document_title: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition)

question_text: where does the godfather rank on the american film institute's top 100 list

question_tokens: where does the godfather rank on the american film institute 's top 100 list

root

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Announced on January 18, 2007, this 10th installment of the American Film Institute's (AFI) Emmy Award-winning AFI 100 Years... series counted down the 100 greatest American movies of all time in a three-hour television event. Aired June 20, 2007 on CBS, it was hosted by Academy Award-winning actor Morgan Freeman. The program considered classic favorites and newly eligible films released from 1997 to 2005.[1]

tag: p

text: List updates[edit]

text: AFI will conduct the poll every ten years to include new releases.[citation needed]

text: Criteria[edit]

text: AFI asked jurors to consider the following criteria in their selection process:

text:
Feature length: Narrative format typically over 60 minutes long.
American film: English language, with significant creative and/or financial production from the United States. (A number of films on the list were British-made but financed by American studios; these include Lawrence of Arabia, The Bridge on the River Kwai, and A Clockwork Orange.)
Critical recognition: Formal commendation in print, television, and digital media.
Major award winner: Recognition from competitive events including awards from peer groups, critics, guilds, and major film festivals.
Popularity over time: Includes success at the box office, television and cable airings, and DVD/VHS sales and rentals.
Historical significance: A film's mark on the history of the moving image through visionary narrative devices, technical innovation or other groundbreaking achievements.
Cultural impact: A film's mark on American society in matters of style and substance.

tag: ul

text: List[edit]

text:
Rank
10th anniversary list (2007)
Director
Year
Studio
Change from 1998

1.
Citizen Kane
WellesOrson Welles
1941
RKO Pictures
200

2.
GodfatherThe Godfather
CoppolaFrancis Ford Coppola
1972
Paramount
201 1

3.
Casablanca
CurtizMichael Curtiz
1942
Warner Brothers
199 1

4.
Raging Bull
ScorseseMartin Scorsese
1980
United Artists
220 20

5.
Singin' in the Rain
KellyGene Kelly, Stanley Donen
1952
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
205 5

6.
Gone with the Wind
FlemingVictor Fleming
1939
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (distributor), Selznick International Pictures
198 2

7.
Lawrence of Arabia
LeanDavid Lean
1962
Horizon, Columbia
198 2

8.
Schindler's List
SpielbergSteven Spielberg
1993
Universal
201 1

9.
Vertigo
HitchcockAlfred Hitchcock
1958
Paramount
252 52

10.
WizardThe Wizard of Oz
FlemingVictor Fleming
1939
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
196 4

11.
City Lights
ChaplinCharlie Chaplin
1931
United Artists
265 65

12.
SearchersThe Searchers
FordJohn Ford
1956
Warner Brothers
284 84

13.
Star Wars
LucasGeorge Lucas
1977
20th Century Fox, Lucasfilm
202 2

14.
Psycho
HitchcockAlfred Hitchcock
1960
Shamley Productions, Paramount (distr.)
204 4

15.
2001: A Space Odyssey
KubrickStanley Kubrick
1968
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
207 7

16.
Sunset Boulevard
Wilder Billy Wilder
1950
Paramount
196 4

17.
GraduateThe Graduate
NicholsMike Nichols
1967
United Artists, Embassy
190 10

18.
GeneralThe General
KeatonBuster Keaton, Clyde Bruckman
1926
United Artists
382NEW

19.
On the Waterfront
KazanElia Kazan
1954
Columbia
189 11

20.
It's a Wonderful Life
CapraFrank Capra
1946
RKO
191 9

21.
Chinatown
Polanski Roman Polanski
1974
Paramount
198 2

22.
Some Like It Hot
WilderBilly Wilder
1959
United Artists
192 8

23.
GrapesThe Grapes of Wrath
FordJohn Ford
1940
20th Century Fox
198 2

24.
E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial
SpielbergSteven Spielberg
1982
Universal
201 1

25.
KillTo Kill a Mockingbird
MulliganRobert Mulligan
1962
Universal-International
209 9

26.
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington
CapraFrank Capra
1939
Columbia
203 3

27.
High Noon
ZinnemannFred Zinnemann
1952
United Artists
206 6

28.
All About Eve
MankiewiczJoseph L. Mankiewicz
1950
20th Century Fox
188 12

29.
Double Indemnity
WilderBilly Wilder
1944
Paramount
209 9

30.
Apocalypse Now
CoppolaFrancis Ford Coppola
1979
United Artists
198 2

31.
MalteseThe Maltese Falcon
HustonJohn Huston
1941
Warner Brothers
192 8

32.
GodfatherThe Godfather Part II
CoppolaFrancis Ford Coppola
1974
Paramount
200

33.
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
FormanMiloš Forman
1975
United Artists
187 13

34.
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
HandDavid Hand
1937
RKO, Disney
215 15

35.
Annie Hall
AllenWoody Allen
1977
United Artists
196 4

36.
BridgeThe Bridge on the River Kwai
LeanDavid Lean
1957
Columbia
177 23

37.
BestThe Best Years of Our Lives
WylerWilliam Wyler
1946
RKO, Samuel Goldwyn
200

38.
Treasure The Treasure of the Sierra Madre
HustonJohn Huston
1948
Warner Brothers
192 8

39.
Dr. Strangelove
KubrickStanley Kubrick
1964
Columbia
187 13

40.
SoundThe Sound of Music
WiseRobert Wise
1965
20th Century Fox
215 15

41.
King Kong
CooperMerian C. Cooper, Ernest B. Schoedsack
1933
RKO
202 2

42.
Bonnie and Clyde
PennArthur Penn
1967
Warner Brothers
185 15

43.
Midnight Cowboy
SchlesingerJohn Schlesinger
1969
United Artists
193 7

44.
PhiladelphiaThe Philadelphia Story
CukorGeorge Cukor
1940
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
207 7

45.
Shane
StevensGeorge Stevens
1953
Paramount
224 24

46.
It Happened One Night
CapraFrank Capra
1934
Columbia
189 11

47.
StreetcarA Streetcar Named Desire
KazanElia Kazan
1951
Warner Brothers
198 2

48.
Rear Window
HitchcockAlfred Hitchcock
1954
Paramount
194 6

49.
Intolerance
GriffithD. W. Griffith
1916
Triangle
351NEW

50.
LordThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring
JacksonPeter Jackson
2001
New Line Cinema
350NEW

51.
West Side Story
RobbinsJerome Robbins, Robert Wise
1961
United Artists
190 10

52.
Taxi Driver
ScorseseMartin Scorsese
1976
Columbia Pictures
195 5

53.
DeerThe Deer Hunter
CiminoMichael Cimino
1978
Universal
226 26

54.
MASH
AltmanRobert Altman
1970
20th Century Fox
202 2

55.
North by Northwest
HitchcockAlfred Hitchcock
1959
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
185 15

56.
Jaws
Spielberg Steven Spielberg
1975
Universal
192 8

57.
Rocky
Avildsen John G. Avildsen
1976
United Artists
221 21

58.
GoldThe Gold Rush
ChaplinCharlie Chaplin
1925
United Artists
216 16

59.
Nashville
AltmanRobert Altman
1975
Paramount, ABC Entertainment
341NEW

60.
Duck Soup
McCareyLeo McCarey
1933
Paramount Pictures
225 25

61.
Sullivan's Travels
SturgesPreston Sturges
1941
Paramount Pictures
339NEW

62.
American Graffiti
LucasGeorge Lucas
1973
Universal, Lucasfilm
215 15

63.
Cabaret
FosseBob Fosse
1972
Allied Artists
337NEW

64.
Network
LumetSidney Lumet
1976
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, United Artists
202 2

65.
AfricanThe African Queen
HustonJohn Huston
1951
United Artists
152 48

66.
Raiders of the Lost Ark
SpielbergSteven Spielberg
1981
Paramount, Lucasfilm
194 6

67.
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?
Nichols Mike Nichols
1966
Warner Bros.
333NEW

68.
Unforgiven
EastwoodClint Eastwood
1992
Warner Brothers
230 30

69.
Tootsie
PollackSydney Pollack
1982
Columbia
193 7

70.
ClockworkA Clockwork Orange
KubrickStanley Kubrick
1971
Warner Brothers
176 24

71.
Saving Private Ryan
SpielbergSteven Spielberg
1998
DreamWorks
329NEW

72.
ShawshankThe Shawshank Redemption
DarabontFrank Darabont
1994
Warner Brothers
328NEW

73.
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid
HillGeorge Roy Hill
1969
20th Century Fox
177 23

74.
SilenceThe Silence of the Lambs
DemmeJonathan Demme
1991
Orion Pictures
191 9

75.
In the Heat of the Night
JewisonNorman Jewison
1967
United Artists
325NEW

76.
Forrest Gump
ZemeckisRobert Zemeckis
1994
Paramount
195 5

77.
All the President's Men
PakulaAlan J. Pakula
1976
Warner Brothers
323NEW

78.
Modern Times
ChaplinCharlie Chaplin
1936
United Artists
203 3

79.
WildThe Wild Bunch
PeckinpahSam Peckinpah
1969
Warner Bros.-Seven Arts
201 1

80.
ApartmentThe Apartment
WilderBilly Wilder
1960
United Artists
213 13

81.
Spartacus
KubrickStanley Kubrick
1960
Universal-International
319NEW

82.
Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans
MurnauF. W. Murnau
1927
20th Century Fox
318NEW

83.
Titanic
CameronJames Cameron
1997
Paramount, 20th Century Fox
317NEW

84.
Easy Rider
HopperDennis Hopper
1969
United Artists
204 4

85.
NightA Night at the Opera
WoodSam Wood
1935
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
315NEW

86.
Platoon
StoneOliver Stone
1986
Orion Pictures
197 3

87.
12 Angry Men
LumetSidney Lumet
1957
United Artists
313NEW

88.
Bringing Up Baby
HawksHoward Hawks
1938
RKO Pictures
209 9

89.
SixthThe Sixth Sense
ShyamalanM. Night Shyamalan
1999
Hollywood Pictures, Spyglass Entertainment, The Kennedy/Marshall Company
311NEW

90.
Swing Time
StevensGeorge Stevens
1936
RKO
310NEW

91.
Sophie's Choice
PakulaAlan J. Pakula
1982
ITC Entertainment
309NEW

92.
Goodfellas
ScorseseMartin Scorsese
1990
Warner Brothers
202 2

93.
FrenchThe French Connection
FriedkinWilliam Friedkin
1971
20th Century Fox
177 23

94.
Pulp Fiction
TarantinoQuentin Tarantino
1994
Miramax
201 1

95.
LastThe Last Picture Show
BogdanovichPeter Bogdanovich
1971
Columbia Pictures
305NEW

96.
Do the Right Thing
LeeSpike Lee
1989
Universal, 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks
304NEW

97.
Blade Runner
ScottRidley Scott
1982
Warner Brothers, The Ladd Company
303NEW

98.
Yankee Doodle Dandy
CurtizMichael Curtiz
1942
Warner Brothers
202 2

99.
Toy Story
LasseterJohn Lasseter
1995
Disney, Pixar
301NEW

100.
Ben-Hur
WylerWilliam Wyler
1959
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
172 28

tag: table

text: Films removed from list[edit]

text: The following films from the 1998 list were left off the 2007 list:

text:
39. Doctor Zhivago (1965)
44. The Birth of a Nation (1915)
52. From Here to Eternity (1953)
53. Amadeus (1984)
54. All Quiet on the Western Front (1930)
57. The Third Man (1949)
58. Fantasia (1940)
59. Rebel Without a Cause (1955)
63. Stagecoach (1939)
64. Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977)
67. The Manchurian Candidate (1962)
68. An American in Paris (1951)
73. Wuthering Heights (1939)
75. Dances with Wolves (1990)
82. Giant (1956)
84. Fargo (1996)
86. Mutiny on the Bounty (1935)
87. Frankenstein (1931)
89. Patton (1970)
90. The Jazz Singer (1927)
91. My Fair Lady (1964)
92. A Place in the Sun (1951)
99. Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967)

text: Most films by director[edit]

text: Steven Spielberg

text:
Alfred Hitchcock
Stanley Kubrick
Billy Wilder

text:
Frank Capra
Charlie Chaplin
Francis Ford Coppola
John Huston
Martin Scorsese

text:
Robert Altman
Michael Curtiz
Victor Fleming
John Ford
Elia Kazan
David Lean
George Lucas
Sidney Lumet
Mike Nichols
Alan J. Pakula
George Stevens
Robert Wise
William Wyler

text: Changes[edit]

text:
Of the films that remained on the list, 36 improved their ranking, 38 saw their ranking decline, and three kept their positions: Citizen Kane, The Godfather Part II and The Best Years of Our Lives.
Steven Spielberg has the most films of any director on the list with five films. The original version of the list also contained five films by Spielberg, with four films carrying over to the new list and Close Encounters of the Third Kind being replaced by Saving Private Ryan. Stanley Kubrick, Billy Wilder and Alfred Hitchcock tie for second place with four films each making the list.
The oldest film to be dropped was D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation (1915), from #44. The oldest film to be added was Griffith's Intolerance (1916) (#49).
The newest film removed is Fargo (1996), the newest-added The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), which is also the only film on the list released after 1999.
The highest-ranked addition was The General at #18. The highest-ranked removal was Doctor Zhivago (#39).
The Searchers rose the most, going from #96 to #12. The greatest drop without complete removal was suffered by The African Queen, which went from #17 to #65.
Duck Soup, featuring the Marx Brothers, moved up 25 positions to #60. It was replaced at #85 by another film starring the Marx Brothers, A Night at the Opera.
73 of the films were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, and 28 won, including Sunrise (1927) which won the Academy Award for Unique and Artistic Production (an award that was only presented at the first ceremony). The original list has 75 Academy Awards Best Picture nominees and 33 winners.
In the 2007 list, eight of the top ten films were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, with five winning. In the original list, nine out of the top ten were nominees, and six won.
Two animated films appear on each list. In 1998, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ranked at #49, and Fantasia at #58. Snow White moved up to #34 in 2007, Fantasia was dropped, and Toy Story was added at #99.


document_title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

question_text: who won the illinois senate seat in 1858

text: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Background[edit]

text: Stephen Douglas was first elected to the United States Senate in 1846.  In 1858, he was seeking re-election for a third term.  During his time in the Senate, the issue of slavery was raised several times, particularly with respect to the Compromise of 1850.  As chairman of the committee on territories, Douglas argued for an approach to slavery termed popular sovereignty; electorates at a local level would vote whether to adopt or reject a state constitution which prohibited slavery. Decisions about whether slavery was permitted or prohibited within certain states and territories had been made previously at a federal level. Douglas was successful with passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854.  Abraham Lincoln, like Douglas, had also been elected to Congress in 1846.  He served one two-year term in the House of Representatives.  During his time in the House, Lincoln disagreed with Douglas and supported the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in new territory.  Lincoln returned to politics in the 1850s to oppose the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and help develop the new Republican party.

text: Before the debates, Lincoln said that Douglas was encouraging his fears of amalgamation of the races with enough success to drive thousands of people away from the Republican Party.[4] Douglas tried to convince, especially the Democrats, that Lincoln was an abolitionist for saying that the American Declaration of Independence did apply to blacks as well as whites. Lincoln called a self-evident truth "the electric cord ... that links the hearts of patriotic and liberty-loving men together" of different ethnic backgrounds.[5]

text: Lincoln argued in his House Divided Speech that Douglas was part of a conspiracy to nationalize slavery. Lincoln said that ending the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery in Kansas and Nebraska was the first step in this direction, and that the Dred Scott decision was another step in the direction of spreading slavery into Northern territories. Lincoln expressed the fear that the next Dred Scott decision would make Illinois a slave state.[6]

text: Both Lincoln and Douglas had opposition. Although Lincoln was a former Whig, the prominent former Whig Judge Theophilus Lyle Dickey said that Lincoln was too closely tied to the abolitionists, and supported Douglas. But Democratic President James Buchanan opposed Douglas for defeating the Lecompton Constitution, which would have made Kansas a slave state, and set up a rival National Democratic party that drew votes away from him.[7]

text: The debates[edit]

text: The main theme of the Lincoln–Douglas debates was slavery, particularly the issue of slavery's expansion into the territories. It was Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act that repealed the Missouri Compromise's ban on slavery in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and replaced it with the doctrine of popular sovereignty, which meant that the people of a territory could decide for themselves whether to allow slavery. Lincoln said that popular sovereignty would nationalize and perpetuate slavery.[8] Douglas argued that both Whigs and Democrats believed in popular sovereignty and that the Compromise of 1850 was an example of this.[9] Lincoln said that the national policy was to limit the spread of slavery, and mentioned (both at Jonesboro[10] and later in his Cooper Union Address) the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which banned slavery from a large part of the modern-day Midwest, as an example of this policy.[11]

text: The Compromise of 1850 allowed the territories of Utah and New Mexico to decide for or against slavery, but it also allowed the admission of California as a free state, reduced the size of the slave state of Texas by adjusting the boundary, and ended the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in the District of Columbia. In return, the South got a stronger Fugitive Slave Law than the version mentioned in the Constitution.[12] Whereas Douglas said that the Compromise of 1850 replaced the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territory north and west of the state of Missouri, Lincoln said that this was false,[13] and that Popular Sovereignty and the Dred Scott decision were a departure from the policies of the past that would nationalize slavery.[14][15]

text: There were partisan remarks, such as Douglas' accusations that members of the "Black Republican" party,[16] such as Lincoln, were abolitionists.[17] Douglas cited as proof Lincoln's House Divided Speech[18] in which he said, "I believe this government cannot endure permanently half Slave and half Free." As Douglas said (audience response in parentheses):

text: Uniformity in the local laws and institutions of the different States is neither possible or desirable. If uniformity had been adopted when the Government was established, it must inevitably have been the uniformity of slavery everywhere, or else the uniformity of negro citizenship and negro equality everywhere. ...

text: I ask you, are you in favor of conferring upon the negro the rights and privileges of citizenship? ("No, no.") Do you desire to strike out of our State Constitution that clause which keeps slaves and free negroes out of the State, and allow the free negroes to flow in, ("never,") and cover your prairies with black settlements? Do you desire to turn this beautiful State into a free negro colony, ("no, no,") in order that when Missouri abolishes slavery she can send one hundred thousand emancipated slaves into Illinois, to become citizens and voters, on an equality with yourselves? ("Never," "no.") If you desire negro citizenship, if you desire to allow them to come into the State and settle with the white man, if you desire them to vote on an equality with yourselves, and to make them eligible to office, to serve on juries, and to adjudge your rights, then support Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican party, who are in favor of the citizenship of the negro. ("Never, never.") For one, I am opposed to negro citizenship in any and every form. (Cheers.) I believe this Government was made on the white basis. ("Good.") I believe it was made by white men for the benefit of white men and their posterity for ever, and I am in favor of confining citizenship to white men, men of European birth and descent, instead of conferring it upon negroes, Indians, and other inferior races. ("Good for you." "Douglas forever.")

text: Mr. Lincoln, following the example and lead of all the little Abolition orators, who go around and lecture in the basements of schools and churches, reads from the Declaration of Independence, that all men were created equal, and then asks, how can you deprive a negro of that equality which God and the Declaration of Independence awards to him? ... Now, I hold that Illinois had a right to abolish and prohibit slavery as she did, and I hold that Kentucky has the same right to continue and protect slavery that Illinois had to abolish it. I hold that New York had as much right to abolish slavery as Virginia has to continue it, and that each and every State of this Union is a sovereign power, with the right to do as it pleases upon this question of slavery, and upon all its domestic institutions. ... And why can we not adhere to the great principle of self-government, upon which our institutions were originally based. ("We can.") I believe that this new doctrine preached by Mr. Lincoln and his party will dissolve the Union if it succeeds. They are trying to array all the Northern States in one body against the South, to excite a sectional war between the free States and the slave States, in order that the one or the other may be driven to the wall.[19]

text: Douglas also charged Lincoln with opposing the Dred Scott decision because "it deprives the negro of the rights and privileges of citizenship." Lincoln responded that "the next Dred Scott decision" could allow slavery to spread into free states.[20] Douglas accused Lincoln of wanting to overthrow state laws that excluded blacks from states such as Illinois, which were popular with the northern Democrats. Lincoln did not argue for complete social equality. However, he did say Douglas ignored the basic humanity of blacks, and that slaves did have an equal right to liberty. As Lincoln said:

text: I agree with Judge Douglas he is not my equal in many respects—certainly not in color, perhaps not in moral or intellectual endowment. But in the right to eat the bread, without the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns, he is my equal and the equal of Judge Douglas, and the equal of every living man.[21]

text: As Lincoln said:

text: This declared indifference, but, as I must think, covert real zeal for the spread of slavery, I cannot but hate. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world—enables the enemies of free institutions, with plausibility, to taunt us as hypocrites—causes the real friends of freedom to doubt our sincerity, and especially because it forces so many really good men amongst ourselves into an open war with the very fundamental principles of civil liberty—criticizing the Declaration of Independence, and insisting that there is no right principle of action but self-interest.[21]

text: Lincoln said he himself did not know how emancipation should happen. He believed in colonization, but admitted that this was impractical. Without colonization he said that it would be wrong for emancipated slaves to be treated as "underlings," but that there was a large opposition to social and political equality, and that "a universal feeling, whether well or ill-founded, cannot be safely disregarded."[21] Lincoln said that Douglas' public indifference to slavery would result in the expansion of slavery because it would mold public sentiment to accept slavery. As Lincoln said:

text: Public sentiment is everything. With public sentiment, nothing can fail; without it nothing can succeed. Consequently he who molds public sentiment, goes deeper than he who enacts statutes or pronounces decisions. He makes statutes and decisions possible or impossible to be executed.[21]

text: Lincoln said Douglas "cares not whether slavery is voted down or voted up,"[21] and that, in the words of Henry Clay, he would "blow out the moral lights around us" and eradicate the love of liberty.

text: At the debate at Freeport[22] Lincoln forced Douglas to choose between two options, either of which would damage Douglas' popularity and chances of getting reelected. Lincoln asked Douglas to reconcile popular sovereignty with the Supreme Court's Dred Scott decision. Douglas responded that the people of a territory could keep slavery out even though the Supreme Court said that the federal government had no authority to exclude slavery, simply by refusing to pass a slave code and other legislation needed to protect slavery.[23] Douglas alienated Southerners with this Freeport Doctrine, which damaged his chances of winning the Presidency in 1860. As a result, Southern politicians would use their demand for a slave code for territories such as Kansas to drive a wedge between the Northern and Southern wings of the Democratic Party.[24] In splitting what was the majority political party in 1858 (the Democratic Party), Southerners guaranteed the election of Lincoln, the nominee of the newly formed Republican Party, in 1860.

text: Douglas' efforts to gain support in all sections of the country through popular sovereignty failed. By allowing slavery where the majority wanted it, he lost the support of Republicans led by Lincoln who thought Douglas was unprincipled. By defeating a pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution and advocating a Freeport Doctrine to stop slavery in Kansas where the majority were anti-slavery, he lost the support of the South.

text: Before the debate at Charleston, Democrats held up a banner that read "Negro equality" with a picture of a white man, a negro woman and a mulatto child.[25] At this debate Lincoln went further than before in denying the charge that he was an abolitionist, saying that:

text: I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, that I am not nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people; and I will say in addition to this that there is a physical difference between the white and black races which I believe will forever forbid the two races living together on terms of social and political equality. And in as much as they cannot so live, while they do remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I as much as any other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race. I say upon this occasion I do not perceive that because the white man is to have the superior position the negro should be denied everything. I do not understand that because I do not want a negro woman for a slave I must necessarily want her for a wife. My understanding is that I can just let her alone.[26]

text: While denying abolitionist tendencies was effective politics, the African-American abolitionist Frederick Douglass remarked on Lincoln's "entire freedom from popular prejudice against the colored race."[27] In spite of Lincoln's denial of abolitionist tendencies, Stephen Douglas charged Lincoln with having an ally in Frederick Douglass in preaching "abolition doctrines." Stephen Douglas said that "the negro" Frederick Douglass told "all the friends of negro equality and negro citizenship to rally as one man around Abraham Lincoln." Stephen Douglas also charged Lincoln with a lack of consistency when speaking on the issue of racial equality,[28] and cited Lincoln's previous statements that the declaration that all men are created equal applies to blacks as well as whites.

text: Lincoln said that slavery expansion endangered the Union, and mentioned the controversies caused by it in Missouri in 1820, in the territories conquered from Mexico that led to the Compromise of 1850, and again with the Bleeding Kansas controversy over slavery.[29] Lincoln said that the crisis would be reached and passed when slavery was put "in the course of ultimate extinction."

text: At Galesburg,[30] Douglas sought again to prove that Lincoln was an abolitionist with the following quotations from Lincoln:

text: I should like to know, if taking this old Declaration of Independence, which declares that all men are equal upon principle, and making exceptions to it, where will it stop? If one man says it does not mean a negro, why may not another man say it does not mean another man? If that declaration is not the truth, let us get this statute book in which we find it and tear it out.

text: Let us discard all this quibbling about this man and the other man—this race and that race and the other race being inferior, and therefore they must be placed in an inferior position, discarding our standard that we have left us. Let us discard all these things, and unite as one people throughout this land, until we shall once more stand up declaring that all men are created equal.

text: At Alton, Lincoln tried to reconcile his statements on equality. He said that the authors of the Declaration of Independence:

text: intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal — equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ... They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all: constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, every where.[31]

text: Lincoln contrasted his support for the Declaration with opposing statements made by the Southern politician John C. Calhoun and Senator John Pettit of Indiana, who called the Declaration "a self-evident lie." Lincoln said that Chief Justice Roger Taney (in his Dred Scott decision) and Stephen Douglas were opposing Thomas Jefferson's self-evident truth, dehumanizing blacks and preparing the public mind to think of them as only property. Lincoln thought slavery had to be treated as a wrong, and kept from growing. As Lincoln said:

text: That is the real issue. That is the issue that will continue in this country when these poor tongues of Judge Douglas and myself shall be silent. It is the eternal struggle between these two principles—right and wrong—throughout the world. They are the two principles that have stood face to face from the beginning of time; and will ever continue to struggle. The one is the common right of humanity and the other the divine right of kings. It is the same principle in whatever shape it develops itself. It is the same spirit that says, "You work and toil and earn bread, and I'll eat it." No matter in what shape it comes, whether from the mouth of a king who seeks to bestride the people of his own nation and live by the fruit of their labor, or from one race of men as an apology for enslaving another race, it is the same tyrannical principle.[31]

text: Lincoln used a number of colorful phrases in the debates, such as when he said that one argument by Douglas made a horse chestnut into a chestnut horse, and compared an evasion by Douglas to the sepia cloud from a cuttlefish. Lincoln said that Douglas' Freeport Doctrine was a do-nothing sovereignty that was "as thin as the homeopathic soup that was made by boiling the shadow of a pigeon that had starved to death."[32]

text: Results[edit]

text: The October surprise of the election was the endorsement of the Democrat Douglas by former Whig John J. Crittenden. Non-Republican former Whigs comprised the biggest block of swing voters, and Crittenden's endorsement of Douglas rather than Lincoln, also a former Whig, reduced Lincoln's chances of winning.[33]

text: On election day, as the districts were drawn to favor Douglas' party, the Democrats won 40 seats in the state house of Representatives, and the Republicans won 35. In the state senate, Republicans held 11 seats, and Democrats held 14. Stephen A. Douglas was reelected by the legislature, 54-46, even though Lincoln's Republicans won the popular vote with a percentage of 50.6%, or by 3,402 votes.[34] However, the widespread media coverage of the debates greatly raised Lincoln's national profile, making him a viable candidate for nomination as the Republican candidate in the upcoming 1860 presidential election. He would go on to secure both the nomination and the presidency, beating Douglas (as the Northern Democratic candidate), among others, in the process.

text: Lincoln also went on to be in contact with editors looking to publish the debate texts. George Parsons, the Ohio Republican committee chairman, got Lincoln in touch with Ohio's main political publisher, Follett and Foster, of Columbus. They published copies of the text, and titled the book, Political Debates Between Hon. Abraham Lincoln and Hon. Stephen A. Douglas in the Celebrated Campaign of 1858, in Illinois. Four printings were made, and the fourth sold 16,000 copies.[35]

text: The Lincoln–Douglas debate format that is used in high school and college competition today is named after this series of debates. Modern presidential debates trace their roots to the Lincoln–Douglas Debates, though the format today is remarkably different from the original.

text: Commemoration[edit]

text: In 1994, C-SPAN aired a series of reenactments of the debates, filmed on location.[36]  The locations for the debates in Illinois have established memorials featuring plaques and statuary of Douglas and Lincoln.[37]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Nevins, Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852, page 163 — "As the fifties wore on, an exhaustive, exacerbating and essentially futile conflict over slavery raged to the exclusion of nearly all other topics."

Jump up ^ Abraham Lincoln, Speech at New Haven, Conn., March 6, 1860 — "This question of Slavery was more important than any other; indeed, so much more important has it become that no other national question can even get a hearing just at present."

Jump up ^ Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 3.

Jump up ^ Abraham Lincoln, Notes for Speech at Chicago, February 28, 1857

Jump up ^ Speech in Reply to Senator Stephen Douglas in the Lincoln-Douglas debates of the 1858 campaign for the U.S. Senate, at Chicago, Illinois (July 10, 1858).

Jump up ^ David Herbert Donald, Lincoln, pages 206–210

Jump up ^ David Herbert Donald, Lincoln, pages 212–213

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858 – Abraham Lincoln said, "when the Judge re have often said to him that the institution of slavery has existed for eighty years in some States, and yet it does not exist in some others, I agree to the fact, and I account for it by looking at the position in which our fathers originally placed it-restricting it from the new Territories where it had not gone, and legislating to cut off its source by the abrogation of the slave-trade thus putting the seal of legislation against its spread. The public mind did rest in the belief that it was in the course of ultimate extinction. [Cries of "Yes,yes yes,no"] But lately, I think—and in this I charge nothing on the Judge's motives—lately, I think, that he, and those acting with him, have placed that institution on a new basis, which looks to the perpetuity and nationalization of slavery. [Loud cheers.] And while it is placed upon this new basis, I say, and I have said, that I believe we shall not have peace upon the question until the opponents of slavery arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or, on the other hand, that its advocates will push it forward until it shall become alike lawful in all the States, old as well as new, North as well as South."

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858 – Stephen Douglas said, "During the session of Congress of 1853–54, I introduced into the Senate of the United States a bill to organize the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska on that principle which had been adopted in the compromise measures of 1850, approved by the Whig party and the Democratic party in Illinois in 1851, and endorsed by the Whig party and the Democratic party in national convention in 1852. In order that there might be no misunderstanding in relation to the principle involved in the Kansas and Nebraska bill, I put forth the true intent and meaning of the act in these words: "It is the true intent and meaning of this act not to legislate slavery into any State or Territory, or to exclude it therefrom, but to leave the people thereof perfectly free to form and regulate their domestic institutions in their own way, subject only to the federal constitution."

Jump up ^ Third Debate: Jonesboro, Illinois, September 15, 1858 – Lincoln mentioned that Douglas' fellow Democrats had said that the policy of the framers of the Constitution was to prevent the expansion of slavery beginning with the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. Lincoln used the following to prove the point:
"So again, in that same race of 1850, there was a Congressional Convention assembled at Joliet, and it nominated R. S. Molony for Congress, and unanimously adopted the following resolution:

'Resolved, that we are uncompromisingly opposed to the extension of slavery; and while we would not make such opposition a ground of interference with the interests of the States where it exists, yet we moderately but firmly insist that it is the duty of Congress to oppose its extension into Territory now free, by all means compatible with the obligations of the Constitution, and with good faith to our sister States; that these principles were recognized by the Ordinance of 1787, which received the sanction of Thomas Jefferson, who is acknowledged by all to be the great oracle and expounder of our faith.'"

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858 – Abraham Lincoln advocated returning to the policy of preventing the expansion of slavery, putting it in "the position in which our fathers originally placed it—restricting it from the new Territories where it had not gone." Lincoln expanded on this point especially in hisCooper Union Address, in which he argued that most of the framers of the Constitution voted to prevent slavery expansion by means of the Ordinance of 1787 and the Missouri Compromise.

Jump up ^ Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union: Fruits of Manifest Destiny 1847–1852, pages 219–345

Jump up ^ Third Debate: Jonesboro, Illinois, September 15, 1858 – Lincoln said, "When that Compromise was made it did not repeal the old Missouri Compromise. It left a region of United States territory half as large as the present territory of the United States, north of the line of 36 degrees 30 minutes, in which slavery was prohibited by act of Congress. This compromise did not repeal that one. It did not affect or propose to repeal it. But at last it became Judge Douglas's duty, as he thought (and I find no fault with him), as Chairman of the Committee on Territories, to bring in a bill for the organization of a Territorial Government—first of one, then of two Territories north of that line. When he did so it ended in his inserting a provision substantially repealing the Missouri Compromise. That was because the Compromise of 1850 had not repealed it. And now I ask why he could not have let that compromise alone?"

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858 – Lincoln said, "Then what is necessary for the nationalization of slavery? It is simply the next Dred Scott decision. It is merely for the Supreme Court to decide that no State under the Constitution can exclude it, just as they have already decided that under the Constitution neither Congress nor the Territorial Legislature can do it."

Jump up ^ Third Debate: Jonesboro, Illinois, September 15, 1858 – Lincoln said, "I say when this Government was first established, it was the policy of its founders to prohibit the spread of slavery into the new Territories of the United States, where it had not existed. But Judge Douglas and his friends have broken up that policy, and placed it upon a new basis by which it is to become national and perpetual. All I have asked or desired any where is that it should be placed back again upon the basis that the fathers of our Government originally placed it upon. I have no doubt that it would become extinct, for all time to come, if we but readopted the policy of the fathers by restricting it to the limits it has already covered—restricting it from the new Territories." Lincoln added that Douglas "has himself been chiefly instrumental in changing the policy of the fathers."

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858 – Stephen Douglas read articles from one Republican Party group that opposed slavery expansion and the fugitive slave law and said, "Now, gentlemen, your Black Republicans have cheered every one of those propositions, ("good and cheers") and yet I venture to say that you cannot get Mr. Lincoln to come out and say that he is now in favor of each one of them. (Laughter and applause. "Hit him again.)"

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858 – Stephen Douglas said, "Lincoln went to work to abolitionize the Old Whig party all over the State, pretending that he was then as good a Whig as ever; (laughter) and Trumbull went to work in his part of the State preaching Abolitionism in its milder and lighter form, and trying to abolitionize the Democratic party, and bring old Democrats handcuffed and bound hand and foot into the Abolition camp. ("Good," "hurrah for Douglas," and cheers.) In pursuance of the arrangement, the parties met at Springfield in October, 1854, and proclaimed their new platform. Lincoln was to bring into the Abolition camp the old line Whigs, and transfer them over to Giddings, Chase, Fred Douglass, and Parson Lovejoy, who were ready to receive them and christen them in their new faith. (Laughter and cheers.) They laid down on that occasion a platform for their new Republican party, which was to be thus constructed."

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858 – Stephen Douglas said the following about Lincoln's House Divided Speech – Lincoln now takes his stand and proclaims his Abolition doctrines. Let me read a part of them. In his speech at Springfield to the Convention, which nominated him for the Senate, he said:

"In my opinion it will not cease until a crisis shall have been reached and passed. 'A house divided against itself cannot stand.' I believe this government cannot endure permanently half Slave and half Free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall – but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction: or its advocates will push it forward till it shall became alike lawful in all the States—old as well as new, North as well as South."

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, Douglas quote, August 21, 1858

Jump up ^ First Debate: Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858 – Abraham Lincoln said, "Then what is necessary for the nationalization of slavery? It is simply the next Dred Scott decision. It is merely for the Supreme Court to decide that no State under the Constitution can exclude it, just as they have already decided that under the Constitution neither Congress nor the Territorial Legislature can do it. When that is decided and acquiesced in, the whole thing is done."

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Debate at Ottawa, Illinois, Lincoln quote, August 21, 1858

Jump up ^ Debate at Freeport, Illinois, August 27, 1858

Jump up ^ Second Debate: Freeport, Illinois, August 27, 1858 – Douglas' stated his Freeport Doctrine as follows – "It matters not what way the Supreme Court may hereafter decide as to the abstract question whether slavery may or may not go into a Territory under the Constitution, the people have the lawful means to introduce it or exclude it as they please, for the reason that slavery cannot exist a day or an hour anywhere, unless it is supported by local police regulations. (Right, right.) Those police regulations can only be established by the local legislature, and if the people are opposed to slavery they will elect representatives to that body who will by unfriendly legislation effectually prevent the introduction of it into their midst. If, on the contrary, they are for it, their legislation will favor its extension. Hence, no matter what the decision of the Supreme Court may be on that abstract question, still the right of the people to make a slave Territory or a free Territory is perfect and complete under the Nebraska bill."

Jump up ^ James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, page 195

Jump up ^ David Herbert Donald, Lincoln, pages 220

Jump up ^ Debate at Charleston, Illinois, September 18, 1858

Jump up ^ David Herbert Donald, Lincoln, page 221

Jump up ^ Charleston debate — Douglas said, "Their principles in the north are jet-black, in the center they are in color a decent mulatto, and in lower Egypt they are almost white. Why, I admired many of the white sentiments contained in Lincoln's speech at Jonesboro, and could not help but contrast them with the speeches of the same distinguished orator made in the northern part of the State."

Jump up ^ Third Debate: Jonesboro, Illinois, September 15, 1858 – Lincoln said, "It is worth while to observe that we have generally had comparative peace upon the slavery question, and that there has been no cause for alarm until it was excited by the effort to spread it into new territory. Whenever it has been limited to its present bounds, and there has been no effort to spread it, there has been peace. All the trouble and convulsion has proceeded from efforts to spread it over more territory. It was thus at the date of the Missouri Compromise. It was so again with the annexation of Texas; so with the territory acquired by the Mexican war, and it is so now. Whenever there has been an effort to spread it there has been agitation and resistance. Now, I appeal to this audience (very few of whom are my political friends), as national men, whether we have reason to expect that the agitation in regard to this subject will cease while the causes that tend to reproduce agitation are actively at work? Will not the same cause that produced agitation in 1820, when the Missouri Compromise was formed—that which produced the agitation upon the annexation of Texas, and at other times—work out the same results always?"

Jump up ^ Debate at Galesburg, Illinois, October 7, 1858 — These quotes were originally from a speech made by Lincoln at Chicago, July 10, 1858

^ Jump up to: a b Debate at Alton, Illinois, October 15, 1858

Jump up ^ Debate at Quincy, Illinois, October 13, 1858

Jump up ^ Guelzo, Allen C. (2008). Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates That Defined America. Pages 273–277, 282.

Jump up ^ Guelzo, Allen C. (2008). Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates that Defined America. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. pp. 284–285.

Jump up ^ Guelzo, Allen C. (2008). Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates that Defined America. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. pp. 305–306.

Jump up ^ "C-Span, Illinois re-enact Lincoln-Douglas debates History in the Re-making". tribunedigital-baltimoresun. Retrieved 2018-02-28.

Jump up ^ "The Lincoln-Douglas Debates". www.lookingforlincoln.com. Retrieved 2018-02-28.

tag: ol

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
On January 1, 2009, BBC Audiobooks America, published the first complete recording of the Lincoln–Douglas Debates, starring actors David Strathairn as Abraham Lincoln and Richard Dreyfuss as Stephen Douglas with an introduction by Allen C. Guelzo, Henry R. Luce III Professor of the Civil War Era at Gettysburg College. The text of the recording was provided courtesy of the Abraham Lincoln Association as presented in The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln.
Jaffa, Harry V. (2009). Crisis of the House Divided: An Interpretation of the Issues in the Lincoln–Douglas Debates, 50th Anniversary Edition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-39118-2.
Good, Timothy S. (2007). The Lincoln–Douglas Debates and the Making of a President,. McFarland Press. ISBN 978-0-7864-3065-9.


document_title: Baji Rao I

question_text: who was the king at the time of bajirao

question_tokens: who was the king at the time of bajirao

text: Baji Rao I

text: Early life

text: Bajirao was born into the Bhat family of Kokanastha Chitpavan Brahmin lineage.[5] His father Balaji Vishwanath was the first Peshwa of Chhatrapati Shahu; his mother was Radhabai. Baji Rao had a younger brother Chimaji Appa and two sisters, Bihubai Joshi and Anubai Ghorpade.[6] He spent his childhood in his father's newly acquired fiefdom of Saswad.

text: Bajirao would often accompany his father on military campaigns. He was with his father when the latter was imprisoned by Damaji Thorat before being released for a ransom.[6] When Vishwanath died in 1720, Shahu appointed the 20-year old Baji Rao as the Peshwa.[7] He is said to have preached the ideal of Hindu Pad Padshahi (Hindu Empire),[8]

text: Bajirao intended to plant the Maratha flag upon the walls of Delhi and other cities governed by the Mughals and their subjects. He intended to replace the Mughal Empire and create a Hindu-Pat-Padshahi.[9]

text: Early Life as a Peshwa

text: Bajirao succeeded his father as Peshwa of the Maratha Empire.By the time Baji Rao became the Peshwa, Chhatrapati Shahu was the ruler of Maratha Emperor. The Maratha confederacy was run in his name, but the real power lay in the hands of the Peshwa. By the time of Baji Rao's appointment, Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah had recognized Marathas' rights over the territories possessed by Shivaji at his death. In 1719, the Mughals had also recognized the Maratha rights to collect taxes (chauth or chauthaii and sardeshmukhi) in the six provinces of Deccan. Bajirao believed that the Mughal Empire was in decline and wanted to take advantage of this situation with aggressive expansion in north India. Sensing the declining fortune of the Mughals, he is reported to have said, "Strike, strike at the trunk and the branches will fall off themselves."[10][11] However, as a new Peshwa, he faced several challenges:[6]

text:
His appointment as the Peshwa at a young age had evoked jealousy from senior officials like Naro Ram Mantri, Anant Ram Sumant and Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi. This led Bajirao to promote young commanders such as Malhar Rao Holkar, Ranoji Shinde, and the Pawar brothers who were not from the families that held hereditary Deshmukhi rights under the Deccan Sultanates.[12]
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I, the Mughal viceroy of Deccan, had practically created his own independent kingdom in the region and challenged the Maratha rights to collect taxes in Deccan.[6]
The Marathas needed to assert their rights over the nobles of the newly gained territories in Malwa and Gujarat[6]
Several areas that were nominally part of the Maratha territory, were not actually under Peshwa's control. For example, the Siddis controlled the Janjira fort.[6]

text: Campaigns

text: Campaign against the Nizam

text: On January 4, 1721, Baji Rao met Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I at Chikhalthan to settle their disputes through agreement. However, Nizam refused to recognize the Maratha rights to collect taxes from the Deccan provinces.[6] Nizam was made Vizier of Mughal Empire in 1721 , but alarmed at his growing power, emperor Muhammad Shah transferred him from Deccan to Awadh in 1723. Nizam rebelled against the order, resigned as the Vizier and marched towards Deccan. The emperor sent an army against him, which the Nizam defeated in the Battle of Sakhar-kheda. In response, Mughal emperor was forced to recognize him as the viceroy of Deccan. The Marathas, led by Bajirao, helped Nizam win this battle. In fact, for his bravery in the battle, Baji Rao was honored with a robe, a mansabdari of 7,000, an elephant and a jewel. After the battle, Nizam tried to appease both the Maratha Chhatrapati Shahu as well as the Mughal emperor. However, in reality, he wanted to carve out a sovereign kingdom and considered the Marathas his rivals in the Deccan.[13]

text: In 1725, Nizam sent an army to clear out the Maratha revenue collectors from the Carnatic region. The Marathas dispatched a force under Fateh Singh Bhosle to counter him; Baji Rao accompanied Bhosle, but did not command the army. The Marathas were forced to retreat. They launched a second campaign after the monsoon season, but once again, they were unable to prevent the Nizam from ousting the Maratha collectors.[14]

text: Meanwhile, in Deccan, Sambhaji II of Kolhapur State had become a rival claimant to the title of the Maratha Chhatrapati. Nizam took advantage of this dispute among the Marathas. He refused to pay the chauth or sardeshmukhi on the grounds that it was unclear who was the real Chhatrapati: Shahu or Sambhaji II (and therefore, to whom the payment needed to be made). Nizam offered to act as an arbitrator in this dispute. At the court of Shahu, Nizam's spokesman was Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi, a Deshastha Brahmin and a rival of Bajirao(who was a Chitpavan Brahmin). At the court of Sambhaji II, his supporter was Chandrasen Jadhav, who had fought Bajirao's father a decade earlier. Bajirao convinced Shahu not to accept Nizam's arbitration offer and instead launch an assault against him.[14]

text: On August 27, 1727, Baji Rao started a march against Nizam. He raided and plundered several of Nizam's territories, such as Jalna, Burhanpur and Khandesh. While Bajirao was away, Nizam invaded Pune, where he installed Sambhaji II as Chhatrapati. He then marched out of the city, leaving behind a contingent headed by Fazal Beg. On February 28, 1728, the armies of Bajirao and Nizam faced each other at the Battle of Palkhed. Nizam was defeated and forced to make peace. On March 6, he signed the Treaty of Mungi Shevgaon, recognizing Shahu as the Chhatrapati as well as the Maratha right to collect taxes in Deccan.[6]

text: Baji Rao moved his base of operations from Saswad to Pune in 1728 and in the process laid the foundation for turning what was a kasba into a large city.[15] Bajirao also started construction of Shaniwar Wada on the right bank of the Mutha River. The construction was completed in 1730, ushering in the era of Peshwa control of the city.

text: Malwa campaign

text: In 1723, Baji Rao had organized an expedition to the southern parts of Malwa. The Maratha chiefs such as Ranoji Shinde, Malhar Rao Holkar, Udaji Rao Pawar, Tukoji Rao Pawar and Jivaji Rao Pawar had successfully collected chauth from several areas in Malwa.(Later, these chiefs carved out their own kingdoms of Gwalior, Indore, Dhar and Dewas States- Junior and Senior respectively). To counter the Maratha influence, Mughal emperor had appointed Girdhar Bahadur as the Governor of Malwa.[6]

text: After defeating Nizam, Baji Rao turned his attention towards Malwa. In October 1728, he consigned a huge army commanded by his younger brother Chimnaji Appa, and aided by the generals like Shinde, Holkar and Pawar. On 29 November 1728, Chimnaji's army defeated the Mughals at the Battle of Amjhera. Girdhar Bahadur and his commander Daya Bahadur were killed in the battle. Chimnaji also marched towards Ujjain, but had to retreat due to lack of supplies.[6] By February 1729, the Maratha forces had reached the present-day Rajasthan.[14]

text: Bundelkhand campaign

text: In Bundelkhand, Chhatrasal had rebelled against the Mughal empire and established an independent kingdom. In December 1728, a Mughal force led by Muhammad Khan Bangash defeated him and imprisoned his family. Chhatrasal had repeatedly sought Bajirao's assistance, but the latter was busy in Malwa at that time. In March 1729, Peshwa finally responded to Chhatrasal's request and marched towards Bundelkhand. Chhatrasal also escaped his captivity and joined the Maratha force. After they marched to Jaitpur, Bangash was forced to leave Bundelkhand. Chhatrasal's position as the ruler of Bundelkhand was restored. Chhatrasal assigned a large jagir to Baji Rao and also married his daughter Mastani to him. Before his death in December 1731, he ceded some of his territories to the Marathas.[6]

text: Gujarat campaign

text: After consolidating Maratha influence in central India, Peshwa Baji Rao decided to assert Maratha rights to collect taxes from the rich province of Gujarat. In 1730, he sent a Maratha force under Chimaji Appa to Gujarat. Sarbuland Khan, the Mughal Governor of the province, ceded to Marathas, the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from Gujarat. He was soon replaced by Abhay Singh, who also recognized the Maratha rights to collect taxes. However, this success irked Chhatrapati Shahu's senapati(commander-in-chief) Trimbak Rao Dabhade. His ancestors from Dabhade clan had raided Gujarat several times, asserting their rights to collect taxes from that province. Annoyed at Bajirao's control over what he considered his family's sphere of influence, he rebelled against the Peshwa.[6] Two other Maratha nobles of Gujarat — Gaekwad and Kadam Bande — also sided with Dabhade.[14]

text: Meanwhile, after the defeat of Girdhar Bahadur in 1728, the Mughal emperor had appointed Jai Singh II to subdue the Marathas. However, Jai Singh recommended a peaceful agreement with the Marathas. The emperor disagreed and replaced him with Muhammad Khan Bangash. Bangash formed an alliance with the Nizam, Trimbak Rao and Sambhaji II. On April 1, 1731, Baji Rao defeated the allied forces of Dabhade, Gaekwad and Kadam Bande: Trimbak Rao was killed in the Battle of Dabhoi. On April 13, Baji Rao resolved the dispute with Sambhaji II by signing the Treaty of Warna, which demarcated the territories of Chhatrapati Shahu and Sambhaji II. Subsequently, the Nizam met Baji Rao at Rohe-Rameshwar on December 27, 1732 and promised not to interfere with the Maratha expeditions.[6]

text: Even after subduing Trimbak Rao, Shahu and Baji Rao avoided a rivalry with the powerful Dabhade clan: Trimbak's son Yashwant Rao was made the new senapati of Shahu. Dabhade family was allowed to continue collecting chauth from Gujarat on the condition that they would deposit half the collections in the Chhatrapati Shahu's treasury.[6]

text: Campaign against Siddis

text: The Siddis of Janjira controlled a small but strategically important territory on the western coast of India. They originally held only the Janjira fort, but after Shivaji's death, they had expanded their rule to a large part of the central and northern Konkan region.[14] After the death of the Siddi chief Yakut Khan in 1733, a war of succession broke out among his sons. One of his sons, Abdul Rehman, requested Baji Rao for help. Baji Rao sent a Maratha force led by Sekhoji Angre(son of Kanhoji Angre). The Marathas regained control of several places in Konkan and besieged Janjira. However, their strength was diverted after Peshwa's rival Pant Pratinidhi occupied the Raigad Fort near Janjira in June 1733. In August, Sekhoji Angre died, further weakening the Maratha position. As a result, Baji Rao decided to sign a peace treaty with the Siddis. He allowed the Siddis to retain control of Janjira on the condition that they would accept Abdul Rehman as the ruler. The Siddis were also allowed to retain control of Anjanvel, Gowalkot and Underi. The Marathas retained the territories of Raigad, Rewas, Thal and Chaul, which they had gained during the offensive.[6]

text: Soon after the Peshwa marched back to Satara, the Siddis launched an offensive to regain their lost territories. In June 1734, Bajirao dispatched a force to prevent them from taking over the Raigad fort. Subsequently, on April 19, 1736, Chimnaji launched a surprise attack on a Siddi camp near Rewas, killing around 1,500 of them, including their leader Siddi Sat. On September 25, the Siddis signed a peace treaty, which confined them to Janjira, Gowalkot and Anjanvel.[6]

text: March to Delhi

text: After death of Trimbak Rao, Bangash's alliance against the Marathas had fallen apart. Consequently, Mughal emperor recalled him from Malwa, and re-appointed Jai Singh II as the governor of Malwa. However, Maratha chief Holkar defeated Jai Singh in the Battle of Mandsaur in 1733. After two more battles, Mughals decided to offer Marathas the right to collect ₹ 22 lakh as chauth from Malwa. On March 4, 1736, Baji Rao and Jai Singh came to an agreement at Kishangad. Jai Singh convinced the emperor to agree to the plan and Baji Rao was appointed as Deputy Governor of the province. Jai Singh is also believed to have secretly informed Bajirao that it was a good time to subdue the weakening Mughal emperor.[6]

text: On November 12, 1736, the Peshwa started a march to the Mughal capital Delhi from Pune. On hearing about the advancing Maratha army, Mughal emperor asked Saadat Ali Khan I to march from Agra and check the Maratha advance. The Maratha chiefs Malhar Rao Holkar and Pilaji Jadhav crossed Yamuna and plundered the Mughal territories in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Saadat Khan led a force of 150,000 against them, and defeated them. He then retired to Mathura, thinking that the Marathas had retreated. However, Baji Rao advanced to Delhi and encamped at Talkatora. The Mughal emperor dispatched a force led by Mir Hasan Khan Koka to check his advance. The Marathas defeated this force in the Battle of Delhi on March 28, 1737. Baji Rao then retreated from Delhi, apprehensive about the approach of a larger Mughal force from Mathura.[6]

text: The Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah then sought help from Nizam. Nizam set out from Deccan and met Baji Rao's returning force at Sironj. Nizam told Baji Rao that he was going to Delhi to repair his relationship with the Mughal emperor. On reaching Delhi, he was joined by other Mughal chiefs and a massive Mughal army set out against the Peshwa. Peshwa also assembled a force of 80,000 soldiers and marched towards Delhi, leaving behind a force of 10,000 under Chimnaji to guard Deccan. The two armies met mid-way at Bhopal, where the Marathas defeated the Mughals in the Battle of Bhopal on December 24, 1737. Once again, Nizam was forced to sign a peace agreement, this time at Doraha on January 7, 1738.[16] The province of Malwa was formally ceded to the Marathas and the Mughals agreed to pay ₹ 5,000,000 as indemnity. This time, Nizam took an oath on Koran to abide by the treaty.[6]

text: Against the Portuguese

text: The Portuguese had captured several territories on the west coast of India. They had violated an agreement to give the Marathas a site on Salsette Island for building a factory and had been practising religious intolerance against Hindus in their territory. In March 1737, Peshwa dispatched a Maratha force led by Chimaji against them. Marathas captured the Ghodbunder Fort and almost all of Vasai, after the Battle of Vasai. They also managed to gain control of Salsette on May 16, 1739, after a prolonged siege. However, the Marathas had to turn their attention away from the Portuguese due to Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire in the north.[6]

text: Personal life

text: Bajirao's first wife was Kashibai, the daughter of Mahadji Krishna Joshi and Shiubai of Chas, belonging to a wealthy banker family.[17] The marriage was a happy one and Bajirao was essentially monogamous by nature and the family tradition.[18] He always treated his wife with love and respect.[19] They had three sons together: Balaji Baji Rao (nicknamed "Nanasaheb"), Raghunath Rao (nicknamed "Ragoba") and Janardhan Rao (who died young).[20] Balaji succeeded Bajirao as Peshwa upon his death in 1740.

text: Bajirao took a second wife, Mastani, the daughter of Hindu king Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand from his Muslim concubine. The marriage was purely a political one and Bajirao had accepted her hand out of sheer regard for the noble sentiments of the Bundela king.[18] However, Bajirao later developed an infatuation with her and had a palace built for her in Pune, which was called the Mastani Mahal. A reconstruction of it can be seen at the Raja Dinkar Kelkar Museum in Pune, including remains from the original palace. The contemporary orthodox Hindu Brahmin society refused to accept the marriage because Mastani had a Muslim mother. This led to a crisis in Bhat family. The historian D. G. Godse claims that Baji Rao's brother Chimaji Appa and mother, Radhabai, never accepted Mastani as one of their own. Many attempts were made on her life, presumably by Chimaji Appa; she survived with the help of Chhatrapati Shahu.

text: In 1734, Baji Rao and Mastani had a son, who was named Krishna Rao at birth. Baji Rao wanted him to be accepted as a Brahmin, but because of his mother's Muslim faith, the priests refused to conduct the Hindu upanayana ceremony for him.[6] The boy was brought up as a Muslim and came to be known as Shamsher Bahadur. Kashibai took the six-year-old boy under her care and raised him as one of her own. To him was bestowed a portion of his father's dominion of Banda and Kalpi. In 1761, he and his army contingent fought alongside the Peshwa in the Third Battle of Panipat between the Marathas and Afghans and he died in the same battle[21] at the age of almost 27. Shamsher Bahadur's own son, Ali Bahadur, later ruled over Baji Rao's lands in Bundelkhand and founded the state of Banda.

text: Death

text: Baji Rao died on April 28, 1740, at the age of 39 of a sudden fever, possibly heat stroke, while inspecting his jahgirs. At that time, he was en route to Delhi with nearly 100,000 troops under his command at his camp in the Khargone district, near the city of Indore. He was cremated on April 28, 1740, at Raverkhedi on Narmada River. The Scindias built a chhatri as a memorial at this place. The memorial is enclosed by a dharmashala. The compound has two temples, dedicated to Nilkantheshwara Mahadeva(Shiva) and Rameshvara(Rama).[22]

text:
[hide]Expansion of the Maratha territories during Bajirao I's reign

Maratha and non-Maratha territories in India in 1720

Maratha and non-Maratha territories in India, in 1740

text: Battle tactics

text: Baji Rao is famous for rapid tactical movements in battle, using his cavalry inherited from Maratha generals including Santaji Ghorpade, Dhanaji Jadhav and Ananatrao Makaji. Field-Marshal Bernard Montgomery, in his "History of Warfare"[23] likened Bajirao's approach to that subsequently made famous by U.S. Civil War General William Tecumseh Sherman during his 1864 March to the Sea: the use of rapid movements where his troops lived off the land, with minimal concern for their own supply and communication lines and employing "total warfare" on the enemy civilian population. He is often called a cavalry general. Two examples are the Battle of Palkhed in 1728 when he outmaneuvered the Mughal Governor of Deccan province and again in the battle against the Mughal Emperor, Muhammad Shah at Delhi during 1739. British General Montgomery called Bajirao's victory at Palkhed as a "masterpiece of strategic mobility".[24]

text: Baji Rao concentrated on using local terrain to cut the enemy supply-lines with the help of rapid troop movement. He followed Maratha traditional tactics of encircling the enemy quickly, appearing from the rear of enemy, attacking from the unexpected direction, distracting the enemy's attention, keeping the enemy off balance and deciding the battlefield on his own terms.[citation needed]

text: In popular culture

text:
In 2015 drama film Bajirao Mastani directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali, Baji Rao I was portrayed by Ranveer Singh.[25]
Presently, a serial named Peshwa Bajirao (TV series) airs on Sony TV. Child actor Rudra Soni portrays the role of young Bajirao in the series.[26]


document_title: Bric-à-brac

question_text: where does the word bric a brac come from

text: Bric-à-brac

text: Bric-à-brac or bric-a-brac (origin French),[1] first used in the Victorian era,[2] refers to lesser objets d'art forming collections of curios, such as elaborately decorated teacups and small vases, compositions of feathers or wax flowers under glass domes, decorated eggshells, porcelain figurines, painted miniatures or photographs in stand-up frames, and so on.

text: In middle-class homes bric-à-brac was used as ornament on mantelpieces, tables, and shelves, or was displayed in curio cabinets: sometimes these cabinets have glass doors to display the items within while protecting them from dust. Today, "bric-à-brac" refers to a selection of items of modest value, often sold in street markets and charity shops.

text: Edith Wharton and Ogden Codman, Jr., in The Decoration of Houses (1897), distinguished three gradations of quality in such "household ornaments": bric-à-brac, bibelots (trinkets) and objets d'art.[3]


document_title: I Still Know What You Did Last Summer

question_text: who is the killer in i still know what you did last summer

text: I Still Know What You Did Last Summer

text: Plot[edit]

text: This section's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: One year after the events of the first film, Julie James is attending summer classes in Boston, to avoid returning to her hometown of Southport, North Carolina. She suffers from memories and nightmares of the accident and brutal murders of her friends by the vengeful fisherman, Ben Willis, from the summer before.

text: Julie's roommate Karla Wilson receives a phone call from a local radio station, and wins an all-expenses-paid vacation to the Bahamas for the Fourth of July weekend. Julie invites her boyfriend, Ray Bronson. He declines, but later changes his mind and plans to show up as a surprise and propose.

text: That evening, Ray and his co-worker Dave drive to Boston to meet Julie. They stop due to a BMW and body in the middle of the road. Ray discovers that the body is a mannequin dressed in fisherman's clothing. Suddenly, Ben Willis appears and kills Dave with his hook. Ben takes Ray's truck and chases him down the road. Ray gets away, but he is injured from falling down a hill.

text: The next morning, Julie and Karla depart on the trip with Karla’s boyfriend Tyrell and their friend, Will Benson. The group arrives at the hotel in Tower Bay, only to find that other guests are leaving due to the imminent hurricane season. To her surprise, Julie is sharing a hotel room with Will. That evening at the hotel’s bar, Julie is talked into singing karaoke. She stops when the words “I STILL KNOW WHAT YOU DID LAST SUMMER” roll onto the screen. Terrified, she runs back to her room and is met by Will, who laid out flowers and a love note for her. Julie sidesteps Will's affection for her, while Tyrell and Karla (and later Will) get into the hot tub.

text: Julie notices that her toothbrush is missing. She searches the room and finds the dockhand Darik hanging dead in the closet. She finds Tyrell, Karla, and Will, but when they return there is no sign of Darick's body. The hotel manager refuses to believe her story and Julie tries to call the police, but the phone lines are dead due to the incoming hurricane. Ben arrives at the hotel and kills the employees.

text: The following day, the group finds that the hotel staff and the manager have been murdered, and the two-way radio, their only way of contact, has been destroyed. Isolated, Julie tells the others about the previous summer. Tyrell suspects that Estes, the boat hand porter, is the killer, since he is the only one who cannot be found. The group goes to Estes’ apartment, searching for clues. They find Julie’s toothbrush and Karla's hair tie, concluding Estes has been using voodoo to protect them. Estes appears and leads them to a graveyard in the forest with the graves of Ben's wife and daughter, and an empty grave and tombstone with Julie’s name. Estes explains that Ben and his wife Sarah had two children: son Will and daughter Susie. Ben murdered Sarah in the hotel room that Julie is staying in when he found out about her affair and her plans to leave him with their children.

text: Estes goes missing, and Will volunteers to find him. Julie, Karla, and Tyrell return to the hotel and gather supplies to defend themselves.  They head to the hotel kitchen for something to eat, and find Nancy, the bartender, hiding in the freezer. Will finds Estes, but he attacks Will while Ray takes a boat to the island. Ben appears and stabs Tyrell in the throat with his hook, killing him. The girls retreat to the attic, where Karla is attacked by Ben. They both fall through to the hotel bedroom below. Karla runs from the room and jumps onto the greenhouse. Julie and Nancy rescue Karla and run to the storm cellar to take refuge. They find that the storm cellar stores Ben's victims. Will bursts in and convinces the girls to head back to the hotel, stating that he saw Ben on the beach.

text: Back at the hotel, Julie sees Will is bleeding from his stomach, so Nancy takes Karla to find a first aid kit. Nancy and Karla find Estes has been impaled with a harpoon. Ben appears and kills Nancy. Back in the lobby, Julie is tending to Will, unable to find a wound. Will admits this is because it is not his blood. He asks Julie what her favorite radio station is, revealing he was the radio host and killed Estes. Will drags Julie to the graveyard, and tells her he is Ben's son. Ben appears and attacks Julie. Ray arrives, and a fight ensues between him and Will. When Ben tries to stab Ray, he accidentally kills Will instead. While Ben is distraught from killing his son, Julie takes a gun and shoots him in the chest. Ben falls dead into the grave made for Julie. Back at the hotel, Karla is found alive. The three are rescued by the coast guard.

text: Sometime later, Ray and Julie have married and are in their new home. Ray is brushing his teeth before bed and Julie is in their bedroom. The bathroom door is quietly shut and locked while Ray is occupied. Julie sits down on her bed, looks in the mirror, and sees Ben under the bed. She screams as Ben grabs her feet with his hook and hand and pulls her under leaving her fate unknown.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jennifer Love Hewitt as Julie James
Freddie Prinze, Jr. as Ray Bronson
Brandy as Karla Wilson
Mekhi Phifer as Tyrell Martin
Matthew Settle as Will Benson
Jennifer Esposito as Nancy
Muse Watson as Ben Willis
Bill Cobbs as Estes
Jeffrey Combs as Mr. Brooks
Benjamin Brown as Darick the Dockhand
Ellerine Harding as Olga
John Hawkes as Dave
Jack Black as Titus Telesco (uncredited)
Sarah Michelle Gellar as Helen Shivers (uncredited/photo only)

text: Production[edit]

text: While the film is set in The Bahamas, it was actually shot at El Tecuan Marina Resort Costalagree, in Jalisco, Mexico; Los Angeles, California; and Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The sequel made a gross $16.5 million at 2,443 theaters during its opening weekend. Unlike the original, the sequel opened at number two at the box office and dropped to number five only a week later. At the end of its fifteen-week run, the film grossed $40,020,622 in the United States. It grossed $44 million internationally, bringing the total worldwide gross to $84 million.[2]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The film received highly negative reviews, with an overall rating of 7% on Rotten Tomatoes with critics consensus being "Boring; predictable." It also has a 21 score on Metacritic compared to 52 for the original. The highest review score on Metacritic was 60 which came from Variety, who said "Purists will find the pic's obviousness disappointing, but there's no question that the film delivers a sufficient shock quotient to satisfy its youthful target audience". The film, much like the original, has obtained a "cult following".

text: Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[3]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (Music From The Motion Picture)
Soundtrack album (Digital download)/Audio CD by VariousReleased
November 17, 1998Length
51:14Label
Warner Bros. Records

text:
"Sugar Is Sweeter" (CJ Bolland; Danny Saber remix featuring Justin Warfield) – 4:57
"How Do I Deal" (Jennifer Love Hewitt) – 3:23
"Relax" (Deetah) – 3:51
"Hey Now Now" (Swirl 360) – 4:37
"Blue Monday" (Orgy) – 4:32
"Polite" (Bijou Phillips) – 4:25
"Try to Say Goodbye" (Jory Eve) – 3:35
"Testimony" (Grant Lee Buffalo) – 3:59
"(Do You) Wanna Ride" (Reel Tight) – 3:33
"Getting Scared" (Imogen Heap) – 4:51
"Górecki" (Lamb) – 6:22
"Julie's Theme" (John Frizzell) – 2:52

text: The soundtrack was released on November 17, 1998 by Warner Bros. Records. On January 19, 1999, "How Do I Deal" was released a single, backed by Jory Eve's "Try to Say Goodbye". A music video for "How Do I Deal" was made available to music television networks.

text: The song "Eden", by Belgian rock/pop group Hooverphonic, was also featured in the film, but did not appear on the final soundtrack. The song appeared early in the film, when Julie looked at the picture of Helen beside her bed.

text: Stand-alone sequel[edit]

text: On August 15, 2006, a straight-to-DVD sequel titled I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer was released. The film is unrelated to the two previous films, and features no returning cast members. It was originally proposed to continue where I Still Know What You Did Last Summer left off. Instead, the film features an unrelated plot with a brief mention of the first two films.


document_title: Storage virtualization

question_text: what will be used by san to provide connectivity between hosts and storage

question_tokens: what will be used by san to provide connectivity between hosts and storage

text: Storage virtualization

text: Block virtualization[edit]

text: Address space remapping[edit]

text: Virtualization of storage helps achieve location independence by abstracting the physical location of the data. The virtualization system presents to the user a logical space for data storage and handles the process of mapping it to the actual physical location.

text: It is possible to have multiple layers of virtualization or mapping. It is then possible that the output of one layer of virtualization can then be used as the input for a higher layer of virtualization. Virtualization maps space between back-end resources, to front-end resources. In this instance, "back-end" refers to a logical unit number (LUN) that is not presented to a computer, or host system for direct use. A "front-end" LUN or volume is presented to a host or computer system for use.

text: The actual form of the mapping will depend on the chosen implementation. Some implementations may limit the granularity of the mapping which may limit the capabilities of the device. Typical granularities range from a single physical disk down to some small subset (multiples of megabytes or gigabytes) of the physical disk.

text: In a block-based storage environment, a single block of information is addressed using a LUN identifier and an offset within that LUN –  known as a logical block addressing (LBA).

text: Meta-data[edit]

text: The virtualization software or device is responsible for maintaining a consistent view of all the mapping information for the virtualized storage. This mapping information is often called meta-data and is stored as a mapping table.

text: The address space may be limited by the capacity needed to maintain the mapping table. The level of granularity, and the total addressable space both directly impact the size of the meta-data, and hence the mapping table. For this reason, it is common to have trade-offs, between the amount of addressable capacity and the granularity or access granularity.

text: One common method to address these limits is to use multiple levels of virtualization. In several storage systems deployed today, it is common to utilize three layers of virtualization.[4]

text: Some implementations do not use a mapping table, and instead calculate locations using an algorithm. These implementations utilize dynamic methods to calculate the location on access, rather than storing the information in a mapping table.

text: I/O redirection[edit]

text: The virtualization software or device uses the meta-data to re-direct I/O requests. It will receive an incoming I/O request containing information about the location of the data in terms of the logical disk (vdisk) and translates this into a new I/O request to the physical disk location.

text: For example, the virtualization device may :

text:
Receive a read request for vdisk LUN ID=1, LBA=32
Perform a meta-data look up for LUN ID=1, LBA=32, and finds this maps to physical LUN ID=7, LBA0
Sends a read request to physical LUN ID=7, LBA0
Receives the data back from the physical LUN
Sends the data back to the originator as if it had come from vdisk LUN ID=1, LBA32

text: Capabilities[edit]

text: Most implementations allow for heterogeneous management of multi-vendor storage devices within the scope of a given implementation's support matrix. This means that the following capabilities are not limited to a single vendor's device (as with similar capabilities provided by specific storage controllers) and are in fact possible across different vendors' devices.

text: Replication[edit]

text: Data replication techniques are not limited to virtualization appliances and as such are not described here in detail. However most implementations will provide some or all of these replication services.

text: When storage is virtualized, replication services must be implemented above the software or device that is performing the virtualization. This is true because it is only above the virtualization layer that a true and consistent image of the logical disk (vdisk) can be copied. This limits the services that some implementations can implement –  or makes them seriously difficult to implement. If the virtualization is implemented in the network or higher, this renders any replication services provided by the underlying storage controllers useless.

text:
Remote data replication for disaster recovery

Synchronous Mirroring –  where I/O completion is only returned when the remote site acknowledges the completion. Applicable for shorter distances (<200 km)
Asynchronous Mirroring –  where I/O completion is returned before the remote site has acknowledged the completion. Applicable for much greater distances (>200 km)

Point-In-Time Snapshots to copy or clone data for diverse uses

When combined with thin provisioning, enables space-efficient snapshots

text: Pooling[edit]

text: The physical storage resources are aggregated into storage pools, from which the logical storage is created. More storage systems, which may be heterogeneous in nature, can be added as and when needed, and the virtual storage space will scale up by the same amount. This process is fully transparent to the applications using the storage infrastructure.

text: Disk management[edit]

text: The software or device providing storage virtualization becomes a common disk manager in the virtualized environment. Logical disks (vdisks) are created by the virtualization software or device and are mapped (made visible) to the required host or server, thus providing a common place or way for managing all volumes in the environment.

text: Enhanced features are easy to provide in this environment:

text:
Thin Provisioning to maximize storage utilization

This is relatively easy to implement as physical storage is only allocated in the mapping table when it is used.

Disk expansion and shrinking

More physical storage can be allocated by adding to the mapping table (assuming the using system can cope with online expansion)
Similarly disks can be reduced in size by removing some physical storage from the mapping (uses for this are limited as there is no guarantee of what resides on the areas removed)

text: Benefits[edit]

text: Non-disruptive data migration[edit]

text: One of the major benefits of abstracting the host or server from the actual storage is the ability to migrate data while maintaining concurrent I/O access.

text: The host only knows about the logical disk (the mapped LUN) and so any changes to the meta-data mapping is transparent to the host. This means the actual data can be moved or replicated to another physical location without affecting the operation of any client. When the data has been copied or moved, the meta-data can simply be updated to point to the new location, therefore freeing up the physical storage at the old location.

text: The process of moving the physical location is known as data migration. Most implementations allow for this to be done in a non-disruptive manner, that is concurrently while the host continues to perform I/O to the logical disk (or LUN).

text: The mapping granularity dictates how quickly the meta-data can be updated, how much extra capacity is required during the migration, and how quickly the previous location is marked as free. The smaller the granularity the faster the update, less space required and quicker the old storage can be freed up.

text: There are many day to day tasks a storage administrator has to perform that can be simply and concurrently performed using data migration techniques.

text:
Moving data off an over-utilized storage device.
Moving data onto a faster storage device as needs require
Implementing an Information Lifecycle Management policy
Migrating data off older storage devices (either being scrapped or off-lease)

text: Improved utilization[edit]

text: Utilization can be increased by virtue of the pooling, migration, and thin provisioning services. This allows users to avoid over-buying and over-provisioning storage solutions. In other words, this kind of utilization through a shared pool of storage can be easily and quickly allocated as it is needed to avoid constraints on storage capacity that often hinder application performance.[5]

text: When all available storage capacity is pooled, system administrators no longer have to search for disks that have free space to allocate to a particular host or server. A new logical disk can be simply allocated from the available pool, or an existing disk can be expanded.

text: Pooling also means that all the available storage capacity can potentially be used. In a traditional environment, an entire disk would be mapped to a host. This may be larger than is required, thus wasting space. In a virtual environment, the logical disk (LUN) is assigned the capacity required by the using host.

text: Storage can be assigned where it is needed at that point in time, reducing the need to guess how much a given host will need in the future. Using Thin Provisioning, the administrator can create a very large thin provisioned logical disk, thus the using system thinks it has a very large disk from day one.

text: Fewer points of management[edit]

text: With storage virtualization, multiple independent storage devices, even if scattered across a network, appear to be a single monolithic storage device and can be managed centrally.

text: However, traditional storage controller management is still required. That is, the creation and maintenance of RAID arrays, including error and fault management.

text: Risks[edit]

text: Backing out a failed implementation[edit]

text: Once the abstraction layer is in place, only the virtualizer knows where the data actually resides on the physical medium. Backing out of a virtual storage environment therefore requires the reconstruction of the logical disks as contiguous disks that can be used in a traditional manner.

text: Most implementations will provide some form of back-out procedure and with the data migration services it is at least possible, but time consuming.

text: Interoperability and vendor support[edit]

text: Interoperability is a key enabler to any virtualization software or device. It applies to the actual physical storage controllers and the hosts, their operating systems, multi-pathing software and connectivity hardware.

text: Interoperability requirements differ based on the implementation chosen. For example, virtualization implemented within a storage controller adds no extra overhead to host based interoperability, but will require additional support of other storage controllers if they are to be virtualized by the same software.

text: Switch based virtualization may not require specific host interoperability — if it uses packet cracking techniques to redirect the I/O.

text: Network based appliances have the highest level of interoperability requirements as they have to interoperate with all devices, storage and hosts.

text: Complexity[edit]

text: Complexity affects several areas :

text:
Management of environment: Although a virtual storage infrastructure benefits from a single point of logical disk and replication service management, the physical storage must still be managed. Problem determination and fault isolation can also become complex, due to the abstraction layer.
Infrastructure design: Traditional design ethics may no longer apply, virtualization brings a whole range of new ideas and concepts to think about (as detailed here)
The software or device itself: Some implementations are more complex to design and code –  network based, especially in-band (symmetric) designs in particular — these implementations actually handle the I/O requests and so latency becomes an issue.

text: Meta-data management[edit]

text: Information is one of the most valuable assets in today's business environments. Once virtualized, the meta-data are the glue in the middle. If the meta-data are lost, so is all the actual data as it would be virtually impossible to reconstruct the logical drives without the mapping information.

text: Any implementation must ensure its protection with appropriate levels of back-ups and replicas. It is important to be able to reconstruct the meta-data in the event of a catastrophic failure.

text: The meta-data management also has implications on performance. Any virtualization software or device must be able to keep all the copies of the meta-data atomic and quickly updateable. Some implementations restrict the ability to provide certain fast update functions, such as point-in-time copies and caching where super fast updates are required to ensure minimal latency to the actual I/O being performed.

text: Performance and scalability[edit]

text: In some implementations the performance of the physical storage can actually be improved, mainly due to caching. Caching however requires the visibility of the data contained within the I/O request and so is limited to in-band and symmetric virtualization software and devices. However these implementations also directly influence the latency of an I/O request (cache miss), due to the I/O having to flow through the software or device. Assuming the software or device is efficiently designed this impact should be minimal when compared with the latency associated with physical disk accesses.

text: Due to the nature of virtualization, the mapping of logical to physical requires some processing power and lookup tables. Therefore, every implementation will add some small amount of latency.

text: In addition to response time concerns, throughput has to be considered. The bandwidth into and out of the meta-data lookup software directly impacts the available system bandwidth. In asymmetric implementations, where the meta-data lookup occurs before the information is read or written, bandwidth is less of a concern as the meta-data are a tiny fraction of the actual I/O size. In-band, symmetric flow through designs are directly limited by their processing power and connectivity bandwidths.

text: Most implementations provide some form of scale-out model, where the inclusion of additional software or device instances provides increased scalability and potentially increased bandwidth. The performance and scalability characteristics are directly influenced by the chosen implementation.

text: Implementation approaches[edit]

text:
Host-based
Storage device-based
Network-based

text: Host-based[edit]

text: Host-based virtualization requires additional software running on the host, as a privileged task or process. In some cases volume management is built into the operating system, and in other instances it is offered as a separate product. Volumes (LUN's) presented to the host system are handled by a traditional physical device driver. However, a software layer (the volume manager) resides above the disk device driver intercepts the I/O requests, and provides the meta-data lookup and I/O mapping.

text: Most modern operating systems have some form of logical volume management built-in (in Linux called Logical Volume Manager or LVM; in Solaris and FreeBSD, ZFS's zpool layer; in Windows called Logical Disk Manager or LDM), that performs virtualization tasks.

text: Note: Host based volume managers were in use long before the term storage virtualization had been coined.

text: Pros[edit]

text:
Simple to design and code
Supports any storage type
Improves storage utilization without thin provisioning restrictions

text: Cons[edit]

text:
Storage utilization optimized only on a per host basis
Replication and data migration only possible locally to that host
Software is unique to each operating system
No easy way of keeping host instances in sync with other instances
Traditional Data Recovery following a server disk drive crash is impossible

text: Specific examples[edit]

text:
Technologies:

Logical volume management
File systems, e.g., (hard links, SMB/NFS)
Automatic mounting, e.g., (autofs)

text: Storage device-based[edit]

text: Like host-based virtualization, several categories have existed for years and have only recently been classified as virtualization. Simple data storage devices, like single hard disk drives, do not provide any virtualization. But even the simplest disk arrays provide a logical to physical abstraction, as they use RAID schemes to join multiple disks in a single array (and possibly later divide the array it into smaller volumes).

text: Advanced disk arrays often feature cloning, snapshots and remote replication. Generally these devices do not provide the benefits of data migration or replication across heterogeneous storage, as each vendor tends to use their own proprietary protocols.

text: A new breed of disk array controllers allows the downstream attachment of other storage devices. For the purposes of this article we will only discuss the later style which do actually virtualize other storage devices.

text: Concept[edit]

text: A primary storage controller provides the services and allows the direct attachment of other storage controllers. Depending on the implementation these may be from the same or different vendors.

text: The primary controller will provide the pooling and meta-data management services. It may also provide replication and migration services across those controllers which it is .

text: Pros[edit]

text:
No additional hardware or infrastructure requirements
Provides most of the benefits of storage virtualization
Does not add latency to individual I/Os

text: Cons[edit]

text:
Storage utilization optimized only across the connected controllers
Replication and data migration only possible across the connected controllers and same vendors device for long distance support
Downstream controller attachment limited to vendors support matrix
I/O Latency, non cache hits require the primary storage controller to issue a secondary downstream I/O request
Increase in storage infrastructure resource, the primary storage controller requires the same bandwidth as the secondary storage controllers to maintain the same throughput

text: Network-based[edit]

text: Storage virtualization operating on a network based device (typically a standard server or smart switch) and using iSCSI or FC Fibre channel networks to connect as a SAN. These types of devices are the most commonly available and implemented form of virtualization.

text: The virtualization device sits in the SAN and provides the layer of abstraction between the hosts performing the I/O and the storage controllers providing the storage capacity.

text: Pros[edit]

text:
True heterogeneous storage virtualization
Caching of data (performance benefit) is possible when in-band
Single management interface for all virtualized storage
Replication services across heterogeneous devices

text: Cons[edit]

text:
Complex interoperability matrices –  limited by vendors support
Difficult to implement fast meta-data updates in switched-based devices
Out-of-band requires specific host based software
In-band may add latency to I/O
In-band the most complicated to design and code

text: Appliance-based vs. switch-based[edit]

text: There are two commonly available implementations of network-based storage virtualization, appliance-based and switch-based. Both models can provide the same services, disk management, metadata lookup, data migration and replication. Both models also require some processing hardware to provide these services.

text: Appliance based devices are dedicated hardware devices that provide SAN connectivity of one form or another. These sit between the hosts and storage and in the case of in-band (symmetric) appliances can provide all of the benefits and services discussed in this article. I/O requests are targeted at the appliance itself, which performs the meta-data mapping before redirecting the I/O by sending its own I/O request to the underlying storage. The in-band appliance can also provide caching of data, and most implementations provide some form of clustering of individual appliances to maintain an atomic view of the metadata as well as cache data.

text: Switch based devices, as the name suggests, reside in the physical switch hardware used to connect the SAN devices. These also sit between the hosts and storage but may use different techniques to provide the metadata mapping, such as packet cracking to snoop on incoming I/O requests and perform the I/O redirection. It is much more difficult to ensure atomic updates of metadata in a switched environment and services requiring fast updates of data and metadata may be limited in switched implementations.

text: In-band vs. out-of-band[edit]

text: In-band, also known as symmetric, virtualization devices actually sit in the data path between the host and storage. All I/O requests and their data pass through the device. Hosts perform I/O to the virtualization device and never interact with the actual storage device. The virtualization device in turn performs I/O to the storage device. Caching of data, statistics about data usage, replications services, data migration and thin provisioning are all easily implemented in an in-band device.

text: Out-of-band, also known as asymmetric, virtualization devices are sometimes called meta-data servers. These devices only perform the meta-data mapping functions. This requires additional software in the host which knows to first request the location of the actual data. Therefore, an I/O request from the host is intercepted before it leaves the host, a meta-data lookup is requested from the meta-data server (this may be through an interface other than the SAN) which returns the physical location of the data to the host. The information is then retrieved through an actual I/O request to the storage. Caching is not possible as the data never passes through the device.

text: File based virtualization[edit]

text: A synonym used for NAS virtualization.

text: This section needs expansion with: content to compare to the rest of the article focused on block based virtualization. You can help by adding to it. (July 2011)