document_title: List of judges of the Federal Court of Australia

question_text: chief justice of the federal court of australia

text: Judges who have served on the Federal Court of Australia as of  September 2018[update],[1][2] are appointed in accordance with  section 72 of the Constitution, which has, since the Court's inception in 1976, been for a term expiring at age 70.[3]

text: In addition to their judicial service, six judges of the Federal Court have also been elected to the Parliament of Australia: Nigel Bowen, Robert Ellicott, Merv Everett, Tony Whitlam, John Reeves and Duncan Kerr. All were elected prior to their appointment to the bench.

text: Additionally, two judges of the Federal Court have served in state Parliaments: Bernard Riley, formerly of the New South Wales Legislative Council, and Howard Olney, formerly of the Western Australian Legislative Council.

text:
Position

Name

Appointmentcommenced

Appointmentended

Term

Comments

Notes

Chief Justice

Sir Nigel Bowen AC, KBE, QC

20 December 1976

31 December 1990

7003512400000000000♠14 years, 11 days

Chief Judge in Equity of the Supreme Court (NSW)

[4]

Michael Black AC, QC

1 January 1991

21 March 2010

7003701900000000000♠19 years, 79 days

Barrister (Queen's Counsel for Victoria and Tasmania)

[5]

Patrick Keane AC, QC

22 March 2010

28 February 2013

7003107400000000000♠2 years, 343 days

Court of Appeal Judge in the Supreme Court (Qld)Appointed to the High Court

[2][6][7]

James Allsop AO

1 March 2013

7003205700000000000♠5 years, 231 days

President of the Court of Appeal (NSW) (previously served as Federal Court judge)

[8]

Judge

Sir Richard Blackburn OBE

1 February 1977

31 March 1985

7003298000000000000♠8 years, 58 days

Sir Gerard Brennan AC, KBE, QC

12 February 1981

7003147200000000000♠4 years, 11 days

Appointed to the High Court

Xavier Connor AO, QC

17 March 1982

7003187000000000000♠5 years, 44 days

Phillip Evatt DSC

28 February 1987

7003367900000000000♠10 years, 27 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

Sir William Forster AC, KBE, QC

31 January 1989

7003438200000000000♠11 years, 365 days

Robert Franki

5 August 1986

7003347200000000000♠9 years, 185 days

Russell Fox AC, QC

31 March 1989

7003444100000000000♠12 years, 58 days

Chief Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

John Keely QC

29 February 1996

7003696700000000000♠19 years, 28 days

Judge of Industrial Relations Court

James Muirhead AC, KStJ, QC

4 August 1986

7003347100000000000♠9 years, 184 days

Sir John Nimmo CBE, OStJ, QC

30 June 1980

7003124500000000000♠3 years, 150 days

Ray Northrop QC

31 August 1998

7003788100000000000♠21 years, 211 days

Judge of Industrial Relations Court

Bernard Riley

4 August 1978

7002549000000000000♠1 year, 184 days

Sir Reginald Smithers

30 September 1986

7003352800000000000♠9 years, 241 days

Robert St John

31 March 1985

7003298000000000000♠8 years, 58 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

Charles Sweeney CBE

29 June 1995

7003672200000000000♠18 years, 148 days

John Sweeney

7 May 1981

7003155600000000000♠4 years, 95 days

Richard Ward QC

24 November 1977

7002296000000000000♠296 days

Sir Edward Woodward AC, OBE, QC

31 July 1990

7003492800000000000♠13 years, 180 days

Sir William Deane AC, KBE, QC

1 April 1977

26 July 1982

7003194200000000000♠5 years, 116 days

Appointed to the High Court

John Toohey AC, QC

4 April 1977

31 December 1986

7003355800000000000♠9 years, 271 days

Appointed to the High Court

Douglas McGregor AC, QC

7 November 1977

14 November 1985

7003292900000000000♠8 years, 7 days

Francis Fisher AC, QC

6 March 1978

31 July 1989

7003416500000000000♠11 years, 147 days

John Gallop AM, RFD, QC

11 March 1978

30 July 2000

7003817700000000000♠22 years, 141 days

Daryl Davies QC

17 May 1978

31 August 1998

7003741100000000000♠20 years, 106 days

John Lockhart AO

30 October 1978

11 June 1999

7003752900000000000♠20 years, 224 days

Ian Sheppard AO

9 December 1979

23 May 1997

7003637500000000000♠17 years, 165 days

John Kelly QC

11 March 1980

1 July 1990

7003376400000000000♠10 years, 112 days

Trevor Morling QC

11 February 1981

1 February 1993

7003437300000000000♠11 years, 356 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

Robert Ellicot QC

2 March 1981

24 February 1983

7002724000000000000♠1 year, 359 days

Gerald Fitzgerald AC, QC

25 November 1981

30 June 1984

7002948000000000000♠2 years, 218 days

Kenneth Jenkinson

1 November 1982

5 June 1997

7003533000000000000♠14 years, 216 days

Alan Neaves AC, QC

11 March 1983

8 January 1995

7003432100000000000♠11 years, 303 days

Michael Kirby AC, CMG

30 March 1983

23 September 1984

7002543000000000000♠1 year, 177 days

Appointed to NSW Court of Appealthen to High Court

Bryan Beaumont AO

30 May 1983

11 February 2005

7003792800000000000♠21 years, 257 days

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (NI)

Murray Wilcox AO, QC

11 May 1984

2 October 2006

7003817900000000000♠22 years, 144 days

Chief Justice of Industrial Relations CourtJudge of the Supreme Court (NI)Additional Judge of the Supree Court (ACT)

Peter Gray AM

17 May 1984

17 May 2013

7004105920000000000♠29 years, 0 days

Judge of Industrial Relations Court

Jeffrey Spender QC

17 May 1984

19 July 2010

7003955900000000000♠26 years, 63 days

Judge of Industrial Relations CourtAdditional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

Merv Everett

27 June 1984

4 October 1987

7003119400000000000♠3 years, 99 days

Bill Pincus QC

25 March 1985

16 December 1991

7003245700000000000♠6 years, 266 days

James Burchett

3 June 1985

10 October 2000

7003560800000000000♠15 years, 129 days

Jeffrey Miles AO

18 June 1985

30 September 2002

7003631300000000000♠17 years, 104 days

David Jackson AM, QC

15 November 1985

26 May 1987

7002557000000000000♠1 year, 192 days

Donnell Ryan QC

29 September 1986

2 June 2011

7003901200000000000♠24 years, 246 days

Judge of Industrial Relations CourtAdditional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

William Gummow AC, QC

24 November 1986

20 April 1995

7003306900000000000♠8 years, 147 days

Appointed to the High Court

Robert French AC

25 November 1986

1 September 2008

7003795100000000000♠21 years, 281 days

Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)Appointed to Chief Justice of the High Court

Marcus Einfeld

18 December 1986

16 April 2001

7003523300000000000♠14 years, 119 days

Trevor Hartigan

13 August 1987

24 April 1990

7002985000000000000♠2 years, 254 days

Michael Foster QC

2 November 1987

26 November 1998

7003404200000000000♠11 years, 24 days

Alastair Nicholson AO, RFD

1 February 1988

31 May 2004

7003596400000000000♠16 years, 120 days

Malcolm Lee AO, QC

15 February 1988

1 May 2006

7003665000000000000♠18 years, 75 days

Judge of Industrial Relations Court

Howard Olney AM, QC

21 May 1988

30 April 2003

7003545700000000000♠14 years, 344 days

John von Doussa AO, QC

1 December 1988

15 August 2003

7003537000000000000♠14 years, 257 days

Judge of Industrial Relations Court

Graham Hill

1 February 1989

24 August 2005

7003604800000000000♠16 years, 204 days

Deirdre O'Connor

1 July 1990

5 March 2002

7003426500000000000♠11 years, 247 days

John Phillips AO, QC

14 August 1990

17 December 1991

7002490000000000000♠1 year, 125 days

Maurice O'Loughlin

1 August 1989

28 January 2003

7003492800000000000♠13 years, 180 days

Terrence Higgins AO, QC

1 July 1990

12 September 2013

7003847400000000000♠23 years, 73 days

Peter Heerey AM, QC

17 December 1990

16 February 2009

7003663600000000000♠18 years, 61 days

Doug Drummond QC

2 December 1991

12 April 2003

7003414900000000000♠11 years, 131 days

Richard Cooper

30 March 1992

14 March 2005

7003473200000000000♠12 years, 349 days

Margaret Beazley AO

1 January 1993

28 April 1996

7003121300000000000♠3 years, 118 days

Judge of Industrial Relations CourtAppointed to Court of Appeal (NSW)

Tony Whitlam QC

1 January 1993

1 May 2005

7003450300000000000♠12 years, 120 days

Christopher Carr

13 December 1993

1 August 2004

7003388400000000000♠10 years, 232 days

Michael Moore

28 March 1994

1 August 2011

7003633500000000000♠17 years, 126 days

Judge of Industrial Relations CourtAdditional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

Catherine Branson QC

16 May 1994

13 October 2008

7003526400000000000♠14 years, 150 days

Jane Mathews AO

4 July 1994

6 April 2001

7003246800000000000♠6 years, 276 days

Kevin Lindgren AM, QC

26 July 1994

12 February 2010

7003568000000000000♠15 years, 201 days

Brian Tamberlin QC

29 August 1994

30 March 2009

7003532700000000000♠14 years, 213 days

Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

Ronald Sackville AO

19 September 1994

25 August 2008

7003508900000000000♠13 years, 341 days

Susan Kiefel AC

17 October 1994

3 September 2007

7003470400000000000♠12 years, 321 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)Appointed to the High Court

Robert Nicholson AO

1 January 1995

7 August 2007

7003460100000000000♠12 years, 218 days

Paul Finn

3 July 1995

4 July 2012

7003621100000000000♠17 years, 1 day

Ross Sundberg AM, QC

10 July 1995

9 August 2010

7003550900000000000♠15 years, 30 days

Shane Marshall

17 July 1995

21 November 2015

7003743200000000000♠20 years, 127 days

Judge of Industrial Relations Court

John Lehane

3 October 1995

10 September 2001

7003216900000000000♠5 years, 342 days

Rodney Madgwick QC

3 October 1995

21 April 2008

7003458400000000000♠12 years, 201 days

Judge of Industrial Relations CourtAdditional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

Anthony North

3 October 1995

11 September 2018

7003837900000000000♠22 years, 343 days

Judge of Industrial Relations Court Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

[2][9]

Ron Merkel QC

5 February 1996

15 May 2006

7003375200000000000♠10 years, 99 days

[2]

John Mansfield AM

2 September 1996

24 August 2016

7003729600000000000♠19 years, 357 days

[2]

Arthur Emmett

3 February 1997

6 March 2013

7003587500000000000♠16 years, 31 days

[2]

Alan Goldberg AO, QC

3 February 1997

4 July 2010

7003489900000000000♠13 years, 151 days

Raymond Finkelstein QC

21 July 1997

1 July 2011

7003509300000000000♠13 years, 345 days

Geoffrey Giudice AO

17 September 1997

28 February 2012

7003527700000000000♠14 years, 164 days

President of AIRC & then Fair Work Australia

Mark Weinberg

15 July 1998

19 July 2008

7003365700000000000♠10 years, 4 days

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (NI)Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

John Dowsett AM, QC

14 September 1998

26 April 2018

7003716400000000000♠19 years, 224 days

Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT), previously a Judge of the Supreme Court (Qld).

[10][11]

Leslie Katz SC

30 September 1998

21 March 2002

7003126800000000000♠3 years, 172 days

[2]

Peter Hely

2 October 1998

1 October 2005

7003255600000000000♠6 years, 364 days

Susan Kenny

16 October 1998

7003730700000000000♠20 years, 2 days

[1]

Roger Gyles AO, QC

11 June 1999

22 August 2008

7003336000000000000♠9 years, 72 days

Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

[2]

Richard Conti QC

15 August 2000

15 August 2007

7003255600000000000♠7 years, 0 days

Margaret Stone

9 October 2000

22 March 2012

7003418200000000000♠11 years, 165 days

Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

James Allsop AO

7 May 2001

2 June 2008

7003258300000000000♠7 years, 26 days

As Justice. Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)Appointed to Court of Appeal (NSW)returned to court as Chief Justice

Garry Downes AM

2 April 2002

15 May 2012

7003369600000000000♠10 years, 43 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

Peter Jacobson

17 June 2002

25 January 2015

7003460500000000000♠12 years, 222 days

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (NI)

[2]

Bradley Selway

18 November 2002

10 April 2005

7002874000000000000♠2 years, 143 days

[2]

Annabelle Bennett AO

5 May 2003

23 March 2016

7003470600000000000♠12 years, 323 days

Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

[2]

Bruce Lander

14 July 2003

31 August 2013

7003370100000000000♠10 years, 48 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

[2]

Susan Crennan AC

3 February 2004

1 November 2005

7002637000000000000♠1 year, 271 days

Appointed to the High Court

Antony Siopis SC

14 April 2005

5 May 2018

7003476900000000000♠13 years, 21 days

Presidential member of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal

[12][13]

Richard Edmonds

5 May 2005

10 February 2016

7003393300000000000♠10 years, 281 days

[2]

Peter Graham QC

24 May 2005

6 September 2010

7003193100000000000♠5 years, 105 days

[2]

Andrew Greenwood

4 August 2005

7003482300000000000♠13 years, 75 days

[1]

John Young QC

30 November 2005

24 January 2007

7002420000000000000♠1 year, 55 days

[2]

Steven Rares

2 February 2006

7003464100000000000♠12 years, 258 days

[1]

Berna Collier

8 February 2006

7003463500000000000♠12 years, 252 days

Dennis Cowdroy OAM

13 March 2006

15 March 2014

7003292400000000000♠8 years, 2 days

[2]

Anthony Besanko

3 April 2006

7003458100000000000♠12 years, 198 days

[1]

Christopher Jessup QC

23 June 2006

15 April 2017

7003450000000000000♠12 years, 117 days

[2]

Richard Tracey AM, RFD

24 July 2006

16 August 2018

7003440600000000000♠12 years, 23 days

[14]

John Middleton

31 July 2006

7003446200000000000♠12 years, 79 days

[1]

Robert Buchanan QC

8 September 2006

10 September 2016

7003365500000000000♠10 years, 2 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

[2]

John Gilmour QC

11 December 2006

23 March 2018

7003412000000000000♠11 years, 102 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

[2]

Michelle Gordon

20 April 2007

8 June 2015

7003297100000000000♠8 years, 49 days

Appointed to the High Court

[2]

John Logan RFD

27 September 2007

7003403900000000000♠11 years, 21 days

[1]

Geoffrey Flick

15 October 2007

7003402100000000000♠11 years, 3 days

[1]

Neil McKerracher

15 October 2007

7003402100000000000♠11 years, 3 days

[1]

John Reeves

19 November 2007

7003398600000000000♠10 years, 333 days

[1]

Nye Perram

8 August 2008

7003372300000000000♠10 years, 71 days

[1]

Jayne Jagot

3 September 2008

7003369700000000000♠10 years, 45 days

[1]

Lindsay Foster

4 September 2008

7003369600000000000♠10 years, 44 days

[1]

Michael Barker

9 February 2009

7003353800000000000♠9 years, 251 days

[1]

John Nicholas

16 November 2009

7003325800000000000♠8 years, 336 days

[1]

David Yates

30 November 2009

7003324400000000000♠8 years, 322 days

[1]

Mordecai Bromberg

7 December 2009

7003323700000000000♠8 years, 315 days

[1]

Julie Dodds-Streeton QC

1 February 2010

1 April 2014

7003152000000000000♠4 years, 59 days

[2]

Anna Katzmann

1 February 2010

7003318100000000000♠8 years, 259 days

[1]

Alan Robertson

18 April 2011

7003274000000000000♠7 years, 183 days

[1]

Bernard Murphy

13 June 2011

7003268400000000000♠7 years, 127 days

Iain Ross AO

1 March 2012

7003242200000000000♠6 years, 231 days

President of Fair Work Commission

John Griffiths

23 April 2012

7003236900000000000♠6 years, 178 days

Duncan Kerr

10 May 2012

7003235200000000000♠6 years, 161 days

President of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (2012-2017)

Kathleen Farrell

5 December 2012

7003214300000000000♠5 years, 317 days

Tony Pagone

21 June 2013

31 March 2018

7003174400000000000♠4 years, 283 days

[2]

Jennifer Davies

4 July 2013

7003193200000000000♠5 years, 106 days

Debra Mortimer

12 July 2013

7003192400000000000♠5 years, 98 days

Darryl Rangiah

13 August 2013

7003189200000000000♠5 years, 66 days

Richard White

31 August 2013

7003187400000000000♠5 years, 48 days

Michael Wigney

9 September 2013

7003186500000000000♠5 years, 39 days

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

Melissa Perry

23 September 2013

7003185100000000000♠5 years, 25 days

Jacqueline Gleeson

15 April 2014

7003164700000000000♠4 years, 186 days

Jonathan Beach

30 June 2014

7003157100000000000♠4 years, 110 days

James Edelman

20 April 2015

29 January 2017

7002650000000000000♠1 year, 284 days

Appointed to the High Court

[2][15]

Brigitte Markovic

24 August 2015

7003115100000000000♠3 years, 55 days

[1]

Mark Moshinsky

3 November 2015

7003108000000000000♠2 years, 349 days

[1]

Robert Bromwich

29 February 2016

7002962000000000000♠2 years, 232 days

[1]

Natalie Charlesworth

1 March 2016

7002961000000000000♠2 years, 231 days

[1]

Stephen Burley

6 May 2016

7002895000000000000♠2 years, 165 days

[1]

David O'Callaghan

1 February 2017

7002624000000000000♠1 year, 259 days

[1]

Michael Lee

27 March 2017

7002570000000000000♠1 year, 205 days

[1]

Roger Derrington

29 March 2017

7002568000000000000♠1 year, 203 days

[1]

David Thomas

27 June 2017

7002478000000000000♠1 year, 113 days

President of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (2017-)Previously a Judge of the Supreme Court (Qld)

[1]

Susan Derrington

10 January 2018

7002281000000000000♠281 days

President of the Australian Law Reform Commission (2018-)

[1]

Simon Steward

1 February 2018

7002259000000000000♠259 days

[1]

Katrina Banks-Smith

12 February 2018

7002248000000000000♠248 days

Previously a Judge of Supreme Court (WA)

[1]

Craig Colvin

13 February 2018

7002247000000000000♠247 days

[1]

Thomas Thawley

14 February 2018

7002246000000000000♠246 days

[1]

text: Current judges[edit]

text:
Name

Location[1]

Date appointed[1]

Mandatory retirement [16]

Concurrent commissions/ appointments

Previous judicial posting(s)

Education

Notes

Susan Kenny

Melbourne

16 October 1998

Presidential member of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal

Court of Appeal (Vic)

University of Melbourne, Magdalen College, Oxford

[17]

Andrew Greenwood

Brisbane

4 August 2005

Presidential member of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal

University of Queensland

[18][19]

Steven Rares

Sydney

2 February 2006

Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

University of Sydney

[20]

Berna Collier

Brisbane

8 February 2006

Judge of the Papua New Guinea Supreme Court, Deputy President of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal, Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

[21]

Anthony Besanko

Adelaide

3 April 2006

8 May 2024

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (NI)Additional Judge of the Supreme Court (ACT)

Supreme Court of South Australia

[22][23][24][25]

John Middleton

Melbourne

31 July 2006

John Logan RFD

Brisbane

27 September 2007

Geoffrey Flick

Sydney

15 October 2007

Neil McKerracher

Perth

15 October 2007

John Reeves

Brisbane

19 November 2007

Nye Perram

Sydney

8 August 2008

Jayne Jagot

Sydney

3 September 2008

Lindsay Foster

Sydney

4 September 2008

Michael Barker

Perth

9 February 2009

John Nicholas

Sydney

16 November 2009

David Yates

Sydney

30 November 2009

Mordecai Bromberg

Melbourne

7 December 2009

Anna Katzmann

Sydney

1 February 2010

Alan Robertson

Sydney

18 April 2011

Bernard Murphy

Melbourne

13 June 2011

Iain Ross AO

Melbourne

1 March 2012

President of Fair Work Commission

[26]

John Griffiths

Sydney

23 April 2012

Duncan Kerr

Hobart

10 May 2012

26 February 2022

President of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (2012-2017)

Tasmanian College of Advanced Education, University of Tasmania

[27][28]

Kathleen Farrell

Sydney

5 December 2012

James Allsop AOChief Justice

Sydney

1 March 2013

Federal Court, Court of Appeal (NSW)

University of Sydney

[29][30]

Jennifer Davies

Melbourne

4 July 2013

[1]

Debra Mortimer

Melbourne

12 July 2013

[1]

Darryl Rangiah

Brisbane

13 August 2013

[1]

Richard White

Adelaide

31 August 2013

[1]

Michael Wigney

Sydney

9 September 2013

Judge of the Supreme Court (NI)

[1]

Melissa Perry

Sydney

23 September 2013

[1]

Jacqueline Gleeson

Sydney

15 April 2014

[1]

Jonathan Beach

Melbourne

30 June 2014

[1]

Brigitte Markovic

Sydney

24 August 2015

[1]

Mark Moshinsky

Melbourne

3 November 2015

[1]

Robert Bromwich

Sydney

29 February 2016

[1]

Natalie Charlesworth

Adelaide

1 March 2016

[1]

Stephen Burley

Sydney

6 May 2016

[1]

David O'Callaghan

Melbourne

1 February 2017

[1]

Michael Lee

Sydney

27 March 2017

[1]

Roger Derrington

Brisbane

29 March 2017

[1]

David Thomas

Brisbane

27 June 2017

President of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (2017-)

Judge of the Supreme Court (Qld)

[1]

Susan Derrington

Brisbane

10 January 2018

President of the Australian Law Reform Commission (2018-)

[1]

Simon Steward

Melbourne

1 February 2018

[1]

Katrina Banks-Smith

Perth

12 February 2018

Supreme Court (WA)

[1]

Craig Colvin

Perth

13 February 2018

[1]

Thomas Thawley

Sydney

14 February 2018

[1]


document_title: French colonization of the Americas

question_text: when did the french come to north america

root

text: French colonization of the Americas

text: North America[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.[1]

tag: p

text: Colonization[edit]

text: In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River. He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap-Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort, but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France. Fort Caroline established in present-day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine. An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time. In 1599, a sixteen-person trading post was established in Tadoussac (in present-day Quebec), of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604[2] Pierre Du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded a short-lived French colony, the first in Acadia, on Saint Croix Island, presently part of the state of Maine, which was much plagued by illness, perhaps scurvy. The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal, located in present-day Nova Scotia.

text: Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec (1608) and explored the Great Lakes. In 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants (present-day Green Bay), which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois-Rivières. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, founded Fort Ville-Marie which is now known as Montreal. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie (1668) and Saint Ignace (1671) and explored the Mississippi River. At the end of the 17th century, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but was gone by 1688. Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (modern-day Detroit) in 1701 and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans) in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719.

text: The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people. Relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful. As the 19th-century historian Francis Parkman stated:

text: "Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him"

text: To boost the French population, Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered as "natural Frenchmen" by the Ordonnance of 1627:

text: "The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country [New France], together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization."[5]

text: Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the "King's Daughters". However, the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1. France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War).[6]

text: French Florida[edit]

text: In 1562, Charles IX, under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida. They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island, which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina, on which he built a fort named Charlesfort. The group, led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John's river in Florida on June 22, 1564.[7]

text: This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons. In 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine, 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline. Fearing a Spanish attack, Ribault planned to move the colony but a storm suddenly destroyed his fleet. On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards, commanded by Menéndez de Avilés, attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault.[8]

text: Canada and Acadia[edit]

text: The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. However, at the beginning of the 17th century, France was more interested in fur from North America. The fur trading post of Tadoussac was founded in 1600. Four years later, Champlain made his first trip to Canada in a trade mission for fur. Although he had no formal mandate on this trip, he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing, on his return to France, a report entitled Savages[9] (Relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac).

text: Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV. He participated in another expedition to New France in the spring of 1604, conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts. It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island, the first French settlement in the New World, which would be given up the following winter. The expedition then founded the colony of Port-Royal.

text: In 1608, Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec, which would become the capital of New France. In Quebec, Champlain forged alliances between France and the Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies, the Iroquois. Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America, with canoes made from Birch bark, to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries. In 1634, the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin.[10]

text: Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers, the British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632. Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates. Following the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France took possession of the colony in 1632. The city of Trois-Rivières was founded in 1634. In 1642, the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville-Marie (later Montreal) which was at that time, a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks (the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667).

text: Despite this rapid expansion, the colony developed very slowly. The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony. In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government, the population of New France was only 2500 European inhabitants. That year, to increase the population, Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 'King's Daughters' to become the wives of French settlers. The population of New France reached subsequently 7000 in 1674 and 15000 in 1689.[11][12]

text: From 1689 to 1713, the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars. From 1689 to 1697, they fought the British in the Nine Years' War. The war against the Iroquois continued even after the Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701, when the two parties agreed on peace. Then, the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1690 and 1711, Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army. Nevertheless, the British took advantage of the second war. With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France ceded to Britain Acadia (with a population of 1700 people), Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. Under the Sovereign Council, the population of the colony grew faster. However, the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In the middle of the 18th century, New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people. This placed the colony at a great military disadvantage against the British. The war between the colonies resumed in 1744, lasting until 1748. A final and decisive war began in 1754. The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans, but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield.[13]

text: Louisiana[edit]

text: On May 17, 1673, explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River, known to the Sioux as does Tongo, or to the Miami-Illinois as missisipioui (the great river). They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river, after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea (Pacific Ocean).[14]

text: In 1682, the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta. They left from Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River, along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France. La Salle returned to France and won over the Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana. He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate. He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants, but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687.[15]

text: In 1698, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi. He stopped between Isle-aux-Chats (now Cat Island) and Isle Surgeres (renamed Isle-aux-Vascular or Ship Island) on February 13, 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland, with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi. He built a precarious fort, called 'Maurepas' (later 'Old Biloxi'), before returning to France. He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702.

text: From 1699 to 1702, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713. He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743. In 1718, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans, in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans. The architect Adrian de Pauger drew the orthogonal plane of the Old Square.

text: The Mississippi Bubble[edit]

text: In 1718, there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana. The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. John Law encouraged Germans, particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule, and the Swiss to emigrate.

text: Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards, under the condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana. The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation. In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721.[16]

text: Dissolution[edit]

text: The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France, with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain. Only the islands of Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon are still in French hands.

text: In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France, but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803. The French left many toponyms (Illinois, Vermont, Bayous...) and ethnonyms (Sioux, Coeur d'Alene, Nez Percé...) in North America.

text: West Indies[edit]

text: A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint-Domingue on the western third of the island[17] in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles", Saint-Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere.[18] A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.

text: During the 17th and 18th centuries, France ruled much of the Lesser Antilles at various times. Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, Martinique, St. Barthélemy, St. Croix, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent and Tobago. Control of many of these islands was contested between the French, the British and the Dutch; in the case of St. Martin, the island was divided in two, a situation that persists to this day. Great Britain captured some of France's islands during the Seven Years' War[19] and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the latter conflict, France retained control of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie-Galante, St. Barthélemy, and its portion of St. Martin; all remain part of France today. Guadeloupe (including Marie-Galante and other nearby islands) and Martinique each is an overseas department of France, while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007.

text: South America[edit]

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text: Brazil[edit]

text: France Antarctique (formerly also spelled France antartique) was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. On November 1, 1555, French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon (1510–1575), a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta, who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution, led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in the Guanabara Bay, in front of present-day Rio de Janeiro, where they built a fort named Fort Coligny. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny (then a Catholic statesman, who about a year later would become a Huguenot), an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his co-religionists. To the still largely undeveloped mainland village, Villegaignon gave the name of Henriville, in honour of Henry II, the King of France, who also knew of and approved the expedition, and had provided the fleet for the trip. Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese.

text: 1557 Calvinist arrival[edit]

text: Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who initially took little notice of his landing, Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support, three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte, a nephew of Villegagnon. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier. The new colonists, numbering around 300, included 5 young women to be wed, 10 boys to be trained as translators, as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin, and also Jean de Léry, who would later write an account of the colony. They arrived in March 1557. The relief fleet was composed of: The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte-Marie dit l'Espine. The Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558, when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry, and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant.

text: Portuguese intervention[edit]

text: In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor-General of Brazil, received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French. With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers, on 15 March 1560, he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days, but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders, because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians, where they continued to live and to work. Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group (see French Wars of Religion). Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá, named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios, Mem de Sá ordered his nephew, Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1, 1565, and fought the Frenchmen for two more years. Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle, on January 20, 1567, he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil, but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle. Coligny's and Villegaignon's dream had lasted a mere 12 years.

text: Equinoctial France[edit]

text: Equinoctial France was the contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America, around the line of Equator, before "tropical" had fully gained its modern meaning: Equinoctial means in Latin "of equal nights", i.e., on the Equator, where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round. The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France (Nouvelle France) in North America, particularly in what is today the province of Quebec, Canada, and for a very short period (12 years) also Antarctic France (France Antarctique, in French), in present-day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas.

text: History of France Équinoxiale[edit]

text: France Équinoxiale started in 1612, when a French expedition departed from Cancale, Brittany, France, under the command of Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de la Ravardière, and François de Razilly, admiral. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão. De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named "Saint-Louis", in honor of the French king Louis IX. This later became São Luís in Portuguese,[1] the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, and the soldiers started building a fortress. An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants (see French Wars of Religion). The colony did not last long. A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco, under the command of Alexandre de Moura, was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land. Thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery.

text: French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, in 1626, 1635 (when the capital, Cayenne, was founded) and 1643. Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office, that France Équinoxiale became a reality. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France.[20]

text: French Guiana was first settled by the French in 1604, although its earliest settlements were abandoned in the face of hostilities from the indigenous population and tropical diseases. The settlement of Cayenne was established in 1643, but was abandoned. It was re-established in the 1660s. Except for brief occupations by the English and Dutch in the 17th century, and by the Portuguese in the 19th century, Guiana has remained under French rule ever since. From 1851 to 1951 it was the site of a notorious penal colony, Devil's Island (Île du Diable). Since 1946, French Guiana has been an overseas department of France.[21]


document_title: Planned Parenthood

question_text: how many planned parenthood locations are there in the united states

text: Planned Parenthood

text: History[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: The origins of Planned Parenthood date to October 16, 1916, when Margaret Sanger, her sister Ethel Byrne, and Fania Mindell opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S. in the Brownsville section of the New York borough of Brooklyn.[16] They distributed birth control, birth control advice, and birth control information. All three women were arrested[17][18][19] and jailed for violating provisions of the Comstock Act, accused of distributing obscene materials at the clinic. The so-called Brownsville trials brought national attention and support to their cause. Sanger and her co-defendants were convicted on misdemeanor charges, which they appealed through two subsequent appeals courts. While the convictions were not overturned,[20] the judge who issued the final ruling also modified the law to permit physician-prescribed birth control. The women's campaign led to major changes in the laws governing birth control and sex education in the United States.[21]

text: In 1921 the clinic was organized into the American Birth Control League,[5] the core of the only national birth-control organization in the U.S. until the 1960s. By 1941 it was operating 222 centers and had served 49,000 clients.[22] However, some found its title offensive and "against families", so the League began discussions for a new name.[23] In 1938, a group of private citizens organized the Citizens Committee for Planned Parenthood to aid the American Birth Control League in spreading scientific knowledge about birth control to the general public. In 1942, the League officially changed its name to the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.[23]

text: Largely relying on a volunteer workforce, by 1960 the Federation had provided family planning counseling in hundreds of communities across the country.[22] Planned Parenthood was one of the founding members of the International Planned Parenthood Federation when it was launched at a conference in Bombay (now Mumbai), India, in 1952.[22][24]

text: Both Planned Parenthood and Margaret Sanger are strongly associated with the abortion issue today.[25][26] For much of the organization's history, however, and throughout Sanger's life, abortion was illegal in the United States, and discussions of the issue were often censored.[27] During this period, Sanger – like other American advocates of birth control – publicly condemned abortion, arguing that it would not be needed if every woman had access to birth control.[27]

text: After Sanger[edit]

text: Following Margaret Sanger, Alan Frank Guttmacher became president of Planned Parenthood, serving from 1962 until 1974.[28] During his tenure, the Food and Drug Administration approved the sale of the original birth control pill, giving rise to new attitudes towards women's reproductive freedom.[22] Also during his presidency, Planned Parenthood lobbied the federal government to support reproductive health, culminating with President Richard Nixon's signing of Title X to provide governmental subsidies for low-income women to access family planning services.[29] The Center for Family Planning Program Development was also founded as a semi-autonomous division during this time.[30] The center became an independent organization and was renamed the Guttmacher Institute in 1977.[30]

text: Planned Parenthood began to advocate abortion law reform beginning in 1955, when the organization's medical director, Mary Calderone, convened a national conference of medical professionals on the issue. The conference was the first instance of physicians and other professionals advocating reform of the laws which criminalized abortion, and it played a key role in creating a movement for the reform of abortion laws in the United States.[27] Focusing, at first, on legalizing therapeutic abortion, Planned Parenthood became an increasingly vocal proponent of liberalized abortion laws during the 1960s, culminating in its call for the repeal of all anti-abortion laws in 1969.[31] In the years that followed, the organization played a key role in landmark abortion rights cases such as Roe v Wade (1973) and Planned Parenthood v Casey (1992).[26] Once abortion was legalized during the early 1970s, Planned Parenthood also began acting as an abortion provider.

text: Faye Wattleton became the first African American president of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1978. Wattleton, who was also the youngest president in Planned Parenthood's history, served in this role until 1992.[32][33] During her term, Planned Parenthood grew to become the seventh largest charity in the country, providing services to four million clients each year through its 170 affiliates, whose activities were spread across 50 states.[34]

text: From 1996 to 2006, Planned Parenthood was led by Gloria Feldt.[35][36] Feldt activated the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (PPAF), the organization's political action committee, launching what was the most far reaching electoral advocacy effort in its history.[37] The PPAF serves as the nonpartisan political advocacy arm of PPFA.[38] It engages in educational and electoral activity, including legislative advocacy, voter education, and grassroots organizing to promote the PPFA mission. Feldt also launched the Responsible Choices Action Agenda, a nationwide campaign to increase services to prevent unwanted pregnancies, improve quality of reproductive care, and ensure access to safe and legal abortions.[22] Another initiative was the commencement of a "Global Partnership Program", with the aim of building a vibrant activist constituency in support of family planning.[22]

text: On February 15, 2006, Cecile Richards, the daughter of former Texas governor Ann Richards, and formerly the deputy chief of staff to the U.S. Rep. Nancy Pelosi (the Democratic Leader in the United States House of Representatives), became president of the organization.[39] In 2012 Richards was voted one of Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in the World.[40]

text: Margaret Sanger Awards[edit]

text: In 1966, PPFA began awarding the Margaret Sanger Award annually to honor, in their words, "individuals of distinction in recognition of excellence and leadership in furthering reproductive health and reproductive rights". In the first year, it was awarded to four men: Carl G. Hartman, William H. Draper, Lyndon Baines Johnson, and Martin Luther King, Jr.[41][42][43][44] Later recipients have included John D. Rockefeller III, Katharine Hepburn, Jane Fonda, Hillary Clinton, and Ted Turner.[45][46][47]

text: Services[edit]

text: The services provided by PPFA affiliates vary by location, with just over half of all Planned Parenthood affiliates in the United States performing abortions.[48] Services provided by PPFA include birth control and long-acting reversible contraception;[49] emergency contraception; clinical breast examinations; cervical cancer screening; pregnancy testing and pregnancy options counseling; testing and treatment for sexually transmitted infections; sex education; vasectomies; LGBT services; and abortion.[50][51] Contrary to the assumption of some, Planned Parenthood conducts cancer screenings but does not provide mammograms.[52]

text: In 2013 PPFA reported seeing 2.7 million patients in 4.6 million clinical visits.[11] Roughly 16% of its clients are teenagers.[2][53] According to PPFA, in 2014 the organization provided 3.6 million contraceptive services, 4.5 million sexually transmitted infection services, about 1 million cancer related services, over 1 million pregnancy tests and prenatal services, over 324,000 abortion services,[54] and over 100,000 other services, for a total of 9.5 million discrete services.[11] PPFA is well known for providing services to minorities and the poor;[55][56] according to PPFA, approximately four out of five of their clients have incomes at or below 150 percent of the federal poverty level.[50][57] Services for Men's Health include STD testing and treatment, vasectomy procedures, and erectile dysfunction services.[58] Education is available regarding male birth control and lowering the risk of Sexually Transmitted Diseases.[59]

text: Facilities[edit]

text: PPFA has two national offices in the United States: one in Washington, D.C., and one in New York. It has three international offices, including a hub office in London, England. It has 68 medical and related affiliates and 101 other affiliates including 34 political action committees.[3] These affiliates together operate more than 700 health centers in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.[2][60][61] PPFA owns about US$54 million in property, including real estate. In addition, PPFA spends a little over US$1 million per year for rented space.[3] The largest facility, a US$26 million, 78,000-square-foot (7,200-square-metre) structure, was completed in Houston, Texas, in May 2010.[62]

text: Worldwide availability[edit]

text: PPFA's international outreach and other activities are performed by Planned Parenthood Global, a division of PPFA,[3][63] and by the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) which now consists of more than 149 Member Associations working in more than 189 countries.[64] The IPPF is further associated with International Planned Parenthood Federation affiliates in the Caribbean and the Americas[65] and IPPF European Network,[66] as well as other organizations like Family Planning Queensland, Pro Familia (Germany) and mouvement français pour le planning familial (French Movement for Family Planning). Offices are located in New York, NY; Washington, DC; Miami, FL; Guatemala City, Guatemala; Abuja, Nigeria; and Nairobi, Kenya. The organization's focus countries are Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Kenya.[67] The Bloomberg Philanthropies donated US$50 million for Planned Parenthood Global's reproductive health and family planning efforts in Tanzania, Nicaragua, Burkina Faso, Senegal and Uganda.[68] Among specific countries and territories serviced by Planned Parenthood Global's reproductive planning outreach are Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Dominican Republic, Barbados, Bolivia, Ecuador, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin, Guyana, Cape Verde and Samoa.[63][64]

text: Funding[edit]

text: Planned Parenthood has received federal funding since 1970, when President Richard Nixon signed into law the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act, amending the Public Health Service Act. Title X of that law provides funding for family planning services, including contraception and family planning information. The law had support from both Republicans and Democrats.[69] Nixon described Title X funding as based on the premise that "no American woman should be denied access to family planning assistance because of her economic condition".[70]

text: Donors to Planned Parenthood have included the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Buffett Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the Turner Foundation, the Cullmans, and others.[71][72][73][74] The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation's contributions to the organization have been specifically marked to avoid funding abortions.[71] Some donors, such as the Buffett Foundation, have supported reproductive health that can include abortion services.[71] Pro-life groups have advocated the boycott of donors to Planned Parenthood.[75] Corporate donors include CREDO Mobile.[76]

text: In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2014, total revenue was US$1.3 billion: non-government health services revenue was US$305 million, government revenue (such as Medicaid reimbursements) was US$528 million, private contributions totaled US$392 million, and US$78 million came from other operating revenue.[77] According to Planned Parenthood, 59% of the group's revenue is put towards the provision of health services, while non-medical services such as sex education and public policy work make up another 15%; management expenses, fundraising, and international family planning programs account for about 16%, and 10% of the revenue in 2013–2014 was not spent.[77]

text: Planned Parenthood receives over a third of its money in government grants and contracts (about US$528 million in 2014).[78][77] By law, federal funding cannot be allocated for abortions (except in rare cases),[79] but some opponents of abortion have argued that allocating money to Planned Parenthood for the provision of other medical services allows other funds to be re-allocated for abortions.[56]

text: A coalition of national and local pro-life groups have lobbied federal and state governments to stop funding Planned Parenthood. As a result, federal and state legislators have proposed legislation to reduce funding levels.[79][80] Eight states—Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, New Hampshire, Ohio, and Utah—have enacted such proposals.[91] In some cases the courts have overturned such actions, citing conflict with federal or state laws; in others the federal executive branch has provided funding in lieu of the states.[83][84][92] In some states, Planned Parenthood was completely or partially defunded.[93][94]

text: In August 2015, Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal attempted to end Louisiana's contract with Planned Parenthood to treat Medicaid patients at a time when there was an epidemic of sexually transmitted diseases in Louisiana.[57] Planned Parenthood and three patients sued the state of Louisiana, with the United States Department of Justice siding with Planned Parenthood.[95]

text: On February 2, 2016, the U.S. House failed to override President Obama's veto of H.R. 3762 which would have prohibited Planned Parenthood from receiving any federal Medicaid funds for one year.[96]

text: Late in 2016, the Obama administration issued a rule effective in January 2017 banning U.S. states from withholding federal family-planning funds from health clinics that give abortions, including Planned Parenthood affiliates; this rule mandates that local and state governments give federal funds for services related to sexually transmitted infections, pregnancy care, fertility, contraception, and breast and cervical cancer screening to qualified health providers whether or not they give abortions.[97] However, this rule was blocked by a federal judge the day before it would have taken effect.[98] In 2017 it was overturned by new legislation.[99]

text: The proposed American Health Care Act, announced by Congressional Republicans in March 2017, would have made Planned Parenthood "ineligible for Medicaid reimbursements or federal family planning grants".[100]

text: Political advocacy[edit]

text: Planned Parenthood is an advocate for the legal and political protection of reproductive rights.[101] This advocacy includes helping to sponsor abortion rights and women's rights events.[102] The Federation opposes restrictions on women's reproductive health services, including parental consent laws for minors.[103][104] To justify this position, Planned Parenthood has cited the case of Becky Bell, who died following an illegal abortion rather than seek parental consent for a legal one.[105][106] Planned Parenthood also takes the position that laws requiring parental notification before an abortion can be performed on a minor are unconstitutional on privacy grounds.[107]

text: The organization opposes laws requiring ultrasounds before abortions, stating that their only purpose is to make abortions more difficult to obtain.[108] Planned Parenthood has also opposed initiatives that require waiting periods before abortions,[109] and bans on late-term abortions including intact dilation and extraction, which has been illegal in the U.S. since 2003.[110] Planned Parenthood supports the wide availability of emergency contraception such as the Plan B pill.[111] It opposes conscience clauses, which allow pharmacists to refuse to dispense drugs against their beliefs.[112] Planned Parenthood has been critical of hospitals that do not provide access to emergency contraception for rape victims.[113] Citing the need for medically accurate information in sex education, Planned Parenthood opposes abstinence-only education in public schools. Instead, Planned Parenthood is a provider of, and endorses, comprehensive sex education, which includes discussion of both abstinence and birth control.[114]

text: Planned Parenthood's advocacy activities are executed by the Planned Parenthood Action Fund, which is registered as a 501(c)(4) charity, and files financial information jointly with PPFA.[3] The committee was founded in 1996, by then-president Gloria Feldt, for the purpose of maintaining reproductive health rights and supporting political candidates of the same mindset. In the 2012 election cycle, the committee gained prominence based on its effectiveness of spending on candidates.[115] Although the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (PPAF) shares some leadership with the Planned Parenthood Federation of America, the president of PPAF, Cecile Richards,[116][117] testified before Congress in September 2015 that she did not manage the organization.[118] The Planned Parenthood Action Fund has 58 active, separately incorporated chapters in 41 states[119] and maintains national headquarters in New York and Washington, D.C.[120] Planned Parenthood has received grants from the Obama administration to help promote the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, or ObamaCare.[121]

text: Political spending[edit]

text: Planned Parenthood spends money on politics and elections through the Planned Parenthood Action Fund (its federal political action committee), through its Super PAC, and through a variety of related 501(c)(4) entities.[122] Planned Parenthood endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections.[123][124] In the 2014 election cycle, Planned Parenthood spent US$6,587,100 on contributions to candidates and political parties (overwhelmingly to Democrats) and on independent expenditures.[122][125]

text: Before the U.S. Supreme Court[edit]

text: Planned Parenthood regional chapters have been active in the American courts. A number of cases in which Planned Parenthood has been a party have reached the U.S. Supreme Court. Notable among these cases is the 1992 case Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the case that sets forth the current constitutional abortion standard. In this case, "Planned Parenthood" was the Southeast Pennsylvania Chapter, and "Casey" was Robert Casey, the governor of Pennsylvania. The ultimate ruling was split, and Roe v. Wade was narrowed but upheld in an opinion written by Sandra Day O'Connor, Anthony Kennedy, and David Souter. Harry Blackmun and John Paul Stevens concurred with the main decision in separately written opinions. The Supreme Court struck down spousal consent requirements for married women to obtain abortions, but found no "undue burden"—an alternative to strict scrutiny, which tests the allowable limitations on rights protected under the Constitution—from the other statutory requirements. Dissenting were William Rehnquist, Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and Byron White. Blackmun, Rehnquist, and White were the only justices who voted on the original Roe v. Wade decision in 1973 who were still on the Supreme Court to rule on this case, and their votes on this case were consistent with their votes on the original decision that legalized abortion.[126] Only Blackmun voted to maintain Roe v. Wade in its entirety.[127]

text: Other related cases include:

text:
Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth (1976). Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent, spousal consent, clinic bookkeeping and allowed abortion methods. Portions of the challenged law were held to be constitutional, others not.[128]
Planned Parenthood Association of Kansas City v. Ashcroft (1983). Planned Parenthood challenged the constitutionality of a Missouri law encompassing parental consent, clinic record keeping, and hospitalization requirements. Most of the challenged law was held to be constitutional.[129]
Planned Parenthood v. ACLA (2001). The American Coalition of Life Activists (ACLA) released a flier and "Wanted" posters with complete personal information about doctors who performed abortions. A civil jury and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals both found that the materials were indeed "true threats" and not protected speech.[130]
Gonzales v. Planned Parenthood (2003). Planned Parenthood sued Attorney General Gonzales for an injunction against the enforcement of the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003. Planned Parenthood argued the act was unconstitutional because it violated the Fifth Amendment, namely in that it was overly vague, violated women's constitutional right to have access to abortion, and did not include language for exceptions for the health of the mother. Both the district court and the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit agreed,[131][132] but that decision was overturned in a 5–4 ruling by the Supreme Court.[133]
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England (2006). Planned Parenthood et al. challenged the constitutionality of a New Hampshire parental notification law related to access to abortion.[134] In Sandra Day O'Connor's final decision before retirement, the Supreme Court sent the case back to lower courts with instructions to seek a remedy short of wholesale invalidation of the statute. New Hampshire ended up repealing the statute via the legislative process.[135]

tag: ul

text: Other court cases[edit]

text: Some state attorney generals have subpoenaed medical records of patients treated by Planned Parenthood. Planned Parenthood has gone to court to keep from turning over these records, citing medical privacy and concerns about the motivation for seeking the records.[136]

text: In 2006, Kansas Attorney General Phill Kline, a Republican, released some sealed patient records obtained from Planned Parenthood to the public. His actions were described as "troubling" by the state Supreme Court, but Planned Parenthood was compelled to turn over the medical records, albeit with more stringent court-mandated privacy safeguards for the patients involved.[136] In 2007 Kline's successor, Paul J. Morrison, a Democrat, notified the clinic that no criminal charges would be filed after a three-year investigation, as "an objective, unbiased and thorough examination" showed no wrongdoing. Morrison stated that he believed Kline had politicized the attorney general's office.[137] In 2012 a Kansas district attorney found that the practices of the Kansas City-area Planned Parenthood clinic were "within accepted practices in the medical community" and dropped all of the remaining criminal charges. In all, the Planned Parenthood clinic had faced 107 criminal charges from Kline and other Kansas prosecutors, all of which were ultimately dismissed.[138]

text: In 2006, the Indiana Court of Appeals ruled that Planned Parenthood was not required to turn over its medical records in an investigation of possible child abuse.[139] In 2005 Planned Parenthood Minnesota/North Dakota/South Dakota was fined US$50,000 for violating a Minnesota state parental consent law.[140]

text: In 2012, a Texas state court judge, Gary Harger, denied Planned Parenthood request for a temporary restraining order against the State of Texas, concluding that the State may exclude otherwise qualified doctors and clinics from receiving state funding if the doctors or clinics advocate for abortion rights.[141]

text: Debate and opposition[edit]

text: Margaret Sanger and eugenics[edit]

text: In the 1920s, various theories of eugenics were popular among intellectuals in the United States. (For example, 75% of colleges offered courses on eugenics.)[142] In her campaign to promote birth control, Sanger teamed with eugenics organizations such as the American Eugenics Society, although she argued against many of their positions.[143][144] Scholars describe Sanger as believing that birth control and sterilization should be voluntary, and not based on race.[145] Sanger advocated for "voluntary motherhood"—the right to choose when to be pregnant—for all women, as an important element of women's rights.[146][147] As part of her efforts to promote birth control, however, Sanger found common cause with proponents of eugenics, believing that she and they both sought to "assist the race toward the elimination of the unfit".[148]

text: Critics of Planned Parenthood often refer to Sanger's connection with supporters of eugenics to discredit the organization by associating it, and birth control, with the more negative modern view of eugenics.[149][150] Planned Parenthood has responded to this effort directly in a leaflet acknowledging that Sanger agreed with some of her contemporaries who advocated the voluntary hospitalization or sterilization of people with untreatable, disabling, hereditary conditions, and limits on the immigration of the diseased. The leaflet also states that Planned Parenthood "finds these views objectionable and outmoded" but says that it was compelled to discuss the topic because "anti-family planning activists continue to attack Sanger ... because she is an easier target" than Planned Parenthood.[151]

text: Abortion[edit]

text: Planned Parenthood has occupied a central position in the abortion debate in the U.S., and has been among the most prominent targets of the United States pro-life movement for decades. Some members of Congress, overwhelmingly Republican, have attempted since the 1980s to end federal funding of the organization,[78] nearly leading to a government shutdown over the issue in 2011.[152] Planned Parenthood has consistently maintained that federal money received by Planned Parenthood is not used to fund abortion services, but pro-life activists have argued that the federal funding frees up other resources that are, in turn, used to provide abortions.[78]

text: Planned Parenthood is the largest single provider of abortions in the U.S.,[153] but pro-choice advocates have argued that the organization's family planning services reduce the need for abortions; in the words of Megan Crepeau of the Chicago Tribune, Planned Parenthood could be "characterized as America's largest abortion preventer".[154][155] Pro-life activists dispute the evidence that greater access to contraceptives reduces abortion frequency.[156]

text: Undercover videos by anti-abortion activists[edit]

text: Periodically, pro-life advocates and activists have tried to demonstrate that Planned Parenthood does not follow applicable state or federal laws. The groups called or visited Planned Parenthood health centers posing as victims of statutory rape,[157] minors who by law need parental notification before abortion,[158] racist donors seeking to earmark donations to reduce the African-American population,[55][159] or pimps seeking abortions for underage prostitutes.[160] As a result of some of these videos, several Planned Parenthood workers have been disciplined or fired.[159][160] However, a 2005 review by the Bush administration's Department of Health and Human Services "yielded no evidence of clinics around the nation failing to comply with laws on reporting child abuse, child molestation, sexual abuse, rape or incest".[158]

text: Live Action videos[edit]

text: Beginning in 2010, Live Action has released several series of undercover videos filmed in Planned Parenthood centers. Live Action said one series showed Planned Parenthood employees at many affiliates actively assisting or being complicit in aiding a prostitution ring,[161] advising patients on how to procure sex-selective abortions,[162] while one who said they would immerse a child born alive after a botched abortion in a chemical solution to make it stop moving and breathing.[163] No criminal convictions resulted,[164] but some Planned Parenthood employees and volunteers were fired for not following procedure, and the organization committed to retraining its staff.[165] Additionally, one center was placed on probation.[166]

text: Center for Medical Progress videos[edit]

text: In 2015, an anti-abortion organization named the Center for Medical Progress (CMP) released several videos that had been secretly recorded. Members of the CMP posed as representatives of a biotechnology company in order to gain access to both meetings with abortion providers and abortion facilities. The videos showed how abortion providers made fetal tissue available to researchers, although no problems were found with the legality of the process.

text: All of the videos were found to be altered, according to analysis by Fusion GPS and its co-founder Glenn R. Simpson, a former investigative reporter for The Wall Street Journal. The CMP disputed this finding, attributed the alterations to the editing out of "bathroom breaks and waiting periods". CMP continues to allege that the videos provide evidence that abortion providers profit from the sale of donated tissue. The videos attracted widespread media coverage, and after the release of the first video, conservative Congressional lawmakers singled out Planned Parenthood and began to push bills that would strip the organization of federal family planning funding. No such attempts by Congress to cut federal family planning money from Planned Parenthood have become law. Conservative politicians in several states have also used this as an opportunity to cut or attempt to cut family planning funding at the state level.

text: Officials in 12 states initiated investigations into claims made by the videos, but none found Planned Parenthood clinics to have sold tissue for profit as alleged by CMP and other anti-abortion groups. An investigation by the United States House of Representatives Oversight and Government Reform Committee found no evidence of wrongdoing by Planned Parenthood. A select committee, the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce Select Investigative Panel on Planned Parenthood, was formed to further investigate Planned Parenthood. The Republican-controlled Select Investigative Panel released its final report on December 30, 2016, recommending that Planned Parenthood be de-funded. The report was heavily criticized as partisan and inaccurate by Democratic members of the committee, Planned Parenthood, and some news media.

text: On January 25, 2016, a Texas grand jury indicted CMP founder David Daleiden and member Sandra Merritt while finding no wrongdoing by Planned Parenthood. The charges against Daleiden and Merritt in Texas were dismissed six months later. On March 28, 2017, Daleiden and Merritt were charged with 15 felonies in the State of California - one for each of the people whom they had filmed without consent, and one for criminal conspiracy to invade privacy. On June 21, 2017, all the invasion of privacy charges (but not that of conspiracy) were dismissed with leave to amend.

text: Violence by anti-abortion activists[edit]

text: In the U.S., abortion providers have been threatened with death, and facilities that provide abortions have been attacked or vandalized.[168][169] Planned Parenthood clinics have been the target of a number of instances of violence by anti-abortion activists, including bombing, arson and attacks with chemical weaponry.[181] In 1994, John Salvi entered a Brookline, Massachusetts Planned Parenthood clinic and opened fire, murdering receptionist Shannon Elizabeth Lowney and wounding three others. He fled to another Planned Parenthood clinic where he murdered Leane Nichols and wounded two others.[182] In 2012, a Grand Chute, Wisconsin, Planned Parenthood clinic was subject to a bombing perpetrated by an unknown individual.[169] In 2015, a Planned Parenthood clinic in Pullman, Washington was heavily damaged by arson.[183]

text: 2015 shooting[edit]

text: On November 27, 2015, a gunman shot and killed two civilians and a police officer during a five-hour gun battle at the Colorado Springs, Colorado clinic.[184][185][186] The 57-year-old gunman,[187] Robert Dear, surrendered to police and was taken into custody. During his arrest, he gave a "rambling" interview[188] in which, at one point, he said "no more baby parts", echoing language used in the news media about the clinic following the Center for Medical Progress videos.[189][190][191] Dear was declared incompetent to stand trial for the shooting, citing experts' finding that he suffers from "delusional disorder, persecutory type."[192]