document_title: Late Bronze Age collapse

question_text: what period follows the end of the bronze age in greece

text: Late Bronze Age collapse

text: Regional evidence[edit]

text: Evidence of destruction[edit]

text: Anatolia[edit]

text: Before the Bronze Age collapse, Anatolia (Asia Minor) was dominated by a number of peoples of varying ethno-linguistic origins: including Semitic Assyrians and Amorites, language isolate-speaking Hurrians, Kaskians and Hattians, and later-arriving Indo-European peoples such as Luwians, Hittites, Mitanni, and Mycenaean Greeks. From the 16th century BC, the Mitanni (a migratory minority speaking an Indo-Aryan language) formed a ruling class over the Hurrians, an ancient indigenous Caucasian people who spoke a Hurro-Urartian language, a language isolate. Similarly, the Indo-Anatolian-speaking Hittites absorbed the Hattians,[6] a people speaking a language that may have been of the non–Indo-European North Caucasian language group or a language isolate.

text: Every Anatolian site, apart from integral Assyrian regions in the south east, and regions in eastern, central and southern Anatolia under the control of the powerful Middle Assyrian Empire (1392-1050 BC) that was important during the preceding Late Bronze Age shows a destruction layer, and it appears that in these regions civilization did not recover to the level of the Assyrians and Hittites for another thousand years or so. The Hittites, already weakened by a series of military defeats and annexations of their territory by the Middle Assyrian Empire (which had already destroyed the Hurrian-Mitanni Empire) then suffered a coup de grâce when Hattusas, the Hittite capital, was burned, probably by the language isolate-speaking Kaskians, long indigenous to the southern shores of the Black Sea, and possibly aided by the incoming Indo-European–speaking Phrygians). The city was abandoned and never reoccupied.

text: Karaoğlan[a] (near present-day Ankara) was burned and the corpses left unburied.[8] Many other sites that were not destroyed were abandoned.[9] The Hittite Empire was largely annexed by the Semitic-speaking Assyrians and its remnants destroyed by the Kaskians and/or Phrygians. The Luwian city of Troy was destroyed at least twice, before being abandoned until Roman times. (Trojan War)

text: The Phrygians had arrived (probably over the Bosphorus or Caucasus) in the 13th century BC and played a part in laying waste to what remained of the weakened Hittite Empire (already weakened by defeat and annexation of much of its territory by the Middle Assyrian Empire, and further defeat at the hands of Kaska[10]), before being first checked by the Assyrians and then conquered by them in the Early Iron Age of the 12th century BC. Other groups of Indo-European peoples followed the Phrygians into the region, most prominently the Doric Greeks and Lydians, and in the centuries after the period of Bronze Age Collapse, the Cimmerians, and Scythians also appeared. The Semitic Arameans, Kartvelian-speaking Colchians, and revived Hurrian polities, particularly Urartu, Nairi and Shupria also emerged in parts of the region. The Assyrians simply continued their already extant policies, by conquering any of these new peoples they came into contact with, as they had with the preceding polities of the region. However Assyria gradually withdrew from much of the region for a time in the second half of the 11th century BC, although they continued to campaign militarily at times, in order to protect their borders and keep trade routes open, until a renewed vigorous period of expansion in the late 10th century BC.

text: These sites in Anatolia show evidence of the collapse:

text:
Troy
Miletus
Hattusas[11]
Mersin
Tarhuntassa

text: Cyprus[edit]

text: The catastrophe separates Late Cypriot II (LCII) from the LCIII period, with the sacking and burning of Enkomi, Kition, and Sinda, which may have occurred twice before those sites were abandoned.[12] During the reign of the Hittite king Tudhaliya IV (reigned c. 1237–1209 BC), the island was briefly invaded by the Hittites,[13] either to secure the copper resource or as a way of preventing piracy.

text: Shortly afterwards, the island was reconquered by his son around 1200 BC. Some towns (Enkomi, Kition, Palaeokastro and Sinda) show traces of destruction at the end of LCII. Whether or not this is really an indication of a Mycenean invasion is contested. Originally, two waves of destruction in c. 1230 BC by the Sea Peoples and c. 1190 BC by Aegean refugees have been proposed.[14][who?][clarification needed]

text: Alashiya was plundered by the Sea Peoples and ceased to exist in 1085.

text: The smaller settlements of Ayios Dhimitrios and Kokkinokremnos, as well as a number of other sites, were abandoned but do not show traces of destruction. Kokkinokremos was a short-lived settlement, where various caches concealed by smiths have been found. That no one ever returned to reclaim the treasures suggests that they were killed or enslaved. Recovery occurred only in the Early Iron Age with Phoenician and Greek settlement.

text: These sites in Cyprus show evidence of the collapse:

text:
Palaeokastro
Kition
Sinda
Enkomi

text: Syria[edit]

text: Ancient Syria had been initially dominated by a number of indigenous Semitic-speaking peoples. The East Semitic-speaking Eblaites, Akkadians and Assyrians, the Ugaritic-speaking Amorites prominent among them.[15] Syria during this time was known as "The land of the Amurru".

text: Prior to and during the Bronze Age Collapse, Syria became a battle ground between the empires of the Hittites, Assyrians, Mitanni and Egyptians, and later the coastal regions came under attack from the Sea Peoples. From the 12th century BC, the Arameans came to prominence in Syria, and the region outside of the Canaanite-speaking Phoenician coastal areas eventually spoke Aramaic and the region came to be known as Aramea and Eber Nari. The modern term 'Syria' is a later Indo-European corruption of 'Assyria' which only became formally applied to the Levant during the Seleucid Empire (323-150 BC) (See Etymology of Syria).

text: Levantine sites previously showed evidence of trade links with Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia), Anatolia (Hattia, Hurria, Luwia and later the Hittites) ), Egypt and the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age. Evidence at Ugarit shows that the destruction there occurred after the reign of Merneptah (ruled 1213–1203 BC) and even the fall of Chancellor Bay (died 1192 BC). The last Bronze Age king of the Semitic state of Ugarit, Ammurapi, was a contemporary of the Hittite king Suppiluliuma II. The exact dates of his reign are unknown.

text: A letter by the king is preserved on one of the clay tablets found baked in the conflagration of the destruction of the city. Ammurapi stresses the seriousness of the crisis faced by many Levantine states from invasion by the advancing Sea Peoples in a dramatic response to a plea for assistance from the king of Alasiya. Ammurapi highlights the desperate situation Ugarit faced in letter RS 18.147:

text: My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the Land of Lukka?... Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us.[16]

text: No help arrived and Ugarit was burned to the ground at the end of the Bronze Age. Its destruction levels contained Late Helladic IIIB ware, but no LH IIIC (see Mycenaean period). Therefore, the date of the destruction is important for the dating of the LH IIIC phase. Since an Egyptian sword bearing the name of Pharaoh Merneptah was found in the destruction levels, 1190 BC was taken as the date for the beginning of the LH IIIC.

text: A cuneiform tablet found in 1986 shows that Ugarit was destroyed after the death of Merneptah. It is generally agreed that Ugarit had already been destroyed by the 8th year of Ramesses III, 1178 BC. These letters on clay tablets found baked in the conflagration of the destruction of the city speak of attack from the sea, and a letter from Alashiya (Cyprus) speaks of cities already being destroyed by attackers who came by sea. It also speaks of the Ugarit fleet being absent, patrolling the Lycian coast.

text: The West Semitic Arameans eventually superseded the earlier Semitic Amorites, Canaanites and people of Ugarit. The Arameans, together with the Phoenician Canaanites and Neo-Hittites came to dominate most of the region demographically, however these people, and the Levant in general, were also conquered and dominated politically and militarily by the Middle Assyrian Empire until Assyria's withdrawal in the late 11th century BC, although the Assyrians continued to conduct military campaigns in the region. However with the rise of Neo Assyrian Empire in the late 10th century BC, the entire region once again fell to Assyria.

text: These sites in Syria show evidence of the collapse:

text:
Ugarit
Tell Sukas
Kadesh
Qatna
Hamath
Alalakh
Aleppo
Carchemish
Emar

text: Southern Levant[edit]

text: Egyptian evidence shows that from the reign of Horemheb (ruled either 1319 or 1306 to 1292 BC), wandering Shasu were more problematic than the earlier Apiru. Ramesses II (ruled 1279–1213 BC) campaigned against them, pursuing them as far as Moab, where he established a fortress, after a near defeat at the Battle of Kadesh. During the reign of Merneptah, the Shasu threatened the "Way of Horus" north from Gaza. Evidence shows that Deir Alla (Succoth) was destroyed after the reign of Queen Twosret (ruled 1191–1189 BC).[17]

text: The destroyed site of Lachish was briefly reoccupied by squatters and an Egyptian garrison, during the reign of Ramesses III (ruled 1186–1155 BC). All centres along a coastal route from Gaza northward were destroyed, and evidence shows Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Akko, and Jaffa were burned and not reoccupied for up to thirty years. Inland Hazor, Bethel, Beit Shemesh, Eglon, Debir, and other sites were destroyed. Refugees escaping the collapse of coastal centres may have fused with incoming nomadic and Anatolian elements to begin the growth of terraced hillside hamlets in the highlands region that was associated with the later development of the Hebrews.[18]

text: During the reign of Rameses III, Philistines were allowed to resettle the coastal strip from Gaza to Joppa, Denyen (possibly the tribe of Dan in the Bible, or more likely the people of Adana, also known as Danuna, part of the Hittite Empire) settled from Joppa to Acre, and Tjekker in Acre. The sites quickly achieved independence, as the Tale of Wenamun shows.

text: These sites in Southern Levant show evidence of the collapse:

text:
Hazor
Akko
Megiddo
Deir 'Alla (Sukkot)
Bethel
Beth Shemesh
Lachish
Ashdod
Ashkelon

text: Greece[edit]

text: None of the Mycenaean palaces of the Late Bronze Age survived (with the possible exception of the Cyclopean fortifications on the Acropolis of Athens), with destruction being heaviest at palaces and fortified sites. Up to 90% of small sites in the Peloponnese were abandoned, suggesting a major depopulation.[citation needed]

text: The Bronze Age collapse marked the start of what has been called the Greek Dark Ages, which lasted roughly 400 years and ended with the establishment of Archaic Greece. Other cities like Athens continued to be occupied, but with a more local sphere of influence, limited evidence of trade and an impoverished culture, from which it took centuries to recover.[citation needed]

text: These sites in Greece show evidence of the collapse:[citation needed]

text:
Teichos Dymaion (el)
Pylos
Nichoria
The Menelaion
Tiryns
Mycenae
Thebes
Lefkandi
Iolkos[19]
Knossos
Kydonia

text: Areas that survived[edit]

text: Mesopotamia[edit]

text: The Middle Assyrian Empire (1392-1056 BC) had destroyed the Hurrian-Mitanni Empire, annexed much of the Hittite Empire and eclipsed the Egyptian Empire, and at the beginning of the Late Bronze Age collapse controlled an empire stretching from the Caucasus mountains in the north to the Arabian peninsula in the south, and from Ancient Iran in the east to Cyprus in the west. However, in the 12th century BC, Assyrian satrapies in Anatolia came under attack from the Mushki (Phrygians), and those in the Levant from Arameans, but Tiglath-Pileser I (reigned 1114–1076 BC) was able to defeat and repel these attacks, conquering the incomers. The Middle Assyrian Empire survived intact throughout much of this period, with Assyria dominating and often ruling Babylonia directly, controlling south east and south western Anatolia, north western Iran and much of northern and central Syria and Canaan, as far as the Mediterranean and Cyprus.[20]

text: The Arameans and Phrygians were subjected, and Assyria and its colonies were not threatened by the Sea Peoples who had ravaged Egypt and much of the East Mediterranean, and the Assyrians often conquered as far as Phoenicia and the East Mediterranean. However, after the death of Ashur-bel-kala in 1056 BC, Assyria withdrew to areas close to its natural borders, encompassing what is today northern Iraq, north east Syria, the fringes of north west Iran, and south eastern Turkey. Assyria still retained a stable monarchy, the best army in the world, and an efficient civil administration, enabling it to survive the Bronze Age Collapse intact. Assyrian written records remained numerous and the most consistent in the world during the period, and the Assyrians were still able to mount long range military campaigns in all directions when necessary. From the late 10th century BC, it once more began to assert itself internationally, with the Neo-Assyrian Empire growing to be the largest the world had yet seen.[21]

text: The situation in Babylonia was very different. After the Assyrian withdrawal, it was still subject to periodic Assyrian (and Elamite) subjugation, and new groups of Semites, such as the Aramaeans, Suteans (and in the period after the Bronze Age Collapse, Chaldeans also), spread unchecked into Babylonia from the Levant, and the power of its weak kings barely extended beyond the city limits of Babylon. Babylon was sacked by the Elamites under Shutruk-Nahhunte (c. 1185–1155 BC), and lost control of the Diyala River valley to Assyria.

text: Egypt[edit]

text: After apparently surviving for a while, the Egyptian Empire collapsed in the mid-twelfth century BC (during the reign of Ramesses VI, 1145 to 1137 BC). Previously, the Merneptah Stele (c. 1200 BC) spoke of attacks (Libyan War) from Putrians (from modern Libya), with associated people of Ekwesh, Shekelesh, Lukka, Shardana and Tursha or Teresh (possibly Troas), and a Canaanite revolt, in the cities of Ashkelon, Yenoam and among the people of Israel. A second attack (Battle of the Delta and Battle of Djahy) during the reign of Ramesses III (1186–1155 BC) involved Peleset, Tjeker, Shardana and Denyen.

text: Conclusion[edit]

text: Robert Drews describes the collapse as "the worst disaster in ancient history, even more calamitous than the collapse of the Western Roman Empire."[22] Cultural memories of the disaster told of a "lost golden age": for example, Hesiod spoke of Ages of Gold, Silver, and Bronze, separated from the cruel modern Age of Iron by the Age of Heroes. Rodney Castledon suggests that memories of the Bronze Age collapse influenced Plato's story of Atlantis[23] in Timaeus and the Critias.

text: Possible causes[edit]

text: Various theories have been put forward as possible contributors to the collapse, many of them mutually compatible.

text: Environmental[edit]

text: Climate change[edit]

text: Changes in climate similar to the Younger Dryas period or the Little Ice Age punctuate human history. The local effects of these changes may cause crop failures in multiple consecutive years, leading to warfare as a last-ditch effort at survival. The triggers for climate change are still debated, but ancient peoples could not have predicted or coped with substantial climate changes.

text: Volcanoes[edit]

text: The Hekla 3 eruption approximately coincides with this period; and, while the exact date is under considerable dispute, one group calculated the date to be specifically 1159 BC, implicating the eruption in the collapse in Egypt.[24]

text: Drought[edit]

text: Using the Palmer Drought Index for 35 Greek, Turkish and Middle Eastern weather stations, it was shown that a drought of the kind that persisted from January AD 1972 would have affected all of the sites associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse.[25] Drought could have easily precipitated or hastened socioeconomic problems and led to wars.

text: More recently, it has been shown how the diversion of midwinter storms from the Atlantic to north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, bringing wetter conditions to Central Europe but drought to the Eastern Mediterranean, was associated with the Late Bronze Age collapse.[26]

text: Pollen in sediment cores from the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee show that there was a period of severe drought at the start of the collapse.[27][28]

text: Cultural[edit]

text: Ironworking[edit]

text: The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of ironworking technology in the region, beginning with precocious iron-working in the present Bulgaria and Romania in the 13th and 12th centuries BC.[29]

text: Leonard R. Palmer suggested that iron, superior to bronze for weapons manufacture, was in more plentiful supply and so allowed larger armies of iron users to overwhelm the smaller armies of maryannu chariotry, which used bronze.[30]

text: Changes in warfare[edit]

text: Robert Drews argues[31] for the appearance of massed infantry, using newly developed weapons and armor, such as cast rather than forged spearheads and long swords, a revolutionising cut-and-thrust weapon,[32] and javelins. The appearance of bronze foundries suggests "that mass production of bronze artifacts was suddenly important in the Aegean". For example, Homer uses "spears" as a virtual synonym for "warriors".

text: Such new weaponry, in the hands of large numbers of "running skirmishers", who could swarm and cut down a chariot army, would destabilize states that were based upon the use of chariots by the ruling class. That would precipitate an abrupt social collapse as raiders began to conquer, loot and burn cities.[33][34][35]

text: General systems collapse[edit]

text: A general systems collapse has been put forward as an explanation for the reversals in culture that occurred between the Urnfield culture of the 12th and 13th centuries BC and the rise of the Celtic Hallstatt culture in the 9th and 10th centuries BC.[36] General systems collapse theory, pioneered by Joseph Tainter,[37] hypothesises how social declines in response to complexity may lead to a collapse resulting in simpler forms of society.

text: In the specific context of the Middle East, a variety of factors – including population growth, soil degradation, drought, cast bronze weapon and iron production technologies – could have combined to push the relative price of weaponry (compared to arable land) to a level unsustainable for traditional warrior aristocracies. In complex societies that were increasingly fragile and less resilient, the combination of factors may have contributed to the collapse.

text: The growing complexity and specialization of the Late Bronze Age political, economic, and social organization in Carol Thomas and Craig Conant's phrase[38] together made the organization of civilization too intricate to reestablish piecewise when disrupted. That could explain why the collapse was so widespread and able to render the Bronze Age civilizations incapable of recovery. The critical flaws of the Late Bronze Age are its centralisation, specialisation, complexity, and top-heavy political structure. These flaws then were exposed by sociopolitical events (revolt of peasantry and defection of mercenaries), fragility of all kingdoms (Mycenaean, Hittite, Ugaritic, and Egyptian), demographic crises (overpopulation), and wars between states. Other factors that could have placed increasing pressure on the fragile kingdoms include interruption of maritime trade by piracy by the Sea Peoples, as well as drought, crop failure, famine, or the Dorian migration or invasion.[39]


document_title: Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act

question_text: the general agreement on tariffs and trade (gatt) was part of american attempts to increase

question_tokens: the general agreement on tariffs and trade ( gatt ) was part of american attempts to increase

root

text: Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act

text: Sponsors and legislative history[edit]

text: In 1922, Congress passed the Fordney–McCumber Tariff act which increased tariffs on imports.

tag: p

text: The League of Nations' World Economic Conference met at Geneva in 1927, concluding in its final report: "the time has come to put an end to tariffs, and to move in the opposite direction." Vast debts and reparations could only be repaid through gold, services or goods; but the only items available on that scale were goods. However, many of the delegates' governments did the opposite, starting in 1928 when France passed a new tariff law and quota system.[6]

text: By the late 1920s the economy of the United States had made exceptional gains in productivity due to electrification, which was a critical factor in mass production. Horses and mules had been replaced by motorcars, trucks and tractors. One-sixth to one-quarter of farmland, previously devoted to feeding horses and mules, was freed up, contributing to a surplus in farm produce. Although nominal and real wages had increased, they did not keep up with the productivity gains. As a result, the ability to produce exceeded market demand, a condition that was variously termed overproduction and underconsumption. Senator Smoot contended that raising the tariff on imports would alleviate the overproduction problem; however, the US had actually been running a trade account surplus, and although manufactured goods imports were rising, manufactured exports were rising even faster. Food exports had been falling and were in trade account deficit; however the value of food imports were a little over half that of manufactured imports.[7]

text: As the global economy entered the first stages of the Great Depression in late 1929, the US's main goal emerged to protect American jobs and farmers from foreign competition. Reed Smoot championed another tariff increase within the US in 1929, which became the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Bill. In his memoirs, Smoot made it abundantly clear:

text: The world is paying for its ruthless destruction of life and property in the World War and for its failure to adjust purchasing power to productive capacity during the industrial revolution of the decade following the war.[8]

text: Smoot was a Republican from Utah and chairman of the Senate Finance Committee. Willis C. Hawley, a Republican from Oregon, was chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee.

text: When campaigning for president during 1928, one of Herbert Hoover's promises to help beleaguered farmers had been to increase tariffs of agricultural products. Hoover won, and Republicans maintained comfortable majorities in the House and the Senate during 1928. Hoover then asked Congress for an increase of tariff rates for agricultural goods and a decrease of rates for industrial goods.

text: The House passed a version of the act in May 1929, increasing tariffs on agricultural and industrial goods alike. The House bill passed on a vote of 264 to 147, with 244 Republicans and 20 Democrats voting in favor of the bill.[9] The Senate debated its bill until March 1930, with many Senators trading votes based on their states' industries. The Senate bill passed on a vote of 44 to 42, with 39 Republicans and 5 Democrats voting in favor of the bill.[9] The conference committee then aligned the two versions, largely by moving to the greater House tariffs.[10] The House passed the conference bill on a vote of 222 to 153, with the support of 208 Republicans and 14 Democrats.[9]

text: Opponents[edit]

text: In May 1930, a petition was signed by 1,028 economists in the US asking President Hoover to veto the legislation, organized by Paul Douglas, Irving Fisher, James TFG Wood, Frank Graham, Ernest Patterson, Henry Seager, Frank Taussig, and Clair Wilcox.[11][12] Automobile executive Henry Ford spent an evening at the White House trying to convince Hoover to veto the bill, calling it "an economic stupidity."[13] J. P. Morgan's chief executive Thomas W. Lamont said he "almost went down on [his] knees to beg Herbert Hoover to veto the asinine Hawley-Smoot tariff."[14]

text: Hoover opposed the bill and called it "vicious, extortionate, and obnoxious" because he felt it would undermine the commitment he had pledged to international cooperation. However, in spite of his opposition, Hoover yielded to influence from his own party and business leaders and signed the bill.[15] Hoover's fears were well founded.  Canada and other countries raised their own tariffs in retaliation after the bill had become law.

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke against the act while campaigning for president during 1932.[10]

text: Economist consensus[edit]

text: The consensus view among economists and economic historians is that the passage of the Smoot–Hawley Tariff exacerbated the Great Depression,[16] although there is disagreement as to how much.

text: Retaliation[edit]

text: Threats of retaliation by other countries began long before the bill was enacted into law in June 1930. As it passed the House of Representatives in May 1929, boycotts broke out and foreign governments moved to increase rates against American products, even though rates could be increased or decreased by the Senate or by the conference committee. By September 1929, Hoover's administration had received protest notes from 23 trading partners, but threats of retaliatory actions were ignored.[10]

text: In May 1930, Canada, the country's most loyal trading partner, retaliated by imposing new tariffs on 16 products that accounted altogether for around 30% of US exports to Canada.[17] Canada later also forged closer economic links with the British Empire via the British Empire Economic Conference of 1932. France and Britain protested and developed new trade partners. Germany developed a system of trade via clearing.

text: In 1932, with the depression only having worsened for workers and farmers despite Smoot and Hawley's promises of prosperity from a high tariff, the two lost their seats in the elections that year.[18]

text: Tariff levels[edit]

text: In the two volume series published by the US Bureau of the Census entitled "The Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition," tariff rates have been represented in two forms. The "dutiable tariff rate" peak of 1932 was 59.1%, second only to the 61.7% rate of 1830. However, in 1933, 63% of all imports were never taxed which the "dutiable tariff rate" does not reflect. The "free and dutiable rate" in 1929 was 13.5% and peaked under Smoot-Hawley in 1933 at 19.8% which is significantly below the 29.7% "free and dutiable rate" that the United States averaged from 1821 until 1900.[19]

text: The average tariff rate on dutiable imports [20][21] increased from 40.1% in 1929 to 59.1% in 1932 (+19%). However, it was already consistently at high level between 1865 and 1913 (from 38% to 52%). Moreover, It had also risen sharply in 1861 (from 18.61% to 36.2%; +17.6), between 1863 and 1866 (from 32.62% to 48.33%; +15.7%), between 1920 and 1922 (from 16.4% to 38.1%; +21.7%), without producing global depressions.

text: After enactment[edit]

text: At first, the tariff seemed to be a success. According to historian Robert Sobel, "Factory payrolls, construction contracts, and industrial production all increased sharply." However, larger economic problems loomed in the guise of weak banks. When the Creditanstalt of Austria failed in 1931, the global deficiencies of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff became apparent.[15]

text: US imports decreased 66% from $4.4 billion (1929) to $1.5 billion (1933), and exports decreased 61% from $5.4 billion to $2.1 billion. GNP fell from $103.1 billion in 1929 to $75.8 billion in 1931 and bottomed out at $55.6 billion in 1933.[22] Imports from Europe decreased from a 1929 high of $1.3 billion to just $390 million during 1932, while US exports to Europe decreased from $2.3 billion in 1929 to $784 million in 1932. Overall, world trade decreased by some 66% between 1929 and 1934.[23]

text: Using panel data estimates of export and import equations for 17 countries, Jakob B. Madsen (2002) estimated the effects of increasing tariff and non-tariff trade barriers on worldwide trade during the period 1929–1932. He concluded that real international trade contracted somewhere around 33% overall. His estimates of the impact of various factors included about 14% because of declining GNP in each country, 8% because of increases in tariff rates, 5% because of deflation-induced tariff increases, and 6% because of the imposition of non-tariff barriers.

text: The new tariff imposed an effective tax rate of 60% on more than 3,200 products and materials imported into the United States, quadrupling previous tariff rates on individual items, but raising the average tariff rate to 19.2%, in line with average rates of that day.

text: Unemployment was at 8% in 1930 when the Smoot–Hawley tariff was passed, but the new law failed to lower it. The rate jumped to 16% in 1931, and 25% in 1932–33.[24] There is some contention about whether this can necessarily be attributed to the tariff, however.[25][26] It was not until World War II, during which "the American economy expanded at an unprecedented rate",[27] that unemployment fell below 1930s levels.[28]

text: Imports during 1929 were only 4.2% of the United States' GNP and exports were only 5.0%. Monetarists, such as Milton Friedman, who emphasize the central role of the money supply in causing the depression, note that the Smoot–Hawley Act only had a contributory effect on the entire U.S. economy.[29]

text: End of the tariffs[edit]

text: The 1932 Democratic campaign platform pledged to lower tariffs. After winning the election, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the now-Democratic Congress passed Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934. This act allowed the President to negotiate tariff reductions on a bilateral basis, and also treated such a tariff agreement as regular legislation, requiring a majority, rather than as a treaty requiring a two-thirds vote. This was one of the core components of the trade negotiating framework that developed after World War II. The tit-for-tat responses of other countries were understood to have contributed to a sharp reduction of trade in the 1930s. After World War II this understanding supported a push towards multi-lateral trading agreements that would prevent similar situations in the future. While the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 focused on foreign exchange and did not directly address tariffs, those involved wanted a similar framework for international trade. President Harry S. Truman launched this process in December 1945 with negotiations for the creation of a proposed International Trade Organization (ITO). As it happened, separate negotiations on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) moved more quickly, with an agreement signed in October 1947; in the end, the US never signed the ITO agreement. Adding a multilateral "most-favored-nation" component to that of reciprocity, the GATT served as a framework for the gradual reduction of tariffs over the subsequent half century.[30]

text: Post–World War II changes to the Smoot–Hawley tariffs reflected a general tendency of the United States to reduce its tariff levels unilaterally while its trading partners retained their high levels. The American Tariff League Study of 1951 compared the free and dutiable tariff rates of 43 countries. It found that only seven nations had a lower tariff level than the US (5.1%), while eleven nations had free and dutiable tariff rates higher than the Smoot–Hawley peak of 19.8% including the United Kingdom (25.6%). The 43-country average was 14.4% which was 0.9% higher than the US level of 1929 demonstrating that few nations were reciprocating in reducing their levels as the U.S. reduced its own.[31]

text: In modern political dialogue[edit]

text: In the discussion leading up to the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) then-Vice President Al Gore mentioned the Smoot-Hawley tariff as a response to NAFTA objections voiced by Ross Perot during a debate in 1993 they had on The Larry King Show. He gave Perot a framed picture of Smoot and Hawley shaking hands after its passage.[10]

text: The act has been compared to the 2010 Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA), with Andrew Quinlan from the Center for Freedom and Prosperity calling FATCA "the worst economic idea to come out of Congress since Smoot–Hawley".[32]


document_title: President of South Africa

question_text: who was the third president of south africa

text: President of South Africa

text: Origins[edit]

text: The office of the President, and the roles that come with it, were established by Chapter Five of the Constitution of South Africa which was formed by a Constituent Assembly upon the dissolution of apartheid as state policy.[2]

text: A number of manifestations of the office have existed. Aspects of these offices exist within the presidency today. The executive leadership of the British colonies of Natal and of the Cape of Good Hope were invested in their Governors, likewise was invested in the Presidents of the Boer republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Alternating sovereignty as a result of wars culminated in the Vereeniging Treaty signed in which concluded the South African War.

text: The Union of South Africa, a British Dominion, was established on 31 May 1910[3] and the head of state was invested in the apolitical and ceremonial Monarch of the United Kingdom (who was represented by a viceroy, the Governor-General).

text: Upon the declaration of South Africa as a republic on 31 May 1961, the office of State President was created.[4] It was originally a ceremonial post, but became an executive post in 1984 when a new constitution abolished the post of Prime Minister and transferred its powers to the State President.

text: Electoral system[edit]

text: South Africa has an almost unique system for the election of its president. Unlike other former British colonies and dominions who have adopted a parliamentary republican form of government and those that follow the Westminster system, South Africa's President is both head of state and head of government and Commander-in-Chief of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). Contrary to presidential systems around the world, the President of South Africa is elected by the Parliament of South Africa[5] rather than by the people directly. He is thus answerable to it in theory and able to influence legislation in practice as head of the majority party (presently the ANC).

text: The president is elected at the first sitting of parliament after an election, and whenever a vacancy arises. The president is elected by the National Assembly, the lower house of parliament, from among its members. The chief justice must oversee the election. Once elected, a person is no longer a member of the national assembly. They must then be sworn in as president within five days of the election. Should a vacancy arise, the date of a new election must be set by the chief justice, but not more than 30 days after the vacancy occurs.[6]

text: The Constitution has thus prescribed a system combining both parliamentary and presidential systems in a unique manner. Only Botswana and a few other countries use a similar system. Between 1996 and 2003 Israel combined the two systems in an opposite way, with an elected prime minister.[7]

text: Although the presidency is the key institution, it is hedged about with numerous checks and balances that prevent its total dominance over the government, as was the case in many African countries. The presidential term is five years, with a limit of two terms. Thus the electoral system attempts (at least on paper) to prevent the accumulation of power in the president as was during Apartheid or in many other African countries.[8]

text: Oath or Affirmation[edit]

text: The President-elect will, before formally assuming office, make and subscribe an oath or solemn affirmation in the terms st out in Schedule 3 before the Chief Justice or a Judge of the Supreme Court.

text: Tenure of Office[edit]

text: The President elected in terms of section 77 (1) (a) is subjected to sections 87 and 93 (2), hold office-

text: (a) for the period terminating on a date five years as from the date of the date of the first sitting of the National Assembly under the Constitution; or

text: (b) if the Parliament is dissolved during such period, for the period until a President has been elected in terms of section 77 (1) (b) after such dissolution and has assumed office.

text: Responsibilities of President[edit]

text: (1) The President is responsible for the observance of the provision of the Constitution as the supreme law of the land

text: (2) The president provides with dignity the executive leadership in the interest of national unity in accordance with the Constitution and the law of the country.

text: (3) The president cannot hold any other public office and cannot perform remunerative work outside the duties of the president's office.

text: Succession[edit]

text: According to chapter five of the constitution, the president can only exercise the powers of his or her office while within the Republic of South Africa. Should the president be outside of the country, or unable to fulfil the duties of the office, they may appoint an acting president.

text: The presidential vacancy should be filled first by the deputy president, then cabinet minister selected by the president, then a cabinet minister selected by the cabinet, and finally by the Speaker of the National Assembly.[9]

text: Presidential powers[edit]

text: The President is the head of state, head of government and commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the Republic of South Africa. The rights, responsibilities and remuneration of the President are enumerated in Chapter V of the Constitution of South Africa and subsequent amendments and laws passed by the Parliament of South Africa.

text: The executive power of the Republic is invested in the president. He appoints various officials to positions listed in the Constitution however the most significant are the ministers and justices of the Supreme Court of Appeal and the Constitutional Court. Through the Cabinet, the president implements and enforces the constitution and laws and enforces his or her political objectives. Judges are appointed on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission.

text: The president plays a role in the formation of legislation. He or she signs bills into laws and can do the opposite, veto them (although subject to an override), refers bills back to Parliament or to the Constitutional Court or can call for a referendum. The president summons parliament, often delivering his or her objectives and agenda in a State of the Nation Address at the beginning of each session.

text: The president is the commander-in-chief of the South African National Defence Force thereby possessing influence or control over foreign and security policy. He or she is accorded the constitutional powers to declare war and make peace, negotiate and sign (although not ratify) treaties (and the alliances that may come with them), and receives and appoints diplomatic officials, confers honours and grants pardons.[10]

text: Powers and Functions of South African President[edit]

text: (1) The president performs the following powers and functions:

text: (a) Sign bills duly passes by parliament.

text: (b) Convey meetings with Cabinet

text: (c) Refer disputes of a constitutional nature between parties represented in Parliament or between organs of state at any level of government to the Constitutional Court.

text: (d) Confer honours.

text: (e) Appoint, accredit, receive and recognise ambassadors, diplomatic representatives and other diplomatic officials.

text: (f) Appoint commissions of inquiry.

text: (g) Negotiate and sign international agreements

text: (2) The president shall consult the Executive Deputy President.

text: (a) In development and execution of the policies of the international government.

text: (b) All matters relating to the management of the Cabinet and performance of Cabinet business.

text: (c) Assign and allocation of functions contemplated in section 84 (5) to an Executive Deputy President.

text: (3) The President exercises and performs all powers and functions assigned to him by the Constitution or any other law, except those specified in subsections (1) and (2) or where otherwise expressly or by implication provided in this Constitution in consultation with the cabinet. Provided that the cabinet may delegate it's consultation functions in terms of the subsection, with reference to any particular power or function of the president, to any Minister of Ministers.

text: (4) (a) The President in the Commander-in-Chief of the National Defence Force

text: (b) The President may -

text: (ii) With approval of the Parliament, declare a state of national defence.

text: (iii) Employ the national defence force in accordance with and subject to sections 227 and 228.

text: The President is addressed as "Your Excellency" or "Mr/Madam President" and referred to as "The Honourable (name)".

text: The official seat of the President are the Union Buildings in Pretoria and the Tuynhuys in Cape Town. His living residences are Mahlamba Ndlopfu in Pretoria, Genadendal in Cape Town and Dr John L Dube House in Durban.

text: Presidents of South Africa (1994–present)[edit]

text: African National Congress

text:
No.
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Term of office
—
Electoral mandates
Days as President
Parliament
Political party
Government
Refs

1

Nelson Mandela
(1918–2013)

10 May
1994

14 June
1999

1851 days
22nd

ANC

Mandela
(Reshuffle 1 · 2 · 3)
ANC—NP—IFP

1994

The first post-apartheid President of South Africa. The first black chief executive of South Africa, and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid through tackling institutionalised racism, poverty and inequality, and fostering racial reconciliation. Politically an African nationalist and democratic socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.

2

Thabo Mbeki
(1942–)

14 June
1999

21 May
2004

3390 days
23rd

ANC

Mbeki I
ANC—IFP

[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]

21 May
2004

24 September
2008

24th

Mbeki II
(Reshuffle 1 · 2)

1999, 2004

The second post-apartheid President of South Africa. On 20 September 2008, with about nine months left in his second term, Mbeki announced his resignation after being recalled by the National Executive Committee of the ANC, following a conclusion by judge C. R. Nicholson of improper interference in the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA), including the prosecution of Jacob Zuma for corruption. On 12 January 2009, the Supreme Court of Appeal unanimously overturned judge Nicholson's judgment but the resignation stood.

3

Kgalema Motlanthe
(1949–)

25 September
2008

9 May
2009

228 days
24th

ANC

Motlanthe

[18]
[18]

2008

The third post-apartheid President of South Africa. He was elected following the resignation of Thabo Mbeki.

4

Jacob Zuma
(1942–)

9 May
2009

21 May
2014

3061 days
25th

ANC

Zuma I
(Reshuffle 1 · 2 · 3)

21 May
2014

Incumbent
(mandate expires on 2 June 2019)

26th

Zuma II

2009, 2014

The fourth post-apartheid President of South Africa.

tag: table

text: Latest election[edit]


document_title: Automobile air conditioning

question_text: when did air conditioning became common in cars

text: Automobile air conditioning

text: History[edit]

text: A company in New York City in the United States first offered installation of air conditioning for cars in 1933. Most of their customers operated limousines and luxury cars.[1]

text: In 1939, Packard became the first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars.[2] These were manufactured by Bishop and Babcock Co, of Cleveland, Ohio. The "Bishop and Babcock Weather Conditioner" also incorporated a heater. Cars ordered with the new "Weather Conditioner" were shipped from Packard's East Grand Boulevard facility to the B&B factory where the conversion was performed. Once complete, the car was shipped to a local dealer where the customer would take delivery.

text: Packard fully warranted and supported this conversion, and marketed it well. However, it was not commercially successful for a number of reasons:

text:
The main evaporator and blower system took up half of the trunk space (though this became less of a problem as trunks became larger in the post-war period).
It was superseded by more efficient systems in the post-war years.
It had no temperature thermostat or shut-off mechanism other than switching the blower off. (Cold air would still sometimes enter the car with any movement as the drive belt was continuously connected to the compressor—later systems would use electrically operated clutches to remedy this problem.)
The several feet of plumbing going back and forth between the engine compartment and trunk proved unreliable in service.
The price, at US $274 ($4,692.12 in 2014 US dollars), was unaffordable to most people in post-depression/pre-war America.

tag: ul

text: The option was discontinued after 1941.[3]

text: Chrysler Airtemp[edit]

text: The 1953 Chrysler Imperial was one of the first production cars in twelve years to offer modern automobile air conditioning as an option, following tentative experiments by Packard in 1940 and Cadillac in 1941.[4] Walter Chrysler had seen to the invention of Airtemp air conditioning in the 1930s for the Chrysler Building, and had offered it on cars in 1941-42, and again in 1951-52.

text: The Airtemp was more advanced than rival automobile air conditioners by 1953. It was operated by a single switch on the dashboard marked with low, medium, and high positions. As the highest capacity unit available at that time, the system was capable of quickly cooling the passenger compartment and also reducing humidity, dust, pollen, and tobacco smoke. The system drew in more outside air than contemporary systems; thus, reducing the staleness associated with automotive air conditioning at the time. Instead of plastic tubes mounted on the rear window package shelf as on GM cars, small ducts directed cool air toward the ceiling of the car where it filtered down around the passengers instead of blowing directly on them, a feature that modern cars have lost.[4]

text: Cadillac, Buick, and Oldsmobile added air conditioning as an option on some of their models in the 1953 model year.[5] All of these Frigidaire systems used separate engine and trunk mounted components.[6][7]

text: Nash integrated system[edit]

text: In 1954, the Nash Ambassador was the first American automobile to have a front-end, fully integrated heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning system.[8][9] The Nash-Kelvinator corporation used its experience in refrigeration to introduce the automobile industry's first compact and affordable, single-unit heating and air conditioning system optional for its Nash models.[10] This was the first mass market system with controls on the dash and an electric clutch.[11] This system was also compact and serviceable with all of its components installed under the hood or in the cowl area.[12]

text: Combining heating, cooling, and ventilating, the new air conditioning system for the Nash cars was called the "All-Weather Eye".[13] This followed the marketing name of "Weather Eye" for Nash's fresh-air automotive heating and ventilating system that was first used in 1938.[12] With a single thermostatic control, the Nash passenger compartment air cooling option was "a good and remarkably inexpensive" system.[14] The system had cold air for passengers enter through dash-mounted vents.[15] Nash's exclusive "remarkable advance" was not only the "sophisticated" unified system, but also its $345 price that beat all other systems.[16]

text: Most competing systems used a separate heating system and an engine-mounted compressor, driven by the engine crankshaft via a belt, with an evaporator in the car's trunk to deliver cold air through the rear parcel shelf and overhead vents. General Motors made a front-mounted air conditioning system optional in 1954 on Pontiacs with a straight-eight engine that added separate controls and air distribution. The alternative layout pioneered by Nash "became established practice and continues to form the basis of the modern and more sophisticated automatic climate control systems."[17]

text: Growth in demand[edit]

text: Air-conditioning for automobiles came into wide use from the late twentieth century. Although air conditioners use significant power; the drag of a car with closed windows is less than if the windows are open to cool the occupants. There has been much debate on the effect of air conditioning on the fuel efficiency of a vehicle. Factors such as wind resistance, aerodynamics and engine power and weight must be considered, to find the true difference between using the air conditioning system and not using it, when estimating the actual fuel mileage. Other factors can affect the engine, and an overall engine heat increase can affect the cooling system of the vehicle.

text: The innovation was adopted quickly and new features to air conditioning like the Cadillac Comfort Control which was a completely automatic heating and cooling system set by dial thermostat was introduced as an industry first in the 1964 model year.[18] By 1960 about 20% of all cars in the U.S. had air-conditioning, with the percentage increasing to 80% in the warm areas of the Southwest.[19] American Motors made air conditioning standard equipment on all AMC Ambassadors starting with the 1968 model year, a first in the mass market, with a base price starting at $2,671.[20][21] By 1969, 54% of domestic automobiles were equipped with air conditioning, with the feature needed not only for passenger comfort, but also to increase the car's resale value.[22]

text: Evaporative cooling[edit]

text: A car cooler is an automobile evaporative cooler, sometimes referred to as a swamp cooler.[23][24] Most are aftermarket relatively inexpensive accessories consisting of an external window-mounted metal cylinder without moving parts, but internal under dashboard or center floor units with an electric fan are available.[25][26] It was an early type of automobile air conditioner[27] and is not used in modern cars relying on refrigerative systems to cool the interior.

text: To cool the air it used latent heat (in other words, cooling by water evaporation).[28] Water inside the device evaporates and in the process transfers heat from the surrounding air. The cool moisture-laden air is then directed to the inside of the car.[28][29] The evaporate "cooling" effect decreases with humidity because the air is already saturated with water. Therefore, the lower the humidity, such as in dry desert regions, the better the system works. Car coolers were popular, especially among summer tourists visiting or crossing the southwestern United States states of California, Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, and Nevada.[26]

text: Operating principles[edit]

text: In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from the passenger compartment to the environment. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into the ambient environment.

text: Circulating refrigerant gas vapor (which also carries the compressor lubricant oil across the system along with it) from the evaporator enters the gas compressor in the engine bay, usually an axial piston pump compressor, and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed refrigerant vapor is now at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed and is routed through a condenser, usually in front of the car's radiator. Here the refrigerant is cooled by air flowing across the condenser coils (originating from the vehicle's movement or from a fan, often the same fan of the cooling radiator if the condenser is mounted on it, automatically turned on when the vehicle is stationary or moving at low speeds) and condensed into a liquid. Thus, the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the heat is carried away by the air.

text: The condensed and pressurized liquid refrigerant is next routed through the receiver-drier, that is, a one way desiccant and filter cartridge that both dehydrates the refrigerant and compressor lubricant oil mixture in order to remove any residual water content (which would become ice inside the expansion valve and therefore clog it) that the vacuum done prior to the charging process didn't manage to remove from the system, and filters it in order to remove any solid particles carried by the mixture, and then through a thermal expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant, lowering its temperature. The cold refrigerant is then routed through the evaporator coil in the passenger compartment.

text: The air, often after being filtered by a cabin air filter, is blowed by an adjustable speed electric powered centrifugal fan across the evaporator, causing the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture to evaporate as well, further lowering the temperature. The warm air is therefore cooled, and also deprived of any humidity (which condenses on the evaporator coils and is drained outside of the vehicle) in the process. It is then passed through an heater matrix, inside of which the engine's coolant circulates, where it can be reheated to a certain degree or even a certain temperature selected by the user and then delivered inside the vehicle's cabin through a set of adjustable vents. Another way of adjusting the desired air temperature, this time by working on the system's cooling capacity, is precisely regulating the centrifugal fan speed so that only the strictly required volumetric flow rate of air is cooled by the evaporator. The user is also given the option to close the vehicle's external air flaps, in order to achieve even faster and stronger cooling by recirculating the already cooled air inside the cabin to the evaporator.

text: To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor is routed back into the compressor.

text: The warmer is the air that reaches the evaporator, the higher is the pressure of the vapor mixture discharged from it and therefore the higher is the load placed on the compressor and therefore on the engine to keep the refrigerant flowing through the system.

text: The compressor can be driven by the car's engine (e.g. via a belt, often the serpentine belt, and an electromagnetically actuated clutch; an electronically actuated variable displacement compressor can also be always directly driven by a belt without the need of any clutch and magnet at all) or by an electric motor.

text: Power consumption[edit]

text: In a modern automobile, the A/C system will use around 4 horsepower (3 kW) of the engine's power, thus increasing fuel consumption of the vehicle.[30]


document_title: Ghost Whisperer (season 4)

question_text: what episode of ghost whisper does jim die

text: Ghost Whisperer (season 4)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the fourth season, Melinda meets Eli James (Jamie Kennedy) after a fire at Rockland University who, after his own near-death experience, develops the ability to hear ghosts. Melinda says goodbye to her close friend Rick Payne, who leaves Grandview on a research trip for the university. In this season, Jim is shot and killed. He does not "cross over" because he does not want to leave Melinda, and his spirit later enters the body of a man named Sam Lucas, who died in an unrelated accident in Grandview and crossed over. When Jim/Sam regains consciousness, he has no memory of being Jim. Melinda works to get him to remember his past life and her, and succeeds after much difficulty and skepticism on the part of her friends. They soon discover that Melinda is pregnant and that the date of conception was right before Jim died.

text: At the end of the season, Ned and Eli find the Book of Changes, a book written by the Watchers (a benevolent group of ghosts who keep watch over the living). The book tells them of past and future prominent dates, such as Andrea and Jim's deaths. One date is listed as September 25, 2009; Melinda's due date. Melinda learns from a Watcher named Carl that her child is destined to not only inherit her gift, but be far more powerful than her. Melinda and Jim decide to remarry and have a small ceremony on a snowy night, on the street where they first met.

text: Development[edit]

text: Ghost Whisperer is based on the work of "Spirit Communicator" James Van Praagh,[3] who is co-executive producer[4] and regularly updates a blog about the show through LivingTV.[5] The stories are also said to be based in part on the work of "Spirit Communicator" Mary Ann Winkowski.[6] Development of the show dates back to at least two years before its premiere.[7]

text: The show was produced by Sander/Moses Productions in association with CBS Television Studios (originally Paramount Network Television in season one and ABC Studios (originally Touchstone Television in the first two seasons) and CBS Paramount Network Television in seasons two and three).

text: The show was filmed on the Universal Studios back lot in Los Angeles.[8] One area on the lot is Courthouse Square from the Back to the Future trilogy, though it has been drastically modified to depict Grandview. For example, the clock tower in Back to the Future has been completely covered up. Cast and crew members believe that the set gets visits from real spirits.[9]

text: Sound effects were completed at Smart Post Sound.[10] Visual effects for the pilot and some season one episodes were completed at Flash Film Works.[11] Visual effects for nearly the entire series were created at Eden FX.[12]

text: Creator John Gray grew up in Brooklyn, New York, which is not far from Grandview-On-Hudson, west of the Hudson River. Piermont is often referenced in episodes as the neighboring town, which is accurate to real life as Grandview-On-Hudson is actually located just north of Piermont. Professor Rick Payne worked in the fictional "Rockland University," and perhaps not coincidentally, the actual Grandview, New York is a village located in Rockland County, New York.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jennifer Love Hewitt as Melinda Gordon (23 episodes)
David Conrad as Jim Clancy/Sam Lucas (23 episodes)
Camryn Manheim as Delia Banks (23 episodes)
Jay Mohr as Rick Payne (1 episode)
Christoph Sanders as Ned Banks (13 episodes)
Jamie Kennedy as Eli James (23 episodes)

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No. in
Series
No. in
Season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

63
1
"Firestarter"
Eric Laneuville
P.K. Simonds
October 3, 2008 (2008-10-03)
9.44[13]

Melinda hears that there has been a fire at the Rockland University Building when Jim is called over there, and hurries over, fearful for Professor Rick Payne, but he is revealed to be alive and well. However, a therapist by the name Eli James dies, and Melinda witnesses his soul being brought back. This 'near-death' experience grants him the ability to hear ghosts. The episode is focused on the ghost of one of Eli's patients, who was possibly more than that, and whether or not she has been starting fires since she was 12. Whilst Melinda is trapped in the archives, she meets a group of seemingly benign ghosts calling themselves the watchers, who warn her that dealing with death may brush off on something she loves.
Note: This was Jay Mohr's last appearance as Professor Payne. First appearance of Jamie Kennedy
Guest Star: Alona Tal as Fiona Raine

64
2
"Big Chills"
Peter Werner
Laurie McCarthy
October 10, 2008 (2008-10-10)
9.69[14]

A woman finds her friend dead and strange things start happening around her. She remembers Melinda's abilities from high school (not that she ever believed it before) and calls on her for help. Mel quickly uncovers the story-Grace, her current boyfriend and the dead friend were in a car accident with a motorcyclist 10 years ago and they left him for dead. The guilt ate away at the dead friend but when he tried to go to the police, the other two stopped him. Melinda must tell the motorcyclists family what happened to him in order for the ghost to move on.

65
3
"Ghost in the Machine"
Steven Robman
Jeannine Renshaw
October 17, 2008 (2008-10-17)
8.97[15]

Melinda watches Ned playing a computer game, and notices one of the Avatars staring right at her, and he appears in her shop, making her realise she has pulled him out of the game. She realises he is a ghost who appears as his Avatar because that is how he remembers himself, he died whilst playing the game. After realising that this Ghost/Avatar-'Phoenix' is usually hanging around with a teenage girl in the game, Mel, Ned and Eli suspect that he is a Predator, and proceed to try and catch him. Melinda sets up an Avatar and enters the game, and eventually discovers that 'Phoenix' is the girls dad, and is actually trying to protect his daughter from the real Predator, who they then have to work together to catch.

66
4
"Save Our Souls"
Gloria Muzio
Mark B. Perry
October 24, 2008 (2008-10-24)
10.14[16]

Melinda and Jim go to a cruise ship that is going to be scrapped soon and meet the newlywed couple staying in the room next to theirs who want to swap because they are having problems with their room and marriage. Mel sees lots of ghosts on the ship and one is very friendly and helpful. Mel realises room M108 is haunted by a ghost who is looking for her fiancé and swaps rooms so she can help her. She figures out the story of how the ghost died and who her fiancé was- he happens to be the owner of the ship, and has to get him to help the ghost cross over.
Guest Star: Solange Knowles as cruise singer.

67
5
"Bloodline"
Ian Sander
Melissa Blake & Joy Blake
October 31, 2008 (2008-10-31)
9.40[17]

A teenager dies while playing tennis with Ned and a friend, and her ghost starts haunting the girl. Mel finds out that the two girls used to be friends until their mothers stopped talking and one family moved away. After the discovery that the blood clot that killed Diana is a genetic condition, it is revealed that the girls were swapped at birth. The ghost tries to stop Melinda revealing the truth.

68
6
"Imaginary Friends and Enemies"
Eric Laneuville
Vivian Lee
November 7, 2008 (2008-11-07)
11.06[18]

Mel and Jim visit an old lodge with an old friend, her daughter and her new fiancé, and Melinda quickly realises that the little girl's imaginary friend is actually a ghost. The ghost seems obsessed with the girl's mother, and wants to play a game with her, but the game ends up hurting the mother. It is later revealed that the mother used to be friends with the ghost (when he was alive and after), and he is trying to warn her about someone, using a clues game they used to play. Melinda has to convince Tricia to play the game and work out the clues. Jim is shot.

69
7
"Threshold"
John Gray
John Gray
November 14, 2008 (2008-11-14)
11.57[19]

Jim meets his brother in the in-between state, but decides that he needs to stay behind to be with Mel, since she's not coping without him. She can't see him even though he's there, because her grief is strengthening the veil, but there is another ghost who wants her help, and she mistakes the signs as being from Jim. Eventually he gets through to her, and she tries to convince him to cross over, but he refuses. The other ghost is revealed to be the recently deceased stepdaughter of the man who shot Jim. At an accident, a man dies and goes into the light, and Jim steps into the body, despite Melinda's warning.

70
8
"Heart & Soul"
Ian Sander
Mark B. Perry & P.K. Simonds
November 21, 2008 (2008-11-21)
11.28[20]

Jim/Sam has no memory of being Jim and very little of being Sam, and Melinda tries to help, wanting the love of her life back. He visits Sam's family but eventually accepts Mel's offer to fix up her garage and live there whilst doing so. Delia doesn't believe Melinda about Jim's spirit stepping into Sam's body.

71
9
"Pieces of You"
Jim Chressanthis
Laurie McCarthy
December 5, 2008 (2008-12-05)
9.71[21]

Jim/Sam is concerned about what might be going on between him and Melinda, thinking they were having an affair, and she assures him she would never cheat on her husband. She starts to tell him about the whole Jim/Sam thing, but his reaction stops her. Delia believes Mel about Jim/Sam after seeing him waiting for Ned at the basketball court, and convinces him to stay. Meanwhile, Mel has to help the ghost of a little girl who is haunting a wishing well.

72
10
"Ball & Chain"
Eric Laneuville
Christina M. Kim & Jeannine Renshaw
December 19, 2008 (2008-12-19)
10.18[22]

Whilst doing work at a house, Jim/Sam hears a car backfire and remembers being shot, which he finds weird, but Mel sees it as a sign of Jim still being in there somewhere. Whilst searching for clues about who he is, he finds an engagement ring Sam was planning on giving his on/off girlfriend, bought a month before his accident. Mel has to unravel the mystery behind a ghost's death, since the ghost is convinced she didn't abandon her family.

73
11
"Life on the Line"
Eric Laneuville
Christina M. Kim & Jeannine Renshaw
January 9, 2009 (2009-01-09)
10.64[23]

Delia is selling a house and she and Mel find it odd that there are still so many family photos and personal effects everywhere. Ned finds the lawnmower and awakens a ghost, who resends an old 911 call made from the house. This leads Melinda to investigate, and she discovers that a 14-year-old boy was killed by the lawnmower there. She must uncover the truth behind the accident and get the family back together for the ghost to move on. Also, Sam remembers medical procedures, indicating that more of Jim's past is coming up. He also tries to find evidence of his fiancé in his personal effects including looking through his sent e-mails.

74
12
"This Joint's Haunted"
Mark Rosman
Mark B. Perry
January 16, 2009 (2009-01-16)
10.58[24]

Delia throws a dinner party for a couple of her high school friends and Eli who quickly hears a ghost about the place. Ned housesits for Mel whilst she goes on a road trip with Sam who is trying to find his fiancé in the hope that she can help with regaining his memory. Mel has to help a few ghosts along the way, all without revealing her abilities to Sam. The ghost in Delia's house is trying to stop her from being so hard on Ned because she blames her own parents for her death. Sam's fiancé comes to see him and finally believes him about the amnesia.

75
13
"Body of Water"
Jennifer Love Hewitt
P.K. Simonds & Laurie McCarthy
January 23, 2009 (2009-01-23)
11.18[25]

A girl swims in a lake and is scared away. It is later discovered that there are many dead bodies in the lake and one of them is the girls' father. Mel and Eli have to figure out what happened to the bodies to stop the ghosts from being so angry and helping them move on, and it has something to do with the owner of the funeral home, who now has cancer and won't take his medication. Sam's fiancé Nikki ends up staying with Mel and spending a lot of time with Sam, which worries Delia, who urges Mel to fight for him. The Watchers return and warn Mel again, and she learns that they chose to stay earthbound to help the living. After his past life regression session with Eli, Sam remembers loving Mel, but he thinks he is remembering Nikki.
Note: This episode was Jennifer Love Hewitt's directorial debut.

76
14
"Slow Burn"
Steven Robman
Jeannine Renshaw
February 6, 2009 (2009-02-06)
11.41[26]

Delia asks Sam and Mel to help her chaperone Ned's school dance, and Mel sees a ghost trying to stop a girl leaving with an older boy. She quickly realises the ghost is the girls' mother, and must figure out why she doesn't want the two to be together, with very little help from the ghost herself. Delia and Eli help her. Sam asks her on a date and she accepts, but helping the ghost causes her to miss it, and leads Sam to think she's not ready to date after losing her husband.
Guest Star: Kendall Schmidt as Jeff

77
15
"Greek Tragedy"
Karen Gaviola
Christina M. Kim
February 13, 2009 (2009-02-13)
10.30[27]

A sorority at Rockland University 'hazes' new members with a brutal ritual, and one girl never returns the next day, which is a first. Mel plans a date with Sam and promises Delia no ghost business, but is unable to help herself when she sees a ghost with a bag over her head, immediately thinking it is the missing girl. Eli works with her to figure out how she died, but the ghost is not who they thought she was at all, she died forty years ago after trying to make amends for the horrible things she did as a sorority leader. Mel told Sam she was volunteering at the firehouse, and when he asks about her there he finds that she never signed in, but he sees on her TV at the Rescue mission. He asks her about it and she lies, making him suspicious.

78
16
"Ghost Busted"
John Behring
Mark B. Perry & P.K. Simonds
February 27, 2009 (2009-02-27)
11.54[28]

Melinda's neighbours hire a ghost hunter right when she was about to tell Sam about her gift, and after seeing his sceptical reaction, she holds off on telling him, despite Delia's urging otherwise. Eli hangs out with the ghost hunter and accidentally reveals his own gift, ending up thinking the ghost hunter is legit, and they incorrectly deduce that the ghost is the house's previous owner. Eli lies to Sam when he asks questions about Mel, and Delia tells him to keep an open mind. Mel works out who the ghost really is and helps him move on, finally tells Sam about her gift, and is crushed when he is sceptical.

79
17
"Delusions of Grandview"
Jefery Levy
Laurie McCarthy & Mark B. Perry
March 6, 2009 (2009-03-06)
11.09[29]

Sam wants to see Melinda doing her thing, and follows her to a school where he's been doing work. Mel quickly sees ghosts and works out that they are patients of the mental hospital that the school used to be. One ghost in particular needs her help, she was admitted to the hospital after supposedly drowning her baby. Sam goes into the tunnels with Melinda, and gets freaked out when she has a vision of how the ghost died, which involved electro-shock therapy. Delia and Eli work out that the ghost's doctor was a ghost himself, and she is trying to protect the children in the school from him. Mel finally tells Sam about him being Jim, and he refuses to believe it, instead thinking that Mel needs professional help.

80
18
"Leap of Faith"
Ian Sander
P.K. Simonds & Laurie McCarthy
March 13, 2009 (2009-03-13)
10.58[30]

Sam moved out at Melinda's request, but he forgot something, so tries calling her to ask for it, but she won't answer his calls. Mel is scared by a break-in at her shop, especially when Dr Byrd's ghost shows up again. Eli goes to see the guy who broke in and discovers that he is another step-in (like what Jim did to Sam). Mel deduces that Dr Byrd is behind the step-in's, and works out that he wants another body for himself. Mel realises the other step-in is lost and confused somewhere in the tunnels and goes to find and help him, but the water valve has broken and the place is quickly filling with water. Byrd goes to get Eli and Sam is sceptical of his belief in a ghost he doesn't trust, but follows him down anyway. Since Eli can't swim, Sam goes to rescue Mel, and after his bag gets trapped on something, Jim's life flashes before his eyes.

81
19
"Thrilled to Death"
Gloria Muzio
Laurie McCarthy & Jeannine Renshaw
April 10, 2009 (2009-04-10)
10.08[31]

A young woman in Eli's apartment building is being haunted, but claims she doesn't know anyone who has died. Mel and Eli investigate together and figure out who the ghost is, and when they find out that Morgan was lying about knowing him, they wonder what else she's been lying about, and quickly discover that she is ill herself. Meanwhile, Jim misses his job and friends but realises that can't be his life anymore, and he eventually decides he wants to go to Med School. Mel and Eli realise there is much more to Morgan's story, and have to stop the ghost hurting her out of his anger at being lied to.
Guest Star: Hilary Duff as Morgan.

82
20
"Stage Fright"
Eric Laneuville
Mark B. Perry
April 24, 2009 (2009-04-24)
9.23[32]

A TV show is shooting in Grandview and wants to use Melinda's store. Mel, Delia, Jim and Eli go to a Promotional Event, and Mel and Eli quickly pick up that a ghost is haunting the writer of the show and the lead male actor, and is also involving a seemingly random girl in the audience. They discover that they were all in a play together and the ghost was shot on stage when the blank gun malfunctioned. Mel and Eli think he blames the other three for his death and Eli jumps to the conclusion that the ghost is trying to kill someone on the show. They have to unravel the truth behind what happened in the play all those years ago so the ghost can cross over. After an accident shooting a walk-on part, Jim takes Mel to the hospital and they get some great news.
Guest Star: Amelia Heinle as Brook Dennis.

83
21
"Cursed"
Kim Moses
Laurie McCarthy
May 1, 2009 (2009-05-01)
9.79[33]

A little girl comes into the store, searching for a very specific doll, and when the older girl (a cousin) explains that it is for a replica dollhouse of the house the older girl lived in with her family before they died, and that the dolls 'talk' to the little girl, Melinda suspects that the spirits of Emma's family are trapped in the dollhouse. She investigates until she finds out the truth behind their deaths, leading her to think that the little girls mother (and Emma's Aunt) killed the family for their money and wants to hurt Emma. Mel tells Delia she's pregnant, then discovers that she's lost her wedding bands. Jim proposes again.

84
22
"Endless Love"
Ian Sander
P.K. Simonds
May 8, 2009 (2009-05-08)
9.50[34]

Melinda is at Delia's when she realises that one of the girls in Ned's study group is being haunted. After a sleepwalking incident, Mel and Eli try to work out who the ghost is and what he wants. Eli's friend Zoe (who told him about Voodoo in the previous episode) recognises the hauntings as Vampire Myths, leading Mel to wonder if Serena knew the ghost, and whether she was into Vampires. When she tries to ask her about it, Serena ends up thinking Vampires are real, and is surprised when Mel reveals she was talking about a ghost. The ghost leads Serena to his crypt after she says she wants to see him, and Mel has to race against time to get there and get her out of the sealed crypt before all the oxygen runs out. Also, Mel and Jim plan their second wedding-with Jim as Sam.
Guest Star: Alexa Vega as Serena

85
23
"The Book of Changes"
John Gray
John Gray
May 15, 2009 (2009-05-15)
9.15[35]

Melinda's mother hires a wedding planner who completely ignores what the couple want. Someone breaks into the University Library and then Zoe's house, but is interrupted by Eli. The thief only stole one book- called 'The Book of Changes' by the Watchers. It has important dates in it, such as previous deaths and Melinda's due date, which is why Carl the Watcher tells Eli not to let Melinda see or touch the book. Because the collection it was hidden in is being bought, the Watchers are trying to protect it. Melinda keeps getting visions of a faceless girl holding the book and saying that Mel's future is in 'her' hands and that Mel can't save 'her'. Mel is scared for her unborn baby, especially when she learns that it will be able to do much more than her (with their gift). Jim and Mel have a quiet wedding on the street where they first met, with only Delia and Eli in attendance, and Jim calls it a renewal of everything they already had and have. Mel is told she has lots of white light around her-spirits protecting her, but if the balance slips, that could change. Eli becomes 'The Book of Changes' new caretaker.