document_title: Australia national rugby union team

question_text: when did the wallabies win at eden park

question_tokens: when did the wallabies win at eden park

text: Australia national rugby union team

text: History[edit]

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tag: table

text: Origins[edit]

text: In 1882 the Southern Rugby Football Union (renamed the New South Wales Rugby Union in 1892)[2] toured New Zealand. The New Zealand national team toured New South Wales in 1884 – defeating New South Wales in all three matches, and winning all nine matches on tour.[3]

text: The first tour by a British team took place in 1888. A British Isles team toured Australia and New Zealand, though no Test matches were played.[4] Although they had representatives from all four home nations, the players were drawn mainly from England and the Scottish borders.[2] The tour was not sanctioned by the Rugby Football Union as it was organised by entrepreneurs and thus contravened the union's strict regulations pertaining to professionalism.

text: In 1899 the first officially sanctioned British Isles team toured Australia. Four Tests were played between Australia and the British Isles (three in Sydney and one in Brisbane). The Australian team for the first Test match consisted of six players from Queensland and nine from New South Wales.[5] The team wore the blue of New South Wales when playing in Sydney and the maroon of Queensland when playing in Brisbane, but with an Australian Coat of Arms in place of the usual emblems of each colony.[6] The first Test was played at the Sydney Cricket Ground and won 13–3 by Australia, but the tourists won the remaining three Tests.[7]

text: Early 20th century[edit]

text: The first Test between Australia and New Zealand was played on 15 August 1903 at the Sydney Cricket Ground. Despite Australia losing 22–3,[8] this tour improved rugby's popularity in Australia and helped to increase attendances at club matches in Sydney and Brisbane.[9]

text: In 1907 the New South Wales Rugby League was formed and star player Dally Messenger left the Rugby union for the rival code.[10] The next year the first Australian team to tour the British Isles left Sydney. Newspapers in England initially gave the team the name 'Rabbits'.[11][12] The Australian players thought this nickname derogatory and replaced it with 'Wallabies'.[13]

text: In 1909, when the new "Northern Union" code was still in its infancy in Australia, a match between the Kangaroos and the Wallabies was played before a crowd of around 20,000, with the Rugby League side winning 29–26.[14]

text: Australia's last Test before First World War was against New Zealand in July 1914. The war had a very negative effect on rugby union in Australia. All rugby union competitions in New South Wales and Queensland ceased during the War after the state bodies decided it was inappropriate to play football when so many young men were fighting overseas. This resulted in competitions all but closed down in New South Wales and Queensland. In Queensland regular competitions did not commence again until 1928. This caused many players to switch to rugby league – which did not cease playing during the war.

text: War hero Sir Edward "Weary" Dunlop also played for Australia before World War II. He played on the side that was the first to win the Bledisloe Cup.[15]

text: Post war[edit]

text: The first Test to following World War Two was played at Carisbrook, Dunedin between Australia and New Zealand in 1946, which New Zealand won 31–8. Australia did not win on the three match tour; beaten 20–0 by New Zealand Maori, and then losing 14–10 to the All Blacks the following week. Australia embarked on a tour of the home nations in 1947–48. The successful tour fell short of an undefeated run when the Australia lost to France in their last match, in Paris. Players on the rise included Trevor Allan, Cyril Burke and Nicholas Shehadie.[16]

text: After returning from the successful European tour, Australia hosted the New Zealand Maori in a three match series in 1949; both sides winning once, with one draw. In September of that year, Australia played the All Blacks twice in New Zealand, winning both games and taking back the Bledisloe Cup for the first time on New Zealand soil. The 'Number 1' All Black side was touring South Africa at the time and the wins by Australia against the B-team have sometimes been downgraded. However, in deference to the apartheid system then in operation in South Africa, the NZRU did not select any Maori players for the tour. Many of those regular All Black Maori played against Australia instead and it could be said that the New Zealand team that played Australia was at least as good as the one on tour in South Africa. The British Isles toured Australia in 1950, and won both of the Tests against Australia. The following year Australia fell to a three Test whitewash to the All Blacks. Australia won in July 1952, defeating Fiji at the Sydney Cricket Ground – they then lost the second Test to Fiji by two points. Australia managed to beat the All Blacks at Lancaster Park after the Fijian series; however they lost the second Test.

text: On this tour they also drew against Rhodesia in Kitwe 8–8.

text: The first match of the new decade was the win over Fiji at the SCG in the first match of a three Test series during 1961. This was followed by a second win, but Fiji grabbed a draw in the third Test. Australia then headed to South Africa, where they lost to the Springboks in Port Elizabeth and Johannesburg. After returning home, they faced France at the SCG, who beat them 15–8.

text: In 1962, Australia played the All Blacks five times and lost all but a 9-all draw at Athletic Park. After defeating England 18–9 in 1963 in Sydney, Australia beat the Springboks in consecutive Tests in South Africa; the first team to do so since the 1896 British team.

text: Fewer tests were played throughout the mid-1960s, with Australia only playing a three Test series against All Blacks in 1964. They won the third Test after losing the first two. The following year Australia hosted the Springboks for two Tests, winning 18–11 and 12–8. This was their first ever series win over South Africa and first over a major nation since 1934.

text: The British Isles came the following year, beating Australia 11–8 at the SCG, before hammering them 31–0 in Brisbane. Australia left for Europe in that December where a 14–11 victory over Wales was followed by a slim 11–5 defeat of Scotland. The tour continued into the following year where Australia beat England 23–11 before losing to Ireland 15–8 and France 20–14. Australia then hosted Ireland, who beat them again in Sydney. This was followed by a 20-point loss to the All Blacks. The following year, Australia lost to the All Blacks by just one point, and defeated France by the same margin for their last win of the decade. After losing to Ireland and Scotland on tour, Australia hosted Wales who also beat them.

text: Australia played Scotland in 1970 and won by 20 points. The 1971 South African tour of Australia took place the next season. Protests were held around Australia and in Queensland a state of emergency was issued in advance of one of the Tests. Australia toured France in November of that year; defeating France in Toulouse, but losing the second Test in Paris. France then visited Australia in June 1972 and played a two Test series where they won one and drew one. Australia then played three Test series against the All Blacks in New Zealand—losing all three. They then stopped over in Suva to play Fiji on their return, where they won their only Test of the year.

text: The following year, Australia hosted Tonga, and after winning the first Test, they lost 11–16 at Ballymore in their second. Australia also had a short tour of the United Kingdom in November 1973 where they lost 24–0 to Wales, and 20–3 to England. In 1974, Australia hosted the All Blacks for a three Test series—losing two, but drawing in Brisbane.

text: In 1975 Australia defeated England in a two Test series at home. Australia then played Japan for the first time; beating them by 30 points in the first of two matches, and then winning 50 to 25 in the second. They then travelled to the Northern hemisphere for matches against Scotland and Wales where they were not able to score a try in either of their losses. The tour of Britain and Ireland continued into 1976, and Australia lost to England at Twickenham, but were able to defeat Ireland at Lansdowne Road. On their way home Australia played one more match—in Los Angeles against the United States. Australia won 24–12. In June of that year, Australia hosted Fiji for a three Test series and won all three. Australia finished the year with their tour of Europe where the team played two Tests against France in France, but lost both of them. There were no Wallaby tests played in 1977.

text: Wales toured Australia in 1978, and Australia beat them 18–8 at Ballymore, and then again by two points at the SCG. This was followed by a three match series with the All Blacks. Although New Zealand won the first two, Australia defeated them in the last Test at Eden Park with Greg Cornelsen scoring four tries. The following year Ireland visited Australia and defeated Australia in two Tests. Following this Australia hosted the All Blacks for a single Test at the SCG which Australia won 12–6. Australia then left for Argentina for two Tests. After going down 24–13 in the first, Australia finished the decade by beating Argentina 17–12 in Buenos Aires.

text: In 1980 Australia won the Bledisloe Cup for only the fourth time—defeating New Zealand 2–1 in a three match series in Australia. This was the start of a successful era for Australia. In 1984 Australia toured the Home nations with a young side and new coach Alan Jones. The 1984 Wallabies became the first team from Australia to achieve a Grand Slam by defeating all four Home Nations: England, Ireland, Wales and Scotland, and a strong Barbarians side. The tour signalled the emergence of Australia as a serious force on the world stage. Many records were established on the tour including; 100 points being scored in the four Tests—the most scored by a touring team to the United Kingdom and Ireland, the first ever push-over try conceded by Wales in Cardiff, Mark Ella scoring a try in each match – a feat never before achieved.

text: In 1986 Australia toured New Zealand in a three match series for the Bledisloe Cup. New Zealand rugby was in turmoil as an unofficial team named The Cavaliers that contained the bulk of the All Blacks players toured South Africa. On return those All Blacks who had toured with The Cavaliers were banned from selection for the first Bledisloe Test. Australia went on to win the first match by 13–12. The ban on players was lifted for the second Test which was played on 23 August 1986 at Carisbrook. New Zealand squared the series 1–1 by winning the match 13–12. The match included controversy when Welsh referee Derek Bevan disallowed a try by Australia number eight Steve Tuynman. The final match was played on 6 September 1986 at Eden Park. Australia beat a full strength New Zealand team 22–9 to secure their first series win on New Zealand soil.

text: Australia went into the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987 confident. However, the semi-final against France at Sydney's Concord Oval, was lost 30–26. Australia then lost the third-fourth play-off match against Wales. While Australia's performances over the three years under coach Alan Jones were of a high standard, Jones had a polarising effect on the team with many players unhappy with his management style. Mark Ella, who retired after the 1984 season, stated that he might not have retired had Jones not been coach. Notably, there were deep ructions between coach Alan Jones and influential half-back Nick Farr-Jones. Before and during the 1987 World Cup Alan Jones increased his activities outside coaching Australia, including radio broadcasting. Following the World Cup Jones was removed as coach and Bob Dwyer—who had coached Australia in 1982 and 1983—returned to coach in 1988.

text: In 1989 the British and Irish Lions toured Australia for the first time since 1966. After winning the first Test, Australia lost the second and third matches to lose the series 1–2. Bob Dwyer identified a lack of forward dominance as a major factor contributing to the loss and entered the 1990s with an aim to improve this facet of the Wallaby game.

text: John Moulton was the Wallabies team doctor during the 1986 Bledisloe Cup win in New Zealand and the Rugby World Cup in 1987 and the Rugby World Cup victory in 1991.[17]

text: The team regrouped and then went into the 1991 World Cup with a renewed attitude. In the pool games they beat Argentina, cruised to a 38–3 win over Wales, and beat Samoa 9–3 in a rain soaked game. During the quarter-final match against Ireland, Australia were never able to pull away from them. With literally seconds remaining on the clock, Ireland were up 18–15 before Michael Lynagh scored in the corner to break the hearts of the Irish and qualify for the semi-final against New Zealand. In the first half they raced to a 13–3 lead and then showed they could defend as the All Blacks pounded their line. They faced England in the final at Twickenham. England changed their usually forward-dominated game plan and attempted to play more of a running game. It was unsuccessful and Australia battled out a 12–6 win. David Campese was named player of the tournament having scored six tries in a series of outstanding performances. Victory parades were held back in Australia for their national team.

text: The decade was one of the most important in the creation of the modern game. Australia's defence of the World Cup in South Africa in 1995 opened with defeat by the home side. Pool play was followed by an exit in the quarter-final against England courtesy of a long-range drop-goal from the boot of Rob Andrew. This was Australia's worst ever World Cup result, on a par with Australia's unexpected exit from the 2007 campaign at the quarter-final stage, also against England. The Tri-Nations and Super 12 tournaments were established that year, and started in 1996. This pushed the game into professionalism. In response to rugby's move to professionalism, the Rugby Union Players Association (RUPA) was established in October 1995 to safeguard the interests of Australia's professional rugby players.

text: Greg Smith was national coach in 1996 and 1997 when Australia only won two of their eight Tri-Nations Tests, both over South Africa in Australia, and suffered record-margin Test defeats by the All Blacks and Springboks. Rod Macqueen was appointed as Smith's successor and in 1998 Australia won both their Tests over the All Blacks to gain the Bledisloe Cup. They retained the Bledisloe in 1999 when they defeated the All Blacks by a record 28–7 in Sydney.

text: In the 1999 World Cup Australia won their pool and conceded only 31 points before facing Wales in their quarter final. They won 24–9 before winning the semi-final 27–21 against defending champions South Africa. The semi-final was won after a memorable drop goal in extra time by fly-half Stephen Larkham (his first drop goal attempt in a Test match). The final against France at Millennium Stadium was easily won by 35–12; with the majority of points courtesy of fullback and goal-kicker Matt Burke.

text: In 1999, five Australian players won their second Rugby World Cup: Phil Kearns, John Eales, Tim Horan, Jason Little and Dan Crowley.

text: In 2000 Australia retained the Bledisloe Cup, and won the Tri Nations for the first time. They repeated this in 2001 and also achieved their first ever series win over the British and Irish Lions. MacQueen, and captain John Eales both retired soon after this. They were replaced by coach Eddie Jones and captain George Gregan. This period also saw big-money signings of top-level Rugby league players Mat Rogers, Wendell Sailor, and Lote Tuqiri—all of whom went on to represent Australia. This was a contrast to much of the previous century where many Rugby union players were lured to league with large salaries.

text: After not retaining the Tri-Nations in 2002, and losing the Bledisloe Cup in 2003 Australia made a strong start to their 2003 World Cup campaign with a 24–8 win over Argentina, and two large victories over Namibia and Romania. They then narrowly defeated Ireland 17–16 and Scotland 33–16, in the quarter-final. They claimed one of their greatest victories over New Zealand when they upset them in the semi-final winning 22–10, prompting George Gregan to taunt the New Zealanders with the words "Four more years boys, four more years".[18] They played England in a thrilling final and were finally beaten after England's Jonny Wilkinson kicked a drop goal in extra time.

text: In 2005 to celebrate the ten-year anniversary of the professionalism of rugby union the Wallaby Team of the Decade was announced. John Eales being named captain by a selection panel of 30. Following the 2005 European tour, media outlets such as the Daily Telegraph called for the sacking of both Eddie Jones and George Gregan. Former coach Alan Jones also called for their sacking. The record of eight losses from their last nine Tests resulted in Jones being fired by the Australian Rugby Union.

text: John Connolly was named as the head-coach of Australia in early 2006. Australia won both of two Tests against England in 2006, as well as a subsequent win over Ireland. Australia lost by 20 points in their opening Tri-Nations fixture against the All Blacks. They then beat South Africa in Brisbane by 49–0. They won one of their remaining four matches of the tournament. Following defeat by England in the Quarter-Finals of the 2007 Rugby World Cup, Connolly announced he was resigning as head-coach.

text: Robbie Deans was appointed head coach in early 2008 as the Wallabies began their preparations for the 2008 Tri-Nations series. After the retirement of George Gregan and Stephen Larkham after the 2007 Rugby World Cup, Deans had the task of choosing a squad minus some of its most experienced players. The Wallabies had mixed results in the 2008 Tri Nations Series, defeating New Zealand in Sydney and beating South Africa twice, in both Perth and Durban. However, the Wallabies suffered the worst defeat in their history, going down 53–8 to South Africa in Johannesburg.

text: 2009 was not a good year for the Wallabies. It was a good start for them as they defeated the Barbarians 55 – 7 and then beat Italy in both tests and finishing off the Mid year test series with a 22 – 6 win over France. It went downhill from there as they finished 3rd in the Tri Nations with 3 losses to the All Blacks (22 – 16, 19 – 18 and 33 – 6) and 2 losses to the World Champion Springboks (29 – 17 and 32 – 25). Their only win in the Tri Nations was a 21 – 6 win over the Springboks. In the Autumn Internationals of 2009, they lost to All Blacks 32 – 19, they beat England 18 – 9 on Jonny Wilkinson's return in the English jersey. The Wallabies then drew with Ireland 20-all after Brian O'Driscoll's last minute try to give Ronan O'Gara a relatively easy conversion to draw level. They then lost to Scotland for the first time in 27 years. The final score was 9 – 8 despite the 3 – 3 score at half time. The Wallabies only won 7 out of their 14 games in 2009 but were still ranked 3rd in the world.

text: 2010 saw improved results in the Tri-Nations series, with a very rare away win against South Africa awarding Australia the Mandela Plate and ensuring they retained second place both in the 2010 Tri-Nations competition as well as the IRB World Rankings. However, they suffered their tenth consecutive defeat at the hands the All Blacks, an all-time record. Later that year however, Australia finally beat New Zealand in a thrilling game that was played in Hong Kong. It was their first win against the All Blacks in close to three years. However they suffered losses against England and Munster on their end of year European tour.

text: Australia's 2011 season began with a shock loss to Manu Samoa in Sydney, (23-32) but they would go on to win that year's Tri-Nations series; a tournament which they had not won in ten years since the 2001. They however failed the following season in their attempt to win the expanded version of the competition in 2012 called The Rugby Championship.

text: Australia also won their first match against Italy in the 2011 Rugby World Cup, but lost their second 2011 World Cup match, 6–15 against Ireland. Injuries to crucial players Digby Ioane and Stephen Moore influenced the results, alongside poor line-out throwing. In their third Pool C match, against the United States, the Wallabies eventually won 67–5, with Rob Horne, Rocky Elsom, Kurtley Beale, Drew Mitchell, Pat McCabe and Radike Samo all scoring a try, while Anthony Fainga'a scored 2 and Adam Ashley-Cooper scored three. The Wallabies won their last pool match against Russia, 68–22. The Wallabies beat the Springboks 11–9 to progress into the semi-finals.[19] However a week later the Wallabies were knocked out of the 2011 World Cup after being defeated 6–20 by the All Blacks in the second Semi Final match.[20] They then faced Wales in the bronze medal final, narrowly winning 18-21.[21]

text: Following the Wallabies defeat to the British and Irish Lions in their 2013 tour, and with a winning rate of 58.1%, a poor 3-15 record against the All Blacks, Deans came under increasing pressure to keep his coaching position.[22][23][24][25] On July 2013, Deans resigned, ending his six-year tenure as head coach of the Wallabies.[26][27] During his tenure, Deans coached the Wallabies on 74 occasions winning 43 times, losing 29 and drawing twice.[28] He had won just 3 times against their main rivals, the All Blacks, with 1 draw in 2012. However, he left with a good record against the Springboks, with 9 wins from 14. Highlights during his tenure as coach included leading the Wallabies to a Tri Nations championship in 2011 and to a 3rd-place finish in the 2011 Rugby World Cup.

text: On 9 July 2013, Queensland Reds coach Ewen McKenzie was officially named Wallabies coach to replace Robbie Deans.[29] McKenzie's first match in charge was a 47–29 loss to New Zealand in the opening fixture of the 2013 Rugby Championship.[30] In this match he gave 5 debutants their first cap. The 27–16 loss a week later, meant the Bledisloe Cup would stay with New Zealand for the 11th year in a row.[31] In addition to this, McKenzie led to team to a 38–12 loss to South Africa, the biggest ever winning margin by South Africa over Australia in Australia.[32] The 14–13 win over Argentina was McKenzie's first victory as an international coach, but the scoreless second half was the first time Australia had failed to score points in the second half since the home test v New Zealand in 2005.[33] Australia's poor form in the Championship continued against South Africa, where Australia lost 28–8 in Cape Town.[34] However, Australia's final fixture of the Championship saw the Wallabies earn their first bonus point win in the Championship and saw them score the most points in either the Rugby Championship / Tri Nations. During the Championship, McKenzie made several bold moves as a coach. He dropped star player Will Genia for Nic White, who at the time had only 3 caps, and named Ben Mowen as captain in his first year as a test player.

text: During the Bledisloe 3, New Zealand won 41–33 to win the Bledisloe series 3–0. During their 2013 end of year tour, McKenzie led the team to 4 consecutive wins (50–20 win over Italy, 32–15 win over Ireland, 21–15 win over Scotland and a 30–26 win over Wales) which was the first time Australia has done this since 2008. But Australia lost 20–13 to England in the opening match of the tour. However, during the tour Australia did retain the Lansdowne Cup, reclaimed the Hopetoun Cup and claimed the James Bevan Trophy for the 6th time in a row.

text: In 2014, their 4 consecutive wins were increased to 7 for the first time since 2000. They earned a 3–0 test series win over France during the June International Window, which included a 50–23 win in Brisbane, a 6–0 win in Melbourne and a 39–13 win in Sydney. The series win meant Australia reclaimed the Trophée des Bicentenaires for the first time since 2010, after losing it in 2012.

text: The Wallabies's unbeaten run stretched to 8 matches with a 12-all draw with New Zealand, prompting optimism that Australia could finally reclaim the Bledisloe Cup for the first time since 2002, in addition to ending their 28-year winless run at Eden Park. However, Australia came crashing back to earth, suffering a 51-20 defeat during the second Bledisloe test, staged at the venue, stretching Australia's Bledisloe Cup drought to a 12th year. Australia managed to bounce back from that defeat, with hard fought 24-23 and 32-25 wins over South Africa and Argentina, with the latter win ensuring that Australia retained the Puma Trophy.

text: However, Australia was unable to reclaim the Mandela Challenge Plate, suffering a 28-11 loss to South Africa, after conceding 3 tries and a drop goal in the final 11 minutes of the match. A week later, Australia suffered a 21-17 loss to Argentina, their first loss to Argentina in 17 years. This loss meant that Australia became the first country to lose to Argentina in the Rugby Championship since Argentina's admittance in 2012. For the second consecutive year, Australia finished in third place in the Rugby Championship.

text: On 18 October 2014, McKenzie resigned as the head coach of Australia.[35][36] He left the Wallabies with 11 wins in 22 tests coached, for a winning percentage of just 50%. McKenzie left with a good winning record against European opposition, winning 7 of 8 tests played, the lone loss coming against England in November 2013. He also left with a good winning record against Argentina, with a 3-1 win-loss record. However, he left with a poor record against Rugby Championship opponents, failing to win a match against New Zealand and leaving with a 1-3 win-loss record against South Africa.

text: On 22 October 2014, New South Wales Waratahs head coach Michael Cheika was appointed the new head coach of Australia, becoming Australia's third head coach in 2 years. In his first match as coach of Australia, Australia defeated the Barbarians 40-36 at Twickenham Stadium.[37][38]

text: On the 2014 end of year tour, Australia defeated Wales at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff 33-28, delivering the Wallabies a 10th straight victory over the hosts in Michael Cheika's first Test as coach.[39] The Wallabies, though, were outscored by four tries to three, with fly half Bernard Foley slotting a late drop goal and three second-half penalties.[40] The Wallabies lost the other three test matches on the tour against France, Ireland and England which dropped them to sixth place on the world rankings.[41] In 2015 it was time for the Rugby World Cup. Australia was in the death pool up against Wales, Fiji, England and Uruguay, the Wallabies first match was up against Fiji which Australia won 28 - 13. Then Australia slaughtered Uruguay 65 - 3, next Australia defeated England at Twickenham 33 - 13. In the last pool match Australia luckily defeated Wales 15 - 6. Then they went to the Quarter finals defeating Scotland 35 - 34, and then they defeated Argentina in the Semi finals which took them to the grand final against New Zealand which they lost 34 - 17.

text: Playing strip[edit]

text: The Wallabies play in Australia's traditional sporting colours of green and gold. Before there was a national jersey in place, the Wallabies would play in the jersey of the state the game was being held.[42] The Australian Coat of Arms would often replace the state logo on the jersey, and a variety of these colours were used in a number of matches in the early 1900s.[42]

text: In 1928 governing bodies agreed that "the Australian amateur representative colours of green and gold, should be adopted".[42] The following year the All Blacks came to Australia, and the jersey worn was emerald green with the Australian Coat of Arms; with green socks with bars on the top.[42] The jersey remained mainly the same, with a few variations, throughout the 1930s.[42]

text: The away jersey usually is green or white, although in the 1995 Rugby World Cup, the Wallabies wore in the match against Romania a green and gold hooped jersey, with green shorts and socks.

text: Canterbury's design for Australia's 2007 World cup jersey was controversial, featuring a curved tan-coloured panel across the chest resembling the shape of a bra.[43] This led the Sydney Morning Herald's chief rugby correspondent to include a satirical piece in his column comparing it to Kramer and Frank Costanza's infamous man bra from Seinfeld.[44]

text: In 2010, KooGa became the apparel sponsor.[45] The first KooGa jersey for the Wallabies under KooGa was used from 2010 through to the conclusion of the 2012 season, however, a different set of shorts and socks were made for the 2012 season. A new kit designed by KooGa was revealed in 2013 for the series against the British and Irish Lions. BLK Sport, previously the Australian subdivision of KooGa, became the apparel sponsor after that tour, with the BLK logo replacing the KooGa logo on the kit for the 2013 Spring Tour.

text: In October 2013, the ARU announced that Asics would be the apparel sponsor beginning in 2014.

text:
Kit manufacturer
Shirt sponsor a

Period
Brand
Brand
Period

1975–1988
Adidas
None
to 1989

1989–1996
Canterbury

Castlemaine XXXX
1990–1994

Schweppes
1995–1997

1997–1999
Reebok

Vodafone
1998–2003

2000–2009
Canterbury

Qantas
2004–present

2010–2013
KooGa

BLK b

2014–present
Asics

text: ^a Sponsored logos appear on jerseys for matches other than the Rugby World Cup where branding, except for logos of equipment manufacturers, is not allowed.

text: ^b BLK brand apparel was supplied for the 2013 end-of-year tour.

text:
1984-1989

1989-1996 Home

1997-1999 Home

1999-2004 Home

2005-2007 Home

2007-2009 Home

text: Nickname and mascot[edit]

text: The nickname "Wallabies" is in reference to the wallaby—a marsupial that is widely distributed throughout Australia. The name has its origins during first United Kingdom and North America tour by the Australian team in 1908.[11][46] New Zealand had just completed a tour and the English press dubbed their team the "All Blacks".[46] It was suggested that Australia should too have a nickname, and Rabbits was one of the names suggested by the English newspapers. The Australians rejected this, and did not want the national team to be represented by an imported pest.[11] They opted for the native Wallaby instead.[11][46] At first it was only touring parties that were nicknamed the Wallabies; when Australia played domestically, they were referred to as internationals.[11][46]

text: The team mascot is known as Wally.

text: Record[edit]

text: Tri Nations and The Rugby Championship[edit]

text: Australia's only annual tournament was the Tri Nations (now The Rugby Championship played against Argentina, New Zealand and South Africa contested since 1996. They have won the Tri Nations competition three times in 16 years; in 2000, 2001 and 2011. Australia considers the All Blacks (New Zealand) to be their greatest rivals, with whom they have contested the Bledisloe Cup since 1932 with the Wallabies having won one in four of their encounters against their trans-Tasman opponents.{{[47]}} The Bledisloe Cup is now contested during the Tri Nations. The longest period that Australia held the Bledisloe is five years, between 1998 and 2002.[48] The Mandela Challenge Plate is also contested between South Africa and Australia during the Tri Nations.

text:
Tri Nations (1996–2011)

Nation
Games
Points
Bonus
points
Table
points
Championships

played
won
drawn
lost
for
against
diff

 New Zealand
72
50
0
22
1936
1395
+541
32
232
10

 Australia
72
29
1
42
1531
1721
−190
34
152
3

 South Africa
72
28
1
43
1480
1831
−351
24
138
3

text:
Rugby Championship (2012–present)

Nation
Games
Points
Bonus
points
Table
points
Championships

played
won
drawn
lost
for
against
diff

 New Zealand
33
30
1
2
1136
540
+596
21
143
5

 Australia
33
15
3
15
748
841
−93
7
74
1

 South Africa
33
14
3
16
791
774
+17
14
76
0

 Argentina
33
3
1
29
576
1096
−520
9
23
0

text:
Updated: 8 October 2017
Source: espnscrum.com

text: World Cup[edit]

text: Australia has appeared at every Rugby World Cup since the first tournament in 1987. Australia was the first nation to win two World Cups, with victories in 1991 and 1999. They have progressed to four Rugby Union World Cup finals, a record jointly held with New Zealand.

text: Australia co-hosted the 1987 event with New Zealand. They were grouped with England, the United States and Japan in Pool A. In their first ever World Cup match, Australia defeated England 19–6 at Concord Oval in Sydney then went on to beat their other pool opponents to finish the top of their group and advance to the quarter finals where they defeated Ireland 33–15. They were knocked out by France in the semi-finals, and then lost the third place match against Wales.

text: Australia automatically qualified for the 1991 World Cup in Europe. Australia again finished at the top of their pool, defeating Western Samoa, Wales and Argentina during the group stages. They met Ireland yet again in the quarter finals, beating them by one point to go through to the semi-finals, where they defeated the All Blacks 16–6 to qualify for their first World Cup final. Australia beat England 12–6 at Twickenham in the 1991 Rugby World Cup Final to become world champions. Australia were again automatically qualified for the 1995 World Cup in South Africa. Australia finished second in their pool, losing one game to hosts South Africa. They were then knocked out in the quarter finals by England.

text: Australia finished at the top of their group at the 1999 World Cup in Wales, defeating Ireland, Romania and the United States during the group stages. After beating hosts Wales in the quarter-finals, they defeated defending champions South Africa 27–21 to make it to the final. There they defeated France 35 to 12, in the 1999 Rugby World Cup Final and becoming the first nation to win the World Cup more than once. Australia solely hosted the tournament in 2003, and went undefeated in Pool A, beating Ireland, Argentina, Romania and Namibia. Australia defeated Scotland in the quarter finals, and then the All Blacks in what was regarded as an upset in the semi-finals, to go to the final. England won the final in extra time with a Jonny Wilkinson drop goal.

text: Australia again finished first in their group at the 2007 World Cup in France, after recording wins over Japan, Wales, Fiji and Canada. They were at the time the 2nd ranked team in the World, and the only team to have beaten the favourites New Zealand that year. However, they only progressed to the quarter finals, thus equalling their worst finish at the World Cup finals. They were eliminated once again by England 12–10, largely thanks again to Jonny Wilkinson's successful attempts at penalties. The loss was widely regarded as an upset, especially as England had only finished 2nd in their pool and were ranked 7th. Nevertheless, England went on to beat another favourite, France, and advanced to the final where they were beaten by South Africa.

text: In one of the scenes of the feature film, Invictus, Australia can be seen playing South Africa in the 1995 Rugby World Cup.

text: Champions       Runners-up       Third place

text:
World Cup record

Year
Round
P
W
D
L
F
A

 1987
Fourth
6
4
0
2
186
108

 1991
Champions
6
6
0
0
126
55

 1995
Quarter-finals
4
2
0
2
109
66

 1999
Champions
6
6
0
0
221
73

 2003
Runners-up
7
6
0
1
345
78

 2007
Quarter-finals
5
4
0
1
225
53

 2011
Third place
7
5
0
2
211
95

 2015
Runners-up
7
6
0
1
222
118

 2019
TBD

Total
8/8
48
39
0
9
1,459
646

text: Overall[edit]

text:
World Rugby Rankings

v
t
e

Top 30 rankings as of 9 October 2017[49]

Rank
Change*
Team
Points

1

 New Zealand
95.52

2

 England
90.14

3

 Australia
85.59

4

 Ireland
85.39

5

 South Africa
85.03

6

 Scotland
82.47

7

 Wales
81.73

8

 France
79.63

9

 Fiji
79.48

10

 Argentina
76.93

11

 Japan
73.79

12

 Georgia
73.41

13

 Tonga
71.72

14

 Italy
71.00

15

 Romania
70.27

16

 Samoa
69.67

17

 United States
65.84

18

 Uruguay
63.15

19

 Spain
63.15

20

 Russia
63.13

21

 Namibia
61.40

22

 Hong Kong
60.00

23

 Germany
59.78

24

 Canada
59.47

25

 Portugal
57.26

26

 Belgium
56.94

27

 Kenya
56.21

28

 Chile
54.76

29

 Brazil
54.50

30

  Switzerland
53.63

*Change from the previous week

Australia's historical rankings

Source: World Rugby - Graph updated to 20 February 2017[49]

text: Australia have won 314 of 614 matches played, a win record of approximately 51%.[50] When the World Rankings were introduced by the IRB in 2003 Australia were ranked fourth. Since then, the highest ranking Australia has achieved is second, and the lowest is sixth.[41][51]

text: Australia contests a number of other trophies outside The Rugby Championship, Bledisloe Cup and World Cup. Since 1997 the winner of England-Australia encounters have been awarded the Cook Cup, and since 1999 the winner of Ireland-Australia Tests have won the Lansdowne Cup, with France since 1989, the Trophée des Bicentenaires is contested, and against Wales since 2007, the James Bevan Trophy is contested, and with Scotland since 1998, the Hopetoun Cup is awarded.

text: Below is a table of the representative rugby matches played by an Australia national XV at test level up until 21 October 2017:[50]

text:
Opponent
Played
Won
Lost
Drawn
Win %
For
Aga
Diff

 Argentina
29
23
5
1
79.31%
824
468
+356

British and Irish Lions
23
6
17
0
26.09%
248
414
-166

 Canada
6
6
0
0
100.00%
283
60
+223

 England
48
25
22
1
52.08%
1036
817
+219

 Fiji
21
18
2
1
85.71%
611
248
+363

 France
47
27
18
2
57.45%
1016
825
+191

 Ireland
33
21
11
1
63.64%
681
480
+201

 Italy
17
17
0
0
100.00%
605
244
+361

 Japan
4
4
0
0
100.00%
220
58
+162

 South Korea
1
1
0
0
100.00%
65
18
+47

 Namibia
1
1
0
0
100.00%
142
0
+142

 New Zealand
161
43
111
7
26.71%
2273
3375
-1102

 New Zealand XV
24
6
18
0
25.00%
257
459
-202

 Māori
16
8
6
2
50.00%
240
203
+37

 Pacific Islanders
1
1
0
0
100.00%
29
14
+15

 Romania
3
3
0
0
100.00%
189
20
+169

 Russia
1
1
0
0
100.00%
68
22
+46

 Samoa
5
4
1
0
80.00%
204
58
+146

 Scotland
31
21
10
0
67.74%
748
410
+338

 South Africa
85
36
46
3
42.35%
1498
1657
-159

 South Africa XV
3
0
3
0
0.00%
30
69
-39

 Spain
1
1
0
0
100.00%
92
10
+82

 Tonga
4
3
1
0
75.00%
167
42
+125

 Uruguay
1
1
0
0
100.00%
65
3
+62

 United States
8
8
0
0
100.00%
368
78
+290

 Wales
40
29
10
1
72.50%
944
604
+340

Total
614
314
281
19
51.14%
12903
10656
+2247

text: Players[edit]

text: Selection policy[edit]

text: Up until 2015, to be selected for the Wallabies, eligible players had to play for an Australian Super Rugby franchise, and eligible players playing outside of Australia were not able to be selected. On 16 April 2015, it was announced that the ARU would tweak their selection policy, so that certain players could ply their trade in the Japanese Top League competition from August to February, as long as they continued to play for a Super Rugby franchise from February to August, making them eligible for Wallaby selection as they would also be still playing in Australia. However, this "flexible contract" would only be given to a select number of players considered by the head coach and the ARU board, which means not all players playing or transferring to Japan would be allowed to play in the Top League and the Super Rugby.[52] As the Top League competition clashes with some Wallaby test matches, Wallaby selectors would use World Rugby's regulation 9 (clubs must release players within international windows) to select these players when the Top League clashes with the Rugby Championship in August through to October, and the end-of-year tour in November. At this point, players playing in Europe were not considered for the flexible contract, as too much of the European season clashes with Wallaby test matches. However, on 22 April 2015, further changes were made to the original selection policy in order for some European based players to be selected. In addition to the flexible contract, Australian players playing anywhere in the world can be selected for the Wallabies as long as they fit a certain criteria - A player must have held a professional contract with Australian rugby for at least seven years, and have played 60 tests or more for an overseas based player to be selected. Further more, if a player does not fit this criteria and plays overseas, but chooses to return to Australia, they become immediately eligible for selection as long as they have signed at least 2 years with the Australian Super Rugby franchise for the following season.[53] Like the flexible contract, Wallaby selectors would use World Rugby's regulation 9 to select overseas based players anywhere in the world.

text: Current squad[edit]

text: On 21 October, Michael Cheika named a 28-man squad ahead of the Wallabies uncapped match against the Barbarians on 28 October.[54]

text: Head Coach:  Michael Cheika

text: Caps Updated: 10 October 2017

text:
Player
Position
Date of Birth (Age)
Caps
Franchise / province

Fainga'a, FolauFolau Fainga'a
Hooker
(1995-05-05) 5 May 1995 (age 22)
0
Brumbies / Canberra Vikings

Moore, StephenStephen Moore
Hooker
(1983-01-20) 20 January 1983 (age 34)
125
Queensland Reds / Queensland Country

Uelese, JordanJordan Uelese
Hooker
(1997-01-24) 24 January 1997 (age 20)
2
Melbourne Rebels / Melbourne Rising

Ainsley, JermaineJermaine Ainsley
Prop
(1995-08-08) 8 August 1995 (age 22)
0
Western Force / Perth Spirit

Alaalatoa, AllanAllan Alaalatoa
Prop
(1994-01-28) 28 January 1994 (age 23)
19
Brumbies / Canberra Vikings

Faulkner, TeteraTetera Faulkner
Prop
(1988-07-26) 26 July 1988 (age 29)
3
Western Force / Perth Spirit

Robertson, TomTom Robertson
Prop
(1994-08-28) 28 August 1994 (age 23)
15
Waratahs / NSW Country Eagles

Slipper, JamesJames Slipper
Prop
(1989-06-06) 6 June 1989 (age 28)
86
Queensland Reds / Queensland Country

Arnold, RoryRory Arnold
Lock
(1990-07-01) 1 July 1990 (age 27)
15
Brumbies / Canberra Vikings

Douglas, KaneKane Douglas
Lock
(1989-06-01) 1 June 1989 (age 28)
31
Queensland Reds / Brisbane City

Tui, LukhanLukhan Tui
Lock
(1996-09-19) 19 September 1996 (age 21)
3
Queensland Reds / Brisbane City

Dempsey, JackJack Dempsey
Flanker
(1994-04-12) 12 April 1994 (age 23)
6
Waratahs / Sydney Rays

Hanigan, NedNed Hanigan
Flanker
(1995-04-11) 11 April 1995 (age 22)
9
Waratahs / NSW Country Eagles

Wright, LiamLiam Wright
Flanker
(1997-11-06) 6 November 1997 (age 19)
0
Queensland Country

McCalman, BenBen McCalman
Number 8
(1988-03-18) 18 March 1988 (age 29)
49
Western Force / Perth Spirit

Timani, LopetiLopeti Timani
Number 8
(1990-09-28) 28 September 1990 (age 27)
9
Melbourne Rebels / Melbourne Rising

Gordon, JakeJake Gordon
Scrum-half
(1993-07-06) 6 July 1993 (age 24)
0
Waratahs / NSW Country Eagles

Phipps, NickNick Phipps
Scrum-half
(1989-01-09) 9 January 1989 (age 28)
58
Waratahs / Greater Sydney Rams

Powell, JoeJoe Powell
Scrum-half
(1994-04-11) 11 April 1994 (age 23)
2
Brumbies / Canberra Vikings

Paia'aua, DuncanDuncan Paia'aua
Fly-half
(1995-01-20) 20 January 1995 (age 22)
0
Queensland Reds / Queensland Country

Godwin, KyleKyle Godwin
Centre
(1992-07-30) 30 July 1992 (age 25)
1
Brumbies / NSW Country Eagles

Hunt, KarmichaelKarmichael Hunt
Centre
(1986-11-17) 17 November 1986 (age 30)
3
Queensland Reds / Brisbane City

Kerevi, SamuSamu Kerevi
Centre
(1993-09-27) 27 September 1993 (age 24)
14
Queensland Reds / Brisbane City

Meakes, BillBill Meakes
Centre
(1991-02-23) 23 February 1991 (age 26)
0
Western Force / Perth Spirit

Perese, IzaiaIzaia Perese
Wing
(1997-05-17) 17 May 1997 (age 20)
0
Queensland Reds / Queensland Country

Rona, CurtisCurtis Rona
Wing
(1992-05-26) 26 May 1992 (age 25)
2
Western Force / Perth Spirit

Speight, HenryHenry Speight
Wing
(1988-03-24) 24 March 1988 (age 29)
17
Brumbies / Canberra Vikings

Folau, IsraelIsrael Folau
Fullback
(1989-04-03) 3 April 1989 (age 28)
62
Waratahs / Greater Sydney Rams

text: Notable players[edit]

text: As of November 2016[update], the Wallabies have thirteen former players (and two former coaches) in the World Rugby Hall of Fame, which was previously known as the IRB Hall of Fame prior to 2015.

text: Wallabies in the World Rugby Hall of Fame (year of induction in brackets):

text:
John Eales (2007)
Nick Farr-Jones (2011)
Nick Shehadie (2011)
David Campese (2013)
Ken Catchpole (2013)
Mark Ella (2013)
George Gregan (2013)
Thomas Lawton, Snr (2013)
John Thornett (2013)
Michael Lynagh (2014)
Tim Horan (2015)
Tom Richards (2015)
Daniel Carroll (2016)

text: The two World Cup-winning captains, John Eales and Nick Farr-Jones, were among the first Australians to be inducted. Eales received this honour in 2007.[55] Farr-Jones and another former Wallaby captain, Nick Shehadie, were inducted in 2011. Shehadie was not honoured as a player but instead recognised, together with fellow Australian Rugby administrator Roger Vanderfield as one of four key figures in the creation of the Rugby World Cup.[56] World Cup-winning coaches Bob Dwyer and Rod Macqueen were also inducted in 2011.[56]

text: Six former Wallaby greats with combined playing careers spanning almost nine decades – Tom Lawton Snr, John Thornett, Ken Catchpole, Mark Ella, David Campese and George Gregan – were added to the list of Australians in the IRB Hall of Fame in 2013.[57]

text: Lawton, a fly-half whose international career spanned from 1920 to 1932, was noted for his ball-handling and kicking skills, and most notably led Australia to their first-ever clean sweep of the Bledisloe Cup series, in 1929. Thornett, a forward who played in four different positions for the Wallabies, made his international debut in 1955. He earned 35 caps in a 12-year Test career, and captained the Wallabies 15 times. During Australia's drawn 1963 Test series against South Africa, in which he served as captain, the Wallabies became the first team in the 20th century to win consecutive Tests over the Springboks.[58]

text: Gregan, a World Cup-winning scrum-half whose Test career spanned the amateur and professional eras of the sport (1994–2007), is notable as having been the all-time caps leader in international rugby union, with 139 in all (a record since surpassed by Ireland's Brian O'Driscoll). He also captained the Wallabies in 59 Tests.

text: A further two World Cup winners, Michael Lynagh and Tim Horan, were inducted in 2014 and 2015 respectively when the separate New Zealand-based International Rugby Hall of Fame was merged with the IRB's Hall of Fame.[59]

text: Wallabies and Olympic gold medallists from the 1908 tour of the United Kingdom, Tom Richards and Daniel Carroll, were honoured with inductions in 2015 and 2016. Both of these men went on to become dual internationals in rugby with Richards playing for the 1910 British Lions and Carroll winning further Olympic gold playing for United States in 1920. Both men also received awards for gallantry during their military service in World War I.[60][61]

text: Individual records[edit]

text: Former captain George Gregan is Australia's most capped player with 139 Test caps. Gregan was also the world's most capped player until being surpassed by Ireland's Brian O'Driscoll in 2014. Gregan also equalled the record for the most caps as captain with Will Carling, 59 caps (a record later to be broken by John Smit of South Africa). David Campese scored 64 Test tries in his career, which was a world record until Daisuke Ohata of Japan overtook him with 69 tries, and Michael Lynagh was the highest Test points scorer in world rugby with 911 until Neil Jenkins of Wales overtook him with 1037 points. Rocky Elsom scored the fastest forward hat-trick in World Cup history. Australia's most-capped forward is lock Nathan Sharpe, who retired from international rugby after the 2012 end-of-year Tests with 116 caps.

text: The longest winning streak by Australia was produced in the early 1990s, and started at the 1991 World Cup in England, with three pool wins, and subsequent quarter-final and semi-final victories over Ireland and the All Blacks respectively. This was followed by the win over England in the final. The streak continued into the following year, for two matches against Scotland and the All Blacks, lasting in total, 10 games. Similarly, the Australian record for losses in a row is also 10 games, which was sustained from a period from 1899 to 1907, including two British Isles tours, and losses to the All Blacks.

text: The largest winning margin for Australia was produced at the 2003 World Cup, in which they defeated Namibia 142 points to nil during the pool stages, the match is also the largest number of points scored by Australia. The largest loss was against South Africa, who beat Australia 53 points to 8 in 2008.

text: Coaches[edit]

text: The current head coach is Michael Cheika who was appointed on 22 October 2014, following Ewen McKenzie's shock resignation. He is assisted by former Wallabies Nathan Grey - Defence coach, and Stephen Larkham - Attack coach. Former Argentina hooker Mario Ledesma is the forwards and set-piece coach.

text:
Name
Nationality
Tenure
Tests
Won
Drawn
Lost
Win Rate %

Bob Dwyer

1982–1983
16
7
1
8
44%
64%

1988–1995
56
39
0
17
70%

Alan Jones

1984–1988
31
21
2
8
68%

Greg Smith

1996–1997
19
12
0
7
63%

Rod Macqueen

1997–2001
43
34
1
8
79%

Eddie Jones

2001–2005
57
33
1
23
58%

John Connolly

2006–2007
22
13
1
8
59%

Robbie Deans

2008–2013
75
44
2
29
59%

Ewen McKenzie

2013–2014
22
11
1
10
50%

Michael Cheika

2014–present
41
22
2
17
54%

text: Prior to 1962, Australia did not select coaches as long-term appointments. Managers were appointed to handle the logistics of overseas tours and the assistant manager often doubled as the coach for the duration of the trip. Sometimes the team captain filled the Australian coaching role, particularly for home tests since the IRB had ruled that home teams could not be assembled until three days before a test match.[62][63]

text: Home grounds[edit]

text: The Wallabies play at a variety of stadiums around Australia. Some of these include Stadium Australia in Sydney, Lang Park in Brisbane, Subiaco Oval in Perth, and the MCG and Docklands Stadium in Melbourne.

text: A variety of venues were used around Australia for the 2003 Rugby World Cup matches.

text: Some of the earlier stadiums that were traditionally used for Wallabies matches, included Sydney's Concord Oval and the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG) and Sports Ground, as well as Ballymore and the Exhibition Ground in Brisbane. It was the SCG that hosted the first ever Australian international, against Great Britain, in 1899.

text:
Venue
City
Capacity

ANZ Stadium
Sydney
83,500

Allianz Stadium
Sydney
45,500

Suncorp Stadium
Brisbane
52,500

Etihad Stadium
Melbourne
56,347

AAMI Park
Melbourne
30,050

nib Stadium
Perth
20,500

text: Broadcasters[edit]

text: The Wallabies rugby internationals and spring tour were televised by Network Ten between 1992 and 1995. Since 1996, Fox Sports have televised them. They jointly televised them with Seven Network between 1996 and 2010, Nine Network in 2011 and 2012 and Network Ten since their 2012 spring tour and their 2013 rugby internationals.

text: Wallabies internationals are protected by Australia's anti-siphoning laws, meaning that all Wallabies matches must be offered to a free-to-air network.

text: Sponsorship[edit]

text: In April 2015, BMW Australia became the official partner of the Australian Rugby Union (ARU).[64] Signed as the official vehicle partner, two-year deal that extends until the end of 2016 establishes BMW Australia as sponsors for the Wallabies and the ARU.[65]

text: The partnership agreement extends BMW’s involvement with the game globally, having an established relationship with the English Rugby Football Union as a vehicle partner since 2012.[66]


document_title: Heat transfer

question_text: what are the different types of heat transfer

question_tokens: what are the different types of heat transfer

root

text: Heat transfer

text: Overview[edit]

text: Heat is defined in physics as the transfer of thermal energy across a well-defined boundary around a thermodynamic system. The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential, designated by the letter "H", that is the sum of the internal energy of the system (U) plus the product of pressure (P) and volume (V). Joule is a unit to quantify energy, work, or the amount of heat.

tag: p

text: Heat transfer is a process function (or path function), as opposed to functions of state; therefore, the amount of heat transferred in a thermodynamic process that changes the state of a system depends on how that process occurs, not only the net difference between the initial and final states of the process.

text: Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is calculated with the heat transfer coefficient, the proportionality between the heat flux and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat. Heat flux is a quantitative, vectorial representation of heat-flow through a surface.[2]

text: In engineering contexts, the term heat is taken as synonymous to thermal energy. This usage has its origin in the historical interpretation of heat as a fluid (Caloric) that can be transferred by various causes,[3] and that is also common in the language of laymen and everyday life.

text: The transport equations for thermal energy (Fourier's law), mechanical momentum (Newton's law for fluids), and mass transfer (Fick's laws of diffusion) are similar,[4][5] and analogies among these three transport processes have been developed to facilitate prediction of conversion from any one to the others.[5]

text: Thermal engineering concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of heat transfer. As such, heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the economy.[6] Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes.

text: Mechanisms[edit]

text: The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:

text: Advection[edit]

text: By transferring matter, energy—including thermal energy—is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another.[7] This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is thermal hydraulics.[citation needed] This can be described by the formula:

text:
where Q is heat flux (W/m²), ρ is density (kg/m³),

c

p

{\displaystyle c_{p}}

 is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/kg·K), ΔT is the change in temperature (K),

v

{\displaystyle v}

 is velocity (m/s).

text: Conduction[edit]

text: On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive. Thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.[8] The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the movement of particles is called conduction. Example: Heat transfer through Metal rods.[clarification needed] Steady state conduction (see Fourier's law) is a form of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the conduction is constant, so that after an equilibration time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further.[9] In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out.[8]

text: Transient conduction (see Heat equation) occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of time. Analysis of transient systems is more complex and often calls for the application of approximation theories or numerical analysis by computer.[8]

text: Convection[edit]

text: The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by using a pump, fan or other mechanical means.

text: Convective heat transfer, or convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Bulk motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as (for example) between a solid surface and the fluid.[10] Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer, convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the fluid (diffusion) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming.[11] The process of transport by fluid streaming is known as advection, but pure advection is a term that is generally associated only with mass transport in fluids, such as advection of pebbles in a river. In the case of heat transfer in fluids, where transport by advection in a fluid is always also accompanied by transport via heat diffusion (also known as heat conduction) the process of heat convection is understood to refer to the sum of heat transport by advection and diffusion/conduction.

text: Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk fluid motions (streams and currents) are caused by buoyancy forces that result from density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. Forced convection is a term used when the streams and currents in the fluid are induced by external means—such as fans, stirrers, and pumps—creating an artificially induced convection current.[12]

text: Convection-cooling[edit]

text: Convective cooling is sometimes described as Newton's law of cooling:

text: The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings.

text: However, by definition, the validity of Newton's law of Cooling requires that the rate of heat loss from convection be a linear function of ("proportional to") the temperature difference that drives heat transfer, and in convective cooling this is sometimes not the case. In general, convection is not linearly dependent on temperature gradients, and in some cases is strongly nonlinear. In these cases, Newton's law does not apply.

text: Convection vs. conduction[edit]

text: In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection can be considered to compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving down by convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to its buoyancy, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so fast that its driving buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very low, a large temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong.

text:
The Rayleigh number (

R
a

{\displaystyle Ra}

) is the product of the Grashof and Prandtl numbers. It is a measure which determines the relative strength of conduction and convection.[13]

text: where

text:
g is acceleration due to gravity,
ρ is the density with

Δ
ρ

{\displaystyle \Delta \rho }

 being the density difference between the lower and upper ends,
μ is the dynamic viscosity,
α is the Thermal diffusivity,
β is the volume thermal expansivity (sometimes denoted α elsewhere),
T is the temperature,
ν is the kinematic viscosity, and
L is characteristic length.

tag: ul

text: The Rayleigh number can be understood as the ratio between the rate of heat transfer by convection to the rate of heat transfer by conduction; or, equivalently, the ratio between the corresponding timescales (i.e. conduction timescale divided by convection timescale), up to a numerical factor. This can be seen as follows, where all calculations are up to numerical factors depending on the geometry of the system.

text:
The buoyancy force driving the convection is roughly

g
Δ
ρ

L

3

{\displaystyle g\Delta \rho L^{3}}

, so the corresponding pressure is roughly

g
Δ
ρ
L

{\displaystyle g\Delta \rho L}

. In steady state, this is canceled by the shear stress due to viscosity, and therefore roughly equals

μ
V

/

L
=
μ

/

T

c
o
n
v

{\displaystyle \mu V/L=\mu /T_{conv}}

, where V is the typical fluid velocity due to convection and

T

c
o
n
v

{\displaystyle T_{conv}}

 the order of its timescale.[citation needed] The conduction timescale, on the other hand, is of the order of

T

c
o
n
d

=

L

2

/

α

{\displaystyle T_{cond}=L^{2}/\alpha }

.

text: Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above 1,000–2,000.

text: Radiation[edit]

text: Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (solid or fluid). It is the transfer of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws.[1]

text: Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter as electromagnetic waves, due to the pool of thermal energy in all matter with a temperature above absolute zero. Thermal radiation propagates without the presence of matter through the vacuum of space.[14]

text: Thermal radiation is a direct result of the random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles (protons and electrons), their movement results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy away from the surface.

text: The Stefan-Boltzmann equation, which describes the rate of transfer of radiant energy, is as follows for an object in a vacuum :

text: For radiative transfer between two objects, the equation is as follows:

text: where Q is the heat flux, ε is the emissivity (unity for a black body), σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature (in kelvins or degrees Rankine). Radiation is typically only important for very hot objects, or for objects with a large temperature difference.

text: Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power.[15] Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can be concentrated in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating solar power generation.[16] For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower and during the day it can heat water to 285 °C (545 °F).[citation needed]

text: Phase transition[edit]

text: Phase transition or phase change, takes place in a thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter to another one by heat transfer. Phase change examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water. The Mason equation explains the growth of a water droplet based on the effects of heat transport on evaporation and condensation.

text: Phase transitions involve the four fundamental states of matter:

text:
Solid – Deposition, freezing and solid to solid transformation.
Gas – Boiling / evaporation, recombination / deionization, and sublimation.
Liquid – Condensation and melting / fusion.
Plasma – Ionization.

text: Boiling[edit]

text: The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid[18][19] and the liquid evaporates resulting in an abrupt change in vapor volume.

text: Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition.

text: At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased, local boiling occurs and vapor bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and collapse. This is sub-cooled nucleate boiling, and is a very efficient heat transfer mechanism. At high bubble generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling, or DNB).

text: At similar standard atmospheric pressure and high temperatures, the hydrodynamically-quieter regime of film boiling is reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low, but rise slowly with temperature. Any contact between fluid and the surface that may be seen probably leads to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor layer ("spontaneous nucleation"). At higher temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux is reached (the critical heat flux, or CHF).

text: The Leidenfrost Effect demonstrates how nucleate boiling slows heat transfer due to gas bubbles on the heater's surface. As mentioned, gas-phase thermal conductivity is much lower than liquid-phase thermal conductivity, so the outcome is a kind of "gas thermal barrier".

text: Condensation[edit]

text: Condensation occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid. During condensation, the latent heat of vaporization must be released. The amount of the heat is the same as that absorbed during vaporization at the same fluid pressure.[20]

text: There are several types of condensation:

text:
Homogeneous condensation, as during a formation of fog.
Condensation in direct contact with subcooled liquid.
Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall of a heat exchanger: This is the most common mode used in industry:

Filmwise condensation is when a liquid film is formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when the liquid wets the surface.
Dropwise condensation is when liquid drops are formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when the liquid does not wet the surface.

text: Melting[edit]

text: Melting is a thermal process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid. The internal energy of a substance is increased, typically with heat or pressure, resulting in a rise of its temperature to the melting point, at which the ordering of ionic or molecular entities in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid liquefies. Molten substances generally have reduced viscosity with elevated temperature; an exception to this maxim is the element sulfur, whose viscosity increases to a point due to polymerization and then decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state.[21]

text: Modeling approaches[edit]

text: Heat transfer can be modeled in the following ways.

text: Climate models[edit]

text: Climate models study the radiant heat transfer by using quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice.

text: Heat equation[edit]

text: The heat equation is an important partial differential equation that describes the distribution of heat (or variation in temperature) in a given region over time. In some cases, exact solutions of the equation are available;[22] in other cases the equation must be solved numerically using computational methods.

text: Lumped system analysis[edit]

text: Lumped system analysis often reduces the complexity of the equations to one first-order linear differential equation, in which case heating and cooling are described by a simple exponential solution, often referred to as Newton's law of cooling.

text: System analysis by the lumped capacitance model is a common approximation in transient conduction that may be used whenever heat conduction within an object is much faster than heat conduction across the boundary of the object. This is a method of approximation that reduces one aspect of the transient conduction system—that within the object—to an equivalent steady state system. That is, the method assumes that the temperature within the object is completely uniform, although its value may be changing in time.

text: In this method, the ratio of the conductive heat resistance within the object to the convective heat transfer resistance across the object's boundary, known as the Biot number, is calculated. For small Biot numbers, the approximation of spatially uniform temperature within the object can be used: it can be presumed that heat transferred into the object has time to uniformly distribute itself, due to the lower resistance to doing so, as compared with the resistance to heat entering the object.[23]

text: Engineering[edit]

text: Heat transfer has broad application to the functioning of numerous devices and systems. Heat-transfer principles may be used to preserve, increase, or decrease temperature in a wide variety of circumstances.[citation needed] Heat transfer methods are used in numerous disciplines, such as automotive engineering, thermal management of electronic devices and systems, climate control, insulation, materials processing, and power station engineering.

text: Insulation, radiance and resistance[edit]

text: Thermal insulators are materials specifically designed to reduce the flow of heat by limiting conduction, convection, or both. Thermal resistance is a heat property and the measurement by which an object or material resists to heat flow (heat per time unit or thermal resistance) to temperature difference.

text: Radiance or spectral radiance are measures of the quantity of radiation that passes through or is emitted. Radiant barriers are materials that reflect radiation, and therefore reduce the flow of heat from radiation sources. Good insulators are not necessarily good radiant barriers, and vice versa. Metal, for instance, is an excellent reflector and a poor insulator.

text: The effectiveness of a radiant barrier is indicated by its reflectivity, which is the fraction of radiation reflected. A material with a high reflectivity (at a given wavelength) has a low emissivity (at that same wavelength), and vice versa. At any specific wavelength, reflectivity=1 - emissivity. An ideal radiant barrier would have a reflectivity of 1, and would therefore reflect 100 percent of incoming radiation. Vacuum flasks, or Dewars, are silvered to approach this ideal. In the vacuum of space, satellites use multi-layer insulation, which consists of many layers of aluminized (shiny) Mylar to greatly reduce radiation heat transfer and control satellite temperature.[citation needed]

text: Devices[edit]

text: A heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of a flow of thermal energy (heat) to mechanical energy to perform mechanical work.[24][25]

text: A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device and widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control, and can also be used to convert heat into electric power.

text: A thermoelectric cooler is a solid state electronic device that pumps (transfers) heat from one side of the device to the other when electric current is passed through it. It is based on the Peltier effect.

text: A thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes heat to flow preferentially in one direction.

text: Heat exchangers[edit]

text: A heat exchanger is used for more efficient heat transfer or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and chemical processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the hot coolant fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's surface.[citation needed]

text: Common types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow. In parallel flow, both fluids move in the same direction while transferring heat; in counter flow, the fluids move in opposite directions; and in cross flow, the fluids move at right angles to each other. Common constructions for heat exchanger include shell and tube, double pipe, extruded finned pipe, spiral fin pipe, u-tube, and stacked plate.[further explanation needed]

text: A heat sink is a component that transfers heat generated within a solid material to a fluid medium, such as air or a liquid. Examples of heat sinks are the heat exchangers used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems or the radiator in a car. A heat pipe is another heat-transfer device that combines thermal conductivity and phase transition to efficiently transfer heat between two solid interfaces.

text: Examples[edit]

text: Architecture[edit]

text: Efficient energy use is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required in heating or cooling. In architecture, condensation and air currents can cause cosmetic or structural damage. An energy audit can help to assess the implementation of recommended corrective procedures. For instance, insulation improvements, air sealing of structural leaks or the addition of energy-efficient windows and doors.[26]

text:
Smart meter is a device that records electric energy consumption in intervals.
Thermal transmittance is the rate of transfer of heat through a structure divided by the difference in temperature across the structure. It is expressed in watts per square meter per kelvin, or W/(m²K). Well-insulated parts of a building have a low thermal transmittance, whereas poorly-insulated parts of a building have a high thermal transmittance.
Thermostat is a device to monitor and control temperature.

text: Climate engineering[edit]

text: Climate engineering consists of carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Since the amount of carbon dioxide determines the radiative balance of Earth atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be applied to reduce the radiative forcing. Solar radiation management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to offset the effects of greenhouse gases.

text: Greenhouse effect[edit]

text: The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases.

text: Heat transfer in the human body[edit]

text: The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can be applied to the human body in order to determine how the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by the continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides energy for the systems of the body.[27] The human body must maintain a consistent internal temperature in order to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels of physical activity, the body requires additional fuel which increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced in order to keep the internal temperature at a healthy level.

text: Heat transfer by convection is driven by the movement of fluids over the surface of the body. This convective fluid can be either a liquid or a gas. For heat transfer from the outer surface of the body, the convection mechanism is dependent on the surface area of the body, the velocity of the air, and the temperature gradient between the surface of the skin and the ambient air.[28] The normal temperature of the body is approximately 37 °C. Heat transfer occurs more readily when the temperature of the surroundings is significantly less than the normal body temperature. This concept explains why a person feels “cold” when not enough covering is worn when exposed to a cold environment. Clothing can be considered an insulator which provides thermal resistance to heat flow over the covered portion of the body.[29] This thermal resistance causes the temperature on the surface of the clothing to be less than the temperature on the surface of the skin. This smaller temperature gradient between the surface temperature and the ambient temperature will cause a lower rate of heat transfer than if the skin were not covered.

text: In order to ensure that one portion of the body is not significantly hotter than another portion, heat must be distributed evenly through the bodily tissues. Blood flowing through blood vessels acts as a convective fluid and helps to prevent any buildup of excess heat inside the tissues of the body. This flow of blood through the vessels can be modeled as pipe flow in an engineering system. The heat carried by the blood is determined by the temperature of the surrounding tissue, the diameter of the blood vessel, the thickness of the fluid, velocity of the flow, and the heat transfer coefficient of the blood. The velocity, blood vessel diameter, and the fluid thickness can all be related with the Reynolds Number, a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to characterize the flow of fluids.

text: Latent heat loss, also known as evaporative heat loss, accounts for a large fraction of heat loss from the body. When the core temperature of the body increases, the body triggers sweat glands in the skin to bring additional moisture to the surface of the skin. The liquid is then transformed into vapor which removes heat from the surface of the body.[30] The rate of evaporation heat loss is directly related to the vapor pressure at the skin surface and the amount of moisture present on the skin.[28] Therefore, the maximum of heat transfer will occur when the skin is completely wet. The body continuously loses water by evaporation but the most significant amount of heat loss occurs during periods of increased physical activity.

text: Cooling techniques[edit]

text: Evaporative cooling[edit]

text: Evaporative cooling happens when water vapor is added to the surrounding air. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken from the air in the form of sensible heat and converted into latent heat, while the air remains at a constant enthalpy. Latent heat describes the amount of heat that is needed to evaporate the liquid; this heat comes from the liquid itself and the surrounding gas and surfaces. The greater the difference between the two temperatures, the greater the evaporative cooling effect. When the temperatures are the same, no net evaporation of water in air occurs; thus, there is no cooling effect.

text: Laser cooling[edit]

text: In quantum physics, laser cooling is used to achieve temperatures of near absolute zero (−273.15 °C, −459.67 °F) of atomic and molecular samples to observe unique quantum effects that can only occur at this heat level.

text:
Doppler cooling is the most common method of laser cooling.
Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type. Typically, atomic ions that can be directly laser-cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms. This technique allows cooling of ions and atoms that cannot be laser cooled directly.[citation needed]

text: Magnetic cooling[edit]

text: Magnetic evaporative cooling is a process for lowering the temperature of a group of atoms, after pre-cooled by methods such as laser cooling. Magnetic refrigeration cools below 0.3K, by making use of the magnetocaloric effect.

text: Radiative cooling[edit]

text: Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an important effect in the Earth's energy budget. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.

text: Thermal energy storage[edit]

text: Thermal energy storage includes technologies for collecting and storing energy for later use. It may be employed to balance energy demand between day and nighttime. The thermal reservoir may be maintained at a temperature above or below that of the ambient environment. Applications include space heating, domestic or process hot water systems, or generating electricity.