document_title: Castiel (Supernatural)

question_text: what episode do dean and sam meet castiel

text: Castiel (Supernatural)

text: Plot

text: Arrival on Earth

text: At the end of the third season of Supernatural, main character Dean Winchester is in Hell after being killed by the hellhounds of the demonic antagonist Lilith. In the season four premiere "Lazarus Rising", the angel Castiel is introduced as the one who brought Dean back from Hell and resurrected him. Because merely perceiving his actual form typically results in blindness,[2] he takes a human host – James "Jimmy" Novak,[3] a "devout man" who prayed for it – to communicate with Dean, and tells him that he has been brought back because God has work for him.[2] Lilith is breaking the 66 seals in order to free Lucifer, and Dean must stop her.[4]

text: Castiel continues to appear throughout the season, at one point sending Dean back in time and later tasking him and his brother Sam with stopping witches from breaking another seal.[5][6] He returns with fellow angel Uriel at the end of the episode "I Know What You Did Last Summer", seeking to kill Anna Milton, a fallen angel with the ability to "hear" the communications between angels.[7] In the following episode, "Heaven and Hell", Anna uses an ancient Enochian sigil to send the angels away, though they manage to track them down later. Once there, Castiel expresses regret at having to kill Anna. Before they can carry out their duty, however, they are confronted by the demon Alastair and two of his minions. A fight ensues, and Castiel is nearly defeated in the battle by Alastair. He is saved by Dean, and they in turn are rescued when Anna regains her powers. Although Uriel nearly vents his frustration on Dean, Castiel stops him, and the two leave.[8] Castiel later becomes suspicious of Uriel and confronts him in "On the Head of a Pin". Uriel admits he and certain other angels are now working together to free Lucifer, having grown weary of never hearing from God and jealous of His favoritism for humanity. He asks Castiel to join him, but Castiel refuses and attacks him. Uriel eventually overpowers Castiel, but is killed by Anna before he can strike the finishing blow. During this time, the orders he is getting from Heaven of questionable morality and the influence of Anna cause him to start to have doubts about Heaven's plans.[9] He later returns in "The Monster At the End of This Book" to explain Chuck's role as a Prophet and later when Dean calls him to help save Sam. Castiel informs Dean he can't interfere due to how important Prophets are, but he impresses upon Dean how the archangel protecting a Prophet will intervene if said Prophet is in trouble to secretly let him know a way to save Sam.

text: Jimmy Novak alone

text: In "The Rapture", Castiel enters Dean's dreams and arranges a meeting to tell him something important. However, when Sam and Dean go to meet him, they instead find Jimmy, Castiel's vessel, who claims to have little memory of his life as a vessel. Anna theorizes Castiel must have angered his superiors, prompting him to be taken back to Heaven. When Jimmy is shot at the end of the episode trying to save his family from demons, Castiel returns, taking Jimmy's daughter as his new vessel. After the demons are killed, a dying Jimmy begs Castiel to take him back as a host so his daughter will not have to go through what he did, and the angel acquiesces. Dean then asks him what he needed to tell him, but Castiel coldly replies his loyalty is to Heaven, not to mankind or to him.[3]

text: Servant of Heaven

text: In "When the Levee Breaks", Castiel has Dean take the oath of allegiance to God and His angels, to which Dean agrees under the impression it will keep Sam safe. Later in the episode, Castiel releases Sam, who is on detox from Ruby's demon blood, from Bobby's Panic Room. When Anna confronts him about his actions, other angels appear and capture her.

text: With Sam closing in on Lilith, Castiel and Zachariah imprison Dean within an idyllic waiting room, where he will be made comfortable until the time comes for him to play his role in stopping the Apocalypse. Dean refuses to remain idle, and continually requests to be able to see Sam, which is denied. Once Dean discovers the angels are allowing the Apocalypse to happen, he implores for Castiel to help him stop the final seal from being broken. Though Castiel refuses at first, he returns ready to help not long after. He takes Dean to see the prophet Chuck for information on Sam. Their presence does not fall in line with Chuck's Gospel, so the Archangel Raphael begins to descend. Castiel sends Dean to Sam, remaining behind to hold back the archangel and any others who might come.[10] He is subsequently killed, with his host's body being blown to pieces.[11]

text: Fall to Earth

text: However, Castiel later returns – still in Jimmy Novak's body – in the fifth-season premiere, "Sympathy for the Devil", killing two fellow angels in order to save Sam and Dean. He is uncertain as to how he was resurrected, but alludes to Zachariah it may have been God's doing. After ordering Zachariah away, Castiel carves Enochian sigils into Sam and Dean's ribs to hide them from all angels, including Lucifer.[11] Castiel later returns to the brothers in "Good God Y'All!", and reveals his plans to find God. He borrows Dean's amulet, as it burns hot in God's presence, and departs. He has also been completely cut off from Heaven as a result of his rebellion and has lost some of his powers as a result, including his ability to heal injuries.[12] He remains on Earth hunting for God, although acquires a cellphone so that the Winchesters can call for his aid when dealing with particularly challenging cases, such as their discovery of the Antichrist or their latest confrontation with the Trickster (who is revealed to be the lost archangel Gabriel).

text: In "Abandon All Hope...", Castiel helps the Winchesters retrieve the Colt, and joins them on their hunt for Lucifer. However, he ventures off after discovering hundreds of Reapers are already in the town, hoping to discover what has called them there. He soon becomes imprisoned by Lucifer, who tries to tempt Castiel into joining him, pointing out they are both targets of Heaven, but Castiel refuses. He later manages to free himself, but finds he no longer has the power to kill demons. After Sam and Dean fail in their attempt to kill the Devil, Castiel teleports them to safety.[13] After exhausting most of his remaining power to take Sam and Dean back in time to save their parents from renegade angel Anna,[14] Castiel aids the Winchesters in their battle with Famine, the Horseman of the Apocalypse – the brothers having already defeated War – but his weakened powers render him susceptible to Famine's influence, Famine attacking Jimmy's hunger for red meat to make Castiel more interested in eating burgers than actually fighting.[15] When the brothers are killed by vengeful hunters in "Dark Side of the Moon", Castiel – unable to return to Heaven – briefly communicates with them. He tasks them with finding the angel Joshua, who communicates directly with God. Although Joshua reveals God is alive, he claims He is apathetic to the Apocalypse; having saved the brothers and Castiel, God feels He has done enough. When relayed to Castiel, his hopes and faith are shattered,[16] leading him to drink heavily in the subsequent episode "99 Problems" when Sam summons him for answers about the actions of the people in a town. Castiel reveals that they are dealing with the Whore of Babylon and provides the stake that can kill her, but as he is no longer a true servant of Heaven, is unable to do it himself. He gets Pastor Gideon so they can have him do it and tries to hold the Whore in place so the Pastor can stab her. However, she casts a spell that causes him great pain and knocks him out of the fight. In the end, Dean stabs her with the stake, identifying himself as a true servant of heaven.[17]

text: Powerless

text: In "Point of No Return", Castiel helps Sam to keep Dean from becoming Michael's vessel. He leaves after hearing a signal from the angels, and finds a resurrected Adam Milligan – Sam and Dean's half-brother who had been previously killed by ghouls. When Dean escapes and tries to contact the angels, Castiel finds him, and angrily attacks him for making Castiel's rebelling against Heaven worthless. Later, he carves a banishing sigil into his own chest and activates it in the presence of multiple angels in order to clear the way for Sam and Dean to attack Zachariah and save Adam. The effects of the sigil send him onto a fishing boat, now completely human. Despite his lack of power, he is able to defeat the Horseman Pestilence using what appears to be what little is left of his angelic strength, and assists Bobby and Sam in preventing nationwide distribution of the Croatoan virus.[18] In the fifth-season finale, "Swan Song", Castiel loses faith after Sam fails to overpower Lucifer when he possesses him and suggests they get drunk and wait for the end to come. When Dean refuses to give up, Castiel and Bobby follow him and Castiel uses a Molotov cocktail of Holy Fire to temporarily banish Michael to buy Dean time to try to reach Sam. Angry that Castiel attacked his brother, Lucifer obliterates Castiel with a snap of his fingers. After Sam and Dean avert the Apocalypse, Castiel is resurrected once more by God, now more powerful than ever. He heals Dean's injuries and resurrects Bobby and reminds Dean that he got what he wanted: no Apocalypse, no Paradise, just more of the same. Castiel then heads back to Heaven to restore order and become its new leader, believing it to be in chaos as Sam trapped Michael in Lucifer's Cage as well.

text: Post-Apocalyptic alliances

text: A year after the Apocalypse, Castiel returns to Earth in "The Third Man" to get Sam and Dean's help to find the Staff of Moses, which, along with many other weapons of Heaven, has been stolen during the war. They soon discover that the angel Balthazar has stolen it and sold pieces of it to people in exchange for their souls. They confront Balthazar, but are interrupted by Raphael. Before Raphael is able to get his revenge against Castiel, Balthazar destroys Raphael's vessel and sends him back to Heaven. After trapping Balthazar within a ring of ignited holy oil and forcing him to restore the souls he has taken, Castiel sets him free, claiming his debt has been paid off.[19]

text: In "Family Matters", Castiel returns to "diagnose" Sam by asking him several questions. Sam, still dizzy and unsure of what is going on after being knocked unconscious by Dean, reveals that he no longer sleeps and has become a better hunter. Castiel has an idea of what's wrong and decides to read Sam's soul by reaching inside him, and the truth is finally revealed: that Sam has no soul, and it was locked in the cage with Lucifer. Both Dean and Castiel are unsure whether Sam is still Sam without his soul, but they let Sam go and Castiel heals his wounds from being beaten by Dean.[20]

text: In "Caged Heat",[21] Sam tries to trick Castiel into coming to Earth to help the brothers get Sam's soul back. When he comes, Sam threatens Castiel saying that if he does not help, then he will hunt him down and kill him. Despite knowing Sam never could, he helps them. Later, while Sam and Dean are doing research, Castiel discovers porn on TV; when Dean asks why he was watching porn, he replies, "It was there."

text: Castiel later discovers Sam and Dean are working with a demon named Meg, whom he refers to as an abomination. When Crowley admits that he cannot get Sam's soul back, Castiel burns Crowley's human remains.

text: At the end of the episode Castiel explains to Sam and Dean that the celestial war is not going well for him and he would rather be on Earth with them, but leaves anyway to continue fighting, but promises to take care of Crowley's captured monsters first. After acquiring the holy weapons from Balthazar in "The French Mistake",[22] Castiel suggests that he now has a military advantage in the war. Unfortunately, this advantage seems limited; he orders Balthazar in "My Heart Will Go On"[23] to save the Titanic, spawning 50,000 new souls to empower his side. However, Fate works to undo the impossible births and begins killing them. Once the brothers encounter the string of odd deaths Fate takes this opportunity to eliminate them due to their part of undoing the destined Apocalypse. This forces Castiel to concede the loss and re-sink the Titanic.

text: In "Frontierland", Sam and Dean call for Castiel to send them back in time as they have learned that the ashes of a Phoenix can kill Eve and that Samuel Colt killed one in the past with The Colt. Rachel, Castiel's lieutenant comes instead and berates the boys for only calling for him when they need something of him, but Castiel arrives himself and sends Rachel away. Castiel is able to send Dean and Sam back in time, but warns them that he has to retrieve them in 24 hours or they'll be stuck in the past forever and tells Bobby to pray for him when the time comes. While waiting, Rachel approaches him about his plans and attacks him. Castiel kills her, but is left weakened by a stab wound she managed to inflict on him first. Castiel manages to teleport to Bobby's and draws a sigil to hide himself from the other angels before passing out. He wakes in time to retrieve the Winchesters, but his weakened state prevents this so he is forced to draw power from Bobby's soul. While Dean killed the Phoenix, Castiel brought them back before they could gather the ashes so it all appears for nothing and he lacks the power to send them back. Luckily, Samuel Colt collected the ashes and sent a package with them to be delivered to Bobby's after the boys return.

text: In "Mommy Dearest", it is discovered that there is a possibility Crowley may have faked his death and might still be alive; suggesting that perhaps Castiel had burned the wrong bones by mistake. Eve reveals this to Sam and Dean when they try to hunt her down. During the hunt, Eve is able to suppress Castiel's powers as she is older than him. After Dean kills Eve, Castiel's powers return and he kills all of her monsters with a blast of white light before transporting the group to the home of the uncle of two young boys who were turned into monsters. There, they find them dead, having been killed by demons, and Castiel promises to look into Crowley's possible survival to find out for sure if he's dead or not. However, Castiel is instead seen with a very alive Crowley who states that he is "tired of cleaning up after [Castiel's] messes", implying that Castiel had full knowledge of burning the wrong bones and that both he and Crowley have some sort of agreement between them and/or may be working together as partners.

text: In "The Man Who Would Be King", it is revealed that Castiel was the one who partially raised Sam from Hell, though due to the complication of the cage it was impossible to retrieve his soul, and that he has made a deal with Crowley in a desperate attempt to win the war. Sam and Dean also learn of his partnership with Crowley when he slips up and reveals he is spying on them.

text: In "Let it Bleed", Castiel is enraged to learn that Lisa and Ben Braeden have been kidnapped by Crowley and tries to get him to reveal where they are to no avail. Castiel saves Dean from a demon and tries and fails to convince him to back off. Later, after Lisa is mortally wounded by a demon possessing her in an attempt to force Dean not to exorcise her, Castiel arrives at the hospital and without being asked, heals her wounds and at Dean's request, erases all of her and her son Ben's memories of Dean. He does this as a final act of friendship towards Dean though both admit it doesn't change the fact that they are now enemies. Castiel also spends the episode one step ahead of Bobby investigating H.P. Lovecraft's opening of Purgatory in an attempt to find a way to open it himself.

text: Godhood

text: In "The Man Who Knew Too Much", Castiel tricks Crowley and Raphael, eventually absorbing the souls from Purgatory. He demonstrates his new power by killing Raphael with a simple snap of his fingers. While talking to Dean, who unsuccessfully begs him to give up the power, Sam sneaks up behind them and attempts to kill him with an angelic blade by stabbing Castiel in the back, but it has no effect. Castiel removes the blade, explains that he is no longer an angel, declaring himself their new God. He then glances at the three hunters before delivering an ultimatum: to profess their own loyalty and love unto him, or be destroyed.

text: In "Meet the New Boss", Castiel begins exacting his new supremacy over the planet, working miracles and punishing religious hypocrites alike. However, when Castiel's vessel begins to become damaged and he begins to lose control of his power, Death reveals that he also absorbed creatures known as Leviathans from Purgatory. The Leviathans will destroy him if they are not released. Castiel seeks out the Winchesters' help, and reopens the portal with Death's assistance. Although the souls are returned, the Leviathans evade reentering Purgatory and take control of Castiel's vessel. In "Hello, Cruel World", the vessel begins to quickly break down. The Leviathans are forced to leave, dispersing into the local water supply nearby and leaving behind only Castiel's trench coat.

text: Return to madness

text: In "The Born-Again Identity", it's revealed that Castiel survived. After the Leviathans left him, he made his way out of the river, naked, and ran into his future wife Daphne. However, the experience renders Castiel amnesic, but with his angelic powers intact. Going by the name "Emanuel", Castiel used his powers to heal people, though he didn't know where that ability and his power to see demon's true faces came from. After Sam is committed to a mental hospital as a result of the hallucinations of Lucifer he is suffering due to Castiel breaking his "mental wall", Dean searches for "Emanuel" and kills a demon that is holding his wife hostage. Castiel agrees to help Dean who doesn't tell him who he really is, but mentions what "Cas" had done to Sam. The two are joined by Meg, but upon reaching the hospital, find demons surrounding the entrance. As Castiel is the only one who can take them all down, Dean is forced to tell him the truth about who he really is and insists he has the power to kill the demons. Castiel manages to summon his power to kill demons and kills all of them, but doing so restores his memories. Castiel shows remorse for his previous actions and initially wants to leave, but Dean is able to convince him to help by giving him back his trench coat. Castiel finds Sam in time to save him from a demon torturing him to death with electro-shock therapy and tries to restore his mental wall, but can't as it's completely gone. Feeling sorry for what he had done, Castiel transfers the problem to himself and is haunted by visions of Lucifer like Sam was. Castiel is committed to the mental hospital, but is safe from the demons as only Meg knows he's alive and she takes a job at the hospital, presumably to look after him. In "Party On, Garth", Dean calls Meg and she reveals that Castiel's in the same condition, which Sam feels guilty about.

text: In "Reading is Fundamental", Castiel is awakened when the Word of God – a tablet with information inscribed by an angel as dictated by God – is found by Sam and Dean. Although his torment has driven him insane, he explains that taking on Sam's pain has helped relieve some of his past burdens. He then explains what the Word of God is, but is unable to read it. Two angels from his former garrison arrive in pursuit of Kevin, a prophet who was awakened by the Word of God and drawn to it. The angel Hester tries to kill Castiel out of anger for his past actions, but she is instead killed by Meg. The other angel offers Castiel the chance to return to Heaven with him, but Castiel declines, explaining that he feels he no longer belongs there. The other angel then leaves, taking Kevin away to safety. Castiel comments to the Winchesters that he finds it amazing that he does not know what he is going to do next, and teleports away after giving them his blood.

text: In "Survival of the Fittest", after finding his garrison wiped out, Castiel has Meg take him to the Winchesters where he explains what he has discovered. Crowley arrives and is furious to see him, but Castiel no longer has a wish to fight and when Crowley realizes he's insane, he decides to put off his feud with Castiel for a time when he's sane again. Crowley, after giving them his blood, disappears but tells them Castiel can help them kill Dick. Castiel refuses to help as he doesn't want to fight and after he disappears to retrieve a board game, Meg explains that since Castiel had the Leviathans within him, he is able to tell them apart even in their human forms and can pick out the real Dick Roman. Castiel watches as Sam and Dean burn Bobby's flask and put him at rest and later takes Dean to where he has stored the Impala and agrees to help. Castiel, Sam and Dean infiltrate Sucrocorp thanks to a distraction from Meg and he and Dean confront Dick Roman in the labs. Dick throws Castiel across the room when he tries to attack, but after Dean fails to kill Dick, Castiel holds his head in place from behind allowing Dean to stab Dick through the neck with the weapon, killing him. As a result of this, Castiel and Dean are sucked into Purgatory with Dick's soul and after letting Dean know this and that they are more likely to die than get out, Castiel disappears, leaving Dean alone.

text: Out of Purgatory

text: In "We Need To Talk About Kevin", Dean escapes Purgatory with the help of the vampire Benny, but Castiel is not with him. He later tells Sam that things got hairy near the end and that Castiel didn't make it, that he "let go". While Dean doesn't elaborate, he is clearly affected by this. In a flashback scene, Dean is shown looking for Castiel in Purgatory, interrogating a vampire for his location. As a result, he meets Benny and only agrees to Benny's deal to get out if they find Castiel first and help him escape too. Castiel appears in flashbacks in the following episode, where he reveals that he fled Dean to keep him safe from the Leviathans and other monsters that are angry at Castiel, but Dean refuses to leave Purgatory without Castiel. When talking with another angel at an auction for the second Word of God tablet, Dean again states that Castiel did not make it out of Purgatory. He later escapes with the aid of an army of angels sent to rescue him – having initially remained behind as penance for his actions to stop a duo of Leviathans that were trying to attack Dean and Benny as they left Purgatory – but the other angels not only erase his memory that they were responsible for his escape, but also erase his memory of their subsequent 'check-ins' to discuss the Winchesters' actions, with Castiel forced to tell them about the Winchesters' progress in the search for the tablet. Apparently back to full power, Castiel helps the Winchesters save Kevin from Crowley – who has been abducting future Prophets to try to find another means of reading the Word of God tablet – and destroy the tablet to prevent Crowley using it, retaining half of the tablet while Crowley flees with the other half. Afterwards, in "Hunteri Heroici", Castiel cuts off his ability to listen into the other angels and decides to become a full-time hunter to avoid facing the other angels about what he has done. Castiel proves instrumental in solving the case, using his abilities to enter the mind of a man with reality warping powers, allowing Sam to bring him back to reality with a speech about not running from it. Later, at the request of the man, Fred, Castiel strips him of his powers so he is no longer a danger to anyone though it leaves him mentally damaged. Castiel, having listened to Sam's speech about running from reality as well as Fred, decides to return to Heaven to try to make up for what he did, but is forbidden by Naomi, the angel who ordered his rescue. Instead, Castiel stays to watch out for Fred for a while, but accepts that he can no longer run from what he has done.

text: In "Torn and Frayed", as his penance, Castiel has turned back on his "angel radio" and travels around helping people who have need of help or healing. He demonstrates this by healing a sick infant that won't stop crying. After getting a distress call from Samandriel, Naomi summons Castiel to rescue the angel. Castiel enlists Dean's help and repeatedly wonders where Sam is, unaware that Sam and Dean are currently not getting along. After getting the ingredients for a "demon bomb", Castiel gets Sam as they will need all the help they can get to rescue Samandriel and yells at Sam and Dean for their behavior. At the warehouse, Castiel tells Sam and Dean what symbols to neutralize and where so he can enter and gives Sam his sword so he has a weapon against demons. After Sam and Dean clear the way, Castiel enters, but is weakened by the other sigils in the building. Samandriel's screams cause him to remember being tied down by Naomi who approaches his eye with a mysterious instrument and is unable to help Sam and Dean in breaking into the room where Samandriel is. After they get in, Castiel frees Samandriel while Sam and Dean deal with the demons guarding him and takes the other angel outside. There, Samandriel begs for Castiel not to return him to Heaven and tries to warn him that "they" are controlling him. Before Samandriel can explain, Naomi forces Castiel to kill him for being a "traitor". Castiel is horrified by this, but Naomi reveals that Samandriel telling Crowley about the angel Word of God tablet puts all in angels in danger and Castiel is a hero. Under her orders, he claims to Sam and Dean that he was forced to kill Samandriel in self-defense and that he is taking him back to Heaven to put him to rest (in reality so Naomi can determine just how much he broke), but his weird behavior and the fact that his eye starts bleeding arouses Sam and Dean's suspicions that he is being controlled.

text: On the run from Heaven

text: In "Goodbye Stranger", Castiel has been completely brainwashed by Naomi and has killed thousands of copies of Dean ruthlessly. Castiel is sent to find the angel tablet and tortures and kills the demons also looking for it, drawing Sam and Dean's attention. Sam and Dean track down someone who knows the location of one of Lucifer's Crypts where the angel tablet is and in ensuing scuffle, Sam ends up in trouble. Castiel saves Sam and captures one of the demons, claiming under Naomi's orders that he is searching for the second half of the demon tablet and that the demons are searching for a parchment that will allow them to translate it without a Prophet. Castiel tortures the demon who tells them where to find Meg, but kills her before she can reveal the truth to Sam and Dean. Castiel heads off alone and rescues Meg who explains what the demons really want. While Naomi initially wants her killed to prevent that, Castiel is able to make a case to keep her alive. The group then go to the warehouse where the crypt is and before heading inside with Dean, Castiel reveals that Sam is damaged by his trials on a level that even Castiel can't fix. Castiel and Dean locate the angel tablet and Castiel has to have Dean get it as it is warded against angels. However, Naomi orders Castiel to kill Dean and though he fights it, he has no control over his actions. As he is about to kill him, Dean manages to break through to Castiel's heart and he breaks free of Naomi's influence. He picks up the angel tablet which completely severs Naomi's connection to and control over him. Castiel heals Dean and explains what happened, but senses that he must now protect the tablet from everyone, even Dean. Castiel is later seen traveling on a bus to an unknown destination with the tablet. Despite losing the tablet, Naomi is somewhat satisfied as according to her, Castiel is doing what he is supposed to be doing. Naomi later comes to Dean. In an attempt to gain his trust, presumably because she knows Castiel is one of his weak spots, she lies to Dean about Castiel and claims that he misinterpreted everything she has done and is still insane. Dean, of course, doesn't believe her. Despite this, Castiel is eventually captured by Naomi's forces, but the angel tablet is claimed by Crowley after one of Naomi's angels betrays their location, although this gives Castiel time to escape and reunite with the Winchesters after killing the angel guarding him.

text: Metatron's betrayal

text: With Heaven in chaos, Metatron (the Scribe of God, recently rediscovered) convinces Castiel that they must seal the gates of Heaven to force the angels together to make peace. The first trial is to cut out the heart of a nephilim, the child of a human and an angel, which Castiel is forced to kill when the selected target attacks him. They manage to complete the second trial (retrieving the bow of a cupid), but Metatron subsequently reveals that his true intentions are to exile all the angels from Heaven for forcing him to leave Heaven ages ago. He takes Castiel's grace from him as the third ingredient for this spell, leaving Castiel human and banished to Earth before the other angels begin to fall as well.

text: Back to humanity

text: With the angels expelled from Heaven, many of them begin searching for Castiel, whom they believe is responsible. Castiel decides he wants to help his fallen brethren find "direction" when he encounters an angel named Hale who requests his guidance. When Castiel contacts the Winchesters, however, Dean tells him to leave Hale and make his way the Men of Letters bunker where he will be safe from the angels hunting him. Following this, Castiel attempts to leave Hale behind but is captured by her instead whereby she reveals her plans to possess him. Castiel escapes and kills Hale then continues to make his way to the bunker, abandoning his usual attire along the way. Castiel is nearly caught several times by the angels searching for him and gets a tattoo that will ward him against angels. In response, the angels send freelance Reapers after him and he is eventually caught by one of them. The Reaper tortures Castiel and kills him when the Winchesters show up to rescue him. Dean has the angel secretly possessing Sam heal Castiel and takes him back to the bunker but later asks him to leave when Ezekiel, the angel inside Sam, requests it.

text: Castiel gets a job at a gas station and attempts to adjust to his new life as a human. He helps Dean hunt a rogue angel that is killing people in emotional pain, but later prays for help when Dean sends him away for the second time on Ezekiel's orders. Castiel is found by the neutral angel Muriel who heard his prayer. Muriel agrees to provide information but the two are captured by angels that have been trailing Muriel. Castiel and Muriel are taken to the anarchist angel Malachi, the leader of one side of the angel civil war (the other side being headed by the angel Bartholomew), and tortured for information on Metatron. Muriel is killed in the process.

text: Stolen Grace

text: Eventually, Malachi leaves Castiel with the angel Theo who tells Castiel he wants to defect to Metatron's side. Castiel tricks Theo into releasing him and steals his Grace, transforming Castiel into an angel once more and at least restoring his powers. Castiel calls Dean and tells him that while he was held captive by Malachi he learned that the angel Ezekiel is dead and so the angel possessing Sam must be an impostor.

text: After being contacted by Dean, Castiel, now wearing a new suit and trenchcoat and driving a stolen car as he can no longer teleport, returns to the bunker where he comes up with the plan to have Crowley help expel Gadreel from Sam. Castiel knocks Gadreel out and comforts Dean when the torture they have Crowley perform to bring forth Sam's mind proves too much for Dean. Castiel is furious to learn that it is Gadreel, blaming him for all the evil in the universe, but Dean calms him down. When Gadreel proves resistant to their efforts to expel him, Dean tries to have Castiel possess Sam to let him know of the situation but he can't without Sam's permission. Crowley agrees to do it instead in exchange for his freedom and though Castiel is reluctant, he removes Sam's anti-possession tattoo. The plan works and Sam expels Gadreel. After leaving Crowley to deal with Abaddon, Castiel heals Sam's injuries from the torture and informs him he can finish his healing from the Trials over time as Gadreel did most of the job. He remains behind with Sam as Dean leaves on his own.

text: Facing Metatron

text: With his angelic powers partially restored, Castiel sets out to try and stop the angelic civil war. Having killed Bartholomew in self-defence, Castiel takes command of most of the Earth-bound angels, but finds himself opposed by Metatron, who is rallying angels to his side with the intention of painting Castiel as the villain of the piece. Although Castiel learns that his stolen grace will kill him eventually, he refuses Metatron's offer to side with him, eventually convincing Gadreel to ally with him in opposing Metatron's attempt to stage a coup of Heaven even as Metatron tricks the other angels into follow him by presenting Castiel as a despot willing to destroy everything to win the war, convincing angels to 'suicide bomb' themselves and claim that Castiel told them to do it. Having gained access to Heaven's 'back door' after Gadreel sacrifices himself, Castiel defeats Metatron and throws him into Heaven's prison.

text: Lack of Grace

text: Despite his defeat of Metatron and access to Heaven having been restored, Castiel continues to face challenges on a personal and large scale, as some angels prefer to remain on Earth and his stolen Grace continues to consume him. Although Metatron has hinted that he may be able to help Castiel with a remaining fragment of his original Grace, Castiel has rejected the option of making a deal with Metatron to save his own life. Sam and Dean remain ignorant of Castiel's fate, although Crowley is aware of Castiel's condition, at one point killing another angel to transfer her Grace to Castiel so that Castiel could help Sam cure the now-demonic Dean after he was transformed by the Mark of Cain.

text: When Hannah decides to return to Heaven to give her vessel a chance at returning to her life, Castiel is prompted to look up Jimmy's daughter Claire, revealing that Jimmy has been 'dead' and in Heaven ever since Jimmy's body was destroyed during his first confrontation with Raphael. Although Claire initially resents Castiel's return to her life, she comes to accept him and the Winchesters after they save her from being sold as a prostitute by a man she believed had been helping her.

text: Grace restored

text: Seeking to help Dean find a cure for the Mark of Cain, Castiel breaks Metatron out of Heaven and removes his Grace so that the Winchesters can interrogate him. Although he fails to provide any new information, Metatron is able to lead Castiel to the library where he hid the remaining fragments of Castiel's Grace. With his powers restored, Castiel helps Claire find her long-lost mother, but although Amelia sacrifices herself to save Claire, Claire accepts that the Winchesters and Castiel meant well, even speculating that she will become a Hunter herself. When Rowena – Crowley's long-lost mother – casts a spell to remove the Mark, she also casts a spell that causes Castiel to attack Crowley while she escapes, leaving Castiel driven by a greater rage to the point that he kills two angels until Rowena is forced to cure him.

text: Lucifer's Vessel

text: Faced with the threat of the Darkness – revealed over the course of the series to be God's 'sister', sacrificed to create the world – Castiel agrees to act as Lucifer's vessel when Lucifer claims to be the only one with the power to defeat the Darkness, since God is absent and all other archangels are dead or insane. After killing Rowena, apparently the only person capable of re-opening the Cage, Lucifer spends some time re-establishing his power base in Hell while acting as Castiel to interact with the Winchesters and follow their research into Amara, but his true identity is revealed after the Winchesters attempt to travel back in time to recover a Hand of God from a submarine before it sank in 1943. Castiel is able to regain control long enough to explain the situation to Sam and stop himself killing his friend, Dean subsequently banishing Lucifer and vowing to find a way to free Castiel from his control. Crowley, forced to act as Lucifer's slave, is forced on the run after he fails to kill Lucifer with another salvaged Hand of God. The Winchesters manage to get through to Castiel when preparing for a new confrontation with Amara, but Castiel resolves to remain as Lucifer's Vessel until her defeat, only for the Hand of God to fail against Amara's power. With Castiel/Lucifer now Amara's prisoner, she decides to torture an archangel to try and lure God out, leaving the Winchesters to speculate that Lucifer couldn't use the Hand of God due to the fact that he is a fallen archangel. Lucifer is eventually rescued when God returns – revealed to be Chuck, the author who wrote the Winchester Gospels – with God/Chuck healing Lucifer and apologising for his past actions. Although Lucifer is apparently killed in the later confrontation with Amara, Castiel is healed and returned to control of his body, although he is then banished when a member of the London branch of the Men of Letters attacks the bunker to punish Sam's past actions.

text: Quest for Lucifer

text: Castiel is able to collect himself in time to return to the bunker and help Dean and the resurrected Mary Winchester find and rescue Sam. However, upon learning that Lucifer has escaped destruction, now jumping through vessels that rapidly burn out due to his weakened state making it harder for him to maintain them, Castiel sets out to find Lucifer, accompanied by Crowley, although their first attempt simply sees Rowena banish Lucifer's new vessel to the bottom of the ocean without actually managing to kill him.

text: Characterization

text: Castiel typically displays very little emotion and always exhibits an extremely somber disposition. Although it has been suggested angels possibly do not possess the ability to truly feel emotion, Castiel frequently exhibits affection towards Dean.[8] This attachment and growing ability to feel even causes him to be "demoted", as his superiors fear emotions are clouding his judgment.[9] Throughout his appearances in the fourth season, he also seems to, at the very least, come close to expressing regret, hesitance, and anger several times, and has once quietly laughed at a joke Dean made in "It's the Great Pumpkin, Sam Winchester". Actor Misha Collins feels, through Dean, "[Castiel is] learning a little bit about humanity and re-learning something about [his] own humanity from that exposure. So...there's a humanizing of Castiel going on."[24] Castiel begins having an internal struggle between what is right and what is wrong, and whether or not to obey orders from Heaven. Collins feels this is because interactions with Sam and Dean have made the angel "uncertain" and "more fragile". Collins believes Castiel envies Dean's decisiveness and desires to emulate him.[25]

text: Having lost his connection to Heaven in the fifth season, Castiel's humanization seems to have quickened by the episode "Free to Be You and Me", as he appears extremely anxious while in a whorehouse, is visibly distraught when asking Dean for help, and refers to the Archangel Raphael as "my little bitch".[26] Despite becoming very arrogant when he becomes the "new God", Castiel still shows his caring side and ultimately returns the souls to Purgatory and shows remorse for his actions, promising to Dean to find a way to redeem himself in Dean's eyes, showing that he cares about how Dean views him. After losing his memory, Castiel is more human than ever, but still displays some of his emotionless side. After his memory returns, he shows real regret when he can't undo the damage he did to Sam and essentially sacrifices himself to save him out of remorse for his actions. After Castiel wakes up from his catatonic state, he is now depicted as insane with tendencies to ramble about random topics. However, parts of Castiel's original personality are still shown with him still being happy to help Sam and Dean out and still knowledgeable about various supernatural things, but not willing to actually fight anymore even when his life is threatened. Castiel describes himself as "bad luck" and doesn't believe he should be around the Winchesters as a result. After traveling to Purgatory, Castiel regained his sanity, but still carries a lot of guilt about his previous actions. He is also now less distant from Sam and Dean and more appreciative of human things such as television.

text: While Castiel and his peers, contrary to depictions of angels in popular culture, are not out helping people in need, Castiel still has a conscience and cares about the welfare of humanity—creatures whom he believes to be "works of art".[6] Speaking of his character, actor Misha Collins stated, "I think that these angels are at least loosely derived from some Biblical angel stories, and those angels are [very tough]. They just destroy. I picked up Revelations, and they destroy, they destroy, they destroy. There’s no mention of cherubs and harps or any of that."[24]

text: Development

text: The character was created for the fourth season to introduce Christian mythology to the series.[27] Because series creator Eric Kripke wanted to keep the introduction of angels a secret, the character was described as a demon during auditions.[28] Once Collins got the part, the main direction Kripke gave him of the character was there is "an otherworldly quality to the character, and that he hasn't been up close with human beings. He's been watching human beings from a great distance for the last two thousand years, so angels haven't been on Earth mingling with human beings for the last two thousand years. So when [he is] interacting with human beings, there's a naive curiosity about their behavior. It's as if [he is] inspecting some sort of alien beings." The series director Kim Manners also encouraged Collins to play Castiel with an air of "piousness".[28] Kripke based Castiel's appearance on the comic book character John Constantine.[29]

text: To prepare for the role, Collins read the Book of Revelation.[28] As well, Collins has said he somewhat based his character around his younger brother, who has something "angelic about him", as he "has this way of, very calmly, just staring into someone's eyes" making one feel "like he can get into your soul."[30] To avoid the biblically toned dialogue from sounding too "campy", Collins does his best to "play it as real as possible".[31] Because Castiel's true voice shattered windows in his premiere episode, Collins decided to use a "gruff, resonant voice" for the character.[32] However, when portraying the angel's host Jimmy Novak, he tried to create a distinction between the two characters, providing different physical and personality traits,[33] as well as using a "more boyish kind of sound" for Jimmy's voice.[32]

text: Speaking of the fifth season and Castiel's more frequent interactions with humans, Collins commented, "Obviously the big joke is that he doesn't understand human beings and how they behave. And there is something inherently funny in that, especially if he's the straight man." The actor noted he was a little hesitant at making the character into "the funny guy", and was apprehensive about some moments in the early episodes of the season. However, he believes the writers have found "the line", allowing for the jokes to be "more subtle" and "a little more believable".[34]

text: Reception

text: Critical response to the character has been extremely favorable. Castiel ranked ninth on TV.com's top ten list of best new supporting characters of 2008.[35] The staff and voters of TelevisionWithoutPity both agreed Castiel was the 2008–2009 Most Welcome New Character on television,[36] and BuddyTV's John Kubicek listed him as one of the ten "TV Characters Who Deserve Their Own Spin-Offs".[37] TV Squad ranked him as the top reason to watch the series, noting the "slightly awkward, frighteningly precise angel... has done an amazing job of selling the underlying menace and vengefulness of God's most heavenly creatures."[38]

text: Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union-Tribune described the concept of Castiel as "genius" and the actor Collins as "fabulous".[39] Deeming Castiel to be a "fascinating new element", Diana Steenbergen of IGN ranked Castiel fourth in her list of the "Ten Things We Love About Supernatural". She posited that Collins plays the role with "somber intensity", and "brings a sense of curiosity about humans to the character". The angel's interactions with Dean were "one of the highlights of the [fourth] season".[40] She especially praised Collins for his dual role as Castiel and the angel's host Jimmy Novak in the episode "The Rapture", and wrote, "It is a tribute to Collins's acting that the audience knows immediately that the person we are seeing is not Castiel."[41]

text: Fan response to the character has also been positive.[31][42][43] Collins believed that the character would end up being just another role for him, and never expected such a reaction from the fans.[44] According to him, "The enthusiasm that I've been met with is something new and not something I'm really prepared for."[42] The character was originally intended for only a six-episode story arc,[43] but his role was rewritten to continue throughout the rest of the season.[30] Upon Supernatural's renewal for a fifth season, Collins was promoted to a series regular, something he believes to be mainly due to fan support.[44]


document_title: American Federation of Labor

question_text: who did the american federation of labor represent

root

text: American Federation of Labor

text: Organizational history[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: The American Federation of Labor (AFL) organized as an association of trade unions in 1886. The organization emerged from a dispute with the Knights of Labor (K of L) organization, in which the leadership of that organization solicited locals of various craft unions to withdraw from their International organizations and to affiliate with the K of L directly, an action which would have taken funds from the various unions and enriched the K of L's coffers.[1] The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor.

tag: p

text: One of the organizations embroiled in this controversy was the Cigar Makers' International Union (CMIU), a group subject to competition from a dual union, a rival "Progressive Cigarmakers' Union," organized by members suspended or expelled by the CMIU.[2] The two cigar unions competed with one another in signing contracts with various cigar manufacturers, who were at this same time combining themselves into manufacturers' associations of their own in New York City, Detroit, Cincinnati, Chicago, and Milwaukee.[2]

text: In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers' Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers' International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners. A strike lasting four weeks ensued.[3] Just when it appeared that the strike might be won, the New York District Assembly of the Knights of Labor leaped into the breach, offering to settle with the 19 factories at a lower wage scale than that proposed by the CMIU, so long as only the Progressive Cigarmakers' Union was employed.[3]

text: The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the national officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, and the latter was exonerated.[4] The American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions.[5]

text: On April 25, 1886, a circular letter was issued by Strasser of the Cigar Makers and P. J. McGuire of the Carpenters, addressed to all national trade unions and calling for their attendance of a conference in Philadelphia on May 18.[6] The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing "malicious work" and causing "incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms and dissensions in the labor movement."[5] The call was signed by Strasser and McGuire, along with representatives of the Granite Cutters, the Iron Molders, and the secretary of the Federation of Trades of North America, a forerunner of the AFL founded in 1881.[5]

text: Forty-three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates and letters of approval from 12 other unions.[7] At this preliminary gathering, held in Donaldson Hall on the corner of Broad and Filbert Streets,[8] the K of L was charged with conspiring with anti-union bosses to provide labor at below going union rates and with making use of individuals who had crossed picket lines or defaulted on payment of union dues.[9] The body authored a "treaty" to be presented to the forthcoming May 24, 1886, convention of the Knights of Labor, which demanded that the K of L cease attempting to organize members of International Unions into its own assemblies without permission of the unions involved and that K of L organizers violating this provision should suffer immediate suspension.[9]

text: For its part, the Knights of Labor considered the demand for the parcelling of the labor movement into narrow craft-based fiefdoms to be anathema, a violation of the principle of solidarity of all workers across craft lines.[10] Negotiations with the dissident craft unions were nipped in the bud by the governing General Assembly of the K of L, however, with the organization's Grand Master Workman, Terence V. Powderly refusing to enter into serious discussions on the matter.[11] The actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld.

text: Formation and early years[edit]

text: Convinced that no accommodation with the leadership of the Knights of Labor was possible, the heads of the five labor organizations which issued the call for the April 1886 conference issued a new call for a convention to be held December 8, 1886 in Columbus, Ohio in order to construct "an American federation of alliance of all national and international trade unions."[12] Forty-two delegates representing 13 national unions and various other local labor organizations responded to the call, agreeing to form themselves into an American Federation of Labor.[13]

text: Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a "per-capita tax" of its member organizations, set at the rate of one-half cent per member per month (i.e. six cents per year).[14] Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union.[14] The founding convention voted to make the President of the new federation a full-time official at a salary of $1,000 per year, and Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers' International Union was elected to the position.[14] Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year save one until his death nearly four decades later.

text: Although the founding convention of the AFL had authorized the establishment of a publication for the new organization, Gompers made use of the existing labor press to generate support for the position of the craft unions against the Knights of Labor. Powerful opinion-makers of the American labor movement such as the Philadelphia Tocsin, Haverhill Labor, the Brooklyn Labor Press, and the Denver Labor Enquirer granted Gompers space in their pages, in which he made the case for the unions against the attacks of employers, "all too often aided by the K of L."[15]

text: Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies. Some assemblies of the K of L supported the Cigar Makers' position and departed the organization: in Baltimore, 30 locals left the organization, while the membership of the Knights in Chicago fell from 25,000 in 1886 to just 3,500 in 1887.[16] Factional warfare broke out in the K of L, with Terence Powderly blaming the organization's travails on "radicals" in its ranks, while those opposing Powderly called for an end to what they perceived as "autocratic leadership."[17]

text: In the face of the steady disintegration of its rival, the fledgling American Federation of Labor struggled to maintain itself, with the group showing very slow and incremental growth in its first years, only cracking the 250,000 member mark in 1892.[18] The group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFL's founding convention declaring "higher wages and a shorter workday" to be "preliminary steps toward great and accompanying improvements in the condition of the working people." Participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the group's constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates.[19]

text: This fundamentally conservative "pure and simple" approach limited the AFL to matters pertaining to working conditions and rates of pay, relegating political goals to its allies in the political sphere. The Federation favored pursuit of workers' immediate demands rather than challenging the property rights of owners, and took a pragmatic view of politics which favored tactical support for particular politicians over formation of a party devoted to workers' interests. The AFL's leadership believed the expansion of the capitalist system was seen as the path to betterment of labor, an orientation making it possible for the AFL to present itself as what one historian has called "the conservative alternative to working class radicalism."[20]

text: Early 20th century[edit]

text: The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive unions out of construction, mining, longshore and other industries. Membership in the AFL's affiliated unions declined between 1904 and 1914 in the face of this concerted anti-union drive, which made effective use of legal injunctions against strikes, court rulings given force when backed with the armed might of the state.[citation needed] At its November 1907 Convention in Norfolk, Virginia the AFL founded the future North America's Building Trades Unions (NABTU) as Department of Building Trades.[21]:1

text: Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should "reward its friends and punish its enemies" in both major parties. However, in the 1900s (decade), the two parties began to realign, with the main faction of the Republican Party coming to identify with the interests of banks and manufacturers, while a substantial portion of the rival Democratic Party took a more labor-friendly position. While not precluding its members from belonging to the Socialist Party or working with its members, the AFL traditionally refused to pursue the tactic of independent political action by the workers in the form of the existing Socialist Party or the establishment of a new labor party. After 1908, the organization's tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong.[22]

text: National Civic Federation[edit]

text: Some unions within the AFL helped form and participated in the National Civic Federation. The National Civic Federation was formed by several progressive employers who sought to avoid labor disputes by fostering collective bargaining and "responsible" unionism. Labor's participation in this federation, at first tentative, created internal division within the AFL. Socialists, who believed the only way to help workers was to remove large industry from private ownership, denounced labor's efforts at cooperation with the capitalists in the National Civic Federation. The AFL nonetheless continued its association with the group, which declined in importance as the decade of the 1910s drew to a close.[23]

text: Canada[edit]

text: By the 1890s, Gompers was planning an international federation of labor, starting with the expansion of AFL affiliates in Canada, especially Ontario. He helped the Canadian Trades and Labour Congress with money and organizers, and by 1902, the AFL came to dominate the Canadian union movement.[24]

text: Immigration restriction[edit]

text: The AFL vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.[25] Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. Nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its Euro-American members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 Emergency Quota Act and the Immigration Act of 1924, and seeing that they were strictly enforced.[26]

text: Mink (1986) concludes that the link between the AFL and the Democratic Party rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.[27]

text: The AFL in World War I, 1914-18[edit]

text: Towards the beginning of World War I, the AFL was against prohibition as it was viewed as cultural right of the working class to drink.[28]

text: During World War I, the AFL—motivated by fear of government repression, and hope of aid (often in the form of pro-AFL labor policies)—had worked out an informal agreement with the United States government, in which the AFL would coordinate with the government both to support the war effort and to join "into an alliance to crush radical labor groups" such as the Industrial Workers of the World and Socialist Party of America.[29]

text: The 1920s[edit]

text: In the pro-business environment of the 1920s, business launched a large-scale offensive on behalf of the so-called "open shop", which meant that a person did not have to be a union member to be hired. AFL unions lost membership steadily until 1933.[30] In 1924, following the death of Samuel Gompers, UMWA member and AFL vice president William Green became the president of the labor federation.[31]

text: The organization endorsed pro-labor progressive Robert M. La Follette Sr. in the 1924 presidential election. He only carried his home state of Wisconsin. The campaign failed to establish a permanent independent party closely connected to the labor movement, however, and thereafter the Federation embraced ever more closely the Democratic Party, despite the fact that many union leaders remained Republicans.[32] Herbert Hoover in 1928 won the votes of many Protestant AFL members.[33]

text: The New Deal years, 1933-38[edit]

text: The Great Depression were hard times for the unions, and membership fell sharply across the country. As the national economy began to recover in 1933, so did union membership. The New Deal of president Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, strongly favored labor unions. He made sure that relief operations like the Civilian Conservation Corps did not include a training component that would produce skilled workers who would compete with union members in a still glutted market. The major legislation was the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, called the Wagner Act. It greatly strengthened organized unions, especially by weakening the company unions that many workers belonged to. It was to the members advantage to transform a company union into a local of an AFL union, and thousands did so, dramatically boosting the membership. The Wagner Act also set up to the National Labor Relations Board, which used its powers to rule in favor of unions and against the companies. However, the NLRB was later taken over by leftist elements who favored the CIO over the AFL.[citation needed]

text: In the early 1930s AFL president William Green (president, 1924–1952) experimented with an industrial approach to organizing in the automobile and steel industries.[34] The AFL made forays into industrial unionism by chartering federal labor unions, which would organize across an industry and be chartered by the Federation, not through existing craft unions, guilds, or brotherhoods. As early as 1923, the AFL had chartered federal labor unions, including six news writer locals that had formerly been part of the International Typographical Union.[35] However, in the 1930s the AFL began chartering these federal labor unions as an industrial organizing strategy. The dues in these federal labor unions (FLUs) were kept intentionally low to make them more accessible to low paid industrial workers; however, these low dues later allowed the Internationals in the Federation to deny members of FLUs voting membership at conventions.[36] In 1933, Green sent William Collins to Detroit to organize automobile workers into a federal labor union.[34] That same year workers at the Westinghouse plant in East Springfield MA, members of federal labor union 18476, struck for recognition.[37] In 1933, the AFL received 1,205 applications for charters for federal labor unions, 1006 of which were granted.[38] By 1934, the AFL had successfully organized 32,500 autoworkers using the federal labor union model.[39] Most of the leadership of the craft union internationals that made up the federation, advocated for the FLU's to be absorbed into existing craft union internationals and for these internationals to have supremacy of jurisdiction.[39][38] At the 1933 AFL convention in Washington, DC John Frey of the Molders and Metal Trades pushed for craft union internationals to have jurisdictional supremacy over the FLU's; the Carpenters headed by William Hutchenson and the IBEW also pushed for FLU's to turn over their members to the authority of the craft internationals between 1933 and 1935.[40] In 1934, one hundred FLUs met separately and demanded that the AFL continue to issue charters to unions organizing on an industrial basis independent of the existing craft union internationals.[41] In 1935 the FLUs representing autoworkers and rubber workers both held conventions independent of the craft union internationals.[42] By the 1935 AFL convention, Green and the advocates of traditional craft unionism faced increasing dissension led by John L. Lewis of the coal miners, Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated, David Dubinsky of the Garment Workers, Charles Howard of the ITU, Thomas McMahon of the Textile Workers, and Max Zaritsky of the Hat, Cap, and Millinery Workers, in addition to the members of the FLU's themselves.[43] Lewis argued that the AFL was too heavily oriented toward traditional craftsmen, and was overlooking the opportunity to organize millions of semiskilled workers, especially those in industrial factories that made automobiles, rubber, glass and steel. In 1935 Lewis led the dissenting unions in forming a new Congress for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the AFL. Both the new CIO industrial unions, and the older AFL crafts unions grew rapidly after 1935. In 1936 union members enthusiastically supported Roosevelt's landslide reelection. Proposals for the creation of an independent labor party were rejected.[44]

text: World War II until merger, 1939-1955[edit]

text: The AFL retained close ties to the Democratic machines in big cities through the 1940s. Its membership surged during the war and it held on to most of its new members after wartime legal support for labor was removed. Despite its close connections to many in Congress, the AFL was not able to block the Taft–Hartley Act in 1947.[45]

text: In 1955, the AFL and CIO merged to form the AFL–CIO, headed by George Meany.[46]

text: Historical problems[edit]

text: Racism[edit]

text: During its first years, the AFL admitted nearly anyone. Gompers opened the AFL to radical and socialist workers and to some semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African Americans, and immigrants joined in small numbers. But by the 1890s, the Federation had begun to organize only skilled workers in craft unions and became an organization of mostly white men. Although the Federation preached a policy of egalitarianism in regard to African American workers, it actively discriminated against black workers.[47][48] The AFL sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals within its affiliates—particularly in the construction and railroad industries—a practice which often excluded black workers altogether from union membership and thus from employment in organized industries.[49]

text: In 1901, the AFL lobbied Congress to reauthorize the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, and issued a pamphlet entitled "Some reasons for Chinese exclusion. Which shall survive?" The AFL also began one of the first organized labor boycotts when they began putting white stickers on the cigars made by unionized white cigar rollers while simultaneously discouraging consumers from purchasing cigars rolled by Chinese workers.[50]

text: Sexism[edit]

text: In most ways, the AFL's treatment of women workers paralleled its policy towards black workers. The AFL never adopted a strict policy of gender exclusion and, at times, even came out in favor of women's unionism. But despite such rhetoric, the Federation only half-heartedly supported women's attempts to organize and, more often, took pains to keep women out of unions and the workforce altogether. Only two national unions affiliated with the AFL at its founding openly included women, and others passed by-laws barring women's membership entirely. The AFL hired its first female organizer, Mary Kenney O'Sullivan, only in 1892, released her after five months, and it did not replace her or hire another woman national organizer until 1908. Women who organized their own unions were often turned down in bids to join the Federation, and even women who did join unions found them hostile or intentionally inaccessible. AFL unions often held meetings at night or in bars when women might find it difficult to attend and where they might feel uncomfortable, and male unionists heckled women who tried to speak at meetings.[51]

text: Generally the AFL viewed women workers as competition, as strikebreakers, or as an unskilled labor reserve that kept wages low. As such, the Federation often opposed women's employment entirely. When it did organize women workers, most often it did so to protect men's jobs and earning power and not to improve the conditions, lives, or wages of women workers. In response, most women workers remained outside the labor movement. In 1900, only 3.3% of working women were organized into unions. In 1910, even as the AFL surged forward in membership, the number had dipped to 1.5%. And while it improved to 6.6% over the next decade, women remained mostly outside of unions and practically invisible inside of them into the mid-1920s.[52]

text: Attitudes gradually changed within the AFL due to the pressure of organized female workers. Female-domination began to emerge in the first two decades of the 20th century, including particularly the International Ladies Garment Workers' Union. Women organized independent locals among New York hat makers, in the Chicago stockyards, and among Jewish and Italian waist makers, to name only three examples. Through the efforts of middle class reformers and activists, often of the Women's Trade Union League, these unions joined the AFL.[53]

text: Conflicts between affiliated unions[edit]

text: From the beginning, unions affiliated with the AFL found themselves in conflict when both unions claimed jurisdiction over the same groups of workers: both the Brewers and Teamsters claimed to represent beer truck drivers, both the Machinists and the International Typographical Union claimed to represent certain printroom employees, and the Machinists and a fledgling union known as the "Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union" sought to organize the same employees—even though neither union had made any effort to organize or bargain for those employees. In some cases the AFL mediated the dispute, usually favoring the larger or more influential union. The AFL often reversed its jurisdictional rulings over time, as the continuing jurisdictional battles between the Brewers and the Teamsters showed. In other cases the AFL expelled the offending union, as it did in 1913 in the case of the Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union (which quickly disappeared).[citation needed]

text: These jurisdictional disputes were most frequent in the building trades, where a number of different unions might claim the right to have work assigned to their members. The craft unions in this industry organized their own department within the AFL in 1908, despite the reservations of Gompers and other leaders about creation of a separate body within the AFL that might function as a federation within a federation. While those fears were partly borne out in practice, as the Building Trades Department did acquire a great deal of practical power gained through resolving jurisdictional disputes between affiliates, the danger that it might serve as the basis for schism never materialized.[citation needed]

text: Affiliates within the AFL formed "departments" to help resolve these jurisdictional conflicts and to provide a more effective voice for member unions in given industries. The Metal Trades Department engaged in some organizing of its own, primarily in shipbuilding, where unions such as the Pipefitters, Machinists and Iron Workers joined together through local metal workers' councils to represent a diverse group of workers. The Railway Employees Department dealt with both jurisdictional disputes between affiliates and pursued a common legislative agenda for all of them. Even that sort of structure did not prevent AFL unions from finding themselves in conflict on political issues. For example, the International Seamen's Union opposed passage of a law applying to workers engaged in interstate transport that railway unions supported. The AFL bridged these differences on an ad hoc basis.[citation needed]

text: Historical achievements[edit]

text: Organizing and coordination[edit]

text: The AFL made efforts in its early years to assist its affiliates in organizing: it advanced funds or provided organizers or, in some cases, such as the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the Teamsters and the American Federation of Musicians, helped form the union. The AFL also used its influence (including refusal of charters or expulsion) to heal splits within affiliated unions, to force separate unions seeking to represent the same or closely related jurisdictions to merge, or to mediate disputes between rival factions where both sides claimed to represent the leadership of an affiliated union. The AFL also chartered "federal unions"—local unions not affiliated with any international union—in those fields in which no affiliate claimed jurisdiction.[citation needed]

text: The AFL also encouraged the formation of local labor bodies (known as central labor councils) in major metropolitan areas in which all of the affiliates could participate. These local labor councils acquired a great deal of influence in some cases. For example, the Chicago Federation of Labor spearheaded efforts to organize packinghouse and steel workers during and immediately after World War I. Local building trades councils also became powerful in some areas. In San Francisco, the local Building Trades Council, led by Carpenters official P. H. McCarthy, not only dominated the local labor council but helped elect McCarthy mayor of San Francisco in 1909. In a very few cases early in the AFL's history, state and local bodies defied AFL policy or chose to disaffiliate over policy disputes.[citation needed]

text: Political action[edit]

text: Though Gompers had contact with socialists and such as AFL co-founder Peter J. McGuire, the AFL adopted a philosophy of "business unionism" that emphasized unions' contribution to businesses' profits and national economic growth. The business unionist approach also focused on skilled workers' immediate job-related interests, while refusing to "rush to the support of any one of the numerous society-saving or society destroying schemes" involved in larger political issues.[54] This approach was set by Gompers, who was influenced by a fellow cigar maker (and former socialist) Ferdinand Laurrel. Despite his socialist contacts, Gompers himself was not a socialist.[55]

text: In some respects the AFL leadership took a pragmatic view toward politicians, following Gompers' slogan to "reward your friends and punish your enemies" without regard to party affiliation. Over time, after repeated disappointments with the failure of labor's legislative efforts to protect workers' rights, which the courts had struck down as unconstitutional, Gompers became almost anti-political, opposing some forms of protective legislation, such as limitations on working hours, because they would detract from the efforts of unions to obtain those same benefits through collective bargaining.[citation needed]

text: Employers discovered the efficacy of labor injunctions, first used with great effect by the Cleveland administration during the Pullman Strike in 1894. While the AFL sought to outlaw "yellow dog contracts," to limit the courts' power to impose "government by injunction" and to obtain exemption from the antitrust laws that were being used to criminalize labor organizing, the courts reversed what few legislative successes the labor movement won.[56]

text: The AFL concentrated its political efforts during the last decades of the Gompers administration on securing freedom from state control of unions—in particular an end to the court's use of labor injunctions to block the right to organize or strike and the application of the anti-trust laws to criminalize labor's use of pickets, boycotts and strikes. The AFL thought that it had achieved the latter with the passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act in 1914—which Gompers referred to as "Labor's Magna Carta". But in Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering, 254 U.S. 443 (1921), the United States Supreme Court narrowly read the Act and codified the federal courts' existing power to issue injunctions rather than limit it. The court read the phrase "between an employer and employees" (contained in the first paragraph of the Act) to refer only to cases involving an employer and its own employees, leaving the courts free to punish unions for engaging in sympathy strikes or secondary boycotts.[citation needed]

text: The AFL's pessimistic attitude towards politics did not, on the other hand, prevent affiliated unions from pursuing their own agendas. Construction unions supported legislation that governed entry of contractors into the industry and protected workers' rights to pay, rail and mass production industries sought workplace safety legislation, and unions generally agitated for the passage of workers' compensation statutes.[citation needed]

text: At the same time, the AFL took efforts on behalf of women in supporting protective legislation. It advocated fewer hours for women workers, and based its arguments on assumptions of female weakness. Like efforts to unionize, most support for protective legislation for women came out of a desire to protect men's jobs. If women's hours could be limited, reasoned AFL officials, they would infringe less on male employment and earning potential. But the AFL also took more selfless efforts. Even from the 1890s, the AFL declared itself vigorously in favor of women's suffrage. It often printed pro-suffrage articles in its periodical, and in 1918, it supported the National Union of Women's Suffrage.[57]

text: The AFL relaxed its rigid stand against legislation after the death of Gompers. Even so, it remained cautious. Its proposals for unemployment benefits (made in the late 1920s) were too modest to have practical value, as the Great Depression soon showed. The impetus for the major federal labor laws of the 1930s came from the New Deal. The enormous growth in union membership came after Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 and National Labor Relations Act in 1935. The AFL refused to sanction or participate in the mass strikes led by John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers and other left unions such as the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America. After the AFL expelled the CIO in 1936, the CIO undertook a major organizing effort. The AFL responded with its own massive organizing drive that kept its membership totals 50 percent higher than the CIO's.[citation needed]

text: Presidents of the American Federation of Labor[edit]

text:
Samuel Gompers, 1886–1894
John McBride, 1894–1895
Samuel Gompers, 1895–1924
William Green, 1924–1952
George Meany, 1952–1955 (afterwards President of the AFL-CIO)

tag: ul

text: Affiliated unions and brotherhoods[edit]

text:
Union
Date organized
Date affiliated
1925 members
Comments

Asbestos Workers, International Union of Heat and Frost Insulators and
1887
1887
2,400
Journal: Official Journal

Actors and Artistes of America, Associated
1919
1919
10,100
Includes: Actors' Equity Association, American Guild of Musical Artists, American Guild of Variety Artists, Screen Actors Guild.

Auto Workers, United
1935
1935
N/A
Suspended 1936 due to Communist influence; helped form CIO.

Bakery and Confectionery Workers of America, International Union of
1886
1887
21,800
Started as Journeymen Bakers' Union. Journal: The Bakers' Journal.

Journeymen Barbers' International Union of America
1887
1888
48,000
Journal: The Journeyman Barber.

Bill Posters and Billers of United States and Canada International Alliance
1902
1903
1,600

Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers and Helpers, International Brotherhood of
1890
1890
5,000
Journal: Blacksmiths Journal.

Boilermakers and Iron Shipbuilders, International Brotherhood of
1880
1882
17,100
Two Boilermakers unions amalgamated in 1893, considered the start date of this union by some. Journal: The Boilermakers and Iron Shipbuilders' Journal.

Bookbinders, International Brotherhood of
1892
1892
13,600
Journal: The International Bookbinder.

Boot and Shoe Workers' Union
1895
1895
36,200
Journal: The Shoe Workers' Journal.

Brewery, Flour, Cereal and Soft Drink Workers of America
1884
1887
16,000
Journal: Brewery, Flour, Cereal and Soft Drink Workers' Journal.

Brick and Clay Workers of America, United
1894
1898
5,000
Journal: Union Clay Worker.

Bricklayers', Masons and Plasterers' International Union of America
1865
1916
70,000
Journal: The Bricklayer, Mason and Plasterer.

Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers, International Association of
1896
1903
16,300
Journal: The Bridgemen's Magazine.

Broom and Whisk Makers' Union, International
1893
1893
700
Journal: The Broom Maker.

Building Service Employees International Union
1921
1921
6,200

Carpenters and Joiners, Amalgamated Association of
1869
1890
N/A
AFL charter revoked by 1912 convention for refusing to amalgamate with Brotherhood of Carpenters. Journal: The Carpenter.

Carpenters and Joiners of America, United Brotherhood of
1867
1886
317,000

Cigarmakers' International Union
1864
1887
23,500
Journal: Cigarmakers' Official Journal.

Cloth Hat, Cap and Millinery Workers' International Union
1901
1902
7,800
Suspended for protracted period in early 1920s for failure to comply with convention decision. Journal: The Headgear Worker.

Conductors, Order of Sleeping Car
1918
1919
2,300
Journal: The Sleeping Car Conductor.

Coopers' International Union of North America
1864
1892
1,300
Journal: The Coopers' International Journal.

Cutting Die and Cutter Makers of America, International Union of

N/A
Suspended for non-payment of dues, 1923 on.

Diamond Workers' Protective Union of America
1910
1912
400

Elastic Goring Weavers, Amalgamated Association of
1894
1894
100

Electrical Workers, International Brotherhood of
1891
1891
142,000
Journal: The Journal of Electrical Workers and Operators.

Elevator Constructors, International Union of
1901
1903
8,100
Journal: The Elevator Constructor.

Federal Employees, National Federation of
1917
1917
20,200
Disaffiliated from AFL, December 1931. Journal: Federal Employee.

Fire Fighters, International Association of
1918
1918
16,000
Journal: International Fire Fighter.

Foundry Employees, International Brotherhood of
1904
1904
3,500
Later amalgamated with the Molders.

Fur Workers' Union of the United States and Canada, International
1913
1913
11,400
Journal: The Fur Worker.

Garmernt Workers of America, United
1891
1891
47,500
Journal: The Garment Worker.

Glass Bottle Blowers' Association
1847
1899
6,000
Journal: The Bottle Maker.

Glass Workers' Union, American Flint
1878
1912
5,300
Journal: American Flint.

Glass Workers, National Window
1872
1918
2,000

Glove Workers' Union of America, International
1902
1902
300

Granite Cutters' International Association
1877
1886
8,500
Journal: Granite Cutters Journal.

Hatters of North America, United
1854
1886
11,500

Hod Carriers, Building and Common Laborers' Union, International
1903
1903
61,500
Now Laborers' International Union of North America.

Horseshoers of United States and Canada, International Union of Journeymen
1874
1893
2,000
Journal: International Horseshoers' Monthly Magazine.

Hotel and Restaurant Employees' International Alliance and Bartenders' League of America
1890
1890
38,500
Journal: The Mixer and Server.

Iron, Steel and Tin Workers, Amalgamated Association of
1876
1887
11,400
Journal: The Amalgamated Journal.

Jewelry Workers' Union, International
1916
1916
800
Journal: Jewelry Workers' Monthly Bulletin.

Lace Operatives of America, The Chartered Association of

N/A
Suspended c. 1920 for failure to comply with decisions of convention.

Ladies' Garment Workers Union, International
1900
1900
90,000
Journals: Justice (English); Gerechtigkeit (Yiddish); Giustizia (Italian);

Lathers, International Union of Wood, Wire and Metal
1899
1899
8,900
Journal: The Lather.

Laundry Workers' International Union
1900
1900
5,500

Leather Workers' International Union, United
1896
1896
2,000
Journal: Leather Workers' Journal.

Letter Carriers, National Association of
1889
1917
32,500
Journal: Postal Record.

Letter Carriers, National Association of Rural
1919
1919
300

Lithographers of America, Amalgamated
1882
1906
5,300
Journal: Lithographers' Journal.

Longshoremen's Association, International
1892
1896
31,800
Journal: The Longshoreman.

Machinists, International Association of
1888
1895
71,400
Journal: Machinists Monthly Journal.

Maintenance of Way Employees, United Brotherhood of
1886
1900
37,400
Journal: Railway Maintenance of Way Employees' Journal.

Marble, Slate and Stone Polishers, Rubbers and Sawyers, Tile and Marble Setters' Helpers, International Association of
1916
1916
3,200

Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association, National
1875

N/A
Disaffiliated with AFL, 1923.

Masters, Mates and Pilots of America
1897
1914
3,900

Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen, Amalgamated
1897
1897
12,200

Metal Engravers' International Union
1920
1921
100

Metal Polishers Union of North America, International
1891
1896
6,000

Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers, International Union of
1893
1896
8,500
Journal: The Miners' Magazine.

Mine Workers of America, United
1890
1890
400,000
Journal: United Mine Workers' Journal.

Molders' Union of America, International
1859
1886
27,500
Later amalgamated with Foundry Employees. Journal: International Molders' Journal.

Musicians, American Federation of
1896
1896
80,000
Journal: International Musician.

Office Employees International Union
1942
1945
N/A

Oil Field, Gas Well and Refinery Workers of America, International Association of
1919
1919
1,200

Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America, Brotherhood of
1887
1887
107,600
Now International Union of Painters and Allied Trades. Journal: The Painter and Decorator.

Papermakers, International Brotherhood of
1892
1897
5,000
Journal: Paper Maker Journal.

Pattern Makers' League of North America
1887
1894
7,000
Journal: Pattern Makers Journal.

Pavers, Rammersmen, Flag Layers, Bridge and Stone Setters, International Union of
1860
1905
2,000

Paving Cutters' Union of the United States
1901
1904
2,400
Journal: Paving Cutters' Journal.

Photo-Engravers' Union of North America, International
1900
1904
7,200
Journal: The American Photo Engraver.

Piano, Organ and Musical Instrument Workers' Union of America, International
1898
1902
600

Plasterers and Cement Finishers' International Association of the United States and Canada, Operative
1862
1908
30,000
Journal: The Plasterer.

Plate Printers' and Die Stampers' Union of North America, International
1891
1898
1,200
Amalgamated with Steel and Copper Plate Engravers' League, late 1925. Journal: The Plate Printer.

Plumbers and Steamfitters of the United States and Canada, United Association of
1889
1897
39,200
Journal: Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters' Journal.

Pocketbook Workers of America, International
1923
1925
N/A
Journal: International Pocketbook Worker.

Postal Employees, National Federation of
1906
1906
23,700
Was National Federation of Postal Employees. Journal: Union Postal Clerk.

Potters, National Brotherhood of Operative
1899
1899
8,100
Journal: The Potters' Herald.

Powder and High Explosive Workers, United
1902
1902
200

Print Cutters' Association of America, International

N/A
Amalgamated with Timber Workers, 1923.

Printers and Color Mixers of the United States, International Association of Machine

N/A
Amalgamated with Timber Workers, 1923.

Printing Pressman and Assistants' Union of North America, International
1889
1890
40,000
Journal: The American Pressman.

Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers, International Brotherhood of
1906
1909
5,000

Quarry Workers' International Union of North America
1903
1903
3,000
Journal: Quarry Workers' Journal.

Railroad Carmen, Brotherhood of
1888
1900
125,000
Journal: Railway Carmen's Journal.

Railroad Signalmen of America, Brotherhood of
1908
1914
8,000
Journal: Signalmen's Journal.

Railroad Telegraphers, Order of
1886
1899
39,200
Journal: The Railroad Telegrapher.

Railway Clerks, Brotherhood of
1899
1908
91,200
Journal: The Railway Clerk.

Railway Mail Association
1898
1917
19,100
Journal: The Railway Post Office.

Retail Clerks' International Protective Association
1890
1891
10,000
Journal: Retail Clerks' International Advocate.

Roofers, United Slate, Tile and Composition + Damp and Waterproof Workers' Association
1902
1903
3,000
Amalgamated with Slate and Tile Roofers in 1919. Now United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers and Allied Workers.

Sawsmiths' National Union

N/A
Apparently defunct from 1924.

Seamen's International Union of America
1892
1893
16,000
Journal: The Seamen's Journal.

Sheet Metal Workers' Union, Amalgamated
1888
1890
25,000
Journal: Sheet Metal Workers Journal.

Spinners' Union, International

N/A
Apparently absorbed through amalgamation or defunct by 1925.

Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators of the United States and Canada
1893
1894
20,000
Journal: General Bulletin.

State, County and Municipal Employees, American Federation of
1932
1936
N/A

Stationary Firemen and Oilers, International Brotherhood of
1898
1898
10,000
Journal: Firemen and Oilers Journal.

Steam and Operating Engineers, International Union of
1896
1897
25,300
Now International Union of Operating Engineers. Journal: International Steam Engineer.

Steam Shovel and Dredgemen, International Brotherhood of
1896
1915
N/A
Suspended by AFL in 1920 due to jurisdictional dispute with Steam Engineers. Journal: Steam Shovel and Dredge.

Stereotypers and Electrotypers' Union, International
1902
1902
6,800
Journal: International Stereotypers and Electrotypers' Union Journal.

Stone Cutters' Association, Journeymen
1853
1907
5,100
Journal: The Stone Cutters Journal.

Stove Mounters' International Union
1892
1894
1,600
Journal: Stove Mounters and Range Workers' Journal.

Street and Electric Railway Employees of America, Amalgamated Association of
1892
1893
101,000
Now Amalgamated Transit Union. Journal: The Motorman and Conductor.

Switchmen's Union of North America
1894
1906
8,900
Journal: The Journal of the Switchmen's Union of North America.

Tailors' Union of America, Journeymen
1883
1887
9,300
Journal: The Tailor.

Teachers, American Federation of
1916
1916
3,500
Journal: American Federation of Teachers Monthly Bulletin.

Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Stablemen and Helpers, International Brotherhood of
1899
1899
78,900
Journal: Official Magazine.

Technical Engineers', Architects' and Draftsmen's Unions, International Federation of
1916
1916
600

Telegraphers' Union of America, Commercial
1902
1902
4,100
Journal: The Commercial Telegraphers' Journal.

Textile Workers of America, United
1901
1901
30,000
Journal: The Textile Worker.

Theatrical Press Agents and Managers, Association of
1928
1928
?
Includes: Press Agents and Theatre Managers.

Timber Workers, International Union of

N/A
Disbanded 1923.

Tobacco Workers International Union
1895
1895
1,400
Journal: Tobacco Worker.

Transferrers' Association of America, International Steel Plate

N/A
Apparently absorbed through amalgamation or defunct by 1925.

Tunnel and Subway Constructors
1910
1910
3,000

Typographical Union, International
1852
1881
71,000
Journals: The Typographical Journal (English); Buchdrucker-Zeitung (German).

Upholsters' International Union of North America
1882
1892
7,600
Journal: Upholsterers' Journal.

Wall Paper Crafts of North America, United
1923
1923
600

Wire Weavers' Protective Association, America
1876
1895
400

Wood Carvers' Association of North America, International
1883
1896
1,000
Journal: The International Woodcarver.

tag: table

text: State federations[edit]

text:
Pennsylvania Federation of Labor
Texas State Federation of Labor