document_title: Food web

question_text: where are producers located on the food chain

text: Food web

text: Taxonomy of a food web[edit]

text: Food webs are the road-maps through Darwin's famous 'entangled bank' and have a long history in ecology. Like maps of unfamiliar ground, food webs appear bewilderingly complex. They were often published to make just that point. Yet recent studies have shown that food webs from a wide range of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine communities share a remarkable list of patterns.[3]:669

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text: Links in food webs map the feeding connections (who eats whom) in an ecological community. Food cycle is an obsolete term that is synonymous with food web. Ecologists can broadly group all life forms into one of two trophic layers, the autotrophs and the heterotrophs. Autotrophs produce more biomass energy, either chemically without the sun's energy or by capturing the sun's energy in photosynthesis, than they use during metabolic respiration. Heterotrophs consume rather than produce biomass energy as they metabolize, grow, and add to levels of secondary production. A food web depicts a collection of polyphagous heterotrophic consumers that network and cycle the flow of energy and nutrients from a productive base of self-feeding autotrophs.[3][4][5]

text: The base or basal species in a food web are those species without prey and can include autotrophs or saprophytic detritivores (i.e., the community of decomposers in soil, biofilms, and periphyton). Feeding connections in the web are called trophic links. The number of trophic links per consumer is a measure of food web connectance. Food chains are nested within the trophic links of food webs. Food chains are linear (noncyclic) feeding pathways that trace monophagous consumers from a base species up to the top consumer, which is usually a larger predatory carnivore.[6][7][8]

text: Linkages connect to nodes in a food web, which are aggregates of biological taxa called trophic species. Trophic species are functional groups that have the same predators and prey in a food web. Common examples of an aggregated node in a food web might include parasites, microbes, decomposers, saprotrophs, consumers, or predators, each containing many species in a web that can otherwise be connected to other trophic species.[9][10]

text: Trophic levels[edit]

text: Food webs have trophic levels and positions. Basal species, such as plants, form the first level and are the resource limited species that feed on no other living creature in the web. Basal species can be autotrophs or detritivores, including "decomposing organic material and its associated microorganisms which we defined as detritus, micro-inorganic material and associated microorganisms (MIP), and vascular plant material."[11]:94 Most autotrophs capture the sun's energy in chlorophyll, but some autotrophs (the chemolithotrophs) obtain energy by the chemical oxidation of inorganic compounds and can grow in dark environments, such as the sulfur bacterium Thiobacillus, which lives in hot sulfur springs. The top level has top (or apex) predators which no other species kills directly for its food resource needs. The intermediate levels are filled with omnivores that feed on more than one trophic level and cause energy to flow through a number of food pathways starting from a basal species.[12]

text: In the simplest scheme, the first trophic level (level 1) is plants, then herbivores (level 2), and then carnivores (level 3). The trophic level is equal to one more than the chain length, which is the number of links connecting to the base. The base of the food chain (primary producers or detritivores) is set at zero.[3][13] Ecologists identify feeding relations and organize species into trophic species through extensive gut content analysis of different species. The technique has been improved through the use of stable isotopes to better trace energy flow through the web.[14] It was once thought that omnivory was rare, but recent evidence suggests otherwise. This realization has made trophic classifications more complex.[15]

text: Trophic dynamics[edit]

text: The trophic level concept was introduced in a historical landmark paper on trophic dynamics in 1942 by Raymond L. Lindeman. The basis of trophic dynamics is the transfer of energy from one part of the ecosystem to another.[13][16] The trophic dynamic concept has served as a useful quantitative heuristic, but it has several major limitations including the precision by which an organism can be allocated to a specific trophic level. Omnivores, for example, are not restricted to any single level. Nonetheless, recent research has found that discrete trophic levels do exist, but "above the herbivore trophic level, food webs are better characterized as a tangled web of omnivores."[15]

text: A central question in the trophic dynamic literature is the nature of control and regulation over resources and production. Ecologists use simplified one trophic position food chain models (producer, carnivore, decomposer). Using these models, ecologists have tested various types of ecological control mechanisms. For example, herbivores generally have an abundance of vegetative resources, which meant that their populations were largely controlled or regulated by predators. This is known as the top-down hypothesis or 'green-world' hypothesis. Alternatively to the top-down hypothesis, not all plant material is edible and the nutritional quality or antiherbivore defenses of plants (structural and chemical) suggests a bottom-up form of regulation or control.[17][18][19] Recent studies have concluded that both "top-down" and "bottom-up" forces can influence community structure and the strength of the influence is environmentally context dependent.[20][21] These complex multitrophic interactions involve more than two trophic levels in a food web.[22]

text: Another example of a multi-trophic interaction is a trophic cascade, in which predators help to increase plant growth and prevent overgrazing by suppressing herbivores. Links in a food-web illustrate direct trophic relations among species, but there are also indirect effects that can alter the abundance, distribution, or biomass in the trophic levels. For example, predators eating herbivores indirectly influence the control and regulation of primary production in plants. Although the predators do not eat the plants directly, they regulate the population of herbivores that are directly linked to plant trophism. The net effect of direct and indirect relations is called trophic cascades. Trophic cascades are separated into species-level cascades, where only a subset of the food-web dynamic is impacted by a change in population numbers, and community-level cascades, where a change in population numbers has a dramatic effect on the entire food-web, such as the distribution of plant biomass.[23]

text: Energy flow and biomass[edit]

text: The Law of Conservation of Mass dates from Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 discovery that mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions. In other words, the mass of any one element at the beginning of a reaction will equal the mass of that element at the end of the reaction.[24]:11

text: Food webs depict energy flow via trophic linkages. Energy flow is directional, which contrasts against the cyclic flows of material through the food web systems.[26] Energy flow "typically includes production, consumption, assimilation, non-assimilation losses (feces), and respiration (maintenance costs)."[5]:5 In a very general sense, energy flow (E) can be defined as the sum of metabolic production (P) and respiration (R), such that E=P+R.

text: Biomass represents stored energy. However, concentration and quality of nutrients and energy is variable. Many plant fibers, for example, are indigestible to many herbivores leaving grazer community food webs more nutrient limited than detrital food webs where bacteria are able to access and release the nutrient and energy stores.[27][28] "Organisms usually extract energy in the form of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. These polymers have a dual role as supplies of energy as well as building blocks; the part that functions as energy supply results in the production of nutrients (and carbon dioxide, water, and heat). Excretion of nutrients is, therefore, basic to metabolism."[28]:1230–1231 The units in energy flow webs are typically a measure mass or energy per m2 per unit time. Different consumers are going to have different metabolic assimilation efficiencies in their diets. Each trophic level transforms energy into biomass. Energy flow diagrams illustrate the rates and efficiency of transfer from one trophic level into another and up through the hierarchy.[29][30]

text: It is the case that the biomass of each trophic level decreases from the base of the chain to the top. This is because energy is lost to the environment with each transfer as entropy increases. About eighty to ninety percent of the energy is expended for the organism’s life processes or is lost as heat or waste. Only about ten to twenty percent of the organism’s energy is generally passed to the next organism.[31] The amount can be less than one percent in animals consuming less digestible plants, and it can be as high as forty percent in zooplankton consuming phytoplankton.[32] Graphic representations of the biomass or productivity at each tropic level are called ecological pyramids or trophic pyramids. The transfer of energy from primary producers to top consumers can also be characterized by energy flow diagrams.[33]

text: Food chain[edit]

text: A common metric used to quantify food web trophic structure is food chain length. Food chain length is another way of describing food webs as a measure of the number of species encountered as energy or nutrients move from the plants to top predators.[34]:269 There are different ways of calculating food chain length depending on what parameters of the food web dynamic are being considered: connectance, energy, or interaction.[34] In its simplest form, the length of a chain is the number of links between a trophic consumer and the base of the web. The mean chain length of an entire web is the arithmetic average of the lengths of all chains in a food web.[35][12]

text: In a simple predator-prey example, a deer is one step removed from the plants it eats (chain length = 1) and a wolf that eats the deer is two steps removed from the plants (chain length = 2). The relative amount or strength of influence that these parameters have on the food web address questions about:

text:
the identity or existence of a few dominant species (called strong interactors or keystone species)
the total number of species and food-chain length (including many weak interactors) and
how community structure, function and stability is determined.[36][37]

text: Ecological pyramids[edit]

text: In a pyramid of numbers, the number of consumers at each level decreases significantly, so that a single top consumer, (e.g., a polar bear or a human), will be supported by a much larger number of separate producers. There is usually a maximum of four or five links in a food chain, although food chains in aquatic ecosystems are more often longer than those on land. Eventually, all the energy in a food chain is dispersed as heat.[4]

text: Ecological pyramids place the primary producers at the base. They can depict different numerical properties of ecosystems, including numbers of individuals per unit of area, biomass (g/m2), and energy (k cal m−2 yr−1). The emergent pyramidal arrangement of trophic levels with amounts of energy transfer decreasing as species become further removed from the source of production is one of several patterns that is repeated amongst the planets ecosystems.[2]\[3][38] The size of each level in the pyramid generally represents biomass, which can be measured as the dry weight of an organism.[39] Autotrophs may have the highest global proportion of biomass, but they are closely rivaled or surpassed by microbes.[40][41]

text: Pyramid structure can vary across ecosystems and across time. In some instances biomass pyramids can be inverted. This pattern is often identified in aquatic and coral reef ecosystems. The pattern of biomass inversion is attributed to different sizes of producers. Aquatic communities are often dominated by producers that are smaller than the consumers that have high growth rates. Aquatic producers, such as planktonic algae or aquatic plants, lack the large accumulation of secondary growth as exists in the woody trees of terrestrial ecosystems. However, they are able to reproduce quickly enough to support a larger biomass of grazers. This inverts the pyramid. Primary consumers have longer lifespans and slower growth rates that accumulates more biomass than the producers they consume. Phytoplankton live just a few days, whereas the zooplankton eating the phytoplankton live for several weeks and the fish eating the zooplankton live for several consecutive years.[42] Aquatic predators also tend to have a lower death rate than the smaller consumers, which contributes to the inverted pyramidal pattern. Population structure, migration rates, and environmental refuge for prey are other possible causes for pyramids with biomass inverted. Energy pyramids, however, will always have an upright pyramid shape if all sources of food energy are included and this is dictated by the second law of thermodynamics.[4][43]

text: Material flux and recycling[edit]

text: Many of the Earth's elements and minerals (or mineral nutrients) are contained within the tissues and diets of organisms. Hence, mineral and nutrient cycles trace food web energy pathways. Ecologists employ stoichiometry to analyze the ratios of the main elements found in all organisms: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P). There is a large transitional difference between many terrestrial and aquatic systems as C:P and C:N ratios are much higher in terrestrial systems while N:P ratios are equal between the two systems.[44][45][46] Mineral nutrients are the material resources that organisms need for growth, development, and vitality. Food webs depict the pathways of mineral nutrient cycling as they flow through organisms.[4][16] Most of the primary production in an ecosystem is not consumed, but is recycled by detritus back into useful nutrients.[47] Many of the Earth's microorganisms are involved in the formation of minerals in a process called biomineralization.[48][49][50] Bacteria that live in detrital sediments create and cycle nutrients and biominerals.[51] Food web models and nutrient cycles have traditionally been treated separately, but there is a strong functional connection between the two in terms of stability, flux, sources, sinks, and recycling of mineral nutrients.[52][53]

text: Kinds of food webs[edit]

text: Food webs are necessarily aggregated and only illustrate a tiny portion of the complexity of real ecosystems. For example, the number of species on the planet are likely in the general order of 107, over 95% of these species consist of microbes and invertebrates, and relatively few have been named or classified by taxonomists.[54][55][56] It is explicitly understood that natural systems are 'sloppy' and that food web trophic positions simplify the complexity of real systems that sometimes overemphasize many rare interactions. Most studies focus on the larger influences where the bulk of energy transfer occurs.[17] "These omissions and problems are causes for concern, but on present evidence do not present insurmountable difficulties."[3]:669

text: There are different kinds or categories of food webs:

text:
Source web - one or more node(s), all of their predators, all the food these predators eat, and so on.
Sink web - one or more node(s), all of their prey, all the food that these prey eat, and so on.
Community (or connectedness) web - a group of nodes and all the connections of who eats whom.
Energy flow web - quantified fluxes of energy between nodes along links between a resource and a consumer.[3][39]
Paleoecological web - a web that reconstructs ecosystems from the fossil record.[57]
Functional web - emphasizes the functional significance of certain connections having strong interaction strength and greater bearing on community organization, more so than energy flow pathways. Functional webs have compartments, which are sub-groups in the larger network where there are different densities and strengths of interaction.[37][58] Functional webs emphasize that "the importance of each population in maintaining the integrity of a community is reflected in its influence on the growth rates of other populations."[39]:511

text: Within these categories, food webs can be further organized according to the different kinds of ecosystems being investigated. For example, human food webs, agricultural food webs, detrital food webs, marine food webs, aquatic food webs, soil food webs, Arctic (or polar) food webs, terrestrial food webs, and microbial food webs. These characterizations stem from the ecosystem concept, which assumes that the phenomena under investigation (interactions and feedback loops) are sufficient to explain patterns within boundaries, such as the edge of a forest, an island, a shoreline, or some other pronounced physical characteristic.[59][60][61]

text: Detrital web[edit]

text: In a detrital web, plant and animal matter is broken down by decomposers, e.g., bacteria and fungi, and moves to detritivores and then carnivores.[62] There are often relationships between the detrital web and the grazing web. Mushrooms produced by decomposers in the detrital web become a food source for deer, squirrels, and mice in the grazing web. Earthworms eaten by robins are detritivores consuming decaying leaves.[63]

text: "Detritus can be broadly defined as any form of non-living organic matter, including different types of plant tissue (e.g. leaf litter, dead wood, aquatic macrophytes, algae), animal tissue (carrion), dead microbes, faeces (manure, dung, faecal pellets, guano, frass), as well as products secreted, excreted or exuded from organisms (e.g. extra-cellular polymers, nectar, root exudates and leachates, dissolved organic matter, extra-cellular matrix, mucilage). The relative importance of these forms of detritus, in terms of origin, size and chemical composition, varies across ecosystems."[47]:585

text: Quantitative food webs[edit]

text: Ecologists collect data on trophic levels and food webs to statistically model and mathematically calculate parameters, such as those used in other kinds of network analysis (e.g., graph theory), to study emergent patterns and properties shared among ecosystems. There are different ecological dimensions that can be mapped to create more complicated food webs, including: species composition (type of species), richness (number of species), biomass (the dry weight of plants and animals), productivity (rates of conversion of energy and nutrients into growth), and stability (food webs over time). A food web diagram illustrating species composition shows how change in a single species can directly and indirectly influence many others. Microcosm studies are used to simplify food web research into semi-isolated units such as small springs, decaying logs, and laboratory experiments using organisms that reproduce quickly, such as daphnia feeding on algae grown under controlled environments in jars of water.[36][64]

text: While the complexity of real food webs connections are difficult to decipher, ecologists have found mathematical models on networks an invaluable tool for gaining insight into the structure, stability, and laws of food web behaviours relative to observable outcomes. "Food web theory centers around the idea of connectance."[65]:1648 Quantitative formulas simplify the complexity of food web structure. The number of trophic links (tL), for example, is converted into a connectance value:

text: where, S(S-1)/2 is the maximum number of binary connections among S species.[65] "Connectance (C) is the fraction of all possible links that are realized (L/S2) and represents a standard measure of food web complexity..."[66]:12913 The distance (d) between every species pair in a web is averaged to compute the mean distance between all nodes in a web (D)[66] and multiplied by the total number of links (L) to obtain link-density (LD), which is influenced by scale dependent variables such as species richness. These formulas are the basis for comparing and investigating the nature of non-random patterns in the structure of food web networks among many different types of ecosystems.[66][67]

text: Scaling laws, complexity, choas, and patterned correlates are common features attributed to food web structure.[68][69]

text: Complexity and stability[edit]

text: Food webs are complex. Complexity is a measure of an increasing number of permutations and it is also a metaphorical term that conveys the mental intractability or limits concerning unlimited algorithmic possibilities. In food web terminology, complexity is a product of the number of species and connectance.[70][71][72] Connectance is "the fraction of all possible links that are realized in a network".[73]:12917 These concepts were derived and stimulated through the suggestion that complexity leads to stability in food webs, such as increasing the number of trophic levels in more species rich ecosystems. This hypothesis was challenged through mathematical models suggesting otherwise, but subsequent studies have shown that the premise holds in real systems.[70][74]

text: At different levels in the hierarchy of life, such as the stability of a food web, "the same overall structure is maintained in spite of an ongoing flow and change of components."[75]:476 The farther a living system (e.g., ecosystem) sways from equilibrium, the greater its complexity.[75] Complexity has multiple meanings in the life sciences and in the public sphere that confuse its application as a precise term for analytical purposes in science.[72][76] Complexity in the life sciences (or biocomplexity) is defined by the "properties emerging from the interplay of behavioral, biological, physical, and social interactions that affect, sustain, or are modified by living organisms, including humans".[77]:1018

text: Several concepts have emerged from the study of complexity in food webs. Complexity explains many principals pertaining to self-organization, non-linearity, interaction, cybernetic feedback, discontinuity, emergence, and stability in food webs. Nestedness, for example, is defined as "a pattern of interaction in which specialists interact with species that form perfect subsets of the species with which generalists interact",[78]:575 "—that is, the diet of the most specialized species is a subset of the diet of the next more generalized species, and its diet a subset of the next more generalized, and so on."[79] Until recently, it was thought that food webs had little nested structure, but empirical evidence shows that many published webs have nested subwebs in their assembly.[80]

text: Food webs are complex networks. As networks, they exhibit similar structural properties and mathematical laws that have been used to describe other complex systems, such as small world and scale free properties. The small world attribute refers to the many loosely connected nodes, non-random dense clustering of a few nodes (i.e., trophic or keystone species in ecology), and small path length compared to a regular lattice.[73][81] "Ecological networks, especially mutualistic networks, are generally very heterogeneous, consisting of areas with sparse links among species and distinct areas of tightly linked species. These regions of high link density are often referred to as cliques, hubs, compartments, cohesive sub-groups, or modules...Within food webs, especially in aquatic systems, nestedness appears to be related to body size because the diets of smaller predators tend to be nested subsets of those of larger predators (Woodward & Warren 2007; YvonDurocher et al. 2008), and phylogenetic constraints, whereby related taxa are nested based on their common evolutionary history, are also evident (Cattin et al. 2004)."[82]:257 "Compartments in food webs are subgroups of taxa in which many strong interactions occur within the subgroups and few weak interactions occur between the subgroups. Theoretically, compartments increase the stability in networks, such as food webs."[58]

text: Food webs are also complex in the way that they change in scale, seasonally, and geographically. The components of food webs, including organisms and mineral nutrients, cross the thresholds of ecosystem boundaries. This has led to the concept or area of study known as cross-boundary subsidy.[59][60] "This leads to anomalies, such as food web calculations determining that an ecosystem can support one half of a top carnivore, without specifying which end."[61] Nonetheless, real differences in structure and function have been identified when comparing different kinds of ecological food webs, such as terrestrial vs. aquatic food webs.[83]

text: History of food webs[edit]

text: Food webs serve as a framework to help ecologists organize the complex network of interactions among species observed in nature and around the world. One of the earliest descriptions of a food chain was described by a medieval Afro-Arab scholar named Al-Jahiz: "All animals, in short, cannot exist without food, neither can the hunting animal escape being hunted in his turn."[84]:143 The earliest graphical depiction of a food web was by Lorenzo Camerano in 1880, followed independently by those of Pierce and colleagues in 1912 and Victor Shelford in 1913.[85][86] Two food webs about herring were produced by Victor Summerhayes and Charles Elton[87] and Alister Hardy[88] in 1923 and 1924. Charles Elton subsequently pioneered the concept of food cycles, food chains, and food size in his classical 1927 book "Animal Ecology"; Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by 'food web' in a subsequent ecological text.[89] After Charles Elton's use of food webs in his 1927 synthesis,[90] they became a central concept in the field of ecology. Elton[89] organized species into functional groups, which formed the basis for the trophic system of classification in Raymond Lindeman's classic and landmark paper in 1942 on trophic dynamics.[16][37][91] The notion of a food web has a historical foothold in the writings of Charles Darwin and his terminology, including an "entangled bank", "web of life", "web of complex relations", and in reference to the decomposition actions of earthworms he talked about "the continued movement of the particles of earth". Even earlier, in 1768 John Bruckner described nature as "one continued web of life".[3][92][93][94]

text: Interest in food webs increased after Robert Paine's experimental and descriptive study of intertidal shores[95] suggesting that food web complexity was key to maintaining species diversity and ecological stability. Many theoretical ecologists, including Sir Robert May[96] and Stuart Pimm,[97] were prompted by this discovery and others to examine the mathematical properties of food webs.


question_text: who is serviced by the texas school for the blind

root

text: This inline needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired (TSBVI) is a Texas special public school, in the continuum of statewide placements for students who have a visual impairment. It is considered a statewide resource to parents of these children and professionals who serve them. Students, ages 6 through 21, who are blind, deafblind, or visually impaired, including those with additional disabilities, are eligible for consideration for services at TSBVI.

tag: p

text: Founded in 1856, the school is currently located at 1100 West 45th Street in Austin, Texas and serves not only the local community, but most of the blind children in other schools across the state. Its teaching curriculum and its website serve most countries around the world as the leading resource in visual impairment education.

text: As of 2008[update] 50% of the school's students are of high school age. TSBVI may take up to 150 boarding students. Usually deaf students in Texas attend school in their local school districts, which are obligated to educate them under the law. Students who attend TSBVI only do so after their parents and their schools and school districts all agree that TSBVI is best-equipped for their educations.[1]

text: The school has special equipment and classroom routines tailored to blind students, and according to a 2008 Texas Monthly article, blind students who previously attended ordinary public schools had a positive reception to TSBVI after enrolling there.[1]

text: It is the subject of a documentary, The Eyes of Me.[2]


document_title: Fresh Off the Boat

question_text: who plays allison on fresh off the boat

question_tokens: who plays allison on fresh off the boat

text: Fresh Off the Boat

text: Premise[edit]

text: The story follows the course of Eddie Huang's Taiwanese family as they make their way from Chinatown of Washington, DC to Orlando, Florida, to open a cowboy-themed steak restaurant in 1995[14] (with the first season being set between 1995 and 1997).[15][16] His mother struggles with the culture clash between her upbringing and a Florida community that does not have a large Asian population,[17] his father embraces the "American Dream", and Eddie struggles with assimilating into school.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Hudson Yang as Edwyn "Eddie" Huang,[18] the show's protagonist and a die-hard hip-hop and rap fan, as well as a great fan of basketball. The oldest of three brothers, he eschews Taiwanese culture and is more rebellious than his younger siblings, which makes him a frequent target of Jessica's complaints. Because Eddie represents the writer of the book on which the show is based, all of the season-one episodes were told from his perspective, and the real-life Eddie Huang voices the narrator. A creative change for season two expands the focus to the entire Huang family.
Randall Park as Louis Huang,[4][5] is the father of Eddie, Emery, and Evan, and husband of Jessica. He is nice and naive, and embraces all things American. He owns a Western steakhouse restaurant in Orlando named Cattleman's Ranch.
Constance Wu as Jessica (née Chu) Huang,[19] is the wife of Louis and mother[20] of Eddie, Emery, and Evan. She is a no-nonsense, pragmatic woman who believes in tough love. She wants her children to be successful and also keep in touch with their Taiwanese heritage.
Forrest Wheeler as Emery Huang,[21] is the middle child of the Huang family. He is a romantic and lovable kid who is fairly intelligent. He is also depicted as charismatic and mature for his age. He graduated elementary school at the end of the second season.
Ian Chen as Evan Huang,[21] is the youngest child, who is a star student and obeys the rules. He is Jessica's favorite child. He was allowed to skip fifth grade between seasons 3 and 4, and is starting middle school in the fourth season.
Lucille Soong as Grandma Jenny Huang (regular season 2–present, recurring season 1), is Louis' mother and grandmother of Eddie, Evan, and Emery. Although she clearly understands English, she speaks only in Mandarin (subtitled in English). However, she spoke English in Marvin's dream in the season-three episode "Where Are the Giggles?". In the season-four episode, "It's a Plastic Pumpkin, Louis Huang", the family discovers she has secretly been taking ESL lessons, and she speaks English for the first time (excluding that dream sequence). In the season-four episode, "The Day After Thanksgiving", Jenny finishes her ESL class and speaks English around her ESL professor. She recites lines from the 1989 Tim Burton movie, Batman for her class.
Chelsey Crisp as Honey Ellis (regular season 2–present, recurring season 1),[22] is the Huangs' next door neighbor, Marvin's third wife, and Jessica's new best friend.
Ray Wise as Marvin Ellis (regular season 3–present, recurring seasons 1–2) is Honey's much-older husband and Nicole's father. He is a successful dentist who married Honey after his previous wife caught him cheating with Honey on the kitchen floor.

tag: ul

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Cattleman's Steakhouse staff:

Paul Scheer as Mitch
Jillian Armenante as Nancy
Amanda Lund as Vanessa
Noel Gugliemi as Hector Martinez
Michael Bolton as himself, briefly co-owner of Cattleman's (seasons 3–4)
Matt Oberg as Matthew Chestnut (season 4)

text:
Eddie's school friends:

Luna Blaise as Nicole Ellis, Eddie's first crush, who is Marvin's daughter and Honey's stepdaughter; in season four, she reveals to Eddie that she is gay.
Isabella Alexander as Alison, also Eddie's girlfriend. They break up in episode 2 of season 4.
Prophet Bolden as Walter, one of Eddie's friends
Trevor Larcom as Trent Masterson, one of Eddie's friends
Evan Hannemann as Dave Selby, one of Eddie's friends
Dash Williams as Brian Stone, one of Eddie's friends
Connor Rosen as Doug Pew, one of Eddie's friends
Brady Tutton as Brock Blanca
Albert Tsai as Phillip Goldstein[23][24]
Arden Belle as Shelly, one of Nicole's friends
Liliana Mumy as Layla, one of Nicole's friends
Monique Green as Sandy, one of Nicole's friends
Marlowe Peyton as Reba, Eddie's classmate, who has an unrequited crush on him

text:
Others:

Rachel Cannon as Deidre Sanderson
Stacey Scowley as Carol-Joan
Colleen Ryan as Amanda
Kimberly Crandall as Lisa
Arden Myrin as Ashley Alexander
David Goldman as Principal Charlie Hunter
Maria Bamford as Principal Thomas
Susan Park as Connie Chen, Jessica's sister
C.S. Lee as Steve Chen, Jessica's brother-in-law
Ken Jeong as Gene Huang, Louis' younger brother
Eddie Huang as adult Eddie Huang (voice only), the narrator of the show for season one only

text: Development and production[edit]

text: Eddie Huang's 2013 Fresh Off the Boat caught the attention of TV networks upon release, with ABC and 20th Century Fox Television signing in late that year. Huang, the show's creator and one of the producers of the series,[5] led a Twitter campaign[25][26] to change the original show name, Far East Orlando, when it was in development.[6]

text: On May 13, 2014, ABC ordered the first season of the show during the May 2014 upfront[7][27] to air in 2015 as a mid-season replacement.[7][28]

text: The real-life Eddie Huang narrates the first season only. Eleven episodes into the first season, Huang expressed frustration over ABC's approach, saying it presents an "ambiguous, cornstarch story about Asian-Americans" that perpetuates "an artificial representation of Asian American lives". The sitcom was adapted to suit a broader American audience.[29] He also Tweeted in April 2015, "I understand this is a comedy but the great comics speak from pain: Pryor, Rock, Louis...This show had that opportunity but it fails."[30] Despite his concern for authenticity, he finds the show a "milestone" for Asian-Americans as they are at the forefront of this television series.[31] Huang further explained in an interview on National Public Radio, "The studio and network are not on a mission to not represent us. They just don't know how to."[32]

text: Huang described the exchange between his team and ABC as brief. In an article in Vulture Huang expressed concern over the studio's decision that Nahnatchka Khan, an Iranian-American writer, would represent his memoir for the TV scripts, believing that she would present the story as less than realistic and authentic. "I would be excited, but you attached a Persian writer, and I'm kinda worried it's going to be The Shahs of Cul-de-Sac Holando."[33]

text: In 2015, Constance Wu was interviewed by Jenny Zhang for The Lenny Interview. In this interview, she spoke about her initial fear of criticizing some of the shows details. Now in its second season, Wu speaks openly about her request for the staff to make the show more specific, stating, "If you change the food to a 1,000-year-old black egg with tofu and scallions, it will be a little more specific, and specificity is just better for character, and it's more interesting than, say, tofu and rice."[34]

text: Season two changes[edit]

text: Fresh Off the Boat made many changes for the second season, including:

text:
Eddie Huang reduced his involvement with the series, including no longer being the narrator, due to creative differences with ABC, as well as time constraints with other projects. He is still credited as a producer, and the show's credits continue to note that the series is based on his memoir.
With Huang's departure, ABC decided not to recast the narrator role, dropping it from the series altogether.
The writing from season two onward is focused on the entire Huang family instead of centering on Eddie. In particular, more Louis- and Jessica-centered episodes were shot.
Lucille Soong and Chelsey Crisp were both promoted from recurring cast to main cast.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
13
February 4, 2015 (2015-02-04)
April 21, 2015 (2015-04-21)

2
24
September 22, 2015 (2015-09-22)
May 24, 2016 (2016-05-24)

3
23
October 11, 2016 (2016-10-11)
May 16, 2017 (2017-05-16)

4
19
October 3, 2017 (2017-10-03)
March 20, 2018 (2018-03-20)

text: Home media[edit]

text: On September 29, 2015, the first season of Fresh Off the Boat was released on DVD. The DVD had two discs with all 13 season-one episodes and special features such as a gag reel, as well a "Fresh Facts Trivia Track". On May 22, 2018, the second and third season of Fresh Off the Boat was released on DVD.

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: On November 8 2014, the world premiere of the pilot episode was hosted by the San Diego Asian Film Festival.[35]

text: Fresh Off the Boat premiered on FOX8 in Australia starting May 10, 2015;[36] It was also picked up by Network Ten, and started airing on 7 March 2016 on its sister channel, Eleven until October 2017.

text: In the UK, the first season originally premiered on Amazon Video on February 4, 2015. The second season premiered on September 22, 2015. On November 1, 2017 Fresh Off the Boat received its television premiere on Channel 5's sister channel 5Star starting with the pilot episode.

text: It debuted on March 12, 2015 in South Africa on Fox Crime.[37]

text: In South Asia, Fresh Off The Boat, airs 12 hours after the U.S. broadcast on Star World Premiere HD.[38]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Seasonal ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Timeslot (ET)
No. of
episodes
Premiered
Ended
TV season
Rank
Viewers
(in millions)

Date
Premiere viewers
(in millions)
Date
Finale viewers
(in millions)

1
Wednesday 8:30 pm
(Episode 1)
Wednesday 9:30 pm
(Episode 2)
Tuesday 8:00 pm
(Episodes 3-13)
13
February 4, 2015
7.94[39]
April 21, 2015
5.08[40]
2014–15
78
6.99[41]

2
Tuesday 8:30 pm
(2015)
Tuesday 8:00 pm
(2016)
24
September 22, 2015
6.05[42]
May 24, 2016
4.88[43]
2015–16
86
5.48[44]

3
Tuesday 9:00 pm
23
October 11, 2016
5.03[45]
May 16, 2017
3.55[46]
2016–17
95
4.66[47]

4
Tuesday 8:30 pm
19
October 3, 2017
4.51[48]
March 20, 2018
3.61[49]
2017–18
108
4.57[50]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Fresh Off the Boat has received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the show has a 91% certified fresh approval rating, with the critical consensus "Once the cliched gags of Fresh off the Boat are superseded by a grounded truthfulness, the series evolves into a humorously charming family sitcom."[51] It also has earned a 75 out of 100 score on Metacritic, indicating 'generally favorable reviews'.[52] Particularly, Constance Wu's performance has been acclaimed, earning nominations for both the TCA Awards and the EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in Comedy, as well as an "Individual Achievement in Comedy" nomination at the Critics' Choice Television Awards.

text: Reviews cited the show's potential to increase the visibility and accuracy of Asian Americans in arts and entertainment.[7][53][54] For writer and poet Jenny Zhang (who interviewed Constance Wu for Lenny Letter), Fresh Off the Boat was a welcome change from the representation of Asian Americans on the TV series she had seen as a child at age 11, where the few people who looked like her were either the subjects of crude jokes or had only minor cameos.[34]

text: "It means that there are real conversations being had about Asian American identity in addition to acknowledging the lack of inclusivity Asian Americans have had in the nation's cultural and entertainment dialogue."[55] Ester Suh, writing for the Huffington Post, felt that many characterizations in the show misrepresented the Asian-American experience, but acknowledged that "our experience as Americans, like everyone else’s, is varied, and to say that a single show can exemplify all our experiences, would be a disfavor. I see Fresh as a sound board for future shows with Asian American casts, helping make television a more diverse and inclusive cultural platform."[55]

text: The Harvard Political Review additionally commented that "Fresh Off the Boat captures the essence of why diversity in media matters—we, like young Eddie, all want to see ourselves as worthy of being protagonists, whether in stories or in real life. However, lost in translation are the stories of parents and grandparents, who also have claim to labels like the Asian-American experience."[56]

text: Television critic Emily Nussbaum, in her review for The New Yorker, compares the memoir and television version of Huang's relationship with his father and with black culture, "Without a cruel bully for a father, Eddie's taste for hip-hop feels more superficial—in the book, it's an abused kid's catharsis and an identification with black history."[57]

text: News of the Fresh Off The Boat TV show is covered in Chinese-language news media, where the title is simplified Chinese: 菜鸟新移民; traditional Chinese: 菜鳥新移民; pinyin: càiniǎo xīn yímín; literally: "Beginner New Immigrants".[58][59]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

2015
Critics' Choice Television Awards
Best Actress in a Comedy Series
Constance Wu
Nominated

TCA Awards
Individual Achievement in Comedy
Nominated

EWwy Awards
Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series
Nominated

Gold Derby TV Awards
Best Comedy Actress
Nominated

Unforgettable Gala – Asian American Awards
Actor of the Year
Randall Park
Won

Female Breakout Star of the Year
Constance Wu
Won

2016
Critics' Choice Television Awards
Best Actor in a Comedy Series
Randall Park
Nominated

Best Actress in a Comedy Series
Constance Wu
Nominated

NAACP Image Awards
Outstanding Performance by a Youth (Series, Special, Television Movie or Mini-series)
Hudson Yang
Nominated

Women's Image Network Awards
Best Comedy Series
Fresh Off the Boat
Nominated

Young Artist Awards
Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast In A TV Series
Hudson Yang, Forrest Wheeler, Ian Chen
Won

Best Performance in a TV Series – Supporting Young Actor
Ian Chen
Nominated

Best Performance In A TV Series - Recurring Young Actress (14-21)
Luna Blaise
Won

Best Performance In A TV Series - Guest Starring Young Actress (11-13)
Laura Krystine
Nominated

Young Entertainer Awards
Best Young Ensemble Cast - TV Series
Hudson Yang, Forrest Wheeler, Ian Chen
Won

Best Recurring Young Actor 13 and Under - Television Series
Trevor Larcom
Nominated

Best Recurring Young Actress 13 to 15 - Television Series
Luna Blaise
Nominated

Best Recurring Young Actress 12 and Under- Television Series
Isabella Alexander
Won

Best Guest Starring Young Actor 11 and Under - TV Series
Cole Sand
Nominated

Teen Choice Awards
Choice TV: Scene Stealer
Hudson Yang
Nominated

TCA Awards
Individual Achievement in Comedy
Constance Wu
Nominated

Gold Derby TV Awards
Best Actress in a Comedy Series
Nominated

Poppy Awards
Best Actress in a Comedy Series
Nominated

Best Actor in a Comedy Series
Randall Park
Nominated

Critics' Choice Television Awards
Best Actress in a Comedy Series
Constance Wu
Nominated

2017
NAACP Image Awards
Outstanding Performance by a Youth (Series, Special, Television Movie or Mini-series)
Hudson Yang
Nominated

Young Artist Awards
Best Performance in a TV Series - Leading Young Actor
Ian Chen
Nominated

Forrest Wheeler
Nominated

Best Performance in a TV Series - Leading Teen Actor
Hudson Yang
Won

Best Performance in a TV Series - Recurring Teen Actor
Trevor Larcom
Won

Young Entertainer Awards
Best Leading Young Actor 14 and Under - Television Series
Ian Chen
Pending

MTV Movie & TV Awards
Best American Story
Fresh Off the Boat
Nominated

Critics' Choice Television Awards
Best Actor in a Comedy Series
Randall Park
Nominated

Best Actress in a Comedy Series
Constance Wu
Nominated


document_title: List of Chief Ministers of Nagaland

question_text: who will be the chief minister of nagaland in 2018

text: List of Chief Ministers of Nagaland

text:
Chief Minister of Nagaland govt.

Incumbent
Neiphiu Rio
since 8 March 2018

Appointer
Governor of Nagaland

Inaugural holder
P. Shilu Ao

Formation
1 December 1963

text: The Chief Minister of Nagaland is the chief executive of the northeast Indian state of Nagaland. As per the Constitution of India, the governor is a state's de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the Nagaland Legislative Assembly, the state's governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given that he has the confidence of the assembly, the chief minister's term is for five years and is subject to no term limits.[1]

text: Since 1963, ten people belonging to seven parties have served as Chief Minister of Nagaland. The first three belonged to the Naga Nationalist Organisation, including the inaugural officeholder P. Shilu Ao. The current incumbent is Neiphiu Rio of the Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party, in office since 8 March 2018.

text: List[edit]

text:
No[a]
Name
Term of office[2]
Party[b]
Days in office

1
P. Shilu Ao
MLA for Impur
1 December 1963
14 August 1966
Naga Nationalist Organisation

987 days

2
T. N. Angami
MLA for Western Angami
14 August 1966
22 February 1969
924 days

3
Hokishe Sema
MLA for Akuluto
22 February 1969
26 February 1974
1831 days

4
Vizol Angami
MLA for Southern Angami-II
26 February 1974
10 March 1975
United Democratic Front

378 days

5
John Bosco Jasokie
MLA for Kohima Town
10 March 1975
20 March 1975
Naga National Democratic Party

11 days

–
Vacant[c]
(President's rule)
20 March 1975
25 November 1977
N/A

(4)
Vizol Angami
MLA for Southern Angami-II
25 November 1977
18 April 1980
United Democratic Front

876 days [Total 1254 days]

6
S. C. Jamir
MLA for Aonglenden
18 April 1980
5 June 1980
United Democratic Front—Progressive

49 days

(5)
John Bosco Jasokie
MLA for Kohima Town
5 June 1980
18 November 1982
Naga National Democratic Party

897 days [Total 908 days]

(6)
S. C. Jamir
MLA for Aonglenden
18 November 1982
28 October 1986
United Democratic Front—Progressive

1440 days

(3)
Hokishe Sema
29 October 1986
7 August 1988
Indian National Congress

648 days [Total 2479 days]

–
Vacant[c]
(President's rule)
7 August 1988
25 January 1989
N/A

(6)
S. C. Jamir
MLA for Mokokchung Town
25 January 1989
10 May 1990
Indian National Congress

471 days

7
K. L. Chishi
MLA for Atoizu
16 May 1990
19 June 1990
Indian National Congress

36 days

8
Vamuzo Phesao
19 June 1990
2 April 1992
Nagaland People's Council

653 days

–
Vacant[c]
(President's rule)
2 April 1992
22 February 1993
N/A

(6)
S. C. Jamir
MLA for Aonglenden
22 February 1993
6 March 2003
Indian National Congress

3665 days [Total 5625 days]

9
Neiphiu Rio
MLA for Northern Angami-II
6 March 2003
3 January 2008
Nagaland People's Front

1767 days

–
Vacant[c]
(President's rule)
3 January 2008
12 March 2008
N/A

(9)
Neiphiu Rio
MLA for Northern Angami-II
12 March 2008
24 May 2014
Nagaland People's Front

2264

10
T. R. Zeliang
MLA for Peren
24 May 2014
22 February 2017
1005

11
Shurhozelie Liezietsu
22 February 2017
19 July 2017
147

(10)
T. R. Zeliang
MLA for Peren
19 July 2017
8 March 2018
232
[Total 1237 days]

(9)
Neiphiu Rio
MLA for Northern Angami-II
8 March 2018
Incumbent
Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party

32

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ A number inside brackets indicates that the incumbent has previously held office.
Jump up ^ This column only names the chief minister's party. The state government he headed may have been a complex coalition of several parties and independents; these are not listed here.
^ Jump up to: a b c d President's rule may be imposed when the "government in a state is not able to function as per the Constitution", which often happens because no party or coalition has a majority in the assembly. When President's rule is in force in a state, its council of ministers stands dissolved. The office of chief minister thus lies vacant, and the administration is taken over by the governor, who functions on behalf of the central government. At times, the legislative assembly also stands dissolved.[3]

tag: ol

text:
Jump up ^ Durga Das Basu. Introduction to the Constitution of India. 1960. 20th Edition, 2011 Reprint. pp. 241, 245. LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa Nagpur. ISBN 978-81-8038-559-9. Note: although the text talks about Indian state governments in general, it applies for the specific case of Nagaland as well.
Jump up ^ "General Information, Nagaland". Information & Public Relations department, Nagaland government.
Jump up ^ Amberish K. Diwanji. "A dummy's guide to President's rule". Rediff.com. 15 March 2005.


document_title: State of Love and Trust

question_text: what is the song state of love and trust about

text: State of Love and Trust

text: Origin and recording[edit]

text: "State of Love and Trust" features lyrics written by vocalist Eddie Vedder and music co-written by guitarist Mike McCready and bassist Jeff Ament. The song was originally recorded during the sessions for Ten with the possible intention of appearing in the film Singles.[2] Ament said, "The version of 'State of Love and Trust' with Dave Krusen on drums is so much better than what ended up being released,"[3] and added, "He really plays that song in the spirit it was written in. It has a much trashier, Crazy Horse feel to it. It's awesome."[4] The version of "State of Love and Trust" recorded during the Ten sessions appears on the 2009 Ten reissue.

text: The version of "State of Love and Trust" heard in the film Singles and on its soundtrack was recorded in 1992 and was one of the first songs to be recorded with drummer Dave Abbruzzese.[5][6] The same sessions also produced "Breath", "Dirty Frank", and the re-recorded version of "Even Flow".

text: Lyrics[edit]

text: According to Ament, the lyrics for "State of Love and Trust" are based on what Vedder took from watching the film, and added, "I think he probably took a heavier angle on what the movie was about than a lot of people will, but that's Eddie, which is a beautiful thing."[7] According to Cameron Crowe, director of Singles, the song is "about battling with your instincts in love."[2] Before a performance of the song at Pearl Jam's September 8, 1998 show in East Rutherford, New Jersey at Continental Airlines Arena, Vedder introduced it as "a song about being faithful."[8]

text: In other media[edit]

text: In March 2009, a live version of "State of Love and Trust" taken from the band's September 20, 1992 concert was made available as a downloadable bonus track for the Rock Band series for those who purchase the Ten re-release through Best Buy.[9]

text: Live performances[edit]

text: "State of Love and Trust" was first performed live at the band's July 12, 1991 concert in Philadelphia at JC Dobbs.[10] Pearl Jam performed the song for its appearance on MTV Unplugged in 1992. When "State of Love and Trust" was performed by Pearl Jam at the MTV Singles Scene movie release party, Vedder intentionally interjected expletives into the song's lyrics.[11] Clips from the studio version were spliced into the performance by Brendan O'Brien so that it could air on television.[12] Live performances of "State of Love and Trust" can be found on the "Dissident"/Live in Atlanta box set, various official bootlegs, the Live at the Gorge 05/06 box set, the live album Live at Lollapalooza 2007, Live on Ten Legs, and the Drop in the Park LP included in the Super Deluxe edition of the Ten reissue. Performances of the song are also included on the DVD Immagine in Cornice and the MTV Unplugged DVD included in the Ten reissue.

text: Cover versions[edit]

text: A live version of "State of Love and Trust" by the band The Gaslight Anthem can be found on the band's 2009 "The '59 Sound" single. A cover of the song also appears on their iTunes Session EP. Gaslight Anthem has played "State of Love and Trust" with Vedder in concert.


document_title: Jai Jawan Jai Kisan

question_text: who gave the slogan jai jawan jai kishan

text: Jai Jawan Jai Kisan

text: Jai Jawan Jai Kisan (English: "Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer") was a slogan given to India by the Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965 at a public gathering at Ramlila Maidan, Delhi.[1][2]

text: Soon after Shastri took over the prime ministership of India after Nehru's death, India was attacked by Pakistan. At the same time there was scarcity of food grains in the country. Shastri gave the slogan Jai Jawan Jai Kisan to enthuse the soldiers to defend India and simultaneously cheering farmers to do their best to increase the production of food grains to reduce dependence on import. It became a very popular slogan.[1][3]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: After the Pokaran tests in 1998, [Atal Bihari Vajpayee] added Jai Vigyan (Hail Science) to the slogan to underline the importance of knowledge in India's progress.[4]

text: During the acceptance speech of Sunil Bharti Mittal delivered at Teen Murti Bhavan on 15 December 2009 after receiving the 10th Lal Bahadur Shastri National Award from the President of India, the Director of the Lal Bahadur Shastri Institute of Management, Delhi, Dr Kailash Chandra Mishra, restated the slogan as

text: Jai Jawan! Jai Kissan! Jai Vigyan! Jai Vidwan!

text: Jai Vidwan means "hail the learned" to signify knowledge working as the driver of India's current significant economic growth.

text: The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India) commemorated Shastri on his 48th martyr's day:

text: Former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri was one of those great Indians who has left an indelible impression on our collective life. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri's contribution to our public life were unique in that they were made in the closest proximity to the life of the common man in India. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri was looked upon by Indians as one of their own, one who shared their ideals, hopes and aspirations. His achievements were looked upon not as the isolated achievements of an individual but of our society collectively.

text: Under his leadership India faced and repulsed the Pakistani invasion of 1965. It is not only a matter of pride for the Indian Army but also for every citizen of the country. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri's slogan Jai Jawan Jai Kisan reverberates even today through the length and breadth of the country. Underlying this is the inner-most sentiments 'Jai Hindustan'. The war of 1965 was fought and won for our self-respect and our national prestige. For using our Defence Forces with such admirable skill, the nation remains beholden to Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri. He will be remembered for all times to come for his large heartedness and public service.[5]

text: In 2015, a film based on Shastri's life was released which was named after this slogan.


document_title: Peep and the Big Wide World

question_text: who sings peep and the big wide world theme song

text: Peep and the Big Wide World

text: Overview[edit]

text: Viewers follow Peep, Chirp, and Quack as they investigate and explore the world around them. Following the 9-minute animated segment, there is a 2-minute live-action segment with children exploring and demonstrating the same topic presented in the animated segment. Animation consists of bright colors and simple shapes.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired126April 12, 2004 (2004-04-12)May 17, 2004 (2004-05-17)213May 2, 2005 (2005-05-02)May 18, 2005 (2005-05-18)310April 16, 2007 (2007-04-16)September 14, 2007 (2007-09-14)46January 31, 2010 (2010-01-31)July 17, 2010 (2010-07-17)55October 10, 2011 (2011-10-10)October 14, 2011 (2011-10-14)

text: Characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Peep (Voiced by Scott Beaudin): A male, yellow chicken who is very curious. The show's title is derived from his name. Peep is female in the original short film.
Chirp (Voiced by Amanda Soha): A female, red robin who is also curious, and attempts frequently to fly, with unsatisfying results. She is Peep's friend. Chirp is male in the original short film.
Quack (Voiced by Jamie Watson): A male, blue duck who wears a white sailor's hat. He frequently boasts about himself and ducks as a whole, and unwittingly makes many discoveries. Quack is purple in the original short film and is now referred to as blue, but is still quite indigo.
The Narrator (Voiced by Joan Cusack): The Narrator tells the episode's story, although the characters rarely have any interaction with her. In the episodes "Dry Duck Part 1" the birds did have a short interaction with her and in "Quack Quiets the Universe" she and Quack interact as well.

text: Minor[edit]

text:
Ant (Voiced by Robert Tinkler): A busy male ant who appears in some episodes.
Beaver Boy (Voiced by Tessa Marshall): A young naïve male beaver lives in an adjoining pond to Quack's. He appears in several episodes.
Beaver Mom: Beaver Boy's workaholic mother.
Beaver Dad (Voiced by Phillip Williams):  Beaver Boy's businesslike father.
Dragonfly (Voiced by Catherine Disher): A quiet dragonfly.
Fish: Cohabitants of Quack's pond.
Hoot (Voiced by Corinne Conley): A menacing, but kind purple female owl who lives in the Deep Dark Woods.
Nellie (Voiced by Marium Carvell): A red female dog who acts as a seemingly maternal figure for the birds.
Newton (Voiced by Colin Fox): An old, male, dark-green turtle who lives under an apple tree.
Quack #2 (Voiced by Megan Mullally): An annoying pink female duck who has her own pond, built by Quack, Peep, Chirp, Beaver Boy and his parents.
Rabbit (Voiced by Jayne Eastwood): An excitable and somewhat distracted rabbit.
Robin (Voiced by Holly Hunter): An adult robin.
Skunk (Voiced by Adrian Truss): A rather deadpan skunk who lives near Quack's pond.
Bat (Voiced by Ron Rubin): A shy bat.
Squeak (Voiced by Kathleen Laskey): An anxious pink, female mouse who lives under a brick and always worries about what could go wrong.
Tom ( voiced by Matthew Knight): A sly, male blue-and-black kitten who often tries to eat Peep, Chirp, and Quack. He is the sole antagonist.

text: Music composition[edit]

text: Music for Peep and the Big Wide World is composed by Terry Tompkins and Steve D'Angelo, from Eggplant. The opening theme is performed by Taj Mahal.[4]


document_title: Arnold Palmer Invitational

question_text: how many times has tiger won at bay hill

text: Arnold Palmer Invitational

text: Invitational status[edit]

text: The Arnold Palmer Invitational is one of only five tournaments given "invitational" status by the PGA Tour, and consequently it has a reduced field of only 120 players (as opposed to most full-field open tournaments with a field of 156 players).  The other four tournaments with invitational status are the RBC Heritage, the Fort Worth Invitational, the Memorial Tournament, and the Quicken Loans National.  Invitational tournaments have smaller fields (between 120 and 132 players), and have more freedom than full-field open tournaments in determining which players are eligible to participate in their event, as invitational tournaments are not required to fill their fields using the PGA Tour Priority Ranking System.  Furthermore, unlike full-field open tournaments, invitational tournaments do not offer open qualifying (aka Monday qualifying).

text: In June 2014, the PGA Tour approved a resolution to grant the winner a three-year exemption, one more than other regular Tour events and on par with winners of the World Golf Championships, The Tour Championship, and the Memorial Tournament.[3]

text: Field[edit]

text: The field consists of 120 players invited using the following criteria:[4]

text:
Arnold Palmer Invitational winners prior to 2000 and in the last five years
The Players Championship and major championship winners in the last five years
The Tour Championship, World Golf Championships, and Memorial Tournament winners in the past three years
Tournament winners in the past year
Playing member of last named U.S. Ryder Cup team; current PGA Tour members who were playing members on last named European Ryder Cup team, U.S. Presidents Cup team, and International Presidents Cup team
Prior year U.S. Amateur winner (if still an amateur)
Top 50 Official World Golf Ranking (as of Friday prior)
PGA Tour life members
18 sponsors exemptions– 2 from Web.com Tour finals, 8 members not otherwise exempt, and 8 unrestricted
Up to two foreign players designated by the commissioner
Top 70 from prior year's FedEx Cup points list
Members in top 125 non-member category whose prior year non-WGC points equal or exceed the 70th position on the prior year FedEx Cup points list
Top 70 from current year's FedEx Cup points list (as of Friday prior)
PGA Section champion/player of the year
Remaining positions filled from current year's FedEx Cup points list

text: Arnold Palmer had a lifetime invitation.

text: Course layout[edit]

text:
Hole
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Out
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
In
Total

Yards
461
231
434
561
390
555
199
460
474
3,765
400
438
574
370
215
467
511
221
458
3,654
7,419

Par
4
3
4
5
4
5
3
4
4
36
4
4
5
4
3
4
5
3
4
36
72

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Year
Player
Country
Score
To par
Marginof victory
Runner(s)-up
Winner'sshare ($)
Purse ($)

Arnold Palmer Invitational presented by MasterCard

2018
Rory McIlroy
 Northern Ireland
270
−18
3 strokes
 Bryson DeChambeau
1,602,000
8,900,000

2017
Marc Leishman
 Australia
277
−11
1 stroke
 Charley Hoffman Kevin Kisner
1,566,000
8,700,000

2016
Jason Day
 Australia
271
−17
1 stroke
 Kevin Chappell
1,134,000
6,300,000

2015
Matt Every (2)
 United States
269
−19
1 stroke
 Henrik Stenson
1,134,000
6,300,000

2014
Matt Every
 United States
275
−13
1 stroke
 Keegan Bradley
1,116,000
6,200,000

2013
Tiger Woods (8)
 United States
275
−13
2 strokes
 Justin Rose
1,116,000
6,200,000

2012
Tiger Woods (7)
 United States
275
−13
5 strokes
 Graeme McDowell
1,080,000
6,000,000

2011
Martin Laird
 Scotland
280
−8
1 stroke
 Steve Marino
1,080,000
6,000,000

2010
Ernie Els (2)
 South Africa
277
−11
2 strokes
 Edoardo Molinari Kevin Na
1,080,000
6,000,000

2009
Tiger Woods (6)
 United States
275
−5
1 stroke
 Sean O'Hair
1,080,000
6,000,000

2008
Tiger Woods (5)
 United States
270
−10
1 stroke
 Bart Bryant
1,044,000
5,800,000

2007
Vijay Singh
 Fiji
272
−8
2 strokes
 Rocco Mediate
990,000
5,500,000

Bay Hill Invitational presented by MasterCard

2006
Rod Pampling
 Australia
274
−14
1 stroke
 Greg Owen
990,000
5,500,000

2005
Kenny Perry
 United States
276
−12
2 strokes
 Graeme McDowell Vijay Singh
900,000
5,000,000

2004
Chad Campbell
 United States
270
−18
6 strokes
 Stuart Appleby
900,000
5,000,000

Bay Hill Invitational presented by Cooper Tires

2003
Tiger Woods (4)
 United States
269
−19
11 strokes
 Stewart Cink Brad Faxon Kenny Perry Kirk Triplett
810,000
4,500,000

2002
Tiger Woods (3)
 United States
275
−13
4 strokes
 Michael Campbell
720,000
4,000,000

2001
Tiger Woods (2)
 United States
273
−15
1 stroke
 Phil Mickelson
630,000
3,500,000

2000
Tiger Woods
 United States
270
−18
4 strokes
 Davis Love III
540,000
3,000,000

1999
Tim Herron
 United States
274
−14
Playoff
 Tom Lehman
450,000
2,500,000

Bay Hill Invitational presented by Office Depot

1998
Ernie Els
 South Africa
274
−14
4 strokes
 Bob Estes Jeff Maggert
360,000
2,000,000

1997
Phil Mickelson
 United States
272
−16
3 strokes
 Stuart Appleby
270,000
1,500,000

1996
Paul Goydos
 United States
275
−13
1 stroke
 Jeff Maggert
216,000
1,200,000

Nestle Invitational

1995
Loren Roberts (2)
 United States
272
−16
2 strokes
 Brad Faxon
216,000
1,200,000

1994
Loren Roberts
 United States
275
−13
1 stroke
 Nick Price Vijay Singh Fuzzy Zoeller
216,000
1,200,000

1993
Ben Crenshaw
 United States
280
−8
2 strokes
 Davis Love III Rocco Mediate Vijay Singh
180,000
1,000,000

1992
Fred Couples
 United States
269
−19
9 strokes
 Gene Sauers
180,000
1,000,000

1991
Andrew Magee
 United States
 203*
−13
2 strokes
 Tom Sieckmann
180,000
1,000,000

1990
Robert Gamez
 United States
274
−14
1 stroke
 Greg Norman
162,000
900,000

1989
Tom Kite (2)
 United States
278
−6
Playoff
 Davis Love III
144,000
800,000

Hertz Bay Hill Classic

1988
Paul Azinger
 United States
271
−13
5 strokes
 Tom Kite
135,000
750,000

1987
Payne Stewart
 United States
264
−20
3 strokes
 David Frost
108,000
600,000

1986
Dan Forsman
 United States
 202*
−11
1 stroke
 Raymond Floyd Mike Hulbert
90,000
500,000

1985
Fuzzy Zoeller
 United States
275
−9
2 strokes
 Tom Watson
90,000
500,000

Bay Hill Classic

1984
Gary Koch (2)
 United States
272
−12
Playoff
 George Burns
72,000
400,000

1983
Mike Nicolette
 United States
283
−1
Playoff
 Greg Norman
63,000
350,000

1982
Tom Kite
 United States
278
−6
Playoff
 Jack Nicklaus Denis Watson
54,000
300,000

1981
Andy Bean
 United States
266
−18
7 strokes
 Tom Watson
54,000
300,000

1980
Dave Eichelberger
 United States
279
−5
3 strokes
 Leonard Thompson
54,000
300,000

Bay Hill Citrus Classic

1979
Bob Byman
 United States
278
−6
Playoff
 John Schroeder
45,000
250,000

Florida Citrus Open

1978
Mac McLendon
 United States
271
−17
2 strokes
 David Graham
40,000
200,000

1977
Gary Koch
 United States
274
−14
2 strokes
 Dale Hayes Joe Inman
40,000
200,000

1976
Hale Irwin
 United States
270
−18
Playoff
 Kermit Zarley
40,000
200,000

1975
Lee Trevino
 United States
276
−12
1 stroke
 Hale Irwin
40,000
200,000

1974
Jerry Heard (2)
 United States
273
−15
3 strokes
 Homero Blancas Jim Jamieson
30,000
150,000

1973
Buddy Allin
 United States
265
−23
8 strokes
 Charles Coody
30,000
150,000

1972
Jerry Heard
 United States
276
−12
2 strokes
 Bobby Mitchell
30,000
150,000

Florida Citrus Invitational

1971
Arnold Palmer
 United States
270
−18
1 stroke
 Julius Boros
30,000
150,000

1970
Bob Lunn
 United States
271
−17
1 stroke
 Arnold Palmer Bob Stanton
30,000
150,000

Florida Citrus Open Invitational

1969
Ken Still
 United States
278
−10
1 stroke
 Miller Barber
23,000
115,000

1968
Dan Sikes
 United States
274
−14
1 stroke
 Tom Weiskopf
23,000
115,000

1967
Julius Boros
 United States
274
−10
1 stroke
 George Knudson Arnold Palmer
23,000
115,000

1966
Lionel Hebert
 United States
279
−5
2 strokes
 Charles Coody Dick Lytle Jack Nicklaus
21,000
110,000

text:
* rain-shortened to 54 holes
Note: Green highlight indicates scoring records.
Sources[6][7]

text: Multiple winners[edit]

text: Seven men have won this tournament more than once through 2018.

text:
8 wins
Tiger Woods: 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2008, 2009, 2012, 2013
2 wins
Jerry Heard: 1972, 1974
Gary Koch: 1977, 1984
Tom Kite: 1982, 1989
Loren Roberts: 1994, 1995
Ernie Els: 1998, 2010
Matt Every: 2014, 2015

text: Tournament highlights[edit]

text:
1966: Lionel Hebert wins the inaugural version of the tournament. He wins by two shots over Jack Nicklaus, Charles Coody, and Dick Lytle.[8]
1968: Dan Sikes breaks out of a 5-way logjam to win by one shot over Tom Weiskopf. At the end of 54 holes, Sikes had been tied for the lead with Jack Nicklaus, Bruce Devlin, Miller Barber, and Bob Charles. Officials said this was the first time there had ever been a five-way tie for the lead after 54 holes at a PGA event.[9]
1971: Arnold Palmer wins the event eight years before he becomes its host. He beats Julius Boros by one shot.[10]
1973: Vietnam War veteran Buddy Allin shoots a tournament record 23 under par to breeze to an eight shot victory over Charles Coody.[11]
1974: Jerry Heard becomes the tournament's first two-time winner. He beats Homero Blancas and Jim Jamieson by two shots.[12]
1976: Early on a Monday morning, Hale Irwin defeats Kermit Zarley on the sixth hole of a sudden death playoff after play was suspended due to darkness on Sunday.[13] While speaking to the press on Sunday evening, Irwin blamed NBC Sports for there not being enough time to finish the playoff.[14]
1979: Bob Byman wins the first edition of the tournament to be played at Bay Hill. He defeats John Schroeder on the second hole of a sudden death playoff.[15]
1980: Dave Eichelberger wins by three shots over Leonard Thompson.[16] The temperatures were so cold that Eichelberger wore panty hose during the final round.[17]
1982: Tom Kite chips in for birdie on the first hole of a sudden death playoff to defeat Jack Nicklaus and Denis Watson.[18]
1984: Gary Koch shoots a final round 63 before defeating George Burns on the second hole of a sudden death playoff. Koch is the only champion in the tournament's history to win both at Rio Pinar and Bay Hill.[19]
1985: Coming off back surgery less than six months previously, Fuzzy Zoeller wins at Bay Hill. He finishes two shots ahead of  Tom Watson.[20]
1987:  Payne Stewart, who owned a home just off Bay Hill's 12th tee, notches his third career PGA Tour title. He beats David Frost by three shots.[21]
1989: Tom Kite wins for a second time at Bay Hill by defeating Davis Love III on the second hole of a sudden death playoff. Before the playoff took place, both Kite and Love made double bogey on the tournament's 72nd hole.[22]
1990: Robert Gamez holes a 7-iron on the 72nd hole for an eagle two allowing him to win by one shot over Greg Norman.[23]
1992: Fred Couples wins by nine shots over Gene Sauers. With his win, Couples becomes the #1 ranked player in the world.[24]
1995: Loren Roberts becomes the first returning champion to successfully defend his title. He beats Brad Faxon by two shots.[25]
1996: Paul Goydos wins for the first time on the PGA Tour. He beats Jeff Maggert by one shot and Tom Purtzer by two.[26] During the tournament's second round, Purtzer incurred a two-shot penalty by playing the wrong ball.
1998: During the tournament's final round, John Daly hits six balls in the water on the sixth hole. He finishes the hole with a final score of 18.[27]
2000: Tiger Woods wins at Bay Hill for the first time. He beats Davis Love III by four shots.[28]
2003: Tiger Woods becomes the first golfer since Gene Sarazen at the 1930 Miami Open to win the same tournament in four consecutive years. He wins by 11 shots over Kirk Triplett, Stewart Cink, Kenny Perry, and Brad Faxon.[29]
2005: Kenny Perry wins by two shots over Vijay Singh and Graeme McDowell. Perry and Singh were tied for the lead until Singh made double bogey at the 72nd hole.[30]
2008: Tiger Woods sinks a 25-foot birdie putt at the 72nd hole to defeat Bart Bryant by one shot.[31] It's Woods fifth Bay Hill triumph in addition to his winning the fifth consecutive tournament he had played in.
2009: Tiger Woods wins at Bay Hill for the 2nd straight year and sixth time overall. He birdies the 72nd hole to defeat Sean O'Hair by one shot.[32]
2012: Tiger Woods wins the Arnold Palmer Invitational for the seventh time, ending a winless streak on the PGA Tour dating back 27 events to September 13, 2009.[33]
2013: Tiger Woods wins for a record-tying eighth time at the Arnold Palmer Invitational while holing three eagles during the week, the first time a player has accomplished the feat since 2001; he ascends to the number 1 ranking for the first time since October 2010.[34]
2014: With world number one Woods out of the tournament, the focus was on world number two Adam Scott. Scott led the first three rounds, but struggled in the fourth round, finishing third behind Keegan Bradley and first-time PGA Tour winner Matt Every.
2015: Matt Every holed an 18-foot birdie putt on the 72nd hole to beat Henrik Stenson by one shot and become the third golfer to defend his title at the Arnold Palmer Invitational. In the third round, Daniel Berger recorded a double eagle at the par-5 6th hole, the first since the tournament moved to Bay Hill in 1979. Zach Johnson repeated the feat in the final round on the par-5 16th.[35][36]


document_title: Cuba at the FIFA World Cup

question_text: when did cuba play in the world cup

question_tokens: when did cuba play in the world cup

text: Cuba at the FIFA World Cup

text: Record at the FIFA World Cup[edit]

text:
Year
Round
Position
GP
W
D*
L
GF
GA

 1930
Did not enter

 1934
Did not qualify

 1938
Quarter-finals
8th
3
1
1
1
5
12

 1950
Did not qualify

 1954
Entry not accepted[3]

 1958
Did not enter

 1962

 1966
Did not qualify

 1970
Entry not accepted[3]

 1974
Did not enter

 1978
Did not qualify

 1982

 1986
Did not enter

 1990
Did not qualify

 1994
Withdrew

 1998
Did not qualify

  2002

 2006

 2010

 2014

 2018

 2022
To be determined

   2026

Total
1/21
-
3
1
1
1
5
12

text: By Match[edit]

text:
World Cup

Round

Opponent

Score

Result

Venue

Scorers

1938
Round of 16
 Romania
3–3 (a.e.t.)
D
Toulouse
H. Socorro (2), J. Magriñá

 Romania
2–1
W
Toulouse
H. Socorro, T. Fernández

Quarter-finals
 Sweden
0–8
L
Antibes
&—

text: Record by Opponent[edit]

text:
FIFA World Cup matches (by team)

Opponent

Wins

Draws

Losses

Total

Goals Scored

Goals Conceded

 Romania
1
1
0
2
5
4

 Sweden
0
0
1
1
0
8

text: Cuba at 1938 FIFA World Cup[edit]

text: Head coach: José Tapia

text:
No.

Pos.

Player

Date of birth (age)

Caps

Club

-

4FW

Juan Alonzo

1911

 Fortuna Havana

-

3MF

Joaquín Arias

 (1914-11-12)12 November 1914 (aged 23)

 Juventud Asturiana

-

1GK

Juan Ayra

 (1911-06-23)23 June 1911 (aged 26)

 CD Centro Gallego

-

2DF

Jacinto Barquín

 (1915-09-03)3 September 1915 (aged 22)

 CD Puentes Grandes

-

3MF

Pedro Berges

1906

 Iberia Havana

-

1GK

Benito Carvajales

1913

 Juventud Asturiana

-

2DF

Manuel Chorens

 (1916-01-22)22 January 1916 (aged 22)

 CD Centro Gallego

-

4FW

Tomás Fernández

1915

 CD Centro Gallego

-

4FW

Pedro Ferrer

1908

 Iberia Havana

-

3MF

Arturo Garcelan

 Juventud Asturiana

-

4FW

José Magriñá

 (1917-12-14)14 December 1917 (aged 20)

 CD Centro Gallego

*

4FW

Carlos Oliveira

 Hispano America

-

3MF

José Antonio Rodríguez

 CD Centro Gallego

-

4FW

Héctor Socorro

 (1912-06-26)26 June 1912 (aged 25)

 CD Puentes Grandes

-

4FW

Mario Sosa

1910

 Iberia Havana

-

4FW

Juan Tuñas

 (1917-02-01)1 February 1917 (aged 21)

 Juventud Asturiana

text: First Round[edit]

text:
Cuba

3 – 3 (a.e.t.)

 Romania

Socorro 44'Fernández 87'Tuñas  117'

Report

Bindea  35'Baratky  88'Dobay  105'

text: First Round Replay[edit]

text:
Cuba

2–1

 Romania

Socorro  51'Oliveira  57'

Report

Dobay  35'

text: Quarter-Final[edit]

text:
Sweden

8–0

 Cuba

Keller  9', 80', 81'[4][5][6]Wetterström  32', 37', 44'[7]Nyberg  84'H. Andersson  90'[8]

Report

text: Record Players[edit]

text: Eight players have been fielded in all three matches in 1938, making them record World Cup players for their country.

text:
No.

Name

Matches

1

Joaquín Arias
3

Jacinto Barquín
3

Pedro Berges
3

Manuel Chorens
3

Tomás Fernández
3

José Rodríguez
3

Héctor Socorro
3

Juan Tuñas
3

text: Top Goalscorers[edit]

text:
No.

Name

Goals

1
Héctor Socorro
2

2

Tomás Fernández
1

Carlos Oliveira
1

Juan Tuñas
1


document_title: Anaximander

question_text: who asserted that the most fundamental element is water

text: Anaximander

text: Biography[edit]

text: Anaximander, son of Praxiades, was born in the third year of the 42nd Olympiad (610 BC).[9] According to Apollodorus of Athens, Greek grammarian of the 2nd century BC, he was sixty-four years old during the second year of the 58th Olympiad (547–546 BC), and died shortly afterwards.[10]

text: Establishing a timeline of his work is now impossible, since no document provides chronological references. Themistius, a 4th-century Byzantine rhetorician, mentions that he was the "first of the known Greeks to publish a written document on nature." Therefore, his texts would be amongst the earliest written in prose, at least in the Western world. By the time of Plato, his philosophy was almost forgotten, and Aristotle, his successor Theophrastus and a few doxographers provide us with the little information that remains. However, we know from Aristotle that Thales, also from Miletus, precedes Anaximander. It is debatable whether Thales actually was the teacher of Anaximander, but there is no doubt that Anaximander was influenced by Thales' theory that everything is derived from water. One thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient Greeks considered Anaximander to be from the Monist school which began in Miletus, with Thales followed by Anaximander and finished with Anaximenes.[11]  3rd-century Roman rhetorician Aelian depicts him as leader of the Milesian colony to Apollonia on the Black Sea coast, and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen.[12] Indeed, Various History (III, 17) explains that philosophers sometimes also dealt with political matters. It is very likely that leaders of Miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colony's allegiance.

text: Anaximander lived the final few years of his life as a subject of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.[13]

text: Theories[edit]

text: Anaximander's theories were influenced by the Greek mythical tradition, and by some ideas of Thales – the father of philosophy – as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the East[dubious  – discuss] (especially by the Babylonian astrologers).[14] All these were elaborated rationally. In his desire to find some universal principle, he assumed, like traditional religion, the existence of a cosmic order; and in elaborating his ideas on this he used the old mythical language which ascribed divine control to various spheres of reality. This was a common practice for the Greek philosophers in a society which saw gods everywhere, and therefore could fit their ideas into a tolerably elastic system.[15]

text: Some scholars see a gap between the existing mythical and the new rational way of thought which is the main characteristic of the archaic period (8th to 6th century BC) in the Greek city-states.[16] This has given rise to the phrase "Greek miracle". But if we follow carefully the course of Anaximander's ideas, we will notice that there was not such an abrupt break as initially appears. The basic elements of nature (water, air, fire, earth) which the first Greek philosophers believed constituted the universe represent in fact the primordial forces of previous thought. Their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony. In the old cosmogonies – Hesiod (8th – 7th century BC) and Pherecydes (6th century BC) – Zeus establishes his order in the world by destroying the powers which were threatening this harmony (the Titans). Anaximander claimed that the cosmic order is not monarchic but geometric, and that this causes the equilibrium of the earth, which is lying in the centre of the universe. This is the projection on nature of a new political order and a new space organized around a centre which is the static point of the system in the society as in nature.[17] In this space there is isonomy (equal rights) and all the forces are symmetrical and transferrable. The decisions are now taken by the assembly of demos in the agora which is lying in the middle of the city.[18]

text: The same rational way of thought led him to introduce the abstract apeiron (indefinite, infinite, boundless, unlimited[19]) as an origin of the universe, a concept that is probably influenced by the original Chaos (gaping void, abyss, formless state) of the mythical Greek cosmogony from which everything else appeared.[20] It also takes notice of the mutual changes between the four elements. Origin, then, must be something else unlimited in its source, that could create without experiencing decay, so that genesis would never stop.[21]

text: Apeiron[edit]

text: The Refutation attributed to Hippolytus of Rome (I, 5), and the later 6th century Byzantine philosopher Simplicius of Cilicia, attribute to Anaximander the earliest use of the word apeiron (ἄπειρον "infinite" or "limitless") to designate the original principle. He was the first philosopher to employ, in a philosophical context, the term archē (ἀρχή), which until then had meant beginning or origin. For him, it became no longer a mere point in time, but a source that could perpetually give birth to whatever will be. The indefiniteness is spatial in early usages as in Homer (indefinite sea) and as in Xenophanes (6th century BC) who said that the earth went down indefinitely (to apeiron) i.e. beyond the imagination or concept of men.[22]

text: Aristotle writes (Metaphysics, I.III 3–4) that the Pre-Socratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things. While each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element (water for Thales and air for Anaximenes), Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (apeiron), subject to neither old age nor decay, that perpetually yielded fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived.[23] He proposed the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, Thales, who had claimed that the primary substance was water. The notion of temporal infinity was familiar to the Greek mind from remote antiquity in the religious concept of immortality, and Anaximander's description was in terms appropriate to this conception. This archē is called "eternal and ageless". (Hippolytus (?), Refutation, I,6,I;DK B2)[24]

text: For Anaximander, the principle of things, the constituent of all substances, is nothing determined and not an element such as water in Thales' view. Neither is it something halfway between air and water, or between air and fire, thicker than air and fire, or more subtle than water and earth.[25] Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature — for example, water can only be wet, never dry — and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the apeiron as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him.

text: Anaximander explains how the four elements of ancient physics (air, earth, water and fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions. Unlike other Pre-Socratics, he never defines this principle precisely, and it has generally been understood (e.g., by Aristotle and by Saint Augustine) as a sort of primal chaos. According to him, the Universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of things; an entire host of shapes and differences then grow that are found in "all the worlds" (for he believed there were many).[12]

text: Anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (apeiron). The one surviving fragment of Anaximander's writing deals with this matter. Simplicius transmitted it as a quotation, which describes the balanced and mutual changes of the elements:[26][27]

text:
Whence things have their origin,
Thence also their destruction happens,
According to necessity;
For they give to each other justice and recompense
For their injustice
In conformity with the ordinance of Time.

text:
Simplicius mentions that Anaximander said all these "in poetic terms", meaning that he used the old mythical language. The goddess Justice (Dike) keeps the cosmic order.
This concept of returning to the element of origin was often revisited afterwards, notably by Aristotle,[28] and by the Greek tragedian Euripides: "what comes from earth must return to earth."[29] Friedrich Nietzsche, in his Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, stated that Anaximander viewed "... all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance."[30] Physicist Max Born, in commenting upon Werner Heisenberg's arriving at the idea that the elementary particles of quantum mechanics are to be seen as different manifestations, different quantum states, of one and the same “primordial substance,”' proposed that this primordial substance be called apeiron.[31]

text: Cosmology[edit]

text: Anaximander's bold use of non-mythological explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as Hesiod. It confirms that pre-Socratic philosophers were making an early effort to demystify physical processes. His major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the Universe and the origins of life; for this he is often called the "Father of Cosmology" and founder of astronomy. However, pseudo-Plutarch states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities.[32]

text: Anaximander was the first to conceive a mechanical model of the world. In his model, the Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains "in the same place because of its indifference", a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, but false, in On the Heavens.[33] Its curious shape is that of a cylinder[34] with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world, which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass.

text: Anaximander's realization that the Earth floats free without falling and does not need to be resting on something has been indicated by many as the first cosmological revolution and the starting point of scientific thinking.[35][36] Karl Popper calls this idea "one of the boldest, most revolutionary, and most portentous ideas in the whole history of human thinking."[37]  Such a model allowed the concept that celestial bodies could pass under the Earth, opening the way to Greek astronomy.

text: At the origin, after the separation of hot and cold, a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the Sun was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the occlusion of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources)[38] and the lunar wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining lunar phases. The stars and the planets, located closer,[39] followed the same model.[40]

text: Anaximander was the first astronomer to consider the Sun as a huge mass, and consequently, to realize how far from Earth it might be, and the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. Furthermore, according to Diogenes Laertius (II, 2), he built a celestial sphere. This invention undoubtedly made him the first to realize the obliquity of the Zodiac as the Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder reports in Natural History (II, 8). It is a little early to use the term ecliptic, but his knowledge and work on astronomy confirm that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons. The doxographer and theologian Aetius attributes to Pythagoras the exact measurement of the obliquity.

text: Multiple worlds[edit]

text: According to Simplicius, Anaximander already speculated on the plurality of worlds, similar to atomists Leucippus and Democritus, and later philosopher Epicurus. These thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while, and that some were born when others perished. They claimed that this movement was eternal, "for without movement, there can be no generation, no destruction".[41]

text: In addition to Simplicius, Hippolytus[42] reports Anaximander's claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings, which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds (several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within,[43] which are often infinite in quantity). Cicero writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds.[44]

text: This theory places Anaximander close to the Atomists and the Epicureans who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared. In the timeline of the Greek history of thought, some thinkers conceptualized a single world (Plato, Aristotle, Anaxagoras and Archelaus), while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds, continuous or non-continuous (Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Empedocles and Diogenes).

text: Meteorological phenomena[edit]

text: Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes.[45] In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.[46]

text: He saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth.[47] A part of that mass evaporated under the sun's action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant.[48] He explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun.[9] For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotle's Meteorology (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion.

text: Origin of humankind[edit]

text: Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life. Taking into account the existence of fossils[dubious  – discuss], he claimed that animals sprang out of the sea long ago. The first animals were born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and break.[49] As the early humidity evaporated, dry land emerged and, in time, humankind had to adapt. The 3rd century Roman writer Censorinus reports:

text: Anaximander of Miletus considered that from warmed up water and earth emerged either fish or entirely fishlike animals. Inside these animals, men took form and embryos were held prisoners until puberty; only then, after these animals burst open, could men and women come out, now able to feed themselves.[50]

text: Anaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the Earth's climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales.[51] He thought that, considering humans' extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently.

text: Other accomplishments[edit]

text: Cartography[edit]

text: Both Strabo and Agathemerus (later Greek geographers) claim that, according to the geographer Eratosthenes, Anaximander was the first to publish a map of the world. The map probably inspired the Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus to draw a more accurate version. Strabo viewed both as the first geographers after Homer.

text: Maps were produced in ancient times, also notably in Egypt, Lydia, the Middle East, and Babylon. Only some small examples survived until today. The unique example of a world map comes from late Babylonian tablet BM 92687 later than 9th century BC but is based probably on a much older map. These maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximander's innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks.

text: Such an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears. Anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons.[53] First, it could be used to improve navigation and trade between Miletus's colonies and other colonies around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Second, Thales would probably have found it easier to convince the Ionian city-states to join in a federation in order to push the Median threat away if he possessed such a tool. Finally, the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one.

text: Surely aware of the sea's convexity, he may have designed his map on a slightly rounded metal surface. The centre or “navel” of the world (ὀμφαλός γῆς omphalós gẽs) could have been Delphi, but is more likely in Anaximander's time to have been located near Miletus. The Aegean Sea was near the map's centre and enclosed by three continents, themselves located in the middle of the ocean and isolated like islands by sea and rivers. Europe was bordered on the south by the Mediterranean Sea and was separated from Asia by the Black Sea, the Lake Maeotis, and, further east, either by the Phasis River (now called the Rioni) or the Tanais. The Nile flowed south into the ocean, separating Libya (which was the name for the part of the then-known African continent) from Asia.

text: Gnomon[edit]

text: The Suda relates that Anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry. It also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in Greece of the gnomon. In Lacedaemon, he participated in the construction, or at least in the adjustment, of sundials to indicate solstices and equinoxes.[54] Indeed, a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude.

text: In his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tip's position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice.

text: The invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to Anaximander because its use, as well as the division of days into twelve parts, came from the Babylonians. It is they, according to Herodotus' Histories (II, 109), who gave the Greeks the art of time measurement. It is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices, because no calculation is necessary. On the other hand, equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices, as the Babylonians thought. As the Suda seems to suggest, it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry, he became the first Greek to accurately determine the equinoxes.

text: Prediction of an earthquake[edit]

text: In his philosophical work De Divinatione (I, 50, 112), Cicero states that Anaximander convinced the inhabitants of Lacedaemon to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near.[55] The city collapsed when the top of the Taygetus split like the stern of a ship. Pliny the Elder also mentions this anecdote (II, 81), suggesting that it came from an "admirable inspiration", as opposed to Cicero, who did not associate the prediction with divination.

text: Interpretations[edit]

text: Bertrand Russell in the History of Western Philosophy interprets Anaximander's theories as  an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance between these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist.[56] His Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even the gods could operate.

text: Friedrich Nietzsche, in Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist who asserted that the primal being of the world was a state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed "...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance". (Ibid., § 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish.[57]

text: Martin Heidegger lectured extensively on Anaximander, and delivered a lecture entitled "Anaximander's Saying" which was subsequently included in Off the Beaten Track. The lecture examines the ontological difference and the oblivion of Being or Dasein in the context of the Anaximander fragment.[58] Heidegger's lecture is, in turn, an important influence on the French philosopher Jacques Derrida.[59]

text: Works[edit]

text: According to the Suda:[60]

text:
On Nature (Περὶ φύσεως / Perì phúseôs)
Rotation of the Earth (Γῆς περίοδος / Gễs períodos)
On Fixed stars (Περὶ τῶν ἀπλανῶν / Perì tỗn aplanỗn)
The [Celestial] Sphere (Σφαῖρα / Sphaĩra)