document_title: Prosecutor

question_text: prosecutors are part of what branch of government

text: Prosecutor

text: Common law jurisdictions[edit]

text: Prosecutors are typically lawyers who possess a law degree, and are recognized as legal professionals by the court in which they intend to represent society (that is, they have been admitted to the bar).

text: They usually only become involved in a criminal case once a suspect has been identified and charges need to be filed. They are typically employed by an office of the government, with safeguards in place to ensure such an office can successfully pursue the prosecution of government officials. Often, multiple offices exist in a single country, especially those countries with federal governments where sovereignty has been bifurcated or devolved in some way.

text: Since prosecutors are backed by the power of the state, they are usually subject to special professional responsibility rules in addition to those binding all lawyers. For example, in the United States, Rule 3.8 of the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct requires prosecutors to "make timely disclosure to the defense of all evidence or information ... that tends to negate the guilt of the accused or mitigates the offense." Not all U.S. states adopt the model rules; however, U.S. Supreme Court cases and other appellate cases have ruled that such disclosure is required. Typical sources of ethical requirements imposed on prosecutors come from appellate court opinions, state or federal court rules, and state or federal statutes (codified laws).

text: Directors of Public Prosecutions[edit]

text: In Australia, Canada, England and Wales, Hong Kong, Northern Ireland, Republic of Ireland, Trinidad & Tobago, Kenya, and South Africa, the head of the prosecuting authority is typically known as the Director of Public Prosecutions, and is appointed, not elected. A DPP may be subject to varying degrees of control by the Attorney General, usually by a formal written directive which must be published.

text: In Australia, the Offices of the Director of Public Prosecutions institute prosecutions for indictable offences on behalf of the Crown.[1] At least in the case of very serious matters, the DPP will be asked by the police, during the course of the investigation, to advise them on sufficiency of evidence, and may well be asked, if he or she thinks it proper, to prepare an application to the relevant court for search, listening device or telecommunications interception warrants.

text: More recent constitutions, such as South Africa's, tend to guarantee the independence and impartiality of the DPP.

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, public prosecutors in most provinces are called Crown Attorney or Crown Counsel. They are generally appointed by the provincial Attorney-General.

text: Scotland[edit]

text: Though Scots law is a mixed system, its civil law jurisdiction indicates its civil law heritage. Here, all prosecutions are carried out by Procurators Fiscal and Advocates Depute on behalf of the Lord Advocate, and, in theory, they can direct investigations by the police. In very serious cases, a Procurator Fiscal, Advocate Depute or even the Lord Advocate, may take charge of a police investigation. It is at the discretion of the Procurator Fiscal, Advocate Depute, or Lord Advocate to take a prosecution to court, and to decide on whether or not to prosecute it under solemn procedure or summary procedure. Other remedies are open to a prosecutor in Scotland, including fiscal fines and non-court based interventions, such as rehabilitation and social work. All prosecutions are handled within the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service. Procurators fiscal will usually refer cases involving minors to Children's Hearings, which are not courts of law, but a panel of lay members empowered to act in the interests of the child.

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, the director of a prosecution office may be known by any of several names depending on the jurisdiction, most commonly District Attorney.

text: The prosecution is the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual or a corporation suspected of breaking the law, initiating and directing further criminal investigations, guiding and recommending the sentencing of offenders, and are the only attorneys allowed to participate in grand jury proceedings.[2]

text: The titles of prosecutors in state courts vary from state to state and level of government (i.e. city, county and state) and include the terms District Attorney (in New York, California, Texas, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Georgia, Nevada, Wisconsin, Oregon, and Oklahoma[3]), City Attorney, Commonwealth's Attorney (in Kentucky and Virginia), County Attorney (in Arizona),[4] County Prosecutor (in New Jersey,[5] Ohio and Indiana[6]), District Attorney General (in Tennessee), Prosecuting Attorney (in Hawaii, Idaho, Michigan, Washington counties, and West Virginia, and in Missouri except cities that have "City Attorney" prosecutors), State's Attorney (in Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, and Vermont), State Prosecutor, Attorney General (in Delaware and Rhode Island), and Solicitor (South Carolina).[7] Prosecutors are most often chosen through local elections, and typically hire other attorneys as deputies or assistants to conduct most of the actual work of the office. United States Attorneys, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, represent the federal government in federal court, in both civil and criminal cases. Private attorneys general can bring criminal cases on behalf of private parties in some states.

text: Prosecutors are required by state and federal laws to follow certain rules, such as they must be elected by the people of that county, and must disclose material evidence to the defense due to the 1963 Supreme Court ruling of Brady v. Maryland and other cases and statutes. Failure to follow these rules may result in prosecutorial misconduct findings, although a 2013 investigation found that actual discipline for prosecutorial misconduct was lacking.[8]

text: Prosecutors are also tasked with seeking justice in their prosecutions. Prosecutors in some jurisdictions have the discretion to not pursue criminal charges, even when there is probable cause, if the Prosecutor determines that there is no reasonable likelihood of conviction.[9] Additionally, Prosecutors often have the discretion to dismiss charges after an indictment, but before trial, through the use of voluntary dismissal or nolle prosequi. In a famous case outlining the duties of a prosecutor, the U.S. Supreme Court stated, “…therefore, in a criminal prosecution is not that it shall win a case, but that justice shall be done… He may prosecute with earnestness and vigor – indeed, he should do so. But, while he may strike hard blows, he is not at liberty to strike foul ones. It is as much his duty to refrain from improper methods calculated to produce a wrongful conviction as it is to use every legitimate means to bring about a just one.” Berger v. United States, 295 U.S. 78 (1935)[10]

text: Civil law jurisdictions[edit]

text: Prosecutors are typically civil servants who possess a university degree in law, and additional training in the administration of justice. In some countries, such as France and Italy, they belong to the same corps of civil servants as the judges.

text: Belgium[edit]

text: In Belgium, the Senior Crown prosecutor, or Procureur du Roi / Procureur des Konings (or Procureur Général / Procureur-Generaal in appellate courts and in the Supreme Court), is supported by crown prosecutors (substituts / substituten). He opens preliminary investigations and can hold a suspect in custody for 24 hours. When necessary, a Crown prosecutor will request an examining judge (juge d'instruction/onderzoeksrechter) be appointed to lead a judicial inquest. With a judge investigating, Crown prosecutors do not conduct the interrogatories, but simply lays out the scope of the crimes which the judge and law enforcement forces investigate (la saisine). Like defense counsel, Crown prosecutors can request or suggest further investigation be carried out. The Crown prosecutor is in charge of policy decisions and may prioritize cases and procedures as need be. During a criminal trial, prosecutors must introduce and explain the case to the trier, i.e., judges or jury. They generally suggest a reasonable sentence which the court is not obligated to follow; the court may decide on a tougher or softer sentence. Crown prosecutors also have a number of administrative duties. They may advise the court during civil actions. Under Belgian law, judges and prosecutors are judicial officers with equal rank and pay. The Minister of Justice can order but not forbid a criminal investigation (droit d'injonction positive / positief injunctierecht).

text: Brazil[edit]

text: In Brazil, the public prosecutors form a body of autonomous civil servants - the Ministério Público (literally Public Ministry) - working both at the federal and state level. The procuradores da República - federal prosecutors - are divided in three ranks, according to the jurisdiction of the courts before which they officiate, thus the "procuradores da República" (federal prosecutors) officiate before single judges and lower courts, "procuradores regionais da República" (prosecutors who officiate before federal appellate courts), and "subprocuradores gerais da República" (prosecutors who officiate before the superior federal courts). The Procurador Geral da República heads the federal body, and tries cases before the Supremo Tribunal Federal (STF), Brazil's highest court, in charge of judicial review and the judgment of criminal offenses perpetrated by federal legislators, members of the cabinet, and the President of Brazil. At the state level, the career is usually divided in "promotores de Justiça" (state prosecutors), which officiate before the lower courts, and "procuradores de Justiça" (prosecutors officiating before the states' court of appeals). There are also military prosecutors whose career, although linked to the federal prosecutors, is divided in a manner similar to state prosecutors.

text: In Brazil the prosecutors' main job is to promote justice, as such they have the duty of not only trying criminal cases, but, if during the trial, they become convinced of a defendant's innocence, requesting the judge to acquit him. The prosecutor's office has always the last word on whether criminal offenses will or will not be charged, with the exception of those rare cases in which Brazilian law allows for private prosecution. In such cases, the prosecutor will officiate as custos legis, being responsible to ensure that justice is indeed carried out. Although empowered by law to do so, prosecutors conduct criminal investigations only in major cases, usually involving police or public officials' wrongdoings. Also, they are in charge of external control over police activity (art. 129, VII, of Brazilian Federal Constituition)[11] and requesting diligences and the initiation of a police investigation (art. 129, VIII, of Brazilian Federal Constitution). The power of individual prosecutors to hold criminal investigations is still controversial and, although massively supported by judges, prosecutors and the general population, it is being contested before the Supremo Tribunal Federal.

text: According to Law 12.830/2013,[12] the "delegado de polícia" (police officer chief), as the police authority, is responsible for conducting the criminal investigation in Brazil by means of a police investigation, named "inquérito policial", or other procedure provided by law that has the purpose of ascertaining the circumstances, materiality and authorship of criminal offenses. Similar provision is also found in art. 4º of the Brazilian Code of Criminal Procedure[13] and in art. 144, §4º, of the Brazilian Federal Constitution.

text: Beside their criminal duties, Brazilian prosecutors are among those authorized by the Brazilian constitution to bring action against private individuals, commercial enterprises, and the federal, state and municipal governments, in the defense of minorities, the environment, consumers, and the civil society in general.

text: France[edit]

text: In France, the Office of the Prosecutor includes a Chief Prosecutor, or Procureur de la République (or procureur général in an appellate court or in the Supreme Court) assisted by deputy prosecutors (avocats généraux) and assistant prosecutors (substituts). The Chief Prosecutor generally initiates preliminary investigations and, if necessary, asks an examining judge, or juge d'instruction, be assigned to lead a formal judicial investigation. When an investigation is led by a judge, the prosecutor plays a supervisory role, defining the scope of the crimes being examined by the judge and law enforcement forces. Like defense counsel, the chief prosecutor may petition or motion for further investigation. During criminal proceedings, prosecutors are responsible for presenting the case at trial to either the bench or the jury. Prosecutors generally suggest advisory sentencing guidelines, but the sentence remains at the court's discretion to decide, to increase or reduce as it sees fit. In addition, prosecutors have several administrative duties.

text: Prosecutors are considered magistrates under French law, as in most civil law countries. While the defense and the plaintiff are both represented by common lawyers, who sit (on chairs) on the courtroom floor, the prosecutor sits on a platform as the judge does, although he doesn't participate in deliberation. Judges and prosecutors are trained at the same school, and regard one other as colleagues.

text: Germany[edit]

text: In Germany, the Staatsanwalt (literally 'state attorney') is a life-tenured public official in the senior judicial service belonging to the same corps as judges. The Staatsanwalt heads pre-trial criminal investigations, decides whether to press a charge or drop it, and represents the government in criminal courts. He not only has the "professional responsibility" not to withhold exculpatory information, but is also required by law to actively determine such circumstances and to make them available to the defendant or his/hers defense attorney. In case he is not convinced of the defendants guilt, the state attorney is required to plead against or in favour of the defendant according to the prosecutor's own assessment (RiStBV, No. 138/139). Prosecution is compulsory if the prosecutor has sufficient evidence to convict.[14]

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy, a Prosecutor's Office is composed of a Chief Prosecutor (procuratore capo) assisted by deputy prosecutors (procuratori aggiunti) and assistant prosecutors (sostituti procuratori). Prosecutors in Italy are judicial officers just like judges and are ceremonially referred to as Pubblico Ministero/ Public Ministry' (or P.M.)

text: Italian Prosecutors officiate as custos legis, being responsible to ensure that justice is indeed carried out. They are obligated under the Constitution to initiate preliminary investigations once they are informed or take personal notice of a criminal act, the so-called notitia criminis, or receive a bill of complaint. They can make direct investigations or conduct them through orders and directives given to (judicial) police detectives (which anyway have the chance to make their own parallel investigations in coordination with the Prosecutor): if enough evidence has been gathered in order to proceed, the prosecution is compulsory and it must move from preliminary investigations to initiate trial proceedings.[15] At trial, the prosecuting attorney has to handle the prosecution but is prohibited from withholding exculpatory evidence, for they have to promote justice, which means that they have the duty of not only trying criminal cases, but, to request the judge to acquit him if, during the trial, they become convinced of a defendant's innocence, or agree that there is no evidence, beyond any reasonable doubt, of his guiltiness.

text: In appellate courts, the Office of the Prosecutor is called Procura Generale and the Chief Prosecutor Procuratore Generale (PG). The Procuratore Generale presso la Corte di Cassazione is the Chief General Prosecutor before the Corte di Cassazione, the Supreme Court of Italy.

text: Prosecutors are allowed during their career to act in the other's stead, but a recent ruling by the Italian Constitutional Court stated that prosecutors, who wish to become judges, must relocate to another region and are prohibited to sit or hear trials that they themselves initiated.

text: Japan[edit]

text: In Japan, public prosecutors kensatsu-kan (検察官) are professional officials who have considerable powers of investigation, prosecution, superintendence of criminal execution and so on. Prosecutors can direct police for investigation purposes, and sometimes investigate directly. Only prosecutors can prosecute criminals in principle, and prosecutors can decide whether to prosecute or not. High-ranking officials of the Ministry of Justice are largely prosecutors.

text: Poland[edit]

text: The highest ranking prosecutor office of the Prokuratura in Poland is the Prokurator Generalny (General Prosecutor) - chief of the Prokuratura Generalna (General Prosecutor Office). The GP has 5 deputies. Structure of Public Prosecutor in Poland is 4-level: General Prosecutor Office --> Appellation Prosecutor Offices (11) --> District Prosecutor Offices (46) --> Regional Prosecutor Offices (326).

text: South Korea[edit]

text: Prosecutors are the public officials who are members of the ministry of Justice.

text: Prosecutors can conduct crime investigations directly or indirectly. They are responsible for the entire process of investigations and court prosecutions. Since Korean modern law was designed after continental system, the role of Korean prosecutors is similar or identical to that of European equivalents in commanding investigations, determining indictable cases and prosecuting process. Korean prosecutors take pride in successful prosecutions of former presidents(1995) and sons of the incumbent presidents(1997 and 2002). Besides, they have made important contributions to convicting many corrupt high-ranking officials and business leaders.[16] A prosecutor, in Korea, has the power to prohibit a defendant or an accused individual from departing the Republic of Korea via an International Hold.[17]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden, public prosecutors are lawyers who work out of the Swedish Office of Public Prosecutions (Åklagarmyndigheten) and direct police investigations of serious crimes. For all criminal cases, public prosecutors decide arrests and charges on behalf of the public and are the only public officers who can make such decisions. Plaintiffs also have the option of hiring their own special prosecutor (enskilt åtal). The exception is cases concerning crimes against the freedom of the press for which the Attorney General acts as the prosecuting attorney. In court, the prosecutor is not necessarily in an adversarial relationship to the defendant, but is under an obligation to investigate and present information which may incriminate or exhonerate the defendant. He is not a judicial officer, nor does he participate in the private deliberations of the court.

text: Public prosecutors are the only public officers who can decide to appeal cases to appellate courts (hovrätter). Otherwise, appeals are initiated by defense counsel, the plaintiff, their representatives, and other parties to the case (målsäganden). When a case has been decided by an appellate court, the right to appeal to the Supreme Court passes from the case's prosecutor to the Director of Public Prosecutions (Riksåklagaren).

text: Socialist law jurisdictions[edit]

text: A Public Procurator is an office used in Socialist judicial systems which, in some ways, corresponds to that of a public prosecutor in other legal systems, but with more far-reaching responsibilities, such as handling investigations otherwise performed by branches of the police. Conversely, the policing systems in socialist countries, such as the Militsiya of the Soviet Union, were not aimed at fulfilling the same roles as police forces in Democratic countries.

text: People's Republic of China[edit]

text: A Public Procurator is a position in the People's Republic of China, analogous to both detective and public prosecutor. Legally, they are bound by Public Procurators' Law of the People's Republic of China. According to Article 6, the functions and duties of public procurators are as follows:

text:
Supervise the enforcement of laws according to law.
Public prosecution on behalf of the State.
Investigate criminal cases directly accepted by the People's Procuratorates as provided by law.
Other functions and duties as provided by law.

text: Vietnam[edit]

text: The Supreme People's Procuracy is the highest office of public procurators in Vietnam.

text: Institutional independence[edit]

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In many countries, the prosecutor's administration is directly subordinate to the executive branch (e.g. the US Attorney General is a member of the President's cabinet). In some other countries, such as Italy or Brazil, the prosecutors are judicial civil servants and so their hierarchy is installed with the same (or nearly the same) liberties and independence warranties which the judges traditionally enjoy.

text: In other countries, a form of private prosecution is available, meaning persons or private entities can directly petition the courts to hold trial against someone they feel is guilty of a crime, should the prosecutor refuse to indict.

text: Private prosecution[edit]

text: In the early history of England, victims of a crime and their family had the right to hire a private attorney to prosecute criminal charges against the person alleged to have injured the victim.[18] In the 18th century, prosecution of almost all criminal offences in England was private, usually by the victim.[19] In Colonial America, because of Dutch (and possibly French) practice and the expansion of the office of attorney general, public officials came to dominate the prosecution of crimes. However, privately funded prosecutors constituted a significant element of the state criminal justice system throughout the nineteenth century.[20] The use of a private prosecutor was incorporated into the common law of Virginia, but is no longer permitted there.[18] Private prosecutors were also used in North Carolina as late as 1975.[21] Private prosecution has been used in Nigeria, but the practice is being phased out.[22]

text: Bruce L. Benson's To Serve and Protect lauds the role of private prosecutors, often employed by prosecution associations, in serving the needs of crime victims in England. Radical libertarian theory holds that public prosecutors should not exist, but that crimes should instead be treated as civil torts. Murray Rothbard writes, "In a libertarian world, there would be no crimes against an ill-defined 'society,' and therefore no such person as a 'district attorney' who decides on a charge and then presses those charges against an alleged criminal."Rothbard, Murray, "Punishment and Proportionality", The Ethics of Liberty


document_title: Cellular respiration

question_text: how many molecules of atp does anaerobic metabolism produce

root

text: Cellular respiration

text: Aerobic respiration

text: Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O2) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2

tag: p

text:
Simplified reaction:
C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + heat

ΔG = −2880 kJ per mol of C6H12O6

tag: table

text: The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.

text: The potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).[2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.[2]

text: Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.

text: Aerobic respiration summed up

text: 1. Glycolysis:

text: --- 2 ATPs + Glucose → 2 Pyruvic Acid + 4 Hydrogen + 4 ATPs

text: 2. Formation of Acetyl CoA:

text: --- 2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 Carbon Dioxide + 2 Hydrogen

text: 3. Krebs Cycle:

text: --- 2 Acetyl CoA + 3 O2 → 6 Hydrogen + 4 Carbon Dioxide + 2 ATPs

text: 4. Electron Transport System:

text: --- 12 Hydrogen + 3 O2 → 6 Water + 32 ATPs

text: Overall Reaction:

text: --- Glucose + 6 O2 → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATPs

text: Glycolysis

text: Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:

text: Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.

text: Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting".[3]

text: Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

text: Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO2 is formed.

text: Citric acid cycle

text: This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur.[4] When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle.

text: The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes.[4] During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate.

text: The net gain of high-energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.

text: Oxidative phosphorylation

text: In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.

text: Efficiency of ATP production

text: The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.

text:
Step
coenzyme yield
ATP yield
Source of ATP

Glycolysis preparatory phase

−2
Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm.

Glycolysis pay-off phase

4
Substrate-level phosphorylation

2 NADH
3 or 5
Oxidative phosphorylation : Each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP (instead of usual 2.5) due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane

Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
2 NADH
5
Oxidative phosphorylation

Krebs cycle

2
Substrate-level phosphorylation

6 NADH
15
Oxidative phosphorylation

2 FADH2
3
Oxidative phosphorylation

Total yield
30 or 32 ATP
From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes.

text: Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.

text:
Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
The phosphate carrier (PiC) mediates the electroneutral exchange (antiport) of phosphate (H2PO4−; Pi) for OH− or symport of phosphate and protons (H+) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force.
The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane. The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3), and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient.

tag: ul

text: The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H+ are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules.[2] In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons.[5] Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.

text: According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose [6], because:

text:
ATP : NADH+H+ and ATP : FADH2 ratios during the oxidative phosphorylation appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Unlike in the substrate-level phosphorylation, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish.

ATP synthase produces 1 ATP / 3 H+. However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH− or symport with H+) mediated by ATP–ADP translocase and phosphate carrier consumes 1 H+ / 1 ATP as a result of regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP : 4 H+.
The mitochondrial electron transport chain proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H+ / 1 NADH+H+ (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H+ / 1 FADH2 (2 + 4).

text:
ATP : NADH+H+ coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is

1.5, as for FADH2, if hydrogen atoms (2H++2e−) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial NAD+

text: So finally we have, per molecule of glucose

text:
Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from Krebs cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation

2 NADH+H+ from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)
2 NADH+H+ from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP
2 FADH2 from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATP

text: Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose

text: The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO2), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.[6]

text: Fermentation

text: Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.

text: Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.

text: Anaerobic respiration

text: Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.

text: Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.


document_title: Long May You Run

question_text: who is the song long may you run about

question_tokens: who is the song long may you run about

text: Long May You Run

text: Background[edit]

text: Following the Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young stadium tour of 1974, an attempt by the quartet to finalize a new album ended amidst acrimony without result. David Crosby and Graham Nash resumed their partnership as Crosby & Nash, while Stills and Young continued their independent careers. Songs from the aborted CSNY album appeared on various albums by group members, and Stills covered two Young songs on his contemporary studio albums: "New Mama" on Stills and "The Loner" on Illegal Stills.

text: In early 1976, Stills and Young reached a rapprochement, and began to work on a joint album project from a desire by both to pick up where they left off with their Buffalo Springfield-era guitar explorations, a decade after the inception of the band. Crosby and Nash signed on as well, and briefly Long May You Run looked to be the awaited CSNY reunion album. However, on a deadline Nash and Crosby left Miami to finish the sessions for what would become their 1976 album Whistling Down the Wire, and Young and Stills reacted by removing the duo's vocals and other contributions from the master tapes.[3] Crosby and Nash vowed never to work with either again, although less than a year later they would regroup with Stills for a new CSN album in 1977.

text: The Stills-Young Band, comprising Stills' current touring band behind the pair, began a tour in 1976 prior to the album's release. The tour commenced in Clarkston, Michigan on June 23, but after nine dates Young dropped out after July 18 via a telegram to Stills, forcing Stills to complete the concert tour solo through October.[4] The telegram read: "Dear Stephen, funny how some things that start spontaneously end that way. Eat a peach. Neil."[5] Young would later cite cryptic personal reasons for his departure, namely that the tour "wasn't working" and that the "balance was off in some way" as it progressed.

text: The album's advance single, "Long May You Run", peaked at #71 on the UK singles chart.[6] The song was an elegy for Neil Young's first car (which he nicknamed "Mort"[7]), a 1948 Buick Roadmaster hearse that died in 1965 when its transmission blew in Blind River, Ontario.[8] Mort was a different vehicle from the 1953 Pontiac hearse, nicknamed Mort 2, that Richie Furay, traveling with Stills, saw Young driving in a Hollywood traffic jam in 1966 that led to the formation of Buffalo Springfield.[9] "Long May You Run" was performed by Young on the final broadcast of The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien on January 22, 2010, and during the closing ceremonies for the Vancouver Olympics on February 28, 2010.

text: Track listing[edit]

text: Side one[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

1.
"Long May You Run"
Neil Young
3:53

2.
"Make Love to You"
Stephen Stills
5:10

3.
"Midnight on the Bay"
Neil Young
3:59

4.
"Black Coral"
Stephen Stills
4:41

5.
"Ocean Girl"
Neil Young
3:19

text: Side two[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

1.
"Let It Shine"
Neil Young
4:43

2.
"12/8 Blues (All the Same)"
Stephen Stills
3:41

3.
"Fontainebleau"
Neil Young
3:58

4.
"Guardian Angel"
Stephen Stills
5:40

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Neil Young portal

text: Musicians[edit]

text:
Stephen Stills — vocals, guitars, piano
Neil Young — vocals, guitars, piano, harmonica, string synthesizer
Jerry Aiello — organ, piano
George "Chocolate" Perry — bass, backing vocals
Joe Vitale — drums, flute, backing vocals
Joe Lala — percussion, backing vocals

text: Production[edit]

text:
Don Gehman – producer, mixing, recording
Stephen Stills – producer, mixing
Neil Young – producer, mixing
Tom Dowd – associate producer
Alex Sadkin – mixing
Michael Lasko – recording assistant
Steve Hart – recording assistant

text: Artwork[edit]

text: Tom Wilkes – album design


document_title: List of National Football League annual sacks leaders

question_text: who holds the record for most sacks in a season

text: This is a list of National Football League players who have led the regular season in sacks each year. Sacks became an official statistic in 1982. Michael Strahan of the New York Giants holds the record with 22.5, which he had during the 2001 season. In 2013, the NFL created the Deacon Jones Award to recognize the season leader in sacks. There have only been two players lead in sacks with 2 different teams, Jared Allen (2007 with the Chiefs and 2011 with the Vikings) and Kevin Greene (1994 with the Steelers and 1996 with the Panthers). The Chiefs and the Vikings have had the most players lead the NFL in sacks with 4.

text: Sack leaders[edit]

text:
Year
Player
Sacks
Team

1982
Doug Martin
11.5
Minnesota Vikings

1983
Mark Gastineau
19.0
New York Jets

1984
Mark Gastineau
22.0
New York Jets

1985
Richard Dent
17.0
Chicago Bears

1986
Lawrence Taylor
20.5
New York Giants

1987
Reggie White
21.0
Philadelphia Eagles

1988
Reggie White
18.0
Philadelphia Eagles

1989
Chris Doleman
21.0
Minnesota Vikings

1990
Derrick Thomas
20.0
Kansas City Chiefs

1991
Pat Swilling
17.0
New Orleans Saints

1992
Clyde Simmons
19.0
Philadelphia Eagles

1993
Neil Smith
15.0
Kansas City Chiefs

1994
Kevin Greene
14.0
Pittsburgh Steelers

1995
Bryce Paup
17.5
Buffalo Bills

1996
Kevin Greene
14.5
Carolina Panthers

1997
John Randle
15.5
Minnesota Vikings

1998
Michael Sinclair
16.5
Seattle Seahawks

1999
Kevin Carter
17.0
St. Louis Rams

2000
La'Roi Glover
17.0
New Orleans Saints

2001
Michael Strahan
22.5
New York Giants

2002
Jason Taylor
18.5
Miami Dolphins

2003
Michael Strahan
18.5
New York Giants

2004
Dwight Freeney
16.0
Indianapolis Colts

2005
Derrick Burgess
16.0
Oakland Raiders

2006
Shawne Merriman
17.0
San Diego Chargers

2007
Jared Allen
15.5
Kansas City Chiefs

2008
DeMarcus Ware
20.0
Dallas Cowboys

2009
Elvis Dumervil
17.0
Denver Broncos

2010
DeMarcus Ware
15.5
Dallas Cowboys

2011
Jared Allen
22.0
Minnesota Vikings

2012
J. J. Watt
20.5
Houston Texans

2013
Robert Mathis
19.5
Indianapolis Colts

2014
Justin Houston
22.0
Kansas City Chiefs

2015
J. J. Watt
17.5
Houston Texans

2016
Vic Beasley
15.5
Atlanta Falcons


document_title: Descendants 2

question_text: who plays hook's son in descendants 2

question_tokens: who plays hook 's son in descendants 2

text: Descendants 2

text: Plot[edit]

text: Mal struggles with her new celebrity life as the girlfriend of King Ben, putting a spell on her hair making it blonde, and maintaining a princess-like personality that she is uncomfortable with. She admits her issues to her friends Evie, Carlos, and Jay, but they are content with their new lives in Auradon and do not wish to return to the Isle of the Lost. Evie scolds Mal for relying on her mother's spell book to solve her issues. Carlos, wishing to ask Jane to the upcoming Cotillion dance, turns to Mal for help to be honest with her. Mal gives him a sweet that will make him speak the truth, but his dog Dude eats it, magically speaking the truth in English and very frankly as a result.

text: Ben eventually discovers Mal's reliance on magic, and she comes clean about her insecurities, causing the two to have a falling-out. Mal returns to the Isle, now ruled by her former friend Uma, Ursula's daughter, along with Harry and Gil, the sons of Captain Hook and Gaston. Mal visits hair stylist Dizzy Tremaine, Drizella's daughter, who restores her signature purple hair, saying she felt that Mal's blonde hair was unnatural. Harry discovers Mal has returned and informs Uma.

text: Ben, Evie, Jay, and Carlos learn of Mal's departure and sneak onto the island to find her, but Gil recognizes them. Ben confronts Mal, who rejects his feelings for what she thought was both his sake and Auradon's. Ben leaves dejected, only to be captured by Uma, who orders Mal and her friends to retrieve the Fairy Godmother's wand or Ben dies. Carlos and Jay return to Auradon Prep, where they create a replica of the wand using a 3D printer. They are caught by Lonnie, Mulan's daughter, who blackmails them into letting her come with them, having previously been rejected from Jay's sports team based on her gender.

text: Uma speaks with Ben, bitter that she and the others were not chosen to go to Auradon. Ben takes this into account and invites her to Auradon, but Uma instead plots to make her own way there. Mal's group return, handing over the fake wand in exchange for Ben, but Uma realizes it is a forgery. The group flee back to Auradon, but Mal and Ben's relationship is still on the rocks. The villains' children come to terms that they cannot run from their pasts and agree to be honest with themselves and each other. Carlos confesses to Jane but struggles a little bit, while Jay appoints Lonnie as the captain of his team.

text: Aboard a ship during the Cotillion, Ben stuns everyone by appearing with Uma, who he declares as his true love and announces he will destroy the barrier on the Isle. Jane unveils a stained glass display Ben commissioned to show his affection for Mal, who realizes he loved her for who she was all along. Suspecting Uma has given him a love potion, Mal confesses her love for Ben and kisses him, breaking the spell. Feeling infuriated, Uma leaps into the water, using Ursula's magic seashell to transform into an octopus, Mal fighting back by transforming into a dragon. Ben intervenes, quelling the battle, and Uma returns the ring, that Ben had originally given her, when he had declared her as his true love, and swims away despite his offer still standing.

text: Mal and Ben reunite, Mal surrendering her spell book to the Fairy Godmother. Evie requests that Dizzy be allowed to attend Auradon Prep. When she is given the offer, Dizzy accepts it immediately. In a post-credit scene, Uma addresses the audience, promising that the story is not over.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Dove Cameron as Mal, daughter of Maleficent
Cameron Boyce as Carlos, son of Cruella De Vil
Sofia Carson as Evie, daughter of The Evil Queen
Booboo Stewart as Jay, son of Jafar
Mitchell Hope as Ben, son of Belle and Beast
Brenna D'Amico as Jane, daughter of the Fairy Godmother[5]
Melanie Paxson as the Fairy Godmother, the headmistress of Auradon Prep and Jane's mother
Bobby Moynihan as the Voice of Dude, Carlos' dog
Thomas Doherty as Harry Hook, son of Captain Hook[6]
Dylan Playfair as Gil, son of Gaston[7]
Dianne Doan as Lonnie, daughter of Fa Mulan and Li Shang[5]
Jedidiah Goodacre as Chad Charming, son of Cinderella and Prince Charming[5]
Zachary Gibson as Doug, son of Dopey the Dwarf[5]
Anna Cathcart as Dizzy Tremaine, daughter of Drizella Tremaine and granddaughter of Lady Tremaine[8]
Dan Payne as the Beast, Queen Belle's husband and Ben's father[9]
Keegan Connor Tracy as Belle, Beast's wife and Ben's mother[9]
China Anne McClain as Uma, daughter of Ursula[2]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: At the 2015 D23 Expo, Disney announced that a Descendants sequel film had been ordered.[10] An official announcement was made on Disney Channel's Facebook page on October 15, 2015.[11] Deadline Hollywood reported that Parriott and McGibbon would return as screenwriters and executive producers for the sequel and that the cast from the first film was expected to return.[12]

text: According to China Anne McClain, the post-credits scene featuring Uma saying to the public that “You didn’t think this was the end of the story?” was not included in the original script that she read. However, it was eventually decided to include it in order to foreshadow a possible further sequel, like in the case of the original film.[13]

text: Casting[edit]

text: On June 10, 2016, China Anne McClain, who was already voicing Freddie on the Descendants spinoff series Descendants: Wicked World, was announced to be playing Ursula's daughter, Uma, in Descendants 2.[3] In July 2016 it was revealed that Thomas Doherty would play the role of Harry, the son of Captain Hook.[6] In August 2016, Sarah Jeffery who portrays Audrey revealed that she would not be returning, while Brenna D'Amico revealed that she would be returning in Descendants 2, as were as Dianne Doan, Jedidiah Goodacre, and Zachary Gibson.[5] On July 19, 2017, it was announced on The View that Whoopi Goldberg would be providing the voice for Ursula, the Sea Witch and Uma's mother.[14][15]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Descendants 2 made its debut on Disney Channel in Canada on July 21, 2017, at the same time as the United States. In the United States, the film premiered simultaneously across six-Disney owned networks: Disney Channel, Disney XD, Freeform, ABC, Lifetime, and Lifetime Movies.[1] On Disney Channel, the film premiered alongside the world premiere of Raven's Home, which premiered immediately after.[16] In the UK, the film premiered on Disney Channel and Disney XD on October 20, 2017.[citation needed] In South Africa it premiered on the October 6, 2017.[citation needed]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Descendants 2 was released on DVD on August 15, 2017. In the UK, it was released on DVD on October 23, 2017.

text: Reception[edit]

text: In total, the film was viewed by 8.92 million viewers across six networks on the night of its premiere, up from its predecessor in 2015; at least 13 million people watched a minute of the film.[17] On Disney Channel, the film was watched by 5.33 million viewers, and topped the night on cable television, receiving a 1.20 rating. Although down from the first film, it was the most-viewed telecast on the network since the first film.[18] ABC's broadcast of the film received a 0.6/3 rating/share, drawing 2.41 million viewers; 0.47 million viewers watched the film on Disney XD with a 0.12 rating, 0.30 million viewers watched the film on Lifetime with a 0.09 rating, 0.26 million viewers watched the film on Freeform with a 0.08 rating, and 0.15 million viewers watched the film on Lifetime Movies with a 0.05 rating.[19][20] In delayed viewing, the film rose to a total of 21 million viewers.[21]

text: On Disney Channel, the film placed second in the week of its DVR ratings, jumping 92% to a 2.3 rating, and topped the week in viewer gains, jumping 104% with an additional 5.54 million viewers, the biggest viewer gain on cable television in two years, totaling to 10.90 million viewers on Disney Channel. On Freeform, the film jumped 207% with an additional 0.54 million viewers, totaling to 0.80 million viewers on the network; on Lifetime Movie Network, the film gained 96% with an additional 0.14 million viewers, totaling to 0.29 million viewers on the network.[22]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

2018
Saturn Awards
Best Television Presentation
Descendants 2
Pending
[23]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Descendants 2
(Original TV Movie Soundtrack)

Soundtrack album by Descendants cast

Released
July 21, 2017[24]

Recorded
July— August 2016

Genre
Pop

Length
32:30

Label
Walt Disney

Descendants soundtracks chronology

Descendants
(2015)
Descendants 2
(Original TV Movie Soundtrack)
(2017)

Singles from Descendants 2

"Ways to Be Wicked"
Released: April 14, 2017[25]
"What's My Name"
Released: June 2, 2017[26]

text: Descendants 2 (Original TV Movie Soundtrack) is the soundtrack accompanying the film of the same name. The soundtrack and lead single, "Ways to Be Wicked", was announced on April 12, 2017.[27] The soundtrack was released on July 21, 2017.[28]

text: The soundtrack debuted at number six on the U.S. Billboard 200 after earning 46,000 album-equivalent units, 35,000 of which were pure sales; sales for the soundtrack's debuting week were up from the previous film.[29] It dropped to number nine on the chart for its second week, earning an additional 27,000 units.[30]

text: Singles[edit]

text: "Ways to Be Wicked", performed by Dove Cameron, Sofia Carson, Cameron Boyce and Booboo Stewart, premiered on Radio Disney and then was officially released as first single on April 14 along with the pre-order of the soundtrack.[31] It debuted at number 1 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles. The song is produced by Sam Hollander and Josh Edmondson who wrote the song with Grant Michaels and Charity Daw. "What's My Name", performed by China Anne McClain, Thomas Doherty and Dylan Playfair, premiered on Radio Disney and then was officially released as second single on June 2, 2017.[32]

text: Promotional singles[edit]

text: "Rather Be With You", from "Descendants: Wicked World", performed by Dove Cameron, Sofia Carson, Lauryn McClain and Brenna D'Amico, was released as first promotional single on October 28, 2016.[33] "Evil", from Wicked World, performed by Dove Cameron, was released on December 9, 2016 as second promotional single.[34] "Better Together", from Wicked World, performed by Dove Cameron and Sofia Carson, was released as third and final promotional single on March 3, 2017.[35]

text: Other charted songs[edit]

text: "Chillin' Like a Villain", performed by Sofia Carson, Cameron Boyce, Booboo Stewart and Mitchell Hope, peaked at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100. "It's Goin' Down", performed by Dove Cameron, Sofia Carson, Cameron Boyce, Booboo Stewart, China Anne McClain, Mitchell Hope, Thomas Doherty and Dylan Playfair, peaked at number 77 on the Hot 100.[36][37][38] "You and Me", performed by Dove Cameron, Sofia Carson, Cameron Boyce, Booboo Stewart, Mitchell Hope and Jeff Lewis, debuted at number 20 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles.

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
Descendants 2 (Original TV Movie Soundtrack) – Standard edition

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Performer(s)
Length

1.
"Ways to Be Wicked"

Sam Hollander
Josh Edmondson
Grant Michaels
Charity Daw

Dove Cameron
Sofia Carson
Cameron Boyce
Booboo Stewart

3:38

2.
"What's My Name"

Antonina Armato
Tim James
Tom Sturges
Adam Schmalholz

China Anne McClain
Thomas Doherty
Dylan Playfair

3:10

3.
"Chillin' Like a Villain"

Armato
James
Sturges
Schmalholz

Carson
Boyce
Stewart
Mitchell Hope

3:13

4.
"Space Between"

Shayna Mordue
Stephen Mark Conley
Tyler Shamy
Andy Dodd

Cameron
Carson

3:26

5.
"It's Goin' Down"

Armato
James
Sturges
Schmalholz

Cameron
Carson
Boyce
Stewart
McClain
Hope
Doherty
Playfair

4:12

6.
"You and Me"

Mitch Allan
Nikki Leonti

Cameron
Carson
Boyce
Stewart
Hope
Jeff Lewis

3:32

7.
"Kiss the Girl"

Alan Menken
Howard Ashman

Cameron
Carson
Boyce
Stewart
McClain
Doherty

2:44

8.
"Poor Unfortunate Souls"

Menken
Ashman

McClain

2:43

9.
"Better Together" (from Descendants: Wicked World)

Matt Wong
Jack Kugell
Hannah Jones

Cameron
Carson

2:44

10.
"Evil" (from Descendants: Wicked World)

Dan Book
Shelly Peiken

Cameron

2:54

11.
"Rather Be with You" (from Descendants: Wicked World)

Jeannie Lurie
Chen Neeman
Aris Archontis

Cameron
Carson

2:14

Total length:
32:30

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2017)
Peak
position

Australian Albums (ARIA)[39]
64

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[40]
102

Canadian Albums (Billboard)[41]
25

French Albums (SNEP)[42]
135

New Zealand Heatseekers Albums (RMNZ)[43]
6

Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)[44]
53

US Billboard 200[45]
6

US Kid Albums (Billboard)[46]
1

US Soundtrack Albums (Billboard)[47]
1

text: Sequel[edit]

text: On February 16, 2018, Disney Channel announced that a sequel film, Descendants 3, is scheduled to premiere mid-2019.[48]

text: Novels[edit]

text: Rise of the Isle of the Lost[edit]

text: A prequel novel called Rise of the Isle of the Lost was released on May 23, 2017.[49] The novel details Uma's rise to power and her earlier history with Mal. The main plot details Uma planning to get the migrating trident of King Triton in order to help bring down the barrier surrounding the Isle of the Lost.

text: In addition to the mentioning of Genie, Grumpy, and Merriwether being teachers at Auradon Prep, a third school called the Serpent Preparatory School for the Education of Miscreants is located on the Isle of the Lost which Uma, Harry Hook, and Gil attended. Serpent Prep is a rival of Dragon Hall.

text: The book also introduced Yen Sid's Auradon intern Sophie, Ariel's niece Arabella, and Mulan and Shang's son Li'l Shang who is Lonnie's brother. There was a mentioning that the Stabbington Brothers from Tangled are also on the Isle of the Lost where they have Stabbington Cousins. Other information listed here that was later referenced in the film was Audrey and Chad breaking up, the introduction of R.O.A.R., Mal keeping Maleficent's lizard form as a pet, and Evie having her magic mirror placed in the museum.


document_title: Kidney

question_text: where are the kidneys on a human body

question_tokens: where are the kidneys on a human body

text: Kidney

text: Structure[edit]

text: Location[edit]

text: In humans, the kidneys are located high in the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the spine, and lie in a retroperitoneal position at a slightly oblique angle.[2] The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused by the position of the liver, typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left, and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney.[3][4][5] The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3,[6] and the right is slightly lower. The right kidney sits just below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver. The left sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen. On top of each kidney is an adrenal gland. The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th ribs. Each kidney, with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat: the perinephric fat present between renal fascia and renal capsule and paranephric fat superior to the renal fascia.

text: Structure[edit]

text: The kidney has a bean-shaped structure with a convex and a concave border. A recessed area on the concave border is the renal hilum, where the renal artery enters the kidney and the renal vein and ureter leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the renal capsule, which is itself surrounded by perirenal fat (adipose capsule), renal fascia, and pararenal fat (paranephric body). The anterior (front) surface of these tissues is the peritoneum, while the posterior (rear) surface is the transversalis fascia.

text: The superior pole of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver. For the left kidney, it is next to the spleen. Both, therefore, move down upon inhalation.

text: In adult males, the kidney weighs between 125 and 170 grams. In females the weight of the kidney is between 115 and 155 grams.[7] A Danish study measured the median renal length to be 11.2 cm (4.4 in) on the left side and 10.9 cm (4.3 in) on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were 146 cm3 on the left and 134 cm3 on the right.[8]

text: The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid (of Malpighi).[7] Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called renal columns (or Bertin columns). Nephrons, the urine-producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the renal corpuscle which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary ray is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single collecting duct.

text: The tip, or papilla, of each pyramid empties urine into a minor calyx; minor calyces empty into major calyces, and major calyces empty into the renal pelvis. This becomes the ureter. At the hilum, the ureter and renal vein exit the kidney and the renal artery enters. Hilar fat and lymphatic tissue with lymph nodes surrounds these structures. The hilar fat is contiguous with a fat-filled cavity called the renal sinus. The renal sinus collectively contains the renal pelvis and calyces and separates these structures from the renal medullary tissue.[9]

text: Unlike the heart or lungs, the kidneys possess no overtly moving structures

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The renal circulation supplies the blood to the kidneys via the renal arteries, left and right, which branch directly from the abdominal aorta. Despite their relatively small size, the kidneys receive approximately 20% of the cardiac output.[7]

text: Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into interlobar arteries, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the arcuate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several interlobular arteries that feed into the afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli.

text: The medullary interstitium is the functional space in the kidney beneath the individual filters (glomeruli), which are rich in blood vessels. The interstitium absorbs fluid recovered from urine. Various conditions can lead to scarring and congestion of this area, which can cause kidney dysfunction and failure.

text: After filtration occurs, the blood moves through a small network of venules that converge into interlobular veins. As with the arteriole distribution, the veins follow the same pattern: the interlobular provide blood to the arcuate veins then back to the interlobar veins, which come to form the renal vein exiting the kidney for transfusion for blood.

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text: The kidney and nervous system communicate via the renal plexus, whose fibers course along the renal arteries to reach each kidney.[10] Input from the sympathetic nervous system triggers vasoconstriction in the kidney, thereby reducing renal blood flow.[10] The kidney also receives input from the parasympathetic nervous system, by way of the renal branches of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X); the function of this is yet unclear.[10][11] Sensory input from the kidney travels to the T10-11 levels of the spinal cord and is sensed in the corresponding dermatome.[10] Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred from corresponding kidney.[10]

text: Microanatomy[edit]

text: Renal histology studies the microscopic structure of the kidney. Distinct cell types include:

text:
Kidney glomerulus parietal cell
Kidney glomerulus podocyte
Kidney proximal tubule brush border cell
Loop of Henle thin segment cell
Thick ascending limb cell
Kidney distal tubule cell
Collecting duct principal cell
Collecting duct intercalated cell
Interstitial kidney cells

text: The renal artery enters into the kidney at the level of the first lumbar vertebra just below the superior mesenteric artery. As it enters the kidney, it divides into branches: first the segmental artery, which divides into 2 or 3 lobar arteries, then further divides into interlobar arteries, which further divide into the arcuate artery, which leads into the interlobular artery, which form afferent arterioles. The afferent arterioles form the glomerulus (network of capillaries enclosed in Bowman's capsule). From here, efferent arterioles leaves the glomerulus and divide into peritubular capillaries, which drain into the interlobular veins and then into arcuate vein and then into interlobar vein, which runs into lobar vein, which opens into the segmental vein and which drains into the renal vein, and then from it blood moves into the inferior vena cava.

text: Development[edit]

text: The mammalian kidney develops from intermediate mesoderm. Kidney development, also called nephrogenesis, proceeds through a series of three successive developmental phases: the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. The metanephros are primordia of the permanent kidney. [12]

text: Functions[edit]

text: The kidney participates in whole-body homeostasis, regulating acid-base balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and blood pressure. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the endocrine system. Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide, among others.

text: Many of the kidney's functions are accomplished by relatively simple mechanisms of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, which take place in the nephron. Filtration, which takes place at the renal corpuscle, is the process by which cells and large proteins are filtered from the blood to make an ultrafiltrate that eventually becomes urine. The kidney generates 180 liters of filtrate a day, while reabsorbing a large percentage, allowing for the generation of only approximately 2 liters of urine. Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the blood. Secretion is the reverse process, in which molecules are transported in the opposite direction, from the blood into the urine.

text: Excretion of wastes[edit]

text: The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism into the urine. These include the nitrogenous wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism. The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate countercurrent multiplication mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive countercurrent exchange by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.

text: Reabsorption of vital nutrients[edit]

text: Glucose at normal plasma levels is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. The mechanism for this is the Na+/glucose cotransporter. A plasma level of 350 mg/dL will fully saturate the transporters and glucose will be lost in the urine. A plasma glucose level of approximately 160 is sufficient to allow glucosuria, which is an important clinical clue to diabetes mellitus.

text: Amino acids are reabsorbed by sodium dependent transporters in the proximal tubule. Hartnup disease is a deficiency of the tryptophan amino acid transporter, which results in pellagra.[13]

text:
Location of Reabsorption
Reabsorbed nutrient
Notes

Early proximal tubule
Glucose (100%), amino acids (100%), bicarbonate (90%), Na+ (65%), Cl−, phosphate and H2O (65%)

PTH will inhibit phosphate reabsorption.
AT II stimulates Na+, H2O and HCO3− reabsorption.

Thin descending loop of Henle
H2O

Reabsorbs via medullary hypertonicity and makes urine hypertonic.

Thick ascending loop of Henle
Na+ (10–20%), K+, Cl−; indirectly induces para cellular reabsorption of Mg2+, Ca2+

This region is impermeable to H2O and the urine becomes less concentrated as it ascends.

Early distal convoluted tubule
Na+, Cl−

PTH causes Ca2+ reabsorption.

Collecting tubules
Na+(3–5%), H2O

Na+ is reabsorbed in exchange for K+, and H+, which is regulated by aldosterone.
ADH acts on the V2 receptor and inserts aquaporins on the luminal side

Source:[13]

text: Pregnancy reduces the reabsorption of glucose and amino acids.

text: Acid-base homeostasis[edit]

text: Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid-base homeostasis, which is the maintenance of pH around a relatively stable value. The lungs contribute to acid-base homeostasis by regulating carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. The kidneys have two very important roles in maintaining the acid-base balance: to reabsorb and regenerate bicarbonate from urine, and to excrete hydrogen ions and fixed acids (anions of acids) into urine.

text: Osmolality regulation[edit]

text: Maintaining water and salt level of the body. Any significant rise in plasma osmolality is detected by the hypothalamus, which communicates directly with the posterior pituitary gland. An increase in osmolality causes the gland to secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH), resulting in water reabsorption by the kidney and an increase in urine concentration. The two factors work together to return the plasma osmolality to its normal levels.

text: ADH binds to principal cells in the collecting duct that translocate aquaporins to the membrane, allowing water to leave the normally impermeable membrane and be reabsorbed into the body by the vasa recta, thus increasing the plasma volume of the body.

text: There are two systems that create a hyperosmotic medulla and thus increase the body plasma volume: Urea recycling and the 'single effect.'

text: Urea is usually excreted as a waste product from the kidneys. However, when plasma blood volume is low and ADH is released the aquaporins that are opened are also permeable to urea. This allows urea to leave the collecting duct into the medulla creating a hyperosmotic solution that 'attracts' water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not.

text: The 'Single effect' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to NaCl. This allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an osmotic gradient for water to follow should the aquaporins of the collecting duct be opened by ADH.

text: Blood pressure regulation[edit]

text: Although the kidney cannot directly sense blood, long-term regulation of blood pressure predominantly depends upon the kidney. This primarily occurs through maintenance of the extracellular fluid compartment, the size of which depends on the plasma sodium concentration. Renin is the first in a series of important chemical messengers that make up the renin-angiotensin system. Changes in renin ultimately alter the output of this system, principally the hormones angiotensin II and aldosterone. Each hormone acts via multiple mechanisms, but both increase the kidney's absorption of sodium chloride, thereby expanding the extracellular fluid compartment and raising blood pressure. When renin levels are elevated, the concentrations of angiotensin II and aldosterone increase, leading to increased sodium chloride reabsorption, expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment, and an increase in blood pressure. Conversely, when renin levels are low, angiotensin II and aldosterone levels decrease, contracting the extracellular fluid compartment, and decreasing blood pressure.

text: Hormone secretion[edit]

text: The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin, and the enzyme renin. Erythropoietin is released in response to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone marrow. Calcitriol, the activated form of vitamin D, promotes intestinal absorption of calcium and the renal reabsorption of phosphate. Part of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, renin is an enzyme involved in the regulation of aldosterone levels.

text: Calculations[edit]

text: Calculations of kidney performance are an important part of physiology and can be estimated using the calculations below.

text: Filtration fraction[edit]

text: The filtration fraction is the amount of plasma that is actually filtered through the kidney. This can be defined using the equation:

text: FF=GFR/RPF

text:
FF is the filtration fraction
GFR is the glomerular filtration rate
RPF is the renal plasma flow

text: Normal human FF is 20%.

text: Renal clearance[edit]

text: Renal clearance is the volume of plasma from which the substance is completely cleared from the blood per unit time.

text: Cx=(Ux)V/Px

text:
Cx is the clearance of U (normally in units of mL/min.
Ux is the urine concentration of X.
Px is the plasma concentration of Y.
V is the urine flow rate.

text: Mathematical modelling[edit]

text: The kidney is a very complex organ and numerical modelling has been used to better understand kidney function at several scales, including fluid uptake and secretion.[14][15]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Kidney disease, is kidney disease or damage to a kidney. Nephrosis is non-inflammatory nephropathy and nephritis is inflammatory kidney disease. Nephrology is the speciality that deals with kidney function and disease. Medical terms related to the kidneys commonly use terms such as renal and the prefix nephro-. The adjective renal, meaning related to the kidney, is from the Latin rēnēs, meaning kidneys; the prefix nephro- is from the Ancient Greek word for kidney, nephros (νεφρός).[16] For example, surgical removal of the kidney is a nephrectomy, while a reduction in kidney function is called renal dysfunction.

text: Acquired[edit]

text:
Diabetic nephropathy
Glomerulonephritis
Hydronephrosis is the enlargement of one or both of the kidneys caused by obstruction of the flow of urine.
Interstitial nephritis
Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis) are a relatively common and particularly painful disorder. A chronic condition can result in scars to the kidneys. The removal of kidney stones involves ultrasound treatment to break up the stones into smaller pieces, which are then passed through the urinary tract. One common symptom of kidney stones is a sharp to disabling pain in the middle and sides of the lower back or groin.
Kidney tumour

Wilms tumor
Renal cell carcinoma

Lupus nephritis
Minimal change disease
In nephrotic syndrome, the glomerulus has been damaged so that a large amount of protein in the blood enters the urine. Other frequent features of the nephrotic syndrome include swelling, low serum albumin, and high cholesterol.
Pyelonephritis is infection of the kidneys and is frequently caused by complication of a urinary tract infection.
Renal failure

Acute renal failure
Stage 5 Chronic Kidney Disease

Renal artery stenosis
Renovascular hypertension

text: Kidney injury and failure[edit]

text: Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished does one develop chronic kidney disease. Renal replacement therapy, in the form of dialysis or kidney transplantation, is indicated when the glomerular filtration rate has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms.

text: Dialysis[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2017)

text: Congenital disease[edit]

text:
Congenital hydronephrosis
Congenital obstruction of urinary tract
Duplex kidneys, or double kidneys, occur in approximately 1% of the population. This occurrence normally causes no complications, but can occasionally cause urine infections.[17][18]
Duplicated ureter occurs in approximately one in 100 live births
Horseshoe kidney occurs in approximately one in 400 live births
Nutcracker syndrome
Polycystic kidney disease

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease afflicts patients later in life. Approximately one in 1000 people will develop this condition
Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease is far less common, but more severe, than the dominant condition. It is apparent in utero or at birth.

Renal agenesis. Failure of one kidney to form occurs in approximately one in 750 live births. Failure of both kidneys to form used to be fatal; however, medical advances such as amnioinfusion therapy during pregnancy and peritoneal dialysis have made it possible to stay alive until a transplant can occur.
Renal dysplasia
Unilateral small kidney
Multicystic dysplastic kidney occurs in approximately one in every 2400 live births
Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction or UPJO; although most cases appear congenital, some appear to be an acquired condition[19]

text: Investigations[edit]

text: Many renal diseases are diagnosed on the basis of a detailed clinical history and performs a physical examination.[citation needed] In addition to medical history and presenting symptoms, a physician will ask about medication history, family history recent infections, toxic/chemical exposures and other factors that may be related to disease. Some diseases are suggested by clinical history and time course alone. For example, in a formerly healthy child with a recent upper respiratory tract infection and facial/lower limb swelling, findings of proteinuria on urinalysis, a diagnosis of minimal change disease is highly suggested. Similarly, a patient with a history of diabetes who presents with decreased urine output is most likely to be suffering from diabetic nephropathy. Often, such cases do not require extensive workup (such as with renal biopsy). A presumptive diagnosis can be made on the basis of history, physical exam and supportive laboratory studies.

text: Blood tests are important to assess kidney function. These may include a full blood count, serum electrolytes including sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, and phosphorus; blood urea, nitrogen and creatinine; blood glucose and glycocylated hemoglobin. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) can be calculated.[20]

text: Urine studies may include urine electrolytes, creatinine, protein, fractional excretion of sodium (FENA) and other studies to assist in evaluation of the etiology of a patient's renal disease. Urinalysis is used to evaluate urine for its pH, protein, glucose, specific gravity and the presence of blood. Microscopic analysis can be helpful in the identification of casts, red blood cells, white blood cells and crystals.[20]

text: Imaging[edit]

text: Imaging studies are important in the evaluation of structural renal disease caused by urinary tract obstruction, renal stones, renal cyst, mass lesions, renal vascular disease, and vesicoureteral reflux.[20]

text: Imaging techniques used most frequently include renal ultrasound and helical CT scan. Patients with suspected vesicoureteral reflux may undergo voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG).

text: Biopsy[edit]

text: The role of the renal biopsy is to diagnose renal disease in which the etiology is not clear based upon noninvasive means (clinical history, past medical history, medication history, physical exam, laboratory studies, imaging studies). In general, a renal pathologist will perform a detailed morphological evaluation and integrate the morphologic findings with the clinical history and laboratory data, ultimately arriving at a pathological diagnosis. A renal pathologist is a physician who has undergone general training in anatomic pathology and additional specially training in the interpretation of renal biopsy specimens.

text: Ideally, multiple core sections are obtained and evaluated for adequacy (presence of glomeruli) intraoperatively. A pathologist/pathology assistant divides the specimen(s) for submission for light microscopy, immunofluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy.

text: The pathologist will examine the specimen using light microscopy with multiple staining techniques (hematoxylin and eosin/H&E, PAS, trichrome, silver stain) on multiple level sections. Multiple immunofluorescence stains are performed to evaluate for antibody, protein and complement deposition. Finally, ultra-structural examination is performed with electron microscopy and may reveal the presence of electron-dense deposits or other characteristic abnormalities that may suggest an etiology for the patient's renal disease.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: In the majority of vertebrates, the mesonephros persists into the adult, albeit usually fused with the more advanced metanephros; only in amniotes is the mesonephros restricted to the embryo. The kidneys of fish and amphibians are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. The collecting ducts from each cluster of nephrons usually drain into an archinephric duct, which is homologous with the vas deferens of amniotes. However, the situation is not always so simple; in cartilaginous fish and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult.[21]

text: In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfish and lampreys, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as "kidneys", but, even in Amphioxus, these are never homologous with the kidneys of vertebrates, and are more accurately referred to by other names, such as nephridia.[21]

text: In amphibians, kidneys and the urinary bladder harbour specialized parasites, monogeneans of the family Polystomatidae.[22]

text: The kidneys of reptiles consist of a number of lobules arranged in a broadly linear pattern. Each lobule contains a single branch of the ureter in its centre, into which the collecting ducts empty. Reptiles have relatively few nephrons compared with other amniotes of a similar size, possibly because of their lower metabolic rate.[21]

text: Birds have relatively large, elongated kidneys, each of which is divided into three or more distinct lobes. The lobes consists of several small, irregularly arranged, lobules, each centred on a branch of the ureter. Birds have small glomeruli, but about twice as many nephrons as similarly sized mammals.[21]

text: The human kidney is fairly typical of that of mammals. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle; these are much shorter in birds, and not truly present in other vertebrates (although the nephron often has a short intermediate segment between the convoluted tubules). It is only in mammals that the kidney takes on its classical "kidney" shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed reniculate kidneys of pinnipeds and cetaceans.[21]

text: Evolutionary adaptation[edit]

text: Kidneys of various animals show evidence of evolutionary adaptation and have long been studied in ecophysiology and comparative physiology. Kidney morphology, often indexed as the relative medullary thickness, is associated with habitat aridity among species of mammals,[23] and diet (e.g., carnivores have only long loops of Henle).[15]

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: Kidneys as food[edit]

text: The kidneys, like other offal, can be cooked and eaten.

text: Kidneys are usually grilled or sautéed, but in more complex dishes they are stewed with a sauce that will improve their flavor. In many preparations, kidneys are combined with pieces of meat or liver, as in mixed grill. Dishes include the British steak and kidney pie, the Swedish hökarpanna (pork and kidney stew), the French rognons de veau sauce moutarde (veal kidneys in mustard sauce) and the Spanish riñones al Jerez (kidneys stewed in sherry sauce) .[24]

text: History[edit]

text: The Latin term renes is related to the English word "reins", a synonym for the kidneys in Shakespearean English (e.g. Merry Wives of Windsor 3.5), which was also the time when the King James Version of the Bible was translated. Kidneys were once popularly regarded as the seat of the conscience and reflection,[25][26] and a number of verses in the Bible (e.g. Ps. 7:9, Rev. 2:23) state that God searches out and inspects the kidneys, or "reins", of humans, together with the heart. Similarly, the Talmud (Berakhoth 61.a) states that one of the two kidneys counsels what is good, and the other evil.

text: According to studies in modern and ancient Hebrew, various body organs in humans and animals served also an emotional or logical role, today mostly attributed to the brain and the endocrine system. The kidney is mentioned in several biblical verses in conjunction with the heart, much as the bowels were understood to be the "seat" of emotion - grief, joy and pain.[27]

text: In the sacrifices offered at the biblical Tabernacle and later on at the temple in Jerusalem, the priests were instructed [28] to remove the kidneys and the adrenal gland covering the kidneys of the sheep, goat and cattle offerings, and to burn them on the altar, as the holy part of the "offering for God" never to be eaten.[29]

text: In ancient India, according to the Ayurvedic medical systems, the kidneys were considered the beginning of the excursion channels system, the 'head' of the Mutra Srotas, receiving from all other systems, and therefore important in determining a person's health balance and temperament by the balance and mixture of the three 'Dosha's - the three health elements: Vatha (or Vata) - air, Pitta - bile, and Kapha - mucus. The temperament and health of a person can then be seen in the resulting color of the urine.[30]

text: Modern Ayurveda practitioners, a practice which is characterized as pseudoscience,[31] have attempted to revive these methods in medical procedures as part of Ayurveda Urine therapy.[32] These procedures have been called "nonsensical" by skeptics.[33]

text: In ancient Egypt, the kidneys, like the heart, were left inside the mummified bodies, unlike other organs which were removed. Comparing this to the biblical statements, and to drawings of human body with the heart and two kidneys portraying a set of scales for weighing justice, it seems that the Egyptian beliefs had also connected the kidneys with judgement and perhaps with moral decisions.[34]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Kidney Posterior View

Anterior relation of Left Kidney

Structure of a Kidney

Kidney Anatomy

Kidneys of a mammal after the technique of vinylite and corrosion.

Kidney Cross Section

text:
[show]Dissection images

Right Kidney

Kidney

Right Kidney

Right kidney

Left kidney

Kidneys

Left kidney