document_title: Our Lady of Guadalupe

question_text: when was the apparition of our lady of guadalupe approved

question_tokens: when was the apparition of our lady of guadalupe approved

text: Our Lady of Guadalupe

text: Marian apparitions[edit]

text: Official Catholic accounts state that the Virgin Mary appeared four times before Juan Diego and one more before Juan Diego's uncle. According to these accounts the first apparition occurred on the morning of December 9, 1531, when a native Mexican peasant named Juan Diego saw a vision of a maiden at a place called the Hill of Tepeyac, which would become part of Villa de Guadalupe, a suburb of Mexico City. Speaking to Juan Diego in his native Nahuatl language (the language of the Aztec empire), the maiden identified herself as the Virgin Mary, "mother of the very true deity"[3] and asked for a church to be built at that site in her honor.

text: Based on her words, Juan Diego then sought out the archbishop of Mexico City, Fray Juan de Zumárraga, to tell him what had happened. As the bishop did not believe Diego, on the same day, Juan Diego saw the Virgin Mary for a second time (the second apparition); she asked him to keep insisting.

text: On Sunday, December 10, Juan Diego talked to the archbishop for a second time. The latter instructed him to return to Tepeyac Hill, and ask the lady for a miraculous sign to prove her identity. That same day, the third apparition occurred when Diego returned to Tepeyac and encountering the Virgin Mary, reported the bishop's request for a sign; she consented to provide one on the following day (December 11).[4]

text: By Monday, December 11, however, Juan Diego's uncle Juan Bernardino had fallen sick and Juan Diego was obliged to attend to him. In the very early hours of Tuesday, December 12, Juan Bernardino's condition having deteriorated overnight, Juan Diego set out to Tlatelolco to fetch a priest to hear Juan Bernardino's confession and minister to him on his death-bed.

text: In order to avoid being delayed by the Virgin and ashamed at having failed to meet her on the Monday as agreed, Juan Diego chose another route around the hill, but the Virgin intercepted him and asked where he was going (fourth apparition); Juan Diego explained what had happened and the Virgin gently chided him for not having had recourse to her. In the words which have become the most famous phrase of the Guadalupe event and are inscribed over the main entrance to the Basilica of Guadalupe, she asked, “¿No estoy yo aquí que soy tu madre?” (Am I not here, I who am your mother?). She assured him that Juan Bernardino had now recovered and she told him to gather flowers from the top of Tepeyac Hill, which was normally barren, especially in December. Juan followed her instructions and he found Castilian roses, not native to Mexico, blooming there. The Virgin arranged the flowers in Juan's tilma, or cloak, and when Juan Diego opened his cloak before archbishop Zumárraga on December 12, the flowers fell to the floor, and on the fabric was the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe.[5]

text: The next day, on December 13, Juan Diego found his uncle fully recovered, as the Virgin had assured him, and Juan Bernardino recounted that he too had seen her, at his bed-side (fifth apparition); that she had instructed him to inform the bishop of this apparition and of his miraculous cure; and that she had told him she desired to be known under the title of Guadalupe.

text: The bishop kept Juan Diego's mantle first in his private chapel and then in the church on public display where it attracted great attention. On December 26, 1531 a procession formed for taking the miraculous image back to Tepeyac where it was installed in a small hastily erected chapel.[6] In course of this procession, the first miracle was allegedly performed when an Indian was mortally wounded in the neck by an arrow shot by accident during some stylized martial displays executed in honour of the Virgin. In great distress, the Indians carried him before the Virgin's image and pleaded for his life. Upon the arrow being withdrawn, the victim made a full and immediate recovery.[7]

text: Juan Diego's tilma has become Mexico's most popular religious and cultural symbol, and has received widespread ecclesiastical and popular support. In the 19th century it became the rallying call of American-born Spaniards in New Spain, who saw the story of the apparition as legitimizing their own Mexican origin and infusing it with an almost messianic sense of mission and identity – thus also legitimizing their armed rebellion against Spain.[8][9]

text: Historically the devotion to Our Lady of Guadalupe did not lack clerical opponents within Mexico, especially in the early years, and in more recent times some Catholic scholars, and even a former abbot of the basilica, Monsignor Guillermo Schulenburg, have openly doubted the historical existence of Juan Diego, referring to the devotion as merely symbolic, propagated by a sensational cult. Nonetheless, Juan Diego was canonized in 2002, under the name Saint Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin.

text: While the image garners much religious devotion and Mexican patriotism, scholarly criticism on the image is also notable, considering the artistic disproportion of the image, the similarity of the image to Spanish pre-colonial artwork closely related to the Aztec colony at the time, the alleged relationship of Marcos Cipac de Aquino in either inventing or amending the tilma cloak, and the public declaration of the abbot of the Guadalupe shrine pertaining to the false existence of the Marian apparitions.

text: Early history[edit]

text: Following the Conquest in 1519–21, the Spanish destroyed a temple of the mother goddess Tonantzin at Tepeyac outside Mexico City, and built a chapel dedicated to the Virgin on the site. Tonantzin (the beloved mother of the gods) was celebrated each winter solstice[10][11][12] which occurred on different dates, the winter solstice of 1531 occurred on December 12, 1531 according to the UNAM.[11][12][13] Newly converted natives continued to come from afar to worship there, often addressing the Virgin Mary as Tonantzin.[14]

text: What is purported by some to be the earliest mention of the miraculous apparition of the Virgin is a page of parchment (the Codex Escalada) which was discovered in 1995 and, according to investigative analysis, dates from the sixteenth century.[15] This document bears two pictorial representations of Juan Diego and the apparition, several inscriptions in Nahuatl referring to Juan Diego by his Aztec name, and the date of his death: 1548, as well as the year that the Virgin Mary appeared: 1531. It also contains the glyph of Antonio Valeriano; and finally, the signature of Fray Bernardino de Sahagun that was authenticated by experts from the Banco de Mexico and Charles E. Dibble.[16]

text: Scholarly doubts have been cast on the authenticity of the document, however.[17]

text: A more complete early description of the apparition occurs in a 16-page manuscript called the Nican mopohua, which was acquired by the New York Public Library in 1880, and has been reliably dated in 1556. This document, written in Nahuatl, but in Latin script, tells the story of the apparitions and the supernatural origin of the image. It was probably composed by a native Aztec man, called Antonio Valeriano, who had been educated by Franciscans. The text of this document was later incorporated into a printed pamphlet which was widely circulated in 1649.[18][19][20][21]

text: In spite of these documents, there are no written accounts of the Guadalupe vision by Catholic clergymen of the 16th century, as there ought to have been if the event had the importance it is claimed to have had.[22] In particular, the canonical account of the vision features archbishop Juan de Zumárraga as a major player in the story, but, although Zumárraga was a prolific writer, there is nothing in his extant writings that can confirm the story.

text: The written record that does exist suggests the Catholic clergy in 16th century Mexico were deeply divided as to the orthodoxy of the cult springing up around the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe, with the Franciscan order (who had custody of the chapel at Tepeyac) being strongly opposed to the cult, while the Dominicans supported it.[23]

text: The main promoter of the cult was the Dominican Alonso de Montúfar, who succeeded the Franciscan Juan de Zumárraga as archbishop of Mexico. In a 1556 sermon Montúfar commended popular devotion to "Our Lady of Guadalupe," referring to a painting on cloth (a tilma) in the chapel of the Virgin Mary at Tepeyac, where certain miracles had occurred. Days later, Fray Francisco de Bustamante, local head of the Franciscan order, delivered a sermon denouncing the cult. He expressed concern that the Archbishop was promoting a superstitious regard for an image:

text: "The devotion at the chapel...to which they have given the name Guadalupe was prejudicial to the Indians because they believed that the image itself worked miracles, contrary to what the missionary friars had been teaching them, and because many were disappointed when it did not."[24]

text: The next day Archbishop Montúfar opened an inquiry into the matter. At the inquiry, the Franciscans repeated their position that the image encouraged idolatry and superstition, and four witnesses testified to Bustamante's claim that the image was painted by an Indian, with one witness naming him "the Indian painter Marcos".[25] This could refer to the Aztec painter Marcos Cipac de Aquino, who was active at that time.[26][27] But "if he did, he did so without making a preliminary sketch – in itself a near-miraculous procedure.[...] Cipac may well have had a hand in painting the Image, but only in painting the additions, such as the angel and moon at the Virgin's feet",[28] claims Prof. Jody Brant Smith (referring to Philip Serna Callahan's examination of the tilma using infrared photography in 1979).

text: Ultimately Archbishop Montúfar (himself a Dominican) decided to end Franciscan custody of the shrine.[29] From then on the shrine was served by diocesan priests under the authority of the archbishop.[30] Moreover, Archbishop Montúfar authorized the construction of a much larger church at Tepeyac, in which the tilma was mounted and displayed.

text: The report of this 1556 inquiry is the most extensive documentation concerning the Virgin of Guadalupe from the 16th century, and significantly, it makes no mention of Juan Diego, the miraculous apparition, or any other element from the legend.

text: In the late 1570s, the Franciscan historian Bernardino de Sahagún denounced the cult at Tepeyac and the use of the name "Tonantzin" to call Our Lady in a personal digression in his General History of the Things of New Spain, in the version known as the Florentine Codex.

text: At this place [Tepeyac], [the Indians] had a temple dedicated to the mother of the gods, whom they called Tonantzin, which means Our Mother. There they performed many sacrifices in honor of this goddess...And now that a church of Our Lady of Guadalupe is built there, they also call her Tonantzin, being motivated by the preachers who called Our Lady, the Mother of God, Tonantzin. It is not known for certain where the beginning of this Tonantzin may have originated, but this we know for certain, that, from its first usage, the word means that ancient Tonantzin. And it is something that should be remedied, for the correct [native] name of the Mother of God, Holy Mary, is not Tonantzin, but Dios inantzin. It appears to be a Satanic invention to cloak idolatry under the confusion of this name, Tonantzin.[31]

text: Sahagún's criticism of the cult seems to have stemmed primarily from his concern about a syncretistic application of the native name Tonantzin to the Virgin Mary. However, Sahagún often used the same name in his sermons as late as the 1560s.[32]

text: In the 16th century and probably continuing into the early 17th century, the image was modified by adding the mandorla-shaped sunburst around the Virgin, the stars on her cloak, the moon under her feet, and the angel with folded cloth supporting her—as was determined by an infrared and ocular study of the tilma in 1979.[33]

text: First printed accounts[edit]

text: One of the first printed accounts of the history of the apparitions and image occurs in Imagen de la Virgen Maria, Madre de Dios de Guadalupe, published in 1648 by Miguel Sánchez, a diocesan priest of Mexico City.[34]

text: Other account is the Codex Escalada dated from the sixteenth century that is a sheet of parchment containing some apparitions of the Virgin Mary and the figure of Juan Diego, the glyph of Antonio Valeriano and the signature of Fray Bernardino de Sahagún. It also contains the following glosses: "1548 Also in that year of 1531 appeared to Cuahtlatoatzin our beloved mother the Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico. Cuahtlatoatzin died worthily"[35]

text: The next printed account was a 36-page tract in the Nahuatl language, Huei tlamahuiçoltica ("The Great Event"), which was published in 1649. This tract contains a section called the Nican mopohua ("Here it is recounted"), which we have already touched on above. The composition and authorship of the Huei tlamahuiçoltica is assigned by a majority of scholars to Luis Laso de la Vega, vicar of the sanctuary of Tepeyac from 1647–1657.[36][37] Nevertheless, the most important section of the tract, the Nican Mopohua, appears to be much older. It has been attributed since the late 1600s to Antonio Valeriano (ca. 1531–1605), a native Aztec man who had been educated by the Franciscans and who collaborated extensively with Bernardino de Sahagún.[18] A manuscript version of the Nican Mopohua, now held by the New York Public Library,[38] appears to be datable to the mid-1500s, and may have been the original work by Valeriano that was used by Laso in composing the Huei tlamahuiçoltica. Most authorities agree on the dating and on Valeriano's authorship.[19][20][21]

text: On the other hand, in 1666, the scholar Luis Becerra Tanco published in Mexico a book about the history of the apparitions under the name "Origen milagroso del santuario de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe," which was republished in Spain in 1675 as "Felicidad de Mexico en la admirable aparición de la virgen María de Guadalupe y origen de su milagrosa Imagen, que se venera extramuros de aquella ciudad."[39] In the same way, in 1688, Jesuit Father Francisco de Florencia published "La Estrella del Norte de México" with the history of the same apparitions.[40]

text: Two separate accounts, one in Nahuatl from Juan Bautista del Barrio de San Juan from the 16th century,[41] and the other in Spanish by Servando Teresa de Mier[42] date the original apparition and native celebration on September 8 of the Julian calendar, but also note that the Spaniards celebrate it on December 12 instead.

text: With the help of the Informaciones Jurídicas de 1666, a feast day in name of Our Lady of Guadalupe was requested and approved, as well as the transfer of the date of the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe from September 8 to December 12, the latest date on which the Virgin supposedly appeared to Juan Diego. The initiative to perform them was made by Francisco de Siles who proposed to ask the Church of Rome a Mass itself with allusive text to the apparitions and stamping of the image, along with the divine office itself, and the precept of hearing Mass on December 12, the last date of the apparitions of the Virgin to Juan Diego as the new date to commemorate the apparitions (which until then was on September 8, the birth of the Virgin).[43][clarification needed]

text: In 1666, the Church in México began gathering information from people who reported having known Juan Diego, and in 1723 a formal investigation into his life was ordered, where more data was gathered to support veneration. Because of the Informaciones Jurídicas de 1666 in the year 1754, the Sacred Congregation of Rites confirmed the true value of the apparitions and granted celebrating Mass and Office for the feast of Guadalupe on December 12.[44][45]

text: These published accounts of the origin of the image venerated in Tepeyac increased interest in the identity of Juan Diego, the original recipient of the vision. A new Basilica church was built to house the image. Completed in 1709, it is now known as the Old Basilica.

text: The crown ornament[edit]

text: The image had originally featured a 12-point crown on the Virgin's head, but this disappeared in 1887–88. The change was first noticed on 23 February 1888, when the image was removed to a nearby church.[46] Eventually a painter confessed on his deathbed that he had been instructed by a clergyman to remove the crown. This may have been motivated by the fact that the gold paint was flaking off of the crown, leaving it looking dilapidated. But according to the historian David Brading, “the decision to remove rather than replace the crown was no doubt inspired by a desire to 'modernize' the image and reinforce its similarity to the nineteenth-century images of the Immaculate Conception which were exhibited at Lourdes and elsewhere… What is rarely mentioned is that the frame which surrounded the canvas was adjusted to leave almost no space above the Virgin's head, thereby obscuring the effects of the erasure."[47] it is unclear why the frame was lowered, which makes the covering of the crown not easily noticeable.

text: A different crown was installed to the image. On 8 February 1887, a Papal bull from Pope Leo XIII granted permission a Canonical Coronation of the image, which occurred on 12 October 1895.[48] Since then the Virgin of Guadalupe has been proclaimed "Queen of Mexico", "Patroness of the Americas", "Empress of Latin America", and "Protectress of Unborn Children" (the latter two titles given by Pope John Paul II in 1999).[49][50] Under this title, she was also proclaimed "Heavenly Patroness of the Philippines" on 16 July 1935 by Pope Pius XI both witnessed and signed by Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli, a designation he later rescinded on 12 September 1942 upon becoming Pope Pius XII.

text: On 25 March 1966, Pope Paul VI presented a Golden Rose to the sacred image. Finally, under Pope John Paul II the move to beatify Juan Diego intensified. John Paul II took a special interest in non-European Catholics and saints. During his leadership, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints declared Juan Diego "venerable" (in 1987), and the pope himself announced his beatification on 6 May 1990, during a Mass at the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City, declaring him “protector and advocate of the indigenous peoples," with December 9 established as his feast day.

text: At that time historians revived doubts as to the quality of the evidence regarding Juan Diego. The writings of bishop Zumárraga, into whose hands Juan purportedly delivered the miraculous image, did not refer to him or the event. The record of the 1556 ecclesiastical inquiry omitted him, and he was not mentioned in documentation before the mid-17th century. In 1996 the 83-year-old abbot of the Basilica of Guadalupe, Guillermo Schulenburg, was forced to resign following an interview published in the Catholic magazine Ixthus, in which he was quoted as saying that Juan Diego was "a symbol, not a reality", and that his canonization would be the “recognition of a cult. It is not recognition of the physical, real existence of a person.”[51] In 1883 Joaquín García Icazbalceta, historian and biographer of Zumárraga, in a confidential report on the Lady of Guadalupe for Bishop Labastida, had been hesitant to support the story of the vision. He concluded that Juan Diego had not existed.[52]

text: In 1995, Father Xavier Escalada, a Jesuit whose four volume Guadalupe encyclopedia had just been published, announced the existence of a sheet of parchment (known as Codex Escalada), which bore an illustrated account of the vision and some notations in Nahuatl concerning the life and death of Juan Diego. Previously unknown, the document was dated 1548. It bore the signatures of Antonio Valeriano and Bernardino de Sahagún, which are considered to verify its contents. The codex was the subject of an appendix to the Guadalupe enciclopedia, published in 1997.[17] Some scholars remained unconvinced, one describing the discovery of the Codex as "rather like finding a picture of St. Paul's vision of Christ on the road to Damascus, drawn by St. Luke and signed by St. Peter."[53]

text: Marian title[edit]

text: In the earliest account of the apparition, the Nican Mopohua, the Virgin Mary tells Juan Bernardino, the uncle of Juan Diego, that the image left on the tilma is to be known by the name "the Perfect Virgin, Holy Mary of Guadalupe."[54]

text: Scholars do not agree as to how the name "Guadalupe" was ascribed to the image.[55] Some believe that the Spanish transcribed or transliterated a Nahuatl name, as the site had long been an important sacred spot. Others hold that the Spanish name Guadalupe is the original name, and refers to the Spanish Our Lady of Guadalupe, Extremadura, whose cult had been important in Spain in the 16th century and had been brought to the New World with the Spanish conquest.

text: The first theory to promote a Nahuatl origin was that of Luis Becerra Tanco.[55] In his 1675 work Felicidad de Mexico, Becerra Tanco claimed that Juan Bernardino and Juan Diego would not have been able to understand the name Guadalupe because the "d" and "g" sounds do not exist in Nahuatl.

text: He proposed two Nahuatl alternative names that sound similar to "Guadalupe", Tecuatlanopeuh [tekʷat͡ɬaˈnopeʍ], which he translates as "she whose origins were in the rocky summit", and Tecuantlaxopeuh [tekʷant͡ɬaˈʃopeʍ], "she who banishes those who devoured us."[55]

text: Ondina and Justo Gonzalez suggest that the name is a Spanish version of the Nahuatl term, Coātlaxopeuh [koaːt͡ɬaˈʃopeʍ], which they interpret as meaning “the one who crushes the serpent,” and that it may be referring to the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl. In addition, Mary was portrayed in European art as crushing the serpent of the Garden of Eden.[56]

text: According to another theory the juxtaposition of Guadalupe and a snake may indicate a nexus with the Aztec goddess of love and fertility, Tonantzin (in Nahuatl, "Our Revered Mother"), who was also known by the name Coatlícue ("The Serpent Skirt"). This appears to be borne out by the fact that this goddess had had a temple dedicated to her on the very Tepeyac Hill where Juan Diego had his vision, temple which had recently been destroyed at the behest of the new Catholic authorities. In the 16th century the Franciscans were suspicious that the cult of Guadalupe showed, or was susceptible to, elements of syncretism, i.e. the importation of an object of reverence in one belief system into another (see above).

text: The theory promoting the Spanish language origin of the name claims that:

text:
Juan Diego and Juan Bernardino would have been familiar with the Spanish language "g" and "d" sounds since their baptismal names contain those sounds.
There is no documentation of any other name for the Virgin during the almost 144 years between the apparition being recorded in 1531 and Becerra Tanco's proposed theory in 1675.
Documents written by contemporary Spaniards and Franciscan friars argue that for the name to be changed to a native name, such as Tepeaca or Tepeaquilla, would not make sense if a Nahuatl name were already in use, and suggest the Spanish Guadalupe was the original.[55]

text: The venerated image as artifact[edit]

text: Iconographic description[edit]

text:
The image features a full-length representation of a mestiza girl or young woman with high cheek-bones, delicate features, and straight, unbraided black hair simply parted in the middle framing her face.
The subject matter is in a standing posture showing in contemplative prayer with hands joined and little finger separated and head slightly inclined; she gazes with heavy-lidded eyes at a spot below and to her right, and to left in viewpoint of the observer.
She is dressed from neck to feet in a pink robe and blue-green cerulean mantle, one side folded within the arms, emblazoned with eight-point stars with two black tassels tied at high waist, wearing a neck brooch featuring a colonial styled cross.
The robe is spangled with a small gold quatrefoil motif ornamented with vines and flowers, its sleeves reaching to her wrists where the cuffs of a white undergarment appear.
The subject stands on a crescent moon, allegedly color silver in the past and now have turned dark.
A feathered cherubic angel with outstretched arms carries the robe on her exposed feet which is uncolored.
A sunburst of straight and wavy gold rays interchange behind while projecting behind the Virgin are enclosed within a mandorla. Beyond the mandorla to right and left is an unpainted expanse, white in colour with a faint blue tinge. The present image shows the 1791 nitric acid spill on the top right side, unaffecting the subject matter's aureola.[57]

text: Physical description[edit]

text: The portrait was executed on a fabric support of natural material constituted by two pieces (originally three) joined together. The join is clearly visible as a seam passing from top to bottom, with the Virgin's face and hands and the head of the angel on the left piece. It passes through the left wrist of the Virgin. The fabric is mounted on a large metal sheet to which it has been glued for some time.[58] The image, currently set in a massive frame protected behind bullet-proof glass, hangs inclined at a slight angle on the wall of the basilica behind the altar. At this point, there is a wide gap between the wall and the sanctuary facilitating closer viewing from moving walkways set on the floor beneath the main level of the basilica, carrying people a short distance in either direction. Viewed from the main body of the basilica, the image is located above and to the right of the altar and is retracted at night into a small vault (accessible by steps) set into the wall.[59] An intricate metal crown designed by the painter Salomé Pina according to plans devised by Rómulo Escudero and Pérez Gallardo, and executed by the Parisian goldsmith, Edgar Morgan, is fixed above the image by a rod, and a massive Mexican flag is draped around and below the frame.[60]

text: The nature of the fabric is discussed below. Its measurements were taken by José Ignacio Bartolache on December 29, 1786 in the presence of Joseph Bernardo de Nava, a public notary: height 170 cm (67 in), width 105 cm (41 in).[61] The original height (before it was first shielded behind glass in the late 18th century, at which time the unpainted portion beyond the Virgin's head must have been cut down) was 229 cm (90 in).[62]

text: Technical analyses[edit]

text: Neither the fabric ("the support") nor the image (together, "the tilma") has been analyzed using the full range of resources now available to museum conservationists. Four technical studies have been conducted so far. Of these, the findings of at least three have been published. Each study required the permission of the custodians of the tilma in the Basilica. However, Callahan's study was taken at the initiative of a third party: the custodians did not know in advance what his research would reveal.

text: Summary conclusions ("contra" indicates a contrary finding)

text:
Canvas Support: The material of the support is soft to the touch (almost silken: MC; something like cotton: G) but to the eye it suggested a coarse weave of palm threads called "pita" or the rough fiber called "cotense" (MC), or a hemp and linen mixture (R). It was traditionally held to be made from ixtle, an agave fiber.
Ground, or primer: R asserted (MC and PC contra) by ocular examination that the tilma was primed, though with primer "applied irregularly." R does not clarify whether his observed "irregular" application entails that majorly the entire tilma was primed, or just certain areas – such as those areas of the tilma extrinsic to the image – where PC agrees had later additions. MC, alternatively, observed that the image had soaked through to the reverse of the tilma.[67]

text:
Under-drawing: PC asserted there was no under-drawing.
Brush-work: R suggested (PC contra) there was some visible brushwork on the original image, but in a minute area of the image ("her eyes, including the irises, have outlines, apparently applied by a brush").
Condition of the surface layer: PC reports that the un-retouched portions of the image, particularly the blue mantle and the face, are in a very good state of preservation, with no flaking or peeling. The three most recent inspections (G, PC and R) agree (i) that additions have been made to the image (gold leaf added to the sun's rays—which has flaked off; silver paint or other material to depict the moon—which has discolored; and the re-construction or addition of the angel supporting the Marian image), and (ii) that portions of the original image have been abraded and re-touched in places. Some flaking is visible, though only in retouched areas (mostly along the line of the vertical seam, or at passages considered to be later additions).
Varnish: The tilma has never been varnished.
Binding Medium: R provisionally identified the pigments and binding medium (distemper) as consistent with 16th-century methods of painting sargas (MC, PC contra for different reasons), but the color values and luminosity are in good condition.

text: Trans-religious significance[edit]

text: The iconography of the Virgin is fully Catholic:[70] Miguel Sanchez, the author of the 1648 tract Imagen de la Virgen María, described her as the Woman of the Apocalypse from the New Testament's Revelation 12:1, "clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars.” She is described as a representation of the Immaculate Conception.[53]

text: Virgil Elizondo says the image also had layers of meaning for the indigenous people of Mexico who associated her image with their polytheistic deities, which further contributed to her popularity.[71] Her blue-green mantle was the color reserved for the divine couple Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl;[72] her belt is interpreted as a sign of pregnancy; and a cross-shaped image, symbolizing the cosmos and called nahui-ollin, is inscribed beneath the image's sash.[73] She was called "mother of maguey,"[74] the source of the sacred beverage pulque.[75] Pulque was also known as "the milk of the Virgin."[76] The rays of light surrounding her are seen to also represent maguey spines.[74]

text: Cultural significance[edit]

text: Symbol of Mexico[edit]

text: Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe became the recognized symbol of Catholic Mexicans. Miguel Sánchez, the author in 1648 of the first published account of the vision, identified Guadalupe as Revelation's Woman of the Apocalypse, and said:

text: "...this New World has been won and conquered by the hand of the Virgin Mary ... [who had] prepared, disposed, and contrived her exquisite likeness in this her Mexican land, which was conquered for such a glorious purpose, won that there should appear so Mexican an image."[53]

text: Throughout the Mexican national history of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Guadalupan name and image have been unifying national symbols; the first President of Mexico (1824–29) changed his name from José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix to Guadalupe Victoria in honor of the Virgin of Guadalupe.[77] Father Miguel Hidalgo, in the Mexican War of Independence (1810), and Emiliano Zapata, in the Mexican Revolution (1910), led their respective armed forces with Guadalupan flags emblazoned with an image of Our Lady of Guadalupe. In 1999, the Church officially proclaimed her the Patroness of the Americas, the Empress of Latin America, and the Protectress of Unborn Children.

text: In 1810 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the bid for Mexican independence with his Grito de Dolores, with the cry "Death to the Spaniards and long live the Virgin of Guadalupe!" When Hidalgo's mestizo-indigenous army attacked Guanajuato and Valladolid, they placed "the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which was the insignia of their enterprise, on sticks or on reeds painted different colors" and "they all wore a print of the Virgin on their hats."[77] After Hidalgo's death leadership of the revolution fell to a zambo/mestizo priest named José María Morelos, who led insurgent troops in the Mexican south. Morelos adopted the Virgin as the seal of his Congress of Chilpancingo, inscribing her feast day into the Chilpancingo constitution and declaring that Guadalupe was the power behind his victories:

text: New Spain puts less faith in its own efforts than in the power of God and the intercession of its Blessed Mother, who appeared within the precincts of Tepeyac as the miraculous image of Guadalupe that had come to comfort us, defend us, visibly be our protection.[77]

text: Simón Bolívar noticed the Guadalupan theme in these uprisings, and shortly before Morelos's execution in 1815 wrote: "the leaders of the independence struggle have put fanaticism to use by proclaiming the famous Virgin of Guadalupe as the queen of the patriots, praying to her in times of hardship and displaying her on their flags ... the veneration for this image in Mexico far exceeds the greatest reverence that the shrewdest prophet might inspire."[53]

text: In 1912, Emiliano Zapata's peasant army rose out of the south against the government of Francisco Madero. Though Zapata's rebel forces were primarily interested in land reform – "tierra y libertad" ('land and liberty') was the slogan of the uprising – when his peasant troops penetrated Mexico City they carried Guadalupan banners.[78] More recently, the contemporary Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) named their "mobile city" in honor of the Virgin: it is called Guadalupe Tepeyac. EZLN spokesperson Subcomandante Marcos wrote a humorous letter in 1995 describing the EZLN bickering over what to do with a Guadalupe statue they had received as a gift.[79]

text: Mexican culture[edit]

text: Harringon argues that:

text: Hernán Cortés, the Conquistador who overthrew the Aztec empire in 1521, was a native of Extremadura, home to Our Lady of Guadalupe. By the 16th century the Extremadura Guadalupe, a statue of the Virgin said to be carved by Saint Luke the Evangelist, was already a national icon. It was found at the beginning of the 14th century when the Virgin appeared to a humble shepherd and ordered him to dig at the site of the apparition. The recovered Virgin then miraculously helped to expel the Moors from Spain, and her small shrine evolved into the great Guadalupe monastery.

text: According to the traditional account, the name of Guadalupe was chosen by the Virgin herself when she appeared on the hill outside Mexico City in 1531, ten years after the Conquest.[81]

text: Guadalupe continues to be a mixture of the cultures which blended to form Mexico, both racially and religiously,[82] "the first mestiza",[83] or "the first Mexican".[84] "bringing together people of distinct cultural heritages, while at the same time affirming their distinctness."[85] As Jacques Lafaye wrote in Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe, "as the Christians built their first churches with the rubble and the columns of the ancient pagan temples, so they often borrowed pagan customs for their own cult purposes."[86] The author Judy King asserts that Guadalupe is a "common denominator" uniting Mexicans. Writing that Mexico is composed of a vast patchwork of differences – linguistic, ethnic, and class-based – King says "The Virgin of Guadalupe is the rubber band that binds this disparate nation into a whole."[84] The Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes once said that "you cannot truly be considered a Mexican unless you believe in the Virgin of Guadalupe."[87] Nobel Literature laureate Octavio Paz wrote in 1974 that "the Mexican people, after more than two centuries of experiments, have faith only in the Virgin of Guadalupe and the National Lottery".[88]

text: In Literature and Film[edit]

text: One notable reference in literature to La Virgen of Guadalupe and her predecessor, the Aztec Earth goddess Tonantzín, is in Sandra Cisneros' short story "Little Miracles, Kept Promises," from her collection Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories (1991). Cisneros' story is constructed out of brief notes that people give Our Lady of Guadalupe in thanks for favors received, which in Cisneros' hands becomes a portrait of an extended Chicano community living throughout Texas. "Little Miracles" ends with an extended narrative (pp. 124–29) of a feminist artist, Rosario "Chayo" De Leon, who at first didn't allow images of La Virgen de Guadalupe in her home because she associated her with subservience and suffering, particularly by Mexican women. But when she learns that Guadalupe's shrine is built on the same hill in Mexico City that had a shrine to Tonantzín, the Aztec Earth goddess and serpent destroyer, Chayo comes to understand that there's a deep, syncretic connection between the Aztec goddess and the Mexican saint; together they inspire Chayo's new artistic creativity, inner strength, and independence. In Chayo's words, "I finally understood who you are. No longer Mary the mild, but our mother Tonantzín. Your church at Tepeyac built on the site of her temple" (128).[89]

text: Our Lady of Guadalupe, Juan Diego, and the tilma have been investigated through film several times in recent history. One of the most notable and thorough filmic investigations was done by director Tim Watkins in the 2013 film The Blood & The Rose.[90] Documentarians have been portraying the message of Our Lady of Guadalupe since the 1990s in an attempt to bring the message of the apparition to the North American audience.

text: Catholic Church[edit]

text: Papal Honors[edit]

text: Several Supreme Pontiffs have honored the image, specifically:

text:
Pope Benedict XIV, in the Papal bull Non Est Equidem of 25 May 1754, declared Our Lady of Guadalupe patroness of what was then named New Spain, corresponding to Spanish Central and Northern America, and approved liturgical texts for the Mass and the Breviary in her honor.
Pope Leo XIII granted new texts in 1891 and on 8 February 1887 authorized the canonical coronation of the image, which occurred on 12 October 1895.
Pope St. Pius X proclaimed her patron of Latin America in 1910.
Pope Pius XI declared Our Lady of Guadalupe the "Heavenly Patroness of the Philippines" on 16 July 1935 and the relevant Apostolic Letter was signed by Vatican Secretary of State Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli (later Pope Pius XII).[49][91][92] This was revised on 12 September 1942, when Pope Pius XII, by the Apostolic Letter Impositi Nobis constituted and declared the Blessed Virgin Mary under the title Immaculate Conception as "Principal and Universal Patroness of the Philippine Islands", with Saint Pudentiana and Saint Rose of Lima constituted and declared to be the secondary patronesses.[93]
Pope Pius XII accorded her the title "Queen of Mexico and Empress of the Americas" in 1945, and "Patroness of the Americas" in 1946.
Pope St. John XXIII invoked her as "Mother of the Americas" in 1961, referring to her as Mother and Teacher of the Faith of All American populations.
Bl. Pope Paul VI gave the image a Golden Rose on 20 March 1966.[94][95]
Pope St. John Paul II visited her shrine on 26 January 1979, and again when he beatified Juan Diego there on 6 May 1990. In 1992, he dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe a chapel within Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. At the request of the Special Assembly for the Americas of the Synod of Bishops, he reiterated her title of Patroness of the Americas on 22 January 1999 and granted the rank of solemnity in that region. The same Supreme Pontiff included in the General Roman Calendar as an optional memorial the liturgical celebration of Our Lady of Guadalupe on 12 December.[94]
Pope Francis granted the image a second Golden Rose via Cardinal Marc Ouellet for presentation at the Basilica on 18 November 2013.[96] The same Supreme Pontiff granted a new gold-plated silver crown with an accompanying prayer to the image during his apostolic visit to the Basilica on 13 February 2016. On the crown was inscribed "Mater Mea, Spes Mea" ("My Mother [and] My Hope").

text: Pious Beliefs and Devotions[edit]

text: Protection from damage[edit]

text: Roman Catholic sources claim that the original image has many miraculous and supernatural properties, including that the tilma has maintained its structural integrity for approximately 500 years despite exposure to soot, candle wax, incense, constant manual veneration by devotees, the historical fact that the image was displayed without any protective glass for its first 115 years, while replicas normally endure for only circa 15 years before degrading,[97] and that it repaired itself with no external assistance after a 1791 accident in which nitric acid was spilled on its top right, causing considerable damage but leaving the aureola of the Virgin intact.

text: Furthermore, on 14 November 1921 a bomb hidden within a basket of flowers and left under the tilma by an anti-Catholic secularist exploded and damaged the altar of the Basilica that houses the original image, but the tilma was unharmed. A brass standing crucifix, bent by the explosion, is now preserved at the shrine's museum and is believed to be miraculous by devotees.[98]

text: Other Supernatural Qualities[edit]

text: In 1929 and 1951 photographers claimed to have found a figure reflected in the Virgin's eyes; upon inspection they said that the reflection was tripled in what is called the Purkinje effect, commonly found in human eyes.[99] An ophthalmologist, Dr. Jose Aste Tonsmann, later enlarged an image of the Virgin's eyes by 2500x and claimed to have found not only the aforementioned single figure, but images of all the witnesses present when the tilma was first revealed before Zumárraga in 1531, plus a small family group of mother, father, and a group of children, in the center of the Virgin's eyes, fourteen people in all.[100]

text: Numerous Catholic websites repeat the claim[101] that in 1936 biochemist Richard Kuhn analyzed a sample of the fabric and announced that the pigments used were from no known source, whether animal, mineral, or vegetable.[100]. According to The Wonder of Guadalupe by Francis Johnston, this was requested by Professor Hahn and Professor Marcelino Junco, retired professor of organic chemistry at the National University of Mexico.

text: Dr. Philip Serna Callahan, who photographed the icon under infrared light, declared from his photographs that portions of the face, hands, robe, and mantle had been painted in one step, with no sketches or corrections and no visible brush strokes.[102]

text: Veneration[edit]

text: The shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe is the most visited Catholic pilgrimage destination in the world. Over the Friday and Saturday of December 11 to 12, 2009, a record number of 6.1 million pilgrims visited the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City to commemorate the anniversary of the apparition.[103]

text: The Virgin of Guadalupe is considered the Patroness of Mexico and the Continental Americas; she is also venerated by Native Americans, on the account of the devotion calling for the conversion of the Americas. Replicas of the tilma can be found in thousands of churches throughout the world, and numerous parishes bear her name.

text: Due to a claim that her black girdle indicates pregnancy on the image, the Blessed Virgin Mary, under this title is popularly invoked as Patroness of the Unborn and a common image for the Pro-Life movement.

text: Churches named in honor of Our Lady of Guadalupe[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
The Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe, the shrine founded on the original site on Tepeyac Hill in Mexico City, Mexico.
The Basílica of Guadalupe in Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico.
The Cathedral of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Zamora, Michoacán, Mexico.
The Cathedral Santuario de Guadalupe in Dallas, Texas, United States.
The Shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe, in La Crosse, Wisconsin, United States.
Our Lady of Guadalupe Seminary, the English-language seminary of the Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter in Denton, Nebraska, United States.
El Santuario de Guadalupe, Santa Fe, New Mexico: the oldest extant shrine to Our Lady of Guadalupe in the United States.
The Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Guadalupe, California.
The Cathedral of Our Lady of Guadalupe of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Basse-Terre, on the Lesser Antillian island and French overseas department Guadeloupe, which is also denominated in her honor.
The Cathedral of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Ponce, Puerto Rico.
The Diocesan Shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Pagsanjan, Laguna, Philippines.
The National Shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Makati City, Philippines.
The Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Puchong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
The Abbey of the Dormition in Jerusalem, Israel houses a mosaic of Our Lady of Guadalupe in its interior.


document_title: Lights (Journey song)

question_text: who sings when the lights go down in the city

root

text: Lights (Journey song)

text: Background and writing[edit]

text: The song is a ballad about Journey's city of origin, San Francisco, although it was actually written in and originally intended to be about Los Angeles. It was one of Steve Perry's first Journey songs, and was recorded soon after joining the band. In an interview, Perry said, "I had the song written in Los Angeles almost completely except for the bridge and it was written about Los Angeles. It was 'when the lights go down in the city and the sun shines on LA.' I didn't like the way it sounded at the time. And so I just had it sitting back in the corner. Then life changed my plans once again, and I was now facing joining Journey. I love San Francisco, the bay, and the whole thing. 'The bay' fit so nice, 'When the lights go down in the city and the sun shines on the bay.' It was one of those early-morning-going-across-the-bridge things, when the sun was coming up and the lights were going down. It was perfect." [2]

tag: p

text: Released as a single in 1978, it was originally a minor hit, reaching number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 at the time.[3]  It has, however, become more popular over the years and is now one of Journey's most popular and easily recognizable songs and is often played in Classic Hits/Oldies radio stations. It is frequently played at San Francisco Giants baseball games (including versions led by Perry himself at Game 2 of the 2010 World Series[4] and Games 1[5] and 2[6] of the 2012 World Series) and the cross-bay Oakland Athletics after-game fireworks starts. The song is now usually played at Levi's Stadium when the NFL San Francisco 49ers win a home game. It is sometimes used in promos for the Golden State Warriors.

text: Journey released a live version of the song in 1993 for the Time³ box set.  This recording reached #30 on the Adult Contemporary chart.[7]

text: The song was the last to be played during the Top 40 era of KFRC 610, a legendary San Francisco station, before the flip to a nostalgia/adult standards format in 1986.[8]

text: KIII of Corpus Christi, Texas used this song during their sign offs in the late 1980s.

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Steve Perry – lead vocals
Neal Schon – guitars, backing vocals
Gregg Rolie – keyboards, backing vocals
Ross Valory – bass guitar, backing vocals
Aynsley Dunbar – drums

tag: ul


document_title: Uzzah

question_text: who was killed for touching the ark of the covenant

text: Uzzah

text: According to the Tanakh, Uzzah or Uzza, meaning strength, was an Israelite whose death is associated with touching the Ark of the Covenant.

text: Uzzah was the son of Abinadab, in whose house the men of Kirjath-jearim placed the Ark when it was brought back from the land of the Philistines.[1] With his brother Ahio, he drove the cart on which the ark was placed when David sought to bring it up to Jerusalem. When the oxen stumbled, Uzzah steadied the ark with his hand, in direct violation of the divine law,[2] and he was immediately killed for his error. David, displeased because the Lord had killed Uzzah,[3] called the place where this occurred Perez-uzzah, which means "to burst out against Uzzah".[4] David was afraid to bring the ark any further, and placed it in the house of Obed-edom the Gittite[5] for three months. The Lord then blessed Obed-edom and David went and brought up the ark of God into the city of David.[3]

text: Other[edit]

text: Uzzah, son of Shimei, a Merarite.[6]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ 1 Samuel 7:1

Jump up ^ Numbers 4:15

^ Jump up to: a b "www.Bibler.org - Dictionary - Uzzah". 2012-06-06.

Jump up ^ 2 Samuel 6:8 and 1 Chronicles 13:11, wording used by the New Living Translation

Jump up ^ 2 Samuel 6:2-11; 1 Chronicles 13:6-13

Jump up ^ "1 Chronicles 6:29". 2012-06-06.

tag: ol


document_title: History of the Los Angeles Raiders

question_text: when did the raiders move to los angeles

text: History of the Los Angeles Raiders

text: History[edit]

text: Start[edit]

text: Prior to the 1980 season, Al Davis attempted unsuccessfully to have improvements made to the Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, specifically the addition of luxury boxes. That year, he signed a Memorandum of Agreement to move the Raiders from Oakland to Los Angeles. The move, which required three-fourths approval by league owners, was defeated 22–0 (with five owners abstaining). When Davis tried to move the team anyway, he was blocked by an injunction. In response, the Raiders not only became an active partner in an antitrust lawsuit filed by the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (who had recently lost the Los Angeles Rams), but filed an antitrust lawsuit of their own.[1] After the first case was declared a mistrial, in May 1982 a second jury found in favor of Davis and the Los Angeles Coliseum, clearing the way for the move.[2][3][4] With the ruling, the Raiders finally relocated to Los Angeles for the 1982 season to play their home games at the Los Angeles Coliseum.

text: The team finished 8–1 in the strike-shortened 1982 season, first in the AFC, but lost in the second round of the playoffs to the New York Jets. The following season, the team finished 12–4 and won convincingly against the Steelers and Seattle Seahawks in the AFC playoffs. Against the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVIII, the Raiders built a 21–3 halftime lead en route to a 38–9 victory and their third NFL championship. The team had another successful regular season in 1984, finishing 11–5, but a three-game losing streak forced them to enter the playoffs as a wildcard, where they fell to the Seahawks. The 1985 campaign saw 12 wins and a division title, but that was followed by an embarrassing home loss to the Patriots.

text: 1986–1989: Struggles, beginning of the end[edit]

text: The Raiders' fortunes declined after that, and from 1986 through 1989, the team finished no better than 8–8 and posted consecutive losing seasons for the first time since 1961–62. Also 1986 saw Al Davis get into a widely publicized argument with RB Marcus Allen, whom he accused of faking injuries. The feud continued into 1987, and Davis retaliating by signing Bo Jackson in Allen's place. However, Jackson was also a left fielder for the Kansas City Royals, and could not play full-time until baseball season ended in October. Even worse, another strike cost the NFL one game and prompted them to use substitute players. The Raiders fill-ins achieved a 1–2 record before the regular team returned. After a weak 5–10 finish, Tom Flores moved to the front office and was replaced by Denver Broncos offensive assistant coach Mike Shanahan. Shanahan led the team to a 7–9 season in 1988, and Allen and Jackson continued to trade places as the starting RB. Low game attendance and fan apathy were evident by this point, and In the summer of 1988, rumors of a Raiders return to Oakland intensified when a preseason game against the Houston Oilers was scheduled at Oakland Coliseum.[5]

text: As early as 1986, Davis began to seek a new, more modern stadium away from the Coliseum and the dangerous neighborhood that surrounded it at the time (which caused the NFL to schedule the Raiders' Monday Night Football appearances as away games). In addition to sharing the venue with the USC Trojans, the Coliseum was aging and still lacked the luxury suites and other amenities that Davis was promised when he moved the Raiders to Los Angeles.[6] Finally, the Coliseum had 100,000 seats and was rarely able to fill all of them, and so most Raiders home games were blacked out on television. In August 1987, it was announced that the city of Irwindale paid Davis $10 million as a good-faith deposit for a prospective stadium site.[7] When the bid failed, Davis kept the non-refundable deposit.[8][9]

text: 1989–1994: Final years[edit]

text: Negotiations with Oakland[edit]

text: Negotiations between Davis and Oakland commenced in January 1989, and on March 11, 1990, Davis announced his intention to bring the Raiders back to Oakland.[10] By September 1990, however, numerous delays had prevented the completion of the deal between Davis and Oakland. On September 11, Davis announced a new deal to stay in Los Angeles, leading many fans in Oakland to burn Raiders paraphernalia in disgust.[11][12]

text: New coach[edit]

text: After starting the 1989 season with a 1–3 record, Shanahan was fired by Davis, which began a long-standing feud between the two.[13] He was replaced by former Raider offensive lineman Art Shell, who had been voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame earlier in the year. With the hiring, Shell became the first African American head coach in the modern NFL era, but the team still finished a middling 8–8.[14] In 1990, Shell led Los Angeles to a 12–4 record. They beat the Bengals in the divisional round of the playoffs, but Bo Jackson had his left femur ripped from the socket after a tackle. Without him, the Raiders were crushed in the AFC Championship by the Buffalo Bills. Jackson was forced to quit football as a result, although surgery allowed him to continue playing baseball until he retired in 1994.

text: Postseason losses[edit]

text: The team's fortunes faded after the loss. They made two other playoff appearances during the 1990s, and finished higher than third place only three times. The Todd Marinovich fiasco overshadowed the Raiders' 1991 and 1992 efforts. Marinovich was groomed from childhood to play football; his strict upbringing led to him being called "Robo QB" in the sports press. He attended USC and was the 24th overall pick in the 1991 draft. However, he struggled on field and was cut after the 1992 season due to repeated substance abuse problems. In 1991, they got into the postseason as a wild card after a 9–7 regular season, but fell to Kansas City. 1992 saw them drop to 7–9. This period was marked by the injury of Jackson in 1991, the failure of troubled quarterback Todd Marinovich, the acrimonious departure of Marcus Allen in 1993, and the retirement of Hall of Fame defensive end Howie Long after the 1993 season, where the Raiders went 10–6 and lost to Buffalo in the divisional round of the playoffs. Shell was fired after posting a 9–7 record in the 1994 season.

text: Shell's five-plus-year tenure as head coach in Los Angeles was marked particularly by a bitter dispute between star running back Marcus Allen and Al Davis. The exact source of the friction is completely unknown but a contract dispute led Davis to refer to Allen as "a cancer on the team."[15] By the late 1980s, injuries began to reduce Allen's role in the offense. This role was reduced further in 1987, when the Raiders drafted Bo Jackson—even though he originally decided to not play professional football in 1986 (when drafted by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the first round).[16] By 1990, Allen had dropped to fourth on the team's depth chart, leading to resentment on the part of his teammates. In late 1992 Allen lashed out publicly at Davis, and accused him of trying to ruin his career.[17][18] In 1993, Allen left to play for the rival Kansas City Chiefs.

text: End of the Los Angeles Raiders[edit]

text: In May 1995 after the departure of the Rams' for St. Louis, the owners of the National Football League teams approved with a 27–1 vote with two abstentions, a resolution supporting a plan to build a $200 million, privately financed stadium on property owned by Hollywood Park in Inglewood for the Raiders. Al Davis balked and refused the deal over a stipulation that he would have to accept a second team at the stadium.[19]

text: On June 23, 1995, Davis signed a letter of intent to move the Raiders back to Oakland. The move was approved by the Alameda County Board of Supervisors the next month,[20] as well as by the NFL. The move was greeted with much fanfare,[21] and under new head coach Mike White. Hollywood Park would later become the site of an NFL Stadium for their former rivals, the Los Angeles Rams, set to open in 2020.

text: Attempted return to Los Angeles[edit]

text: On February 19, 2015, the Raiders and the Chargers announced that they would build a privately financed $1.78 billion stadium in Carson, California if they were to move to the Los Angeles market.[22] Both teams stated that they would continue to attempt to get stadiums built in their respective cities.[23]

text: On April 22, 2015, the Carson City Council bypassed the option to put the stadium to public vote and approved the plan 3–0.[24] The council voted without having clarified several issues, including who would finance the stadium, how the required three-way land swap would be performed, and how it would raise enough revenue if only one team moved in as tenant.[25][26]

text: On May 19, 2015, the Chargers and Raiders announced that they had finalized a deal to secure land in Carson which was transferred to a joint powers authority in Carson after the 157-acre site was purchased by Carson Holdings a company set up by the two teams.[27]

text: The League was skeptical of the site and seemed to prefer the Rams' stadium plan on a site at Hollywood Park in Inglewood, the same place rejected by the Raiders in 1995. In response, Jerry Richardson, owner of the Carolina Panthers, who supported the plan, convinced Dean Spanos to recruit Bob Iger, CEO of The Walt Disney Company. Iger was appointed non-executive chairman of the Carson stadium project.[28]

text: On January 4, 2016, the Raiders filed for relocation alongside the Chargers and Rams.[29][30]

text: Despite the sales pitch from Bob Iger, many owners held reservations about the Carson site, with Jerry Jones even making a wise crack about Bob Iger.[31] The Committee set up by the league initially recommended the Carson Site,[32] but the Chargers and Raiders were unable to secure the votes they needed to move. After hours of debate, the league voted to allow the St. Louis Rams to move on January 12, 2016 with the San Diego Chargers having the option to join them within a year.

text: It was still possible, however, for the Raiders to move as they could have moved into the Rams' new stadium in Inglewood with the Rams if the Chargers opted to stay in San Diego.[33] On January 12, 2017 the Chargers opted to join the Rams in Los Angeles thereby closing the door on the return of the Raiders to the city although with an AFC West rival playing in Los Angeles, the Raiders get at least one game in Los Angeles each season playing the Los Angeles Chargers.[34]

text: Cultural impact and legacy[edit]

text: The Raiders time in Los Angeles had a large cultural impact on both the Raiders and Los Angeles. During and due to the time that the Raiders were in L.A. there was an explosion of popularity in both the team and the Raiders brand due to being in America's second largest media market, the team's early success and the exposure the brand got by way of Hollywood celebrities and most notably the gangsta rap group N.W.A. wearing Raider gear. This period is chronicled by the ESPN 30 for 30 documentary Straight Outta L.A.. This period is also considered by many to have been the beginnings of Raider Nation.

text: Today Los Angeles and Southern California continue to have a vary large number of Raider fans. Many after the Raiders left LA began to travel to Oakland to see the Raiders play. The Southern California fans are considered essential to the Raiders approved and planned relocation to Las Vegas being successful.


document_title: Don't Tell the Bride

question_text: how much money do they get on dont tell the bride

text: Don't Tell the Bride

text: Broadcast history[edit]

text: The series first premiered on BBC Three on 8 November 2007. In February 2012, it was announced that the show had been nominated for a Rose d'Or award for best 'Factual Entertainment' show.[2] Due to the impending shutdown of BBC Three as a linear television service, the 9th series of the programme was moved to BBC One.[3] With the confirmed shutdown of BBC Three, as well as falling viewership in response to changes in the programme's format that occurred upon the move, the BBC dropped Don't Tell the Bride. The series was then picked up for its 2016 series by Sky 1.[4][5][6] In 2017, it moved to E4 where it would broadcast a new 18-episode series later that year.[7]

text: Format[edit]

text: The show's format consists of a couple who are given £12,000 (£14,000 in the BBC One and E4 versions) to spend on their wedding. However, they must spend three weeks apart without contact, and the bridegroom must organise every aspect of the event and attire, including the wedding dress, as well as the hen and stag parties, surprising the bride.[8]

text: Although the series mostly features heterosexual couples, one episode broadcast in October 2010 featured a gay couple and another in November 2011 featured a lesbian couple, both preparing for their civil partnership.[9]

text: Reception[edit]

text:
Nominated: Factual Entertainment – Rose d'Or 2012
Nominated: Reality & Constructed Factual – British Academy Television Awards 2012

text: Transmissions[edit]

text:
Series
Start date
End date
Episodes

1
8 November 2007
20 December 2007
6

2
26 August 2008
30 September 2008
6

3
1 September 2009
10 November 2009
11

4
17 August 2010
2 November 2010
12

5
6 September 2011
29 November 2011
12

6
14 August 2012
30 October 2012
12

7
20 August 2013
5 November 2013
12

8
5 August 2014
21 October 2014
12

9
5 August 2015
21 October 2015
12

10
28 October 2015
15 December 2015
8

tag: table

text:
Series
Start date
End date
Episodes

11
24 June 2015
29 July 2015
6

text:
Series
Start date
End date
Episodes

12
21 July 2016
6 October 2016
12

text:
Series
Start date
End date
Episodes

13
26 July 2017[10]
TBA
18[11]

text: Specials[edit]

text:
Title
Air date
Host

Most Memorable Moments
12 January 2016
Stacey Dooley

Bridezillas & Bromances
5 January 2016

Mad, Bad & Dangerous
29 December 2015

Christmas Special Clip Show
22 December 2015

Let it Snow
22 December 2014
N/A

Christmas on the Slopes
19 December 2013
Rebekah Staton

Christmas on Ice
18 December 2012
N/A

Christmas Revenge 2012
11 December 2012

Goes Global
6 November 2012
Ellie Taylor

Best Ever
14 August 2012
Scott Mills

Greatest Moments Countdown
15 April–13 June 2012
Cherry Healey

Mother's Day
13 March 2012
N/A

Valentine's
13 February 2012

Don't Tell the Bride-to-be: The Proposals
13 February 2012

Christmas in Wonderland
20 December 2011

Christmas Revenge
13 December 2011

Live: Royal Wedding Special
29 April 2011
Cherry Healey

Greatest Moments 2011
28 April 2011

Greatest Moments 2010
23 November 2010
Patsy Palmer

The Brides' Revenge
21 April 2010
N/A

text: International versions[edit]

text: Internationally, the series has attracted a strong following, with broadcast deals spanning 120 territories.

text: As of 2012, twelve locally produced versions have aired around the world. They are: Australia, Denmark (TV 2, 2009–), Finland (Liv), Greece & Cyprus (ANT1, 2011), Germany (RTL II, 2011–), Ireland (RTÉ, 2010–), Italy (Lei), Norway (TLC Norway), Poland (TLC Poland, 2011), Sweden (TV4), Turkey and United States. Various clips from some versions were shown in the 'Goes Global' special in 2012.

text: The UK version has also been picked up by Russian broadcaster TLC, Vivolta in France, NHK in Japan and RTL Nederland in the Netherlands, who has secured an option to produce a local version of the format.[12]

text: An Irish version of the show airs on RTÉ Two since 2010.[13] A two episode Irish special, in which the couple's budget was €10,000, was first broadcast in May 2011 on RTÉ.[14] A full series was aired in 2012.[15] The Irish version also airs on Living in New Zealand and on Really in the UK.[16]

text: In October 2011, the first series of the US version of Don't Tell The Bride was shown on OWN. In this version, the groom is given USD $25,000 to spend.[17] In 2013, the series is being produced by Shed Media US for the USA Network. Shed Media conducted casting for the series between 14 June 2013 through 19 July 2013.[18]

text: On 21 August 2012, an Australian version of Don't Tell the Bride began airing on Network Ten. Kate Ritchie was the narrator.[19] In this version, the groom is given A$25,000 to organise the entire wedding. It was cancelled after one season.

text: In November 2013, a similarly formatted Welsh-language reality television show titled Priodas Pum Mil premiered on S4C.


document_title: Rikki-Tikki-Tavi

question_text: what are the snakes names in rikki tikki tavi

text: Rikki-Tikki-Tavi

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: The story follows the experiences of a mongoose named Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (for his chattering vocalizations) after he is adopted into a British family residing in India, as a pet and as protection against cobras.

text: After becoming friendly with some of the other creatures inhabiting the garden, Rikki is warned of two cobras Nag and Nagaina, who are angered by the family's presence on their territory. Accordingly, Nag enters the house's bathroom before dawn to kill the humans and make Rikki leave so their babies will grow in a safe place without worries. Nag is subsequently ambushed and attacked by Rikki from behind. The struggle that ensues awakens the human family and the father kills Nag with a shotgun.

text: The grieving Nagaina attempts revenge against Rikki's humans, cornering them as they have breakfast on an outdoor veranda. While she is distracted by a female tailor bird, Rikki destroys the cobra's unhatched brood of eggs except for one. He carries it to where Nagaina is threatening to bite the child Teddy while his parents watch helplessly.

text: Nagaina recovers her egg, but is pursued by Rikki away from the house to the cobra's underground nest where an unseen final battle takes place. Rikki emerges triumphant from the hole declaring Nagaina dead. His subsequent role is to protect the family by keeping the garden free from any future intrusion by snakes.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text: In 1965, in the Soviet Union, at the film studio "Soyuzmultfilm," the director Alexandra Snezhko-Blotskaya shot an animated short of the story, titled Рикки тикки тави (Rikki-Tikki-Tavi). Ten years later, Chuck Jones adapted the story for a half hour television special in the United States, and four years later, Aleksandr Zguridi and Nana Kldiashvili directed a live action feature film titled Rikki-Tikki-Tavi.[2]

text: Literature[edit]

text: There have been numerous book adaptions,[3] including:

text:
Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and Other Animal Stories (1984), illustrated by Charles Keeping[4]
Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (1997), illustrated by Jerry Pinkney

text: Music[edit]

text: Three related songs are:

text:
Donovan's "Riki Tiki Tavi" on his album from 1970, Open Road, in which Donovan compares the little mongoose to large institutions, such as the church and the government.
"Rikki Tikki Tavi" is a song by alternative metal band Fair to Midland on their 2011 album Arrows and Anchors.
Boneske's song "Nagaina"
A composition by Alfred Schnittke made for the 1975 film of the same name.
Tatsuro Yamashita includes the line "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" in the chorus of his song "夏への扉"


document_title: Skin of my teeth

question_text: where did the saying by the skin of your teeth come from

text: Skin of my teeth

text: Skin of my teeth (Hebrew: ע֣וֹר שִׁנָּֽי ‘ō-wr šin-nāy) is a phrase from the Bible. In Job 19:20, the King James Version of the Bible says, "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth." In the Geneva Bible, the phrase is rendered as "I have escaped with the skinne of my tethe."[1]

text: In modern times, "by the skin of my teeth" is used to describe a situation from which one barely managed to escape.

text: Cultural references to the phrase[edit]

text:
Skin o' My Teeth—Megadeth used this phrase as a song name in their 1992 album, Countdown to Extinction, referring to the theme of a failed suicide attempt.
The Skin of Our Teeth—A play by Thornton Wilder with multiple Biblical allusions.
Skin o' My Tooth—A book by Baroness Emma Orczy in which the phrase is a nickname of the main character, a lawyer. The nickname is given by a client who says that he was freed "by the skin o' my tooth."