document_title: List of Olympic medalists in ice hockey

question_text: when was the last time womens hockey won gold

text: List of Olympic medalists in ice hockey

text: Men[edit]

text: Individuals who have been inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame (including announced members awaiting induction) are indicated as follows:

text:
Bold type: Inducted as players.
Italics: Inducted in a non-playing role.

tag: ul

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1920 Antwerp
details
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Robert Benson
Walter Byron
Frank Fredrickson
Chris Fridfinnson
Magnus Goodman
Haldor Halderson
Konrad Johannesson
Allan Woodman
 United States (USA) (1)
Raymond Bonney
Anthony Conroy
Herbert Drury
Edward Fitzgerald
George Geran
Frank Goheen
Joseph McCormick
Lawrence McCormick
Frank Synott
Leon Tuck
Cyril Weidenborner
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (1)
Karel Hartmann
Vilém Loos
Jan Palouš
Jan Peka
Karel Pešek
Josef Šroubek
Otakar Vindyš
Karel Wälzer
[Note 1]

1924 Chamonix
details
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Jack Cameron
Ernie Collett
Bert McCaffrey
Harold McMunn
Duncan Munro
Beattie Ramsay
Cyril Slater
Reginald Smith
Harry Watson
 United States (USA) (2)
Clarence Abel
Herbert Drury
Alphonse Lacroix
John Langley
John Lyons
Justin McCarthy
Willard Rice
Irving Small
Frank Synott
 Great Britain (GBR) (1)
William Anderson
Lorne Carr-Harris
Colin Carruthers
Eric Carruthers
Guy Clarkson
Ross Cuthbert
Geoffrey Holmes
Hamilton Jukes
Edward Pitblado
Blaine Sexton

1928 St. Moritz
details
 Canada (CAN) (3)
Charles Delahay
Frank Fisher
Louis Hudson
Norbert Mueller
Herbert Plaxton
Hugh Plaxton
Roger Plaxton
John Porter
Frank Sullivan
Joseph Sullivan
Ross Taylor
Dave Trottier
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Carl Abrahamsson
Emil Bergman
Birger Holmqvist
Gustaf Johansson
Henry Johansson
Nils Johansson
Ernst Karlberg
Erik Larsson
Bertil Linde
Sigfrid Öberg
Wilhelm Petersén
Kurt Sucksdorff
 Switzerland (SUI) (1)
Giannin Andreossi
Mezzi Andreossi
Robert Breiter
Louis Dufour
Charles Fasel
Albert Geromini
Fritz Kraatz
Arnold Martignoni
Heini Meng
Anton Morosani
Luzius Rüedi
Richard Torriani

1932 Lake Placid
details
 Canada (CAN) (4)
William Cockburn
Clifford Crowley
Albert Duncanson
George Garbutt
Roy Henkel
Victor Lindquist
Norman Malloy
Walter Monson
Kenneth Moore
Romeo Rivers
Harold Simpson
Hugh Sutherland
Stanley Wagner
Alston Wise
 United States (USA) (3)
Osborne Anderson
Johnny Bent
John Chase
John Cookman
Douglas Everett
Franklin Farrel
Joseph Fitzgerald
Edwin Frazier
John Garrison
Gerard Hallock
Robert Livingston
Francis Nelson
Winthrop Palmer
Gordon Smith
 Germany (GER) (1)
Rudi Ball
Alfred Heinrich
Erich Herker
Gustav Jaenecke
Werner Korff
Walter Leinweber
Erich Römer
Martin Schröttle
Marquardt Slevogt
Georg Strobl

1936 Garmisch-
Partenkirchen
details
 Great Britain (GBR) (1)
Alexander Archer
James Borland
Edgar Brenchley
James Chappell
John Coward
Gordon Dailley
John Davey
Carl Erhardt
James Foster
John Kilpatrick
Archibald Stinchcombe
Robert Wyman
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Maxwell Deacon
Hugh Farquharson
Kenneth Farmer
James Haggarty
Walter Kitchen
Raymond Milton
Francis Moore
Herman Murray
Arthur Nash
David Neville
Alexander Sinclair
Ralph St. Germain
Bill Thomson
 United States (USA) (1)
John Garrison
August Kammer
Philip LaBatte
John Lax
Thomas Moone
Elbridge Ross
Paul Rowe
Francis Shaughnessy
Gordon Smith
Francis Spain
Frank Stubbs

1948 St. Moritz
details
 Canada (CAN) (5)
Murray Dowey
Bernard Dunster
Jean Gravelle
Patrick Guzzo
Walter Halder
Thomas Hibberd
Henri-André Laperriere
John Lecompte
George Mara
Albert Roméo Renaud
Reginald Schroeter
Irving Taylor
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (1)
Vladimír Bouzek
Augustin Bubník
Jaroslav Drobný
Přemysl Hajný
Zdeněk Jarkovský
Vladimír Kobranov
Stanislav Konopásek
Bohumil Modrý
Miloslav Pokorný
Václav Roziňák
Miroslav Sláma
Karel Stibor
Vilibald Šťovík
Ladislav Troják
Josef Trousílek
Oldřich Zábrodský
Vladimír Zábrodský
 Switzerland (SUI) (2)
Hans Bänninger
Alfred Bieler
Heinrich Boller
Ferdinand Cattini
Hans Cattini
Hans Dürst
Walter Paul Dürst
Emil Handschin
Heini Lohrer
Werner Lohrer
Reto Perl
Gebhard Poltera
Ulrich Poltera
Beat Rüedi
Otto Schubiger
Richard Torriani
Hans-Martin Trepp

1952 Oslo
details
 Canada (CAN) (6)
George Abel
John Davies
Billy Dawe
Robert Dickson
Donald Gauf
William Gibson
Ralph Hansch
Robert Meyers
David Miller
Eric Paterson
Thomas Pollock
Allan Purvis
Gordon Robertson
Louis Secco
Francis Sullivan
Bob Watt
 United States (USA) (4)
Ruben Bjorkman
Len Ceglarski
Joseph Czarnota
Richard Desmond
Andre Gambucci
Clifford Harrison
Gerald Kilmartin
John Mulhern
John Noah
Arnold Oss
Robert Rompre
James Sedin
Alfred Van Allen
Donald Whiston
Ken Yackel
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Göte Almqvist
Åke Andersson
Hans Andersson-Tvilling
Stig Andersson-Tvilling
Lars Björn
Göte Blomqvist
Thord Flodqvist
Erik Johansson
Gösta Johansson
Rune Johansson
Sven "Tumba" Johansson
Åke Lassas
Holger Nurmela
Hans Öberg
Lars Pettersson
Lars Svensson
Sven Thunman

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (1)
Yevgeny Babich
Vsevolod Bobrov
Alexei Guryshev
Nikolay Khlystov
Valentin Kuzin
Yuri Krylov
Alfred Kuchevsky
Grigory Mkrtychan
Viktor Nikiforov
Yuri Pantyukhov
Nikolaï Puchkov
Viktor Shuvalov
Genrikh Sidorenkov
Nikolai Sologubov
Ivan Tregubov
Dmitry Ukolov
Aleksandr Uvarov
 United States (USA) (5)
Wendell Anderson
Wellington Burtnett
Eugene Campbell
Gordon Christian
Bill Cleary
Richard Dougherty
Willard Ikola
John Matchefts
John Mayasich
Daniel McKinnon
Richard Meredith
Weldon Olson
John Petroske
Kenneth Purpur
Don Rigazio
Richard Rodenheiser
Ed Sampson
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Denis Brodeur
Charles Brooker
William Colvin
Alfred Horne
Art Hurst
Byrle Klinck
Paul Knox
Ken Laufman
Howard Lee
James Logan
Floyd Martin
Jack McKenzie
Donald Rope
George Scholes
Gerry Theberge
Robert White
Keith Woodall

1960 Squaw Valley
details
 United States (USA) (1)
Bill Christian
Roger Christian
Bill Cleary
Bob Cleary
Eugene Grazia
Paul Johnson
Jack Kirrane
John Mayasich
Jack McCartan
Robert McVey
Richard Meredith
Weldon Olson
Edwyn Owen
Rodney Paavola
Lawrence Palmer
Richard Rodenheiser
Tommy Williams
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Bob Attersley
Maurice Benoit
James Connelly
Jack Douglas
Fred Etcher
Robert Forhan
Don Head
Harold Hurley
Ken Laufman
Floyd Martin
Robert McKnight
Cliff Pennington
Donald Rope
Bobby Rousseau
George Samolenko
Harry Sinden
Darryl Sly
 Soviet Union (URS) (1)
Veniamin Alexandrov
Aleksandr Almetov
Yury Baulin
Mikhail Bychkov
Vladimir Grebennikov
Yevgeny Groshev
Nikolay Karpov
Alfred Kuchevsky
Konstantin Loktev
Stanislav Petukhov
Viktor Pryazhnikov
Nikolai Puchkov
Genrikh Sidorenkov
Nikolai Sologubov
Yury Tsitsinov
Viktor Yakushev
Yevgeny Yorkin

1964 Innsbruck
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (2)
Veniamin Alexandrov
Aleksandr Almetov
Vitaly Davydov
Anatoli Firsov
Eduard Ivanov
Viktor Konovalenko
Victor Kuzkin
Konstantin Loktev
Boris Mayorov
Yevgeni Mayorov
Stanislav Petukhov
Alexander Ragulin
Vyacheslav Starshinov
Leonid Volkov
Victor Yakushev
Boris Zaitzev
Oleg Zaytsev
 Sweden (SWE) (2)
Anders Andersson
Gert Blomé
Lennart Häggroth
Lennart Johansson
Nils Johansson
Sven "Tumba" Johansson
Lars-Eric Lundvall
Eilert Määttä
Hans Mild
Nils Nilsson
Bert-Ola Nordlander
Carl-Göran Öberg
Uno Öhrlund
Ronald Pettersson
Ulf Sterner
Roland Stoltz
Kjell Svensson
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (2)
Vlastimil Bubník
Josef Černý
Jiří Dolana
Vladimír Dzurilla
Jozef Golonka
František Gregor
Jiří Holík
Jaroslav Jiřík
Jan Klapáč
Vladimír Nadrchal
Rudolf Potsch
Stanislav Prýl
Ladislav Šmíd
Stanislav Sventek
František Tikal
Miroslav Vlach
Jaroslav Walter

1968 Grenoble
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (3)
Veniamin Alexandrov
Viktor Blinov
Vitaly Davydov
Anatoli Firsov
Anatoly Ionov
Viktor Konovalenko
Victor Kuzkin
Boris Mayorov
Yevgeni Mishakov
Yuri Moiseev
Victor Polupanov
Alexander Ragulin
Igor Romishevsky
Vyacheslav Starshinov
Vladimir Vikulov
Oleg Zaytsev
Yevgeni Zimin
Victor Zinger
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (2)
Josef Černý
Vladimír Dzurilla
Jozef Golonka
Jan Havel
Petr Hejma
Jiří Holík
Josef Horešovský
Jan Hrbatý
Jaroslav Jiřík
Jan Klapáč
Jiří Kochta
Oldřich Machač
Karel Masopust
Vladimír Nadrchal
Václav Nedomanský
František Pospíšil
František Ševčík
Jan Suchý
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Roger Bourbonnais
Ken Broderick
Ray Cadieux
Paul Conlin
Gary Dineen
Brian Glennie
Ted Hargreaves
Fran Huck
Marshall Johnston
Barry MacKenzie
Bill MacMillan
Steve Monteith
Morris Mott
Terry O'Malley
Danny O'Shea
Gerry Pinder
Herb Pinder
Wayne Stephenson

1972 Sapporo
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (4)
Yury Blinov
Vitaly Davydov
Anatoli Firsov
Valeri Kharlamov
Victor Kuzkin
Vladimir Lutchenko
Aleksandr Maltsev
Boris Mikhailov
Yevgeni Mishakov
Alexander Pashkov
Vladimir Petrov
Alexander Ragulin
Igor Romishevsky
Vladimir Shadrin
Vladislav Tretiak
Gennadiy Tsygankov
Valeri Vasiliev
Vladimir Vikulov
Alexander Yakushev
Yevgeni Zimin
 United States (USA) (6)
Kevin Ahearn
Larry Bader
Henry Boucha
Charles Brown
Keith Christiansen
Mike Curran
Robbie Ftorek
Mark Howe
Stuart Irving
Jim McElmury
Dick McGlynn
Bruce McIntosh
Tom Mellor
Ronald Naslund
Wally Olds
Tim Regan
Frank Sanders
Craig Sarner
Peter Sears
Timothy Sheehy
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (3)
Vladimír Bednář
Josef Černý
Vladimír Dzurilla
Richard Farda
Ivan Hlinka
Jiří Holeček
Jaroslav Holík
Jiří Holík
Josef Horešovský
Jiří Kochta
Oldřich Machač
Vladimír Martinec
Václav Nedomanský
Eduard Novák
František Pospíšil
Bohuslav Šťastný
Rudolf Tajcnár
Karel Vohralík

1976 Innsbruck
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (5)
Boris Aleksandrov
Sergei Babinov
Aleksandr Gusev
Sergei Kapustin
Valeri Kharlamov
Vladimir Lutchenko
Yuri Lyapkin
Aleksandr Maltsev
Boris Mikhailov
Vladimir Petrov
Vladimir Shadrin
Victor Shalimov
Aleksandr Sidelnikov
Vladislav Tretiak
Gennadiy Tsygankov
Valeri Vasiliev
Alexander Yakushev
Viktor Zhluktov
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (3)
Josef Augusta
Jiří Bubla
Milan Chalupa
Jiří Crha
Miroslav Dvořák
Bohuslav Ebermann
Ivan Hlinka
Jiří Holeček
Jiří Holík
Milan Kajkl
Oldřich Machač
Vladimír Martinec
Eduard Novák
Jiří Novák
Milan Nový
Jaroslav Pouzar
František Pospíšil
Bohuslav Šťastný
 West Germany (FRG) (2)
Klaus Auhuber
Ignaz Berndaner
Wolfgang Boos
Lorenz Funk
Martin Hinterstocker
Udo Kiessling
Walter Köberle
Ernst Köpf
Anton Kehle
Erich Kühnhackl
Stefan Metz
Franz Reindl
Rainer Philipp
Alois Schloder
Rudolf Thanner
Josef Völk
Ferenc Vozar
Erich Weishaupt

1980 Lake Placid
details
 United States (USA) (2)
Bill Baker
Neal Broten
Dave Christian
Steve Christoff
Jim Craig
Mike Eruzione
John Harrington
Steve Janaszak
Mark Johnson
Rob McClanahan
Ken Morrow
Jack O'Callahan
Mike Ramsey
Mark Pavelich
Buzz Schneider
Dave Silk
Bob Suter
Eric Strobel
Mark Wells
Phil Verchota
 Soviet Union (URS) (1)
Helmuts Balderis
Zinetula Bilyaletdinov
Viacheslav Fetisov
Aleksandr Golikov
Vladimir Golikov
Alexei Kasatonov
Valeri Kharlamov
Vladimir Krutov
Yuri Lebedev
Sergei Makarov
Aleksandr Maltsev
Boris Mikhailov
Vladimir Myshkin
Vasili Pervukhin
Vladimir Petrov
Aleksandr Skvortsov
Sergei Starikov
Vladislav Tretiak
Valeri Vasiliev
Viktor Zhluktov
 Sweden (SWE) (2)
Mats Åhlberg
Sture Andersson
Bo Berglund
Håkan Eriksson
Jan Eriksson
Thomas Eriksson
Leif Holmgren
Tomas Jonsson
Pelle Lindbergh
Bengt Lundholm
William Löfqvist
Per Lundqvist
Lars Molin
Mats Näslund
Lennart Norberg
Tommy Samuelsson
Dan Söderström
Mats Waltin
Ulf Weinstock

1984 Sarajevo
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (6)
Zinetula Bilyaletdinov
Sergei Shepelev
Nikolai Drozdetsky
Viacheslav Fetisov
Aleksandr Geramisov
Alexei Kasatonov
Andrei Khomutov
Vladimir Kovin
Aleksandr Kozhevnikov
Vladimir Krutov
Igor Larionov
Sergei Makarov
Vladimir Myshkin
Vasili Pervukhin
Aleksandr Skvortsov
Sergei Starikov
Igor Stelnov
Vladislav Tretiak
Viktor Tyumenev
Mikhail Vasiliev
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (4)
Jaroslav Benák
Vladimír Caldr
Milan Chalupa
František Černík
Miloslav Hořava
Jiří Hrdina
Arnold Kadlec
Jaroslav Korbela
Jiří Králík
Vladimír Kýhos
Jiří Lála
Igor Liba
Vincent Lukáč
Dušan Pašek
Pavel Richter
Jaromír Šindel
Radoslav Svoboda
Eduard Uvíra
 Sweden (SWE) (3)
Thomas Åhlén
Pelle Eklund
Thom Eklund
Bo Ericson
Håkan Eriksson
Peter Gradin
Mats Hessel
Michael Hjälm
Göran Lindblom
Tommy Mörth
Håkan Nordin
Rolf Ridderwall
Jens Öhling
Thomas Rundqvist
Tomas Sandström
Håkan Södergren
Mats Thelin
Michael Thelvén
Mats Waltin
Göte Wälitalo

1988 Calgary
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (7)
Ilya Byakin
Vyacheslav Bykov
Aleksandr Chernykh
Viacheslav Fetisov
Alexei Gusarov
Valeri Kamensky
Alexei Kasatonov
Andrei Khomutov
Aleksandr Kozhevnikov
Igor Kravchuk
Vladimir Krutov
Igor Larionov
Andrei Lomakin
Sergei Makarov
Alexander Mogilny
Sergei Mylnikov
Vitali Samoilov
Anatoli Semenov
Sergei Starikov
Igor Stelnov
Sergei Svetlov
Sergei Yashin
 Finland (FIN) (1)
Timo Blomqvist
Kari Eloranta
Raimo Helminen
Iiro Järvi
Esa Keskinen
Erkki Laine
Kari Laitinen
Erkki Lehtonen
Jyrki Lumme
Reijo Mikkolainen
Jarmo Myllys
Teppo Numminen
Janne Ojanen
Arto Ruotanen
Reijo Ruotsalainen
Simo Saarinen
Kai Suikkanen
Timo Susi
Jukka Tammi
Jari Torkki
Pekka Tuomisto
Jukka Virtanen
 Sweden (SWE) (4)
Mikael Andersson
Peter Andersson
Peter Åslin
Bo Berglund
Jonas Bergqvist
Anders Bergman
Thom Eklund
Anders Eldebrink
Peter Eriksson
Thomas Eriksson
Michael Hjälm
Lars Ivarsson
Mikael Johansson
Lars Karlsson
Mats Kihlström
Peter Lindmark
Lars Molin
Jens Öhling
Lars-Gunnar Pettersson
Thomas Rundqvist
Tommy Samuelsson
Ulf Sandström
Håkan Södergren

1992 Albertville
details
 Unified Team (EUN) (1)
Sergei Bautin
Igor Boldin
Nikolai Borschevsky
Vyacheslav Butsayev
Vyacheslav Bykov
Evgeny Davydov
Darius Kasparaitis
Nikolai Khabibulin
Yuri Khmylev
Andrei Khomutov
Andrei Kovalenko
Alexei Kovalev
Igor Kravchuk
Vladimir Malakhov
Dmitri Mironov
Sergei Petrenko
Vitali Prokhorov
Mikhail Shtalenkov
Andrei Trefilov
Dmitri Yushkevich
Alexei Zhamnov
Alexei Zhitnik
Sergei Zubov
 Canada (CAN) (3)
Dave Archibald
Todd Brost
Sean Burke
Kevin Dahl
Curt Giles
Dave Hannan
Gord Hynes
Fabian Joseph
Joé Juneau
Trevor Kidd
Patrick Lebeau
Chris Lindberg
Eric Lindros
Kent Manderville
Adrien Plavsic
Dan Ratushny
Sam St. Laurent
Brad Schlegel
Wally Schreiber
Randy Smith
Dave Tippett
Brian Tutt
Jason Woolley
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (4)
Patrik Augusta
Petr Bříza
Jaromír Dragan
Leo Gudas
Miloslav Hořava
Petr Hrbek
Otakar Janecký
Tomáš Jelínek
Drahomír Kadlec
Kamil Kašťák
Robert Lang
Igor Liba
Ladislav Lubina
František Procházka
Petr Rosol
Bedřich Ščerban
Jiří Šlégr
Richard Šmehlík
Róbert Švehla
Oldřich Svoboda
Radek Ťoupal
Peter Veselovský

1994 Lillehammer
details
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Håkan Algotsson
Charles Berglund
Jonas Bergqvist
Andreas Dackell
Christian Due-Boje
Niklas Eriksson
Peter Forsberg
Roger Hansson
Roger Johansson
Jörgen Jönsson
Kenny Jönsson
Tomas Jonsson
Patrik Juhlin
Patric Kjellberg
Håkan Loob
Mats Näslund
Stefan Örnskog
Leif Rohlin
Daniel Rydmark
Tommy Salo
Fredrik Stillman
Magnus Svensson
 Canada (CAN) (4)
Mark Astley
Adrian Aucoin
David Harlock
Corey Hirsch
Todd Hlushko
Greg Johnson
Fabian Joseph
Paul Kariya
Chris Kontos
Manny Legacé
Ken Lovsin
Derek Mayer
Petr Nedvěd
Dwayne Norris
Greg Parks
Allain Roy
Jean-Yves Roy
Brian Savage
Brad Schlegel
Wally Schreiber
Chris Therien
Todd Warriner
Brad Werenka
 Finland (FIN) (1)
Mika Alatalo
Erik Hämäläinen
Raimo Helminen
Timo Jutila
Sami Kapanen
Esa Keskinen
Marko Kiprusoff
Saku Koivu
Pasi Kuivalainen
Janne Laukkanen
Tero Lehterä
Jere Lehtinen
Mikko Mäkelä
Jarmo Myllys
Mika Nieminen
Janne Ojanen
Marko Palo
Ville Peltonen
Pasi Sormunen
Mika Strömberg
Jukka Tammi
Petri Varis
Hannu Virta

1998 Nagano
details
 Czech Republic (CZE) (1)
Josef Beránek
Jan Čaloun
Roman Čechmánek
Jiří Dopita
Roman Hamrlík
Dominik Hašek
Milan Hejduk
Jaromír Jágr
František Kučera
Robert Lang
David Moravec
Pavel Patera
Libor Procházka
Martin Procházka
Robert Reichel
Martin Ručínský
Vladimír Růžička
Jiří Šlégr
Richard Šmehlík
Jaroslav Špaček
Martin Straka
Petr Svoboda
 Russia (RUS) (1)
Pavel Bure
Valeri Bure
Sergei Fedorov
Sergei Gonchar
Alexei Gusarov
Valeri Kamensky
Darius Kasparaitis
Andrei Kovalenko
Igor Kravchuk
Sergei Krivokrasov
Boris Mironov
Dmitri Mironov
Aleksey Morozov
Sergei Nemchinov
Oleg Shevtsov
Mikhail Shtalenkov
German Titov
Andrei Trefilov
Alexei Yashin
Dmitri Yushkevich
Valeri Zelepukin
Alexei Zhamnov
Alexei Zhitnik
 Finland (FIN) (2)
Aki-Petteri Berg
Tuomas Grönman
Raimo Helminen
Sami Kapanen
Saku Koivu
Jari Kurri
Janne Laukkanen
Jere Lehtinen
Juha Lind
Jyrki Lumme
Jarmo Myllys
Mika Nieminen
Janne Niinimaa
Teppo Numminen
Ville Peltonen
Kimmo Rintanen
Teemu Selänne
Ari Sulander
Jukka Tammi
Esa Tikkanen
Kimmo Timonen
Antti Törmänen
Juha Ylönen

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Canada (CAN) (7)
Ed Belfour
Rob Blake
Eric Brewer
Martin Brodeur
Theoren Fleury
Adam Foote
Simon Gagné
Jarome Iginla
Curtis Joseph
Ed Jovanovski
Paul Kariya
Mario Lemieux
Eric Lindros
Al MacInnis
Scott Niedermayer
Joe Nieuwendyk
Owen Nolan
Michael Peca
Chris Pronger
Joe Sakic
Brendan Shanahan
Ryan Smyth
Steve Yzerman
 United States (USA) (7)
Tony Amonte
Tom Barrasso
Chris Chelios
Adam Deadmarsh
Chris Drury
Mike Dunham
Bill Guerin
Phil Housley
Brett Hull
John LeClair
Brian Leetch
Aaron Miller
Mike Modano
Tom Poti
Brian Rafalski
Mike Richter
Jeremy Roenick
Brian Rolston
Gary Suter
Keith Tkachuk
Doug Weight
Mike York
Scott Young
 Russia (RUS) (1)
Maxim Afinogenov
Ilya Bryzgalov
Pavel Bure
Valeri Bure
Pavel Datsyuk
Sergei Fedorov
Sergei Gonchar
Darius Kasparaitis
Nikolai Khabibulin
Ilya Kovalchuk
Alexei Kovalev
Igor Kravchuk
Oleg Kvasha
Igor Larionov
Vladimir Malakhov
Daniil Markov
Boris Mironov
Andrei Nikolishin
Yegor Podomatsky
Sergei Samsonov
Oleg Tverdovsky
Alexei Yashin
Alexei Zhamnov

2006 Turin
details
 Sweden (SWE) (2)
Daniel Alfredsson
Per-Johan Axelsson
Christian Bäckman
Peter Forsberg
Mika Hannula
Niclas Hävelid
Tomas Holmström
Jörgen Jönsson
Kenny Jönsson
Niklas Kronwall
Nicklas Lidström
Stefan Liv
Henrik Lundqvist
Fredrik Modin
Mattias Öhlund
Samuel Påhlsson
Mikael Samuelsson
Daniel Sedin
Henrik Sedin
Mats Sundin
Ronnie Sundin
Mikael Tellqvist
Daniel Tjärnqvist
Henrik Zetterberg
 Finland (FIN) (2)
Niklas Bäckström
Aki-Petteri Berg
Niklas Hagman
Jukka Hentunen
Jussi Jokinen
Olli Jokinen
Niko Kapanen
Mikko Koivu
Saku Koivu
Lasse Kukkonen
Antti Laaksonen
Jere Lehtinen
Toni Lydman
Antti-Jussi Niemi
Ville Nieminen
Antero Niittymäki
Fredrik Norrena
Petteri Nummelin
Teppo Numminen
Ville Peltonen
Jarkko Ruutu
Sami Salo
Teemu Selänne
Kimmo Timonen
 Czech Republic (CZE) (1)
Jan Bulis
Petr Čajánek
Patrik Eliáš
Martin Erat
Dominik Hašek
Milan Hejduk
Aleš Hemský
Milan Hnilička
Jaromír Jágr
František Kaberle
Tomáš Kaberle
Aleš Kotalík
Filip Kuba
Pavel Kubina
Robert Lang
Marek Malík
Rostislav Olesz
Václav Prospal
Martin Ručinský
Dušan Salfický
Jaroslav Špaček
Martin Straka
Tomáš Vokoun
David Výborný
Marek Židlický

2010 Vancouver
details
 Canada (CAN) (8)
Patrice Bergeron
Dan Boyle
Martin Brodeur
Sidney Crosby
Drew Doughty
Marc-André Fleury
Ryan Getzlaf
Dany Heatley
Jarome Iginla
Duncan Keith
Roberto Luongo
Patrick Marleau
Brenden Morrow
Rick Nash
Scott Niedermayer
Corey Perry
Chris Pronger
Mike Richards
Brent Seabrook
Eric Staal
Joe Thornton
Jonathan Toews
Shea Weber
 United States (USA) (8)
David Backes
Dustin Brown
Ryan Callahan
Chris Drury
Tim Gleason
Erik Johnson
Jack Johnson
Patrick Kane
Ryan Kesler
Phil Kessel
Jamie Langenbrunner
Ryan Malone
Ryan Miller
Brooks Orpik
Zach Parise
Joe Pavelski
Jonathan Quick
Brian Rafalski
Bobby Ryan
Paul Stastny
Ryan Suter
Tim Thomas
Ryan Whitney
 Finland (FIN) (3)
Niklas Bäckström
Valtteri Filppula
Niklas Hagman
Jarkko Immonen
Olli Jokinen
Niko Kapanen
Miikka Kiprusoff
Mikko Koivu
Saku Koivu
Lasse Kukkonen
Jere Lehtinen
Sami Lepistö
Toni Lydman
Antti Miettinen
Antero Niittymäki
Janne Niskala
Ville Peltonen
Joni Pitkänen
Jarkko Ruutu
Tuomo Ruutu
Sami Salo
Teemu Selänne
Kimmo Timonen

2014 Sochi
details
 Canada (CAN) (9)
Jamie Benn
Patrice Bergeron
Jay Bouwmeester
Jeff Carter
Sidney Crosby
Drew Doughty
Ryan Getzlaf
Matt Duchene
Dan Hamhuis
Duncan Keith
Chris Kunitz
Roberto Luongo
Patrick Marleau
Rick Nash
Corey Perry
Alex Pietrangelo
Carey Price
Mike Smith
Martin St. Louis
Patrick Sharp
P. K. Subban
John Tavares
Jonathan Toews
Marc-Édouard Vlasic
Shea Weber
 Sweden (SWE) (3)
Daniel Alfredsson
Nicklas Bäckström
Patrik Berglund
Alexander Edler
Oliver Ekman-Larsson
Jhonas Enroth
Jimmie Ericsson
Jonathan Ericsson
Loui Eriksson
Jonas Gustavsson
Carl Hagelin
Niklas Hjalmarsson
Marcus Johansson
Erik Karlsson
Niklas Kronwall
Marcus Krüger
Gabriel Landeskog
Henrik Lundqvist
Gustav Nyquist
Johnny Oduya
Daniel Sedin
Jakob Silfverberg
Alexander Steen
Henrik Tallinder
Henrik Zetterberg
 Finland (FIN) (4)
Juhamatti Aaltonen
Aleksander Barkov
Mikael Granlund
Juuso Hietanen
Jarkko Immonen
Jussi Jokinen
Olli Jokinen
Leo Komarov
Sami Lepistö
Petri Kontiola
Lauri Korpikoski
Lasse Kukkonen
Jori Lehterä
Kari Lehtonen
Olli Määttä
Antti Niemi
Antti Pihlström
Tuukka Rask
Tuomo Ruutu
Sakari Salminen
Sami Salo
Teemu Selänne
Kimmo Timonen
Ossi Väänänen
Sami Vatanen

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR) (1)
Sergei Andronov
Alexander Barabanov
Pavel Datsyuk
Vladislav Gavrikov
Mikhail Grigorenko
Nikita Gusev
Ilya Kablukov
Sergei Kalinin
Kirill Kaprizov
Bogdan Kiselevich
Vasily Koshechkin
Ilya Kovalchuk
Alexei Marchenko
Sergei Mozyakin
Nikita Nesterov
Nikolai Prokhorkin
Igor Shestyorkin
Vadim Shipachyov
Sergei Shirokov
Ilya Sorokin
Ivan Telegin
Vyacheslav Voynov
Yegor Yakovlev
Artyom Zub
Andrei Zubarev
 Germany (GER) (1)
Sinan Akdag
Danny aus den Birken
Daryl Boyle
Yasin Ehliz
Christian Ehrhoff
Dennis Endras
Gerrit Fauser
Marcel Goc
Patrick Hager
Frank Hördler
Dominik Kahun
Marcus Kink
Björn Krupp
Brooks Macek
Frank Mauer
Jonas Müller
Moritz Müller
Marcel Noebels
Timo Pielmeier
Leonhard Pföderl
Matthias Plachta
Patrick Reimer
Felix Schütz
Yannic Seidenberg
David Wolf
 Canada (CAN) (3)
Rene Bourque
Gilbert Brulé
Andrew Ebbett
Stefan Elliott
Chay Genoway
Cody Goloubef
Marc-André Gragnani
Quinton Howden
Chris Kelly
Rob Klinkhammer
Brandon Kozun
Maxim Lapierre
Chris Lee
Maxim Noreau
Eric O'Dell
Justin Peters
Kevin Poulin
Mason Raymond
Mat Robinson
Derek Roy
Ben Scrivens
Karl Stollery
Christian Thomas
Linden Vey
Wojtek Wolski

tag: table

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1
 Canada (CAN)
9
4
3

2
 Soviet Union (URS)
7
1
1

3
 United States (USA)
2
8
1

4
 Sweden (SWE)
2
3
4

5
 Czech Republic (CZE)
1
4
4

6
 Great Britain (GBR)
1
1
1

7
 Unified Team (EUN)
1

 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR)
1

9
 Finland (FIN)

2
4

10
 Germany (GER)

1
2

11
 Russia (RUS)

1
1

12
 Switzerland (SUI)

2

text: Women[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1998 Nagano
details
 United States (USA) (1)
Chris Bailey
Laurie Baker
Alana Blahoski
Lisa Brown-Miller
Karyn Bye
Colleen Coyne
Sara Decosta
Tricia Dunn-Luoma
Cammi Granato
Katie King
Shelley Looney
Sue Merz
Allison Mleczko
Tara Mounsey
Vicki Movsessian
Jenny Potter
Angela Ruggiero
Sarah Tueting
Gretchen Ulion
Sandra Whyte
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Jennifer Botterill
Thérèse Brisson
Cassie Campbell
Judy Diduck
Nancy Drolet
Lori Dupuis
Danielle Goyette
Geraldine Heaney
Jayna Hefford
Becky Kellar
Kathy McCormack
Karen Nystrom
Lesley Reddon
Manon Rhéaume
Laura Schuler
Fiona Smith
France St-Louis
Vicky Sunohara
Hayley Wickenheiser
Stacy Wilson
 Finland (FIN) (1)
Sari Fisk
Kirsi Hänninen
Satu Huotari
Marianne Ihalainen
Johanna Ikonen
Sari Krooks
Emma Laaksonen
Sanna Lankosaari
Katja Lehto
Marika Lehtimäki
Riikka Nieminen
Marja-Helena Pälvilä
Tuula Puputti
Karoliina Rantamäki
Tiia Reima
Katja Riipi
Päivi Salo
Maria Selin
Liisa-Maria Sneck
Petra Vaarakallio

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Dana Antal
Kelly Bechard
Jennifer Botterill
Thérèse Brisson
Cassie Campbell
Isabelle Chartrand
Lori Dupuis
Danielle Goyette
Geraldine Heaney
Jayna Hefford
Becky Kellar
Caroline Ouellette
Cherie Piper
Cheryl Pounder
Tammy Lee Shewchuk
Sami Jo Small
Colleen Sostorics
Kim St-Pierre
Vicky Sunohara
Hayley Wickenheiser
 United States (USA) (1)
Chris Bailey
Laurie Baker
Karyn Bye
Julie Chu
Natalie Darwitz
Sara Decosta
Tricia Dunn-Luoma
Cammi Granato
Courtney Kennedy
Andrea Kilbourne
Katie King
Shelley Looney
Sue Merz
Allison Mleczko
Tara Mounsey
Jenny Potter
Angela Ruggiero
Sarah Tueting
Lyndsay Wall
Krissy Wendell
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Annica Åhlén
Lotta Almblad
Anna Andersson
Gunilla Andersson
Emelie Berggren
Kristina Bergstrand
Ann-Louise Edstrand
Joa Elfsberg
Erika Holst
Nanna Jansson
Maria Larsson
Ylva Lindberg
Ulrica Lindström
Kim Martin
Josefin Pettersson
Maria Rooth
Danijela Rundqvist
Evelina Samuelsson
Therese Sjölander
Anna Vikman

2006 Turin
details
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Meghan Agosta
Gillian Apps
Jennifer Botterill
Cassie Campbell
Gillian Ferrari
Danielle Goyette
Jayna Hefford
Becky Kellar
Gina Kingsbury
Charline Labonté
Carla MacLeod
Caroline Ouellette
Cherie Piper
Cheryl Pounder
Colleen Sostorics
Kim St-Pierre
Vicky Sunohara
Sarah Vaillancourt
Katie Weatherston
Hayley Wickenheiser
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Cecilia Andersson
Gunilla Andersson
Jenni Asserholt
Ann-Louise Edstrand
Joa Elfsberg
Emma Eliasson
Erika Holst
Nanna Jansson
Ylva Lindberg
Jenny Lindqvist
Kristina Lundberg
Kim Martin
Frida Nevalainen
Emilie O'Konor
Maria Rooth
Danijela Rundqvist
Therese Sjölander
Katarina Timglas
Anna Vikman
Pernilla Winberg
 United States (USA) (1)
Caitlin Cahow
Julie Chu
Natalie Darwitz
Pam Dreyer
Tricia Dunn-Luoma
Molly Engstrom
Chanda Gunn
Jamie Hagerman
Kim Insalaco
Kathleen Kauth
Courtney Kennedy
Katie King
Kristin King
Sarah Parsons
Jenny Potter
Helen Resor
Angela Ruggiero
Kelly Stephens
Lyndsay Wall
Krissy Wendell

2010 Vancouver
details
 Canada (CAN) (3)
Meghan Agosta
Gillian Apps
Tessa Bonhomme
Jennifer Botterill
Jayna Hefford
Haley Irwin
Rebecca Johnston
Becky Kellar
Gina Kingsbury
Charline Labonté
Carla MacLeod
Meaghan Mikkelson
Caroline Ouellette
Cherie Piper
Marie-Philip Poulin
Kim St-Pierre
Colleen Sostorics
Shannon Szabados
Sarah Vaillancourt
Catherine Ward
Hayley Wickenheiser
 United States (USA) (2)
Kacey Bellamy
Caitlin Cahow
Lisa Chesson
Julie Chu
Natalie Darwitz
Meghan Duggan
Molly Engstrom
Hilary Knight
Jocelyne Lamoureux
Monique Lamoureux
Erika Lawler
Gisele Marvin
Brianne McLaughlin
Jenny Schmidgall-Potter
Angela Ruggiero
Molly Schaus
Kelli Stack
Karen Thatcher
Jessie Vetter
Kerry Weiland
Jinelle Zaugg-Siergiej
 Finland (FIN) (2)
Anne Helin
Jenni Hiirikoski
Venla Hovi
Michelle Karvinen
Mira Kuisma
Emma Laaksonen
Rosa Lindstedt
Terhi Mertanen
Heidi Pelttari
Mariia Posa
Annina Rajahuhta
Karoliina Rantamäki
Noora Räty
Mari Saarinen
Saija Sirviö
Nina Tikkinen
Minnamari Tuominen
Saara Tuominen
Linda Välimäki
Anna Vanhatalo
Marjo Voutilainen

2014 Sochi
details
 Canada (CAN) (4)
Meghan Agosta-Marciano
Gillian Apps
Mélodie Daoust
Laura Fortino
Jayna Hefford
Haley Irwin
Brianne Jenner
Rebecca Johnston
Charline Labonté
Geneviève Lacasse
Jocelyne Larocque
Meaghan Mikkelson-Reid
Caroline Ouellette
Marie-Philip Poulin
Lauriane Rougeau
Natalie Spooner
Shannon Szabados
Jenn Wakefield
Catherine Ward
Tara Watchorn
Hayley Wickenheiser
 United States (USA) (3)
Kacey Bellamy
Megan Bozek
Alexandra Carpenter
Julie Chu
Kendall Coyne
Brianna Decker
Meghan Duggan
Lyndsey Fry
Amanda Kessel
Hilary Knight
Jocelyne Lamoureux
Monique Lamoureux-Kolls
Gisele Marvin
Brianne McLaughlin
Michelle Picard
Josephine Pucci
Molly Schaus
Anne Schleper
Kelli Stack
Lee Stecklein
Jessie Vetter
 Switzerland (SUI) (1)
Janine Alder
Livia Altmann
Sophie Anthamatten
Laura Benz
Sara Benz
Nicole Bullo
Romy Eggimann
Sarah Forster
Angela Frautschi
Jessica Lutz
Julia Marty
Stefanie Marty
Alina Müller
Katrin Nabholz
Evelina Raselli
Florence Schelling
Lara Stalder
Phoebe Stanz
Anja Stiefel
Nina Waidacher

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 United States (USA) (2)
Cayla Barnes
Kacey Bellamy
Hannah Brandt
Dani Cameranesi
Kendall Coyne
Brianna Decker
Meghan Duggan
Kali Flanagan
Nicole Hensley
Megan Keller
Amanda Kessel
Hilary Knight
Jocelyne Lamoureux
Monique Lamoureux
Gigi Marvin
Sidney Morin
Kelly Pannek
Amanda Pelkey
Emily Pfalzer
Alex Rigsby
Maddie Rooney
Haley Skarupa
Lee Stecklein
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Meghan Agosta
Bailey Bram
Emily Clark
Mélodie Daoust
Ann-Renée Desbiens
Renata Fast
Laura Fortino
Brianne Jenner
Rebecca Johnston
Geneviève Lacasse
Brigette Lacquette
Meaghan Mikkelson
Marie-Philip Poulin
Lauriane Rougeau
Jillian Saulnier
Natalie Spooner
Laura Stacey
Shannon Szabados
Blayre Turnbull
Jenn Wakefield
 Finland (FIN) (3)
Sanni Hakala
Jenni Hiirikoski
Venla Hovi
Mira Jalosuo
Michelle Karvinen
Rosa Lindstedt
Petra Nieminen
Tanja Niskanen
Emma Nuutinen
Isa Rahunen
Annina Rajahuhta
Meeri Räisänen
Noora Räty
Saila Saari
Ronja Savolainen
Eveliina Suonpää
Sara Säkkinen
Susanna Tapani
Noora Tulus
Minnamari Tuominen
Ella Viitasuo
Riikka Välilä
Linda Välimäki

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1
 Canada (CAN)
4
2

2
 United States (USA)
2
3
1

3
 Sweden (SWE)

1
1

4
 Finland (FIN)

3

5
 Switzerland (SUI)

1

text: Athlete medal leaders[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Wickenheiser, HayleyHayley Wickenheiser
 Canada (CAN)
1998–2014
4
1
0
5

Hefford, JaynaJayna Hefford
 Canada (CAN)
1998–2014
4
1
0
5

Ouellette, CarolineCaroline Ouellette
 Canada (CAN)
2002–2014
4
0
0
4

Tretiak, VladislavVladislav Tretiak
 Soviet Union (URS)
1972–1984
3
1
0
4

Botterill, JenniferJennifer Botterill
 Canada (CAN)
1998–2010
3
1
0
4

Kellar, BeckyBecky Kellar
 Canada (CAN)
1998–2010
3
1
0
4

Agosta, MeghanMeghan Agosta
 Canada (CAN)
2006–2018
3
1
0
4

Kravchuk, IgorIgor Kravchuk
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Unified Team (EUN)
 Russia (RUS)
1988
1992
1998–2002
2
1
1
4

Ruggiero, AngelaAngela Ruggiero
 United States (USA)
1998–2010
1
2
1
4

Potter, JennyJenny Potter
 United States (USA)
1998–2010
1
2
1
4

Chu, JulieJulie Chu
 United States (USA)
2002–2014
0
3
1
4

Holík, JiříJiří Holík
 Czechoslovakia (TCH)
1964–1976
0
2
2
4

Selänne, TeemuTeemu Selänne
 Finland (FIN)
1992, 1998–2014
0
1
3
4

Timonen, KimmoKimmo Timonen
 Finland (FIN)
1998–2014
0
1
3
4

Koivu, SakuSaku Koivu
 Finland (FIN)
1994–2010
0
1
3
4

Lehtinen, JereJere Lehtinen
 Finland (FIN)
1994–2010
0
1
3
4

Peltonen, VilleVille Peltonen
 Finland (FIN)
1994–2010
0
1
3
4

Firsov, AnatoliAnatoli Firsov
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1972
3
0
0
3

Kuzkin, VictorVictor Kuzkin
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1972
3
0
0
3

Ragulin, AlexanderAlexander Ragulin
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1972
3
0
0
3

Davydov, VitalyVitaly Davydov
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1972
3
0
0
3

Khomutov, AndreiAndrei Khomutov
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Unified Team (EUN)
1984–1988
1992
3
0
0
3

Piper, CherieCherie Piper
 Canada (CAN)
2002–2010
3
0
0
3

St-Pierre, KimKim St-Pierre
 Canada (CAN)
2002–2010
3
0
0
3

Sostorics, ColleenColleen Sostorics
 Canada (CAN)
2002–2010
3
0
0
3

Apps, GillianGillian Apps
 Canada (CAN)
2006–2014
3
0
0
3

Labonté, CharlineCharline Labonté
 Canada (CAN)
2006–2014
3
0
0
3


document_title: Airbag

question_text: when was the first airbag put in a car

question_tokens: when was the first airbag put in a car

root

text: Airbag

text: Description[edit]

text: Modern vehicles may contain multiple airbag modules in various configurations including:

tag: p

text:
Driver airbag module
Passenger airbag module
Side curtain airbag module
Seat-mounted side impact airbag module
Knee bolster airbag module
Inflatable seat-belt modules
Front Right Side Airbag Sensor
Front Left Side Airbag Sensor
Pedestrian airbag module

text: During a crash event, the vehicle's crash sensor(s) provide crucial information to the airbag electronic controller unit (ECU), including collision type, angle and severity of impact. Using this information, the airbag electronic controller unit's crash algorithm determines if the crash event meets the criteria for deployment and triggers various firing circuits to deploy one or more airbag modules within the vehicle. Working as a supplemental restraint system to the vehicle's seat-belt systems, airbag module deployments are triggered through a pyrotechnic process that is designed to be used once. Newer side-impact airbag modules consist of compressed air cylinders that are triggered in the event of a side on vehicle impact.[1]

text: The first commercial designs were introduced in passenger automobiles during the 1970s with limited success. Broad commercial adoption of airbags occurred in many markets during the late 1980s and early 1990s with a driver airbag, and a front passenger airbag as well on some cars; and many modern vehicles now include six or more units.[2][citation needed]

text: Terminology[edit]

text: Over time, various manufacturers have used different terms for airbags. In the 1970s, General Motors marketed its first airbag modules under the unwieldy name "Air Cushion Restraint System (ACRS)". Common terms in North America refer to a nominal role as a supplement to "active" restraints, i.e. seat belts. Because no action by a vehicle occupant is required to activate or use the airbag, it is considered a "passive" device. This is in contrast to seat belts, which are considered "active" devices because the vehicle occupant must act to enable them.[3][4][5][6][7]

text: This terminology is not related to active and passive safety, which are, respectively, systems designed to prevent accidents in the first place, and systems designed to minimize the effects of accidents once they occur. In this usage, a car Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) will qualify as an active-safety device, while both its seatbelts and airbags will qualify as passive-safety devices. Further terminological confusion can arise from the fact that passive devices and systems—those requiring no input or action by the vehicle occupant—can operate independently in an active manner; an airbag is one such device. Vehicle safety professionals are generally careful in their use of language to avoid this sort of confusion, though advertising principles sometimes prevent such semantic caution in the consumer marketing of safety features. Further confusing the terminology, the aviation safety community uses the terms "active" and "passive" in the opposite sense from the automotive industry.[8]

text: In patent applications, various airbag manufacturers sometimes use the catchall term 'inflatable occupant restraint systems' for vehicle airbags.

text: History[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: The airbag specified for automobile use traces its origins to air-filled bladders as early as 1951.[9][10]

text: The invention is credited independently to the American John W. Hetrick who in 1951 registered for the first airbag patent that was granted #2,649,311 by the United States Patent Office on 18 August 1953.[11][12] German engineer Walter Linderer who filed German patent #896,312 on 6 October 1951 was issued on 12 November 1953, approximately three months after American John Hetrick. Hetrick and Linderer's airbags were both based on a compressed air system, either released by spring, bumper contact or by the driver. Later research during the 1960s showed that compressed air could not inflate the mechanically based airbags fast enough for maximum safety, leading to the current chemical and electrically based airbags.[13][14]

text: Hetrick was an industrial engineer and member of the United States Navy. His airbag was designed based on his experiences with compressed air from torpedoes during his service in the Navy, combined with a desire to provide protection for his family in their automobile during accidents. Hetrick worked with the major American automobile corporations at the time, but they chose not to invest in it.[15][16] Although airbags are now required in every automobile sold in the United States, Hetrick's 1951 patent filing serves as an example of a "valuable" invention with little economic value to its inventor because its first commercial use did not occur until after the patent expired when in 1971, it was installed as an experiment in a few Ford cars.[17]

text: In 1964, a Japanese automobile engineer Yasuzaburou Kobori (小堀保三郎) started developing an airbag "safety net" system that harnesses an explosive to inflate an airbag, for which he was later awarded patents in 14 countries. He died in 1975 without seeing widespread adoption of airbag systems.[18][19][20]

text: In 1967, a breakthrough occurred in the development of airbag crash sensors, when Allen K. Breed invented a mechanically-based ball-in-tube component for crash detection, an electromechanical sensor with a steel ball attached to a tube by a magnet that would inflate an airbag in under 30 milliseconds.[21] A small explosion of sodium azide instead of compressed air was used for the first time during inflation.[14] Breed Corporation then marketed this innovation first to Chrysler. A similar "Auto-Ceptor" crash-restraint, developed by the Eaton, Yale & Towne company for Ford was soon offered as an automatic safety system in the United States,[22][23] while the Italian Eaton-Livia company offered a variant with localized[further explanation needed] air cushions.[24]

text: In the early 1970s, Ford and General Motors began offering cars equipped with airbags, initially in government fleet purchased Chevrolet automobiles. GM's Oldsmobile Toronado was the first domestic U.S. vehicle to include a passenger airbag.[25][when?][citation needed] The automaker discontinued the option for its 1977 model year, citing lack of consumer interest. Ford and GM then spent years lobbying against air-bag requirements, claiming that the devices were unfeasible and inappropriate. Chrysler made a driver-side airbag standard on 1988–1989 models, but it was not until the early 1990s that airbags became widespread in American cars.[26]

text: As a substitute to seat belts[edit]

text: Airbags for passenger cars were introduced in the United States in the mid-1970s, when seat belt usage rates in the country were quite low. Ford built an experimental fleet of cars with airbags in 1971, followed by General Motors in 1973 on Chevrolet vehicles. The early fleet of experimental GM vehicles equipped with airbags experienced seven fatalities, one of which was later suspected to have been caused by the airbag.[27]

text: In 1974, GM made its "Air Cushion Restraint System" (ACRS) available as a regular production option (RPO code AR3) in full-size Cadillacs,[28] Buick and Oldsmobile models. The GM cars from the 1970s equipped with ACRS had a driver-side airbag, a driver-side knee restraint[29] (which consists of a padded lower dashboard), and a passenger-side airbag. The passenger-side airbag protects both front passengers[29] and unlike most newer ones, it integrated a knee cushion and a torso cushion, and it also had dual stage deployment which varied depending on the force of the impact. The cars equipped with ACRS had lap belts for all seating positions but they did not have shoulder belts. Shoulder belts were already mandatory equipment in the United States on closed cars without airbags for the driver and outer front passenger seating positions, but GM chose to market its airbags as a substitute for shoulder belts. Prices for this option on Cadillac models were USD$225 in 1974, USD$300 in 1975, and USD$340 in 1976 ($1125, $1360, and $1465, respectively, in 2017 dollars).

text: The early development of airbags coincided with an international interest in automobile safety legislation. Some safety experts advocated a performance-based occupant protection standard rather than a standard mandating a particular technical solution, which could rapidly become outdated and might not be a cost-effective approach. Nevertheless, as countries successively mandated seat belt restraints, there was less emphasis placed on other designs for several decades.[24]

text: As a supplemental restraint system (SRS)[edit]

text: Frontal airbag[edit]

text: The auto industry and research and regulatory communities have moved away from their initial view of the airbag as a seat belt replacement, and the bags are now nominally designated as Supplemental Restraint System (SRS) or Supplemental Inflatable Restraints.

text: In 1981, Mercedes-Benz introduced the airbag in West Germany as an option on its flagship saloon model, S-Class (W126). In the Mercedes system, the sensors would automatically pre-tension the seat belts to reduce occupants' motion on impact (now a common feature), and then deploy the airbag on impact. This integrated the seat belts and airbag into a restraint system, rather than the airbag being considered an alternative to the seat belt.

text: In 1987, the Porsche 944 Turbo became the first car to have driver and passenger airbags as standard equipment. The less powerful Porsche 944 and 944S had this as an available option. The same year also saw the first airbag in a Japanese car, the Honda Legend.[30]

text: In 1988, Chrysler was the first United States company to install standard driver's side air bags.[31] They came in six lines of its high volume production passenger cars.[32] The following year, Chrysler became the first United States auto manufacturer to install driver-side air bags in all its domestic-built automobiles.[33] All versions of the Chrysler minivans came with airbags starting January 1991.[31] In 1992, the Jeep Grand Cherokee became the first SUV with airbags in the market place.[34] Driver and passenger air bags became standard equipment in all Dodge Intrepid, Eagle Vision, and Chrysler Concorde sedans ahead of any regulations.[35] Early 1993 saw the 4-millionth air bag-equipped Chrysler vehicle roll off the assembly line.[36] In October 1993, the Dodge Ram became the first pickup truck with airbags.[37]

text: The first known accident between two airbag-equipped automobiles took place in 1990 in Virginia, USA. A 1989 Chrysler LeBaron crossed the center line and hit another 1989 Chrysler LeBaron in a head-on collision, causing both driver airbags to deploy. The drivers suffered only minor injuries despite extensive damage to the vehicles.[38][39][40]

text: The United States Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 required passenger cars and light trucks built after 1 September 1998 to have air bags for the driver and the right front passenger.[41][42] In the United States, NHTSA estimated that air bags had saved over 4,600 lives by 1 September 1999; however, the crash deployment experience of the early 1990s installations indicated that some fatalities and serious injuries were in fact caused by air bags.[41] In 1998, NHTSA initiated new rules for advanced air bags that gave automakers more flexibility in devising effective technological solutions. The revised rules also required improved protection for occupants of different sizes regardless of whether they use seat belts, while minimizing the risk to infants, children, and other occupants caused by air bags.[41]

text: In Europe, airbags were almost unheard of until the early 1990s. By 1991, four manufacturers – BMW, Honda, Mercedes-Benz and Volvo – offered the air bag on some of their higher-end models, but shortly afterwards, airbags became a common feature on more mainstream cars, with Ford and Vauxhall/Opel being among the manufacturers to introduce the air bag to its model ranges in 1992. The likes of Citroen, Fiat, Nissan, Peugeot, Renault and Volkswagen followed shortly afterwards.

text: By 1999, it was very rare to find a new mass market car without an air bag at least as optional equipment, and some late 1990s products, such as the Volkswagen Golf Mk4, also featured side airbags. The Peugeot 306 is one example of the European automotive mass-market evolution: starting in early 1993, most of these models did not even offer a driver's airbag as an option, but by 1999, even side airbags were available on several variants. Audi was late to offer airbag systems on a broader scale, since even in the 1994 model year its popular models did not offer airbags. Instead, the German automaker until then relied solely on its proprietary cable-based procon-ten restraint system.

text: From around the year 2000, side-impact airbags became commonplace on even low- to mid-range vehicles, such as the smaller-engined versions of the Ford Fiesta and Peugeot 206, and curtain airbags were also becoming regular features on mass-market cars. The Toyota Avensis, launched in 2003, was the first mass-market car to be sold in Europe with nine airbags.

text: Variable force deployment front airbags were developed to help minimize injury from the airbag itself.

text: The emergence of the airbag has contributed to a sharp decline in the number of deaths and serious injuries on the roads of Europe since 1990, and by 2010 the number of cars on European roads lacking an airbag represented a very small percentage of cars, mostly the remaining cars dating from the mid 1990s or earlier.

text: Shaped airbags[edit]

text: The Citroën C4 provided the first "shaped" driver airbag, made possible by this car's unusual fixed hub steering wheel.[43]

text: Side airbag[edit]

text: There are essentially two types of side airbags commonly used today: the side torso airbag and the side curtain airbag.

text: Most vehicles equipped with side curtain airbags also include side torso airbags. However, some, such as the Chevrolet Cobalt,[44] 2007–09 model Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra, and 2009–12 Dodge Ram[45] do not feature the side torso airbag.

text: Side torso airbag[edit]

text: Side-impact airbags or side torso airbags (side thorax/abdomen airbags) are a category of airbag usually located in the seat[46] or door panel,[47] and inflate between the seat occupant and the door. These airbags are designed to reduce the risk of injury to the pelvic and lower abdomen regions.[48] Most vehicles are now being equipped with different types of designs, to help reduce injury and ejection from the vehicle in rollover crashes. More recent side airbag designs[49] include a two chamber system;[50] a firmer lower chamber for the pelvic region and softer upper chamber for the ribcage.[51][52]

text: The Swedish company Autoliv AB, was granted a patent on side impact airbags, and they were first offered as an option in 1994[53] on the 1995 model year Volvo 850, and as standard equipment on all Volvo cars made after 1995.[53]

text: Some cars, such as the 2010 Volkswagen Polo Mk.5 have combined head and torso side airbags. These are fitted in the backrest of the front seats, and protect the head as well as the torso.

text: Side tubular or curtain airbag[edit]

text: In 1997, the BMW 7 Series and smaller 5 Series were fitted with a tubular shaped head side airbags (Inflatable Tubular Structure (ITS)),[54] the "Head Protection System (HPS)" as standard equipment.[55] This airbag was designed to offer head protection in side impact collisions and also maintained inflation for up to seven seconds for rollover protection. However, this tubular shaped airbag design has been quickly replaced by an inflatable 'curtain' airbag.

text: In May 1998, Toyota began offering a side curtain airbag deploying from the roof on the Progrés.[56] In 1998 the Volvo S80 was given roof-mounted curtain airbags to protect both front and rear passengers.[57] Curtain airbags were then made standard equipment on all new Volvo cars from 2000 except for the first generation C70 which received an enlarged side torso airbag that also protects the head of front seat occupants.[53] The second generation C70 convertible received the world's first door-mounted side-curtain airbags that deployed upwards.

text: Roll-sensing side curtain airbags found on vehicles more prone to rollovers such as SUVs and pickups will deploy when a rollover is detected instead of just when an actual collision takes place. Often there is a switch to disable the feature in case the driver wants to take the vehicle offroad.

text: Curtain airbags have been said to reduce brain injury or fatalities by up to 45% in a side impact with an SUV. These airbags come in various forms (e.g., tubular, curtain, door-mounted) depending on the needs of the application.[58] Many recent SUVs and MPVs have a long inflatable curtain airbag that protects all 3 rows of seats.

text: Knee airbag[edit]

text: The second driver's side and separate knee airbag was used in the Kia Sportage (a Korean SUV launched in 1995) and has been standard equipment since then. The airbag is located beneath the steering wheel.[59][60]

text: The Toyota Caldina introduced the first Driver-side SRS knee airbag on the Japanese market in 2002.[61] Toyota Avensis became the first vehicle sold in Europe equipped with a driver's knee airbag.[62][63] The EuroNCAP reported on the 2003 Avensis, "There has been much effort to protect the driver's knees and legs and a knee airbag worked well."[64] Since then certain models have also included front passenger knee airbags, which deploy near or over the glove compartment in a crash. Knee airbags are designed to reduce leg injury. The knee airbag has become increasingly common from 2000.

text: Rear curtain airbag[edit]

text: In 2008, the new Toyota iQ microcar featured the first production rear curtain shield airbag to protect the rear occupants' heads in the event of a rear end impact.[65]

text: Seat cushion airbag[edit]

text: Another feature of the Toyota iQ was a seat cushion airbag in the passenger seat. This is to prevent the pelvis from diving below the lap belt during a frontal impact or submarining.[66] Later Toyota models such as the Yaris added the feature to the driver's seat as well.

text: Center airbag[edit]

text: In 2009, Toyota developed the first production rear-seat center airbag designed to reduce the severity of secondary injuries to rear passengers in a side collision. This system deploys from the rear center seat first appearing in on the redesigned Crown Majesta.[67] In late 2012 General Motors with supplier Takata introduced a front center airbag, it deploys from the driver's seat.[68]

text: The 2013 GM Traverse, Acadia, and Enclave will be the first vehicles to use a center airbag for center passengers in the front row.

text: Seat belt airbag[edit]

text: The seat belt airbag is designed to better distribute the forces experienced by a buckled person in a crash by means of increased seat belt area. This is done to reduce possible injuries to the rib cage or chest of the belt wearer.

text:
2009: Mercedes ESF 2009 Experimental Safety Vehicle had seat belt airbags
2010: Ford Explorer[69] and 2013 Ford Flex: optional rear seat belt airbags; standard on the 2013 Lincoln MKT
2010: Lexus LFA[70] had seat belt airbags for driver and passenger[71]
2013: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222) has rear seat beltbags[72]
2014: Ford Mondeo Mk IV[73] has optional rear seat belt airbags for the two outer seats[74]

text: Cessna Aircraft[75] also introduced seat belt airbags.[76] They are as of 2003[76] standard on the 172, 182, and 206.

text: Pedestrian airbag[edit]

text: Airbag(s) mounted to the exterior of vehicles, so called pedestrian airbags, are designed to reduce injuries in the event of a vehicle to pedestrian collision.[77] When a collision is detected the airbag will deploy and cover hard areas, such as a-pillars[78] and bonnet edges, before they can be struck by the pedestrian.[79] When introduced in 2012 the Volvo V40 included the world's first pedestrian airbag as standard.[80] As a result, the V40 ranked highest (88%) in the EuroNCAP's pedestrian tests.[81] The 2014 Land Rover Discovery was fitted with a pedestrian airbag as well.[78][82]

text: Manufactures[edit]

text: SRS airbag suppliers include Autoliv, Daicel, Takata , TRW and KSS, formerly Breed, one of the pioneers in the field.

text: On motorcycles[edit]

text: Various types of airbags were tested on motorcycles by the UK Transport Research Laboratory in the mid-1970s. In 2006 Honda introduced the first production motorcycle airbag safety system on its Gold Wing motorcycle. Honda claims that sensors in the front forks can detect a severe frontal collision and decide when to deploy the airbag, absorbing some of the forward energy of the rider and reducing the velocity at which the rider may be thrown from the motorcycle.[83]

text: Airbag suits have also been developed for use by Motorcycle Grand Prix riders. In their earlier form, they were connected to the motorcycle by a cable and deployed when the cable became detached from its mounting clip, inflating to protect the back of the rider. The French manufacturer Helite specializes exclusively in developing airbag jackets for motorcyclists, snowmobile riders and horseback riders.[84] Further developments were conducted by Dainese and led to an autonomous system on board the leathers, without a cable connected to the bike. Instead, an electronic system detects a fall and triggers the inflation of the nitrogen airbags to protect the rider's upper body.[85][86]

text: Operation[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The airbags in the vehicle are controlled by a central Airbag control unit[87] (ACU), a specific type of ECU. The ACU monitors a number of related sensors within the vehicle, including accelerometers, impact sensors, side (door) pressure sensors,[88][89] wheel speed sensors, gyroscopes, brake pressure sensors, and seat occupancy sensors. The bag itself and its inflation mechanism is concealed within the steering wheel boss (for the driver), or the dashboard (for the front passenger), behind plastic flaps or doors which are designed to "tear open" under the force of the bag inflating. Once the requisite 'threshold' has been reached or exceeded, the airbag control unit will trigger the ignition of a gas generator propellant to rapidly inflate a fabric bag. As the vehicle occupant collides with and squeezes the bag, the gas escapes in a controlled manner through small vent holes. The airbag's volume and the size of the vents in the bag are tailored to each vehicle type, to spread out the deceleration of (and thus force experienced by) the occupant over time and over the occupant's body, compared to a seat belt alone.

text: The signals from the various sensors are fed into the Airbag control unit, which determines from them the angle of impact, the severity, or force of the crash, along with other variables. Depending on the result of these calculations, the ACU may also deploy various additional restraint devices, such as seat belt pre-tensioners, and/or airbags (including frontal bags for driver and front passenger, along with seat-mounted side bags, and "curtain" airbags which cover the side glass). Each restraint device is typically activated with one or more pyrotechnic devices, commonly called an initiator or electric match. The electric match, which consists of an electrical conductor wrapped in a combustible material, activates with a current pulse between 1 and 3 amperes in less than 2 milliseconds. When the conductor becomes hot enough, it ignites the combustible material, which initiates the gas generator. In a seat belt pre-tensioner, this hot gas is used to drive a piston that pulls the slack out of the seat belt. In an airbag, the initiator is used to ignite solid propellant inside the airbag inflator. The burning propellant generates inert gas which rapidly inflates the airbag in approximately 20 to 30 milliseconds. An airbag must inflate quickly in order to be fully inflated by the time the forward-traveling occupant reaches its outer surface. Typically, the decision to deploy an airbag in a frontal crash is made within 15 to 30 milliseconds after the onset of the crash, and both the driver and passenger airbags are fully inflated within approximately 60–80 milliseconds after the first moment of vehicle contact. If an airbag deploys too late or too slowly, the risk of occupant injury from contact with the inflating airbag may increase. Since more distance typically exists between the passenger and the instrument panel, the passenger airbag is larger and requires more gas to fill it.

text: Older airbag systems contained a mixture of sodium azide (NaN3), KNO3, and SiO2. A typical driver-side airbag contains approximately 50–80 g of NaN3, with the larger passenger-side airbag containing about 250 g. Within about 40 milliseconds of impact, all these components react in three separate reactions that produce nitrogen gas. The reactions, in order, are as follows.

text:
2 NaN3 → 2 Na + 3 N2 (g)
10 Na + 2 KNO3 → K2O + 5 Na2O + N2 (g)
K2O + Na2O + 2 SiO2 → K2SiO3 + Na2SiO3

tag: ol

text: The first two reactions create 4 molar equivalents of nitrogen gas, and the third converts the remaining reactants to relatively inert potassium silicate and sodium silicate. The reason that KNO3 is used rather than something like NaNO3 is because it is less hygroscopic. It is very important that the materials used in this reaction are not hygroscopic because absorbed moisture can de-sensitize the system and cause the reaction to fail.

text: The particle size of the initial reactants is important to reliable operation.[90] The NaN3 and KNO3 must be between 10 and 20 µm, while the SiO2 must be between 5 and 10 µm.

text: There are ongoing efforts to find alternative compounds that can be used in airbags which have less toxic reactants.[91] In a journal article by Akiyoshi et al., it was found that for the reaction of the Sr complex nitrate, (Sr(NH2NHCONHNH2)∙(NO3)2 of carbohydrazide (SrCDH) with various oxidizing agents resulted in the evolution of N2 and CO2 gases. Using KBrO3 as the oxidizing agent resulted in the most vigorous reaction as well as the lowest initial temperature of reaction. The N2 and CO2 gases evolved made up 99% of all gases evolved. Nearly all the starting materials won’t decompose until reaching temperatures of 500 °C or higher so this could be a viable option as an air bag gas generator. In a patent containing another plausible alternative to NaN3 driven airbags, the gas generating materials involved the use of guanidine nitrate, 5-aminotetrazole, bitetrazole dehydrate, nitroimidazole, and basic copper nitrate. It was found that these non-azide reagents allowed for a less toxic, lower combustion temperature reaction and more easily disposable air bag inflation system.[citation needed]

text: Front airbags normally do not protect the occupants during side, rear, or rollover accidents.[92] Since airbags deploy only once and deflate quickly after the initial impact, they will not be beneficial during a subsequent collision. Safety belts help reduce the risk of injury in many types of crashes. They help to properly position occupants to maximize the airbag's benefits and they help restrain occupants during the initial and any following collisions.

text: In vehicles equipped with a rollover sensing system, accelerometers and gyroscopes are used to sense the onset of a rollover event. If a rollover event is determined to be imminent, side-curtain airbags are deployed to help protect the occupant from contact with the side of the vehicle interior, and also to help prevent occupant ejection as the vehicle rolls over.

text: Triggering conditions[edit]

text: Airbags are designed to deploy in frontal and near-frontal collisions more severe than a threshold defined by the regulations governing vehicle construction in whatever particular market the vehicle is intended for: United States regulations require deployment in crashes at least equivalent in deceleration to a 23 km/h (14 mph) barrier collision, or similarly, striking a parked car of similar size across the full front of each vehicle at about twice the speed.[93] International regulations are performance based, rather than technology-based, so airbag deployment threshold is a function of overall vehicle design.

text: Unlike crash tests into barriers, real-world crashes typically occur at angles other than directly into the front of the vehicle, and the crash forces usually are not evenly distributed across the front of the vehicle. Consequently, the relative speed between a striking and struck vehicle required to deploy the airbag in a real-world crash can be much higher than an equivalent barrier crash. Because airbag sensors measure deceleration, vehicle speed is not a good indicator of whether an airbag should have deployed. Airbags can deploy due to the vehicle's undercarriage striking a low object protruding above the roadway due to the resulting deceleration.

text: The airbag sensor is a MEMS accelerometer, which is a small integrated circuit with integrated micro mechanical elements. The microscopic mechanical element moves in response to rapid deceleration, and this motion causes a change in capacitance, which is detected by the electronics on the chip that then sends a signal to fire the airbag. The most common MEMS accelerometer in use is the ADXL-50 by Analog Devices, but there are other MEMS manufacturers as well.

text: Initial attempts using mercury switches did not work well. Before MEMS, the primary system used to deploy airbags was called a "rolamite". A rolamite is a mechanical device, consisting of a roller suspended within a tensioned band. As a result of the particular geometry and material properties used, the roller is free to translate with little friction or hysteresis. This device was developed at Sandia National Laboratories. The rolamite, and similar macro-mechanical devices were used in airbags until the mid-1990s when they were universally replaced with MEMS.

text: Nearly all airbags are designed to automatically deploy in the event of a vehicle fire when temperatures reach 150–200 °C (300–400 °F).[94] This safety feature, often termed auto-ignition, helps to ensure that such temperatures do not cause an explosion of the entire airbag module.

text: Today, airbag triggering algorithms are becoming much more complex. They try to reduce unnecessary deployments and to adapt the deployment speed to the crash conditions. The algorithms are considered valuable intellectual property. Experimental algorithms may take into account such factors as the weight of the occupant, the seat location, seatbelt use, and even attempt to determine if a baby seat is present.

text: Inflation[edit]

text: This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (May 2016)

text: When the frontal airbags are to deploy, a signal is sent to the inflator unit within the airbag control unit. An igniter starts a rapid chemical reaction generating primarily nitrogen gas (N2) to fill the airbag making it deploy through the module cover. Some airbag technologies use compressed nitrogen or argon gas with a pyrotechnic operated valve ("hybrid gas generator"), while other technologies use various energetic propellants. Although propellants containing the highly toxic sodium azide (NaN3) were common in early inflator designs, little to no toxic sodium azide has been found on used airbags.

text: The azide-containing pyrotechnic gas generators contain a substantial amount of the propellant. The driver-side airbag would contain a canister containing about 50 grams of sodium azide. The passenger side container holds about 200 grams of sodium azide.[95][better source needed]

text: The alternative propellants may incorporate, for example, a combination of nitroguanidine, phase-stabilized ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) or other nonmetallic oxidizer, and a nitrogen-rich fuel different from azide (e.g. tetrazoles, triazoles, and their salts). The burn rate modifiers in the mixture may be an alkaline metal nitrate (NO3-) or nitrite (NO2-), dicyanamide or its salts, sodium borohydride (NaBH4), etc. The coolants and slag formers may be e.g. clay, silica, alumina, glass, etc.[96][non-primary source needed][original research?] Other alternatives are e.g. nitrocellulose based propellants (which have high gas yield but bad storage stability, and their oxygen balance requires secondary oxidation of the reaction products to avoid buildup of carbon monoxide), or high-oxygen nitrogen-free organic compounds with inorganic oxidizers (e.g., di or tricarboxylic acids with chlorates (ClO3-) or perchlorates (ClO4-) and eventually metallic oxides; the nitrogen-free formulation avoids formation of toxic nitrogen oxides).

text: From the onset of the crash, the entire deployment and inflation process is about 0.04 seconds. Because vehicles change speed so quickly in a crash, airbags must inflate rapidly to reduce the risk of the occupant hitting the vehicle's interior.

text: Variable-force deployment[edit]

text: Advanced airbag technologies are being developed to tailor airbag deployment to the severity of the crash, the size and posture of the vehicle occupant, belt usage, and how close that person is to the actual airbag. Many of these systems use multi-stage inflators that deploy less forcefully in stages in moderate crashes than in very severe crashes. Occupant sensing devices let the airbag control unit know if someone is occupying a seat adjacent to an airbag, the mass/weight of the person, whether a seat belt or child restraint is being used, and whether the person is forward in the seat and close to the airbag. Based on this information and crash severity information, the airbag is deployed at either at a high force level, a less forceful level, or not at all.

text: Adaptive airbag systems may utilize multi-stage airbags to adjust the pressure within the airbag. The greater the pressure within the airbag, the more force the airbag will exert on the occupants as they come in contact with it. These adjustments allow the system to deploy the airbag with a moderate force for most collisions; reserving the maximum force airbag only for the severest of collisions. Additional sensors to determine the location, weight or relative size of the occupants may also be used. Information regarding the occupants and the severity of the crash are used by the airbag control unit, to determine whether airbags should be suppressed or deployed, and if so, at various output levels.

text: Post-deployment[edit]

text: A chemical reaction produces a burst of nitrogen to inflate the bag. Once an airbag deploys, deflation begins immediately as the gas escapes through vent(s) in the fabric (or, as it's sometimes called, the cushion) and cools. Deployment is frequently accompanied by the release of dust-like particles, and gases in the vehicle's interior (called effluent). Most of this dust consists of cornstarch, french chalk, or talcum powder, which are used to lubricate the airbag during deployment.

text: Newer designs produce effluent primarily consisting of harmless talcum powder/cornstarch and nitrogen gas. In older designs using an azide-based propellant (usually NaN3), varying amounts of sodium hydroxide nearly always are initially present. In small amounts this chemical can cause minor irritation to the eyes and/or open wounds; however, with exposure to air, it quickly turns into sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). However, this transformation is not 100% complete, and invariably leaves residual amounts of hydroxide ion from NaOH. Depending on the type of airbag system, potassium chloride may also be present.

text: For most people, the only effect the dust may produce is some minor irritation of the throat and eyes. Generally, minor irritations only occur when the occupant remains in the vehicle for many minutes with the windows closed and no ventilation. However, some people with asthma may develop a potentially lethal asthmatic attack from inhaling the dust.

text: Because of the airbag exit flap design of the steering wheel boss and dashboard panel, these items are not designed to be recoverable if an airbag deploys, meaning that they have to be replaced if the vehicle has not been written off in an accident. Moreover, the dust-like particles and gases can cause irreparable cosmetic damage to the dashboard and upholstery, meaning that minor collisions which result in the deployment of airbags can be costly accidents, even if there are no injuries and there is only minor damage to the vehicle structure.

text: Regulatory specifications[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: On 11 July 1984, the United States government amended Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 (FMVSS 208) to require cars produced after 1 April 1989 to be equipped with a passive restraint for the driver. An airbag or a seat belt would meet the requirements of the standard. Airbag introduction was stimulated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.[97] However, airbags were not mandatory on light trucks until 1997.[98]

text: In 1998, FMVSS 208 was amended to require dual front airbags, and reduced-power, second-generation airbags were also mandated. This was due to the injuries caused by first-generation airbags, though FMVSS 208 continues to require that bags be engineered and calibrated to be able to "save" the life of an unbelted 50th-percentile size and weight "male" crash test dummy. Technical performance and validation requirements for the inflator assembly used in airbag modules are specified in SAE USCAR 24-2.[99]

text: Outside the United States[edit]

text: Some countries outside North America adhere to internationalized European ECE vehicle and equipment regulations rather than the United States Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards. ECE airbags are generally smaller and inflate less forcefully than United States airbags, because the ECE specifications are based on belted crash test dummies. In the United Kingdom, and most other developed countries there is no direct legal requirement for new cars to feature airbags. Instead, the Euro NCAP vehicle safety rating encourages manufacturers to take a comprehensive approach to occupant safety; a good rating can only be achieved by combining airbags with other safety features.[100] Thus almost all new cars now come with at least two airbags as standard.

text: Maintenance[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (September 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Inadvertent airbag deployment while the vehicle is being serviced can result in severe injury, and an improperly installed or defective airbag unit may not operate or perform as intended. Some countries impose restrictions on the sale, transport, handling, and service of airbags and system components. In Germany, airbags are regulated as harmful explosives; only mechanics with special training are allowed to service airbag systems.

text: Some automakers (such as Mercedes-Benz) call for the replacement of undeployed airbags after a certain period of time to ensure their reliability in an accident. One example is the 1992 S500, which has an expiry date sticker attached to the door pillar. Some Škoda vehicles indicate an expiry date of 14 years from the date of manufacture. In this case, replacement would be uneconomic as the car would have negligible value at 14 years old, far less than the cost of fitting new airbags. Volvo has stated that "airbags do not require replacement during the lifetime of the vehicle," though this cannot be taken as a guarantee on the device.[101]

text: Limitations[edit]

text: Although the millions of installed airbags in use have an excellent safety record, there are some limitations on their ability to protect car occupants.

text: The original implementation of front airbags did little to protect against side collisions, which can be more dangerous than frontal collisions because the protective crumple zone in front of the passenger compartment is completely bypassed. Side airbags and protective airbag curtains are increasingly being required in modern vehicles to protect against this very common category of collisions.

text: Airbags are designed to deploy once only, and are ineffective if there are any further collisions after an initial impact. Multiple impacts may occur during certain rollover accidents or other incidents involving multiple collisions, such as many multi-vehicle collisions.[102]

text: An extremely dangerous situation occurs during "underride collisions", in which a passenger vehicle collides with the rear of a tractor-trailer lacking a rear underride guard, or hits the side of such a trailer not equipped with a side underride guard.[103] The platform bed of a typical trailer is approximately at the head height of a seated adult occupant of a typical passenger car. This means that there may not be much between a head and the edge of the trailer platform, except a glass windshield.[104] In an underride collision, the car's crush zones designed to absorb collision energy are completely bypassed, and the airbags may not deploy in time because the car does not decelerate appreciably until the windshield and roof pillars have already impacted the trailer bed.[102] Even delayed inflation of airbags may be useless because of major intrusion into the passenger space, leaving occupants at high risk of major head trauma or decapitation in even low speed collisions. Western European standards for underride guards have been stricter than North American standards, which typically have allowed grandfathering of older equipment that may still be on the road for decades.[103][105]

text: Typical airbag systems are completely disabled by turning off the ignition key. Unexpected turnoffs usually also disable the engine, power steering, and power brakes, and may be the direct cause of an accident. If a violent collision occurs, the disabled airbags will not deploy to protect vehicle occupants. In 2014, General Motors admitted to concealing information about fatal accidents caused by defective ignition switches which would abruptly shut down a car (including its airbags). Between 13 and 74 deaths have been directly attributed to this defect, depending on how the fatalities are classified.[106]

text: Injuries and fatalities[edit]

text: Under some rare conditions, airbags can injure and in some very rare instances kill vehicle occupants. To provide crash protection for occupants not wearing seat belts, United States airbag designs trigger much more forcefully than airbags designed to the international ECE standards used in most other countries. Recent "smart" airbag controllers can recognize if a seatbelt is used, and alter the airbag cushion deployment parameters accordingly.[107]

text: In 1990, the first automotive fatality attributed to an airbag was reported.[108] TRW produced the first gas-inflated airbag in 1994, with sensors and low-inflation-force bags becoming common soon afterwards. Dual-depth (also known as dual-stage) airbags appeared on passenger cars in 1998. By 2005, deaths related to airbags had declined, with no adult deaths and two child deaths attributed to airbags that year. However, injuries remain fairly common in accidents with an airbag deployment.

text: Serious injuries are less common, but severe or fatal injuries can occur to vehicle occupants very near an airbag or in direct contact when it deploys. Such injuries may be sustained by unconscious drivers slumped over the steering wheel, unrestrained or improperly restrained occupants who slide forward in the seat during pre-crash braking, and properly belted drivers sitting very close to the steering wheel. A good reason for the driver not to cross hands over the steering wheel, a rule taught to most learner drivers but quickly forgotten by most, is that an airbag deployment while negotiating a turn may result in the driver's hand(s) being driven forcefully into his or her face, exacerbating any injuries from the airbag alone.

text: Improvements in sensing and gas generator technology have allowed the development of third generation airbag systems that can adjust their deployment parameters to size, weight, position and restraint status of the occupant. These improvements have demonstrated a reduced injury risk factor for small adults and children, who had an increased risk of injury with first generation airbag systems.[109]

text: One model of airbags made by the Takata Corporation used ammonium nitrate–based gas generating compositions in airbag inflators instead of the more stable, but more expensive compound Tetrazole. The ammonium nitrate-based inflators have a flaw where old inflators with long-term exposure to hot and humid climate conditions could rupture during deployment, projecting metal shards though the airbag and into the driver.[110] The defect caused seven deaths and over 100 injuries in the U.S., and one death in Malaysia.[111] The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration recalled over 33 million vehicles in May 2015,[112] and fined Takata $70 million in November 2015.[113] Toyota, Mazda and Honda have said that they will not use ammonium nitrate inflators.[114][115]

text: Airbag fatality statistics[edit]

text: From 1990 to 2000, the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration identified 175 fatalities caused by air bags. Most of these (104) have been children, while the rest were adults. About 3.3 million air bag deployments have occurred during that interval, and the agency estimates more than 6,377 lives saved and countless injuries prevented.[108][116]

text: A rear-facing infant restraint put in the front seat of a vehicle places an infant's head close to the airbag, which can cause severe head injuries, or death if the airbag deploys. Some modern cars include a switch to disable the front passenger airbag, in case a child-supporting seat is used there (although not in Australia, where rear-facing child seats are prohibited in the front where an airbag is fitted).

text: In vehicles with side airbags, it is dangerous for occupants to lean against the windows, doors, and pillars, or to place objects between themselves and the side of the vehicle. Articles hung from a vehicle's clothes hanger hooks can be hazardous if the vehicle's side curtain airbags deploy.[117] A seat-mounted airbag may also cause internal injury if the occupant leans against the door.[118][119]

text: Starting in 2013, Japan's Takata corporation was involved in the recall of millions of airbag inflators that could inflate with too much pressure, sending shards of the metal inflator case in to the body of the driver or passenger, sometimes resulting in death.

text: Aerospace and military applications[edit]

text: The aerospace industry and the United States government have applied airbag technologies for many years. NASA, and United States Department of Defense have incorporated airbag systems in various aircraft and spacecraft applications as early as the 1960s.

text: Spacecraft airbag landing systems[edit]

text: The first use of airbags for landing were Luna 9 and Luna 13, which landed on the Moon in 1966 and returned panoramic images. As with later missions, these would use the airbags to bounce along the surface, absorbing landing energy. The Mars Pathfinder lander employed an innovative airbag landing system, supplemented with aerobraking, parachute, and solid rocket landing thrusters. This prototype successfully tested the concept, and the two Mars Exploration Rover Mission landers employed similar landing systems. The Beagle 2 Mars lander also tried to use airbags for landing, the landing was successful and the lander touched down safely, but several of the spacecraft's solar panels failed to deploy, thereby disabling the spacecraft.

text: Aircraft airbag landing systems[edit]

text: Airbags have also been used on military fixed wing aircraft, such as the Escape Crew Capsule of the F-111 Aardvark.

text: Occupant protection[edit]

text: The United States Army has incorporated airbags in its UH-60A/L[120][121] Black Hawk and OH-58D Kiowa Warrior[122] helicopter fleets. The Cockpit Air Bag System (CABS)[123] consists of forward and lateral airbags, and an inflatable tubular structure (on the OH-58D only) with an Electronic Crash Sensor Unit (ECSU). The CABS system was developed by the United States Army Aviation Applied Technology Directorate, through a contract with Simula Safety Systems (now BAE Systems).[124] It is the first conventional airbag system for occupant injury prevention (worldwide) designed and developed and placed in service for an aircraft, and the first specifically for helicopter applications.[125][126]


document_title: Collimator

question_text: who designed a pinhole gamma ray called the collimeter

text: Collimator

text: History[edit]

text: An English physicist Henry Kater was the inventor of the floating collimator, which rendered a great service to practical astronomy. He reported about his invention in January 1825.[1] In his report, Kater mentioned previous work in this area by Carl Friedrich Gauss and Friedrich Bessel.

text: Optical collimators[edit]

text: In optics, a collimator may consist of a curved mirror or lens with some type of light source and/or an image at its focus. This can be used to replicate a target focused at infinity with little or no parallax.

text: In lighting, collimators are typically designed using the principles of nonimaging optics.[2]

text: Optical collimators can be used to calibrate other optical devices,[3] to check if all elements are aligned on the optical axis, to set elements at proper focus, or to align two or more devices such as binoculars or gun barrels and gunsights.[4] A surveying camera may be collimated by setting its fiduciary markers so that they define the principal point, as in photogrammetry.

text: Optical collimators are also used as gun sights in the collimator sight, which is a simple optical collimator with a cross hair or some other reticle at its focus. The viewer only sees an image of the reticle. They have to use it either with both eyes open and one eye looking into the collimator sight, with one eye open and moving the head to alternately see the sight and the target, or with one eye to partially see the sight and target at the same time.[5][clarification needed] Adding a beam splitter allows the viewer to see the reticle and the field of view, making a reflector sight.

text: Collimators may be used with laser diodes and CO2 cutting lasers. Proper collimation of a laser source with long enough coherence length can be verified with a shearing interferometer.

text: X-ray, gamma ray, and neutron collimators[edit]

text: In X-ray optics, gamma ray optics, and neutron optics, a collimator is a device that filters a stream of rays so that only those traveling parallel to a specified direction are allowed through. Collimators are used for X-ray, gamma-ray, and neutron imaging because it is not yet possible to focus these types of radiation into an image using lenses, as is routine with electromagnetic radiation at optical or near-optical wavelengths. Collimators are also used in radiation detectors in nuclear power stations to make directional sensitivity.

text: Applications[edit]

text: The figure to the right illustrates how a Söller collimator is used in neutron and X-ray machines. The upper panel shows a situation where a collimator is not used, while the lower panel introduces a collimator. In both panels the source of radiation is to the right, and the image is recorded on the gray plate at the left of the panels.

text: Without a collimator, rays from all directions will be recorded; for example, a ray that has passed through the top of the specimen (to the right of the diagram) but happens to be travelling in a downwards direction may be recorded at the bottom of the plate. The resultant image will be so blurred and indistinct as to be useless.

text: In the lower panel of the figure, a collimator has been added (blue bars). This may be a sheet of lead or other material opaque to the incoming radiation with many tiny holes bored through it or in the case of neutrons it can be a sandwich arrangement (which can be up to several feet long - see ENGIN-X) with many layers alternating between neutron absorbing material (e.g. Gadolinium) with neutron transmitting material. This can be something simple e.g. air. or if mechanical strength is needed then aluminium may be used. If this forms part of a rotating assembly, the sandwich may be curved. This allows energy selection in addition to collimation - the curvature of the collimator and its rotation will present a straight path only to one energy of neutrons. Only rays that are travelling nearly parallel to the holes will pass through them—any others will be absorbed by hitting the plate surface or the side of a hole. This ensures that rays are recorded in their proper place on the plate, producing a clear image.

text: For industrial radiography using gamma radiation sources such as iridium-192 or cobalt-60, a collimator (beam limiting device) allows the radiographer to control the exposure of radiation to expose a film and create a radiograph, to inspect materials for defects. A collimator in this instance is most commonly made of tungsten, and is rated according to how many half value layers it contains, i.e., how many times it reduces undesirable radiation by half. For instance, the thinnest walls on the sides of a 4 HVL tungsten collimator 13 mm (0.52 in) thick will reduce the intensity of radiation passing through them by 88.5%. The shape of these collimators allows emitted radiation to travel freely toward the specimen and the x-ray film, while blocking most of the radiation that is emitted in undesirable directions such as toward workers.

text: Limitations[edit]

text: Although collimators improve resolution, they also reduce intensity by blocking incoming radiation, which is undesirable for remote sensing instruments that require high sensitivity. For this reason, the gamma ray spectrometer on the Mars Odyssey is a non-collimated instrument. Most lead collimators let less than 1% of incident photons through. Attempts have been made to replace collimators with electronic analysis.[citation needed]

text: In radiation therapy[edit]

text: Collimators (beam limiting devices) are used in linear accelerators used for radiotherapy treatments. They help to shape the beam of radiation emerging from the machine and can limit the maximum field size of a beam.

text: The treatment head of a linear accelerator consists of both a primary and secondary collimator. The primary collimator is positioned after the electron beam has reached a vertical orientation. When using photons, it is placed after the beam has passed through the X-ray target. The secondary collimator is positioned after either a flattening filter (for photon therapy) or a scattering foil (for electron therapy). The secondary collimator consists of two jaws which can be moved to either enlarge or minimize the size of the treatment field.

text: New systems involving multileaf collimators (MLCs) are used to further shape a beam to localise treatment fields in radiotherapy. MLCs consist of approximately 50–120 leaves of heavy, metal collimator plates which slide into place to form the desired field shape.