document_title: Role of the United States in the Vietnam War

question_text: when did the vietnam war begin for the us

question_tokens: when did the vietnam war begin for the us

text: Role of the United States in the Vietnam War

text: Timeline[edit]

text: Woodrow Wilson (1913–21)[edit]

text: Wilson ignores petition by Ho Chi Minh for help in creating Vietnam independent from French rule and led by nationalist government.[5]

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–45)[edit]

text: Roosevelt declines repeated requests from the French to assist France's attempts to recolonize Vietnam.[6]

text: Harry S. Truman (1945–53)[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
August 15, 1945 — Japan surrenders to the Allies. In Indochina, the Japanese administration allows Hồ Chí Minh to take control over the country. This is called the August Revolution. Hồ Chí Minh fights with a variety of other political factions for control of the major cities.
August 1945 — A few days after the Vietnamese "revolution", Nationalist Chinese forces enter from the north and, as previously planned by the Allies, establish an administration in the country as far south as the 16th parallel north.
September 26, 1945: Office of Strategic Services (OSS) officer Lieutenant Colonel A. Peter Dewey — who was working with the Viet Minh to repatriate Americans captured by the Japanese — was killed by a member of the Viet Minh who mistakenly believed him to be French.
October 1945 — British troops land in southern Vietnam and establish a provisional administration. The British free French soldiers and officials imprisoned by the Japanese. The French begin taking control of cities within the British zone of occupation.
February 1946 — The French sign an agreement with China. France gives up its concessions in Shanghai and other Chinese ports. In exchange, China agrees to assist the French in returning to Vietnam north of the 17th parallel.
March 6, 1946 — After negotiations with the Chinese and the Viet Minh, the French sign an agreement recognizing Vietnam within the French Union. Shortly after, the French land at Haiphong and occupy the rest of northern Vietnam. The Viet Minh use the negotiating process with France and China to buy time to use their armed forces to destroy all competing nationalist groups in the north.
December 1946 — Negotiations between the Viet Minh and the French break down. The Viet Minh are driven out of Hanoi into the countryside.
1947–1949 — The Viet Minh fight a limited insurgency in remote rural areas of northern Vietnam.
1949 — Chinese communists reach the northern border of Indochina. The Viet Minh drive the French from the border region and begin to receive large amounts of weapons from the Soviet Union and China. The weapons transform the Viet Minh from an irregular large-scale insurgency into a conventional army.
May 1, 1950 — After the capture of Hainan Island from Chinese Nationalist forces by the Chinese People's Liberation Army, President Truman approves $10 million in military assistance for anti-communist efforts in Indochina. The Defense Attaché Office was established in Saigon in May 1950, a formal recognition of Viet Nam (vice French IndoChina). This was the beginning of formal U.S. military personnel assignments in Viet Nam. U.S. Naval, Army and Air Force personnel established their respective attaches at this time.
September 1950 — Truman sends the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) Indochina to Vietnam to assist the French. The President claimed they were not sent as combat troops, but to supervise the use of $10 million worth of U.S. military equipment to support the French in their effort to fight the Viet Minh forces.
Following the outbreak of the Korean War, Truman announces "acceleration in the furnishing of military assistance to the forces of France and the Associated States in Indochina...". and sends 123 non-combat troops to help with supplies to fight against the communist Viet Minh.
1951 — Truman authorizes $150 million in French support.

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–61)[edit]

text:
1953 — By November, French commander in Indochina, General Navarre, asked U.S. General McArthur to loan twelve Fairchild C-119 aircraft, to be flown by French crews, to facilitate Operation Castor at Dien Bien Phu.
1954 — In January, Navarre's Deputy asked for additional transport aircraft. Negotiations ended on March 3 with 24 CIA pilots (CAT) to operate 12 U.S. Air Force C-119s, flying undercover using French insignia, but maintained by the USAF.[7]
1954 — General Paul Ely, the French Chief of Staff, proposed an American operation to rescue French forces. Operation Vulture was hastily planned but President Eisenhower, convinced that the political risks outweighed the possible benefits, decided against the intervention.[8][9]
1954 — The Viet Minh defeat the French at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. The defeat, along with the end of the Korean War the previous year, causes the French to seek a negotiated settlement to the war.
1954 — The Geneva Conference (1954), called to determine the post-French future of Indochina, proposes a temporary division of Vietnam, to be followed by nationwide elections to unify the country in 1956.
1954 — Two months after the Geneva conference, North Vietnam forms Group 100 with headquarters at Ban Namèo. Its purpose is to direct, organize, train and supply the Pathet Lao to gain control of Laos, which along with Cambodia and Vietnam formed French Indochina.
1955 — North Vietnam launches an 'anti-landlord' campaign, during which counter-revolutionaries are imprisoned or killed. The numbers killed or imprisoned are disputed, with historian Stanley Karnow estimating about 6,000 while others (see the book "Fire in the Lake") estimate only 800. Rudolph Rummel puts the figure as high as 200,000.[10]
November 1, 1955 — President Eisenhower deploys the Military Assistance Advisory Group to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. This marks the official beginning of American involvement in the war as recognized by the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.[11]
April 1956 — The last French troops leave Vietnam.
1954–1956 — 450,000 Vietnamese civilians flee the Viet Minh administration in North Vietnam and relocate in South Vietnam as part of the US government's Operation Passage to Freedom. Approximately 52,000 move in the opposite direction. Dr. Thomas Dooley works with the CIA to produce his influential disinformation book about the refugees Deliver Us from Evil.
1956 — National unification elections do not occur.
December 1958 — North Vietnam invades Laos and occupies parts of the country
July 8, 1959 — Charles Ovnand and Dale R. Buis become the first two American Advisers to die in Vietnam.[12]
September 1959 — North Vietnam forms Group 959, which assumes command of the Pathet Lao forces in Laos.
November 1960 — Coup attempt by paratroopers is foiled after Diệm falsely promises reform, allowing loyalists to crush the rebels.
December 20, 1960 — The National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF) is founded.

text: John F. Kennedy (1961–63)[edit]

text:
January 1961 — Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev pledges support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world. The idea of creating a neutral Laos is suggested to Kennedy.
May 1961 — Kennedy sends 400 United States Army Special Forces personnel to South Vietnam to train South Vietnamese soldiers following a visit to the country by Vice-President Johnson.
June 1961 — Kennedy meets with Khrushchev in Vienna. He protests North Vietnam's attacks on Laos and points out that the U.S. was supporting the neutrality of Laos. The two leaders agree to pursue a policy of creating a neutral Laos.
June 1961 — Kennedy said, "Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place" to James Reston of The New York Times (immediately after meeting Khrushchev in Vienna).
August 10, 1961 — Test run of U.S. herbicidal warfare program in South Vietnam ("Operation Trail Dust")
October 1961 — Following successful NLF attacks, Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara recommends sending six divisions (200,000 men) to Vietnam.
February 8, 1962 — The Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV) is created by President Kennedy
February 1962 — Attempted assassination of Diệm by two air force officers who bombed his palace, fails.
July 23, 1962 — International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos is signed at Geneva, promising Laotian neutrality.
August 1, 1962 — Kennedy signs the Foreign Assistance Act of 1962, which provides "... military assistance to countries which are on the rim of the Communist world and under direct attack".
October 1962 — Operation Ranch Hand begins. U.S. planes spray herbicides and defoliants over South Vietnam until 1971.
January 3, 1963 — NLF victory in the Battle of Ap Bac.
May 8, 1963 — Buddhists demonstrate in Huế, South Vietnam after the display of religious flags were prohibited, during the celebration of Vesak, Gautama Buddha's birthday; but, Catholic flags celebrating the consecration of Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục, brother of Ngô Đình Diệm were not prohibited. The police of Ngô Đình Cẩn, Diệm's younger brother, open fire, killing nine.
May 1963 — Republican Barry Goldwater declares that the U.S. should fight to win or withdraw from Vietnam. Later on, during his presidential campaign against Lyndon B. Johnson, his Democratic opponents accuse him of wanting to use nuclear weapons in the conflict.
June 11, 1963 — Photographs of protesting Buddhist monk, Thích Quảng Đức, burning himself to death in protest, in Saigon, appear in U.S. newspapers.
Summer 1963 — Madame Nhu, de facto First Lady to the bachelor Diệm makes a series of vitriolic attacks on Buddhists, calling the immolations "barbecues". Diệm ignores U.S. calls to silence her.
August 21, 1963 — ARVN special forces loyal to Ngô Đình Nhu, younger brother of Diệm, stage raids across the country, attacking Buddhist temples and firing on monks. The cremated remains of Thích Quảng Đức are confiscated from Xá Lợi Pagoda in Saigon. New U.S. ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge rebukes Diệm by visiting Xá Lợi and giving refuge to Buddhist leader Thích Trí Quang. The U.S. calls for Nhu to be dropped by Diệm, and threatens to cut aid to Colonel Lê Quang Tung's Special Forces if they are not sent into battle, rather than used to repress dissidents.
September 2, 1963 — Kennedy criticises the Diệm regime in an interview with Walter Cronkite, citing the Buddhist repression and claiming that Diệm is out of touch.
Late October 1963 — Nhu, unaware that Saigon region commander General Tôn Thất Đính is double-crossing him, draws up plans for a phony coup and counter-coup to reaffirm the Diệm regime. Đính sends Nhu's loyal special forces out of Saigon on the pretext of fighting communists and in readiness for the counter coup, and rings Saigon with rebel troops.
November 1, 1963 — Military officers launch a coup d'état against Diệm, with the tacit approval of the Kennedy administration. Diệm and Nhu escape the presidential residence via a secret exit after loyalist forces were locked out of Saigon, unable to rescue them.
November 2, 1963 — Diệm and Nhu are discovered in nearby Cholon. Although they had been promised exile by the junta, they are executed by Nguyễn Văn Nhung, bodyguard of General Dương Văn Minh. Minh leads the military junta.
November 1963 — By this time, Kennedy had increased the number of military personnel from the 900 that were there when he became President to 16,000 just before his death.[13]
November 22, 1963 — Kennedy is assassinated.

text: Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969)[edit]

text: Feb 1965 - Operation Rolling Thunder begins

text: July 1965 - Sent troops to Vietnam for the first time[14]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2016)

text: 1966 - Lyndon B. Johnson expanded the number of troops being sent into Vietnam

text: Richard M. Nixon (1969–74)[edit]

text: 1969 - Richard Nixon continued the war, but with a reduced amount of US troops via Vietnamization strategy.

text: Under the Kennedy Administration[edit]

text:
In 1961 the new administration of President John F. Kennedy remained essentially committed to the bi-partisan, anti-communist foreign policies inherited from the administrations of Presidents Truman and Eisenhower. During 1961, his first year in office, Kennedy found himself faced with a three-part crisis: The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba; the construction of the Berlin Wall by the Soviets; and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. Fearing that another failure on the part of the U.S. to stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies, Kennedy realized, "Now we have a problem in making our power credible... and Vietnam looks like the place."[15]
The commitment to defend South Vietnam was reaffirmed by Kennedy on May 11 in National Security Action Memorandum 52, which became known as "The Presidential Program for Vietnam". Its opening statement reads:

text: U.S. objectives and concept of operations [are] to prevent communist domination of South Vietnam; to create in that country a viable and increasingly democratic society, and to initiate, on an accelerated basis, a series of mutually supporting actions of a military, political, economic, psychological, and covert character designed to achieve this objective.[16]

text: Kennedy was intrigued by the idea of utilizing United States Army Special Forces for counterinsurgency conflicts in Third World countries threatened by the new "wars of national liberation". Originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by Special Forces would be effective in the "brush fire" war in South Vietnam. He saw British success in using such forces during the Malayan Emergency as a strategic template. Thus in May 1961 Kennedy sent detachments of Green Berets to South Vietnam.

text: The Diệm regime had been initially able to cope with the insurgency of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, or derogatively, Viet Cong) in South Vietnam with the aid of U.S. matériel and advisers, and, by 1962, seemed to be gaining the upper hand. Senior U.S. military leaders received positive reports from the U.S. commander, General Paul D. Harkins of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, or MACV. By the following year, however, cracks began to appear in the façade of success. In January a possible victory that was turned into a stunning defeat for government forces at the Battle of Ap Bac caused consternation among both the military advisers in the field and among politicians in Washington, D.C. JFK also indicated to Walter Cronkite that the war may be unwinnable, and that it was ultimately a Vietnamese war, not an American war.[17]

text: Diệm was already growing unpopular with many of his countrymen because of his administration's nepotism, corruption, and its apparent bias in favor of the Catholic minority—of which Diệm was a part—at the expense of the Buddhist majority. This contributed to the impression of Diệm's rule as an extension of the French Colonial regime. Promised land reforms were not instituted, and Diệm's strategic hamlet program for village self-defense (and government control) was a disaster. The Kennedy administration grew increasingly frustrated with Diệm. In 1963, a crackdown by Diệm's forces was launched against Buddhist monks protesting discriminatory practices and demanding a political voice. Diệm's repression of the protests sparked the so-called Buddhist Revolt, during which several monks committed self-immolation, which was covered in the world press. The communists took full advantage of the situation and fueled anti-Diệm sentiment to create further instability.

text: Americanization[edit]

text: Gulf of Tonkin and the Westmoreland expansion[edit]

text: On July 27, 1964, 5,000 additional U.S. military advisers were ordered to the Republic of Vietnam (RVN or South Vietnam), bringing the total American troop level to 21,000. Shortly thereafter an incident occurred off the coast of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) that was destined to escalate the conflict to new levels and lead to the full scale Americanization of the war.

text: On the evening of August 2, 1964, the destroyer USS Maddox was conducting an electronic intelligence collection mission in international waters (even as claimed by North Vietnam) in the Gulf of Tonkin when it was attacked by three P-4 torpedo boats of the North Vietnamese Navy.[18] Reports later reached the Johnson administration saying that the Maddox was under attack. Two nights later, after being joined by the destroyer C. Turner Joy, the Maddox again reported that both vessels were under attack.[citation needed] Regardless, President Johnson addressed Congress asking for more political power to utilize American military forces in South Vietnam, using the attack on the Maddox as cause to get what he wanted.

text: There was rampant confusion in Washington, but the incident was seen by the administration as the perfect opportunity to present Congress with "a pre-dated declaration of war" in order to strengthen weakening morale in South Vietnam through reprisal attacks by the U.S. on the North.[19] Even before confirmation of the phantom attack had been received in Washington, President Johnson had decided that an attack could not go unanswered.

text: Just before midnight he appeared on television and announced that retaliatory air strikes were underway against North Vietnamese naval and port facilities. Neither Congress nor the American people learned the whole story about the events in the Gulf of Tonkin until the publication of the Pentagon Papers in 1969. It was on the basis of the administration's assertions that the attacks were "unprovoked aggression" on the part of North Vietnam, that the United States Congress approved the Southeast Asia Resolution (also known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) on August 7. The law gave the President broad powers to conduct military operations without an actual declaration of war. The resolution passed unanimously in the House of Representatives and was opposed in the Senate by only two members.

text: National Security Council members, including United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, Secretary of State Dean Rusk, and General Maxwell Taylor, agreed on November 28 to recommend that Johnson adopt a plan for a two-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam.

text: Operation Rolling Thunder, 1965–68[edit]

text: In February 1965, a U.S. air base at Pleiku, in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam, was attacked twice by the NLF, resulting in the deaths of over a dozen U.S. personnel. These guerrilla attacks prompted the administration to order retaliatory air strikes against North Vietnam.

text: Operation Rolling Thunder was the code name given to a sustained strategic bombing campaign targeted against the North by aircraft of the U.S. Air Force and Navy that was inaugurated on March 2, 1965. Its original purpose was to bolster the morale of the South Vietnamese and to serve as a signaling device to Hanoi. U.S. airpower would act as a method of "strategic persuasion", deterring the North Vietnamese politically by the fear of continued or increased bombardment. Rolling Thunder gradually escalated in intensity, with aircraft striking only carefully selected targets. When that did not work, its goals were altered to destroying North Vietnam's will to fight by destroying the nation's industrial base, transportation network, and its (continually increasing) air defenses. After more than a million sorties were flown and three-quarters of a million tons of bombs were dropped, Rolling Thunder was ended on November 11, 1968.[20]

text: Other aerial campaigns (Operation Barrel Roll, Operation Steel Tiger, Operation Tiger Hound, and Operation Commando Hunt) were directed to counter the flow of men and material down the PAVN logistical system that flowed from North Vietnam through southeastern Laos, and into South Vietnam known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail.

text: Build-up[edit]

text: President Johnson had already appointed General William C. Westmoreland to succeed General Harkins as Commander of MACV in June 1964. Under Westmoreland, the expansion of American troop strength in South Vietnam took place. American forces rose from 16,000 during 1964 to more than 553,000 by 1969. With the U.S. decision to escalate its involvement it had created the Many Flags program to legitimise intervention and ANZUS Pact allies Australia and New Zealand agreed to contribute troops and matériel to the conflict. They were joined by the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and [[the Philippines|the Philippines[citation needed]]]. The U.S. paid for (through aid dollars) and logistically supplied all of the allied forces.

text: Meanwhile, political affairs in Saigon were finally settling down — at least as far as the Americans were concerned. On February 14 the most recent military junta, the National Leadership Committee, installed Air Vice-Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ as prime minister. In 1966, the junta selected General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu to run for president with Ky on the ballot as the vice-presidential candidate in the 1967 election. Thieu and Ky were elected and remained in office for the duration of the war. In the presidential election of 1971, Thieu ran for the presidency unopposed. With the installation of the Thieu and Ky government (the Second Republic), the U.S. had a pliable, stable, and semi-legitimate government in Saigon with which to deal[citation needed].

text: With the advent of Rolling Thunder, American airbases and facilities needed to be constructed and manned for the aerial effort[citation needed]. On March 8, 1965, 3,500 United States Marines came ashore at Da Nang as the first wave of U.S. combat troops into South Vietnam, adding to the 25,000 U.S. military advisers already in place. The US Government deployment of ground forces to Da Nang had not been consulted with the South Vietnamese government.[21] Instead the initial deployment and gradual build-up was a unilateral decision by the US government[22]. On May 5 the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade became the first U.S. Army ground unit committed to the conflict in South Vietnam. On August 18, Operation Starlite began as the first major U.S. ground operation, destroying an NLF stronghold in [[Quảng Ngãi Province|Quảng Ngãi Province[citation needed]]].

text: The North Vietnamese had already sent units of their regular army into southern Vietnam beginning in late 1964. Some officials in Hanoi had favored an immediate invasion of the South, and a plan was developed to use PAVN units to split southern Vietnam in half through the Central Highlands[citation needed]. The two imported adversaries first faced one another during Operation Silver Bayonet, better known as the Battle of the Ia Drang. During the savage fighting that took place, both sides learned important lessons. The North Vietnamese,  began to adapt to the overwhelming American superiority in air mobility, supporting arms, and close air support by moving in as close as possible during confrontations, thereby negating the effects of the above[citation needed].

text: Search and destroy, the strategy of attrition[edit]

text: On November 27, 1965, the Pentagon declared that if the major operations needed to neutralize North Vietnamese and NLF forces were to succeed, U.S. troop levels in South Vietnam would have to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000. In a series of meetings between Westmoreland and the President held in Honolulu in February 1966, Westmoreland claimed that the U.S. presence had succeeded in preventing the immediate defeat of the South Vietnamese government but that more troops would be necessary if systematic offensive operations were to be conducted[citation needed]. The issue then became in what manner American forces would be used[citation needed].

text: The nature of the American military's strategic and tactical decisions made during this period coloured the conflict for the duration of the American commitment. The logistical system in Laos and Cambodia should be cut by ground forces, isolating the southern battlefield[citation needed]. However, political considerations limited U.S. military actions, mainly because of the memory of Chinese reactions during the [[Korean War|Korean War[citation needed]]]. Ever present in the minds of diplomats, military officers, and politicians was the possibility of a spiraling escalation of the conflict into a superpower confrontation and the possibility of a nuclear exchange. Therefore, there would be no invasion of North Vietnam, the "neutrality" of Laos and Cambodia would be respected, and Rolling Thunder would not resemble the bombing of Germany and Japan during the Second World War.

text: These limitations were not foisted upon the military as an afterthought. Before the first U.S. soldiers came ashore at Da Nang, the Pentagon was cognizant of all of the parameters that would be imposed by their civilian leaders, yet they still agreed that the mission could be accomplished within them. Westmoreland believed that he had found a strategy that would either defeat North Vietnam or force it into serious negotiations. Attrition was to be the key. The general held that larger offensive operations would grind down the communists and eventually lead to a "crossover point" in PAVN/NLF casualties after which a decisive (or at least political) victory would be possible.

text: It is widely held that the average U.S. serviceman was nineteen years old, as evidenced by the casual reference in a pop song ("19" by Paul Hardcastle); the figure is cited by Lt. Col. Dave Grossman ret. of the Killology Research Group in his 1995 book On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (p. 265). However, it is disputed by the[23] Vietnam Helicopter Flight Crew Network Website, which claims the average age of MOS 11B personnel was 22. This compares with 26 years of age for those who participated in World War II. Soldiers served a one-year tour of duty. The average age of the U.S. military men who died in Vietnam was 22.8 years old.[24]

text: The one-year tour of duty deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer put it, "we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times."[25] As a result, training programs were shortened. Some NCOs were referred to as "Shake 'N' Bake" to highlight their accelerated training. Unlike soldiers in World War II and Korea, there were no secure rear areas in which to get rest and relaxation.[citation needed] One unidentified soldier said to United Press International that there was nothing to do in Vietnam and therefore many of the men smoked marijuana. He said, "One of the biggest reasons that a lot of GIs do get high over here is there is nothing to do. This place is really a drag; it's a bore over here. Like right now sitting around here, we are getting loaded. Whereas, it doesn't really get you messed up; that's I guess the main reason why we smoke it."[26]

text: American forces would conduct operations against PAVN forces, pushing them further back into the countryside away from the heavily populated coastal lowlands. In the backcountry the U.S. could fully utilize its superiority in firepower and mobility to bleed the enemy in set-piece battles. The cleaning-out of the NLF and the pacification of the villages would be the responsibility of the South Vietnamese military. The adoption of this strategy, however, brought Westmoreland into direct conflict with his Marine Corps commander, General Lewis W. Walt, who had already recognized the security of the villages as the key to success. Walt had immediately commenced pacification efforts in his area of responsibility, but Westmoreland was unhappy, believing that the Marines were being underutilized and fighting the wrong enemy. In the end, MACV won out and Westmoreland's search and destroy concept, predicated on the attrition of enemy forces, won the day.

text: Both sides chose similar strategies. PAVN, which had been operating a more conventional, large-unit war, switched back to small-unit operations in the face of U.S. military capabilities. The struggle moved to the villages, where the "hearts and minds" of the South Vietnamese peasants, whose cooperation was absolutely necessary to military success, would be won or lost. The U.S. had given responsibility for this struggle to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), whose troops and commanders were notoriously unfit for the task.

text: For the American soldier, whose doctrine was one of absolute commitment to total victory, this strategy led to a frustrating small-unit war. Most of the combat was conducted by units smaller than battalion-size (the majority at the platoon level). Since the goal of the operations was to kill the enemy, terrain was not taken and held as in previous wars. Savage fighting and the retreat of the communists was immediately followed by the abandonment of the terrain just seized. Combined with this was the anger and frustration engendered among American troops by the effective tactics of the NLF, who conducted a war of sniping, booby traps, mines, and terror against the Americans.

text: As a result of the conference held in Honolulu, President Johnson authorized an increase in troop strength to 429,000 by August 1966. The large increase in troops enabled MACV to carry out numerous operations that grew in size and complexity during the next two years. For U.S. troops participating in these operations (Operation Masher/White Wing, Operation Attleboro, Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Junction City and dozens of others) the war boiled down to hard marching through some of the most difficult terrain on the planet and weather conditions that were alternately hot and dry, or cold and wet. It was the PAVN/NLF that actually controlled the pace of the war, fighting only when their commanders believed that they had the upper hand and then disappearing when the Americans and/or ARVN brought their superiority in numbers and firepower to bear. North Vietnam, utilizing the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk Trails, matched the U.S. at every point of the escalation, funneling manpower and supplies to the southern battlefields.

text: During the Vietnam War, the use of the helicopter, known as "Air Mobile", was an essential tool for conducting the war. In fact, the whole conduct and strategy of the war depended on it. Vietnam was the first time the helicopter was used on a major scale, and in such important roles. Search and destroy missions, for example, would have been nearly impossible without it. Helicopters allowed American commanders to move large numbers of troops to virtually anywhere, regardless of the terrain or roads. Troops could also be easily resupplied in remote areas. The helicopter also provided another new and vital capability: medical evacuation. It could fly wounded soldiers to aid stations very quickly, usually within the critical first hour. This gave wounded soldiers a higher chance of survival in Vietnam than in any previous war. The helicopter was also adapted for many other roles in Vietnam, including ground attack, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare. Without the helicopter, the war would have been fought very differently.[27]

text: Border battles and the Tet Offensive[edit]

text: By mid-1967, Westmoreland said that it was conceivable that U.S. forces could be phased out of the war within two years, turning over progressively more of the fighting to the ARVN.[28] That fall, however, savage fighting broke out in the northern provinces. Beginning below the DMZ at Con Tien and then spreading west to the Laotian border near Dak To, large PAVN forces began to stand their ground and fight. This willingness of the communists to remain fixed in place inspired MACV to send reinforcements from other sectors of South Vietnam. The Border Battles had begun.

text: Most of the PAVN/NLF operational capability was possible only because of the unhindered movement of men along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. To threaten this flow of supplies, the Marine Corps established a combat base on the South Vietnamese side of the Laotian frontier, near the village of Khe Sanh. The U.S. used the base as a border surveillance position overlooking Route 9, the only east-west road that crossed the border in the province. Westmoreland also hoped to use the base as a jump-off point for any future incursion against the Trail system in Laos. During the spring of 1967, a series of small-unit actions near Khe Sanh prompted MACV to increase its forces. These small unit actions and increasing intelligence information indicated that the PAVN was building up significant forces just across the border.

text: Indeed, PAVN was doing just that. Two regular divisions (and later elements of a third) were moving toward Khe Sanh, eventually surrounding the base and cutting off its only road access. Westmoreland, contrary to the advice of his Marine commanders, reinforced the outpost. As far as he was concerned, if the communists were willing to mass their forces for destruction by American air power, so much the better. He described the ideal outcome as a "Dien Bien Phu in reverse". MACV then launched the largest concentrated aerial bombardment effort of the conflict (Operation Niagara) to defend Khe Sanh. Another massive aerial effort was undertaken to keep the beleaguered Marines supplied. There were many comparisons (by the media, Americans military and political officials, and the North Vietnamese) to the possibility of PAVN staging a repeat of its victory at Dien Bien Phu, but the differences outweighed the similarities in any comparison.

text: MACV used this opportunity to field its latest technology against the North Vietnamese. A sensor-driven, anti-infiltration system known as Operation Igloo White was in the process of being field tested in Laos as the siege of Khe Sanh began. Westmoreland ordered that it be employed to detect PAVN troop movements near the Marine base and the system worked well. By March, the long-awaited ground assault against the base had failed to materialize and communist forces began to melt back toward Laos. MACV (and future historians) were left with only questions. What was the goal of the PAVN? Was the siege a real attempt to stage another Dien Bien Phu? Or had the battles near the border (which eventually drew in half of MACV's maneuver battalions) been a diversion, meant to pull forces away from the cities, where another PAVN offensive would soon commence?

text: General Westmoreland's public reassurances that "the light at the end of the tunnel" was near were countered when, on January 30, 1968, PAVN and NLF forces broke the truce that accompanied the Tết holiday and mounted their largest offensive thus far, in hopes of sparking a general uprising among the South Vietnamese. These forces, ranging in size from small groups to entire regiments, attacked nearly every city and major military installation in South Vietnam. The Americans and South Vietnamese, initially surprised by the scope and scale of the offensive, quickly responded and inflicted severe casualties on their enemies. The NLF was essentially eliminated as a fighting force and the places of the dead within its ranks were increasingly filled by North Vietnamese.

text: The PAVN/NLF attacks were speedily and bloodily repulsed in virtually all areas except Saigon, where the fighting lasted for three days, and in the old imperial capital of Huế, where it continued for a month. During the occupation of the historic city, 2,800 South Vietnamese were murdered by the NLF in the single worst massacre of the conflict. The hoped-for uprising never took place; indeed, the offensive drove some previously apathetic South Vietnamese to fight for the government. Another surprise for the communists was that the ARVN did not collapse under the onslaught, instead turning in a performance that pleased even its American patrons.

text: After the Tet Offensive, influential news magazines and newspapers, including the Wall Street Journal, Time and The New York Times, increasingly began to characterize the war as a stalemate. What shocked and dismayed the American public was the realization that either it had been lied to or that the American military command had been dangerously overoptimistic in its appraisal of the situation in Vietnam. The public could not understand how such an attack was possible after being told for several years that victory was just around the corner. The Tet Offensive came to embody the growing credibility gap at the heart of U.S. government statements. These realizations and changing attitudes forced the American public (and politicians) to face hard realities and to reexamine their position in Southeast Asia. Moreover, the U.S. media coverage made it even more clear that an overall victory in Vietnam was not imminent. It also massively weakened the domestic support for the Johnson administration at the time[29]. The days of an open-ended commitment to the conflict were over.

text: The psychological impact of the Tet Offensive effectively ended the political career of Lyndon Johnson. On March 11, Senator Eugene McCarthy won 42 percent of the vote in the Democratic New Hampshire primary. Although Johnson was not on the ballot, commentators viewed this as a defeat for the President. Shortly thereafter, Senator Robert Kennedy announced his intention to seek the Democratic nomination for the 1968 presidential election. On March 31, in a speech that took America and the world by surprise, Johnson announced that "I shall not seek, and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your President" and pledged himself to devoting the rest of his term in office to the search for peace in Vietnam.[30] Johnson announced that he was limiting bombing of North Vietnam to just north of the Demilitarized Zone and that U.S. representatives were prepared to meet with North Vietnamese counterparts in any suitable place "to discuss the means to bring this ugly war to an end". A few days later, much to Johnson's surprise, North Vietnam agreed to contacts between the two sides. On May 13, what became known as the Paris peace talks began.[31]

text: My Lai Massacre[edit]

text: On March 16, 1968, three companies of Task Force Barker, part of the Americal Division, took part in a search and destroy operation near the village of My Lai, in Quảng Nam Province. Although not all of the members of the company participated, a significant number of them, led by Calley, did. He personally ordered the executions of hundreds of villagers in large groups. The killings ended only when an American helicopter crew, headed by Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr., discovered Calley's unit in the act and threatened to attack them with his aircraft's weapons unless they stopped. One of the soldiers on the scene was Ron Haeberle, a photographer for the newspaper Stars and Stripes, who took unobtrusive official black-and-white photos of the operation through the lens of his military-issued camera and color shots of the massacre with his personal camera. Although the operation appeared suspicious to Calley's superiors, it was forgotten.

text: In 1969, investigative journalist Seymour Hersh exposed the My Lai massacre in print, and the Haeberle photos were released to the world media. The Pentagon launched an investigation headed by General William R. Peers to look into the allegations. After a flurry of activity, the Peers Commission issued its report. It declared that "an atmosphere of atrocity" surrounded the event, concluding that a massacre had taken place and the crime had been covered up by the commander of the Americal Division and his executive officer. Perhaps 400 Vietnamese civilians, mostly old men, women, and children had been killed by Charlie company. Several men were charged in the killings, but only Calley was convicted. He was given a life sentence by a court-martial in 1970, but after numerous appeals he was finally set free; he had served just over three years of house arrest.

text:
Although My Lai generated a lot of civilian recriminations and bad publicity for the military, it was not the only massacre. The Vietnam War Crimes Working Group Files made public in 1994 by the "Freedom of Information Act" reveal seven, albeit much smaller, massacres previously unacknowledged by the Pentagon, in which at least 137 civilians had died.[1]
Cover-ups may have occurred in other cases, as detailed in the Pulitzer Prize-winning series of articles concerning the Tiger Force of the 101st Airborne Division by the Toledo Blade in 2003.

text: Vietnamization, 1969–75[edit]

text: Richard Nixon had campaigned in the 1968 presidential election under the slogan that he would end the war in Vietnam and bring "peace with honor". However, there was no plan to do this, and the American commitment continued for another five years. The goal of the American military effort was to buy time, gradually building up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces, and re-equipping it with modern weapons so that they could defend their nation on their own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so-called Nixon Doctrine. As applied to Vietnam, it was labeled Vietnamization.

text: Nixon's papers show that in 1968, as a presidential candidate, he ordered Anna Chennault, his liaison to the South Vietnam government, to persuade them to refuse a cease-fire being brokered by President Lyndon Johnson. This action violated the Logan Act, banning private citizens from intruding into official government negotiations with a foreign nation, and has been said to constitute treason.[32]

text: Soon after Tet, General Westmoreland was promoted to Army Chief of Staff and he was replaced by his deputy, General Creighton W. Abrams. Because of the change in American strategy posed by Vietnamization, Abrams pursued a very different approach. The U.S. was gradually withdrawing from the conflict, and Abrams favored smaller-scale operations aimed at PAVN/NLF logistics, more openness with the media, less indiscriminate use of American firepower, elimination of the body count as the key indicator of battlefield success, and more meaningful cooperation with South Vietnamese forces.

text: Vietnamization of the war, however, created a dilemma for U.S. forces: the strategy required that U.S. troops fight long enough for the ARVN to improve enough to hold its own against Communist forces. Morale in the U.S. ranks rapidly declined during 1969–1972, as evidenced by declining discipline, worsening drug use among soldiers, and increased "fraggings" of U.S. officers by disgruntled troops.

text: One of Nixon's main foreign policy goals had been the achievement of a breakthrough in U.S. relations with the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. An avowed anti-communist since early in his political career, Nixon could make diplomatic overtures to the communists without being accused of being "soft on communism". The result of his overtures was an era of détente that led to nuclear arms reductions by the U.S. and Soviet Union and the beginning of a dialogue with China. In this context, Nixon viewed Vietnam as simply another limited conflict forming part of the larger tapestry of superpower relations; however, he was still determined to preserve South Vietnam until such time as he could not be blamed for what he saw as its inevitable collapse (or a "decent interval", as it was known). To this end he and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger employed Chinese and Soviet foreign policy gambits to successfully defuse some of the anti-war opposition at home and secured movement at the negotiations that had begun in Paris.

text: China and the Soviet Union had been the principal backers of North Vietnam's effort through large-scale military and financial aid. The two communist superpowers had competed with one another to prove their "fraternal socialist links" with the regime in Hanoi. The North Vietnamese had become adept at playing the two nations off against one another. Even with Nixon's rapprochement, their support of North Vietnam increased significantly in the years leading up to the U.S. departure in 1973, enabling the North Vietnamese to mount full-scale conventional offensives against the South, complete with tanks, heavy artillery, and the most modern surface-to-air missiles.

text: Pentagon Papers[edit]

text: The credibility of the U.S. government again suffered in 1971 when The New York Times, The Washington Post and other newspapers serially published The Pentagon Papers (actually U.S.-Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967). This top-secret historical study of the American commitment in Vietnam, from the Franklin Roosevelt administration until 1967, had been contracted to the RAND Corporation by Secretary of Defense McNamara. The documents were leaked to the press by Daniel Ellsberg, a former State Department official who had worked on the study.

text: The Pentagon Papers laid out the missteps taken by four administrations in their Vietnam policies. For example, they revealed the Johnson administration's obfuscations to Congress concerning the Gulf of Tonkin incidents that had led to direct U.S. intervention; they exposed the clandestine bombing of Laos that had begun in 1964; and they detailed the American government's complicity in the death of Ngô Đình Diệm. The study presented a continuously pessimistic view of the likelihood of victory and generated fierce criticism of U.S. policies.

text: The importance of the actual content of the papers to U.S. policy-making was disputed, but the window that they provided into the flawed decision-making process at the highest levels of the U.S. government opened the issue for other questions. Their publication was a news event and the government's legal (Nixon lost to the Supreme Court) and extra-legal efforts (the "Plumbers" break-in at the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist committed to gain material to discredit him, was one of the first steps on the road to Watergate) carried out to prevent their publication—mainly on national security grounds—then went on to generate yet more criticism and suspicion of the government by the American public.

text: Operation Menu and the Cambodian campaign, 1969–70[edit]

text: By 1969 the policy of non-alignment and neutrality had worn thin for Prince Sihanouk, ruler of Cambodia. Pressures from the right in Cambodia caused the prince to begin a shift away from the pro-left position he had assumed in 1965–1966. He began to make overtures for normalized relations with the U.S. and created a Government of National Salvation with the assistance of the pro-American General Lon Nol. Seeing a shift in the prince's position, President Nixon ordered the launching of a top-secret bombing campaign, targeted at the PAVN/NLF Base Areas and sanctuaries along Cambodia's eastern border.

text: On March 18, 1970, Sihanouk, who was out of the country on a state visit, was deposed by a vote of the National Assembly and replaced by General Lon Nol. Cambodia's ports were immediately closed to North Vietnamese military supplies, and the government demanded that PAVN/NLF forces be removed from the border areas within 72 hours. On March 29, 1970, the Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army. A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles (24 km) of Phnom Penh allowing their allies, the Chinese-supported Khmer Rouge to extend their power. Nixon ordered a military incursion into Cambodia by U.S. and ARVN troops in order to both destroy PAVN/NLF sanctuaries bordering South Vietnam and to buy time for the U.S. withdrawal. During the Cambodian Campaign, U.S. and ARVN forces discovered and removed or destroyed a huge logistical and intelligence haul in Cambodia.

text: The incursion also sparked large-scale demonstrations on and closures of American college campuses. The expansion of the conflict into Cambodia was seen as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country, nullifying Nixon's promises of de-escalating the war. During the ensuing protests, four students were killed and a score were wounded by Ohio National Guardsmen during a demonstration at Kent State University. Two other students were killed at Jackson State University in Mississippi. In an effort to lessen opposition to the U.S. commitment, Nixon announced on October 12 that the U.S. would withdraw 40,000 more troops from Vietnam before Christmas.

text: Following the coup, Sihanouk arrived in Beijing, where he established and headed a government in exile, throwing his substantial personal support behind the Khmer Rouge, the North Vietnamese, and the Laotian Pathet Lao.

text: Lam Son 719[edit]

text: In 1971 the U.S. authorized the ARVN to carry out an offensive operation aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh Trail in southeastern Laos. Besides attacking the PAVN logistical system (which would buy time for the U.S. withdrawal) the incursion would be a significant test of Vietnamization. Backed by U.S. air and artillery support (American troops were forbidden to enter Laos), the ARVN moved across the border along Route 9, utilizing the abandoned Marine outpost of Khe Sanh as a jumping-off point. At first, the incursion went well, but unlike the Cambodian operation of 1970, the PAVN decided to stand and fight, finally mustering around 60,000 men on the battlefield.

text: The North Vietnamese first struck the flanks of the ARVN column, smashed its outposts, and then moved in on the main ARVN force. Unlike previous encounters during the conflict, the PAVN fielded armored formations, heavy artillery, and large amounts of the latest anti-aircraft artillery. After two months of savage fighting, the ARVN retreated back across the border, closely pursued by the North Vietnamese. One half of the invasion force was killed or captured during the operation, and Vietnamization was seen as a failure.

text: On August 18, Australia and New Zealand decided to withdraw their troops from the conflict. The total number of U.S. forces in South Vietnam dropped to 196,700 on October 29, 1971, the lowest level since January 1966. On November 12, 1971, Nixon set a February 1, 1972 deadline for the removal of another 45,000 troops.

text: Easter Offensive[edit]

text: Vietnamization received another severe test in the spring of 1972 when the North Vietnamese launched a massive conventional offensive across the Demilitarized Zone. Beginning on March 30, the Easter Offensive (known as the Nguyễn Huệ Offensive to the North Vietnamese) quickly overran the three northernmost provinces of South Vietnam, including the provincial capital of Quảng Trị City. PAVN forces then drove south toward Huế.

text: Early in April, PAVN opened two additional operations. The first, a three-division thrust supported by tanks and heavy artillery, advanced out of Cambodia on April 5. The North Vietnamese seized the town of Loc Ninh and advanced toward the provincial capital of An Lộc in Bình Long Province. The second new offensive, launched from the tri-border region into the Central Highlands, seized a complex of ARVN outposts near Dak To and then advanced toward Kon Tum, threatening to split South Vietnam in two.

text: The U.S. countered with a buildup of American airpower to support ARVN defensive operations and to conduct Operation Linebacker, the first offensive bombing of North Vietnam since Rolling Thunder had been terminated in 1968. The PAVN attacks against Huế, An Lộc, and Kon Tum were contained and the ARVN launched a counteroffensive in May to retake the lost northern provinces. On September 10, the South Vietnamese flag once again flew over the ruins of the Citadel of Quảng Trị City, but the ARVN offensive then ran out of steam, conceding the rest of the occupied territory to the North Vietnamese. South Vietnam had countered the heaviest attack since Tet, but it was very evident that it was totally dependent on U.S. airpower for its survival. Meanwhile, the withdrawal of American troops, who numbered less than 100,000 at the beginning of the year, was continued as scheduled. By June only six infantry battalions remained. On August 12, the last American ground combat division left the country. However, the U.S. continued to operate the base At Long Binh. Combat patrols continued there until November 11 when the U.S. handed over the base to the South Vietnamese. After this, only 24,000 American troops remained in Vietnam and President Nixon announced that they would stay there until all U.S. POW's were freed.

text: At the beginning of the North Vietnamese invasion, the media, including conservative commentator William F. Buckley, predicted the downfall of the Republic of Vietnam; Buckley even called for the firing of General Creighton Abrams as an incompetent military leader. But the ARVN succeeded in defeating General Giap and his huge invading army. His forces were shattered at the Battle of An Lộc, where he threw several divisions at the entrenched South Vietnamese forces, ultimately losing over half of his army as casualties. General Giap's loss and subsequent retreat was viewed as so great a failure by the North Vietnamese Communist Party that Giap was relieved of his command. Although ARVN troops withstood and repelled the massive PAVN attack at An Lộc, American air power seems to have been a key to the ARVN success, just as it had been a key factor in supporting U.S. ground forces when they operated in South Vietnam prior to 1972. Thus, the 1973 withdrawal of U.S. military support and passage of Congressional resolutions cutting off U.S. funding for combat activities in Indochina (H.R. 9055 and H.J.Res. 636) opened the way for the 1975 defeat of the Republic of Vietnam.

text: Election of 1972 and Operation Linebacker II[edit]

text: During the run-up to the 1972 presidential election, the war was once again a major issue. An antiwar Democrat, George McGovern, ran against President Nixon. The president ended Operation Linebacker on October 22 after the negotiating deadlock was broken and a tentative agreement had been hammered out by U.S. and North Vietnamese representatives at the peace negotiations in Paris. The head of the U.S. negotiating team, Henry Kissinger, declared that "peace is at hand" shortly before election day, dealing a death blow to McGovern's already doomed campaign. Kissinger had not, however, counted on the intransigence of South Vietnamese President Thieu, who refused to accept the agreement and demanded some 90 changes in its text. These the North Vietnamese refused to accept, and Nixon was not inclined to put too much pressure on Thieu just before the election, even though his victory was all but assured. The mood between the U.S. and North further turned sour when Hanoi went public with the details of the agreement. The Nixon Administration claimed that North Vietnamese negotiators had used the pronouncement as an opportunity to embarrass the President and to weaken the United States. White House Press Secretary Ron Ziegler told the press on November 30 that there would be no more public announcements concerning U.S. troop withdrawals from Vietnam since force levels were down to 27,000.

text: Because of Thieu's unhappiness with the agreement, primarily the stipulation that North Vietnamese troops could remain "in place" on South Vietnamese soil, the negotiations in Paris stalled as Hanoi refused to accept Thieu's changes and retaliated with amendments of its own. To reassure Thieu of American resolve, Nixon ordered a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam utilizing B-52s and tactical aircraft in Operation Linebacker II, which began on December 18 with large raids against both Hanoi and the port of Haiphong. Nixon justified his actions by blaming the impasse in negotiations on the North Vietnamese, causing one commentator to describe his actions as "War by tantrum". Although this heavy bombing campaign caused protests, both domestically and internationally, and despite significant aircraft losses over North Vietnam, Nixon continued the operation until December 29. He also exerted pressure on Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement reached in October.

text: Return to Paris[edit]

text: On January 15, 1973, citing progress in peace negotiations, Nixon announced the suspension of all offensive actions against North Vietnam, to be followed by a unilateral withdrawal of all U.S. troops. The Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam" were signed on January 27, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.

text: The agreement called for the withdrawal of all U.S. personnel and an exchange of prisoners of war. Within South Vietnam, a cease-fire was declared (to be overseen by a multi-national, 1,160-man International Commission of Control and Supervision force) and both ARVN and PAVN/NLF forces would remain in control of the areas they then occupied, effectively partitioning South Vietnam. Both sides pledged to work toward a compromise political solution, possibly resulting in a coalition government. To maximize the area under their control, both sides in South Vietnam almost immediately engaged in land-grabbing military operations, which turned into flashpoints. The signing of the Accords was the main motivation for the awarding of the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize to Henry Kissinger and to leading North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho. A separate cease-fire had been installed in Laos in February. Five days before the signing of the agreement in Paris, President Lyndon Johnson, whose presidency had been tainted with the Vietnam issue, died.

text: The first U.S. prisoners of war were released by North Vietnam on February 11, and all U.S. military personnel were ordered to leave South Vietnam by March 29. As an inducement for Thieu's government to sign the agreement, Nixon had promised that the U.S. would provide financial and limited military support (in the form of air strikes) so that the South would not be overrun. But Nixon was fighting for his political life in the growing Watergate scandal and facing an increasingly hostile Congress that withheld funding. The President was able to exert little influence on a hostile public long sick of the Vietnam War.

text: Thus, Nixon (or his successor Gerald Ford) was unable to fulfill his promises to Thieu. At the same time, aid to North Vietnam from the Soviet Union increased. With the U.S. no longer heavily involved, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union no longer saw the war as significant to their relations. The balance of power shifted decisively in North Vietnam's favor, and the North subsequently launched a major military offensive, the Ho Chi Minh Campaign, against the South that culminated in the surrender of the Republic of Vietnam to PAVN forces on April 30, 1975.


document_title: List of Animal Kingdom episodes

question_text: animal kingdom season 2 when does it start

root

text: List of Animal Kingdom episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
10
June 14, 2016 (2016-06-14)
August 9, 2016 (2016-08-09)

2
13
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
August 29, 2017 (2017-08-29)

tag: table

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Pilot"
John Wells
Teleplay by : Jonathan Lisco
June 14, 2016 (2016-06-14)[a]
296038 / U11.10042
1.31[4]

After his mother, Julia, dies of an overdose, 17-year-old Joshua "J" Cody phones his estranged grandmother, Janine, otherwise known as "Smurf". She invites him to live in her lavish home in Oceanside, California, where J meets his uncles, Craig, Deran and their adopted brother, Barry "Baz" Brown. The Codys are surprised when their unstable eldest brother Pope returns unannounced from serving a six-year sentence for bank robbery. The brothers carry out a smash and grab robbery, accidentally injuring a security guard in the process.

2
2
"We Don't Hurt People"
John Wells
Jonathan Lisco
June 14, 2016 (2016-06-14)
U13.12352
1.10[4]

The security guard, actually a moonlighting cop, dies from his injuries. Smurf creates discord when she makes the boys destroy the valuable watches they stole and tie up some loose ends.

3
3
"Stay Close, Stick Together"
Christopher Chulack
Eliza Clark
June 21, 2016 (2016-06-21)
U13.12353
1.18[5]

While Baz helps Craig recover from his gunshot wound, Pope and Deran take J on a side job behind Smurf's back.

4
4
"Dead to Me"
Karen Gaviola
Etan Frankel
June 28, 2016 (2016-06-28)
U13.12354
1.18[6]

With the boys celebrating Pope's birthday, Smurf manipulates them hoping that someone will confess to moonlighting.

5
5
"Flesh Is Weak"
Christopher Chulack
Megan Martin
July 5, 2016 (2016-07-05)
U13.12355
1.39[7]

Deran stays away from home to deal with his demons.

6
6
"Child Care"
Regina King
Etan Frankel
July 12, 2016 (2016-07-12)
U13.12356
1.25[8]

While the Codys plan their next job, Detective Sandra Yates puts more pressure on J's teacher Alexa to get more information about the family's illicit dealings. Craig faces the consequences of his actions with Ren.

7
7
"Goddamn Animals"
Tim Southam
Eliza Clark
July 19, 2016 (2016-07-19)
U13.12357
1.22[9]

The boys throw a party while Smurf takes a secret trip to get some closure on her past.

8
8
"Man In"
Larry Teng
Megan Martin
July 26, 2016 (2016-07-26)
U13.12358
1.23[10]

The Codys plan their biggest heist yet: to rob a shipment of cash passing through Camp Pendleton. Meanwhile, though Catherine has refused to help Detective Yates take down the family, she packs a bag for herself and Lena. Nicky tells J that she slept with Craig, which pushes J over the edge.

9
9
"Judas Kiss"
Christopher Chulack
John Wells
August 2, 2016 (2016-08-02)
U13.12359
1.32[11]

Pope, Baz, Craig, and Deran enter the base ostensibly to play paintball, but sneak off. Following Baz's plan, they switch a portion of the stored cash with fake bills, and stash what they have stolen in waste barrels to be transported off base. Meanwhile, Jay has agreed to talk to an aggressive Detective Yates, but is hesitant to implicate the rest of the family. Catherine steals money from a suspicious Smurf, who sends Pope to confront her. Realizing she is in danger, Catherine tries to seduce Pope, but he smothers her and then buries her body.

10
10
"What Have You Done?"
John Wells
Jonathan Lisco
August 9, 2016 (2016-08-09)
U13.12360
1.51[12]

While Pope and Smurf try to keep Baz from figuring out the truth about Catherine, the money from their Camp Pendleton heist comes through. But there are bigger problems within the Cody Gang.

text: Jump up ^ The pilot episode was released online on June 1, 2016[3] and shown on TNT after a basketball playoff game.

tag: ol

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

11
1
"Eat What You Kill"
Christopher Chulack
Jonathan Lisco
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
U13.12551
1.19[13]

A risky job goes wrong, the boys blame Smurf, and she is sidelined for all future jobs. Baz is still investigating the loss of Cath.

12
2
"Karma"
Thomas Carter
Eliza Clark
June 6, 2017 (2017-06-06)
U13.12552
1.05[14]

Craig has a house fire, the boys case a church and Smurf is coming to terms with being cut out by her sons.

13
3
"Bleed for It"
J. Michael Muro
Megan Martin
June 13, 2017 (2017-06-13)
U13.12553
0.96[15]

Deran interviews a new bartender while Craig hits on her. Craig later suggests that Deran bribe the inspector in order to get his liquor license. He wisely does not take the advice. Smurf and J go to the desert for a funeral and rob a diner on the way home. Pope goes to bible study at the church that the boys are planning to rob. Baz goes to Mexico to get supplies for the church heist.

14
4
"Broken Boards"
Emmy Rossum
Etan Frankel
June 20, 2017 (2017-06-20)
U13.12554
1.13[16]

Smurf teaches J the economic side of the family business. Smurf undermines Baz by changing the codes on the family storage spaces and tries to convince him that he can't keep the boys in line. Baz gets the boys together to boost morale by jumping off an eight story crane. Deran has opening night at his new bar.

15
5
"Forgive Us Our Trespasses"
Laura Innes
T.J. Brady & Rasheed Newson
June 27, 2017 (2017-06-27)
U13.12555
1.17[17]

16
6
"Cry Havoc"
Larry Teng
Jonathan Lisco
July 11, 2017 (2017-07-11)
U13.12556
1.17[18]

17
7
"Dig"
David Rodriguez
Eliza Clark
July 18, 2017 (2017-07-18)
U13.12557
1.27[19]

18
8
"Grace"
Cherie Nowlan
Megan Martin
July 25, 2017 (2017-07-25)
U13.12558
1.10[20]

19
9
"Custody"
Gary Goldman
Etan Frankel
August 1, 2017 (2017-08-01)
U13.12559
1.21[21]

20
10
"Treasure"
Josef Wladyka
T.J. Brady & Rasheed Newson
August 8, 2017 (2017-08-08)
U13.12560
1.20[22]

21
11
"The Leopard"
Michael Morris
Eliza Clark
August 15, 2017 (2017-08-15)
U13.12561
1.16[23]

22
12
"You Will Be Gutted"
Larry Teng
Jonathan Lisco
August 22, 2017 (2017-08-22)
U13.12562
1.22[24]

23
13
"Betrayal"
John Wells
John Wells
August 29, 2017 (2017-08-29)
U13.12563
1.41[25]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)

1
"Pilot"
June 14, 2016
0.4
1.31[4]

2
"We Don't Hurt People"
June 14, 2016
0.4
1.10[4]

3
"Stay Close, Stuck Together"
June 21, 2016
0.4
1.18[5]

4
"Dead to Me"
June 28, 2016
0.4
1.18[6]

5
"Flesh Is Weak"
July 5, 2016
0.5
1.39[7]

6
"Child Care"
July 12, 2016
0.4
1.25[8]

7
"Goddamn Animals"
July 19, 2016
0.4
1.22[9]

8
"Man In"
July 26, 2016
0.4
1.23[10]

9
"Judas Kiss"
August 2, 2016
0.4
1.32[11]

10
"What Have You Done?"
August 9, 2016
0.5
1.51[12]

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Eat What You Kill"
May 30, 2017
0.4
1.19[13]
0.5
1.20
0.9
2.39[26]

2
"Karma"
June 6, 2017
0.4
1.05[14]
0.4
1.16
0.8
2.21[27]

3
"Bleed for It"
June 13, 2017
0.3
0.96[15]
0.5
1.29
0.8
2.25[28]

4
"Broken Boards"
June 20, 2017
0.3
1.13[16]
0.5
1.25
0.8
2.38[29]

5
"Forgive Us Our Trespasses"
June 27, 2017
0.4
1.17[17]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

6
"Cry Havoc"
July 11, 2017
0.4
1.17[18]
0.3
1.16
0.7
2.33[30]

7
"Dig"
July 18, 2017
0.4
1.27[19]
0.5
1.30
0.9
2.57[31]

8
"Grace"
July 25, 2017
0.4
1.10[20]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

9
"Custody"
August 1, 2017
0.4
1.21[21]
0.4
1.31
0.8
2.52[32]

10
"Treasure"
August 8, 2017
0.4
1.20[22]
0.5
1.21
0.8
2.42[33]

11
"The Leopard"
August 15, 2017
0.4
1.16[23]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

12
"You Will Be Gutted"
August 22, 2017
0.4
1.22[24]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

13
"Betrayal"
August 29, 2017
0.4
1.41[25]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD


question_text: when was life liberty and the pursuit of happiness written

text: Origin and phrasing[edit]

text: The United States Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, and then edited by the Committee of Five, which consisted of Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. It was then further edited and adopted by the Committee of the Whole of the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.[2][3] The second paragraph of the first article in the Declaration of Independence contains the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness".

tag: p

text: Jefferson's "original Rough draught" is on exhibit in the Library of Congress.[4] This version was used by Julian Boyd to create a transcript of Jefferson's draft,[5] which reads:

text: We hold these truths to be sacred & undeniable; that all men are created equal & independent, that from that equal creation they derive rights inherent & inalienable, among which are the preservation of life, & liberty, & the pursuit of happiness; ...

text: The Committee of Five edited Jefferson's draft. Their version survived further edits by the whole Congress intact, and reads:[6]

text: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. ——

text: A number of possible sources or inspirations for Jefferson's use of the phrase in the Declaration of Independence have been identified, although scholars debate the extent to which any one of them actually influenced Jefferson. Jefferson declared himself an Epicurean during his lifetime: this is a philosophical doctrine that teaches the pursuit of happiness and proposes autarchy, which translates as self-rule, self-sufficiency or freedom. The greatest disagreement comes between those who suggest the phrase was drawn from John Locke and those who identify some other source.[citation needed]

text: Meaning of "happiness"[edit]

text: There is debate about what the word "happiness" may have meant in 1776. Current usage focuses on pleasant, positive emotions and having needs satisfied,[7][8] whereas in 1776 the common meaning may have been "prosperity, thriving, wellbeing".[9][10]

text: Lockean roots hypothesis[edit]

text: In 1689, Locke argued in his Two Treatises of Government that political society existed for the sake of protecting "property", which he defined as a person's "life, liberty, and estate".[11] In A Letter Concerning Toleration, he wrote that the magistrate's power was limited to preserving a person's "civil interest", which he described as "life, liberty, health, and indolency of body; and the possession of outward things".[12] He declared in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding that "the highest perfection of intellectual nature lies in a careful and constant pursuit of true and solid happiness".[13]

text: According to those scholars who saw the root of Jefferson's thought in Locke's doctrine, Jefferson replaced "estate" with "the pursuit of happiness", although this does not mean that Jefferson meant the "pursuit of happiness" to refer primarily or exclusively to property. Under such an assumption, the Declaration of Independence would declare that government existed primarily for the reasons Locke gave, and some have extended that line of thinking to support a conception of limited government.[14][15][16][17][18]

text: Virginia Declaration of Rights[edit]

text: The first and second article of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason and adopted unanimously by the Virginia Convention of Delegates on June 12, 1776, speaks of happiness in the context of recognizably Lockean rights and is paradigmatic of the way in which "the fundamental natural rights of mankind" were expressed at the time.[19][20]

text: That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.

text: Benjamin Franklin was in agreement with Thomas Jefferson in downplaying protection of "property" as a goal of government. It is noted that Franklin found property to be a "creature of society" and thus, he believed that it should be taxed as a way to finance civil society.[22]

text: Alternative hypotheses[edit]

text: In 1628, Sir Edward Coke wrote in The First Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England, his commentary on Thomas de Littleton, that "It is commonly said that three things be favoured in Law, Life, Liberty, Dower."[23] At common law, dower was closely guarded as a means by which the widow and orphan of a deceased landowner could keep their real property.[24]

text: Garry Wills has argued that Jefferson did not take the phrase from Locke and that it was indeed meant to be a standard by which governments should be judged.[25] Wills suggests Adam Ferguson as a good guide to what Jefferson had in mind:

text: If, in reality, courage and a heart devoted to the good of mankind are the constituents of human felicity, the kindness which is done infers a happiness in the person from whom it proceeds, not in him on whom it is bestowed; and the greatest good which men possessed of fortitude and generosity can procure to their fellow creatures is a participation of this happy character. If this be the good of the individual, it is likewise that of mankind; and virtue no longer imposes a task by which we are obliged to bestow upon others that good from which we ourselves refrain; but supposes, in the highest degree, as possessed by ourselves, that state of felicity which we are required to promote in the world.

text: The 17th-century cleric and philosopher Richard Cumberland wrote that promoting the well-being of our fellow humans is essential to the "pursuit of our own happiness".[27] Locke never associated natural rights with happiness, but his philosophical opponent Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz made such an association in the introduction to his Codex Iuris Gentium.[28] William Wollaston's The Religion of Nature Delineated describes the "truest definition" of "natural religion" as being "The pursuit of happiness by the practice of reason and truth".[29] An English translation of Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui's Principles of Natural and Politic Law prepared in 1763 extolled the "noble pursuit" of "true and solid happiness" in the opening chapter discussing natural rights.[30] Historian Jack Rakove posits Burlamaqui as the inspiration for Jefferson's phrase.[31]

text: Comparable mottos worldwide[edit]

text: Other tripartite mottos include "liberté, égalité, fraternité" (liberty, equality, fraternity) in France; "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit" (unity, justice and liberty) in Germany and "peace, order, and good government" in Canada.[32] It is also similar to a line in the Canadian Charter of Rights: "life, liberty, security of the person" (this line was also in the older Canadian Bill of rights, which added "enjoyment of property" to the list).

text: The phrase can also be found in Chapter III, Article 13 of the 1947 Constitution of Japan, and in President Ho Chi Minh's 1945 declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. An alternative phrase "life, liberty, and property", is found in the Declaration of Colonial Rights, a resolution of the First Continental Congress. The Fifth Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution declare that governments cannot deprive any person of "life, liberty, or property" without due process of law. Also, Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads, "Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of person".


document_title: Danish India

question_text: in which place the danish started the trading centre in india

text: Danish India

text: History[edit]

text:
Outline of South Asian history

Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BCE)[show]

Madrasian Culture

Soanian Culture
(500,000–250,000 BCE)

Neolithic (10,800–3300 BCE)[show]

Bhirrana Culture
(7570–6200 BCE)

Mehrgarh Culture
(7000–3300 BCE)

Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BCE)[show]

Jorwe Culture
(3500–2000 BCE)

Ahar-Banas Culture
(3000–1500 BCE)

Pandu Culture
(1600–1500 BCE)

Bronze Age (3300–1300 BCE)[show]

Indus Valley Civilisation
(3300–1300 BCE)

 – Early Harappan Culture
(3300–2600 BCE)

 – Mature Harappan Culture
(2600–1900 BCE)

 – Late Harappan Culture
(1900–1300 BCE)

Vedic Civilisation
(2000–500 BCE)

 – Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
(2000–1600 BCE)

 – Swat culture
(1600–500 BCE)

Iron Age (1300–230 BCE)[show]

Vedic Civilisation
(2000–500 BCE)

 – Janapadas
(1500–600 BCE)

 – Black and Red ware culture
(1300–1000 BCE)

 – Painted Grey Ware culture
(1200–600 BCE)

 – Northern Black Polished Ware
(700–200 BCE)

Pradyota Dynasty
(799–684 BCE)

Haryanka Dynasty
(684–424 BCE)

Three Crowned Kingdoms
(c. 600 BCE–1600 CE)

Maha Janapadas
(c. 600–300 BCE)

Achaemenid Empire
(550–330 BCE)

Ror Dynasty
(450 BCE–489 CE)

Shishunaga Dynasty
(424–345 BCE)

Nanda Empire
(380–321 BCE)

Macedonian Empire
(330–323 BCE)

Maurya Empire
(321–184 BCE)

Seleucid India
(312–303 BCE)

Pandya Empire
(c. 300 BCE–1345 CE)

Chera Kingdom
(c. 300 BCE–1102 CE)

Chola Empire
(c. 300 BCE–1279 CE)

Pallava Empire
(c. 250 BCE–800 CE)

Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire
(c. 250 BCE–c. 500 CE)

Parthian Empire
(247 BCE–224 CE)

Middle Kingdoms (230 BCE–1206 CE)[show]

Satavahana Empire
(230 BCE–220 CE)

Kuninda Kingdom
(200 BCE–300 CE)

Mitra Dynasty
(c. 150 BCE–c. 50 BCE)

Shunga Empire
(185–73 BCE)

Indo-Greek Kingdom
(180 BCE–10 CE)

Kanva Empire
(75–26 BCE)

Indo-Scythian Kingdom
(50 BCE–400 CE)

Indo-Parthian Kingdom
(21–c. 130 CE)

Western Satrap Empire
(35–405 CE)

Kushan Empire
(60–240 CE)

Bharshiva Dynasty
(170–350 CE)

Nagas of Padmavati
(210–340)

Sasanian Empire
(224–651)

Indo-Sassanid Kingdom
(230–360)

Vakataka Empire
(c. 250–c. 500)

Kalabhras Empire
(c. 250–c. 600)

Gupta Empire
(280–550)

Kadamba Empire
(345–525)

Western Ganga Kingdom
(350–1000)

Kamarupa Kingdom
(350–1100)

Vishnukundina Empire
(420–624)

Maitraka Empire
(475–767)

Huna Kingdom
(475–576)

Rai Kingdom
(489–632)

Kabul Shahi Empire
(c. 500–1026)

Chalukya Empire
(543–753)

Maukhari Empire
(c. 550–c. 700)

Harsha Empire
(606–647)

Tibetan Empire
(618–841)

Eastern Chalukya Kingdom
(624–1075)

Rashidun Caliphate
(632–661)

Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
(650–1036)

Umayyad Caliphate
(661–750)

Pala Empire
(750–1174)

Rashtrakuta Empire
(753–982)

Paramara Kingdom
(800–1327)

Yadava Empire
(850–1334)

Chaulukya Kingdom
(942–1244)

Western Chalukya Empire
(973–1189)

Lohara Kingdom
(1003–1320)

Hoysala Empire
(1040–1346)

Sena Empire
(1070–1230)

Eastern Ganga Empire
(1078–1434)

Kakatiya Kingdom
(1083–1323)

Karnatas of Mithila
(1097-1325)

Zamorin Kingdom
(1102–1766)

Kalachuris of Tripuri
(675-1210)

Kalachuris of Kalyani
(1156–1184)

Chutiya Kingdom
(1187–1673)

Deva Kingdom
(c. 1200–c. 1300)

Late Medieval Period (1206–1600 CE)[show]

Delhi Sultanate
(1206–1526 CE)

 – Mamluk Sultanate
(1206–1290)

 – Khalji Sultanate
(1290–1320)

 – Tughlaq Sultanate
(1320–1414)

 – Sayyid Sultanate
(1414–1451)

 – Lodi Sultanate
(1451–1526)

Ahom Kingdom
(1228–1826)

Chitradurga Kingdom
(1300–1779)

Reddy Kingdom
(1325–1448)

Vijayanagara Empire
(1336–1646)

Bengal Sultanate
(1352–1576)

Garhwal Kingdom
(1358–1803)

Mysore Kingdom
(1399–1947)

Gajapati Kingdom
(1434–1541)

Deccan Sultanates
(1490–1596)

 – Ahmadnagar Sultanate
(1490–1636)

 – Berar Sultanate
(1490–1574)

 – Bidar Sultanate
(1492–1619)

 – Bijapur Sultanate
(1492–1686)

 – Golkonda Sultanate
(1518–1687)

Keladi Kingdom
(1499–1763)

Koch Kingdom
(1515–1947)

Early Modern Period (1526–1858)[show]

Mughal Empire
(1526–1858)

Sur Empire
(1540–1556)

Madurai Kingdom
(1559–1736)

Thanjavur Kingdom
(1572–1918)

Bengal Subah
(1576–1757)

Marava Kingdom
(1600–1750)

Thondaiman Kingdom
(1650–1948)

Maratha Empire
(1674–1818)

Sikh Confederacy
(1707–1799)

Travancore Kingdom
(1729–1947)

Sikh Empire
(1799–1849)

Colonial States (1510–1961)[show]

Portuguese India
(1510–1961)

Dutch India
(1605–1825)

Danish India
(1620–1869)

French India
(1759–1954)

Company Raj
(1757–1858)

British Raj
(1858–1947)

Sri Lankan Kingdoms (544 BCE–1948 CE)[show]

Kingdom of Tambapanni
(543–505 BCE)

Kingdom of Upatissa Nuwara
(505–377 BCE)

Anuradhapura Kingdom
(377 BCE–1017 CE)

Kingdom of Ruhuna
(200 CE)

Kingdom of Polonnaruwa
(300–1310)

Jaffna Kingdom
(1215–1624)

Kingdom of Dambadeniya
(1220–1272)

Kingdom of Yapahuwa
(1272–1293)

Kingdom of Kurunegala
(1293–1341)

Kingdom of Gampola
(1341–1347)

Kingdom of Raigama
(1347–1415)

Kingdom of Kotte
(1412–1597)

Kingdom of Sitawaka
(1521–1594)

Kingdom of Kandy
(1469–1815)

Portuguese Ceylon
(1505–1658)

Dutch Ceylon
(1656–1796)

British Ceylon
(1815–1948)

National histories[show]

Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka

Regional histories[show]

Assam
Balochistan
Bengal
Bihar
Gujarat
Himachal Pradesh
Kabul
Kashmir
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Rajasthan
Maharashtra
Uttar Pradesh
Punjab
Odisha
Sindh
South India
Tamil Nadu
Tibet

Specialised histories[show]

Coinage
Demographics
Dynasties
Economy
Indology
Language
Literature
Maritime
Military
Partition of India
Pakistan studies
Science & Technology
Timeline

v
t
e

text:
Colonial India

Imperial entities of India

Dutch India
1605–1825

Danish India
1620–1869

French India
1668–1954

Portuguese India
(1505–1961)

Casa da Índia
1434–1833

Portuguese East India Company
1628–1633

British India
(1612–1947)

East India Company
1612–1757

Company rule in India
1757–1858

British Raj
1858–1947

British rule in Burma
1824–1948

Princely states
1721–1949

Partition of India

1947

v
t
e

text: The success of Dutch and English traders in the 17th century spice trade was a source of envy among Danish and Norwegian merchants.[6] On March 17, 1616, Christian IV the King of Denmark-Norway, issued a charter creating a Danish East India Company with a monopoly on trade between Denmark-Norway and Asia for 12 years. It would take an additional two years before sufficient capital had been raised to finance the expedition, perhaps due to lack of confidence on the part of Danish investors. It took the arrival of the Dutch merchant and colonial administrator, Marchelis de Boshouwer, in 1618 to provide the impetus for the first voyage. Marcelis arrived as an envoy (or at least claimed to do so) for the emperor of Ceylon, Cenerat Adassin, seeking military assistance against the Portuguese and promising a monopoly on all trade with the island.[citation needed] His appeal had been rejected by his countrymen, but it convinced the Danish King.[7]

text: First expedition (1618–1620)[edit]

text: The first expedition set sail in 1618 under Admiral Ove Gjedde, taking two years to reach Ceylon and losing more than half their crew on the way. Upon arriving in May 1620, they found the emperor no longer desiring any foreign assistance having made a peace agreement with the Portuguese three years earlier. Nor, to the dismay of the Admiral, was the Emperor the sole, or even the "most distinguished king in this land".[8] Failing to get the Dano-Norwegian-Ceylonese trade contract confirmed, the Dano-Norwegians briefly occupied the Koneswaram temple before receiving word from their Trade Director, Robert Crappe.

text: Crappe had sailed on the scouting freighter Øresund one month prior to the main fleet. Øresund had encountered Portuguese vessels off the Karaikkal coast and was sunk, with most of the crew killed, or taken prisoner. The heads of two crew members were placed on spikes on the beach as a warning to the Dano-Norwegians. Crappe and 13 of the crew however had escaped the wreck, making it to shore where they were captured by Indians and taken to the Nayak of Tanjore (now Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu). The Nayak turned out to be interested in trading opportunities and Crappe managed to negotiate a treaty granting them the village of Tranquebar (or Tharangamabadi)[9] and the right to construct a "stone house" (Fort Dansborg) and levy taxes.[10] This was signed on 20 November 1620.

text: Early years (1621–1639)[edit]

text: The early years of the colony were arduous, with poor administration and investment, coupled with the loss of almost two-thirds of all the trading vessels dispatched from Denmark.[11] The ships that did return made a profit on their cargo, but total returns fell well short of the costs of the entire venture.[12] Moreover, the geographical location of the colony was vulnerable to high tidal waves which repeatedly destroyed what people built—roads, houses, administrative buildings, markets, etc.[13] Although the intention had been to create an alternative to the English and Dutch traders, the dire financial state of the company and the redirection of national resources towards the Thirty Years' War led the colony to abandon efforts to trade directly for themselves, and instead to become neutral third party carriers for goods in the Bay of Bengal.

text: By 1625 a factory had been established at Masulipatnam in present-day Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh, the most important emporium in the region, and lesser trading offices were established at Pipli and Balasore. Despite this, by 1627 the colony was in such a poor financial state that it had just three ships left in its possession and was unable to pay the agreed-upon tribute to the Nayak, increasing local tensions. The Danish presence was also unwanted by English and Dutch traders who believed them to be operating under the protection of their navies without bearing any of the costs. Despite this, they could not crush Danish trade, due to diplomatic implications related to their respective nations' involvement in the European wars.[14]

text:
1640 – Danes attempt to sell Fort Danesborg to the Dutch for a second time.
1642 – Danish colony declares war on Mogul Empire and commences raiding ships in the Bay of Bengal. Within a few months they had captured one of the Mogul emperor's vessels, incorporated it into their fleet (renamed Bengali Prize) and sold the goods in Tranquebar for a substantial profit.
1643 – Willem Leyel, designated the new leader of the colony by the company directors in Copenhagen arrives aboard the Christianshavn. Holland and Sweden declare war on Denmark.
1645 – Danish factory holdings fall increasingly under Dutch control. The Nayak sends small bands to raid Tranquebar.
1648 – Christian IV, patron of the colony dies. Danish East India Company bankrupt.

tag: ul

text: Abandonment and isolation (1650–1669)[edit]

text: The lack of financial return led to repeated efforts by the major stockholders of the company to have it dissolved. The King, Christian IV, resisted these efforts until his death in 1648.[15] Two years later his son, Frederick II, abolished the company.[16]

text: Although the company had been abolished, the colony was a royal property, and still held by a garrison unaware of court developments back at home. As the number of Danes declined through desertions and illness, Portuguese and Portuguese-Indian natives where hired to garrison the fort until eventually, by 1655, Eskild Anderson Kongsbakke, was the commander and sole remaining Dane in Tranquebar.

text: An illiterate commoner, Kongsbakke was loyal to his country, and successfully held the fort under a Danish flag against successive sieges by the Nayak for non-payment of tribute, whilst seizing ships in the Bay of Bengal and using the proceeds of the sale of their goods to repair his defenses, build a wall around the town, and negotiate a settlement with the Nayak.

text: Kongsbakke's reports, sent back to Denmark via other European vessels, finally convinced the Danish government to relieve him. The frigate Færø was dispatched to India, commanded by Capt Sivardt Adelaer, with an official confirmation of his appointment as colony leader. It arrives May 1669 ending 29 years of isolation.

text: The Second Danish East India Company (1670–1772)[edit]

text: Trade between Denmark and Tranquebar now resumed, a new Danish East India Company was formed, and several new commercial outposts where established, governed from Tranquebar: Oddeway Torre on the Malabar coast in 1696, and Dannemarksnagore at Gondalpara, southeast of Chandernagore in 1698. The settlement with the Nayak was confirmed and Tranquebar was permitted to expand to include three surrounding villages.

text:
9 June 1706 – Frederick IV, king of Denmark-Norway sends two Danish missionaries land in India, Heinrich Plütcshau and Bartholomeus Ziegenbalg – the first Protestant (Lutheran) missionaries in India. Previously priests had not attempted to convert and Indians denied entry to European churches. Arriving in 1707, they were not welcomed by their countrymen who suspected them of being spies.[17]
Ziegenbalg gains converts from among Indian who, by royal decree, are freed to encourage Christianisation amongst Indians. Christianity becomes associated with lower caste people, and rejected by upper caste Hindus. This unverified story is essential to propagate deception and central part of inculturation of native people into christianity.
Tensions arise between Ziegenbalg, who came under the authority of the King, and the local governor, John Sigismund Hassius who eventually felt Ziegenbalg was undermining Tranquebar's slave trade and jailed him for 4 months.
Ziegenbalg attempts to learn as much as possible of the language of the inhabitants of Tranquebar, hiring tutors to learn Portuguese and Tamil, and buying Hindu texts and finds out ways to create rifts in the local society in cohesion with few new converts of christianity. He eventually writes the first Tamil glossary, Tamil-German dictionary and translations of Hindu books. He also translates parts of the Bible into Tamil. He complete the New Testament in prison, and the Old Testament later. Receiving funds from Europe he sets up a printing press and prints Tamil Bibles and books. He became the first book printer in India, also producing paper. He also established a seminary for Indian priests in Tranquebar before his death in Tranquebar 1719.
This mission leads to missionaries spreading outside the colony, despite opposition from the kings of Tranquebar. The mission succeeds in creating schims and rifts in the local society and local population falls into deception, thus succeeding in the quest for inculturation.
1729 – Danish King forces Danish East India Company to loan him money. His failure to repay the loan, and inconsistency of Indian trade forces the company into liquidation.

text: Trade Stabilizes under Danish Asiatic Company (1732–1772)[edit]

text:
12 April 1732 – King Christian VI signs charter of new Asiatic Company with 40 year monopoly on Asian trade with India and China. Both previous companies had failed due to the lack of continuity in trade. This time the intention of the investors was "to place this Asiatic Trade in Our Realms and Territories on a more constant footing in time to come."[18]
1730s—Denmarks Chinese and Indian trade stabilizes, with cargoes from India dominated by cotton fabrics from the Coromandel Coast and Bengal.
1752 – 1791 Calicut.
November 1754 – Meeting of Danish officials in Tranquebar. Decision made to colonise the Andaman and Nicobar Islands for the purpose of planting pepper, cinnamon, sugarcane, coffee and cotton.
December 1755 – Danish settlers arrive on Andaman Islands. Colony experiences outbreaks of Malaria that saw the settlement abandoned periodically until 1848, when it was abandoned for good. This sporadic occupation led to encroachments of other colonial powers onto the islands including Austria and Britain.[19]
October 1755 Frederiksnagore in Serampore, in present-day West Bengal.
1 January 1756 – The Nicobar Islands declared Danish property under the name Frederiksøerne (Frederick's Islands)
1756-1760 - All colonisation efforts on the islands fail with settlers wiped out by malaria, and the Danish claims to the islands were later sold to the British.
1763 Balasore (already occupied 1636–1643).

text: The Golden Age of Danish India (1772–1807)[edit]

text:
Danish trade grew substantially during these decades due to three key factors

The loss of the Danish Asiatic Company's monopoly on trade with India in 1772, opening up the trade to all Danish merchants. Administration of Tranquebar, Serampore, and factories in Bengal and along the Malabar Coast was taken over by the Crown in 1777. This freed the Company from the colonial expenses, but did not change the conditions of trade with India leaving it in a better financial position.
The growth in both international trade AND the increase in wars between the trading nations of England, France and Holland. This meant that during these wars, trade from the warring nations would be carried by neutral nations like Denmark to avoid seizure by the warring parties.
The expansion of the British East India Company in India, particularly after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. After this victory many employees of the company acquired vast private fortunes at the expense of the company itself. Both the Company and the British Government made considerable effort to prevent these fortunes from being transported back to England on British vessels, leading to massive laundering through French, Dutch and Danish competitors. This injected enormous amounts of capital into Danish trade during the 1770s. The value of the trade however, remained extremely volatile.

1799, dispute between Denmark and Britain over the rights of a neutral nation to carry out trade with foreign colonies to which it did not normally have access during peacetime. Essentially, Britain was trying to prevent Denmark from carrying out the trade of countries with which Britain was at war. At the time Denmark was able to make exorbitant profits from fetching colonial products from French and Dutch possessions in the Indian Ocean and discharging them into the European market through Copenhagen.
In 1777, it was turned over to the government by the chartered company and became a Danish crown colony.
In 1789, the Andaman Islands became a British possession.

text: Napoleonic Wars and decline[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: During the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway practiced a policy of armed neutrality whilst carrying French and Dutch goods from the Dutch East Indies to Copenhagen. This led to the English Wars during which Britain destroyed the Danish fleet, devastated the Danish East India Company's India trade, and occupied Dansborg and Frederiksnagore from 1801 to 1802, and again, from 1808 to 1815.

text: The Danish colonies went into decline, and the British ultimately took possession of them, making them part of British India: Serampore was sold to the British in 1839, and Tranquebar and most minor settlements in 1845 (11 October 1845 Frederiksnagore sold; 7 November 1845 other continental Danish India settlements sold); on 16 October 1868 all Danish rights to the Nicobar Islands, which since 1848 had been gradually abandoned, were sold to Britain.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: After the Danish colony of Tranquebar was ceded to the British it subsequently lost its special trading status and had its administrative roles transferred to Nagapattinam. The town rapidly dwindled in importance,[20] although the expansion of the British into South India led to Tranquebar becoming a hub for missionary activity for some time, and a place particularly known for training native priests. By the end of the nineteenth century, the mission established by Ziegenbalg was functioning entirely independently and lives on today as the Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church.

text: Now primarily a fishing village, the legacy of the Dano-Norwegian colonial presence is entirely local, but can be seen in the architecture of the small town that lies within the boundares of the old (and long gone) city walls.[21] In fact, journalist Sam Miller describes the town as the most recognisably European of the former colonial settlements.[22]

text: Although only a handful of colonial buildings can be definitely dated to the Danish era, many of the town's residential buildings are in classical styles that would not be dissimilar to those of the era, and which contribute to the historic atmosphere. The remaining Danish buildings include a gateway inscribed with a Danish Royal Seal, a number of colonial bungalows, two churches and principally – the Dansborg Fort, constructed in 1620. The Dansburg Fort was declared a protected monument by the Government of Tamil Nadu in 1977 and now houses a museum dedicated to the Danes in India.

text: There are no known descendants of the Danish settlers in or around the town. Since 2001, Danes have been active in mobilising volunteers and government agencies to both purchase and restore Danish colonial buildings in Tranquebar. St. Olav's Church, Serampore still stands.