document_title: Central America

question_text: south american country that connects to north america

question_tokens: south american country that connects to north america

text: Central America

text: Different definitions[edit]

text: "Central America" may mean different things to various people, based upon different contexts:

text:
The United Nations geoscheme for the Americas defines the region as all states of mainland North America south of the United States and specifically includes all of Mexico.[4]
Middle America is usually thought to comprise Mexico to the north of the 7 states of Central America as well as Colombia and Venezuela to the south. Usually the whole of the Caribbean to the north-east and sometimes the Guyanas are also included.
According to one source, the term "Central America" was used as a synonym for "Middle America" at least as recently as 1962.[5]
In Ibero-America (Latin America and Iberia), the Americas is considered a single continent, and Central America is considered a subcontinent separate from North America comprising the seven countries south of Mexico and north of Colombia.[6]
Mexico, in whole or in part, is sometimes included by British people.[7][8][9][not in citation given][10]
For the people living in the five countries formerly part of the Federal Republic of Central America there is a distinction between the Spanish language terms "América Central" and "Centroamérica". While both can be translated into English as "Central America", "América Central" is generally used to refer to the geographical area of the seven countries between Mexico and Colombia, while "Centroamérica" is used when referring to the former members of the Federation emphasizing the shared culture and history of the region.

text: History[edit]

text: In the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who had created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of eastern El Salvador, eastern Honduras, Caribbean Nicaragua, most of Costa Rica and Panama were predominantly speakers of the Chibchan languages at the time of European contact and are considered by some[11] culturally different and grouped in the Isthmo-Colombian Area.

text: Following Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas, the Spanish sent many expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America for the Spanish Empire. Beginning with his arrival in Soconusco in 1523, Alvarado's forces systematically conquered and subjugated most of the major Maya kingdoms, including the K'iche', Tz'utujil, Pipil, and the Kaqchikel. By 1528, the conquest of Guatemala was nearly complete, with only the Petén Basin remaining outside the Spanish sphere of influence. The last independent Maya kingdoms – the Kowoj and the Itza people – were finally defeated in 1697, as part of the Spanish conquest of Petén.[citation needed]

text: In 1538, Spain established the Real Audiencia of Panama, which had jurisdiction over all land from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Fonseca. This entity was dissolved in 1543, and most of the territory within Central America then fell under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real de Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican state of Chiapas, but excluded the lands that would become Belize and Panama. The president of the Audiencia, which had its seat in Antigua Guatemala, was the governor of the entire area. In 1609 the area became a captaincy general and the governor was also granted the title of captain general. The Captaincy General of Guatemala encompassed most of Central America, with the exception of present-day Belize and Panama.

text: The Captaincy General of Guatemala lasted for more than two centuries, but began to fray after a rebellion in 1811 which began in the intendancy of San Salvador. The Captaincy General formally ended on 15 September 1821, with the signing of the Act of Independence of Central America. Mexican independence was achieved at virtually the same time with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba and the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and the entire region was finally independent from Spanish authority by 28 September 1821.

text: From its independence from Spain in 1821 until 1823, the former Captaincy General remained intact as part of the short-lived First Mexican Empire. When the Emperor of Mexico abdicated on 19 March 1823, Central America again became independent. On 1 July 1823, the Congress of Central America peacefully seceded from Mexico and declared absolute independence from all foreign nations, and the region formed the Federal Republic of Central America.[citation needed]

text: The Federal Republic of Central America was a representative democracy with its capital at Guatemala City. This union consisted of the provinces of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Los Altos, Mosquito Coast, and Nicaragua. The lowlands of southwest Chiapas, including Soconusco, initially belonged to the Republic until 1824, when Mexico annexed most of Chiapas and began its claims to Soconusco. The Republic lasted from 1823 to 1838, when it disintegrated as a result of civil wars.[citation needed]

text:
Historic Coat of Arms of Central American Unions

The United Provinces of Central America

United Provinces of Central America

Federal Republic of Central America

Greater Republic of Central America

text:
Coat of Arms of modern Central America

Guatemala

El Salvador

Honduras

Nicaragua

Costa Rica

Panama

Belize

text: The territory that now makes up Belize was heavily contested in a dispute that continued for decades after Guatemala achieved independence (see History of Belize (1506–1862). Spain, and later Guatemala, considered this land a Guatemalan department. In 1862, Britain formally declared it a British colony and named it British Honduras. It became independent as Belize in 1981.[citation needed]

text: Panama, situated in the southernmost part of Central America on the Isthmus of Panama, has for most of its history been culturally linked to South America. Panama was part of the Province of Tierra Firme from 1510 until 1538 when it came under the jurisdiction of the newly formed Audiencia Real de Panama. Beginning in 1543, Panama was administered as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1739, when it was transferred to the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the capital of which was located at Santa Fé de Bogotá. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada until the disestablishment of that viceroyalty in 1819. A series of military and political struggles took place from that time until 1822, the result of which produced the republic of Gran Colombia. After the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, Panama became part of a successor state, the Republic of New Granada. From 1855 until 1886, Panama existed as Panama State, first within the Republic of New Granada, then within the Granadine Confederation, and finally within the United States of Colombia. The United States of Colombia was replaced by the Republic of Colombia in 1886. As part of the Republic of Colombia, Panama State was abolished and it became the Isthmus Department. Despite the many political reorganizations, Colombia was still deeply plagued by conflict, which eventually led to the secession of Panama on 3 November 1903. Only after that time did some begin to regard Panama as a North or Central American entity.[citation needed]

text: By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase Banana Republic.[12]

text: After more than two hundred years of social unrest, violent conflict and revolution, Central America today remains in a period of political transformation. Poverty, social injustice and violence are still widespread.[13] Nicaragua is the second poorest country in the western hemisphere (only Haiti is poorer).[14]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Central America is the tapering isthmus of southern North America, with unique and varied geographic features. The Pacific Ocean lies to the southwest, the Caribbean Sea lies to the northeast, and the Gulf of Mexico lies to the north. Some physiographists define the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as the northern geographic border of Central America,[7] while others use the northwestern borders of Belize and Guatemala. From there, the Central American land mass extends southeastward to the Isthmus of Panama, where it connects to the Pacific Lowlands in northwestern South America.

text: Of the many mountain ranges within Central America, the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia and the Cordillera de Talamanca. At 4,220 meters (13,850 ft), Volcán Tajumulco is the highest peak in Central America. Other high points of Central America are as listed in the table below:

text: High points in Central America

text:
Country
Name
Elevation (meters)
Range

 Belize
Doyle's Delight
1124
Cockscomb Range

 Costa Rica
Cerro Chirripó
3820
Cordillera de Talamanca

 El Salvador
Cerro El Pital
2730
Sierra Madre de Chiapas

 Guatemala
Volcán Tajumulco
4220
Sierra Madre de Chiapas

 Honduras
Cerro Las Minas
2780
Cordillera de Celaque

 Nicaragua
Mogotón
2107
Cordillera Isabelia

 Panama
Volcán Barú
3474
Cordillera de Talamanca

text: Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the raising of livestock and for the production of coffee, tobacco, beans and other crops. Most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica and Guatemala lives in valleys.[15]

text: Trade winds have a significant effect upon the climate of Central America. Temperatures in Central America are highest just prior to the summer wet season, and are lowest during the winter dry season, when trade winds contribute to a cooler climate. The highest temperatures occur in April, due to higher levels of sunlight, lower cloud cover and a decrease in trade winds.[16]

text: Biodiversity[edit]

text: Central America is part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, boasting 7% of the world's biodiversity.[17] The Pacific Flyway is a major north-south flyway for migratory birds in the Americas, extending from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Due to the funnel-like shape of its land mass, migratory birds can be seen in very high concentrations in Central America, especially in the spring and autumn. As a bridge between North America and South America, Central America has many species from the Nearctic and the Neotropic ecozones. However the southern countries (Costa Rica and Panama) of the region have more biodiversity than the northern countries (Guatemala and Belize), meanwhile the central countries (Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador) have the least biodiversity.[17] The table below shows recent statistics:

text: Biodiversity in Central America (number of different species of terrestrial vertebrate animals and vascular plants)

text:
Country
Amphibian
species
Bird
species
Mammal
species
Reptile
species
Total terrestrial
vertebrate species
Vascular plants
species
Biodiversity

 Belize[18]
46
544
147
140
877
2894
3771

 Costa Rica[19]
183
838
232
258
1511
12119
13630

 El Salvador[20]
30
434
137
106
707
2911
3618

 Guatemala[21]
133
684
193
236
1246
8681
9927

 Honduras[22]
101
699
201
213
1214
5680
6894

 Nicaragua[23]
61
632
181
178
1052
7590
8642

 Panama[24]
182
904
241
242
1569
9915
11484

text: Over 300 species of the region's flora and fauna are threatened, 107 of which are classified as critically endangered. The underlying problems are deforestation, which is estimated by FAO at 1.2% per year in Central America and Mexico combined, fragmentation of rainforests and the fact that 80% of the vegetation in Central America has already been converted to agriculture.[25]

text: Efforts to protect fauna and flora in the region are made by creating ecoregions and nature reserves. 36% of Belize's land territory falls under some form of official protected status, giving Belize one of the most extensive systems of terrestrial protected areas in the Americas. In addition, 13% of Belize's marine territory are also protected.[26] A large coral reef extends from Mexico to Honduras: the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. The Belize Barrier Reef is part of this. The Belize Barrier Reef is home to a large diversity of plants and animals, and is one of the most diverse ecosystems of the world. It is home to 70 hard coral species, 36 soft coral species, 500 species of fish and hundreds of invertebrate species. So far only about 10% of the species in the Belize barrier reef have been discovered.[27]

text: Flora[edit]

text: From 2001 to 2010, 5,376 square kilometers (2,076 sq mi) of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63% of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46%, Panama 45%, Honduras 41%, Guatemala 37%, Nicaragua 29%, and El Salvador 21%. Most of the loss occurred in the moist forest biome, with 12,201 square kilometers (4,711 sq mi). Woody vegetation loss was partially set off by a gain in the coniferous forest biome with 4,730 square kilometers (1,830 sq mi), and a gain in the dry forest biome at 2,054 square kilometers (793 sq mi). Mangroves and deserts contributed only 1% to the loss in forest vegetation. The bulk of the deforestation was located at the Caribbean slopes of Nicaragua with a loss of 8,574 square kilometers (3,310 sq mi) of forest in the period from 2001 to 2010. The most significant regrowth of 3,050 square kilometers (1,180 sq mi) of forest was seen in the coniferous woody vegetation of Honduras.[28]

text: The Central American pine-oak forests ecoregion, in the tropical and subtropical coniferous forests biome, is found in Central America and southern Mexico. The Central American pine-oak forests occupy an area of 111,400 square kilometers (43,000 sq mi),[29] extending along the mountainous spine of Central America, extending from the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in Mexico's Chiapas state through the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras to central Nicaragua. The pine-oak forests lie between 600–1,800 metres (2,000–5,900 ft) elevation,[29] and are surrounded at lower elevations by tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests. Higher elevations above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) are usually covered with Central American montane forests. The Central American pine-oak forests are composed of many species characteristic of temperate North America including oak, pine, fir, and cypress.

text: Laurel forest is the most common type of Central American temperate evergreen cloud forest, found in almost all Central American countries, normally more than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level. Tree species include evergreen oaks, members of the laurel family, and species of Weinmannia, Drimys, and Magnolia.[30] The cloud forest of Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, is the largest in Central America. In some areas of southeastern Honduras there are cloud forests, the largest located near the border with Nicaragua. In Nicaragua, cloud forests are situated near the border with Honduras, but many were cleared to grow coffee. There are still some temperate evergreen hills in the north. The only cloud forest in the Pacific coastal zone of Central America is on the Mombacho volcano in Nicaragua. In Costa Rica, there are laurel forests in the Cordillera de Tilarán and Volcán Arenal, called Monteverde, also in the Cordillera de Talamanca.

text: The Central American montane forests are an ecoregion of the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund.[31] These forests are of the moist deciduous and the semi-evergreen seasonal subtype of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests and receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Central American montane forests consist of forest patches located at altitudes ranging from 1,800–4,000 metres (5,900–13,100 ft), on the summits and slopes of the highest mountains in Central America ranging from Southern Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, to northern Nicaragua. The entire ecoregion covers an area of 13,200 square kilometers (5,100 sq mi) and has a temperate climate with relatively high precipitation levels.[31]

text: Fauna[edit]

text: Ecoregions are not only established to protect the forests themselves but also because they are habitats for an incomparably rich and often endemic fauna. Almost half of the bird population of the Talamancan montane forests in Costa Rica and Panama are endemic to this region. Several birds are listed as threatened, most notably the resplendent quetzal (Pharomacrus mocinno), three-wattled bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata), bare-necked umbrellabird (Cephalopterus glabricollis), and black guan (Chamaepetes unicolor). Many of the amphibians are endemic and depend on the existence of forest. The golden toad that once inhabited a small region in the Monteverde Reserve, which is part of the Talamancan montane forests, has not been seen alive since 1989 and is listed as extinct by IUCN. The exact causes for its extincition are unknown. Global warming may have played a role, because the development of fog that is typical for this area may have been compromised. Seven small mammals are endemic to the Costa Rica-Chiriqui highlands within the Talamancan montane forest region. Jaguars, cougars, spider monkeys, as well as tapirs, and anteaters live in the woods of Central America.[30] The Central American red brocket is a brocket deer found in Central America's tropical forest.

text: Geology[edit]

text: Central America is geologically very active, with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring frequently, and tsunamis occurring occasionally. Many thousands of people have died as a result of these natural disasters.

text: Most of Central America rests atop the Caribbean Plate. This tectonic plate converges with the Cocos, Nazca, and North American plates to form the Middle America Trench, a major subduction zone. The Middle America Trench is situated some 60–160 kilometers (37–99 mi) off the Pacific coast of Central America and runs roughly parallel to it. Many large earthquakes have occurred as a result of seismic activity at the Middle America Trench.[32] For example, subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the North American Plate at the Middle America Trench is believed to have caused the 1985 Mexico City earthquake that killed as many as 40,000 people. Seismic activity at the Middle America Trench is also responsible for earthquakes in 1902, 1942, 1956, 1982, 1992, 2001, 2007, 2012, 2014, and many other earthquakes throughout Central America.

text: The Middle America Trench is not the only source of seismic activity in Central America. The Motagua Fault is an onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough which forms part of the tectonic boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. This transform fault cuts right across Guatemala and then continues offshore until it merges with the Middle America Trench along the Pacific coast of Mexico, near Acapulco. Seismic activity at the Motagua Fault has been responsible for earthquakes in 1717, 1773, 1902, 1976, 1980, and 2009.

text: Another onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough is the Chixoy-Polochic Fault, which runs parallel to, and roughly 80 kilometers (50 mi) to the north, of the Motagua Fault. Though less active than the Motagua Fault, seismic activity at the Chixoy-Polochic Fault is still thought to be capable of producing very large earthquakes, such as the 1816 earthquake of Guatemala.[33]

text: Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972.

text: Volcanic eruptions are also common in Central America. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted killing 87 people as the 3 villages of Tabacon, Pueblo Nuevo and San Luis were buried under pyroclastic flows and debris. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lava have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: The population of Central America is estimated at 47,448,333 as of 2016.[34] With an area of 523,780 square kilometers (202,230 sq mi),[2] it has a population density of 81 per square kilometer (210/sq mi).

text:
Countries of Central America

Name of territory,
with flag
Area
(km²)[35]
Population
(2016 est.)[34]
Population
density
(per km²)
Capital
Official
language
Human Development Index

 Belize
7004229660000000000♠22,966
366,954
7001130000000000000♠13
Belmopan
English
0,715 High

 Costa Rica
7004511000000000000♠51,100
4,857,274
7001820000000000000♠82
San José
Spanish
0,766 High

 El Salvador
7004210400000000000♠21,040
6,344,722
7002292000000000000♠292
San Salvador
Spanish
0,666 Medium

 Guatemala
7005108890000000000♠108,890
16,582,469
7002129000000000000♠129
Guatemala City
Spanish
0,627 Medium

 Honduras
7005112090000000000♠112,090
9,112,867
7001670000000000000♠67
Tegucigalpa
Spanish
0,606 Medium

 Nicaragua
7005130373000000000♠130,373
6,149,928
7001440000000000000♠44
Managua
Spanish
0,631 Medium

 Panama
7004782000000000000♠78,200
4,034,119
7001440000000000000♠44
Panama City
Spanish
0,780 High

Total
7005523780000000000♠523,780
7007474483330000000♠47,448,333
7001800000000000000♠80
-
-
-

text:
Largest metropolitan areas in Central America

City
Country
Population
Census Year
% of National
population

(1) Guatemala City
 Guatemala
5,700,000
2010
26%

(2) San Salvador
 El Salvador
2,415,217
2009
39%

(3) Managua
 Nicaragua
1,918,000
2012
34%

(4) Tegucigalpa
 Honduras
1,819,000
2010
24%

(5) San Pedro Sula
 Honduras
1,600,000
2010
21%+4

(6) Panama City
 Panama
1,400,000
2010
37%

(7) San José
 Costa Rica
1,275,000
2013
30%

text: Languages[edit]

text: The official language majority in all Central American countries is Spanish, except in Belize, where the official language is English. Mayan languages constitute a language family consisting of about 26 related languages. Guatemala formally recognized 21 of these in 1996. Xinca and Garifuna are also present in Central America.

text:
Languages in Central America (2010)

Pos.
Countries
Population
% Spanish
% Mayan languages
% English
% Xinca
% Garifuna

1
Guatemala
17,284,000
64.7%
34.3%
0.0%
0.7%
0.3%

2
Honduras
8,447,000
97.1%
2.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.9%

3
El Salvador
6,108,000
99.0%
1.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%

4
Nicaragua
6,028,000
87.4%
7.1%
5.5%
0.0%
0.0%

5
Costa Rica
4,726,000
97.2%
1.8%
1.0%
0.0%
0.0%

6
Panamá
3,652,000
86.8%
9.2%
4.0%
0.0%
0.0%

7
Belize
334,000
52.1%
8.9%
37.0%
0.0%
2.0%

text: Ethnic groups[edit]

text: This region of the continent is very rich in terms of ethnic groups. The majority of the population is mestizo, with sizable Mayan and White populations present, including Xinca and Garifuna minorities. The immigration of Arabs, Jews, Chinese, Europeans and others brought additional groups to the area.

text:
Ethnic groups in Central America (2010)

Country
Population1
% Amerindian
% White
% Mestizo/Mixed
% Black
% Other

 Belize
324,528
6.3%
5.0%
49.6%
32.0%
4.1%

 Costa Rica
4,301,712
4.0%
65.8%
13.8%
7.2%
9.0%

 El Salvador
6,340,889
1.0%
12.0%
86.0%
0.0%
1.0%

 Guatemala
15,700,000
38.5%
18.5%
40.0%
1.0%
2.0%

 Honduras
8,143,564
6.0%
5.5%
82.0%
6.0%
0.5%

 Nicaragua
5,815,500
5.0%
17.0%
69.0%
9.0%
0.0%

 Panama
3,474,562
6.0%
10.0%
65.0%
14.0%
5.0%

Total
42,682,190
16.24%
20.18%
58.05%
4.43%
1.17%

text: Religious groups[edit]

text: The predominant religion in Central America is Christianity (95.6%).[36] Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Central America in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism became the most popular religion in the region until the first half of the 20th century. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion.[37]

text:
Countries
% Roman Catholicism
(2010)
% Protestantism
(2010)
% Non-affiliated
(2010)
% Other
(2010)

 Belize
40%
31%
15%
14%

 Costa Rica
69%
17%
11%
3%

 El Salvador
46%
29%
24%
1%

 Guatemala
47%
39%
12%
2%

 Honduras
52%
35%
10%
3%

 Nicaragua
58%
23%
13%
4%

 Panama
77%
14%
6%
3%

text: Culture[edit]

text:
Central American music
Central American cuisine
List of cuisines of the Americas – Central American cuisine

text: Sport[edit]

text:
Central American Games
Central American and Caribbean Games

1926 Central American and Caribbean Games – the first time this event occurred

Central American Football Union
Surfing

text: Politics[edit]

text: Central American Integration[edit]

text:
Central American
Integration System
Sistema de
Integración Centroamericana

Coat of arms

Motto(s): "Peace, Development, Liberty and Democracy"

Anthem: La Granadera

Countries

 Belize
 Costa Rica
 El Salvador
 Guatemala
 Honduras
 Nicaragua
 Panama
 Dominican Republic

Area

 • Total
560,988 km2 (216,599 sq mi)

Population

 • Total
50,807,778

 • Density
91/km2 (230/sq mi)

text: Central America is currently undergoing a process of political, economic and cultural transformation that started in 1907 with the creation of the Central American Court of Justice.

text: In 1951 the integration process continued with the signature of the San Salvador Treaty, which created the ODECA, the Organization of Central American States. However, the unity of the ODECA was limited by conflicts between several member states.

text: In 1991, the integration agenda was further advanced by the creation of the Central American Integration System (Sistema para la Integración Centroamericana, or SICA). SICA provides a clear legal basis to avoid disputes between the member states. SICA membership includes the 7 nations of Central America plus the Dominican Republic, a state that is traditionally considered part of the Caribbean.

text:
Central American flags

Guatemala

El Salvador

Honduras

Nicaragua

Costa Rica

Panama

Belize

text: On 6 December 2008 SICA announced an agreement to pursue a common currency and common passport for the member nations.[38] No timeline for implementation was discussed.

text: Central America already has several supranational institutions such as the Central American Parliament, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration and the Central American Common Market.

text: On 22 July 2011 President Mauricio Funes of El Salvador became the first president pro tempore to SICA. El Salvador also became the headquarters of SICA with the inauguration of a new building.[39]

text: Foreign relations[edit]

text: Until recently, all Central American countries have maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan instead of China. President Óscar Arias of Costa Rica, however, established diplomatic relations with China in 2007, severing formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan.[40] After breaking off relations with the Republic of China in 2017, Panama established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.[41]

text: Central American Parliament[edit]

text: The Central American Parliament (also known as PARLACEN) is a political and parliamentary body of SICA. The parliament started around 1980, and its primary goal was to resolve conflicts in Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Although the group was disbanded in 1986, ideas of unity of Central Americans still remained, so a treaty was signed in 1987 to create the Central American Parliament and other political bodies. Its original members were Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras. The parliament is the political organ of Central America, and is part of SICA. New members have since then joined including Panama and the Dominican Republic.

text: Economy[edit]

text: Signed in 2004, the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) is an agreement between the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. The treaty is aimed at promoting free trade among its members.

text: Guatemala has the largest economy in the region.[42][43] Its main exports are coffee, sugar, bananas, petroleum, clothing, and cardamom. Of its 10.29 billion dollar annual exports,[44] 40.2% go to the United States, 11.1% to neighboring El Salvador, 8% to Honduras, 5.5% to Mexico, 4.7% to Nicaragua, and 4.3% to Costa Rica.[45]

text: Economic growth in Central America is projected to slow slightly in 2014–15, as country-specific domestic factors offset the positive effects from stronger economic activity in the United States.[9]

text:
Economy size for Latin American countries per Gross domestic product

Country
GDP (nominal)[42][a]
GDP (nominal) per capita[46][47]
GDP (PPP)[43][a]

 Belize
1,552
$4,602
2,914

 Costa Rica
44,313
$10,432
57,955

 El Salvador
24,421
$3,875
46,050

 Guatemala
50,303
$3,512
78,012

 Honduras
18,320
$2,323
37,408

 Nicaragua
7,695
$1,839
19,827

 Panama
34,517
$10,838
55,124

text: Tourism[edit]

text: Tourism in Belize has grown considerably in more recent times, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Belizean Prime Minister Dean Barrow has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country.[48] The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Belize's tourism-driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming almost one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2012.[49] Belize is also the only country in Central America with English as its official language, making this country a comfortable destination for English-speaking tourists.[50]

text: Costa Rica is the most visited nation in Central America.[51] Tourism in Costa Rica is one of the fastest growing economic sectors of the country,[52] having become the largest source of foreign revenue by 1995.[53] Since 1999, tourism has earned more foreign exchange than bananas, pineapples and coffee exports combined.[54] The tourism boom began in 1987,[53] with the number of visitors up from 329,000 in 1988, through 1.03 million in 1999, to a historical record of 2.43 million foreign visitors and $1.92-billion in revenue in 2013.[51] In 2012 tourism contributed with 12.5% of the country's GDP and it was responsible for 11.7% of direct and indirect employment.[55]

text: Tourism in Nicaragua has grown considerably recently, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country.[56] The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Nicaragua's tourism-driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2010.[57]

text: Transport[edit]

text: Roads[edit]

text: The Inter-American Highway is the Central American section of the Pan-American Highway, and spans 5,470 kilometers (3,400 mi) between Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and Panama City, Panama. Because of the 87 kilometers (54 mi) break in the highway known as the Darién Gap, it is not possible to cross between Central America and South America in an automobile.

text: Waterways[edit]

text: Ports and harbors[edit]

text: Airports[edit]

text: Railways[edit]

text: Education[edit]

text:
List of Architecture schools in Central America
List of universities in Belize
List of universities in Costa Rica
List of universities in El Salvador
List of universities in Guatemala
List of universities in Honduras
List of universities in Nicaragua
List of universities in Panama


document_title: List of Indian states and union territories by literacy rate

question_text: which state has more literacy rate in india

root

text:
States and union  territories of India  ordered by
Area
Population

Abbreviations
Capitals
Child Nutrition
Crime rate
Electricity penetration
Fertility rate
Forest cover
GDP (per capita)
Highest point
HIV awareness
HDI
Home ownership
Household size
Human Trafficking
Institutional delivery
Life expectancy at birth
Literacy rate
Media exposure
Number of Vehicles
Number of voters
Obesity
Open defecation
Origin of name
Places of worship
Poverty
Power capacity
Safe Drinking Water
Safety of Women
School Enrollment Rate
Sex ratio
Suicides
Tax revenues
TV ownership
Toilet availability
Transport network
Underweight people
Unemployment
Vaccination coverage
vte

tag: table

text: Literacy rate in India is uneven and as such, different States and Union Territories of India have differences in their literacy rates. The following table shows the 2011 and 2001 census data on total literacy rate, male literacy rate, female literacy rate and decadal difference in percentage.[2][3] According to Census 2011, Kerala has the highest total literacy rate and female literacy rate whereas Lakshadweep had the highest male literacy rate. Bihar has the lowest total literacy rate and male literacy rates while Rajasthan has the lowest female literacy rate.[2]

tag: p

text:
Rank
India/State/Union Territory
Literacy Rate (%) - 2011 Census
Male Literacy Rate (%) - 2011 Census[2]
Female Literacy Rate (%) - 2011 Census[2]
Literacy Rate (%) - 2001 Census
Decadal Difference (pp)

1
Kerala
93.91
96.02
91.98
90.86
3.05

2
Lakshadweep
92.28
96.11
88.25
86.66
5.62

3
Mizoram
91.58
93.72
89.40
88.80
2.78

4
Tripura
87.75[a]
92.18
83.15
73.19
14.56

5
Goa
87.40
92.81
81.84
82.01
5.39

6
Daman & Diu
87.07
91.48
79.59
78.18
8.89

7
Puducherry
86.55
92.12
81.22
81.24
5.31

8
Chandigarh
86.43
90.54
81.38
81.94
4.49

9
Delhi
86.34
91.03
80.93
81.67
4.67

10
Andaman & Nicobar
86.27
90.11
81.84
81.30
4.97

11
Himachal Pradesh
83.78
90.83
76.60
76.48
7.30

12
Maharashtra
82.91
89.82
75.48
76.88
6.03

13
Sikkim
82.20
87.29
76.43
68.81
13.39

14
Tamil Nadu
80.33
86.81
73.86
73.45
6.88

15
Nagaland
80.11
83.29
76.89
66.59
13.52

16
Manipur
79.85
86.49
73.17
69.93
9.92

17
Uttarakhand
79.63
88.33
70.70
71.62
8.01

18
Gujarat
79.31
87.23
70.73
69.14
10.17

19
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
77.65
86.46
65.93
57.63
20.02

20
West Bengal
77.08
82.67
71.16
68.64
8.44

21
Punjab
76.68
81.48
71.34
69.65
7.03

22
Haryana
76.64
85.38
66.77
67.91
8.73

23
Karnataka
75.60
82.85
68.13
66.64
8.96

24
Meghalaya
75.48
77.17
73.78
62.56
12.92

India
74.04
82.14
65.46
64.83
9.21

25
Odisha
73.45
82.40
64.36
63.08
10.37

26
Assam
73.18
78.81
67.27
63.25
9.93

27
Chhattisgarh
71.04
81.45
60.59
64.66
6.38

28
Madhya Pradesh
70.63
80.53
60.02
63.74
6.89

29
Uttar Pradesh
69.72
79.24
59.26
56.27
13.45

30
Jammu & Kashmir
68.74
78.26
58.01
55.52
13.22

31
Jharkhand
67.63
78.45
56.21
53.56
14.07

32

Andhra Pradesh

67.4[b]
75.56
59.74
--
--

33
Rajasthan
67.06
80.51
52.66
60.41
6.65

34
Arunachal Pradesh
66.95
73.69
59.57
54.34
12.61

35
Telangana
66.5[c]
--
--
--
--

36
Bihar
63.82
73.39
53.33
47.00
16.82

text: Notes

text:
Jump up ^ In September 2013, the State Government of Tripura claimed that the state has surpassed Kerala as the most literate state in India, with a literacy rate of 94.65%.[4][5]

Jump up ^  As per a government report dated May 2014 (based on the 2011 census data), literacy rate of Andhra Pradesh is 67.4%.[6]

Jump up ^ Census 2011 data was calculated for unified Andhra Pradesh. As per Times of India report which quoted the literacy rates of Telangana as 66.5%.[7]

tag: ol


document_title: Kingdom of Benin

question_text: who led the first portuguese voyage to benin

text: Kingdom of Benin

text: History[edit]

text: The original people and founders of the Benin Kingdom, the Edo people, were initially ruled by the Ogiso (Kings of the Sky) who called their land Igodomigodo. The first Ogiso (Ogiso Igodo), wielded much influence and gained popularity as a good ruler. He died after a long reign and was succeeded by Ere, his eldest son. In the 12th century, a great palace intrigue erupted and crown prince Ekaladerhan, the only son of the last Ogiso was sentenced to death as a result of the first Queen (who was barren) deliberately changing an oracle message to the Ogiso. In carrying out the order of the palace, the palace messengers had mercy and set the prince free at Ughoton near Benin. When his father the Ogiso died, the Ogiso dynasty ended. The people and royal kingmakers preferred their king's son as natural next in line to rule.

text: The exiled Prince Ekaladerhan had changed his name to Izoduwa meaning 'I have chosen the part of prosperity' and found his way to Ile-Ife. It was during this period of confusion the elders led by Oliha mounted a search for the banished Prince Ekaladerhan whom the Ife people will now called Oduduwa. Oduduwa, who could not return due to age, granted them Oranmiyan, his son, to rule over them. Oranmiyan was resisted by Ogiamien Irebor, one of the palace chiefs and took up his abode in the palace built for him at Usama by the elders (now a coronation shrine). Soon after his arrival he married a beautiful lady, Erinmwinde, daughter of Ogie-Egor, the ninth Enogie (Duke) of Egor, by whom he had a son. After some years residence here he called a meeting of the people and renounced his office, remarking that the country was a land of vexation, Ile-Ibinu Yoruba words (by which name the country was afterward known) and that only a child born, trained and educated in the arts and mysteries of the land could reign over the people. He caused his son born to him by Erinmwinde to be made King in his place, and returned to Yoruba land Ile-Ife. His son whom he left behind was deaf and dumb, and the elders recoursed to Oranmiyan who gave them charmed seeds "omo ayo" to play with which will make him to talk. The little Oranmiyan played with the seeds with his peers at Egor his mother’s hometown. While playing with the seeds he announced "Owomika" meaning 'my hands catch it' in yoruba but corrupted to 'Eweka' by the Edos. This is why every Oba of Benin must stay seven days in Usama and announce his name at Egor. Eweka thus started the Oba dynasty. Oranmiyan was also the founder of Oyo Empire where he ruled supreme as the first  Aalafin of Oyo and proceeded to ile ife to become the 6th Ooni of ife while his descendants rules in Ile Ife, Oyo and Benin.

text: By the 15th century, Benin had expanded into a thriving city-state. The twelfth Oba in line, Oba Ewuare the Great (1440–1473) would expand the city-state's territories to surrounding regions.

text: It was not until the 15th century during the reign of Oba Ewuare the Great that the kingdom's administrative centre, the city Ubinu, began to be known as Benin City by the Portuguese, later be adopted by the locals as well. Before then, due to the pronounced ethnic diversity at the kingdom's headquarters during the 15th century from the successes of Oba Ewuare, the earlier name ('Ubinu') by a tribe of the Edos was colloquially spoken as "Bini" by the mix of Itsekhiri, Esan, Igbo, Ijaw Edo, Urhobo living together in the royal administrative centre of the kingdom. The Portuguese would write this down as Benin City. Though, farther Edo clans, such as the Itsekiris and the Urhobos still referred to the city as Ubini up till the late 19th century, as evidence implies.

text: Aside from Benin City, the system of rule of the Oba in his kingdom, even through the golden age of the kingdom, was still loosely based after the Ogiso dynasty, which was military and royal protection in exchange of use of resources and implementation of taxes paid to the royal administrative centre. Language and culture was not enforced but remained heterogeneous and localized according to each group within the kingdom, though a local "Enogie" (duke) was often appointed by the Oba for specified ethnic areas.

text: Oral tradition[edit]

text: The original name of the Benin Kingdom, at its creation some time in the first millennium CE, was Igodomigodo, as its inhabitants called it. Their ruler was called Ogiso.[3]

text: Nearly 36 known Ogiso are accounted for as rulers of this initial incarnation of the state. According to Edo oral tradition, during the reign of the last Ogiso, his son and heir apparent, Ekaladerhan, was sentenced to death because one of the Queens deliberately changed an oracle message to the Ogiso. In carrying out the order of the palace, the palace messengers set him free recognizing his innocence.

text: On the death of the last Ogiso, a group of Benin Chiefs led by Chief Oliha mounted a search for their banished Prince Ekaladerhan who the Ife people will now call Oduduwa to Ile-Ife, pleaded for Oduduwa return(The Ooni) but were granted one of his sons as King in Igodomigodo (later known as Benin City).

text: Centuries later, in 1440, Oba Ewuare, also known as Ewuare the Great, came to power and expanded the borders of the former city-state. It was only at this time that the administrative centre of the kingdom began to be referred to as Ubinu after the Yoruba word and corrupted to Bini by the Itsekhiri, Edo, and Urhobo living together in the royal administrative centre of the kingdom. The Portuguese who arrived in an expedition led by Joao Afonso de Aveiro in 1485 would refer to it as Benin and the centre would become known as Benin City.

text: The Kingdom of Benin, eventually gained political strength and ascendancy over much of what is now mid-western Nigeria. Nowadays, scientists have discovered that the Edo people did have a writing system, their art work which had let the scientists discover their true history. Including the armor, magnificent drawing skills.

text: Golden Age[edit]

text: The Oba had become the mount of power within the region. Oba Ewuare, the first Golden Age Oba, is credited with turning Benin City into a city state from a military fortress built by the Ogisos, protected by moats and walls. It was from this bastion that he launched his military campaigns and began the expansion of the kingdom from the Edo-speaking heartlands.

text: A series of walls marked the incremental growth of the sacred city from 850 AD until its decline in the 16th century. To enclose his palace he commanded the building of Benin's inner wall, an 11-kilometre-long (7 mi) earthen rampart girded by a moat 6 m (20 ft) deep. This was excavated in the early 1960s by Graham Connah. Connah estimated that its construction, if spread out over five dry seasons, would have required a workforce of 1,000 laborers working ten hours a day seven days a week. Ewuare also added great thoroughfares and erected nine fortified gateways.

text: Excavations also uncovered a rural network of earthen walls 6,000 to 13,000 km (4,000 to 8,000 mi) long that would have taken an estimated 150 million man-hours to build and must have taken hundreds of years to build. These were apparently raised to mark out territories for towns and cities. 13 years after Ewuare's death tales of Benin's splendors, more Portuguese traders were lured to the city gates.[4]

text: At its height, Benin dominated trade along the entire coastline from the Western Niger Delta, through Lagos to modern-day Ghana.[5] It was for this reason that this coastline was named the Bight of Benin. The present-day Republic of Benin, formerly Dahomey, decided to choose the name of this bight as the name of its country. Benin ruled over the tribes of the Niger Delta including the Western Igbo, Ijaw, Itshekiri, and Urhobo amongst others. It also held sway over the Eastern Yoruba tribes of Ondo, Ekiti, Mahin/Ugbo, and Ijebu.[6] It also established the first colony of Lagos hundreds of years before the British took over in 1851.[7]

text: The state developed an advanced artistic culture, especially in its famous artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory. These include bronze wall plaques and life-sized bronze heads depicting the Obas of Benin. The most well-known artifact is based on Queen Idia, now best known as the FESTAC Mask after its use in 1977 in the logo of the Nigeria-financed and hosted Second Festival of Black & African Arts and Culture (FESTAC 77).

text: European contact[edit]

text: The first European travelers to reach Benin were Portuguese explorers starting with Joao Afonso de Aveiro (pt) in about 1485. A strong mercantile relationship developed, with the Edo trading slaves and tropical products such as ivory, pepper and palm oil with for European goods such as Manilla (money) and guns. In the early 16th century, the Oba sent an ambassador to Lisbon, and the king of Portugal sent Christian missionaries to Benin City. Some residents of Benin City could still speak a pidgin Portuguese in the late 19th century.

text: The first English expedition to Benin was in 1553, and significant trading developed between England and Benin based on the export of ivory, palm oil, pepper and slaves. Visitors in the 16th and 17th centuries brought back to Europe tales of "the Great Benin", a fabulous city of noble buildings, ruled over by a powerful king. However, the Oba began to suspect Britain of larger colonial designs and ceased communications with the British until the British Expedition in 1896-97 when British troops captured, burned, and looted Benin City as part of a punitive mission, which brought the kingdom to an end.[8]

text: A 17th-century Dutch engraving from Olfert Dapper's Nauwkeurige Beschrijvinge der Afrikaansche Gewesten, published in Amsterdam in 1668 says:[page needed]

text: The king's palace or court is a square, and is as large as the town of Haarlem and entirely surrounded by a special wall, like that which encircles the town. It is divided into many magnificent palaces, houses, and apartments of the courtiers, and comprises beautiful and long square galleries, about as large as the Exchange at Amsterdam, but one larger than another, resting on wooden pillars, from top to bottom covered with cast copper, on which are engraved the pictures of their war exploits and battles...

text: Another Dutch traveller was David van Nyendael, who in 1699 wrote an eye-witness account.

text: Military[edit]

text: Military operations relied on a well trained disciplined force.[9] At the head of the host stood the Oba of Benin. The monarch of the realm served as supreme military commander. Beneath him were subordinate generalissimos, the Ezomo, the Iyase, and others who supervised a Metropolitan Regiment based in the capital, and a Royal Regiment made up of hand-picked warriors that also served as bodyguards. Benin's Queen Mother also retained her own regiment, the "Queen's Own". The Metropolitan and Royal regiments were relatively stable semi-permanent or permanent formations. The Village Regiments provided the bulk of the fighting force and were mobilized as needed, sending contingents of warriors upon the command of the king and his generals. Formations were broken down into sub-units under designated commanders. Foreign observers often commented favorably on Benin's discipline and organization as "better disciplined than any other Guinea nation", contrasting them with the slacker troops from the Gold Coast.[10]

text: Until the introduction of guns in the 15th century, traditional weapons like the spear, short sword, and bow held sway. Efforts were made to reorganize a local guild of blacksmiths in the 18th century to manufacture light firearms, but dependence on imports was still heavy. Before the coming of the gun, guilds of blacksmiths were charged with war production—particularly swords and iron spearheads.[9]

text:
The King of Benin can in a single day make 20,000 men ready for war, and, if need be, 180,000, and because of this he has great influence among all the surrounding peoples ... His authority stretches over many cities, towns and villages. There is no King thereabouts who, in the possession of so many beautiful cities and towns, is his equal.
Olfert Dapper, Nauwkeurige Beschrijvinge der Afrikaansche Gewesten (Description of Africa), 1668.[page needed]

tag: div

text: Benin's tactics were well organized, with preliminary plans weighed by the Oba and his sub-commanders. Logistics were organized to support missions from the usual porter forces, water transport via canoe, and requisitioning from localities the army passed through. Movement of troops via canoes was critically important in the lagoons, creeks and rivers of the Niger Delta, a key area of Benin's domination. Tactics in the field seem to have evolved over time. While the head-on clash was well known, documentation from the 18th century shows greater emphasis on avoiding continuous battle lines, and more effort to encircle an enemy (ifianyako).[9]

text: Fortifications were important in the region and numerous military campaigns fought by Benin's soldiers revolved around sieges. As noted above, Benin's military earthworks are the largest of such structures in the world, and Benin's rivals also built extensively. Barring a successful assault, most sieges were resolved by a strategy of attrition, slowly cutting off and starving out the enemy fortification until it capitulated. On occasion however, European mercenaries were called on to aid with these sieges. In 1603–04 for example, European cannon helped batter and destroy the gates of a town near present-day Lagos, allowing 10,000 warriors of Benin to enter and conquer it. As payment the Europeans received items, such as palm oil and bundles of pepper.[11] The example of Benin shows the power of indigenous military systems, but also the role outside influences and new technologies brought to bear. This is a normal pattern among many nations and was to be reflected across Africa as the 19th century dawned.

text: Decline[edit]

text: Britain seeks control over trade[edit]

text: Benin began to decline after 1700. Benin's power and the wealth was continuously flourishing in the 19th century with the development of the trade in palm oil, textiles, ivory, slaves, and other resources. To preserve the kingdom's independence, bit by bit the Oba banned the export of goods from Benin, until the trade was exclusively in palm oil.

text: By the last half of the 19th century Great Britain had come to want a closer relationship with the Kingdom of Benin; for British officials were increasingly interested in controlling trade in the area and in accessing the kingdom's rubber resources to support their own growing tire market.

text: Several attempts were made to achieve this end beginning with the official visit of Richard Francis Burton in 1862 when he was consul at Fernando Pó. Following that came attempts to establish a treaty between  Benin and the United Kingdom by Hewtt, Blair and Annesley in 1884, 1885 and 1886 respectively. However, these efforts did not yield any results. The kingdom resisted becoming a British protectorate throughout the 1880s, but the British remained persistent. Progress was made finally in 1892 during the visit of Vice-Consul Henry Galway. This mission was the first official visit after Burton's. Moreover, it would also set in motion the events to come that would lead to Oba Ovonramwen's demise.

text: The Galway Treaty of 1892[edit]

text: The Galway treaty allegedly[clarification needed] signed by the king put the Kingdom of Benin under the authority of the British as a protectorate and abolished the slave trade and human sacrifice.[12] Despite the stories later told by Galway, there is today still some controversy on a number of points—most of all as to whether the Oba actually agreed to the terms of the treaty as Galway claimed. At the time of his visit to Benin the Oba could not welcome Galway or any other foreigners due to the observance of the traditional Igue festival which prohibited the presence of any non-native persons during the sacred season. Also, even though Gallwey claimed the King (Oba) and his chiefs were willing to sign the treaty, it was common knowledge that Oba Ovonramwen did not sign one-sided treaties. The treaty reads "Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India in compliance with the request of [the] King of Benin, hereby extend to him and the territory under his authority and jurisdiction, Her gracious favour and protection" (Article 1).  The Treaty also states "The King of Benin agrees and promises to refrain from entering into any correspondence, Agreement or Treaty with any foreign nation or power except with the knowledge of her Britannic Majesty's Government" (Article 2), and finally that "It is agreed that full jurisdiction, civil and criminal over British subjects and their property in the territory of Benin is reserved to her Britannic Majesty, to be exercised by such consular or other officers as Her Majesty shall appoint for the purpose ... The same jurisdiction is likewise reserved to her Majesty in the said territory of Benin over foreign subjects enjoying British protection, who shall be deemed to be involved in the expression 'British subjects' throughout this Treaty" (Article 3).

text: It is inconceivable that the Oba would accept the terms laid out in articles IV–IX, or that the Oba would knowingly bestow their dominion upon Queen Victoria for so little apparent remuneration. Under Article IV, the treaty states that "All disputes between the King of Benin and other Chiefs between him and British or foreign traders or between the aforesaid King and neighboring tribes which can not be settled amicably between the two parties, shall be submitted to the British consular or other officers appointed by Her Britannic Majesty to exercise jurisdiction in the Benin territories for arbitration and decision or for arrangement." Oba Ovonremwen was a tenacious man, which is contrary to the accounts of treaty portrayers such as Gallwey; he was not doltish.

text: The chiefs attest that the Oba did not sign the treaty because he was in the middle of an important festival which prohibited him from doing anything else (including signing the treaty). Ovoramwen maintained that he did not touch the white man's pen. Galway later claimed in his report that the Oba basically accepted the signing of the treaty in all respects. Despite the ambiguity over whether or not the Oba signed the treaty, the British officials easily accepted it as though he did.

text: The conflict of 1897[edit]

text: see Benin Expedition of 1897

text: When people in Benin discovered Britain's true intentions were an invasion to depose the king of Benin, without approval from the king his generals ordered a preemptive attack on the British party approaching Benin City, including eight unknowing British representatives, who were killed. A punitive expedition was launched in 1897. The British force, under the command of Admiral Sir Harry Rawson, razed and burned the city, destroying much of the country's treasured art and dispersing nearly all that remained. The stolen portrait figures, busts, and groups created in iron, carved ivory, and especially in brass (conventionally called the "Benin Bronzes") are now displayed in museums around the world.