document_title: Malware

question_text: a special type of software that is used to hide malware bots and worms

text: Malware

text: Purposes[edit]

text: Many early infectious programs, including the first Internet Worm, were written as experiments or pranks. Today, malware is used by both black hat hackers and governments, to steal personal, financial, or business information.[5][6]

text: Malware is sometimes used broadly against government or corporate websites to gather guarded information,[7] or to disrupt their operation in general. However, malware is often used against individuals to gain information such as personal identification numbers or details, bank or credit card numbers, and passwords.

text: Since the rise of widespread broadband Internet access, malicious software has more frequently been designed for profit. Since 2003, the majority of widespread viruses and worms have been designed to take control of users' computers for illicit purposes.[8] Infected "zombie computers" are used to send email spam, to host contraband data such as child pornography,[9] or to engage in distributed denial-of-service attacks as a form of extortion.[10]

text: Programs designed to monitor users' web browsing, display unsolicited advertisements, or redirect affiliate marketing revenues are called spyware. Spyware programs do not spread like viruses; instead they are generally installed by exploiting security holes. They can also be hidden and packaged together with unrelated user-installed software.[11]

text: Ransomware affects an infected computer in some way, and demands payment to reverse the damage. For example, programs such as CryptoLocker encrypt files securely, and only decrypt them on payment of a substantial sum of money.

text: Some malware is used to generate money by click fraud, making it appear that the computer user has clicked an advertising link on a site, generating a payment from the advertiser. It was estimated in 2012 that about 60 to 70% of all active malware used some kind of click fraud, and 22% of all ad-clicks were fraudulent.[12]

text: In addition to criminal money-making, malware can be used for sabotage, often for political motives. Stuxnet, for example, was designed to disrupt very specific industrial equipment. There have been politically motivated attacks that have spread over and shut down large computer networks, including massive deletion of files and corruption of master boot records, described as "computer killing". Such attacks were made on Sony Pictures Entertainment (25 November 2014, using malware known as Shamoon or W32.Disttrack) and Saudi Aramco (August 2012).[13][14]

text: Infectious malware[edit]

text: The best-known types of malware, viruses and worms, are known for the manner in which they spread, rather than any specific types of behavior. The term computer virus is used for a program that embeds itself in some other executable software (including the operating system itself) on the target system without the user's consent and when that is run causes the virus to spread to other executables. On the other hand, a worm is a stand-alone malware program that actively transmits itself over a network to infect other computers. These definitions lead to the observation that a virus requires the user to run an infected program or operating system for the virus to spread, whereas a worm spreads itself.[15]

text: Concealment[edit]

text: These categories are not mutually exclusive, so malware may use multiple techniques.[16] This section only applies to malware designed to operate undetected, not sabotage and ransomware.

text: Viruses[edit]

text: A computer program usually hidden within another seemingly innocuous program that produces copies of itself and inserts them into other programs or files, and that usually performs a malicious action (such as destroying data).[17]

text: Trojan horses[edit]

text: A Trojan horse is a malicious computer program which misrepresents itself to appear useful, routine, or interesting in order to persuade a victim to install it. The term is derived from the Ancient Greek story of the Trojan horse used to invade the city of Troy by stealth.[18][19][20][21][22]

text: Trojan horses are generally spread by some form of social engineering, for example where a user is duped into executing an e-mail attachment disguised to be unsuspicious, (e.g., a routine form to be filled in), or by drive-by download. Although their payload can be anything, many modern forms act as a backdoor, contacting a controller which can then have unauthorized access to the affected computer.[23] While Trojan horses and backdoors are not easily detectable by themselves, computers may appear to run slower due to heavy processor or network usage.

text: Unlike computer viruses and worms, Trojan horses generally do not attempt to inject themselves into other files or otherwise propagate themselves.[24]

text: Rootkits[edit]

text: Once a malicious program is installed on a system, it is essential that it stays concealed, to avoid detection. Software packages known as rootkits allow this concealment, by modifying the host's operating system so that the malware is hidden from the user. Rootkits can prevent a malicious process from being visible in the system's list of processes, or keep its files from being read.[25]

text: Some malicious programs contain routines to defend against removal, not merely to hide themselves. An early example of this behavior is recorded in the Jargon File tale of a pair of programs infesting a Xerox CP-V time sharing system:

text: Backdoors[edit]

text: A backdoor is a method of bypassing normal authentication procedures, usually over a connection to a network such as the Internet. Once a system has been compromised, one or more backdoors may be installed in order to allow access in the future,[27] invisibly to the user.

text: The idea has often been suggested that computer manufacturers preinstall backdoors on their systems to provide technical support for customers, but this has never been reliably verified. It was reported in 2014 that US government agencies had been diverting computers purchased by those considered "targets" to secret workshops where software or hardware permitting remote access by the agency was installed, considered to be among the most productive operations to obtain access to networks around the world.[28] Backdoors may be installed by Trojan horses, worms, implants, or other methods.[29][30]

text: Evasion[edit]

text: Since the beginning of 2015, a sizable portion of malware utilizes a combination of many techniques designed to avoid detection and analysis.[31]

text:
The most common evasion technique is when the malware evades analysis and detection by fingerprinting the environment when executed.[32]
The second most common evasion technique is confusing automated tools' detection methods. This allows malware to avoid detection by technologies such as signature-based antivirus software by changing the server used by the malware.[33]
The third most common evasion technique is timing-based evasion. This is when malware runs at certain times or following certain actions taken by the user, so it executes during certain vulnerable periods, such as during the boot process, while remaining dormant the rest of the time.
The fourth most common evasion technique is done by obfuscating internal data so that automated tools do not detect the malware.[34]
An increasingly common technique is adware that uses stolen certificates to disable anti-malware and virus protection; technical remedies are available to deal with the adware.[35]

tag: ul

text: Nowadays, one of the most sophisticated and stealthy ways of evasion is to use information hiding techniques, namely stegomalware.

text: Vulnerability[edit]

text:
In this context, and throughout, what is called the "system" under attack may be anything from a single application, through a complete computer and operating system, to a large network.
Various factors make a system more vulnerable to malware:

text: Security defects in software[edit]

text: Malware exploits security defects (security bugs or vulnerabilities) in the design of the operating system, in applications (such as browsers, e.g. older versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer supported by Windows XP[36]), or in vulnerable versions of browser plugins such as Adobe Flash Player, Adobe Acrobat or Reader, or Java SE.[37][38] Sometimes even installing new versions of such plugins does not automatically uninstall old versions. Security advisories from plug-in providers announce security-related updates.[39] Common vulnerabilities are assigned CVE IDs and listed in the US National Vulnerability Database. Secunia PSI[40] is an example of software, free for personal use, that will check a PC for vulnerable out-of-date software, and attempt to update it.

text: Malware authors target bugs, or loopholes, to exploit. A common method is exploitation of a buffer overrun vulnerability, where software designed to store data in a specified region of memory does not prevent more data than the buffer can accommodate being supplied. Malware may provide data that overflows the buffer, with malicious executable code or data after the end; when this payload is accessed it does what the attacker, not the legitimate software, determines.

text: Insecure design or user error[edit]

text: Early PCs had to be booted from floppy disks. When built-in hard drives became common, the operating system was normally started from them, but it was possible to boot from another boot device if available, such as a floppy disk, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, USB flash drive or network. It was common to configure the computer to boot from one of these devices when available. Normally none would be available; the user would intentionally insert, say, a CD into the optical drive to boot the computer in some special way, for example, to install an operating system. Even without booting, computers can be configured to execute software on some media as soon as they become available, e.g. to autorun a CD or USB device when inserted.

text: Malicious software distributors would trick the user into booting or running from an infected device or medium. For example, a virus could make an infected computer add autorunnable code to any USB stick plugged into it. Anyone who then attached the stick to another computer set to autorun from USB would in turn become infected, and also pass on the infection in the same way.[41] More generally, any device that plugs into a USB port - even lights, fans, speakers, toys, or peripherals such as a digital microscope - can be used to spread malware. Devices can be infected during manufacturing or supply if quality control is inadequate.[41]

text: This form of infection can largely be avoided by setting up computers by default to boot from the internal hard drive, if available, and not to autorun from devices.[41] Intentional booting from another device is always possible by pressing certain keys during boot.

text: Older email software would automatically open HTML email containing potentially malicious JavaScript code. Users may also execute disguised malicious email attachments and infected executable files supplied in other ways.[citation needed]

text: Over-privileged users and over-privileged code[edit]

text: In computing, privilege refers to how much a user or program is allowed to modify a system. In poorly designed computer systems, both users and programs can be assigned more privileges than they should be, and malware can take advantage of this. The two ways that malware does this is through overprivileged users and overprivileged code.

text: Some systems allow all users to modify their internal structures, and such users today would be considered over-privileged users. This was the standard operating procedure for early microcomputer and home computer systems, where there was no distinction between an administrator or root, and a regular user of the system. In some systems, non-administrator users are over-privileged by design, in the sense that they are allowed to modify internal structures of the system. In some environments, users are over-privileged because they have been inappropriately granted administrator or equivalent status.

text: Some systems allow code executed by a user to access all rights of that user, which is known as over-privileged code. This was also standard operating procedure for early microcomputer and home computer systems. Malware, running as over-privileged code, can use this privilege to subvert the system. Almost all currently popular operating systems, and also many scripting applications allow code too many privileges, usually in the sense that when a user executes code, the system allows that code all rights of that user. This makes users vulnerable to malware in the form of e-mail attachments, which may or may not be disguised.

text: Use of the same operating system[edit]

text: Homogeneity can be a vulnerability. For example, when all computers in a network run the same operating system, upon exploiting one, one worm can exploit them all:[42] In particular, Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X have such a large share of the market that an exploited vulnerability concentrating on either operating system could subvert a large number of systems. Introducing diversity purely for the sake of robustness, such as adding Linux computers, could increase short-term costs for training and maintenance. However, as long as all the nodes are not part of the same directory service for authentication, having a few diverse nodes could deter total shutdown of the network and allow those nodes to help with recovery of the infected nodes. Such separate, functional redundancy could avoid the cost of a total shutdown, at the cost of increased complexity and reduced usability in terms of single sign-on authentication.

text: Anti-malware strategies[edit]

text: As malware attacks become more frequent, attention has begun to shift from viruses and spyware protection, to malware protection, and programs that have been specifically developed to combat malware. (Other preventive and recovery measures, such as backup and recovery methods, are mentioned in the computer virus article).

text: Anti-virus and anti-malware software[edit]

text: A specific component of anti-virus and anti-malware software, commonly referred to as an on-access or real-time scanner, hooks deep into the operating system's core or kernel and functions in a manner similar to how certain malware itself would attempt to operate, though with the user's informed permission for protecting the system. Any time the operating system accesses a file, the on-access scanner checks if the file is a 'legitimate' file or not. If the file is identified as malware by the scanner, the access operation will be stopped, the file will be dealt with by the scanner in a pre-defined way (how the anti-virus program was configured during/post installation), and the user will be notified.[citation needed] This may have a considerable performance impact on the operating system, though the degree of impact is dependent on how well the scanner was programmed. The goal is to stop any operations the malware may attempt on the system before they occur, including activities which might exploit bugs or trigger unexpected operating system behavior.

text: Anti-malware programs can combat malware in two ways:

text:
They can provide real time protection against the installation of malware software on a computer. This type of malware protection works the same way as that of antivirus protection in that the anti-malware software scans all incoming network data for malware and blocks any threats it comes across.
Anti-malware software programs can be used solely for detection and removal of malware software that has already been installed onto a computer. This type of anti-malware software scans the contents of the Windows registry, operating system files, and installed programs on a computer and will provide a list of any threats found, allowing the user to choose which files to delete or keep, or to compare this list to a list of known malware components, removing files that match.[43]

tag: ol

text: Real-time protection from malware works identically to real-time antivirus protection: the software scans disk files at download time, and blocks the activity of components known to represent malware. In some cases, it may also intercept attempts to install start-up items or to modify browser settings. Because many malware components are installed as a result of browser exploits or user error, using security software (some of which are anti-malware, though many are not) to "sandbox" browsers (essentially isolate the browser from the computer and hence any malware induced change) can also be effective in helping to restrict any damage done.[citation needed]

text: Examples of Microsoft Windows antivirus and anti-malware software include the optional Microsoft Security Essentials[44] (for Windows XP, Vista, and Windows 7) for real-time protection, the Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool[45] (now included with Windows (Security) Updates on "Patch Tuesday", the second Tuesday of each month), and Windows Defender (an optional download in the case of Windows XP, incorporating MSE functionality in the case of Windows 8 and later).[46] Additionally, several capable antivirus software programs are available for free download from the Internet (usually restricted to non-commercial use).[47] Tests found some free programs to be competitive with commercial ones.[47] Microsoft's System File Checker can be used to check for and repair corrupted system files.

text: Some viruses disable System Restore and other important Windows tools such as Task Manager and Command Prompt. Many such viruses can be removed by rebooting the computer, entering Windows safe mode with networking[48], and then using system tools or Microsoft Safety Scanner.[49]

text: Hardware implants can be of any type, so there can be no general way to detect them.

text: Website security scans[edit]

text: As malware also harms the compromised websites (by breaking reputation, blacklisting in search engines, etc.), some websites offer vulnerability scanning.[50][51][52][53] Such scans check the website, detect malware, may note outdated software, and may report known security issues.

text: "Air gap" isolation or "Parallel Network"[edit]

text: As a last resort, computers can be protected from malware, and infected computers can be prevented from disseminating trusted information, by imposing an "air gap" (i.e. completely disconnecting them from all other networks). However, malware can still cross the air gap in some situations. For example, removable media can carry malware across the gap. In December 2013 researchers in Germany showed one way that an apparent air gap can be defeated.[54]

text: "AirHopper",[55] "BitWhisper",[56] "GSMem" [57] and "Fansmitter" [58] are four techniques introduced by researchers that can leak data from air-gapped computers using electromagnetic, thermal and acoustic emissions.

text: Grayware[edit]

text: Grayware is a term applied to unwanted applications or files that are not classified as malware, but can worsen the performance of computers and may cause security risks.[59]

text: It describes applications that behave in an annoying or undesirable manner, and yet are less serious or troublesome than malware. Grayware encompasses spyware, adware, fraudulent dialers, joke programs, remote access tools and other unwanted programs that harm the performance of computers or cause inconvenience. The term came into use around 2004.[60]

text: Another term, potentially unwanted program (PUP) or potentially unwanted application (PUA),[61] refers to applications that would be considered unwanted despite often having been downloaded by the user, possibly after failing to read a download agreement. PUPs include spyware, adware, and fraudulent dialers. Many security products classify unauthorised key generators as grayware, although they frequently carry true malware in addition to their ostensible purpose.

text: Software maker Malwarebytes lists several criteria for classifying a program as a PUP.[62] Some adware (using stolen certificates) disables anti-malware and virus protection; technical remedies are available.[35]

text: History of viruses and worms[edit]

text: Before Internet access became widespread, viruses spread on personal computers by infecting the executable boot sectors of floppy disks. By inserting a copy of itself into the machine code instructions in these executables, a virus causes itself to be run whenever a program is run or the disk is booted. Early computer viruses were written for the Apple II and Macintosh, but they became more widespread with the dominance of the IBM PC and MS-DOS system. Executable-infecting viruses are dependent on users exchanging software or boot-able floppies and thumb drives so they spread rapidly in computer hobbyist circles.[citation needed]

text: The first worms, network-borne infectious programs, originated not on personal computers, but on multitasking Unix systems. The first well-known worm was the Internet Worm of 1988, which infected SunOS and VAX BSD systems. Unlike a virus, this worm did not insert itself into other programs. Instead, it exploited security holes (vulnerabilities) in network server programs and started itself running as a separate process.[63] This same behavior is used by today's worms as well.[citation needed][64]

text: With the rise of the Microsoft Windows platform in the 1990s, and the flexible macros of its applications, it became possible to write infectious code in the macro language of Microsoft Word and similar programs. These macro viruses infect documents and templates rather than applications (executables), but rely on the fact that macros in a Word document are a form of executable code.[65]

text: Academic research[edit]

text: The notion of a self-reproducing computer program can be traced back to initial theories about the operation of complex automata.[66] John von Neumann showed that in theory a program could reproduce itself. This constituted a plausibility result in computability theory. Fred Cohen experimented with computer viruses and confirmed Neumann's postulate and investigated other properties of malware such as detectability and self-obfuscation using rudimentary encryption. His doctoral dissertation was on the subject of computer viruses.[67] The combination of cryptographic technology as part of the payload of the virus, exploiting it for attack purposes was initialized and investigated from the mid 1990s, and includes initial ransomware and evasion ideas.[68]


document_title: Rachel Green

question_text: when do ross and rachael get back together

root

text: Rachel Green

text: Appearances[edit]

text: Rachel debuts in the pilot episode of Friends as a runaway bride who is distraught after abandoning her fiancé Barry Farber (Mitchell Whitfield) at the altar. She locates her high school best friend Monica Geller (Courteney Cox), the only person she knows in New York City, who agrees to let Rachel reside with her while she attempts to reorganize her life. Rachel meets and befriends Monica’s friends Phoebe Buffay (Lisa Kudrow), Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc), and Chandler Bing (Matthew Perry), while reuniting with Monica's older brother Ross Geller (David Schwimmer), who has harbored unrequited romantic feelings for her since high school. Having previously relied on her parents' money her entire life with a sole goal of marrying wealthy, Rachel attempts to reinvent herself as an independent young woman by waitressing at Central Perk, a coffeehouse where her new friends regularly socialize.[6]

tag: p

text: As season one concludes, Rachel finally confesses her love for Ross, having learned of his feelings for her from Chandler, only to find that he has already begun dating another woman, whom she resents.[7] However, Ross eventually chooses Rachel over his girlfriend Julie (Lauren Tom),[8] and the couple dates for the remainder of the second season.[9] However, their relationship rapidly begins to deteriorate towards the end of the third season[10] after Rachel quits her job at the coffeehouse in favor of working in fashion.[9] While Rachel becomes increasingly preoccupied with her new job, Ross grows jealous of her companionship with her coworker Mark (Steven Eckholdt),[11] ultimately culminating in their break up on their one-year anniversary following a series of heated arguments and disagreements.[12]

text: In the episodes following the break up, Rachel and Ross are initially hostile towards each other. The exes continue to harbor feelings for each other. During a beach house vacation with their friends, Rachel and Ross briefly reconcile when he ends his relationship with Bonnie (Christine Taylor),[13] only to break up once again due to a disagreement. During season four, Rachel dates her customer Joshua (Tate Donovan), while Ross dates her boss' niece Emily (Helen Baxendale), to whom he eventually gets engaged. Competitively, Rachel proposes to recent divorcee Joshua, frightening him off. Rachel indirectly contributes to the demise of Ross and Emily's relationship when he accidentally utters Rachel's name while exchanging their wedding vows.[14] Ross ultimately divorces a jealous Emily, choosing his friendship with Rachel instead.[15]

text: At the end of season five, Ross and Rachel drunkenly get married while vacationing with their friends in Las Vegas.[16] In season six, their annulment request is denied because of Rachel having leveled unfounded allegations against Ross, forcing the two to file for a divorce instead. In season seven, Ross and Rachel unwittingly conceive a child when their birth control fails.[17] Rachel gives birth to a girl in season eight, naming the baby Emma Geller-Green;[18] the name Emma is a gift from Monica, who had previously been reserving the name for her own child. Rachel and Ross live together as non-romantic roommates during the first half of season nine.

text: Rachel eventually finds a job opportunity in France, but has second thoughts when Ross eventually forfeits stubbornness and says "I love you". Rachel ultimately decides to stay and reignite her relationship with Ross, getting off the plane at the last minute.[19]

text: Development[edit]

text: Conception and writing[edit]

text: After their short-lived television series Family Album was canceled,[20] television writers David Crane and Marta Kauffman pitched Friends to then-NBC president Warren Littlefield as a sitcom about "that special time in your life when your friends are your family,"[21] basing the show on their own experiences as young people living in New York;[22] the main characters themselves were inspired by their own friends.[23] Conceived as a young woman who is unprepared for adulthood,[24] the character Rachel Green was originally named Rachel Robbins.[25] Although critics and audiences initially perceived Monica as the show's main character when Friends premiered,[26][27][28] the writers had actually given Rachel the pilot's most prominent storyline.[29] Before deciding that Rachel and Ross would be an item for the entire series, the writers had originally intended for the show's defining couple to be Joey and Monica.[20] However, after the success of the pilot, in which Rachel and Ross' developing romance is first hinted at,[21] and witnessing Aniston and co-star David Schwimmer's on-screen chemistry for the first time,[30] Crane and Kauffman determined that the entire series relied on "finding all the wonderful roadblocks for them to be with each other."[21]

text: Audiences began rooting for Rachel and Ross' union since the very beginning of Friends, openly voicing their frustration with Rachel’s obliviousness to Ross' feelings for her.[31] The episode that would ultimately transform the friends' relationship for the remainder of the series was the first season finale "The One Where Rachel Finds Out", in which Rachel finally learns of Ross' true feelings for her, at the same time discovering she actually feels the same. However, the episode nearly went unwritten because, at the time, few friends writers were expecting the couple's relationship to morph into the phenomenon that it ultimately became.[32] The episode was first suggested by director James Burrows; the writers felt that it was time to alter the couple's dynamic in order to avoid the repetitive "he's pining, she's oblivious" pattern, using the work of author Jane Austen as inspiration on how to finally shift the pining arc from Ross to Rachel. Because stakes for the episode were unprecedentedly high, "The One Where Rachel Finds Out" became Friends' most reworked episode.[32] The couple's first kiss at the end of season two's "The One Where Ross Finds Out" was met with deafening applause from the studio audience.[31] Crane admitted that keeping viewers interested in their relationship for ten years was challenging.[21] Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph believes that they accomplished this by "dangl[ing] the possibility of a Ross and Rachel recoupling through several cliffhangers without ever putting them back together."[31] According to Encyclopedia of Television author Horace Newcomb, Ross and Rachel's ever-changing relationship "converted the traditional amnesic plotlines of the situation comedy into ones akin to episodic drama."[33] Meanwhile, writing for The New York Review of Books, Elaine Blair agreed that Friends created "a sense of chemistry between two characters while also putting obstacles in their way, setting us up for a long-deferred union."[34]

text: After Rachel and Ross drunkenly get married while on vacation in Las Vegas during season five, Schwimmer had initially objected to the idea of having his character Ross divorce her – his third divorce – because he felt that it was taking it "too far."[35] The actor explained that "The whole arc of the relationship was weird then ... because for [Ross] to be able to move on enough to marry someone else and then go back to being in love with Rachel later just went a bit too far."[35] Rachel and Joey's romantic storyline was conceived because the writers wanted to delay Ross and Rachel's reunion further.[35] Crane felt that pairing Rachel and Joey during season ten "was for the greater good" because "It was inappropriate."[21] However, the cast initially protested the idea, fearing that Rachel, Joey, and Ross would ultimately become unlikeable characters and audiences would either "resent Joey for going after a pregnant woman, or resent Rachel for rejecting him, or resent Ross for standing between the two of them."[36] Meanwhile, the writers also approached the concept of Rachel's pregnancy and baby tentatively, worrying about how they would include it in the show because they did not want Friends "to become a show about a baby" while "On the other hand, we don't want to pretend that there isn't one."[36] According to Robert Bianco of USA Today, the critical success and popularity of Rachel's pregnancy is ultimately responsible for "propel[ling] the show to the top of the ratings".[37] When it finally came time to write the series finale, "The only thing [Crane and Kauffman] absolutely knew from very early on was that we had to get Ross and Rachel together," deciding, "We had dicked the audience around for 10 years with their 'will they or won’t they,' and we didn’t see any advantage in frustrating them" any longer.[38] However, at one point the writers had deliberated ending the series with Ross and Rachel in "a gray area of where they aren’t together, but we hint there’s a sense that they might be down the road."[39] Ultimately, Crane and Kauffman relented in favor of giving the audience what they want.[39]

text: Casting[edit]

text: The final character to be cast,[30] Rachel is portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston, who auditioned for the role shortly after declining a position as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live.[40] Her decision was initially ridiculed by both her friends as well as actor Adam Sandler, a Saturday Night Live alum.[41] Actress Téa Leoni, who at the time was being referred to by the media as "the next Lucille Ball",[42] was offered the role of Rachel as the studio's first choice,[22] but she declined in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth.[43] Actress Elizabeth Berkley also auditioned for the role prior to being cast in the teen sitcom Saved by the Bell.[44] Other actresses who auditioned for Rachel include Denise Richards, Melissa Rivers, Nicollette Sheridan, Parker Posey, and Jami Gertz.[29] Originally, the producers wanted to cast actress Courteney Cox as Rachel,[45] who Crane and Kauffman were particularly drawn to because of her "cheery, upbeat energy."[20] Additionally, Cox was the most famous cast member at the time amidst an ensemble of relatively unknown actors.[22][29][46][47] However, the actress lobbied for the role of Rachel's best friend Monica, as whom she was ultimately cast,[20] because she felt that she was not "quirky" enough to play Rachel.[48] At the same time, although unbeknownst to each other,[49] Aniston was being considered for the role of Monica,[50] but fought to play Rachel because she felt that the character suited her better.[51][52] At one point, Cox had begun to regret her decision to play Monica until her own character's storylines started improving.[29]

text: Friends was Aniston's sixth sitcom;[53] each of her previous ventures had been canceled prematurely.[54] Feeling vulnerable, Aniston had begun to doubt herself as an actress[55] and personally approached Littlefield for reassurance on her career, who encouraged her to audition for Friends,[56] which was being referred to as Friends Like These at the time.[57] Crane and Kauffman had worked with Aniston prior to this.[21] However, casting her as Rachel posed a challenge for the network because, at the time, Aniston was simultaneously starring in a developing CBS sitcom called Muddling Through,[58] in which she plays a young woman whose mother is returning home from jail after two years.[59] CBS was initially reluctant to release Aniston from her contract,[29] which required the actress to balance both roles simultaneously,[60] traveling back-and-forth between Muddling Through and Friends for two weeks.[61] Meanwhile, NBC risked having to recast the role of Rachel, replace Aniston, and reshoot several episodes if CBS' series proved successful, which would have potentially cost the network millions of dollars.[21] However, Littlefield remained confident that Muddling Through would fail.[62] Essentially, the producers of Friends hoped that Muddling Through would be canceled before Friends premiered,[63] while Aniston feared that Muddling Through would be the more successful of the two sitcoms in spite of her preference towards Friends.[29][64] During this time of uncertainty, Aniston was forced not to participate in several Friends-related promotions and photo shoots;[65] the network excluded her from these in case she would be replaced.[66] Aniston explained, "When we were shooting the first grouping of cast photos ... I was asked to step out of a bunch because they didn't know if I was going to be still playing Rachel."[66] Director James Burrows admitted that Aniston had been cast in second position.[67][68] The producers had already begun auditioning other actresses for the part,[69] while Aniston also received phone calls from her own friends warning her, "I'm auditioning for your part in Friends."[70] Ultimately, Muddling Through was canceled after only three months and ten episodes,[71][72] two weeks before the pilot of Friends aired,[73] thus allowing Aniston to keep her role on the show,[74] becoming its second youngest cast member at the age of 25.[3][29] Crane appreciated Aniston's interpretation of Rachel because "in the wrong hands Rachel is kind of annoying and spoiled and unlikable," commending the actress for "breathing life into a difficult character."[29]

text: Crane and Kauffman strongly envisioned Friends as an ensemble comedy,[21] and Warner Bros. initially marketed the show as such by having the cast appear in their entirety for all press, interviews and photo shoots.[75] One of few sitcoms at the time to be neither a workplace comedy, family sitcom or star a famous comedian,[31] Elizabeth Kolbert of The New York Times explained that each of the show's main characters are "of equal importance."[47] As a writer, Crane preferred it this way because "utilizing six equal players, rather than emphasizing one or two, would allow for myriad story lines."[76] Kauffman echoed "that Friends worked best when the entire ensemble was onstage."[77] The only reason Aniston is credited first during the show's title sequence is because the cast is listed alphabetically.[29] The show's ensemble format is also believed to have prevented jealous conflicts among the cast.[31][76] Famously, the Friends cast became the first in television history to negotiate as a group for equal salaries,[75] refusing to work until their demands of $100,000 per episode were met during season three,[46] which eventually increased to $1 million per episode by seasons nine and ten –[55] approximately $25 million per year.[68] Alongside Cox and actress Lisa Kudrow, who portrays Phoebe, Aniston became the highest-paid television actress of all time.[78] By then, Aniston had surpassed Cox as the show's most famous cast member due to having launched an international hair trend with the "Rachel" and successfully transitioning into a film career,[29] combined with her high-profile relationship with her then-husband, actor Brad Pitt,[20] who had once guest starred in an episode of the show.[79] At times the producers would use the actress' popularity to boost the show's ratings, notably her character's seventh season kiss with actress Winona Ryder and pregnancy arc.[80][81] Aniston had been telling the press that the show's ninth season would be her last,[80] and was initially hesitant to return to Friends to film its tenth and final season.[20] She explained to NBC's Matt Lauer, "I wanted it to end when people still loved us and we were on a high. And then I was also feeling like, ‘How much more of Rachel do I have in me?’”[46] However, the actress ultimately agreed to complete the tenth season of Friends,[46] which was reduced from 24 to 18 episodes to accommodate Aniston's busy film schedule.[82]

text: Characterization and themes[edit]

text: Rachel is the youngest of Friends six main characters.[83] The term "spoiled" is often used to describe the character's personality during her early appearances.[33][84][85][86] Encyclopædia Britannica describes Rachel as a spoiled and funny character.[87] According to Rachel's original character description, written by Crane and Kauffman themselves for the show's pilot, the character is a spoiled yet courageous young woman who "has worked for none of what she has", unlike best friend Monica, and is initially "equipped to do nothing".[85] James Endrst of the Hartford Courant identified her as "a spoiled rich kid",[88] while the Daily News dubbed Rachel an "endearingly spoiled Daddy's girl."[89] Author Kim Etingoff wrote about Rachel in her book Jennifer Aniston: From Friends to Films that the character is "spunky and sometimes spoiled",[52] while TV Land called her "naive."[90] Citing the differences between Rachel and her two female friends, The Guardian's Ryan Gilbey observed that the character "wasn't insulated by self-regard, like Monica, or swaddled in gormlessness, like Phoebe."[91] Frequently identified as fitting the "girl next door" archetype,[92][93][94][95][96] Anne Bilson of The Telegraph described Rachel as "funny but not too funny, pretty but not too pretty, sexy but not too sexy, scatterbrained but not too scatterbrained."[97] TalkTalk's Dominic Wills described the character as "smart but ditzy, determined but undisciplined."[81] Meanwhile, Liat Kornowski, writing for The Huffington Post, scribed that Rachel is a "beautiful, coveted, slightly neurotic, borderline egocentric" character.[98]

text: Observing that the show's main characters are each based on a stereotype, Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph identified Rachel as "the self-absorbed one who goes from riches to rags."[31] According to Reign Magazine, Rachel is "a human being full of vulnerability, humor and strength while aesthetically donning an undeniable beauty and allure."[99] Originally depicted as a character who is unprepared for "the world as an adult", Rachel's personality was gradually tailored to suit Aniston as the series progressed, becoming "more self-sufficient and sympathetic."[24] According to Shining in the Shadows: Movie Stars of the 2000s author Murray Pomerance, "The more boundary collapsed between the 'real' Jennifer Aniston and Rachel, the more 'authentic' Aniston became."[24] Pomerance also noted that the character's "well-roundedness, normalcy and relatability" is similar to Aniston's, while both the character and the actress herself are very expressive, talking "with [their] hands a good deal."[24] In her book How To Write For Television, author Madeline Dimaggio wrote that although "Rachel grew within the context of the series ... she would always struggle with the spoiled, image-conscious Daddy's girl who fled from her wedding in the pilot."[100] Similarly, BuddyTV wrote that although Rachel "eventually evolves into being less absorbed in later series, she [remains] the most image-centric among the six",[101] while Vogue's Edward Barsamian opined, "She might have been self-centered and bratty, but Rachel Green was perhaps the most stylish and unabashedly fashion-obsessed character on the show."[102] TV Land summarized the character's arc and development in the website's biography of her, writing, "Rachel is a born shopper, but... she’s not necessarily a born worker. In fact, before moving in with Monica, she’s never had to work at all, thanks to the generosity of her parents. Luckily, Rachel is smart, resourceful and chic, so her future is bright, both as a member of the workforce and with her newfound tribe."[90] Examining the character's sexuality, Splitsider's Mike D'Avria determined that Rachel has had the third most sexual partners, 14, as well as the highest percentage of serious monogamous relationships at 71%. D'Avria opined, "Throughout the whole series Rachel is continually meeting men she wants to impress. Her flirtations typically fail, but she somehow winds up in a serious relationship with them."[103] Additionally, Rachel is also the only character to admit to having had a homosexual experience.[103]

text: In an interview with the Jewish Telegraph, Kauffman confirmed that Rachel is Jewish.[104] On the character's "Jewish ties", Kauffman told j. that Rachel had always been Jewish "in our minds", explaining, "You can’t create a character with the name 'Rachel Green' and not from the get-go make some character choices".[105] Prior to this, critics and fans had long speculated whether or not Rachel is Jewish; there are entire websites entirely devoted to discussing this.[104] Vulture's Lindsey Weber, who identifies herself as Jewish, observed several similarities and Jewish stereotypes she shares with the character, citing the facts that Rachel refers to her grandmother Ida Green as "Bubbe",[106] Long Island origin, and engagement to a Jewish doctor as allusions to the character's Jewish culture.[107] In her book Changed for Good: A Feminist History of the Broadway Musical, author Stacy Wolf identified Rachel as one of several popular female television characters who embodied Jewish stereotypes during the 1990s and often served as "the butt of the shows' jokes."[108] Meanwhile, JDate's Rebecca Frankel cited Rachel as one of the earliest and most prominent examples of the Jewish American Princess stereotype on screen.[109] Writing for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Alicia R. Korenman also acknowledged Rachel's initial Jewish American Princess qualities, describing her as "spoiled, dependent on her father's money and her fiance's, is horrified at the thought of working for a living and generally inept in her attempts to do so, and is eventually revealed to have had a nose job", which she eventually overcomes as they become less "evident in later seasons of the show".[110] In his article "Princesses, Schlemiels, Punishers and Overbearing Mothers", Evan Cooper described Rachel as a "de-semitized" Jew because, aside from her name, "there is never any discussion of experiences of growing up in a Jewish culture, no use of Yiddish, and few, if any, references to family members with distinctively Jewish surnames".[111] Cooper continued to write that although Rachel possesses some Jewish American Princess traits, she is more similar to the "little woman" stereotype.[111] The New York Post's Robert Rorke labeled Rachel "a rehabilitated Jewish American Princess", in contrast to her sister Amy (Christina Applegate) who remains "selfish, condescending and narcissistic."[112]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Critical response towards Rachel remained mostly positive throughout the show's ten-season run.[52] Writing for The A.V. Club, John Reid believes that Rachel is responsible for the success of the pilot, explaining, "The story of this group of friends must start with a stranger coming to town," describing Rachel as "the perfect stranger for this plot".[113] Reid also holds Rachel responsible for spurring character development in the show's five other main characters, calling her arrival "a catalyst for all of them to grow, because unlike the rest of them, Rachel is interested in finding meaning for her life".[113] Also writing for The A.V. Club, Sonia Saraiya enjoyed Rachel's first awkward encounter with Ross because, for the first time, "Rachel displays a moment of true empathy for another human being".[113] Saraiya went on to hail Rachel as "as a model for women coming of age in the 1990s—the popular, pretty girl dissatisfied with where those illusions have taken her but also unwilling to embrace the more aggressively 'feminist' career-woman strategy".[113] The New York Times' Joseph Hanania enjoyed Rachel's telephone conversation with her father during the pilot, describing it as "hilarious."[114] The Los Angeles Times Bob Shayne admitted his attraction towards Rachel, joking, "my feelings for Rachel, I say with some embarrassment, mirror those of Gunther".[115] Cosmopolitan touted Rachel "the best fictional gal pal we've ever had".[116] While People called her "spoiled-but-lovable",[86] TV Guide described Rachel as "neurotic and adorable".[117] Writing for Heat, Ellen Kerry hailed Rachel's gradual transformation from waitress to businesswoman as arguably "the best thing on tv."[118]

text: USA Today's Robert Bianco credits Rachel's pregnancy storyline with saving Friends, observing that the arc increased the show's ratings while ultimately "reversing the show's decline in ways ... that no one watching 'The One With Monica & Chandler's Wedding' could ever have imagined."[37] Bianco concluded, "Indeed, without that fortune-altering twist, Friends probably would have ended sooner".[37] BDCwire ranked "The One With The Ball", "The One With Rachel’s Inadvertent Kiss", "The One With The Football", "The One With The Fake Party" and "The One In Vegas, Part One" Rachel's five strongest episodes.[119] Meanwhile, TVLine criticized Rachel for sleeping with ex-fiancé Barry in season one's "The One With the Evil Orthodontist", panning the episode as "cringeworthy".[120] TVLine similarly criticized the character's role in season four's "The One With The Fake Party".[121] At times the character would generate mild controversy, specifically the second season episode "The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies", during which Rachel and Monica argue over who will get to use the last remaining condom in the apartment,[21] which Rachel ultimately wins via a game of rock-paper-scissors.[122][123] Additionally, fans would often approach Aniston and scold her for decisions that Rachel makes within the show that they do not particularly agree with.[124]

text: Within the first two seasons of Friends, the character became extremely popular among women.[50] Viewers' perpetual desire to see Rachel succeed helped her remain a fan favorite throughout all ten seasons of the show.[52] Writing for TalkTalk, Dominic Wills agreed that while Rachel established herself as "the general favourite ... No one had a bad word to say about Jennifer Aniston",[81] with whose performance audiences instantly fell in love.[125] Aniston's performance has been consistently praised since her debut in the pilot, about which Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker wrote that the actress portrays Rachel with "prickly intelligence".[27] Writing for The Baltimore Sun, David Zurawik cited Aniston among the show's "very strong cast",[126] while Variety's Tony Scott agreed that "All six of the principals ... appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills";[84] Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette praised the work of show's female cast equally.[127] TV Guide wrote that Aniston "instantly charmed audiences with her perfect looks and endearingly flawed persona",[117] while Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast referred to Aniston's tenure on Friends as not "a leading lady performance" but instead "the work of a brilliant character actress."[125] The Guardian's Ryan Gilbey highlighted Aniston as the cast member "least reliant on goofball caricature", observing that "Playing the only character with whom a sane viewer might reasonably identify also meant that she got the lion's share of attention".[91] Writing that the actress "quickly stole our hearts as the daddy’s girl and aspiring fashionista," Andrew Collins of Radio Times hailed Aniston as a "natural comic performer, as adept with a subtle nose wrinkle as a full-on pratfall, and fluent in quick-fire patter".[128] In 2002, Aniston won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series.[129] In 2003, the actress won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical.[130] Dominc Willis of TalkTalk believes that Aniston won these awards because of "her brilliant comic performances in the show."[81]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Rachel has had several romantic relationships throughout Friends decade-long run, the most famous and prominent of which remains her on-again, off-again relationship with friend Ross. Although wildly popular among audiences,[21][31] the couple has been met with mixed reviews from critics. Katherine Hassel of the Daily Express described the characters' relationship as "the heart of the show".[22] China Daily cited Ross and Rachel's reunion during the series finale "The Last One" among the episode's highlights,[131] while Gary Susman of Rolling Stone believes that audiences would not have been happy had the couple not ultimately reunited.[132] Contrastingly, The Wire's Joe Reid is of the opinion that the show's second season is "the only time Ross/Rachel was truly great".[133] Virgin Media wrote that the couple's dynamics "had grown mightily tedious" by season ten.[134] E! cable network ranked Rachel and Ross the ninth greatest Friends couple, writing that their relationship gave "Friends fans enough iconic quotes to fill a book",[135] considering Phoebe's line "See? [Ross is] her lobster!" to be among show's most iconic.[136] Ross and Rachel's season three breakup has spawned a debate among Friends fans, who continue to argue over which of the two was at fault: Rachel for suggesting that they take a break from their relationship, or Ross for sleeping with another woman immediately afterwards. Writing for E!, Jenna Mullins ruled in favor of Rachel, elaborating, "there is no excuse for Ross sleeping with someone else after his lobster suggested taking a break", concluding that Ross "blew it".[136] The Jewish community was particularly receptive to the fact that a Jewish-American couple existed on prime time television, described by Lilith magazine as "a televisual first".[137]

text: Rachel and Ross are considered to be among television's greatest and most beloved couples.[10][138] Ninemsn referred to them as "everyone's favourite on ... off ... on (a break!) duo,"[139] while Us Weekly and BuzzFeed ranked them the first and second best television couple, respectively.[140][141] TV Guide ranked Ross and Rachel the third greatest television couple, dubbing them "the most iconic TV couple in recent memory".[142] Extra placed the couple at number eight, writing, "Never did we want two people to get together more than Ross ... and Rachel".[143] Refinery29 included Rachel and Ross in the website's "16 TV Couples We Want To Be Together Forever" list.[144] The pair is also often ranked among television's greatest "will they or won't they" couples.[145][146][147] Naming Ross and Rachel the greatest "will they, won't they" couple, Network Ten believes they defined the term,[148] while Suggest dubbed them "The quintessential will they/won’t they couple."[149] According to Sarah Doran of Radio Times, the couple "became synonymous with the phrase 'we're on a break'".[150] Phoebe's line, in which she refers to the couple as each other's lobsters, has become one of the show's most popular and oft-quoted.[138][151][152] Kaitlin Reilly of Bustle magazine defined the term as "the person of whom another is meant to be with forever".[153] Tara Aquino of Complex magazine believes that "Every other person can tell you what exactly a 'Ross and Rachel' relationship means".[154] Ultimately, Rachel's season eight pregnancy arc is credited with reviving the show's ratings and reviews.[80]

text: During season ten, Rachel's brief romance with friend Joey drew strong criticism from both critics and fans,[136] although the contested relationship did not harm viewership.[52] Joshua Kurp of Splitsider believes that the Rachel/Joey/Ross love triangle is the main reason the show's final two seasons continued to perform well despite mediocre reviews.[155] Eric Goldman of IGN referred to the Rachel-Joey storyline as "questionable."[156] Entertainment Tonight Canada ranked "The One After Rachel and Joey Kiss" among the show's ten worst episodes at number five, with author I. P. Johnson panning it as "desperate", concluding, "Jeers for even conceiving this romantic plot; cheers for abandoning it".[157] Contrarily, E! enjoyed Rachel and Joey as a couple because they brought out positive aspects in each other's personalities and share a similar sense of humor.[158] Their relationship also spawned a debate among fans, who argued over whether making Rachel and Joey a couple was a bad idea. Jenna Mullins of E! determined that it is because "It was too far into the series to throw these two together. They didn't make sense and their romantic scenes felt forced".[136]

text: After Ross and Rachel's break up, there were many hints that they would eventually reunite forever, especially seasons 8-10. In the final season, Rachel wants to sleep with Ross when her father has a heart attack and wants "sympathy sex", which he turns down, not wanting to take advantage of her in the state she is in. However, Ross and Rachel do sleep together again the night before she leaves for Paris, which results in him admitting he still loves her and wants to get back together in the series finale. Rachel turns down the Paris job in order to be with Ross when she realizes she still loves him too, and the two agree "this is it", getting back together for good. Jennifer Aniston, who played Rachel, confirmed that after the series finale, Ross and Rachel got remarried, happily and had at least one more child.[159]

text: Impact and legacy[edit]

text: Both Rachel and Aniston became fashion icons due to their combined influence on womenswear during the 1990s,[160][161][162] particularly among British women.[163] Vogue's Edward Barsamian credits Rachel with inspiring "the cool New York look".[102] According to Stylist, Rachel "revived [a] love of denim shirts and dungarees",[163] while Mahogany Clayton of StyleBlazer believes that the character "managed to dominate every fashion trend that passed by her radar in the most stylish ways possible".[164] Hailing her as the "Fash Queen", Heat magazine observed the character's influence on plaid skirts, denim and overalls.[118] Citing every costume the character wore during the first season of Friends, BuzzFeed determined that Rachel popularized the mullet dress.[165] TV Guide published a list of "The 17 Ways Rachel from Friends Changed '90s Fashion".[166] Rachel is often considered to be one of television's best dressed characters.[167] Elle included Rachel in the magazine's "50 Best Dressed Women on TV" list.[168] PopSugar ranked Friends 15th on the website's list of "50 TV Shows That Changed the Way We Dress", citing Rachel's "impressive" wardrobe.[169] InStyle ranked Friends the 36th most fashionable television show of all-time, praising Rachel, Monica and Phoebe's costumes.[170] StyleCaster ranked Rachel among "The 50 Most Stylish TV Characters Of All Time" at number 28.[171] Cosmopolitan magazine compiled a list of "16 things Rachel Green wore to work that we'd totally wear today",[172] while Virgin Media ranked the character among television's sexiest.[134] Brides magazine ranked Rachel's wedding dress among "The Best TV Wedding Dresses", with contributor Jane Frankfort commending the dress with "set[ting] the tone for the following 10 years together and the many milestones our favorite friends will bring."[173]

text: Named after the character,[174] the "Rachel" refers to a bouncy layered[175] shag inspired by the way in which Aniston wore her hair on Friends between 1994 and 1996, during the first and second seasons of the series.[160] The "Rachel" debuted in the show's 20th episode, "The One With the Evil Orthodontist".[176] Aniston believes that her hair stylist, Chris McMillan, created the haircut while he was under the influence of marijuana.[177] The "Rachel" immediately became popular among women, launching an international hair trend.[178] The popularity of the "Rachel" coincided with the popularity of Friends during the mid-to-late-1990s.[179] Marie Claire estimates that 11 million women donned the hairstyle throughout the decade,[180] while the Daily Express determined that the hairstyle was most popular among British women,[181] who went to hair salons "clutching magazine pictures of Aniston" and asking hairdressers to give them the look.[182]

text: According to Vanity Fair, the hairstyle's "widespread popularity ... in the show’s very first year cemented the sitcom early on as heavily influential when it came to style."[183] The "Rachel" remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history,[22] and became the most popular hairstyle in the United States since actress Farrah Fawcett's.[160][184] Hair stylists credit its appeal and popularity to its medium length and volume, combined with its tendency to frame the face flatteringly.[160] Hairdresser Mark Woolley described it as "a cut that flatters almost everyone, designed to make women look beautiful".[128] The "Rachel" is often ranked among the greatest and most iconic hairstyles of all-time,[185][186][187] with Redbook placing it at number four and Time ranking it ninth.[188][189] The Huffington Post determined that the hairstyle is one of "The Most Famous TV Hairstyles Of All Time".[190] US Weekly ranked the "Rachel" the 17th most iconic hairstyle.[191] Glamour magazine ranked the "Rachel" fourth on the magazine's list of "The 100 Best Hairstyles of All Time".[192] The magazine also cited it among "The very best hair to have graced the small screen",[193] while ranking it the most memorable hairstyle in television history.[194] The Sydney Morning Herald ranked it the second greatest television hairstyle,[182] while Metro ranked the "Rachel" the character's second-best hairstyle.[195] Ranked sixth on Entertainment Weekly's list of the "25 Fashion Moments That Changed Entertainment", the haircut was declared the most "desired" hairstyle of the Clinton era.[196]

text: Zahra Barnes of Self joked that Rachel's hair has always been the "true star of the show".[176] Lauding the "Rachel" as one of television's greatest hairstyles, Sarah Carrillo of Elle magazine believed that its popularity "helped make Friends the phenomenon it was".[197] Opining that Friends spawned few memorable catchphrases in comparison to its contemporaries, Tom Jicha of The Baltimore Sun attributes much of the show's legacy to the hairstyle, calling it the show's "only cultural trend".[76] Josh Robertson of Complex magazine felt that "With the haircut, the TV fame, and a true gift for comedy ... combined, Aniston became a big star", replacing Courteney Cox.[198] Hannah Lyons Powell of Glamour agreed that the hairstyle made Aniston "the definitive hair icon of the ‘90s and the proud owner of arguably the most infamous and influential hairstyle of all time."[193] According to Jim Vorel of Paste magazine, "'the Rachel' hairstyle became the decade’s defining 'do, calling it "the definition of influence".[199] However, Rebecca Cox of Glamour is grateful that the hairstyle remained in the 1990s.[185]

text: In the second season episode "The One With The Lesbian Wedding", Rachel references the popularity of her haircut when she complains that her own overbearing mother is trying to reinvent her life after hers, lamenting, "Couldn't she just copy my haircut?" Despite her association with the cut, Aniston disliked the hairstyle.[200] She found maintaining the hairstyle without McMillan's help difficult,[201] stating "I'd curse Chris every time I had to blowdry. It took three brushes—it was like doing surgery!"[202] and that she would rather shave her head than have to wear it for the rest of her life.[203] Since Aniston, several other celebrities have worn variations of the "Rachel", among them actresses Cameron Diaz,[204] Rachel McAdams,[205] Emma Watson,[206] Reese Witherspoon,[207] Julia Roberts,[208] comedian Tina Fey,[209] model Tyra Banks,[210] and singer Lily Allen.[205]

text: Rachel's popularity would ultimately lead her to becoming the show's breakout character;[99][211] she is often ranked among the greatest characters in television history. Us Weekly ranked Rachel the most beloved television character of the past two decades, citing her as "one of TV's most endearing personalities".[212] Entertainment Weekly ranked the character sixth on a similar countdown,[213] while AOL TV included Rachel among television's hundred "Greatest Women" at number 23, with author Kim Potts observing that "Rachel became one of viewers' favorite Friends because she grew from what could have been a one-note character ... into a more independent, caring pal".[214] BuddyTV ranked Rachel the 15th funniest female character in sitcom history,[215] while ChaCha collectively ranked Rachel, Monica and Phoebe 11th, 12th and 13th on the website's list of the "Top 16 Female TV Characters of All Time".[216] According to The Hollywood Reporter, Hollywood professionals voted Rachel the 29th best female character in 2016.[217] Writing for Entertainmentwise, Georgina Littlejohn believes Rachel inspired the character Penny in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory, noting that the characters, both waitresses, are "blonde, cute, funny, likeable girls-next-door".[95] Several baby name books and websites commonly associate the name "Rachel" with the character.[218][219][220][221]

text: Like her character, Aniston became the show's breakout star.[184] Karen Thomas of USA Today dubbed Aniston "our favorite Friend".[222] According to Turner Classic Movies, Aniston ultimately became "One of the most popular television actresses of her era".[223] According to Jennifer Aniston: From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff, the actress' own fame "outshone" those of her co-stars,[52] becoming the first cast member to "rise to prominence";[81] the actress continues to experience the most post-Friends success.[224][225][226][227] Aniston's performance in Friends led to a successful film career.[228] According to The Inquisitr News, Rachel is "the role that would end up launching [Aniston's] success",[69] while Bradford Evans of Splitsider believes "that Jennifer Aniston likely wouldn't have become a major movie star without Friends".[229] While ranking Aniston the most attractive sitcom star of the 1990s, Josh Robertson of Complex magazine wrote that "With the haircut, the TV fame, and a true gift for comedy ... combined, Aniston became a big star", replacing Cox as the show's "established hottie".[198] According to Steve Charnock of Yahoo! Movies, Aniston is "the series' only main cast member to become a bona fide movie star since the end of the show".[230] While agreeing that Aniston's film career has been successful, several critics believe that the actress' filmography remains limited to playing Rachel-like roles in romantic comedies,[81][125][231] save for some exceptions.[232] Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian noted that "Consequently, many of Aniston's movie roles ... have been Rachel in all but name."[91] Andrew Collins of Radio Times agreed, writing that Aniston "seems trapped, perpetually playing variations of Rachel".[128] According to TV Guide, Aniston is "usually called upon to play a variation of her neurotic and adorable Friends character".[117] Aniston cites Rachel as one of three roles for which she is most grateful, to whom she "owe[s] everything".[233] On being typecast in the aftermath of Rachel, Aniston admits that at times it "gives you more of a challenge, to shape people’s perceptions of you".[234] as audiences struggle "to lose the Rachel tag that has made her one of the world's most recognisable faces".[235]


document_title: History of United States postage rates

question_text: when did the price of stamps last go up

question_tokens: when did the price of stamps last go up

text: History of United States postage rates

text: Historical rates[edit]

text:
United States domestic first class & postcard rates, 1863–present (USD)[conversion 1]

Date Introduced
Letters
(for first ounce)
Packages
(for first ounce)
Additional
(per ounce)
Postcard rate[2]
Comments

March 3, 1863
.06
(.03 for 1⁄2 oz)
.06
.06
(.03 per 1⁄2 oz)
.06
.02 per half ounce in drop boxes[3][4]

October 1, 1883
.04
(.02 for 1⁄2 oz)
.04
.04
(.02 per 1⁄2 oz)
.04
[5]

July 1, 1885
.02
.02
.02
.02
[6]

July 1, 1898
.02
.02
.02
.01
[7]

November 2, 1917
.03
.03
.03
.02
War Years

July 1, 1919
.02
.02
.02
.01
Dropped back by Congress

July 1, 1928
.02
.02
.02
.01

July 6, 1932
.03
.03
.03
.01

January 1, 1952
.03
.03
.03
.02

August 1, 1958
.04
.04
.04
.03

January 7, 1963
.05
.05
.05
.04

January 7, 1968
.06
.06
.06
.05

May 16, 1971
.08
.08
.08
.06

March 2, 1974
.10
.10
.10
.08

September 14, 1975
.10
.10
.09
.07
Last surface mail rate

December 31, 1975
.13
.13
.11
.09
All domestic first class & postcards by airmail

May 29, 1978
.15
.15
.13
.10
A Stamp Used

March 22, 1981
.18
.18
.17
.12
B Stamp Used

November 1, 1981
.20
.20
.17
.13
C Stamp Used

February 17, 1985
.22
.22
.17
.14
D Stamp Used

April 3, 1988[8]
.25
.25
.20
.15
E Stamp Used

February 3, 1991
.29
.29
.23
.19
F Stamp Used (also 4 cent F makeup rate stamp)

January 1, 1995
.32
.32
.23
.20
G Stamp Used (also 3 cent G makeup rate stamp)

January 10, 1999
.33
.33
.22
.20
H Stamp Used (also 1 cent H makeup rate stamp)

January 7, 2001
.34
.34
.21
.20
Nondenominated Stamps Used

July 1, 2001
.34
.34
.23
.21
Nondenominated Stamps Used

June 30, 2002
.37
.37
.23
.23
Flag and Antique Toy Stamps Used

January 8, 2006
.39
.39
.24
.24
Lady Liberty Flag Stamp Used

May 14, 2007
.41
1.13
.17
.26
Shape-based postage pricing introduced; Forever stamps introduced; different prices for letters and packages for the first time

May 12, 2008
.42
1.17
.17
.27
Price change announced February 11, 2008

May 11, 2009
.44
1.22
.17
.28
Price change announced February 10, 2009

April 17, 2011
.44
1.71 (3 oz)
.20 (letters)
.17 (packages)
.29
[9]

January 22, 2012
.45
1.95 (3 oz)
.20 (letters)
.17 (packages)
.32

January 27, 2013
.46
2.07 (3 oz)
.20 (letters)
.17 (packages)
.33
Price change announced October 11, 2012

January 26, 2014
.49
2.32 (3 oz)
.21 (letters)
.17 (packages)
.34
Price change announced September 25, 2013[10]

May 31, 2015
.49
2.54 (3 oz)
.22 (letters)
.20 (packages)
.35

April 10, 2016
.47[11]
2.54 (3 oz)
.21 (letters)
.20 (packages)
.34
Price change announced February 25, 2016

January 22, 2017
.49[12]
2.67 (3 oz)[13]
.21 (letters)
.18 (packages)
.34
Price change announced October 12, 2016

January 21, 2018
.50[14]
3.50 (4 oz)[15]
.21 (letters)
.35 (packages)[16]
.35
Price change announced October 6, 2017

tag: table

text: Jump up ^ 1oz is 28.34g

text: Historical trend[edit]

text: Taking the above data and plotting it yields the graph shown to the right. The dark plot is the nominal issued price of the stamp and the light plot is the price adjusted for inflation and is shown in 2016 US cents.

text: This plot shows that, despite the rise in the nominal cost of a first-class stamp, the adjusted cost of the stamp has stayed relatively stable. The large jumps in the early 1900s are because a change by a single penny was large compared to the cost of the stamp. For example, the price increase from $0.02 to $0.03 on July 6, 1932 was a 50% increase in cost. Additionally, while the cost of the stamp itself remained fixed, the adjusted price in 2016 dollars was not fixed over time which added to larger jumps in adjusted prices.

text: Historical notes[edit]

text: Domestic parcel post service was adopted in 1913, 25 years after the Post Office had agreed to deliver international parcel post packages pursuant to the Universal Postal Union treaty and various bilateral agreements with other nations.[17] Initially, there were no or few postal regulations governing packages mailed by parcel post. E.g., to construct a bank in Vernal, Utah, in 1916, a Salt Lake City company ascertained that the cheapest way to send 40 tons of bricks to the building was by parcel post.[18]

text: Bulk postal rates were restructured in 1996:[citation needed]

text:
Second Class became Periodicals
Third and Fourth Class Mail became Standard Mail (A) and (B)
Special Fourth Class Mail was renamed Special Standard Mail

text: In 2007, First Class Mail was restructured to include variable pricing based on size, not just on weight. Shape-based postage pricing is a form of dimensional weight. Also at that time, International Parcel Post air service was re-branded as Priority Mail International, and Parcel Post surface service was discontinued for international destinations.[19]

text: Regular Air Mail service began in 1918 and over the years rates varied considerably depending on distance and technology. Domestic Air Mail, as a class of service, officially ended May 1, 1977. By that time all domestic First Class Mail was being dispatched by the most expeditious means, surface or air, whether or not the Air Mail postage had been paid.[citation needed]

text: Additional charges for Special delivery existed from 1885 to 2001. Today, Express Mail Overnight is the most similar service level.[citation needed]

text: During the summer of 2010 the USPS requested the Postal Regulatory Commission to raise the price of a first class stamp by 2 cents, from 44 cents to 46 cents, to take effect January 2, 2011. On September 30, 2010, the PRC formally denied the request, but the USPS filed an appeal with the Federal Court of Appeals in Washington DC.[20][21]

text: On September 25, 2013, the USPS announced a 3 cent increase in the First Class postal rate, to be effective January 26, 2014, increasing the price of a stamp to 49 cents. Bulk mail, periodicals, and package service rates were also increased by 6 percent. A loss of US$5 billion during the 2013 fiscal year was the reason given for the increase.[22]

text: The legislation which set the price to 49 cents was enacted as a temporary measure and as an "exigent surcharge for mailing products and services".[23] However, this legislation was set to expire in April 2016. As a result, the Post Office retained one cent of the price change as a previously allotted adjustment for inflation, but the price of a first class stamp became 47 cents: for the first time in 97 years (and for the third time in the agency's history[24]), the price of a stamp decreased.


document_title: List of Governors of Reserve Bank of India

question_text: who was second governor of reserve bank of india

text:
Governor of the Reserve Bank of India

Seal of RBI

Incumbent
Urjit Patel
since 4 September 2016

Appointer
Government of India

Inaugural holder
Osborne Smith

Formation
1 April 1935

text: The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India is the chief executive of India's central bank and the ex-officio chairperson of its Central Board of Directors. Indian Rupee currency notes, issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), bear the governor's signature. Since its establishment in 1935 by the British colonial government, the RBI has been headed by 24 governors. The term of office typically runs for 3 years.

text: The inaugural officeholder was the British banker Osborne Smith, while C. D. Deshmukh was the first Indian governor. The position is currently held by Urjit Patel, who took over from Raghuram Rajan on 4 September 2016.j

text: RBI governors[edit]

text:
No.
Name
Term of office

Began
Ended
Length

1
Osborne Smith
1 April 1935
30 June 1937
7002821000000000000♠2 years, 90 days

2
James Braid Taylor, ICS[1]
1 July 1937
17 February 1943
7003205700000000000♠5 years, 231 days

3
C. D. Deshmukh, ICS
11 August 1943
30 June 1949
7003215000000000000♠5 years, 323 days

4
Benegal Rama Rau, ICS
1 July 1949
14 January 1957
7003275400000000000♠7 years, 197 days

5
K. G. Ambegaonkar, ICS
14 January 1957
28 February 1957
7001450000000000000♠45 days

6
H. V. R. Iyengar, ICS
1 March 1957
28 February 1962
7003182500000000000♠4 years, 364 days

7
P. C. Bhattacharya
1 March 1962
30 June 1967
7003194700000000000♠5 years, 121 days

8
L. K. Jha
1 July 1967
3 May 1970
7003103700000000000♠2 years, 306 days

9
B. N. Adarkar
4 May 1970
15 June 1970
7001420000000000000♠42 days

10
S. Jagannathan
16 June 1970
19 May 1975
7003179800000000000♠4 years, 337 days

11
N. C. Sen Gupta
19 May 1975
19 August 1975
7001920000000000000♠92 days

12
K. R. Puri
20 August 1975
2 May 1977
7002621000000000000♠1 year, 255 days

13
M. Narasimham
3 May 1977
30 November 1977
7002211000000000000♠211 days

14
I. G. Patel
1 December 1977
15 September 1982
7003174900000000000♠4 years, 288 days

15
Manmohan Singh
16 September 1982
14 January 1985
7002851000000000000♠2 years, 120 days

16
Amitav Ghosh
15 January 1985
4 February 1985
7001200000000000000♠20 days

17
R. N. Malhotra, IAS
4 February 1985
22 December 1990
7003214700000000000♠5 years, 321 days

18
S. Venkitaramanan, IAS
22 December 1990
21 December 1992
7002730000000000000♠1 year, 365 days

19
C. Rangarajan
22 December 1992
21 November 1997
7003179500000000000♠4 years, 334 days

20
Bimal Jalan
22 November 1997
6 September 2003
7003211400000000000♠5 years, 288 days

21
Y. V. Reddy, IAS
6 September 2003
5 September 2008
7003182600000000000♠4 years, 365 days

22
D. Subbarao, IAS
5 September 2008
4 September 2013
7003182500000000000♠4 years, 364 days

23
Raghuram Rajan
4 September 2013
4 September 2016
7003109600000000000♠3 years, 0 days

24
Urjit Patel
4 September 2016
Incumbent
7002400000000000000♠1 year, 35 days


document_title: List of The Jungle Book characters

question_text: the name of the elephant in jungle book

question_tokens: the name of the elephant in jungle book

text: List of The Jungle Book characters

text: In the Mowgli stories[edit]

text:
Mowgli (मोगली Maogalī; feral child) - Also referred to as "Man Cub".
Jungle characters - The following characters reside in the jungle.

Seeonee Wolf Pack

Akela (अकेला Akēlā, "alone"; Indian wolf) - The leader of the wolf pack.
Raksha (रक्षा Rakṣā, "protection"; Indian wolf) - Also called Mother Wolf, she is Mowgli's adoptive mother.
Rama (Indian wolf) - Also called Father Wolf, he is Mowgli's adoptive father.
Grey Brother (Indian wolf) - The oldest of Father Wolf and Raksha's cubs.
Leela (लीला līlā; Indian wolf) - The granddaughter of Akela.

Baloo (भालू Bhālū, "bear"; sloth bear) - Mowgli's best friend. In Kipling's book, he is described as a sleepy old sloth bear, who teaches Mowgli the law of the jungle.
Bagheera (बघीरा Baghīrā; بگیڑہ Bagīrah, "black panther"; black panther variety of Indian leopard) - Mowgli's mentor.
Bandar-log (बन्दर-लोग Bandar-lōg, "monkey-folks"; grey langurs) - A group of monkeys who are treated as pariahs for their scatterbrained anarchy. They kidnap the very young Mowgli, who is rescued by Bagheera, Baloo, and Kaa.
Kaa (का Kā; Indian rock python) - Mowgli's wise mentor and friend, though also feared throughout the jungle for his mesmerising "hunger dance".
Hathi (हाथी Hāthī, "Elephant"; Indian elephant) - The leader of the jungle's elephants and the individual called "The True Master of The Jungle".
Tabaqui (तंबाकूवी Taṃbākūvī; "Dish-Licking Dog"; golden jackal) - He feeds on scraps from either Shere Khan or the wolves of the Seeonee Pack. In some adaptations, he is a hyena. Tabaqui is the only friend of Shere Khan as well as Shere Khan's spy and messenger. He is killed by Grey Brother after the Grey Brother interrogates him into admitting both what Shere Khan plans to do and where and then crushes the jackal's back in "Tiger! Tiger!".
Mang (मङग Maṅg, "go"; bat) - A bat.
Shere Khan (शेर खान شیر خان (Śēr Khān, "Tiger King" ("Khan" is a common title of Indian Muslim lordship and royalty); Bengal tiger),[1] - A man-eating Royal Bengal Tiger who is the main villain and the archenemy of Mowgli. He is often known as "a chief among tigers" and in multiple adaptations as the one called "The King of Tigers". Despite being born with a withered leg and derisively nicknamed "Lungri" ("The Lame One") by his own mother, Shere Khan is aggressive, arrogant, self-centered, and sees himself as the rightful lord of the jungle. Tabaqui is his only friend. He has a very serious anger issue.
Rama (रमा Ramā; water buffalo) - A water buffalo.
Mysa (मौसा Maisā, "uncle"; water buffalo) - A water buffalo.
Chil (चील Cīl, "kite"; brahminy kite), in earlier editions called Rann (रण Raṇ, "battle") - A kite that serves as a messenger.
sahi (इकी Ikī; Indian porcupine) - In earlier editions, he was called Sahi (साही Sāhī, "porcupine").
Tha (था Thā, "He was"; Indian elephant) - The first of the elephants according to Hathi.
Thuu (थू Thū; Indian cobra) - Also called White Hood, Thuu a blind albino cobra. Mowgli gives him the derisory epithet "Thuu" (meaning "it has dried") upon discovering that the supposedly deadly cobra's fangs are in fact withered and dried up from age and disuse.
Phaona (फवाना Phavānā; Indian wolf) - Phao's father
Dholes
Oo (ऊ Ū; turtle)
Jacala (जाचला Jacalā, "obstacle"; Indian crocodile) - A large mugger crocodile. In "Red Dog", it is stated that Mowgli broke a knife on Jacala's back during a protracted fight with him.
Mao (मवा Mavā; Indian peacock) - In earlier editions, he was called Mor (मोर Mōr, "peacock").
Won-Tolla (Indian wolf) - An outlier who warns Mowgli's tribe of the dholes
Chikai (चीकै Cīkai, "squeak"; rat)
Phao (फवा Phavā; Indian wolf) - Son of Phaona, leader of The Free People.
Ferao (फोडवा Phōṛavā, "woodpecker"; scarlet woodpecker)

Human characters - The following characters are known humans.

Messua - The wife of the richest man of the human village, who decides to adopt the wild Mowgli, believing that he is their long-lost son Nathoo.
Messua's husband - An unnamed man who is the richest man of the village.
Nathoo (नत्थू Natthū) - The long-lost son of Messua and her husband, who has been snatched by a tiger.
Buldeo (बलदेव Baladēvā) - The elderly chief hunter of Messua's village. He is boastful, arrogant, greedy and superstitious, and he is furious when Mowgli, who knows what the jungle is really like, contradicts some of his own more fanciful stories about the jungle. He hopes to kill Shere Khan so he can get a substantial reward placed out as a bounty for the tiger's skin.
Kamya (काम्या Kāmyā) - One of the village boys who herds buffalo along with Mowgli.

text: Other stories[edit]

text:
"Rikki-Tikki-Tavi"

Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (mongoose)
Nag and Nagaina (cobras) - "Nag" is the Hindi word for "cobra."
Darzee (tailorbird) - "Darzee" means tailor in Hindi.
Chuchundra (Asian house shrew) - Called a muskrat in the story.
Karait (common krait)
The Coppersmith (coppersmith barbet)

"The White Seal"

Kotick (albino seal)
Sea Catch (northern fur seal)
Matkah (northern fur seal)
Sea Vitch (walrus)
Sea Cow (Steller's sea cow)
Burgomaster Gull (species) (same as Glaucous gull)
Limmershin, the Winter Wren

"Toomai of the Elephants"

Toomai
Kala Nag (elephant)

"Her Majesty's Servants"

Two-Tails (elephant)
Billy (battery-mule)
Vixen (a small dog)

"The Undertakers"

The Jackal (Golden jackal)
The Adjutant (Lesser adjutant stork, erroneously referred to as a crane)
Mugger of Mugger-Ghaut (Mugger crocodile)
The Gavial (Gharial) - The Mugger's cousin.

text: Disney adaptations[edit]

text: The following characters appear in the Disney adaptions:

text:
King Louie - The orangutan who leads the Bandar-log. In the 2016 film, he is a Gigantopithecus. He is voiced by Louis Prima in the first movie, Jim Cummings in TaleSpin, Jason Marsden in Season One of Jungle Cubs, Cree Summer in Season Two of Jungle Cubs, and Christopher Walken in the 2016 film.
Winifred - Colonel Hathi's wife and the mother of Hathi Jr. who serves as Hathi's second-in-command of the Jungle Patrol. She is voiced by Verna Felton in the first movie and by Kath Soucie in "Jungle Cubs."
Hathi Jr. - The baby elephant who is the son of Hathi and Winifred and is a good friend of Mowgli. He is voiced by Clint Howard in the first movie and by Jimmy Bennett in The Jungle Book 2.
Flunkey - King Louie's monkey servant. He is voiced by Leo De Lyon in the first film and by Jim Cummings in The Jungle Book 2.
Buzzie, Dizzy, Flaps, and Ziggy the Vultures - They are four vultures who closely resemble the Beatles because of their shaggy moptop haircuts and Liverpool accents. Buzzie resembles Ringo Starr, Dizzy resembles George Harrison, Flaps resembles Paul McCartney, and Ziggy resembles John Lennon. Their song "That's What Friends Are For" was sung in the style of a barbershop quartet instead of a Beatles song. Disney was originally going to have The Beatles voice them, but John Lennon refused the offer. Buzzie was voiced by J. Pat O'Malley in the first film and by Jim Cummings in The Jungle Book 2. Dizzy is voiced by Lord Tim Hudson in the first film and by Baron Davis in The Jungle Book 2. Flaps is voiced by Chad Stuart in the first film and by Jeff Bennett in The Jungle Book 2. Ziggy is voiced by Digby Wolfe in the first film and by Jess Harnell in The Jungle Book 2.
Shanti (named only in The Jungle Book 2) - The girl whose song "My Own Home" lured Mowgli into the Man Village in the 1967 film. Shanti later serves as his ally/love interest in the sequel. Shanti is voiced by Darleen Carr in the first film and by Mae Whitman in The Jungle Book 2.
Ranjan (The Jungle Book 2) - Mowgli's adopted younger brother. He is depicted as the son of Messua and her husband. Ranjan is voiced by Connor Funk.
Lucky (The Jungle Book 2) - The vultures' friend who loves teasing Shere Kahn as seen in The Jungle Book 2. He is voiced by Phil Collins.
Rocky the Rhino - Rocky is an Indian rhinoceros. In the earlier production of the first film, Rocky was to appear in the same scene as the Vultures where he would've been voiced by Frank Fontaine. Unfortunately, his part got scrapped.[2] Rocky did appear in the 2016 film voiced by Russell Peters where he was among the animals observing the Water Truce. After telling Mowgli to watch himself after being backed into him upon being accidentally pricked by Ikki's quills, Rocky tells Raquel that Mowgli is a man-cub.
Raquel the Rhino (2016 film) - The daughter of Rocky the Rhino. She is voiced by Madeleine Favreau.
Fred the Pygmy Hog (2016 film) - A pygmy hog who is one of the neighbors and friends of Baloo. He was voiced by Jon Favreau.
Giant Squirrel (2016 film) - An Indian giant squirrel who is one of the neighbors and friends of Baloo. The Giant Squirrel was the one who supported Baloo's claim to Mowgli that the honey works to soothe the bee stings. He was voiced by Sam Raimi.
Pangolin (2016 film) - An Indian pangolin who is one the neighbors and friends of Baloo. No voice actor was credited for this role.