document_title: Chris Isaak

question_text: who did chris isaak play in silence of the lambs

text: Chris Isaak

text: Early life[edit]

text: Family[edit]

text: Isaak was born in Stockton, California,[2] at St. Joseph's Medical Center,[4] the son of Dorothy (née Vignolo), a potato chip factory worker, and Joe Isaak (1929–2012), a forklift driver. His father's family is Catholic Black Sea German from North Dakota. Isaak's mother is Italian American, from Genoa.[5]

text: Education[edit]

text: Isaak attended Amos Alonzo Stagg High School in north Stockton, graduating in 1974. He was class president all three years, culminating with his election as Student Body President in his senior year, along with being the 1974 graduating class valedictorian and head of the all-male cheer squad. He subsequently attended a local college, San Joaquin Delta Community College, before transferring to the University of the Pacific, graduating with a bachelor's degree in English and Communications Arts in 1981.[6] He also was in an exchange program which allowed him to study in Japan.[7] After graduating from college, Isaak put together his first band, Silvertone. This rockabilly outfit consisted of James Calvin Wilsey (guitar), Rowland Salley (bass) and Kenney Dale Johnson (drums), who remained with Isaak as his permanent backing band.[7]

text: Career[edit]

text: Music career[edit]

text: In 1985, Isaak signed a contract with Warner Bros. Records, and released his first album, Silvertone,[2] to critical acclaim, including from John Fogerty.[8] The name was taken from the band he formed after graduating college. The album's sound was raw and diverse, mingling country blues with conventional folk ballads.[7] Although the album was a critical success, it failed to sell respectably.[9] Two tracks from the album, "Gone Ridin'" and "Livin' for Your Lover," featured in David Lynch's cult classic Blue Velvet. Isaak's self-titled follow-up album was released in 1986, and managed to scrape into the Billboard Top 200.[9] The album saw Isaak hone his style to sophisticated R&B.[7] The artwork for Chris Isaak, was photographed by fashion photographer Bruce Weber. Isaak's contract was renewed in 1988 when Warner Bros. moved him to their Reprise Records label. "Suspicion of Love" appears in the 1988 hit movie Married to the Mob starring Matthew Modine, Michelle Pfeiffer and Dean Stockwell.[citation needed]

text: Isaak's best known song is "Wicked Game."[2] First released on the 1989 album Heart Shaped World, an instrumental version of the song was subsequently featured in the 1990 David Lynch film Wild at Heart.[2] Lee Chesnut, an Atlanta radio station music director who was obsessed with Lynch films, played the vocal version and it became the station's most-requested song. Chesnut spread the word to other radio stations and the single became a national Top 10 hit in February 1991. It also reached No. 10 in the UK Singles Chart.[10] The music video for the song was directed by Herb Ritts and was a MTV and VH1 hit; shot in black and white, it featured Isaak and supermodel Helena Christensen in a sensual encounter on the beach, caressing each other and whispering erotically in each other's ears. Another less-seen version of "Wicked Game" is directed by David Lynch and comprises scenes from the film Wild at Heart. "Wicked Game" featured as the backing music in the 2001 TV advertisement for the Jaguar X-Type in the UK. In 1995, Isaak split with longtime guitarist James Calvin Wilsey. That year's Forever Blue album and the accompanying tour featured Hershel Yatovitz on guitar.

text: In an interview with Mark Needham, an engineer who worked with Isaak on "Wicked Game," Needham claimed that it took several years to put the track together.[11]

text: In 1999, Isaak's "Baby Did a Bad, Bad Thing" was featured in Stanley Kubrick's final film, Eyes Wide Shut. The song is on his 1995 Forever Blue album. The music video for the song is directed by Herb Ritts, it was shot in color and featured Isaak and French supermodel Laetitia Casta in a motel room. This was Isaak's second collaboration with Ritts.

text: Isaak composed a theme song for U.S. late-night television variety/talk show, The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn. In 2001, Isaak starred in his own television show, The Chris Isaak Show. It aired from March 2001 to March 2004 in the United States on the cable television network Showtime. This adult comedy show featured Isaak and his band playing themselves and the episode plots were based on fictional accounts of the backstage world of Isaak—the rock star next door. In 2004, his track "Life Will Go On" was featured on Chasing Liberty's soundtrack, which starred Mandy Moore and Matthew Goode. His track "Two Hearts" was featured in the closing credits of the 1993 film True Romance, directed by Tony Scott, written by Quentin Tarantino, and starring Christian Slater and Patricia Arquette.

text: Isaak's producer, Erik Jacobsen, was instrumental in his sound for 15 years. Jacobsen is known for his production work with The Lovin' Spoonful, and solo albums from Spoonful's John Sebastian and Jerry Yester. Isaak ceased working with Jacobsen on his 2002 album, Always Got Tonight. In 2007 Isaak opened for Stevie Nicks on her Crystal Visions Tour during the first leg of the tour.[citation needed]

text: In 2006, he was guested by Johnny Hallyday to cover Fats Domino's hit Blueberry Hill. The duet was recorded and issued on Johnny Hallyday's live album La Cigale (2007, Warner Music). At the end of this record you can hear Isaak thanking the French Rock'n'Roll star as "The King."

text: Isaak collaborated with John Shanks for his 2009 album Mr. Lucky. He contributed a cover of Buddy Holly's "Crying, Waiting, Hoping" for a tribute album, Listen to Me: Buddy Holly, released in September 2011.[citation needed]

text: Isaak released an album called Beyond the Sun, which was recorded in Memphis, Tennessee at the Sun Records studio.On 7 September 2015, it was announced that Isaak would be performing at the 2015 AFL Grand Final, along with English singer Ellie Goulding and Canadian musician Bryan Adams.[12]

text: In 2016, he did the "First Comes the Night Tour."[13]

text: Guitars[edit]

text: Isaak revealed in a 2002 interview with Acoustic Guitar that he uses a one-of-a-kind Gibson:

text: For my electric, I've got a one-off Gibson version of a Gretsch 6120, a sort of Chet Atkins thing. They made one of these things and gave it to me to see if I liked it, and I liked it so much I've been playing it ever since. People told me they thought it was a White Falcon, but it's not. It's just a white Gibson. I don't think they ever manufactured any of the things. They strung up this one prototype, scratched their heads, and said, 'Huh. Give it to Isaak.'[14]

text: Isaak also plays a Gibson J-200 acoustic guitar, which he uses for songwriting.[15]

text: Acting and other work[edit]

text: Isaak has appeared in numerous films, mostly playing cameo roles. He starred, however, with Keanu Reeves and Bridget Fonda in the 1993 Bernardo Bertolucci-directed Little Buddha, and played a major role in David Lynch's Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (1992). Other motion pictures include Married to the Mob (1988), The Silence of the Lambs (1991), That Thing You Do! (1996), A Dirty Shame (2004), and The Informers (2008).[citation needed]

text: Isaak starred in The Chris Isaak Show (2001–2004) playing himself and featuring actual members of his band along with actors and celebrity guests.

text: He guest-starred on "The One After the Superbowl, Part One," the Super Bowl XXX edition of the television sitcom Friends; and on the HBO miniseries, From the Earth to the Moon, as astronaut Ed White, the first American astronaut to leave the confines of his spacecraft, who later died in the 1967 Apollo 1 fire.

text: The Biography Channel aired The Chris Isaak Hour, a one-hour music interview and performance show in 2009.[16] The series premiere featured Trisha Yearwood, and included the first ever performance of "Breaking Apart," a duet from Isaak's new album, Mr. Lucky. Additional guests included Stevie Nicks, Smashing Pumpkins, Chicago, Glen Campbell, Michael Bublé, Yusuf Islam (formerly Cat Stevens), and Jewel.[citation needed]

text: In April 2010, Isaak was the special guest during Conan O'Brien's The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour performance at the Nob Hill Masonic Center in San Francisco, California.

text: On September 29, 2011, Isaak received the Stockton Arts Commission STAR Award in his hometown of Stockton, California.[17]

text: In 2014, he voiced the character of "Enoch," the apparent ruler of the town of Pottsfield, in the second episode of Over the Garden Wall, "Hard Times at the Huskin' Bee."

text: On 3 May 2015, Isaak was confirmed to be replacing Redfoo on the seventh season of The X Factor Australia.[18] He joins James Blunt and returning judges Guy Sebastian and Dannii Minogue.[19]

text: Discography[edit]

text:
Silvertone (1985)
Chris Isaak (1986)
Heart Shaped World (1989)
San Francisco Days (1993)
Forever Blue (1995)
Baja Sessions (1996)
Speak of the Devil (1998)
Always Got Tonight (2002)
Christmas (2004)
Mr. Lucky (2009)
Beyond the Sun (2011)
First Comes the Night (2015)

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Married to the Mob - The Clown (1988)
The Silence of the Lambs - SWAT Commander (1991)
Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me - Special Agent Chester Desmond (1992)
Little Buddha - Dean Conrad (1993)
Grace of My Heart - Matthew Lewis (1996)
That Thing You Do! - Uncle Bob (1996)
Blue Ridge Fall - Emerson Cotswold (1999)
A Dirty Shame - Vaughn Stickles (2004)
The Informers - Les Price (2009)

text: Television[edit]

text:
Wiseguy...Berated lounge singer (Season ?, Episode ?, 1987)
Friends...Rob Donnen (Season 2, Episode 12, 1996) – "The One After the Superbowl"
From the Earth to the Moon...Astronaut Edward White II (1998)
Melrose Place...Himself/Musical Guest (Season 7: Ep. 28 Ryan's Choice 1998)
The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn...Himself (Season 3, Episode 40, June 29, 2001)
The Greatest...Himself (50 Sexiest Video Moments, 2003)
Ed...Jamie Decker (Season 3, Episode 20, 2003) – "Second Chances"
The Greatest...Himself/Host (100 Greatest Videos, 2003)
The Chris Isaak Show...Himself (2001–2004)
American Dreams...Roy Orbison (Season 2, Episode 14, 2004) – "Old Enough to Fight"
The Footy Show...Himself (Grand Final, 2004)
The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson...Michael Caine in Space (Season 2, Episode 177, 2006)
Great Performances Jerry Lee Lewis: Last Man Standing Live...Himself (2007)
The Bill Engvall Show...Himself (Season 1, Episode 6, 2007)
Australian Idol...Himself (Season 6, November 9–10, 2008)
The Chris Isaak Hour...Himself/Host (2009–Present)
George Stroumboulopoulos Tonight ...Himself (Season 2, Episode 23 | October 21, 2011)
Conan ...Himself (Episode 192, January 4, 2012)
Loose Women ...Himself (September 28, 2012)
The Tonight Show...Himself (January 13, 2014)
Hot in Cleveland...Chase Jackson (one episode, 2014)
Over the Garden Wall...Enoch (one episode, 2014)
Adventure Time...7718 (one episode, 2015)
The X Factor Australia ...Himself -Judge/Mentor (2015-)
Sheriff Callie's Wild West ...Johnny Strum (voice) (Season 2, 2016)


document_title: Defense in depth (computing)

question_text: defense in depth strategy focus on what three areas

root

text: Defense in depth (computing)

text: Background[edit]

text: The idea behind the defense in depth approach is to defend a system against any particular attack using several independent methods.[1] It is a layering tactic, conceived by the National Security Agency (NSA) as a comprehensive approach to information and electronic security.[2][3]

tag: p

text: Defense in depth is originally a military strategy that seeks to delay rather than prevent the advance of an attacker by yielding space to buy time. The placement of protection mechanisms, procedures and policies is intended to increase the dependability of an IT system, where multiple layers of defense prevent espionage and direct attacks against critical systems. In terms of computer network defense, defense in depth measures should not only prevent security breaches but also buy an organization time to detect and respond to an attack and so reduce and mitigate the consequences of a breach.

text: Controls[edit]

text: Defense in depth can be divided into three areas: Physical, Technical, and Administrative.[4]

text: Physical controls[edit]

text: Physical controls are anything that physically limits or prevents access to IT systems. Fences, guards, dogs, and CCTV systems and the like.

text: Technical controls[edit]

text: Technical controls are hardware or software whose purpose is to protect systems and resources. Examples of technical controls would be disk encryption, fingerprint readers, and Windows Active Directory. Hardware technical controls differ from physical controls in that they prevent access to the contents of a system, but not the physical systems themselves.

text: Administrative controls[edit]

text: Administrative controls are an organization's policies and procedures. Their purpose is to ensure that there is proper guidance available in regards to security and that regulations are met. They include things such as hiring practices, data handling procedures, and security requirements.

text: Examples[edit]

text: Using more than one of the following layers constitutes defense in depth[citation needed].

text:
Anti virus software
Authentication and password security
Biometrics
Demilitarized zones (DMZ)
Data-centric security
Encryption
Firewalls (hardware or software)
Hashing passwords
Intrusion detection systems (IDS)
Logging and auditing
Multi-factor authentication
Vulnerability scanners
Physical security (e.g. deadbolt locks)
Timed access control
Internet Security Awareness Training
Virtual private network (VPN)
Sandboxing
Intrusion Protection System (IPS)

tag: ul


document_title: OSI model

question_text: which layer s of the osi reference model provide s for internetwork connectivity

text: OSI model

text: History[edit]

text: In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.

text: In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU-T) as standard X.200.

text: OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols.

text: The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6.1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.

text: Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.

text: The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of recommendations.[1] Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.[2]

text: Description of OSI layers[edit]

text: The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.

text:
OSI Model

Layer

Protocol data unit (PDU)

Function[3]

Hostlayers

7. Application

Data

High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file access

6. Presentation

Translation of data between a networking service and an application; including character encoding, data compression and encryption/decryption

5. Session

Managing communication sessions, i.e. continuous exchange of information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes

4. Transport

Segment, Datagram

Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network, including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing

Medialayers

3. Network

Packet

Structuring and managing a multi-node network, including addressing, routing and traffic control

2. Data link

Frame

Reliable transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical layer

1. Physical

Symbol

Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium

tag: table

text: At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol-related headers or footers.

text: Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible devices is done as such:

text:
The data to be transmitted is composed at the topmost layer of the transmitting device (layer N) into a protocol data unit (PDU).
The PDU is passed to layer N-1, where it is known as the service data unit (SDU).
At layer N-1 the SDU is concatenated with a header, a footer, or both, producing a layer N-1 PDU. It is then passed to layer N-2.
The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted to the receiving device.
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header or footer, until reaching the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.

tag: ol

text: Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU-T X.800 Recommendation[4]). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.[citation needed]

text: Layer 1: Physical Layer[edit]

text: The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data between a device and a physical transmission medium. It converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical signals. Layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, the timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and frequency for wireless devices. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer and may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. The components of a physical layer can be described in terms of a network topology. Bluetooth, Ethernet, and USB all have specifications for a physical layer.

text: Layer 2: Data Link Layer[edit]

text:
The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected nodes.  It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer.
It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.

text: IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[5]

text:
Medium access control (MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
Logical link control (LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.

text: The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi, and 802.15.4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.

text: The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.

text: The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window protocol.

text: Layer 3: Network Layer[edit]

text: The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called packets) from one node to another connected in "different networks". A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.

text: Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.

text: A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.[6]

text: Layer 4: Transport Layer[edit]

text: The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host, while maintaining the quality of service functions.

text: The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail delivery. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates segments out of the message received from the application layer. Segmentation is the process of dividing a long message into smaller messages.

text: OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:[7]

text:
Feature name

TP0
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4

Connection-oriented network

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Connectionless network

No
No
No
No
Yes

Concatenation and separation

No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Segmentation and reassembly

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Error recovery

No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Reinitiate connectiona

No
Yes
No
Yes
No

Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single virtual circuit

No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes

Explicit flow control

No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes

Retransmission on timeout

No
No
No
No
Yes

Reliable transport service

No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes

a If an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged.

text: An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at the endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete Layer 2 frames or Layer 3 packets to deliver to the endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport segments.

text: Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.

text: Layer 5: Session Layer[edit]

text: The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.

text: Layer 6: Presentation Layer[edit]

text: The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation protocol data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.

text: This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.[8] The presentation layer can include compression functions.[9] The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.

text: The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML.  ASN.1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.

text: Layer 7: Application Layer[edit]

text: The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application-entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application-entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself.  The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.

text: Cross-layer functions[edit]

text: Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:

text:
Security service (telecommunication)[4] as defined by ITU-T X.800 recommendation.
Management functions, i.e. functions that permit to configure, instantiate, monitor, terminate the communications of two or more entities: there is a specific application-layer protocol, common management information protocol (CMIP) and its corresponding service, common management information service (CMIS), they need to interact with every layer in order to deal with their instances.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) MPLS, ATM, and X.25 are 3a protocols. OSI divides the Network Layer into 3 roles: 3a) Subnetwork Access, 3b) Subnetwork Dependent Convergence and 3c) Subnetwork Independent Convergence. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-switching clients which provide a datagram-based service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. Sometimes one sees reference to a Layer 2.5.
ARP determines the mapping of an IPv4 address to the underlying MAC address. This is not a translation function. If it were IPv4 and the MAC address would be at the same layer. The implementation of the MAC protocol decodes the MAC PDU and delivers the User-Data to the IP-layer. Because Ethernet is a multi-access media, a device sending a PDU on an Ethernet frame needs to know what IP address maps to what MAC address.
DHCP assigns IPv4 addresses to new systems joining a network. There is no means to derive or obtain an IPv4 address from an Ethernet address.
Domain Name Service is an Application Layer service which is used to look up the IP address of a given domain name.  Once a reply is received from the DNS server, it is then possible to form a Layer 4 connection or flow to the desired host. There are no connections at Layer 3.
Cross MAC and PHY Scheduling is essential in wireless networks because of the time varying nature of wireless channels. By scheduling packet transmission only in favorable channel conditions, which requires the MAC layer to obtain channel state information from the PHY layer, network throughput can be significantly improved and energy waste can be avoided.[10]

text: Interfaces[edit]

text: Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation-specific.

text: For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).

text: Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.

text: Examples[edit]

text:
Layer

OSI protocols

TCP/IP protocols

SignalingSystem 7[11]

AppleTalk

IPX

SNA

UMTS

Miscellaneous examples

No.
Name

7

Application

FTAMX.400X.500DAPROSERTSEACSE[12]CMIP[13]

INAPMAPTCAPISUPTUP

AFPZIPRTMPNBP

SAP

APPC

HL7ModbusHTTP

6

Presentation

ISO/IEC 8823X.226ISO/IEC 9576-1X.236

MIMESSLTLSXDR

AFP

TDIASCIIEBCDICMIDIMPEG

5

Session

ISO/IEC 8327X.225ISO/IEC 9548-1X.235

Sockets (session establishment in TCP / RTP / PPTP)

ASPADSPPAP

NWLink

DLC?

Named pipesNetBIOSSAPhalf duplexfull duplexsimplexRPCSOCKS

4

Transport

ISO/IEC 8073TP0TP1TP2TP3TP4 (X.224)ISO/IEC 8602X.234

TCPUDPSCTPDCCP

DDPSPX

NBF

3

Network

ISO/IEC 8208X.25 (PLP) ISO/IEC 8878X.223ISO/IEC 8473-1CLNP X.233ISO/IEC 10589IS-IS

IPIPsecICMPIGMPOSPFRIP

SCCPMTP

ATP (TokenTalk / EtherTalk)

IPX

RRC / BMC

NBFQ.931NDPIS-IS

2

Data link

ISO/IEC 7666X.25 (LAPB)Token BusX.222ISO/IEC 8802-2LLC (type 1 / 2)[14]

PPPSBTVSLIP

MTPQ.710

LocalTalkARAPPP

IEEE 802.3 framingEthernet II framing

SDLC

PDCP[15]LLCMAC

ARPARQATMBit stuffingCDPCRCDOCSISFDDIFDPFibre ChannelFrame RelayHDPHDLCIEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n (Ethernet MAC and LLC)IEEE 802.1Q (VLAN)ISLITU-T G.hn DLLLinux interface bondingPPPQ.921Token Ring

1

Physical

X.25 (X.21bisEIA/TIA-232EIA/TIA-449EIA-530G.703)[14]

MTPQ.710

RS-232RS-422PhoneNet

Twinax

UMTS air interfaces

RS-232Full duplexRJ45 (8P8C)V.35V.34I.430I.431T1E110BASE-T100BASE-TX1000BASE-TPOTSSONETSDHDSL802.11a/b/g/n PHYITU-T G.hn PHYCAN busDOCSISDWDMOTN

text: Comparison with TCP/IP model[edit]

text: The design of protocols in the TCP/IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering.[16] RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful".[17] TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end-to-end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.[18]

text: Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:

text:
The Internet application layer includes the OSI application layer, presentation layer, and most of the session layer.
Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI session layer as well as the OSI transport layer.
The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset of the OSI network layer.
The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and sometimes the physical layers, as well as some protocols of the OSI's network layer.

text: These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.[citation needed]

text: The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP/IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application-layer protocol in its own right.[citation needed]


document_title: Paid in Full (2002 film)

question_text: who is sonny to mitch in paid in full

question_tokens: who is sonny to mitch in paid in full

text: Paid in Full (2002 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Ace (Wood Harris) is a young man from Harlem stuck in a dead end job at a dry cleaning shop. His sister's boyfriend, Calvin (Kevin Carroll), is a local cocaine dealer who tries to lure Ace into the drug trade with promises of fast money and women. Ace resists Calvin's temptations, not caring for his unsophisticated ways. Likewise, Ace's close friend Mitch (Mekhi Phifer) is a flashy, popular drug dealer who exposes Ace to drug dealing lifestyle. When Calvin gets arrested on drug charges, Ace ends up filling his position on the street. This happens after Ace starts getting cocaine from Lulu, one of the customers at the dry cleaners shop. Lulu has a top-quality supply of cocaine which Ace sells on the street at a cheap price, quickly luring away customers from other drug dealers. Ace operates on the mantra that there is plenty of money to go around and that everyone can "live and maintain." While Ace is building up his drug operation, Mitch is arrested for killing a stickup man who robbed one of his workers. When a fight breaks out between Mitch and another inmate, Mitch is aided by East Harlem inmate Rico (Cam'ron) who impresses Mitch by his ferocity and show of solidarity.

text: Mitch is able to beat his murder charge and both him and Rico join Ace's drug empire. The trio become extremely wealthy, buying foreign cars, jewelery and expensive champagne. Ace continues to more or less stay behind the scenes, while Mitch returns to his flamboyant lifestyle as a popular hustler. Rico is a ruthless enforcer who worries Ace with his overzealous behavior and high-profile lifestyle. When Calvin is released from prison, he tries to regain his position of power on the streets. Ace gives him a job overseeing his old drug spot, but Calvin feels dissatisfied with his menial position. When Ace refuses to let Calvin run his old block, Calvin attempts to rob Ace. Calvin grows increasingly anxious and kills two of Ace's relatives while Ace survives his shooting despite being shot in the head. Feeling physically and physiologically defeated, Ace decides to quit the drug trade. Rico, who kills Calvin in retaliation, strongly disagrees with this decision. Mitch understands Ace's perspective that the drug game does not reciprocate any love or generosity. Mitch decides to stay in the drug game because he loves the hustle, comparing himself to professional basketball players that continue to chase glory despite having enough money to retire.

text: While Ace is recovering, Mitch's kid brother Sonny is kidnapped for ransom. Mitch tries to quickly raise cash to pay the ransom by selling as much cocaine as Ace can get his hands on. When Mitch reaches out to Rico for help with his campaign, Rico murders Mitch and steals the drugs that Mitch intended to sell to save Sonny. Rico lies to Ace about his whereabouts that night, not knowing that Mitch had told Ace they were going to meet up the night of his death. Ace settles the issue by giving him the contact to a pair of undercover FBI agents Ace had spoken to and avoided previously.

text: Rico is arrested and is last seen in custody giving up information on his out-of-town drug connections in Washington D.C. in order to avoid a 25-to-life sentence. He refuses to inform on anyone in Harlem, intending on reclaiming his position when he is eventually released from prison. Sonny's kidnapping and subsequent murder were orchestrated by his own uncle who resented Mitch for not providing him with money and for kicking him out of his family's apartment. Ace manages to retreat from the criminal underworld and makes a new life for himself and his family using diamonds that he had previously found in Lulu's apartment after his death.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Wood Harris - Ace
Mekhi Phifer - Mitch
Kevin Carroll - Calvin
Esai Morales - Lulu
Chi McBride - Pip
Cam'ron - Rico
Remo Green - Sonny
Cynthia Martells - Dora
Elise Neal - June
Regina Hall - Keisha
Karen Andrew - Cakes
Jonas Chernick - Detective / Surgeon
Wes Williams - Mitch's Friend
Rufus Crawford - Tommy
Jason Burke - Street Runner
K. C. Collins - Kid #1
Arnold Pinnock - Wiry Man
Noreaga - Runner
Doug E. Fresh - Himself

text: Discrepancies from Azie Faison, Jr.[edit]

text: Azie Faison, Jr. went on record in several interviews about the accuracy of this movie. In an interview with DJVlad, Faison, Jr. says that he was shot nine times, then Lulu was killed. In the movie, Lulu was killed, then Ace was shot nine times

text: Also, in the film, Calvin was killed by Rico in retaliation for shooting Ace. Kevin Clark, the man who inspired the character Calvin, was not killed for the crime, rather turned himself in to a local police station along with his companions. Azie admitted to testifying against Kevin, and all three men were sentenced to 112 years in prison.

text: While AZ has no ill will towards the companies involved in making the featured movie, he did not like the outcome a lot with all the discrepancies.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The film received generally mixed reviews from critics, but it gained a cult following

text: The movie gained 51% (rotten) on Rotten Tomatoes based on 41 reviews.[2] On metacritic the film gathered a score of 49% based on 16 reviews.[3]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop and R&B music was released on November 26, 2002 by Roc-A-Fella Records the cd named Paid in Full/ Damon Dash Presents The Dream Team. It peaked at 53 on the Billboard 200 and 10 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.


document_title: French colonization of the Americas

question_text: who led the first french effort to colonize the new world

text: French colonization of the Americas

text: North America[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.[1]

text: Colonization[edit]

text: In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River. He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap-Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort, but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France. Fort Caroline established in present-day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine. An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time. In 1599, a sixteen-person trading post was established in Tadoussac (in present-day Quebec), of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604[2] Pierre Du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded a short-lived French colony, the first in Acadia, on Saint Croix Island, presently part of the state of Maine, which was much plagued by illness, perhaps scurvy. The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal, located in present-day Nova Scotia.

text: Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec (1608) and explored the Great Lakes. In 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants (present-day Green Bay), which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois-Rivières. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, founded Fort Ville-Marie which is now known as Montreal. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie (1668) and Saint Ignace (1671) and explored the Mississippi River. At the end of the 17th century, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but was gone by 1688. Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (modern-day Detroit) in 1701 and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans) in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719.

text: The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people. Relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful. As the 19th-century historian Francis Parkman stated:

text: "Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him"

text: To boost the French population, Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered as "natural Frenchmen" by the Ordonnance of 1627:

text: "The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country [New France], together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization."[5]

text: Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the "King's Daughters". However, the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1. France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War).[6]

text: French Florida[edit]

text: In 1562, Charles IX, under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida. They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island, which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina, on which he built a fort named Charlesfort. The group, led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John's river in Florida on June 22, 1564.[7]

text: This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons. In 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine, 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline. Fearing a Spanish attack, Ribault planned to move the colony but a storm suddenly destroyed his fleet. On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards, commanded by Menéndez de Avilés, attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault.[8]

text: Canada and Acadia[edit]

text: The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. However, at the beginning of the 17th century, France was more interested in fur from North America. The fur trading post of Tadoussac was founded in 1600. Four years later, Champlain made his first trip to Canada in a trade mission for fur. Although he had no formal mandate on this trip, he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing, on his return to France, a report entitled Savages[9] (relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac).

text: Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV. He participated in another expedition to New France in the spring of 1604, conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts. It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island, the first French settlement in the New World, which would be given up the following winter. The expedition then founded the colony of Port-Royal.

text: In 1608, Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec, which would become the capital of New France. In Quebec, Champlain forged alliances between France and the Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies, the Iroquois. Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America, with canoes made from Birch bark, to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries. In 1634, the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin.[10]

text: Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers, the British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632. Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates. Following the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France took possession of the colony in 1632. The city of Trois-Rivières was founded in 1634. In 1642, the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville-Marie (later Montreal) which was at that time, a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks (the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667).

text: Despite this rapid expansion, the colony developed very slowly. The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony. In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government, the population of New France was only 2500 European inhabitants. That year, to increase the population, Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 'King's Daughters' to become the wives of French settlers. The population of New France reached subsequently 7000 in 1674 and 15000 in 1689.[11][12]

text: From 1689 to 1713, the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars. From 1689 to 1697, they fought the British in the Nine Years' War. The war against the Iroquois continued even after the Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701, when the two parties agreed on peace. Then, the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1690 and 1711, Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army. Nevertheless, the British took advantage of the second war. With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France ceded to Britain Acadia (with a population of 1700 people), Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. Under the Sovereign Council, the population of the colony grew faster. However, the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In the middle of the 18th century, New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people. This placed the colony at a great military disadvantage against the British. The war between the colonies resumed in 1744, lasting until 1748. A final and decisive war began in 1754. The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans, but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield.[13]

text: Louisiana[edit]

text: On May 17, 1673, explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River, known to the Sioux as does Tongo, or to the Miami-Illinois as missisipioui (the great river). They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river, after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea (Pacific Ocean).[14]

text: In 1682, the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta. They left from Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River, along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France. La Salle returned to France and won over the Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana. He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate. He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants, but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687.[15]

text: In 1698, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi. He stopped between Isle-aux-Chats (now Cat Island) and Isle Surgeres (renamed Isle-aux-Vascular or Ship Island) on February 13, 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland, with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi. He built a precarious fort, called 'Maurepas' (later 'Old Biloxi'), before returning to France. He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702.

text: From 1699 to 1702, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713. He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743. In 1718, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans, in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans. The architect Adrian de Pauger drew the orthogonal plane of the Old Square.

text: The Mississippi Bubble[edit]

text: In 1718, there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana. The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. John Law encouraged Germans, particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule, and the Swiss to emigrate.

text: Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards, under the condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana. The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation. In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721.[16]

text: Dissolution[edit]

text: The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France, with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain. Only the islands of Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon are still in French hands.

text: In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France, but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803. The French left many toponyms (Illinois, Vermont, Bayous...) and ethnonyms (Sioux, Coeur d'Alene, Nez Percé...) in North America.

text: West Indies[edit]

text: A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint-Domingue on the western third of the island[17] in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles", Saint-Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere.[18] A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.

text: During the 17th and 18th centuries, France ruled much of the Lesser Antilles at various times. Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, Martinique, St. Barthélemy, St. Croix, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent and Tobago. Control of many of these islands was contested between the French, the British and the Dutch; in the case of St. Martin, the island was divided in two, a situation that persists to this day. Great Britain captured some of France's islands during the Seven Years' War[19] and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the latter conflict, France retained control of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie-Galante, St. Barthélemy, and its portion of St. Martin; all remain part of France today. Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante and other nearby islands) and Martinique each is an overseas department of France, while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007.

text: South America[edit]

text: This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Wording, and the need to add more relevant wikilinks to newly added material Please help improve this section if you can. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

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text: Brazil[edit]

text: France Antarctique (formerly also spelled France antartique) was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. On November 1, 1555, French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon (1510–1575), a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta, who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution, led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in the Guanabara Bay, in front of present-day Rio de Janeiro, where they built a fort named Fort Coligny. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny (then a Catholic statesman, who about a year later would become a Huguenot), an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his co-religionists. To the still largely undeveloped mainland village, Villegaignon gave the name of Henriville, in honour of Henry II, the King of France, who also knew of and approved the expedition, and had provided the fleet for the trip. Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese.

text: 1557 Calvinist arrival[edit]

text: Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who initially took little notice of his landing, Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support, three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte, a nephew of Villegagnon. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier. The new colonists, numbering around 300, included 5 young women to be wed, 10 boys to be trained as translators, as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin, and also Jean de Léry, who would later write an account of the colony. They arrived in March 1557. The relief fleet was composed of: The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte-Marie dit l'Espine. The Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558, when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry, and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant.

text: Portuguese intervention[edit]

text: In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor-General of Brazil, received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French. With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers, on 15 March 1560, he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days, but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders, because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians, where they continued to live and to work. Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group (see French Wars of Religion). Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá, named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios, Mem de Sá ordered his nephew, Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1, 1565, and fought the Frenchmen for two more years. Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle, on January 20, 1567, he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil, but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle. Coligny's and Villegaignon's dream had lasted a mere 12 years.

text: Equinoctial France[edit]

text: Equinoctial France was the contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America, around the line of Equator, before "tropical" had fully gained its modern meaning: Equinoctial means in Latin "of equal nights", i.e., on the Equator, where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round. The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France (Nouvelle France) in North America, particularly in what is today the province of Quebec, Canada, and for a very short period (12 years) also Antarctic France (France Antarctique, in French), in present-day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas.

text: History of France Équinoxiale[edit]

text: France Équinoxiale started in 1612, when a French expedition departed from Cancale, Brittany, France, under the command of Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de la Ravardière, and François de Razilly, admiral. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão. De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named "Saint-Louis", in honor of the French king Louis IX. This later became São Luís in Portuguese,[1] the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, and the soldiers started building a fortress. An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants (see French Wars of Religion). The colony did not last long. A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco, under the command of Alexandre de Moura, was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land. Thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery.

text: French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, in 1626, 1635 (when the capital, Cayenne, was founded) and 1643. Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office, that France Équinoxiale became a reality. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France.[20]

text: French Guiana was first settled by the French in 1604, although its earliest settlements were abandoned in the face of hostilities from the indigenous population and tropical diseases. The settlement of Cayenne was established in 1643, but was abandoned. It was re-established in the 1660s. Except for brief occupations by the English and Dutch in the 17th century, and by the Portuguese in the 19th century, Guiana has remained under French rule ever since. From 1851 to 1951 it was the site of a notorious penal colony, Devil's Island (Île du Diable). Since 1946, French Guiana has been an overseas department of France.[21]