing end of the body and re-inserting it into the open-ended bottom of the body, thereby pushing a new tip to the top.

text: Invented by Harold Grossman[57] for Empire Pencil Company in 1967 and subsequently improved upon by Arthur D. Little for Empire from 1969 through the early 1970s; the plastic pencil was commercialised by Empire as the "EPCON" Pencil. These pencils were co-extruded, extruding a plasticised graphite mix within a wood-composite core.[58]

text: Health

text: Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed.[59]

text: Although lead has not been used for writing since antiquity, lead poisoning from pencils was not uncommon. Until the middle of the 20th century the paint used for the outer coating could contain high concentrations of lead, and this could be ingested when the pencil was sucked or chewed.[60]

text: Manufacture

text: The lead of the pencil is a mix of finely ground graphite and clay powders. Before the two substances are mixed, they are separately cleaned of foreign matter and dried in a manner that creates large square cakes. Once the cakes have fully dried, the graphite and the clay squares are mixed together using water. The amount of clay content added to the graphite depends on the intended pencil hardness (lower proportions of clay makes the core softer),[61] and the amount of time spent on grinding the mixture determines the quality of the lead. The mixture is then shaped into long spaghetti-like strings, straightened, dried, cut, and then tempered in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax, which seeps into the tiny holes of the material and allows for the smooth writing ability of the pencil. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to fashion a "slat," and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole assembly is then cut into individual pencils, which are then varnished or painted. Many pencils feature an eraser on the top and so the process is usually still considered incomplete at this point. Each pencil has a shoulder cut on one end of the pencil to allow for a metal ferrule to be secured onto the wood. A rubber plug is then inserted into the ferrule for a functioning eraser on the end of the pencil.[62]

text: Grading and classification

text: Graphite pencils are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black: the more clay the harder the pencil.[63][64][65] There is a wide range of grades available, mainly for artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead.

text: Manufacturers distinguish their pencils by grading them, but there is no common standard.[66] Two pencils of the same grade but different manufacturers will not necessarily make a mark of identical tone nor have the same hardness.[67]

text: Most manufacturers, and almost all in Europe, designate their pencils with the letters H (commonly interpreted as "hardness") to B (commonly "blackness"), as well as F (usually taken to mean "fineness", although F pencils are no more fine or more easily sharpened than any other grade. Also known as "firm" in Japan[68]). The standard writing pencil is graded HB.[69] This designation might have been first used in the early 20th century by Brookman, an English pencil maker. It used B for black and H for hard; a pencil's grade was described by a sequence or successive Hs or Bs such as BB and BBB for successively softer leads, and HH and HHH for successively harder ones.[70] The Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth pencil manufacturers claim to have first used the HB designations, with H standing for Hardtmuth, B for the company's location of Budějovice, and F for Franz Hardtmuth, who was responsible for technological improvements in pencil manufacture.[71][72]

text: As of 2009, a set of pencils ranging from a very hard, light-marking pencil to a very soft, black-marking pencil usually ranges from hardest to softest as follows:

text:
9H
8H
7H
6H
5H
4H
3H
2H
H
F
HB
B
2B
3B
4B
5B
6B
7B
8B
9B

Hardest
→
Medium
→
Softest

tag: table

text: Koh-i-noor offers twenty grades from 10H to 8B for its 1500 series;[73] Mitsubishi Pencil offers twenty-two grades from 10H to 10B for its Hi-uni range;[74] Derwent produces twenty grades from 9H to 9B for its graphic pencils[75] and Staedtler produces sixteen from 6H to 8B for its Mars Lumograph pencils.[76]

text: Numbers as designation were first used by Conté and later by John Thoreau, father of Henry David Thoreau, in the 19th century.[77]

text:
Conté/Thoreau[78]

Tone
US
World

#1
B

#2
HB

#2½*
F

#3
H

#4
2H

*Also seen as 24/8, 2.5, 25/10

text: Although Conté/Thoreau's equivalence table is widely accepted[citation needed], not all manufacturers follow it; for example, Faber-Castell uses a different equivalence table in its Grip 2001 pencils: 1 = 2B, 2 = B, 2½ = HB, 3 = H, 4 = 2H.

text: Pencil hardness test

text: Graded pencils can be used for a rapid test that provides relative ratings for a series of coated panels but can't be used to compare the pencil hardness of different coatings. This test defines a "pencil hardness" of a coating as the grade of the hardest pencil that does not permanently mark the coating when pressed firmly against it at a 45 degree angle.[79][80] For standardized measurements, there are Mohs hardness testing pencils on the market.

text: External colour and shape of pencils

text: The majority of pencils made in the US are painted yellow.[81] According to Henry Petroski,[82] this tradition began in 1890 when the L. & C. Hardtmuth Company of Austria-Hungary introduced their Koh-I-Noor brand, named after the famous diamond. It was intended to be the world's best and most expensive pencil, and at a time when most pencils were either painted in dark colours or not at all, the Koh-I-Noor was yellow. As well as simply being distinctive, the colour may have been inspired by the Austro-Hungarian flag; it was also suggestive of the Orient at a time when the best-quality graphite came from Siberia. Other companies then copied the yellow colour so that their pencils would be associated with this high-quality brand, and chose brand names with explicit Oriental references, such as Mikado (renamed Mirado)[83][84] and Mongol.[85][86]

text: Not all countries use yellow pencils. German and Brazilian pencils, for example, are often green, blue or black, based on the trademark colours of Faber-Castell, a major German stationery company which has plants in those countries. In southern European countries, pencils tend to be dark red or black with yellow lines, while in Australia, they are red with black bands at one end. In India, the most common pencil colour scheme was dark red with black lines, and pencils with a large number of colour schemes are produced by various companies.[citation needed]

text: Pencils are commonly round, hexagonal, or sometimes triangular in section. Carpenters' pencils are typically oval or rectangular, so they cannot easily roll away during work.

text: Notable pencil users

text:
Thomas Edison had his pencils specially made by Eagle Pencil. Each pencil was three inches long, was thicker than standard pencils and had softer graphite than was normally available.[34]
Vladimir Nabokov rewrote everything he had ever published, usually several times, in pencil.[34]
John Steinbeck was an obsessive pencil user and is said to have used as many as 60 a day[by whom?]. His novel East of Eden took more than 300 pencils to write.[34]
Vincent van Gogh used only Faber pencils as they were "superior to Carpenters pencils, a capital black and most agreeable".[34][87]
Johnny Carson regularly played with pencils at his Tonight Show desk. These pencils were specially made with erasers at both ends to avoid on-set accidents.[88]
Roald Dahl used only pencils with yellow casing to write his books. He had 6 sharpened pencils ready at the beginning of each day and only when all 6 pencils became unusable did he resharpen them.[89]

text: Manufacturers

text: The following table lists the prominent manufacturers of wood-cased (including wood-free) pencils around the world.

text:
Manufacturer
Country of origin
Remark

Caran d'Ache
Switzerland

China First Pencil Co.
China
"Chung hwa" and "Great Wall" brands

Cretacolor Bleistiftfabrik
Austria

Derwent Cumberland Pencil Company
UK
Derwent brand

Dixon Ticonderoga Company
USA
Dixon, Oriole, Ticonderoga brands (manufactured in Mexico, China)

Faber-Castell AG
Germany
Plants in Germany, Indonesia, Costa Rica, Brazil

FILA Group
Italy
Owns Lyra, Dixon, Ticonderoga brands

General Pencil Co.
USA
General's, Kimberly brands

Hindustan Pencils
India
Apsara, Nataraj brands

Kita-Boshi
Japan

Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth
Czech Republic
Koh-i-Noor brand

Lyra Bleistift-Fabrik
Germany
Parent: FILA Group

Mitsubishi Pencil Company
Japan
Mitsu-Bishi, Uni brands

Musgrave Pencil Company
USA

Newell Brands
USA
Paper Mate brand

Palomino
USA
Division of California Cedar Products, USA;

Staedtler Mars GmbH & Co.
Germany
Staedtler brand

Tombow Pencil Co.
Japan

Viarco
Portugal


document_title: List of rivers by length

question_text: after the nile which is the longest river in the world

text: List of rivers by length

text: Definition of length

text: There are many factors, such as the source, the identification or the definition of the mouth, and the scale of measurement[1] of the river length between source and mouth, that determine the precise meaning of "river length". As a result, the length measurements of many rivers are only approximations (see also coastline paradox). In particular, there has long been disagreement as to whether the Nile or the Amazon is the world's longest river. The Nile has traditionally been considered longer, but in recent years some Brazilian and Peruvian studies have suggested that the Amazon is longer by measuring the river plus the adjacent Pará estuary and the longest connecting tidal canal.[2][3][4][5]

text: Even when detailed maps are available, the length measurement is not always clear. A river may have multiple channels, or anabranches. The length may depend on whether the center or the edge of the river is measured. It may not be clear how to measure the length through a lake. Seasonal and annual changes may alter both rivers and lakes. Other factors that can change the length of a river include cycles of erosion and flooding, dams, levees, and channelization. In addition, the length of meanders can change significantly over time due to natural or artificial cutoffs, when a new channel cuts across a narrow strip of land, bypassing a large river bend. For example, due to 18 cutoffs created between 1766 and 1885 the length of the Mississippi River from Cairo, Illinois, to New Orleans, Louisiana, was reduced by 218 miles (351 km).[6]

text: These points make it difficult, if not impossible, to get an accurate measurement of the length of a river. The varying accuracy and precision also makes it difficult to make length comparisons between different rivers without a degree of uncertainty.

text: List of rivers longer than 1000 km

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: This article or section possibly contains synthesis of material which does not verifiably mention or relate to the main topic. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (June 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: One should take the aforementioned discussion into account when using the data in the following table. For most rivers, different sources provide conflicting information on the length of a river system. The information in different sources is between parentheses.

text:
Continent color key

Africa
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America

text:
River
Length (km)
Length (miles)
Drainage area
(km²)
[citation needed]
Average discharge
(m³/s)
[citation needed]
Outflow
Countries in the drainage basin[citation needed]

1.
Amazon–Ucayali–Tambo–Ene–Apurímac[n 1]
6,992
(6,400)
4,345
(3,976)
7,050,000
209,000
Atlantic Ocean
Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana

2.
Nile–Kagera[n 1]
6,853
(6,650)
4,258
(4,132)
3,254,555
2,800
Mediterranean
Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Egypt, Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan

3.
Yangtze
(Chang Jiang; Long River)
6,300
(6,418)
3,917
(3,988)
1,800,000
31,900
East China Sea
China

4.
Mississippi–Missouri–Jefferson
6,275
3,902
2,980,000
16,200
Gulf of Mexico
United States (98.5%), Canada (1.5%)

5.
Yenisei–Angara–Selenge
5,539
3,445
2,580,000
19,600
Kara Sea
Russia (97%), Mongolia (2.9%)

6.
Yellow River
(Huang He)
5,464
3,395
745,000
2,110
Bohai Sea
China

7.
Ob–Irtysh
5,410
3,364
2,990,000
12,800
Gulf of Ob
Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia

8.
Paraná–Río de la Plata[8]
4,880
3,030
2,582,672
18,000
Río de la Plata
Brazil (46.7%), Argentina (27.7%), Paraguay (13.5%), Bolivia (8.3%), Uruguay (3.8%)

9.
Congo–Chambeshi
(Zaïre)
4,700
2,922
3,680,000
41,800
Atlantic Ocean
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Angola, Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Cameroon, Zambia, Burundi, Rwanda

10.
Amur–Argun
(Heilong Jiang)
4,444
2,763
1,855,000
11,400
Sea of Okhotsk
Russia, China, Mongolia

11.
Lena
4,400
2,736
2,490,000
17,100
Laptev Sea
Russia

12.
Mekong
(Lancang Jiang)
4,350
2,705
810,000
16,000
South China Sea
China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam

13.
Mackenzie–Slave–Peace–Finlay
4,241
2,637
1,790,000
10,300
Beaufort Sea
Canada

14.
Niger
4,200
2,611
2,090,000
9,570
Gulf of Guinea
Nigeria (26.6%), Mali (25.6%), Niger (23.6%), Algeria (7.6%), Guinea (4.5%), Cameroon (4.2%), Burkina Faso (3.9%), Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Chad

15.
Brahmaputra–Tsangpo
3,848
2,391
712,035
19,800[9][10]
Ganges
India (58.0%), China (19.7%), Nepal (9.0%), Bangladesh (6.6%), Disputed India/China (4.2%), Bhutan (2.4%)

16.
Murray–Darling
3,672[11]
2,282
1,061,000
767
Southern Ocean
Australia

17.
Tocantins–Araguaia
3,650
2,270
950,000
13,598
Atlantic Ocean, Amazon
Brazil

18.
Volga
3,645
2,266
1,380,000
8,080
Caspian Sea
Russia

19.
Indus–Sênggê Zangbo
3,610
2,250
960,000
7,160
Arabian Sea
Pakistan (93%), India, China, Kashmir (Disputed region between Pakistan, India and China)

20.
Shatt al-Arab–Euphrates
3,596
2,236
884,000
856
Persian Gulf
Iraq (60.5%), Turkey (24.8%), Syria (14.7%)

21.
Madeira–Mamoré–Grande–Caine–Rocha
3,380
2,100
1,485,200
31,200
Amazon
Brazil, Bolivia, Peru

22.
Purús
3,211
1,995
63,166
8,400
Amazon
Brazil, Peru

23.
Yukon
3,185
1,980[6]
850,000
6,210
Bering Sea
United States (59.8%), Canada (40.2%)

24.
São Francisco
3,180*
(2,900)
1,976*
(1,802)
610,000
3,300
Atlantic Ocean
Brazil

25.
Syr Darya–Naryn
3,078
1,913
219,000
703
Aral Sea
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan

26.
Salween
(Nu Jiang)
3,060
1,901
324,000
3,153[12]
Andaman Sea
China (52.4%), Myanmar (43.9%), Thailand (3.7%)

27.
Saint Lawrence–Great Lakes
3,058
1,900[6]
1,030,000
10,100
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Canada (52.1%), United States (47.9%)

28.
Rio Grande
3,057
1,900[6]
570,000
82
Gulf of Mexico
United States (52.1%), Mexico (47.9%)

29.
Lower Tunguska
2,989
1,857
473,000
3,600
Yenisei
Russia

30.
Danube–Breg (Donau, Dunăre, Duna, Dunav, Dunaj)
2,888*
1,795*
817,000
7,130
Black Sea
Romania (28.9%), Hungary (11.7%), Austria (10.3%), Serbia (10.3%), Germany (7.5%), Slovakia (5.8%), Bulgaria (5.2%), Croatia (4.5%),

31.
Zambezi
(Zambesi)
2,693*
1,673*
1,330,000
4,880
Mozambique Channel
Zambia (41.6%), Angola (18.4%), Zimbabwe (15.6%), Mozambique (11.8%), Malawi (8.0%), Tanzania (2.0%), Namibia, Botswana

32.
Vilyuy
2,650
1,647
454,000
1,480
Lena
Russia

33.
Araguaia
2,627
1,632
358,125
5,510
Tocantins
Brazil

34.
Ganges–Hooghly–Padma (Ganga)
2,620[13]
1,628
907,000
12,037[14]
Bay of Bengal
India, Bangladesh, Nepal, China

35.
Amu Darya–Panj
2,620
1,628
534,739
1,400
Aral Sea
Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan

36.
Japurá (Rio Yapurá)
2,615*
1,625*
242,259
6,000
Amazon
Brazil, Colombia

37.
Nelson–Saskatchewan
2,570
1,597
1,093,000
2,575
Hudson Bay
Canada, United States

38.
Paraguay (Rio Paraguay)
2,549
1,584
900,000
4,300
Paraná
Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina

39.
Kolyma
2,513
1,562
644,000
3,800
East Siberian Sea
Russia

40.
Pilcomayo
2,500
1,553
270,000

Paraguay
Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia

41.
Upper Ob–Katun
2,490
1,547

Ob
Russia

42.
Ishim
2,450
1,522
177,000
56
Irtysh
Kazakhstan, Russia

43.
Juruá
2,410
1,498
200,000
6,000
Amazon
Peru, Brazil

44.
Ural
2,428
1,509
237,000
475
Caspian Sea
Russia, Kazakhstan

45.
Arkansas
2,348
1,459
505,000
(435,122)
1,066
Mississippi
United States

46.
Colorado (western U.S.)
2,333
1,450
390,000
1,200
Gulf of California
United States, Mexico

47.
Olenyok
2,292
1,424
219,000
1,210
Laptev Sea
Russia

48.
Dnieper
2,287
1,421
516,300
1,670
Black Sea
Russia, Belarus, Ukraine

49.
Aldan
2,273
1,412
729,000
5,060
Lena
Russia

50.
Ubangi–Uele[15]
2,270
1,410
772,800
4,000
Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo

51.
Negro
2,250
1,398
720,114
26,700
Amazon
Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia

52.
Columbia
2,250 (1,953)
1,398 (1,214)
415,211
7,500
Pacific Ocean
United States, Canada

53.
Pearl–Zhu Jiang
2,200
1,376
437,000
13,600
South China Sea
China (98.5%), Vietnam (1.5%)

54.
Red (USA)
2,188
1,360
78,592
875
Mississippi
United States

55.
Ayeyarwady
(Irrawaddy)
2,170
1,348
411,000
13,000
Andaman Sea
Myanmar, China

56.
Kasai
2,153
1,338
880,200
10,000
Congo
Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo

57.
Ohio–Allegheny
2,102
1,306
490,603
7,957
Mississippi
United States

58.
Orinoco
2,101
1,306
1,380,000
33,000
Atlantic Ocean
Venezuela, Colombia, Guyana

59.
Tarim
2,100
1,305
557,000

Lop Nur
P. R. China

60.
Xingu
2,100
1,305

Amazon
Brazil

61.
Orange
2,092
1,300

Atlantic Ocean
South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho

62.
Northern Salado
2,010
1,249

Paraná
Argentina

63.
Vitim
1,978
1,229

Lena
Russia

64.
Tigris
1,950
1,212

Shatt al-Arab
Turkey, Iraq, Syria

65.
Songhua
1,927
1,197

Amur
P. R. China

66.
Tapajós
1,900
1,181

Amazon
Brazil

67.
Don
1,870
1,162
425,600
935
Sea of Azov
Russia, Ukraine

68.
Stony Tunguska
1,865
1,159
240,000

Yenisei
Russia

69.
Pechora
1,809
1,124
322,000
4,100
Barents Sea
Russia

70.
Kama
1,805
1,122
507,000
4,100
Volga
Russia

71.
Limpopo
1,800
1,118
413,000

Indian Ocean
Mozambique, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana

72.
Chulym
1,799
1,118
134,000

Ob
Russia

73.
Guaporé (Itenez)
1,749
1,087

Mamoré
Brazil, Bolivia

74.
Indigirka
1,726
1,072
360,400
1,810
East Siberian Sea
Russia

75.
Snake
1,670
1,038
279,719
1,611
Columbia
United States

76.
Senegal
1,641
1,020
419,659

Atlantic Ocean
Guinea, Senegal, Mali, Mauritania

77.
Uruguay
1,610
1,000
370,000

Atlantic Ocean
Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil

78.
Blue Nile
1,600
994
326,400

Nile
Ethiopia, Sudan

78.
Churchill
1,600
994

Hudson Bay
Canada

78.
Khatanga
1,600
994

Laptev Sea
Russia

78.
Okavango
1,600
994

Okavango Delta
Namibia, Angola, Botswana

78.
Volta
1,600
994

Gulf of Guinea
Ghana, Burkina Faso, Togo, Côte d'Ivoire, Benin

83.
Beni
1,599
994
283,350
8,900
Madeira
Bolivia

84.
Platte
1,594
990

Missouri
United States

85.
Tobol
1,591
989

Irtysh
Kazakhstan, Russia

86.
Jubba–Shebelle
1,580*
982*

Indian Ocean
Ethiopia, Somalia

87.
Içá (Putumayo)
1,575
979

Amazon
Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador

88.
Magdalena
1,550
963
263,858
9,000
Caribbean
Colombia

89.
Han
1,532
952

Yangtze
P. R. China

89.
Kura/Mt'k'vari
1,515
941
188,400
575
Caspian Sea
Turkey, Georgia, Azerbaijan

91.
Oka
1,500
932
245,000
1,258
Volga
Russia

92.
Guaviare
1,497
930

Orinoco
Colombia

93.
Pecos
1,490
926

Rio Grande
United States

94.
Murrumbidgee River
1,485 [16]
923
84,917
120
Murray River
Australia

95.
Upper Yenisei–Little Yenisei (Kaa-Hem)
1,480
920

Yenisei
Russia, Mongolia

96.
Godavari
1,465
910
312,812
3,061
Bay of Bengal
India

97.
Colorado (Texas)
1,438
894

Gulf of Mexico
United States

97.
Río Grande (Guapay)
1,438
894
102,600
264
Ichilo
Bolivia

99.
Belaya
1,420
882
142,000
858
Kama
Russia

99.
Cooper–Barcoo
1,420
880

Lake Eyre
Australia

101.
Marañón
1,415
879

Amazon
Peru

102.
Dniester
1,411 (1,352)
877 (840)
72,100
310
Black Sea
Ukraine, Moldova

103.
Benue
1,400
870

Niger
Cameroon, Nigeria

103.
Ili (Yili)
1,400
870

Lake Balkhash
P. R. China, Kazakhstan

103.
Warburton–Georgina
1,400
870
365,000

Lake Eyre
Australia

106.
Sutlej
1,372
852

Chenab
China, India, Pakistan

107.
Yamuna
1,370
851
366,223
2,950
Ganges
India

107.
Vyatka
1,370
851
129,000
890
Kama
Russia

109.
Fraser
1,368
850
220,000
3,475
Pacific Ocean
Canada

110.
Grande
1,360
845

Paraná
Brazil

111.
Brazos
1,352
840

Gulf of Mexico
United States

112.
Liao
1,345
836

Bohai Sea
P. R. China

113.
Lachlan River
1,338 [16]
831
84,700
49
Murrumbidgee River
Australia

114.
Yalong
1,323
822

Yangtze
P. R. China

115.
Iguaçu
1,320
820

Paraná
Brazil, Argentina

116.
Olyokma
1,320
820

Lena
Russia

117.
Northern Dvina–Sukhona
1,302
809
357,052
3,332
White Sea
Russia

118.
Krishna
1,300
808

Bay of Bengal
India

118.
Iriri
1,300
808

Xingu
Brazil

120.
Narmada
1,289
801

Arabian Sea
India

121.
Lomami[17]
1,280
795

Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo

122.
Ottawa
1,271
790
146,300
1,950
Saint Lawrence
Canada

123.
Lerma–Rio Grande de Santiago
1,270
789
119,543

Pacific Ocean
Mexico

124.
Elbe–Vltava
1,252
778
148,268
711
North Sea
Germany, Czech Republic

125.
Zeya
1,242
772

Amur
Russia

126.
Juruena
1,240
771

Tapajós
Brazil

127.
Upper Mississippi
1,236
768

Mississippi
United States

128.
Rhine
1,233
768
185,000 [18]
2,330
North Sea
Germany (57.3%), Switzerland (15.1%), Netherlands (12.3%), France (12.2%), Luxembourg (1.4%), Austria (1.3%), Belgium (0.4%), Liechtenstein (0.1%), Italy (0.03%)

129.
Athabasca
1,231
765
95,300

Mackenzie
Canada

130.
Canadian
1,223
760

Arkansas
United States

131.
North Saskatchewan
1,220
758

Saskatchewan
Canada

132.
Vistula-Bug
1,213
754
194,424
1,080
Baltic Sea
Poland, Belarus, Ukraine

133.
Vaal
1,210
752

Orange
South Africa

134.
Shire
1,200
746

Zambezi
Mozambique, Malawi

135.
Nen
(Nonni)
1,190
739

Songhua
P. R. China

136.
Kızıl River
1,182
734
115,000
400
Black Sea
Turkey

137.
Green
1,175
730

Colorado (western U.S.)
United States

138.
Milk
1,173
729

Missouri
United States, Canada

139.
Chindwin
1,158
720

Ayeyarwady
Myanmar

140.
Sankuru
1,150
715

Kasai
Democratic Republic of the Congo

141.
Wu
1,150
715
80,300
1,108
Yangtze
China

142.
Red (Asia)
1,149
714
143,700
2,640
Gulf of Tonkin
China, Vietnam

143.
James (Dakotas)
1,143
710

Missouri
United States

144.
Kapuas
1,143
710

South China Sea
Indonesia

145.
Desna
1,130
702
88,900
360
Dnieper
Russia, Belarus, Ukraine

146.
Helmand
1,130
702

Hamun-i-Helmand
Afghanistan, Iran

147.
Madre de Dios
1,130
702
125,000
4,915
Beni
Peru, Bolivia

148.
Tietê
1,130
702

Paraná
Brazil

149.
Vychegda
1,130
702
121,000
1160
Northern Dvina
Russia

150.
Sepik
1,126
700
77,700

Pacific Ocean
Papua New Guinea, Indonesia

151.
Cimarron
1,123
698

Arkansas
United States

152.
Anadyr
1,120
696

Gulf of Anadyr
Russia

152.
Paraíba do Sul
1,120
696

Atlantic Ocean
Brazil

154.
Jialing River
1,119
695

Yangtze
P. R. China

155.
Liard
1,115
693

Mackenzie
Canada

156.
Cumberland
1,105
687
46,830
862
Mississippi
United States

157.
White
1,102
685

Mississippi
United States

158.
Huallaga
1,100
684

Marañón
Peru

158.
Kwango
1,100
684
263,500
2,700
Kasai
Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo

158.
Draa
1,100
684

Atlantic Ocean
Morocco

161.
Gambia
1,094
680

Atlantic Ocean
The Gambia, Senegal, Guinea

162.
Chenab
1,086
675

Indus
India, Pakistan

163.
Yellowstone
1,080
671
114,260

Missouri
United States

163.
Ghaghara
1,080
671
127,950
2,990
Ganges
India, Nepal, China

165.
Huai River
1,078
670
270,000
1,110
Yangtze
China

166.
Aras
1,072
665
102,000
285
Kura
Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran

167.
Chu River
1,067
663
62,500

none
Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan

168.
Seversky Donets
1,078 (1,053)
670 (654)
98,900
159
Don
Russia, Ukraine

169.
Bermejo
1,050
652

Paraguay
Argentina, Bolivia

169.
Fly
1,050
652

Gulf of Papua
Papua New Guinea, Indonesia

169.
Kuskokwim
1,050
652

Bering Sea
United States

172.
Tennessee
1,049
652

Ohio
United States

173.
Oder–Warta
1,045
649
118,861
550
Baltic Sea
Poland, Germany, Czech Republic

174.
Aruwimi[17]
1,030
640

Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo

175.
Daugava
1,020
634
87,900
678
Gulf of Riga
Latvia, Belarus, Russia

176.
Gila
1,015
631

Colorado (western U.S.)
United States

177.
Loire
1,012
629
115,271
840
Atlantic Ocean
France

178.
Essequibo
1,010
628

Atlantic Ocean
Guyana

178.
Khoper
1,010
628
61,100
150
Don
Russia

180.
Tagus
(Tajo/Tejo)
1,006
625
80,100
444
Atlantic Ocean
Spain, Portugal

181.
Flinders River
1,004 [16]
624
109,000
122
Gulf of Carpentaria
Australia

text: Notes

text:
When the length of a river is followed by an asterisk, it is an average of multiple information sources. If the difference in lengths between given information sources is significant, all lengths are listed. But if the lengths from secondary information sources are similar, they are averaged and that figure has an asterisk.
Scientists debate whether the Amazon or the Nile is the longest river in the world. Traditionally, the Nile is considered longer, but recent information suggests that the Amazon may be longer. Differences in the recorded length of the Amazon mainly depend on whether or not it is valid to take a course south of the Ilha de Marajó at the Amazon's mouth. New evidence, (dated 16 June 2007) obtained from a high-altitude scientific venture in the Andes, claims that "the Amazon is longer than the Nile by 100km, with its longest headwater being the Carhuasanta stream originating in the south of Peru on the Nevado Mismi mountain's northern slopes and flowing into the Río Apurímac".[19] However, the origin of the river at Nevado Mismi had already been known more than one decade earlier (see Jacek Palkiewicz), and satellite based measuring from this origin to the Amazon mouth has resulted in not more than 6,400 km.
Generally, the most commonly used/anglicised name of the river is used. The name in a native language or alternate spelling may be shown.

text:
The Mississippi River just north of St. Louis.

Saint Lawrence River along the New York-Quebec border.

text: River systems that may have existed in the past

text: Amazon-Congo

text: The Amazon basin formerly drained westwards into the Pacific Ocean, until the Andes rose and reversed the drainage.[20]

text: The Congo basin is completely surrounded by high land, except for its long narrow exit valley past Kinshasa, including waterfalls around Manyanga. That gives the impression that most of the Congo basin was formerly on a much higher land level and that it was rejuvenated by much of its lower course being removed. Before Gondwanaland broke up due to continental drift, the Congo would likely have flowed into the Amazon.[citation needed]

text: West Siberian Glacial Lake drainage

text: This river would have been about 10,000 km (6,200 mi) long, in the last Ice Age. Its longest headwater was the Selenga river of Mongolia: it drained through ice-dammed lakes and the Aral Sea and the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea.

text: Lobourg

text: During the last glacial maximum, much of what is now the southern part of the North Sea was land, known to archaeologists as Doggerland. At this time, the Thames, the Meuse, the Scheldt, and the Rhine probably joined before flowing into the sea, in a system known by palaeogeographers as the Loubourg or Lobourg River System.[21] There is some debate as to whether this river would have flowed southwest into what is now the English Channel, or flowed north, emerging into the North Sea close to modern Yorkshire. If the latter hypothesis is true, the Rhine would have attained a length of close to 1,650 kilometres (1,030 mi). The former hypothesis would have produced a shorter river, some 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) in length. Current scientific research favours the former opinion, with the Thames and Rhine meeting in a large lake, the outflow of which was close to the present-day Straits of Dover.[22]


document_title: Transfer window

question_text: when does the football transfer window open in 2018

text: Transfer window

text: Current schedules and exceptions[edit]

text: FIFA regulates in general that there shall be two windows, a longer one (max. twelve weeks) in the break between seasons and a shorter one (max. one month) in the middle of a season. The specific periods depend on the league's season cycle and are determined by the national football authorities.[5]

text: Most major European leagues commence in the second half of the year (e.g. August or September) and stretch over two calendar years to the first half of the next year (e.g. May), resulting in a close season window in the Summer ending in August, and a mid-season window in January.

text: The periods are different when a league runs throughout a single calendar year, as in most Nordic countries due to weather constraints, Major League Soccer due to both weather and competition from other locally popular sports (notably basketball and American football), or as the traditional season in the Southern Hemisphere. The first window generally opens from 1 March until midnight of 30 April, followed by the in-season window from 1 to 31 August.

text:
Pre-season window

Mid-season window

Associations

1 January – 31 March

14 July – 13 August

Brazil[6]

6 January – 31 March

21 July – 18 August

Japan[7]

8 January – 31 March

15 July – 11 August

Sweden[8]

12 January – 4 April

19 July – 15 August

Norway[9]

7 February – 1 May

10 July – 8 August

United States and Canada[10]

1 March – 30 April

1–31 August

Finland[11]

1 June – 31 August

1 January – 31 January

Albania[12]

1 June – 31 August

1 January – 2 February

France,[13] Germany,[14] Italy,[15] Spain[16]

17 May – 9 August

1 January – 31 January

England[17] [18][19]

9 June – 1 September

1 January – 1 February

Scotland[20]

11 June – 1 September

5–31 January

Turkey,[21] Denmark[22]

11 June – 2 September

3–31 January

Netherlands[23]

16 June – 8 September

25 January – 22 February

Bulgaria and Romania[24]

17 June – 6 September

28 January – 28 February

Russia[25][not in citation given]

27 July – 18 October

4 January – 2 February

Australia[26]

1 December – 31 January

1–30 June

Kenya[27]

1 December – 31 January

1–30 June

Ethiopia[citation needed]

text: Premier League clubs in England voted to end the summer window on the Thursday before the start of the season - on August 9 in 2018, instead of August 31.  Because FIFA demands the window must be open for 12 weeks, the window will open around May 17, shortly after the final games of the season on May 13. Clubs will be able to sell players until August 31 but not buy replacements after the deadline of August 9.

text: Although, in England, transfers between clubs in the same league can take place as soon as the last competitive fixtures for the season have been played, many transfers will not be completed until 1 July because many players' contracts expire on 30 June. International transfers into the English leagues (including the Premier League) cannot be made until the window has opened on 17 May. Outside the transfer window, a club may still sign players on an emergency basis, usually if they have no goalkeeper available. Special dispensation from their competition's governing body, for example the Premier League, is required. The transfer window restriction does not apply to clubs below the National League division.[17][28]

text: If the last day of a transfer window is on a weekend, the deadline can be extended to the following Monday at the request of those involved for business reasons.[29] The first shift of the deadline since its inception took place in summer 2008, when the deadline was extended by 24 hours to fall on Monday 1 September at midnight.[30][31] The transfer deadline in England was similarly extended to 5 pm 1 September 2009, due to the August Bank Holiday. The German football league announced an extension of the January 2009 deadline to 2 February.[32]

text: Free agents can be signed by a club at any time during the season, if they had been released by their previous club before the end of the transfer window.[29] A club can request to sign a player on emergency basis, e.g. if several goalkeepers are injured at the same time.[29] Outside the transfer window in England, once seven days have passed following the end of a transfer window, clubs from the English Football League (Regulation 53.3.4)[33] and (provided the player is not registered with a club from any league below the National League division) National League division[34] (Rule 6.6.4) can loan in players i) in the first half of the season, until 5.00pm on the fourth Thursday in November and ii) in the second half of the season, until 5.00pm on the fourth Thursday in March. An existing loan deal can be made permanent at any time outside the transfer window.[35]

text: The day upon which a window closes is known as transfer deadline day, and is usually one of the busiest days of the window, generating a flurry of transfers, often because a number of interdependent transfers are completed resembling a housing chain, generating much media interest.

text: Calls to end the transfer window[edit]

text: Steve Coppell, former manager of Reading in England's Premier League, and others have called for the transfer window to be scrapped in favour of the previous system, where deals could be struck throughout the season until the closing weeks.[36] Coppell said that the transfer window breeds panic and encourages "scurrilous" transfer activity adding that "I cannot see the logic in a transfer window. It brings on a fire-sale mentality, causes unrest via the media and means clubs buy too many players" adding that "The old system, where if you had a problem you could look at loans or make a short-term purchase, was far better than this system we have at the moment".[37] Former England Manager Sven-Göran Eriksson has also questioned the value of the transfer window, commenting: "You do wonder at times if it is right to have a window, it was easier when it was open all the time and perhaps fairer for the players. I am sure much of the business being done on the last day is a little bit desperate and that is not right. I think it was better before, but then I am old".[38]

text: In January 2013 Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger asked for the January transfer window to be limited to two transfers per window and claimed it is "unfair" in its current form. He cited Newcastle United transfer activity as an example.[39] The following year, Wenger hit out at Manchester United's £37m purchase of Juan Mata from rivals Chelsea. Wenger argued that the transfer was unfair because United and Chelsea had already played each other twice during the season, but United would still have to play Arsenal, and said that "the rules should be adapted more for fairness".[40] Manchester City manager Manuel Pellegrini backed the sentiment of Wenger, disagreeing that a player "can go from one team to another team in the same league at this part of the year" and also said that the winter transfer window was unbalanced in favour of big clubs, saying "a club with money can take the best players from the other teams".[41][42]

text: Former Crystal Palace manager Alan Pardew questioned why the Premier League transfer window remains open after the start of the season after Arsenal made a bid for midfielder Yohan Cabaye during his time as Newcastle United manager in August 2013.[43]

text: In January 2015, FIFPro said that the current transfer window system is "failing football and its players", one of the main issues being that players are released from clubs without explanation or compensation.[44]


document_title: List of hat styles

question_text: style of russian hat with ear flaps crossword

text: List of hat styles

text: This is a list of various kinds of hat, contemporary or traditional. Headgear has been common throughout the history of humanity, present on some of the very earliest preserved human bodies and art.

text:
Image
Name
Description

Ascot cap
A hard style of hat, usually worn by men, dating back to the 1900s. Sometimes associated with livestock slaughter.

Akubra
An Australian brand of bush hat, whose wide-brimmed styles are a distinctive part of Australian culture, especially in rural areas

Ayam
A traditional Korean winter cap mostly worn by women in the Joseon and Daehan Jeguk periods (1392–1910).

Balaclava
Headgear, usually made from fabric such as cotton and/or polyester, that covers the whole head, exposing only the face or part of it. Sometimes only the eyes or eyes and mouth are visible. Also known as a ski mask.

Balmoral bonnet
Traditional Scottish bonnet or cap worn with Scottish Highland dress.

Barretina
A floppy fabric pull-on hat, usually worn with its top flopped down. In red, it is now used as a symbol of Catalan identity.

Baseball cap
A type of soft, light cotton cap with a rounded crown and a stiff, frontward-projecting bill.

Beanie
A brimless cap, with or without a small visor, once popular among school boys. Sometimes includes a propeller.
Note: In New Zealand, Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom, "beanie" also or otherwise refers to the tuque.

Bearskin
The tall, furry hat of the Brigade of Guards' full-dress uniform, originally designed to protect them against sword-cuts, etc. Commonly seen at Buckingham Palace in London, England. Sometimes mistakenly identified as a busby.

Beret
A soft round cap, usually of woollen felt, with a bulging flat crown and tight-fitting brimless headband. Worn by both men and women and traditionally associated with France, Basque people, and the military. Often part of [European?] schoolgirls' uniform during the 1920s, '30s and '40s.

Bhaad-gaaule topi
A typical Nepali cap

Bicorne
A broad-brimmed felt hat with brim folded up and pinned front and back to create a long-horned shape. Also known as a cocked hat. Worn by European military officers in the 1790s and, as illustrated, commonly associated with Napoleon.

Biretta
A square cap with three or four ridges or peaks worn by Roman Catholic (and some Anglican and Lutheran) clergy.

Blangkon
A traditional Javanese man's hat, basically divided into many kind, depends on the origin of their ethnicity.

Boater
A flat-brimmed and flat-topped straw hat formerly worn by seamen. Schools, especially public schools in the UK, might include a boater as part of their (summer) uniform. Now mostly worn at summer regattas or formal garden parties, often with a ribbon in club, college or school colors.

Boonie hat
A soft, wide-brimmed cotton hat commonly used by military forces. Also known as a bush hat and similar to a bucket hat.

Boss of the plains
A lightweight all-weather hat, with a high rounded crown and wide flat brim, designed by John B. Stetson for the demands of the American frontier.

Boudoir cap
A type of decorative cap mainly worn in the 19th and early 20th century with sleepwear or lingerie.

Bowler / Derby
A hard felt hat with a rounded crown created in 1850 by Lock's of St James's, the hatters to Thomas Coke, 2nd Earl of Leicester, for his servants. More commonly known as a Derby in the United States.

Breton
A woman's hat with round crown and deep brim turned upwards all the way round. Said to be based on hats worn by Breton agricultural workers.

Bucket hat
A soft cotton hat with a wide, downwards-sloping brim.

Busby
A small fur military hat.

Bycocket
"Robin Hood's hat", a wide brimmed hat that is turned up in the back and pointed in the front like a bird's beak.

Campaign hat
Also known as a "Smokey Bear" hat. A broad-brimmed felt or straw hat with high crown, pinched symmetrically at its four corners (the "Montana crease").

Capirote
A conical pointed hat with eye holes. Most associated with the Ku Klux Klan, but used elsewhere in other contexts (such as the example illustrated, featuring people from Nazareno processing during Holy Week in Spain).

Capotain
A hat worn between the 1590s and 1640s in England and northwestern Europe. Also known as a "Pilgrim hat" in the United States.

Cappello romano
A round wide-brimmed hat worn by more traditional Roman Catholic clergy.

Cartwheel hat
Wide-brimmed and shallow-crowned hat, normally worn at an angle. Popular from 1910s but most closely associated with 1940s-50s fashion.

Casquette
A small-peaked cap often worn by cyclists.

Caubeen
An Irish beret.[1]

Chengziguan
A traditional horse hair hat dating back to 10th century China, which later became popular among the yangban of Joseon Dynasty Korea as an alternative to the gat.

Chilote cap
A woven cap, typical of Chiloé Archipelago, that is made of coarse raw wool and usually topped by a pom-pom.

Chullo
Peruvian or Bolivian hat with ear-flaps made from vicuña, alpaca, llama or sheep's wool.[2]

Chupalla
A straw hat made in Chile.

Cloche hat
A bell-shaped ladies' hat that was popular during the Roaring Twenties.

Cricket cap
A type of soft cap traditionally worn by cricket players.

Sombrero Cordobés
A traditional flat-brimmed and flat-topped hat originating from Córdoba, Spain, associated with flamenco dancing and music and popularized by characters such as Zorro.

Conical Asian hat
A conical straw hat associated with East and Southeast Asia. Sometimes known as a "coolie hat", although the term "coolie" may be interpreted as derogatory.[3][4]

Coonskin cap
A hat, fashioned from the skin and fur of a raccoon, that became associated with Canadian and American frontiersmen of the 18th and 19th centuries.

Custodian helmet
A helmet traditionally worn by British police constables while on foot patrol.

Deerstalker
A warm, close-fitting tweed cap, with brims front and behind and ear-flaps that can be tied together either over the crown or under the chin. Originally designed for use while hunting in the climate of Scotland. Worn by –and so closely associated with – the character Sherlock Holmes.

Dhaka topi
A typical Nepali cap made up of fabric called dhaka

Draped turban
A fashion dating back to at least the 18th century, in which fabric is draped or moulded to the head, concealing most or all of the hair. Original designs were said to be inspired by the turbans of India and the Ottoman Empire

Dunce cap
A conical hat, usually tall and narrow, worn by late-19th and early-20th century school pupils as a punishment and/or humiliation. It often featured a large capital "D" inscribed on its side, to be shown frontwards when the hat was worn.

Fascinator
A small hat commonly made with feathers, flowers and/or beads.[5] It attaches to the hair by a comb, headband or clip.

Fedora
A soft felt hat with a medium brim and lengthwise crease in the crown.

Fez
Red felt hat in the shape of a truncated cone, common to Arab-speaking countries.

Flat cap
A soft, round wool or tweed men's cap with a small bill in front.

Gat
A traditional Korean hat worn by men.

Gatsby
A soft brimmed hat popular in New York after the turn of the century made from eight quarter panels. Also known as a newsboy cap.

Garrison or Forage cap
A foldable cloth cap with straight sides and a creased or hollow crown.

Gaung Paung
Headwrap worn by the Bamar, Mon people, Rakhine and Shan peoples.

Ghutrah
Three piece ensemble consisting of a Thagiyah skull cap, Gutrah scarf, and Ogal black band. Gutrahs are plain white or checkered, denoting ethnic or national identities.[citation needed].

Glengarry
A traditional Scottish boat-shaped hat without a peak made of thick-milled woollen material with a toorie on top, a rosette cockade on the left, and (usually) ribbons hanging down behind. It is normally worn as part of Scottish military or civilian Highland dress.

Green eyeshade
Once common-wear for office clerks.

Half hat
Millinery design that covers only half the head – particularly popular in the 1950s.

Halo hat
Semi-circular or circular design that frames the face, creating a 'halo' or 'aureole' effect.

Hard hat
A rounded rigid helmet with a small brim predominantly used in workplace environments, such as construction sites, to protect the head from injury by falling objects, debris and bad weather.

Hardee hat
Also known as the 1858 Dress Hat. Regulation hat for Union soldiers during the American Civil War.

Hennin
A woman's hat of the Middle Ages.[6] This style includes the conical "princess" hats often seen in illustrations of folk-tale princesses.

Homburg
A semi-formal hat with a medium brim and crown with a crease and no dents.

Icelandic tail-cap
Part of the national costume of Iceland.

Jaapi
A traditional hat of Assam, India. There both plain and decorative japies are Available.

Karakul (Qaraqul)
A hat made from the fur of the Qaraqul breed of sheep, typically worn by men in Central and South Asia and popular among Soviet leaders.

Kepi
A French military hat with a flat, circular top and visor.

Kippah or Yarmulke
A close-fitting skullcap worn by religious Jews.

Kolpik
Brown fur hat worn by Hassidic Jews.

Kofia
Brimless cylindrical cap with a flat crown, worn by men in East Africa.

Kolah namadi
A felt hat , typically worn by men in the rural areas of Iran

Kova tembel
Cloth hat worn by Israeli pioneers and kibbutzniks.

Kufi
A brimless, short, rounded cap worn by Africans and people throughout the African diaspora.

Makapili Hat
Bamboo basket worn over the head covering the entire head with just holes for the eyes and worn by some members of the Makapili, Filipinos who are Japanese collaborators during World War II in the Philippines who points out the suspected guerillas or their sympathizers.

Mathal
Distinctive hat worn by farmers in the Bangladesh and Eastern India made of bamboo with a conical top.

Mitre
Distinctive hat worn by bishops in the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion.

Montera
A crocheted hat worn by bullfighters.

Mortarboard
Flat, square hat. Usually has a button centered on top. A tassel is attached to the button and draped over one side. Worn as part of academic dress. Traditionally, when worn during graduation ceremonies, the new graduates switch the tassel from one side to the other at the conclusion of the ceremony.

Mushroom hat
Hat with a distinctly downward-facing brim similar to the shape of a mushroom or toadstool. Popular from the 1870s, but particularly associated with the Edwardian era and Dior's "New Look".

Pakul
Round, rolled wool hat with a flat top, common in Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Panama
Straw hat made in Ecuador.

Papakhi
Also known as astrakhan hat in English, a male wool hat worn throughout the Caucasus.

Party Hat
A conical hat, similar to the Dunce cap, often worn at birthday parties and New Year's Eve celebrations. It is frequently emblazoned with bright patterns or messages.

Patrol cap
Also known as a field cap, a scout cap, or in the United States a mosh cap.; a soft cap with a stiff, rounded visor, and flat top, worn by military personnel in the field when a combat helmet is not required.

Peach basket hat
A woman's hat resembling an upturned fruit basket. Usually lavishly trimmed, it achieved notoriety in the early 1900s.

Peaked cap
A military style cap with a flat sloping crown, band and peak (also called a visor). It is used by many militaries of the world as well as law enforcement, as well as some people in service professions who wear uniforms.

Phrygian Cap
A soft conical cap pulled forward. In sculpture, paintings and caricatures it represents freedom and the pursuit of liberty. The popular cartoon characters The Smurfs wear white Phrygian caps.

Picture hat
Also known as a Gainsborough hat and garden hat, this is an elaborate women's design with a wide brim.

Pilgrim's hat
A pilgrim's hat, cockel hat or traveller's hat is a wide brim hat used to keep off the sun. It is highly associated with pilgrims on the Way of St. James. The upturned brim of the hat is adorned with a scallop shell to denote the traveller's pilgrim status.

Pillbox hat
A small hat with straight, upright sides, a flat crown, and no brim.

Pith Helmet
A lightweight rigid cloth-covered helmet made of cork or pith, with brims front and back. Worn by Europeans in tropical colonies in the 1800s.

Planter's Hat
A lightweight straw hat, with a wide brim, a round crown and narrow round dent on the outside of the top of the crown. Worn by Clark Gable in Gone with the Wind, and Paul Bettany in Master and Commander.

Porkpie
Felt hat with low flat crown and narrow brim.

Rastacap
A tall, round, usually crocheted and brightly colored, cap worn by Rastafarians and others with dreadlocks to tuck their locks away.

Rogatywka polowa
A characteristic Polish Army field cap, most popular during the World War II guerrilla fights against the Nazi German and Soviet Russian occupation.

Sami hat
Also known as a "Four Winds" hat, traditional men's hat of the Sami people.

Sailor hat
A flat-crowned, brimmed straw hat inspired by nineteenth century sailors' headgear.

Šajkača
Serbian national hat.

Salakot
A traditional hat in the Philippines.

Santa Hat
A floppy pointed red hat trimmed in white fur traditionally associated with Christmas.

Shako
A tall cylindrical military cap, usually with a visor, badge, and plume.

Shtreimel
A fur hat worn by married Hassidic men on Shabbat and holidays.

Slouch
Generic term covering wide-brimmed felt-crowned hats often worn by military leaders. Less fancy versions can be called bush hats.

Sombrero
A Mexican hat with a conical crown and a very wide, saucer-shaped brim, highly embroidered made of plush felt.

Songkok
A cap widely worn in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, the southern Philippines and southern Thailand, mostly among Muslim males. May be related to the taqiyah.

Sou'wester
A traditional form of collapsible oilskin rain hat that is longer in the back than the front to protect the neck fully. A gutter front brim is sometimes featured.

Stetson
Also known as a "Cowboy Hat". A high-crowned, wide-brimmed hat, with a sweatband on the inside, and a decorative hat band on the outside. Customized by creasing the crown and rolling the brim.[7]

Student cap
A cap worn by university students in various European countries.

Sun hat
A hat which shades the face and shoulders from the sun.

Tam o' Shanter
A Scottish wool hat originally worn by men.

Taqiyah
A round fabric cap worn by Muslim men.

Top hat
Also known as a beaver hat, a magician's hat, or, in the case of the tallest examples, a stovepipe (or pipestove) hat. A tall, flat-crowned, cylindrical hat worn by men in the 19th and early 20th centuries, now worn only with morning dress or evening dress. Cartoon characters Uncle Sam and Mr. Monopoly are often depicted wearing such hats. Once made from felted beaver fur.

Toque
(informally, "chef's hat") A tall, pleated, brimless, cylindrical hat traditionally worn by chefs.

Trilby
A soft felt men's hat with a deeply indented crown and a narrow brim often upturned at the back.

Tricorne
A soft hat with a low crown and broad brim, pinned up on either side of the head and at the back, producing a triangular shape. Worn by Europeans in the 18th century. Larger, taller, and heavily ornamented brims were present in France and the Papal States.

Trucker hat
Similar to a baseball cap, usually with a foam brim and front section and a breathable mesh back section.

Tubeteika
A round, slightly pointed cap with embroidered or applique patterns worn throughout Central Asia.

Tudor bonnet
A soft round black academic cap, with a tassel hanging from a cord attached to the centre of the top of the hat.

Toque
In Canada, a knitted hat, worn in winter, usually made from wool or acrylic. Also known as a woolly hat, ski cap, knit hat, knit cap, sock cap, stocking cap, toboggan, watch cap, or goobalini. In New Zealand, Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom, the term "beanie" is applied to this cap.

Turban
A headdress consisting of a scarf-like single piece of cloth wound around either the head itself or an inner hat.

Tyrolean hat
A felt hat with a corded band and feather ornament, originating from the Alps.

Ushanka
A Russian fur hat with fold-down ear-flaps.

Vueltiao
A Colombian hat of woven and sewn black and khaki dried palm braids with indigenous figures.

Umbrella Hat
A hat made from an umbrella that straps to the head. Has been made with mosquito netting.

Whoopee Cap
A skullcap made from a man's felt fedora hat with the brim trimmed with a scalloped cut and turned up.

Zucchetto
Skullcap worn by clerics typically in Roman Catholicism.