document_title: The Duchess of Duke Street

question_text: who played lottie in duchess of duke street

text: The Duchess of Duke Street

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Beautiful but low-born Louisa Leyton (Gemma Jones) has one driving ambition: to become a great cook. She finds employment as a cook in the household of Lord Henry Norton (Bryan Coleman). His handsome, wealthy, aristocratic nephew, Charlie Tyrrell (Christopher Cazenove), attempts to seduce the attractive redhead, but she rebuffs him, refusing to be sidetracked from her ambition to become the best cook in London. Louisa manages to convince Lord Norton's sexist French chef, Monsieur Alex (George Pravda), into accepting her as his apprentice.

text: When Louisa is unexpectedly called upon to prepare a dinner by herself, she catches the eye of one of the guests, Edward, the Prince of Wales (Roger Hammond), who admires both her cooking and her appearance. After the dinner, Louisa is pressured into becoming Edward's mistress. Against her own wishes, she agrees to marry Lord Norton's head butler, Augustus 'Gus' Trotter (Donald Burton), to maintain the appearance of respectability and to protect the royal reputation. Gus and Louisa are given a house, and her involvement with the prince commences. In time, Edward's mother, Queen Victoria, dies leaving Edward to assume the throne as King Edward VII and causing him to end his relationship with Louisa.

text: Louisa's shaky marriage to Gus becomes strained, both from her affair with the prince and her great success as a chef. In an effort to help him recover his pride, Louisa purchases the Bentinck Hotel and talks a reluctant Gus into managing it. Before long, abetted by his sister, he lets the authority go to his head. His arrogance alienates the staff and, more importantly, the guests. Once Louisa discovers that he has lavishly entertained his friends and driven away the guests, she throws both him and his meddling sister out. Then she discovers, to her horror, the mountain of bills he has left unpaid.

text: With only Mary, one of Lord Norton's servants, to assist her, she sets to work to pay the debts, taking any and all cooking jobs, however humble, but finally she collapses, exhausted from overwork, in the street very early one morning. Fortunately, Charlie Tyrrell is passing by (leaving a late-night assignation), and takes her back to the Bentinck. Once he learns of Louisa's financial woes, he convinces her to allow him to help her to the extent that he becomes a silent partner in the hotel.

text: Louisa keeps one of the Bentinck's previous employees, the elderly head waiter Merriman (John Welsh). She hires the brisk, soldierly Starr (John Cater), who is always accompanied by his dog Fred, as the porter. From their former employer, Louisa takes along her loyal Welsh assistant and friend Mary (Victoria Plucknett). (In the final episode, Starr and Mary get engaged.)

text: Rounding out the principal cast is Major Toby Smith-Barton (Richard Vernon), an upper-class, retired Army officer. The Major enjoys wagering on the horse races, and ends up unable to pay his hotel bill. Reluctant to "toss him out on the street" and liking the man, Louisa offers the Major a position: general adviser, bellhop and greeter.

text: Charlie and Louisa eventually have a very passionate romance. Infatuated with Charlie, Louisa begins to neglect both the hotel and her cooking. Recognizing what is happening, the Major steps in and has a discreet word with Charles. Knowing how much the establishment means to Louisa, Charlie leaves for an extended stay in America, giving Louisa a chance to refocus on her business. Grief-stricken at first, Louisa eventually regains her balance and makes the Bentinck a great success, only to discover that she is pregnant. Eventually, Louisa secretly gives birth to their illegitimate daughter Lottie (Lalla Ward). Louisa accepts Charlie's suggestion that Lottie be discreetly adopted by a young couple who work on his estate. Later, Charlie and Louisa agree it is best they remain friends, not lovers.

text: Upon the death of his father, Charlie inherits the family fortune and the title of Lord Haslemere. With Louisa's approval, Charlie marries another woman. He tells Louisa that if his marriage has any hope of working, he will have to be away from her.

text: However, when Charlie's wife later passes away, he and Louisa renew their relationship. They decide to postpone their wedding until the end of the First World War. Tragically, Charlie dies of a head injury received while fighting in the trenches. Louisa is grief-stricken, but gradually recovers.

text: Louisa informs the teenage Lottie the identity of her true parents. Lottie accepts her mother's offer to take her to London. Louisa, not quite knowing what to do with her, eventually sends her to a Swiss finishing school to become a lady. When Lottie returns, she has her heart set on being a singer instead.

text: Louisa's parents occasionally make an appearance. She is on very good terms with her ineffectual, but loving father (John Rapley), but not with her critical, abrasively selfish mother (June Brown). Late in the series, Louisa's father dies, but not before giving his modest savings to his granddaughter to help her pursue her singing career. Louisa becomes reconciled to Lottie's career choice.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gemma Jones as Louisa Trotter (née Leyton)
Victoria Plucknett as Mary
John Welsh as Merriman
John Cater as Starr
Richard Vernon as Major Smith-Barton
Christopher Cazenove as Charles "Charlie" Tyrrell, later Lord Haslemere
Mary Healey as Mrs. Cochrane, Louisa's head cook at the Bentinck
Doreen Mantle as Mrs Catchpole, Lord Henry's housekeeper
Sammie Winmill as Ethel, a maid at the Bentinck
Holly De Jong as Violet, another maid
Donald Burton as Augustus Trotter
June Brown as Mrs. Violet Leyton
John Rapley as Mr. Ernest Leyton
Lalla Ward as Lottie, Louisa's daughter. (Ward is only eight years and six months younger than Gemma Jones. Philippa Shackleton played Lottie as a child in one episode.)
Bryan Coleman as Lord Henry Norton, Louisa's employer for part of the first series, beginning in the first episode
Christine Pollon as Aunt Gwyneth, Mary's aunt and occasional seamstress at the Bentinck
George Pravda as Monsieur Alex
Roger Hammond as the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII
Martin Shaw as Arthur, Louisa's brother

text: Joanna David as Lady Margaret Hazlemere

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series 1[edit]

text:
No. in
series
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

1
1
"A Present Sovereign"
Bill Bain
John Hawkesworth
4 September 1976 (1976-09-04)

Wishing to learn to be an excellent cook, outspoken and ambitious Louisa Leyton is hired as assistant to Monsieur Alex, a French chef working in the London home of Lord Henry Norton. Resented by other kitchen staff, Louisa bonds with Mary, the target of their frequent malice, forms a friendship with head butler Gus Trotter, and fends off the attentions of the aristocratic Charlie Tyrrell. When Lord Henry unexpectedly returns during Monsieur Alex's holiday, she must cook dinner for a group that includes the Prince of Wales.

2
2
"Honour and Obey"
Cyril Coke
John Hawkesworth and Jeremy Paul
11 September 1976 (1976-09-11)

When the Prince of Wales asks to borrow Louisa's services as a cook, it turns out that more than her cooking appeals to him. To preserve appearances, she is pressured into marrying Gus Trotter, who has fallen in love with her, even though she does not return his feelings. The newly married couple leave the Nortons' service for the house provided for them.

3
3
"A Nice Class of Premises"
Bill Bain
David Butler and John Hawkesworth
18 September 1976 (1976-09-18)

The death of Queen Victoria ends Louisa's relationship with the Prince, now King Edward VII, forcing the Trotters to face their future together. Under the influence of his resentful sister, Nora, Gus wants to take in lodgers to make ends meet. Instead, over his objections, Louisa sets out to rebuild her career as a chef, taking on Mary as her assistant. When Gus's drinking begins leading him into indiscretion, Louisa buys the Bentinck Hotel in Duke Street and installs him as manager, with disastrous results.

4
4
"The Bargain"
Cyril Coke
John Hawkesworth and Jack Rosenthal
25 September 1976 (1976-09-25)

After throwing Gus and Nora out of the hotel, Louisa sets to work to repay the debts they have allowed to accumulate with the assistance of Mary and the hotel's long-serving, aged head waiter, Merriman. When Louisa collapses from overwork, Charlie Tyrrell steps in and becomes a silent investor in the hotel in return for a permanent private suite.

5
5
"A Bed of Roses"
Bill Bain
John Hawkesworth
2 October 1976 (1976-10-02)

Equipped with hall porter Starr and his dog, Fred, the newly refurbished Bentinck reopens and, under Louisa's management, becomes a success as long-term guests such as the Major take up residence until her developing friendship with Charlie begins to put the Bentinck at risk. When Charlie leaves for America to see his dying father, Louisa regains her focus on the business - only to discover she is pregnant. Leaving Mary in charge, she goes into hiding to have the baby, a girl she names Charlotte. Charlie, now Lord Haslemere, finds the baby a place with a childless couple on his estate.

6
6
"For Love or Money"
Raymond Menmuir
John Hawkesworth
9 October 1976 (1976-10-09)

A visiting German baron claiming to be a friend of Lord Haslemere's creates trouble at the Bentinck with some of the other guests.

7
7
"A Lady of Virtue"
Cyril Coke
John Hawkesworth and Jeremy Paul
16 October 1976 (1976-10-16)

When the Liberals celebrate a by-election result at the Bentinck, a politically ambitious MP at the party sets out to seduce a visiting artist believed to be incorruptibly devoted to her husband.

8
8
"Trouble and Strife"
Raymond Menmuir
John Hawkesworth and Jeremy Paul
23 October 1976 (1976-10-23)

While Louisa takes a holiday in France, Starr's estranged former common-law wife, Lizzie, blackmails him into helping her get a job as laundry maid at the Bentinck. Starr finally confides in the Major after money is found missing from a hotel guest's room.

9
9
"The Outsiders"
Simon Langton
John Hawkesworth and Rosemary Anne Sisson
30 October 1976 (1976-10-30)

Charlie pushes Louisa to accept as a hotel guest an obviously mismatched unassuming man. Seeing that Charlie is at loose ends, Louisa arranges for an art dealer to include his paintings in a gallery show, where he discovers the difference between being an amateur and being a genuine talent.

10
10
"Lottie's Boy"
Cyril Coke
John Hawkesworth and Julia Jones
6 November 1976 (1976-11-06)

Mary's disapproving Aunt Gwyneth, the servants' ball, and attentive guest Marcus Carrington sow dissent between Louisa and Mary, whose abrupt departure leaves the hotel in a muddle. Louisa and the Major give their money to Carrington, a risk-taking City whizkid and the son of an old friend of the Major's, to invest in the stock market.

11
11
"No Letters, No Lawyers"
Simon Langton
Bill Craig and John Hawkesworth
13 November 1976 (1976-11-13)

A discontented departing guest's refusal to pay his bill lands him in court and the hotel in the newspapers, to the displeasure of both Louisa and his newspaper publisher uncle, who sends a journalist to work undercover at the hotel. The publicity gives the Bentinck's owners ammunition for their demand to renegotiate Louisa's lease now that the hotel is successful. With the hotel at risk, Louisa is forced to sue the paper for libel, pushing the journalist to unearth the details of her earlier life.

12
12
"A Matter of Honour"
Bill Bain
Julian Bond and John Hawkesworth
20 November 1976 (1976-11-20)

Insufficient staff and a row over a racing result nearly derail a special dinner that the King's newly married former equerry asks Louisa to cook at his Ascot home for a group of guests that includes Charlie Haslemere.

13
13
"One Night's Grace"
Cyril Coke
John Hawkesworth and Ken Taylor
27 November 1976 (1976-11-27)

A mysterious young woman causes dissent between Charlie and Louisa, speculation among the staff, and a visit from the police when she comes to stay with Charlie for a few days.

14
14
"Plain Sailing"
Raymond Menmuir
John Hawkesworth and Jeremy Paul
4 December 1976 (1976-12-04)

Charlie is caught in the middle when Louisa buys a house at Cowes to move her entire operation to the seaside for a few weeks' summer vacation, upsetting the stuffy sailing club next door. Among Louisa's guests is the professional dancer Irene Baker, who develops a close friendship with Charlie.

15
15
"A Test of Love"
Bill Bain
John Hawkesworth
11 December 1976 (1976-12-11)

The funeral of King Edward VII provides the occasion for a visit from Louisa's former employer, Lord Henry Norton. As Charlie Haslemere's sole surviving relative, he tells Louisa it's time for Charlie to marry - and he thinks he's found the right woman. One snag: as soon as Charlie's engagement to Margaret Wormold is announced, Irene Baker sues him for breach of promise of marriage. In the ensuing court case, Louisa, Merriman, and Starr are required to testify.

text: Series 2[edit]

text:
No. in
series
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

16
1
"Family Matters"
Bill Bain
Julia Jones
3 September 1977 (1977-09-03)

When Louisa's brother returns from his travels after a long time away, his doting mother talks her reluctant daughter into hiring him, as the hotel is short-staffed. Arthur soon antagonises the longtime servants, precipitating an ugly family quarrel after Louisa discharges him.

17
2
"Poor Catullus"
Cyril Coke
Jeremy Paul
10 September 1977 (1977-09-10)

Two young men play a prank, sending Louisa love letters purportedly from their Oxford University professor. Louisa and Professor Stubbs soon turn the tables on the tricksters, but she is tempted by his somewhat inebriated offer to take her to America to start a new life. The next morning, however, he remembers nothing of the previous night. Charlie's wife, Margaret, seeks Louisa's help in searching for a house in London.

18
3
"A Lesson in Manners"
Cyril Coke
Rosemary Anne Sisson
17 September 1977 (1977-09-17)

When an elderly but vibrant Bentinck regular guest dies unexpectedly, she surprises everyone by leaving nearly all of her considerable wealth to her attentive chauffeur Prince rather than her indifferent, spendthrift nephew Eddie Sturgess. When Prince considers entering British society, Louisa decides it would be fun to pass him off as a gentleman, under Eddie and the Major's tutelage, despite the latter's warning. The Major is proved right in the end.

19
4
"Winter Lament"
Simon Langton
Maggie Wadey
24 September 1977 (1977-09-24)

Louisa visits the Haslemeres at their country estate, and finds that Margaret's strange behaviour is putting a great strain on the marriage. Louisa also sees her daughter Lottie for the first time since giving her up as a baby. Louisa tries her best to help Margaret, but in the end, the disturbed, emaciated woman wanders outside one night and is found dead the next morning.

20
5
"The Passing Show"
Bill Bain
John Hawkesworth
1 October 1977 (1977-10-01)

Louisa rouses Charlie out of his depression after Margaret's death. Meanwhile, Sir Martin Mallory, a famous but aging actor, seduces Violet. When Louisa finds out, she sacks her chambermaid without a reference, forcing the poor girl to try to take up streetwalking. Fortunately, an understanding police inspector persuades Louisa to relent a little and provide a reference and assistance finding more respectable employment.

21
6
"Your Country Needs You"
Simon Langton
John Hawkesworth
8 October 1977 (1977-10-08)

When Great Britain enters the First World War, Louisa is ultra-patriotic, until Charlie joins the Coldstream Guards. The Major returns to active duty. In exchange for getting Starr reinstated in the Army (it was established in Season 1, episode 8 that when Starr was a sergeant in the Sudan Campaign, he caught his young wife with another soldier, and was imprisoned and dishonourably discharged for his subsequent actions), the Major gets Louisa to hire Gaspard, a Belgian refugee.

22
7
"The Patriots"
Bill Bain
Bill Craig and John Hawkesworth
15 October 1977 (1977-10-15)

Autumn 1915. Louisa is cold to shirkers who avoid military service, particularly Bentinck resident Mr. Appleby. A naval intelligence lieutenant uncovers an espionage ring which is reading the correspondence of high-ranking officers who frequent the Bentinck. Gaspard commits suicide to avoid arrest. His confederate, American hotel guest Brewster, is not so quick. Louisa is embarrassed to learn Appleby is also a spy, but for the British.

23
8
"The Reluctant Warrior"
Simon Langton
John Hawkesworth and Rosemary Anne Sisson
22 October 1977 (1977-10-22)

Winter 1916. The hotel sustains minor damage from a Zeppelin bomb attack. Some soldiers are assigned to deal with what may be a buried unexploded bomb very near the Bentinck. Ethel is attracted to one of them, a conscientious objector ("conshie") despised by everyone else. Among Louisa's guests are an 18-year-old and the officer with whom she has eloped. Tired of waiting for a demolitions expert and fed up with the sneers aimed at him, the conshie Clive digs around and finds there is no bomb. He also discovers the body of Fred, Starr's dog. Before Clive leaves, Ethel accepts his engagement ring. (In a later episode, Ethel is a bereaved widow who just wants her Clive back.)

24
9
"Tea and a Wad"
Cyril Coke
John Hawkesworth
29 October 1977 (1977-10-29)

Spring 1917. The hotel is empty as repairs are being made. The Major persuades Louisa to set up a canteen in Boulogne for troops with no place to go while waiting for transportation back to Britain. A helpful soldier eventually confesses to Mary that he is a deserter. She consults the Major, who comes up with a plan to get him out of his predicament. A rival do-gooder creates trouble for Louisa. Fortunately, the general in charge turns out to be a Bentinck regular. Louisa agrees to marry Charlie after the war ends.

25
10
"Shadows"
Bill Bain
John Hawkesworth and Jeremy Paul
5 November 1977 (1977-11-05)

Summer 1918. Louisa opens the Bentinck to recuperating soldiers. Mary is attracted to Brian, one of the convalescents. Charlie receives a head wound and returns to the hotel for a rest. The wound takes a turn for the worse, and he begins to go blind. An eminent brain surgeon advises against surgery so soon after the previous operation. Charlie dies in Louisa's parlour.

26
11
"Where There's A Will"
Cyril Coke
John Hawkesworth and Julia Jones
12 November 1977 (1977-11-12)

Louisa is in dire financial straits, but stubbornly refuses to cash the cheques of the soldiers who stayed at her hotel. Grief-stricken over Charlie's death, she decides to sell up the Bentinck. Her father makes her read a letter from Charlie, which gives her renewed resolve to go on. With the money he left her in his will, she sets about restoring the hotel to its former glory.

27
12
"The Legion of the Living"
Gerry Mill
John Hawkesworth and Maggie Wadey
19 November 1977 (1977-11-19)

Louisa returns to the Haslemeres' estate for a memorial service, and the truth of Lottie's parentage is exposed. Louisa offers to take Lottie back to London.

28
13
"Lottie"
Bill Bain
John Hawkesworth and Jeremy Paul
3 December 1977 (1977-12-03)

Louisa tells Mary, Starr and Merriman who Lottie is. She has the Major show the young woman the sights of London, but inevitably, rumours swirl around her. Brian returns, embittered by the war and irritated by Mary's attempts to help him. He leaves, breaking Mary's heart. Finally, Louisa decides to send her daughter to a Swiss finishing school.

29
14
"Blossom Time"
Gerry Mill
John Hawkesworth and Jeremy Paul
10 December 1977 (1977-12-10)

Lottie returns on a school holiday, bringing with her one of her teachers, Miss Olive Bradford. The Major and Miss Bradford fall in love and become engaged. Lottie herself falls for a handsome young man, but when she incautiously reveals who her parents are, his interest in her vanishes.

30
15
"Poor Little Rich Girl"
Cyril Coke
John Hawkesworth and Julia Jones
17 December 1977 (1977-12-17)

Louisa and Lottie clash over her future. Lottie is determined to become a singer. She meets her grandfather for the first time. He becomes her ally, giving her his meagre life savings before he dies. Lottie moves in with her grandmother, who tells Louisa she understands Lottie, whereas she could never fathom Louisa.

31
16
"Ain't We Got Fun"
Bill Bain
John Hawkesworth
24 December 1977 (1977-12-24)

Louisa permits an American woman to write her biography, though she insists on final approval of the result. Merriman wins a newspaper contest and samples life, even sauntering into the Bentinck for a drink, before his money runs out and he returns to his usual post. Mary and Starr inform Louisa that they have become engaged. Louisa is furious at first, as she has a policy of not employing married people, but eventually gives in.


document_title: Fountain pen

question_text: who invented fountain pen and in which year

question_tokens: who invented fountain pen and in which year

root

text: Fountain pen

text: History[edit]

text: Early prototypes of reservoir pens[edit]

text: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in his Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, the Fatimid caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.[2]

tag: p

text: There is compelling evidence that a working fountain pen was constructed and used during the Renaissance by artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci.  Leonardo's journals contain drawings with cross-sections of what appears to be a reservoir pen that works by both gravity and capillary action.  Historians also took note of the fact that the handwriting in the inventor's surviving journals is of a consistent contrast throughout, rather than the characteristic fading pattern typical of a quill pen caused by expending and re-dipping.  While no physical item survives, several working models were reconstructed in 2011 by artist Amerigo Bombara that have since been put on display in museums dedicated to Leonardo.[3]

text: European reservoir models[edit]

text: The fountain pen was available in Europe in the 17th century, and is shown by contemporary references. In Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae (a 1636 magazine), German inventor Daniel Schwenter described a pen made from two quills. One quill served as a reservoir for ink inside the other quill. The ink was sealed inside the quill with cork. Ink was squeezed through a small hole to the writing point.[4] In 1663 Samuel Pepys referred to a metal pen "to carry ink".[5] Noted Maryland historian Hester Dorsey Richardson (1862–1933) documented a reference to "three silver fountain pens, worth 15 shillings" in England during the reign of Charles II, c. 1649–1685.[6] By the early 18th century such pens were already commonly known as "fountain pens".[7] Hester Dorsey Richardson also found a 1734 notation made by Robert Morris the elder in the ledger of the expenses of Robert Morris the younger, who was at the time in Philadelphia, for "one fountain pen".[6]

text: First patent[edit]

text: Progress in developing a reliable pen was slow until the mid-19th century because of an imperfect understanding of the role that air pressure plays in the operation of pens. Furthermore, most inks were highly corrosive and full of sedimentary inclusions. The Romanian inventor Petrache Poenaru received a French patent on May 25, 1827, for the invention of the first fountain pen with a barrel made from a large swan quill.[8]

text: Mass-manufactured nibs[edit]

text: In 1828, Josiah Mason improved a cheap and efficient slip-in nib in Birmingham, England, which could be added to a fountain pen and in 1830, with the invention of a new machine, William Joseph Gillott, William Mitchell, and James Stephen Perry devised a way to mass manufacture robust, cheap steel pen nibs (Perry & Co).[9] This boosted the Birmingham pen trade and by the 1850s, more than half the steel-nib pens manufactured in the world were made in Birmingham. Thousands of skilled craftsmen were employed in the industry.[10] Many new manufacturing techniques were perfected, enabling the city's factories to mass-produce their pens cheaply and efficiently. These were sold worldwide to many who previously could not afford to write, thus encouraging the development of education and literacy.[11]

text: New patents and inventions[edit]

text: In 1848, American inventor Azel Storrs Lyman patented a pen with "a combined holder and nib".[12] From the 1850s, there was a steadily accelerating stream of fountain pen patents and pens in production. However, it was only after three key inventions were in place that the fountain pen became a widely popular writing instrument. Those were the iridium-tipped gold nib, hard rubber, and free-flowing ink.[8]

text: The first fountain pens making use of all these key ingredients appeared in the 1850s. In the 1870s Duncan MacKinnon, a Canadian living in New York City, and Alonzo T. Cross of Providence, Rhode Island, created stylographic pens with a hollow, tubular nib and a wire acting as a valve.[13] Stylographic pens are now used mostly for drafting and technical drawing but were very popular in the decade beginning in 1875. In the 1880s the era of the mass-produced fountain pen finally began. The dominant American producers in this pioneer era were Waterman, of New York City, and Wirt, based in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania. Waterman soon outstripped Wirt, along with many companies that sprang up to fill the new and growing fountain pen market. Waterman remained the market leader until the early 1920s.[14]

text: At this time, fountain pens were almost all filled by unscrewing a portion of the hollow barrel or holder and inserting the ink by means of an eyedropper – a slow and messy procedure. Pens also tended to leak inside their caps and at the joint where the barrel opened for filling.[15] Now that the materials' problems had been overcome and the flow of ink while writing had been regulated, the next problems to be solved were the creation of a simple, convenient self-filler and the problem of leakage. In 1890, W. B. Purvis, an African-American, patented a self-filler. Self-fillers began to arrive around the turn of the century; the most successful of these was probably the Conklin crescent-filler, followed by A. A. Waterman's twist-filler.[16][17] The tipping point, however, was the runaway success of Walter A. Sheaffer's lever-filler, introduced in 1912,[18] paralleled by Parker's roughly contemporary button-filler.

text: Pen leakage[edit]

text: Meanwhile, many inventors turned their attention to the problem of leakage.[19] Some of the earliest solutions to this problem came in the form of a "safety" pen with a retractable point that allowed the ink reservoir to be corked like a bottle. The most successful of these came from Francis C. Brown of the Caw's Pen and Ink Co. and from Morris W. Moore of Boston.[20]

text: In 1898, George Safford Parker released the Parker Jointless, named so because its barrel was single-piece to prevent leakage. The section assembly fit into the pen's end like a cork stopper; any leaked ink was kept inside the nib.[21]

text: In 1908, Waterman began marketing a popular safety pen of its own.[22] For pens with non-retractable nibs, the adoption of screw-on caps with inner caps that sealed around the nib by bearing against the front of the section effectively solved the leakage problem (such pens were also marketed as "safety pens", as with the Parker Jack Knife Safety and the Swan Safety Screw-Cap).[23][24]

text: Further innovation[edit]

text: In Europe, the German supplies company which came to be known as Pelikan was started in 1838, and first introduced their pen in 1929.[25] This was based upon the acquisition of patents for solid-ink fountain pens from the factory of Slavoljub Penkala from Croatia (patented 1907, in mass production since 1911), and the patent of the Hungarian Theodor Kovacs for the modern piston filler by 1925.[26]

text: The decades that followed saw many technological innovations in the manufacture of fountain pens. Celluloid gradually replaced hard rubber, which enabled production in a much wider range of colors and designs.[27] At the same time, manufacturers experimented with new filling systems. The inter-war period saw the introduction of some of the most notable models, such as the Parker Duofold[28] and Vacumatic,[29] Sheaffer's Lifetime Balance series,[30] and the Pelikan 100.[31]

text:
During the 1940s and 1950s, fountain pens retained their dominance: early ballpoint pens were expensive, were prone to leaks and had irregular inkflow, while the fountain pen continued to benefit from the combination of mass production and craftsmanship.(Bíró's patent, and other early patents on ball-point pens often used the term "ball-point fountain pen," because at the time the ball-point pen was considered a type of fountain pen; that is, a pen that held ink in an enclosed reservoir.)[32]
This period saw the launch of innovative models such as the Parker 51, the Aurora 88, the Sheaffer Snorkel, and the Eversharp Skyline and (later) Skyliner, while the Esterbrook J series of lever-fill models with interchangeable steel nibs offered inexpensive reliability to the masses.[33][34]

text: Popular usage[edit]

text: By the 1960s, refinements in ballpoint pen production gradually ensured its dominance over the fountain pen for casual use.[35] Although cartridge-filler fountain pens are still in common use in France, Italy, Germany, Austria, India, and the United Kingdom, and are widely used by young students in most private schools in England and at least one private school in Scotland,[36] a few modern manufacturers (especially Montblanc, Graf von Faber-Castell and Visconti) now depict the fountain pen as a collectible item or a status symbol, rather than an everyday writing tool.[37] However, fountain pens continue to have a growing following among many who view them as superior writing instruments due to their relative smoothness and versatility. Retailers continue to sell fountain pens and inks for casual and calligraphic use. Recently, fountain pens have made a resurgence, with many manufacturers of fountain pens saying sales are climbing. This has led to a new wave of casual use fountain pens and custom ink manufacturers, who utilize online stores to easily sell fountain pens to a wider audience.[38]

text: Feed[edit]

text: The feed of a fountain pen is the component that connects the nib of the pen with its ink reservoir.[39]

text: It not only allows the ink to flow to the nib (in what is often described as a "controlled leak") but also regulates the amount of air flowing backwards up to the reservoir to replace this lost ink.[40]

text: It does this through the use of a series of narrow channels or "fissures" that run down its lower edge. As ink flows down these fissures, air is simultaneously allowed to flow upwards into the reservoir in an even exchange of volumes. The feed allows ink to flow when the pen is being put to paper but ensures ink does not flow when the pen is not in use. The feed makes use of capillary action; this is noticeable when a pen is refilled with a brightly coloured ink. The ink is taken up and into the feed by way of capillary action (and is often visible in clear demonstrator pens), but is not dispensed onto the paper until the nib makes contact.[39]

text: How the feed is shaped may determine the wetness and flow of a particular pen. For this reason, feed material alone and its surface roughness may have a significant effect on the way two pens of the same nib size write.[41][42]

text: Pen feeds are crucial to preventing ink from dripping or leaking. Feeds often feature finned structures intended for buffering fountain pen ink. Buffering is the capacity to catch and temporary hold an overflow of ink caused by other conditions than writing towards the nib. When a fountain pen nib receives such an overflow it will result in ink blobbing or dripping also known as burping. A pen with a misconfigured feed might fail to deposit any ink whatsoever.[43]

text: Nibs[edit]

text:
According to Mathur et al., "the modern fountain pen nib may be traced back to the original gold nib which had a tiny fragment of ruby attached to form the wear-point."[44] Following the discovery of the platinum group of metals which include ruthenium, osmium and iridium, "a small quantity of iridium was isolated and used on the iridium-tipped gold dip pen nibs of the 1830s."[44] Today, nibs are usually made of stainless steel or gold alloys, with the most popular gold content being 14 carat (58⅓%) and 18 carat (75%).[45] Titanium is a less common metal used for making nibs. Gold is considered the optimum metal for its flexibility and its resistance to corrosion, although gold's corrosion resistance is less of an issue than in the past because of better stainless steel alloys and less corrosive inks.[45]
Visconti uses a nib made out of palladium as it is more flexible and corrosion resistant than gold.

text: Nib plating[edit]

text: Further gold plating provides favorable wettability, which is the ability of a solid surface to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in contact with it such that it spreads over the surface.[46]

text: Nib tipping[edit]

text: Gold and most steel and titanium nibs are tipped with a hard, wear-resistant alloy that typically includes metals from the platinum group. These metals share qualities of extreme hardness and corrosion resistance. The tipping material is often called "iridium", but there are few, if any, nib or pen manufacturers that used tipping alloys containing iridium metal since the mid-1950s.[47] The metals osmium, rhenium, ruthenium and tungsten are used instead, generally as an alloy, with a little bit of osmium, rhenium, ruthenium and tungsten in a mix of other materials, produced as tiny pellets which are soldered or welded onto a nib tip prior to cutting the nib slit and grinding the tip into its final shape.[48] Untipped steel and titanium points will wear more rapidly due to abrasion by the paper.[45]

text: Capillary action[edit]

text: The nib usually has a tapering or parallel slit cut down its centre, to convey the ink down the nib by capillary action, as well as a "breather hole" of varying shape.[49] The breather hole has no actual function regarding controlling the ink or air flow. Its main function is to provide an endpoint to the nib slit and forestall inaccuracies during nib slit cutting. Adding distance between the breather hole and the nib tip adds elasticity or flexibility to the nib. The breather hole also acts as a stress relieving point, preventing the nib from cracking longitudinally from the end of the slit as a result of repeated flexing during use.[39]

text: The whole nib narrows to a point where the ink is transferred to the paper. Broad calligraphy pens may have several slits in the nib to increase ink flow and help distribute it evenly across the broad point. Nibs divided into three 'tines' are commonly known as music nibs. This is because their line, which can be varied from broad to fine, is suited for writing musical scores.[50]

text: Types of nibs[edit]

text: Although the most common nibs end in a round point of various sizes (extra fine, fine, medium, broad), various other nib shapes are available. Examples of this are oblique, reverse oblique, stub, italic and 360-degree nibs.[49]

text: Broader nibs are used for less precise emphasis, with the benefit of a greater level of ink shading and/or sheen on less absorbent paper. Finer nibs (e.g. EF and F) may be used for intricate corrections and alterations, at the expense of shading and sheen. Oblique, reverse oblique, stub and italic nibs may be used for calligraphic purposes or for general handwritten compositions. The line width of a particular nib may vary based on its country of origin; Japanese nibs are often thinner in general.[51]

text: Nib flexibility[edit]

text: Flexibility is given to nibs in several ways. First, the thickness of the nib metal changes flex. When the nib alloy has been pressed thick it will result in a hard nib, while thinly pressed nibs are more flexible. Nibs can be pressed so that they are thinner at the tip and thicker at the feed to mitigate stiffness or to give a more controlled flex. Second, the curve of the nib determines in part how stiff the nib will be.[52]

text: Nibs pressed into more deeply convex curves, or into three or five faceted curves, will be stiffer than flatter nibs. Third, the "breather hole" size, shape, and position alter the stiffness. Heart shaped holes will improve flex as they widen, while round, small holes stiffen the pen. Fourth, the length of the tines determines how far they can spread under pressure, shorter tines make a stiffer nib. Fifth, the alloy used can affect stiffness: as mentioned before, gold is considered superior for its flex compared to steel. Moreover, purer gold (18k and 21k) is softer than most lower gold concentration (14k) alloys.[45]

text: Fountain pens dating from the first half of the 20th century are more likely to have flexible nibs, suited to the favored handwriting styles of the period (e.g. Copperplate script and Spencerian script). By the 1940s, writing preferences had shifted towards stiffer nibs that could withstand the greater pressure required for writing through carbon paper to create duplicate documents.[53]

text: Furthermore, competition between the major pen brands such as Parker and Waterman, and the introduction of lifetime guarantees, meant that flexible nibs could no longer be supported profitably. In countries where this rivalry was not present to the same degree, for example the UK and Germany, flexible nibs are more common.[54]

text: Nowadays, stiff nibs are the norm as people exchange between fountain pens and other writing modes. These more closely emulate the ballpoint pens modern users are experienced with. Despite being rigid and firm, the idea that steel nibs write "horribly" is a misconception.[55] More flexible nibs can be easily damaged by ballpoint users who write with excessive pressure. Ideally, a fountain pen's nib glides across the paper using the ink as a lubricant, and requires no pressure.

text: Good quality nibs that have been used appropriately are long lasting, often lasting longer than the lifetime of the original owner. Many vintage pens with decades-old nibs can still be used today.[56]

text: Different nib styles[edit]

text: Other styles of fountain pen nibs include hooded (e.g. Parker 51, Parker 61, 2007 Parker 100 and Hero 329),[57] inlaid (e.g. Sheaffer Targa or Sheaffer P.F.M) or integral Nib (Parker T-1 and Falcon, Pilot Myu 701), which may also be ground to have different writing characteristics.[58]

text:
Users are often cautioned not to lend or borrow fountain pens as the nib "wears in" at an angle unique to each individual person.[54] A different user is likely to find that a worn-in nib does not write satisfactorily in their hand and, furthermore, creates a second wear surface, ruining the nib for the original user. This, however, is not a point of concern in pens with modern, durable tipping material, as these pens take many years to develop any significant wear.
[54]

text: Filling mechanisms[edit]

text: Eyedropper filler[edit]

text: The reservoirs of the earliest fountain pens were mostly filled by eyedropper. This was a cumbersome and potentially messy process, which led to the commercial development of alternative methods that quickly dominated the industry.[15] However, newer, more convenient filling mechanisms have never entirely displaced "eyedropper-filling" pens in the marketplace, and they remain widely manufactured today. For some the simplicity of the mechanism, coupled with the large volume of ink it can encapsulate, compensates for the inconvenience of ink transfer.[15]

text: After the eyedropper-filler era came the first generation of mass-produced self-fillers, almost all using a rubber sac to hold the ink. The sac was compressed and then released by various mechanisms to fill the pen.[59]

text: Self-filling designs[edit]

text: The Conklin crescent filler, introduced c. 1901, was one of the first mass-produced self-filling pen designs. The crescent filling system employs an arch-shaped crescent attached to a rigid metal pressure bar, with the crescent portion protruding from the pen through a slot and the pressure bar inside the barrel. A second component, a C-shaped hard rubber ring, is located between the crescent and the barrel.[60]

text: Ordinarily, the ring blocks the crescent from pushing down. To fill the pen, one simply turns the ring around the barrel until the crescent matches up to the hole in the ring, allowing one to push down the crescent and squeeze the internal sac.[61]

text: Several other filling mechanisms were introduced to compete, such as the coin-filler (where a coin or 'medallion' was supplied along with the pen), match-filler (using a matchstick) and a 'blow-filler' which unsurprisingly required the pen owner to blow into the barrel to depress the internal sac.[1]

text: Piston filling innovation[edit]

text: In 1907, Walter A. Sheaffer patented the Lever filler, using a hinged lever set into the pen barrel which pressed down onto a bar which in turn compressed the rubber sac inside, creating a vacuum to force ink into the pen. Introduced in 1912, this innovation was rapidly imitated by the other major pen makers. Parker introduced the button filler, which had a button hidden beneath a blind cap on the end of the barrel; when pressed, it acted on a pressure bar inside to depress the ink sac.[18]

text: Following the crescent filler came a series of systems of increasing complexity, reaching their apogee in the Sheaffer Snorkel, introduced in 1952. The Sheaffer "Snorkel" system filled the ink sac through a retractable tube above and behind the pen point. This eliminated the need to dunk the point in ink, and the subsequent need to wipe it.[62] With the advent of the modern plastic ink cartridge in the early 1950s, though, most of these systems were phased out in favour of convenience (but reduced capacity).

text:
Screw-mechanism piston-fillers were made as early as the 1820s, but the mechanism's modern popularity begins with the original Pelikan of 1929, based upon a Croatian patent. The basic idea is simple: turn a knob at the end of the pen, and a screw mechanism draws a piston up the barrel, sucking in ink. Thus they were easier to fill. This is also why this filling mechanism is very popular in today's fountain pens. Some of the earlier models had to dedicate as much as half of the pen length to the mechanism.[63]
The advent of telescoping pistons has improved this; the Touchdown Filler was introduced by Sheaffer in 1949. It was advertised as an "Exclusive Pneumatic Down-stroke Filler."[64]

text: To fill it, a knob at the end of the barrel is unscrewed and the attached plunger is drawn out to its full length. The nib is immersed in ink, the plunger is pushed in, compressing and then releasing the ink sac by means of air pressure. The nib is kept in the ink for approximately 10 seconds to allow the reservoir to fill. This mechanism is very closely modeled after a similar pneumatic filler introduced by Chilton over a decade earlier.[65]

text: Modern filling mechanisms[edit]

text: A capillary filling system was introduced by Parker in the Parker 61 in 1956.[66] There were no moving parts: the ink reservoir within the barrel was open at the upper end, but contained a tightly rolled length of slotted, flexible plastic. To fill, the barrel was unscrewed, the exposed open end of the reservoir was placed in ink and the interstices of the plastic sheet and slots initiated capillary action, drawing up and retaining the ink. The outside of the reservoir was coated with Teflon, a repellent compound that released excess ink as it was withdrawn. Ink was transferred through a further capillary tube to the nib. No method of flushing the device was offered, and because of problems from clogging with dried and hardened ink, production was eventually stopped.[67]

text: Around the year 2000, Pelikan introduced a filling system involving a valve in the blind end of the pen, which mates with a specially designed ink bottle.[68] Thus docked, ink is then squeezed into the pen barrel (which, lacking any mechanism other than the valve itself, has nearly the capacity of an eyedropper-fill pen of the same size). This system had been implemented only in their "Level" line, which was discontinued in 2006.[68]

text:
Most pens today use either a piston filler, squeeze-bar filler or cartridge.[1] Many pens are also compatible with a converter, which has the same fitting as the pen's cartridge and has a filling mechanism and a reservoir attached to it.[1] This enables a pen to either fill from cartridges, or from a bottle of ink. The most common type of converters are piston-style, but many other varieties may be found today.
Piston-style converters generally have a transparent round tubular ink reservoir. Fountain pen inks feature differing surface tensions that can cause an ink to adhere or "stick" against the inside of the reservoir. Common solutions for this problem are adding a small (rust-proof) ink agitating object like a 316 or 904L stainless steel or zirconium dioxide bearing ball, spring or hollow tube in the tubular reservoir to mechanically promote free movement of the contained ink and ink/air exchange during writing. Adding a very small amount of surfactant like Triton X-100 used in Kodak Photo-Flo 200 wetting agent to the ink will chemically promote free movement of the contained ink and ink/air exchange during writing. However ink might react adversely to adding a surfactant.

text: Vacuum fillers, such as those used by Pilot in the Custom 823, utilize air pressure to fill the ink chamber. In this case, while the nib is submerged in ink, a plunger is pushed down the empty chamber to create a vacuum in the space behind it. The end of the chamber has a section wider than the rest, and when the plunger passes this point, the difference in air pressure in the area behind the plunger and the area ahead of it is suddenly evened out and ink rushes in behind the plunger to fill the chamber.[69]

text: Cartridges[edit]

text:
A patent for an ink cartridge system for fountain pens was filed in 1890. In the early 20th century, cartridges were made from glass and thin copper tubing. However, the concept only became successful and popular after the introduction of moulded plastic cartridges, firstly by Waterman in 1953.[70]
Modern plastic cartridges can contain small ridges on the inside to promote free movement of the contained ink and ink/air exchange during writing. Often cartridges are closed with a small ball that gets pressed into the cartridge during insertion into the pen. This ball also aids free movement of the contained ink.

text: Standard international[edit]

text: Most European fountain pen brands (for example Caran d'Ache, Faber-Castell, Michel Perchin, DuPont, Montegrappa, Stipula, Pelikan, Montblanc, Europen, Monteverde, Sigma, Delta, Italix and Rotring) and some pen brands of other continents (for example Acura, Bexley, Retro51, Tombow and Platinum (with adaptor)) use so called "international cartridges" (AKA "European cartridges" or "standard cartridges" or "universal cartridges"), in short (38 mm in length, about 0.75 ml of capacity) or long (72 mm, 1.50 ml) sizes, or both. It is to some extent a standard, so the international cartridges of any manufacturer can be used in most fountain pens that accept international cartridges.[71]

text: Also, converters that are meant to replace international cartridges can be used in most fountain pens that accept international cartridges. Some very compact fountain pens (for example Waterman Ici et La and Monteverde Diva) accept only short international cartridges.[72] Converters can not be used in them (except for so-called mini-converters by Monteverde). Some pens (such as the modern Waterman models) have intentional fittings which prevent the usage of short cartridges. Such pens can only take a proprietary cartridge from the same manufacturer, in this case the long Waterman cartridges.[73]

text: Proprietary offerings[edit]

text: Many fountain pen manufacturers have developed their own proprietary cartridges, for example Parker, Lamy, Sheaffer, Cross, Sailor, Platinum, Platignum, Waterman and Namiki. Fountain pens from Aurora, Hero, Duke and Uranus accept the same cartridges and converters that Parker uses and vice versa (Lamy cartridges, though not officially, are known to interchange with Parker cartridges also). Cartridges of Aurora are slightly different from cartridges by Parker.[74]

text: Corresponding converters to be used instead of such proprietary cartridges are usually made by the same company that made the fountain pen itself. Some very compact fountain pens accept only proprietary cartridges made by the same company that made that pen, for example Sheaffer Agio Compact and Sheaffer Prelude Compact. It is not possible to use a converter in them at all. In such pens the only practical way to use another brand of ink is to fill empty cartridges with bottled ink using a syringe.[74]

text: Standard international cartridges are closed by a small ball, held inside the ink exit hole by glue or by a very thin layer of plastic. When the cartridge is pressed into the pen, a small pin pushes in the ball, which falls inside the cartridge. The Parker and Lamy cartridges do not have such a ball. They are closed by a piece of plastic, which is broken by a sharp pin when inserted in the pen.[71]

text: Concerns and alternatives[edit]

text: Pen manufacturers using a proprietary cartridge (which in almost all cases are the more expensive ones like the ones mentioned above) tend to discourage the use of cheaper[75] internationally standardised short/long cartridges or adaptations thereof due to their variance in ink quality in the cartridges which may not offer as much performance, or be of lesser quality than the manufacturer of the pen; ink that has been designed specifically for the pen. In addition, cheaper ink tends to take longer to dry on paper, may skip or produce uneven colour on the page and less "tolerant" on lower, thinner grades of paper (e.g. 75gs/m).[75]

text: While cartridges are mess-free and more convenient to refill than bottle filling, converter and bottle filling systems are still sold. Non-cartridge filling systems tend to be slightly more economical in the long run since ink is generally less expensive in bottles than in cartridges. Advocates of bottle-based filling systems also cite less waste of plastic for the environment, a wider selection of inks, easier cleaning of pens (as drawing the ink in through the nib helps dissolve old ink), and the ability to check and refill inks at any time.[76]

text: Inks[edit]

text: Inks intended for use with fountain pens are water-based. These inks are commonly available in bottles. Plastic cartridges came into use in the 1960s, but bottled inks are still the mainstay for most fountain pen enthusiasts. Bottled inks usually cost less than an equivalent amount in cartridges and afford a wider variety of colors and properties.[77]

text: Fountain pens are not as tightly coupled with their inks as ballpoints or gel pens are, yet some care must be taken when selecting their inks. Contemporary fountain pen inks are almost exclusively dye-based because pigment particles usually clog the narrow passages.[77][76]

text: Traditional iron gall inks intended for dip pens are not suitable for fountain pens as they will corrode the pen (a phenomenon known as flash corrosion) and destroy the functionality of the fountain pen.[75] Instead, modern surrogate iron gall formulas are offered for fountain pens. These modern iron gall inks contain a small amount of ferro gallic compounds, but are gentler for the inside of a fountain pen, but can still be corrosive if left in the pen for a long period.[75] To avoid corrosion on delicate metal parts and ink clogging a more thorough than usual cleaning regime – which requires the ink to be flushed out regularly with water – is sometimes advised by manufacturers or resellers.[78]

text: Some pigmented inks do exist for fountain pens, but these are uncommon. Normal India ink cannot be used in fountain pens because it contains shellac as a binder which would very quickly clog such pens.[79]

text: Inks ideally should be fairly free-flowing, free of sediment, and non-corrosive, though this generally excludes permanence and prevents large-scale commercial use of some colored dyes. Proper care and selection of ink will prevent most problems.[75]

text: Today[edit]

text: While no longer the primary writing instrument in modern times, fountain pens are still used for important official works such as signing valuable documents.[80] Today, fountain pens are often treated as luxury goods and sometimes as status symbols. Fountain pens may serve as an everyday writing instrument, much like the common ballpoint pen.[54] Good quality steel and gold pens are available inexpensively today, particularly in Europe and China, and there are "disposable" fountain pens such as the Pilot Varsity. In France, in particular, the use of fountain pens is widespread. To avoid mistakes, special ink can be used that can be made invisible by applying an ink eraser.

text: Fountain pens can serve various artistic purposes such as expressive penmanship and calligraphy, pen and ink artwork, and professional art and design. Many users also favor the air of timeless elegance, personalization and sentimentality associated with fountain pens,[81] which computers and ballpoint pens seem to lack,[82] and often state that once they start using fountain pens, ballpoints become awkward to use due to the extra motor effort needed and lack of expressiveness.

text: For ergonomics, fountain pens may relieve physiological stress from writing; alternatives such as the ballpoint pen can induce more pain and damage to those with arthritis. Some also believe they could improve academic performance.[83] In some countries, fountain pens are usual in lower school grades, believed to teach children better control over writing as many common mistakes of people not used to handwriting (like too much pressure or incorrect hold) feel unnatural or are almost impossible when using traditional pen tips.[84][85]

text: Some fountain pens are prized as works of art. Ornate pens may be made of precious metals and jewels with cloisonné designs. Some are inlaid with lacquer designs in a process known as maki-e.[86] Avid communities of pen enthusiasts collect and use antique and modern pens and also collect and exchange information about old and modern inks, ink bottles, and inkwells. Collectors may decide to use the antiques in addition to showcasing them in closed spaces such as glass displays.[87] In 2007, collectors got "seriously hooked" when a set of Montblancs went for $290,000 each in a fundraiser event for the Princess Grace Foundation in Monaco. Each of these Montblanc pens came with 996 diamonds and 92 rubies. It has been speculated that most collectors hail from the United States of America and China, though pen dealers in England say the trend is likely to sweep England imminently.[88]

text: News outlets report that, rather than declining, fountain pen sales have been steadily rising over the last decade.[89] There is a clear resurgence in the appeal and culture of the fountain pen, whether for purposes of collection, enjoyment or as a "lifestyle item".[90] Many agree that the "personal touch" of a fountain pen has led to such a resurgence with modern consumers looking for an alternative in a world of digital products and services.[91]

text: Amazon reported "sales so far this year [2012] have doubled compared with the same period in 2011. They are four times higher than 2010."[89] The popularity of fountain pens continues to show growth. In 2017 the market-research firm Euromonitor reported that fountain pen retail sales were up 2.1% reaching $1.046 billion. [92]


document_title: Globe

question_text: when was the first globe of the world made

text: Globe

text: Terrestrial and planetary[edit]

text: Flat maps are created using a map projection that inevitably introduces an increasing amount of distortion the larger the area that the map shows. A globe is the only representation of the Earth that does not distort either the shape or the size of large features – land masses, bodies of water, etc.

text: The circumference of the Earth is quite close to 40 million metres.[1][2] Many globes are made with a circumference of one metre, so they are models of the Earth at a scale of 1:40 million. In imperial units, many globes are made with a diameter of one foot, yielding a circumference of 3.14 feet and a scale of 1:41,777,000. Globes are also made in many other sizes.

text: Sometimes a globe has surface texture showing topography; in these, elevations are exaggerated, otherwise they would be hardly visible. Most modern globes are also imprinted with parallels and meridians, so that one can tell the approximate coordinates of a specific place. Globes may also show the boundaries of countries and their names, a feature that can quickly become out of date, as countries change their names or borders.

text: Many terrestrial globes have one celestial feature marked on them: a diagram called the analemma, which shows the apparent motion of the Sun in the sky during a year.

text: Globes generally show north at the top, but many globes allow the axis to be swiveled so that southern portions can be viewed conveniently. This capability also permits exploring the earth from different orientations to help counter the north-up bias caused by conventional map presentation.

text: Celestial[edit]

text: Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated.

text: History[edit]

text: The sphericity of the Earth was established by Greek astronomy in the 3rd century BC, and the earliest terrestrial globe appeared from that period. The earliest known example is the one constructed by Crates of Mallus in Cilicia (now Çukurova in modern-day Turkey), in the mid-2nd century BC.

text: No terrestrial globes from Antiquity or the Middle Ages have survived. An example of a surviving celestial globe is part of a Hellenistic sculpture, called the Farnese Atlas, surviving in a 2nd-century AD Roman copy in the Naples Archaeological Museum, Italy.[3]

text: Early terrestrial globes depicting the entirety of the Old World were constructed in the Islamic world.[4][5] According to David Woodward, one such example was the terrestrial globe introduced to Beijing by the Persian astronomer, Jamal ad-Din, in 1267.[6]

text: The earliest extant terrestrial globe was made in 1492 by Martin Behaim (1459–1537) with help from the painter Georg Glockendon.[3] Behaim was a German mapmaker, navigator, and merchant. Working in Nuremberg, Germany, he called his globe the "Nürnberg Terrestrial Globe." It is now known as the Erdapfel. Before constructing the globe, Behaim had traveled extensively. He sojourned in Lisbon from 1480, developing commercial interests and mingling with explorers and scientists. In 1485–1486, he sailed with Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão to the coast of West Africa. He began to construct his globe after his return to Nürnberg in 1490.

text: Another early globe, the Hunt–Lenox Globe, ca. 1510, is thought to be the source of the phrase Hic Sunt Dracones, or “Here be dragons”. A similar grapefruit-sized globe made from two halves of an ostrich egg was found in 2012 and is believed to date from 1504. It may be the oldest globe to show the New World. Stefaan Missine, who analyzed the globe for the Washington Map Society journal Portolan, said it was “part of an important European collection for decades.”[7] After a year of research in which he consulted many experts, Missine concluded the Hunt–Lenox Globe was a copper cast of the egg globe.[7]

text: A facsimile globe showing America was made by Martin Waldseemueller in 1507. Another “remarkably modern-looking” terrestrial globe of the Earth was constructed by Taqi al-Din at the Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din during the 1570s.[8]

text: The world’s first seamless celestial globe was built by Mughal scientists under the patronage of Jahangir.[9]

text: Globus IMP, electro-mechanical devices including five-inch globes have been used in Soviet and Russian spacecraft from 1961 to 2002 as navigation instruments. In 2001, the TMA version of the Soyuz spacecraft replaced this instrument with a virtual globe.[10]

text: In the 1800s small pocket globes (less than 3 inches) were status symbols for gentlemen and educational toys for rich children.[11]

text: Manufacture[edit]

text: Traditionally, globes were manufactured by gluing a printed paper map onto a sphere, often made from wood.

text: The most common type has long, thin gores (strips) of paper that narrow to a point at the poles,[12] small disks cover over the inevitable irregularities at these points. The more gores there are, the less stretching and crumpling is required to make the paper map fit the sphere.

text: Modern globes are often made from thermoplastic. Flat, plastic disks are printed with a distorted map of one of the Earth's Hemispheres. This is placed in a machine which molds the disk into a hemispherical shape. The hemisphere is united with its opposite counterpart to form a complete globe.

text: Usually a globe is mounted so that its spin axis is 23.5° from vertical, which is the angle the Earth's spin axis deviates from perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. This mounting makes it easy to visualize how seasons change.

text: Notable examples[edit]

text:
The Unisphere in Flushing Meadows, New York, at the Billie Jean King USTA Tennis Center, at 120 feet (36.6 m) in diameter, is the world’s largest geographical globe. (There are larger spherical structures, such as the Cinesphere in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, but this does not have geographical or astronomical markings.)
Eartha, currently the world’s largest rotating globe (41 ft or 12 m in diameter), at the DeLorme headquarters in Yarmouth, Maine
The Mapparium, three-story, stained glass globe at the Mary Baker Eddy Library in Boston, which visitors walk through via a 30-foot (9.1 m) glass bridge.
The Babson globe in Wellesley, Massachusetts, a 26-foot-diameter (7.9 m) globe which originally rotated on its axis and on its base to simulate day and night and the seasons
The giant globe in the lobby of The News Building in New York City.
The Hitler Globe, also known as the Führer globe, was formally named the Columbus Globe for State and Industry Leaders. Two editions existed during Hitler’s lifetime, created during the mid-1930s on his orders. (The second edition changed the name of Abyssinia to Italian East Africa). These globes were “enormous” and very costly. According to the New York Times, “the real Columbus globe was nearly the size of a Volkswagen and, at the time, more expensive.” Several still exist, including three in Berlin: one at a geographical institute, one at the Märkisches Museum, and another at the Deutsches Historisches Museum. The latter has a Soviet bullet hole through Germany. One of the two in public collections in Munich has an American bullet hole through Germany. There are several in private hands inside and out of Germany. A much smaller version of Hitler’s globe was mocked by Charlie Chaplin in The Great Dictator, a film released in 1940.[13]

tag: ul

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
19th Century projections of the terrestrial globe, from the UBC Library Digital Collections

Martin Behaim with his Erdapfel

Top view of 1765 de l'Isle globe

The Unisphere, attributed to "uribe"/Uri Baruchin

1594, Mechanised Celestial Globe

A Globus IMP navigation instrument from a Voskhod spacecraft.

Eartha, the largest rotating globe in the world.

A map of Mars that circulated commercially in the 19th century. It is an example of how maps are printed in order to be folded around a sphere to form a globe.

Multitouch spherical Globe with digital EARTH based on multitouch software

Globe as seen from space, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden (1998)


document_title: Swallowing

question_text: when does the pharyngeal phase of the swallow begin

text: Swallowing

text: In humans[edit]

text: Coordination and control[edit]

text: Eating and swallowing are complex neuromuscular activities consisting essentially of three phases, an oral, pharyngeal and esophageal phase. Each phase is controlled by a different neurological mechanism. The oral phase, which is entirely voluntary, is mainly controlled by the medial temporal lobes and limbic system of the cerebral cortex with contributions from the motor cortex and other cortical areas. The pharyngeal swallow is started by the oral phase and subsequently is coordinated by the swallowing center on the medulla oblongata and pons. The reflex is initiated by touch receptors in the pharynx as a bolus of food is pushed to the back of the mouth by the tongue, or by stimulation of the palate (palatal reflex).

text: Swallowing is a complex mechanism using both skeletal muscle (tongue) and smooth muscles of the pharynx and esophagus. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) coordinates this process in the pharyngeal and esophageal phases.

text: Phases[edit]

text: Oral phase[edit]

text: Prior to the following stages of the oral phase, the mandible depresses and the lips abduct to allow food or liquid to enter the oral cavity.  Upon entering the oral cavity, the mandible elevates and the lips adduct to assist in oral containment of the food and liquid.  The following stages describe the normal and necessary actions to form the bolus, which is defined as the state of the food in which it is ready to be swallowed.

text: 1) Moistening

text: Food is moistened by saliva from the salivary glands (parasympathetic).

text: 2) Mastication

text: Food is mechanically broken down by the action of the teeth controlled by the muscles of mastication (V3) acting on the temporomandibular joint. This results in a bolus which is moved from one side of the oral cavity to the other by the tongue. Buccinator (VII) helps to contain the food against the occlusal surfaces of the teeth. The bolus is ready for swallowing when it is held together by (largely mucus) saliva (VII—chorda tympani and IX—lesser petrosal), sensed by the lingual nerve of the tongue (V3). Any food that is too dry to form a bolus will not be swallowed.

text: 3) Trough formation

text:
A trough is then formed at the back of the tongue by the intrinsic muscles (XII). The trough obliterates against the hard palate from front to back, forcing the bolus to the back of the tongue.
The intrinsic muscles of the tongue (XII) contract to make a trough (a longitudinal concave fold) at the back of the tongue. The tongue is then elevated to the roof of the mouth (by the mylohyoid (mylohyoid nerve—V3), genioglossus, styloglossus and hyoglossus (the rest XII)) such that the tongue slopes downwards posteriorly. The contraction of the genioglossus and styloglossus (both XII) also contributes to the formation of the central trough.

text: 4) Movement of the bolus posteriorly

text: At the end of the oral preparatory phase, the food bolus has been formed and is ready to be propelled posteriorly into the pharynx.  In order for anterior to posterior transit of the bolus to occur, orbicularis oris contracts and adducts the lips to form a tight seal of the oral cavity.  Next, the superior longitudinal muscle elevates the apex of the tongue to make contact with the hard palate and the bolus is propelled to the posterior portion of the oral cavity.  Once the bolus reaches the palatoglossal arch of the oropharynx, the pharyngeal phase, which is reflex and involuntary, then begins. Receptors initiating this reflex are proprioceptive (afferent limb of reflex is IX and efferent limb is the pharyngeal plexus- IX and X). They are scattered over the base of the tongue, the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches, the tonsillar fossa, uvula and posterior pharyngeal wall. Stimuli from the receptors of this phase then provoke the pharyngeal phase. In fact, it has been shown that the swallowing reflex can be initiated entirely by peripheral stimulation of the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. This phase is voluntary and involves important cranial nerves: V (trigeminal), VII (facial) and XII (hypoglossal).

text: Pharyngeal phase[edit]

text: For the pharyngeal phase to work properly all other egress from the pharynx must be occluded—this includes the nasopharynx and the larynx. When the pharyngeal phase begins, other activities such as chewing, breathing, coughing and vomiting are concomitantly inhibited.

text: 5) Closure of the nasopharynx

text: The soft palate is tensed by tensor palatini (Vc), and then elevated by levator palatini (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X) to close the nasopharynx. There is also the simultaneous approximation of the walls of the pharynx to the posterior free border of the soft palate, which is carried out by the palatopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X) and the upper part of the superior constrictor (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X).

text: 6) The pharynx prepares to receive the bolus

text: The pharynx is pulled upwards and forwards by the suprahyoid and longitudinal pharyngeal muscles – stylopharyngeus (IX), salpingopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X) and palatopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X) to receive the bolus.  The palatopharyngeal folds on each side of the pharynx are brought close together through the superior constrictor muscles, so that only  a small bolus can pass.

text: 7) Opening of the auditory tube

text: The actions of the levator palatini (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X), tensor palatini (Vc) and salpingopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X) in the closure of the nasopharynx and elevation of the pharynx opens the auditory tube, which equalises the pressure between the nasopharynx and the middle ear. This does not contribute to swallowing, but happens as a consequence of it.

text: 8) Closure of the oropharynx

text: The oropharynx is kept closed by palatoglossus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X), the intrinsic muscles of tongue (XII) and styloglossus (XII).

text: 9) Laryngeal closure

text:
It is true vocal fold closure that is the primary laryngopharyngeal protective mechanism to prevent aspiration during swallowing. The adduction of the vocal cords is effected by the contraction of the lateral cricoarytenoids and the oblique and transverse arytenoids (all recurrent laryngeal nerve of vagus). Since the true vocal folds adduct during the swallow, a finite period of apnea (swallowing apnea) must necessarily take place with each swallow. When relating swallowing to respiration, it has been demonstrated that swallowing occurs most often during expiration, even at full expiration a fine air jet is expired probably to clear the upper larynx from food remnants or liquid. The clinical significance of this finding is that patients with a baseline of compromised lung function will, over a period of time, develop respiratory distress as a meal progresses.
Subsequently, false vocal fold adduction, adduction of the aryepiglottic folds and retroversion of the epiglottis take place. The aryepiglotticus (recurrent laryngeal nerve of vagus) contracts, causing the arytenoids to appose each other (closes the laryngeal aditus by bringing the aryepiglottic folds together), and draws the epiglottis down to bring its lower half into contact with arytenoids, thus closing the aditus. Retroversion of the epiglottis, while not the primary mechanism of protecting the airway from laryngeal penetration and aspiration, acts to anatomically direct the food bolus laterally towards the piriform fossa.
Additionally, the larynx is pulled up with the pharynx under the tongue by stylopharyngeus (IX), salpingopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X), palatopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X) and inferior constrictor (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X).This phase is passively controlled reflexively and involves cranial nerves V, X (vagus), XI (accessory) and XII (hypoglossal).  The respiratory center of the medulla is directly inhibited by the swallowing center for the very brief time that it takes to swallow.  This means that it is briefly impossible to breathe during this phase of swallowing and the moment where breathing is prevented is known as deglutition apnea.

text: 10) Hyoid elevation

text: The hyoid is elevated by digastric (V & VII) and stylohyoid (VII), lifting the pharynx and larynx up even further.

text: 11) Bolus transits pharynx

text: The bolus moves down towards the esophagus by pharyngeal peristalsis which takes place by sequential contraction of the superior, middle and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscles (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X). The lower part of the inferior constrictor (cricopharyngeus) is normally closed and only opens for the advancing bolus. Gravity plays only a small part in the upright position—in fact, it is possible to swallow solid food even when standing on one’s head. The velocity through the pharynx depends on a number of factors such as viscosity and volume of the bolus. In one study, bolus velocity in healthy adults was measured to be approximately 30–40 cm/s.[1]

text: Esophageal phase[edit]

text: 12) Esophageal peristalsis

text: Like the pharyngeal phase of swallowing, the esophageal phase of swallowing is under involuntary neuromuscular control. However, propagation of the food bolus is significantly slower than in the pharynx. The bolus enters the esophagus and is propelled downwards first by striated muscle (recurrent laryngeal, X) then by the smooth muscle (X) at a rate of 3–5 cm/s. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes to let food pass, after which various striated constrictor muscles of the pharynx as well as peristalsis and relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter sequentially push the bolus of food through the esophagus into the stomach.

text: 13) Relaxation phase

text:
Finally the larynx and pharynx move down with the hyoid mostly by elastic recoil. Then the larynx and pharynx move down from the hyoid to their relaxed positions by elastic recoil.
Swallowing therefore depends on coordinated interplay between many various muscles, and although the initial part of swallowing is under voluntary control, once the deglutition process is started, it is quite hard to stop it.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Swallowing becomes a great concern for the elderly since strokes and Alzheimer's disease can interfere with the autonomic nervous system.  Speech Pathologists commonly diagnose and treat this condition since the speech process uses the same neuromuscular structures as swallowing. Diagnostic procedures commonly performed by a Speech Pathologist to evaluate dysphagia include Fiberoptic Endoscopic Evaluation of Swallowing and Modified Barium Swallow Study. Occupational Therapists may also offer swallowing rehabilitation services as well as prescribing modified feeding techniques and utensils. Consultation with a dietician is essential, in order to ensure that the individual with dysphagia is able to consume sufficient calories and nutrients to maintain health. In terminally ill patients, a failure of the reflex to swallow leads to a build-up of mucus or saliva in the throat and airways, producing a noise known as a death rattle (not to be confused with agonal respiration, which is an abnormal pattern of breathing due to cerebral ischemia or hypoxia).

text:
Abnormalities of the pharynx and/or oral cavity may lead to oropharyngeal dysphagia.  Abnormalities of the esophagus may lead to esophageal dysphagia.
The failure of the lower esophagus sphincter to respond properly to swallowing is called achalasia.

text: In non-mammal animals[edit]

text: In many birds, the esophagus is largely a mere gravity chute, and in such events as a seagull swallowing a fish or a stork swallowing a frog, swallowing consists largely of the bird lifting its head with its beak pointing up and guiding the prey with tongue and jaws so that the prey slides inside and down.

text: In fish, the tongue is largely bony and much less mobile and getting the food to the back of the pharynx is helped by pumping water in its mouth and out of its gills.

text: In snakes, the work of swallowing is done by raking with the lower jaw until the prey is far enough back to be helped down by body undulations.


document_title: Monopoly Junior

question_text: how much money does each player get in monopoly junior

text: Monopoly Junior

text: History[edit]

text: Parker Brothers began producing Monopoly Junior in 1990, explicitly marketed for players aged five to eight, with a simplified board and game play as compared to the standard Monopoly game. The Monopoly Junior board was based on a fair's midway, and featured 16 "amusements" rather than 28 properties. Players chose a car token in one of four colors (red roller coaster car, blue bumper car, green flume and yellow carousel horse), and used corresponding colored "ticket booths" (hotel pieces from the standard Monopoly game) to denote ownership of the amusements in lieu of title deeds. The game play mechanics are the same as the standard game: players roll a die (a single die, rather than two dice) and move their token clockwise around the board the number of spaces corresponding to the rolled die.

text: When players land on a vacant amusement they must purchase the amusement for the price shown on the board; the player cannot decline to buy the amusement, and there is no auction. Amusements cannot be improved with houses or hotels as in the standard Monopoly game. However, like the standard game, if the player doesn't have the exact amount to pay the stated price, the banker is allowed to make change. When a player lands on an amusement owned by an opponent they must pay their opponent the value of the amusement marked on the board. If a player lands on one of a pair of amusements of the same color owned by the same player they must pay their opponent double the value of the amusement they landed on. Play continues until one of the players is bankrupted; the player with the most cash on hand wins.

text: In 2013, the game was revised with the board now based on a simplified version of a city rather than a midway. The player tokens were replaced with a green car, blue ship, orange cat and black dog. The ticket booths were replaced with "sold signs", cardboard pieces featuring cartoon caricatures of the player tokens. The $1, $2, $3, $4 and $5 notes were replaced with single-denomination "Monopoly money" notes, and the prices on the board were denoted with a Monopoly money currency glyph (an uppercase 'M' with two horizontal crossbars) instead of dollars or pounds. The board became more reminiscent of the standard Monopoly board, replacing the "Rest Rooms" (or "Café", depending on the version of the board) with "Jail" and "Uncle Pennybag's Loose Change" with "Free Parking". The four Railroad spaces, the Fireworks space, the Water Show and two Chance spaces were also eliminated, reducing the board size from 32 spaces to 24.

text: Board[edit]

text:
Free Parking

Video Game Arcade
¤3
Cinema
¤3
Chance
Toy Store
¤3
Pet Store
¤3
Go to Jail

Swimming Pool
¤2

MONOPOLY Junior

Bowling Alley
¤4

Skate Park
¤2
Zoo
¤4

Chance
Chance

Library
¤2
Park Place
¤5

Museum
¤2
Boardwalk
¤5

Jail/Just Visiting
Ice Cream Parlor
¤2
Candy Store
¤2
Chance
Pizza House
¤1
Burger Joint
¤1
Collect $2 salary as you pass
GO

tag: table

text: Note: the monetary amounts on the board are actually denoted with a "Monopoly money" glyph, an uppercase M with double crossbars. The "¤" glyph is used here in lieu for typographical reasons.

text: Some space names on the British version of the board have different names, similar to the UK version of the original Monopoly board: "Park Lane" instead of "Park Place", and "Mayfair" instead of "Boardwalk", etc.

text:
Uncle Pennybag's Loose Change

Chance
Video Arcade
$3
Haunted House
$3
Chance
Blue Line Railroad (Roll Again)
Helicopter Ride
$4
Pony Ride
$4
Pay $2 to see the water show
Chance
Pay $3 To Take The Tramway To The Rest Rooms

Miniature Golf
$3

MONOPOLY Junior

Bumper Cars
$4

Water Slide
$3
Ferris Wheel
$4

Green Line Railroad (Roll Again)
Red Line Railroad (Roll Again)

Paddle Boats
$2
Loop The Loop
$5

Merry-Go-Round
$2
Roller Coaster
$5

Rest Rooms
Chance
Pay $2 to see the fireworks
Magic Show
$2
Puppet Show
$2
Yellow Line Railroad (Roll Again)
Chance
Cotton Candy
$1
Balloon Stand
$1
Chance
Collect $2 allowance as you pass
GO

text: Several of the space names are changed to British English terms on the British version of the board: "Candy Floss" instead of "Cotton Candy", "Water Chute" instead of "Water Slide", "Dodgems" instead of "Bumper Cars", "Big Wheel" instead of "Ferris Wheel" and "railways" instead of "railroads". Depending on the version of the board the Rest Rooms may be alternatively called the Café, and Uncle Pennybags may be alternatively called Mr. Monopoly.

text: Rules[edit]

text: Players take turns in order, with the initial player determined by age before the game: the youngest player goes first. Players are dealt an initial amount Monopoly money depending on the total number of players playing: 20 in a two-player game, 18 in a three-player game or 16 in a four-player game. A typical turn begins with the rolling of the die and the player advancing their token clockwise around the board the corresponding number of spaces. When the player lands on an unowned space they must purchase the space from the bank for the amount indicated on the board, and places a sold sign on the coloured band at the top of the space to denote ownership. If a player lands on a space owned by an opponent the player pays the opponent rent in the amount written on the board. If the opponent owns both properties of the same colour the rent is doubled.

text: You may sell properties for extra money or if you don't have enough money to pay the other players.

text: A player who lands on or passes the GO space collects 2 Monopoly money from the bank. Players who land on a Chance space must take the top Chance card from the draw pile and follow the instructions. No reward or penalty is given for landing on Free Parking or Just Visiting. Players who land on Go To Jail must move their token to Jail (without passing GO nor collecting 2 Monopoly money). To get out of Jail the player may use a Get Out of Jail Free card or pay 1 Monopoly money to the bank at the start of their next turn.

text: The game is over when a player is bankrupted by not having enough money to pay rent, buy a property or pay a fee on a Chance card. The remaining player with the most money wins. In the event of a tie the player with the most properties wins.

text: 1990 rules[edit]

text: The rules of the original Monopoly Junior game are very similar to the modern rules. Players are dealt $31 at the beginning of the game: five $1 notes, four $2, three $3, one $4 and one $5. Players take turns in order, with the initial player determined by chance before the game: players roll the die, and the highest roller goes first. A typical turn begins with the rolling of the die and the player advancing their token clockwise around the board the corresponding number of spaces. When the player lands on a vacant amusement they must purchase the amusement from the bank for the amount indicated on the board, and places a ticket booth token on the colored band at the top of the space to denote ownership. If a player lands on an amusement owned by an opponent the player pays the opponent rent in the amount written on the board. If the opponent owns both amusements of the same color the rent is doubled.

text: A player who lands on or passes the GO space collects $2 from the bank. Players who land on a Chance space must take the top Chance card from the draw pile and follow the instructions. Chance cards indicating a Free Ticket Booth allow the player to claim a vacant amusement of the color indicated on the card for free, or to remove the ticket booth from an amusement (of the indicated color) owned by another player, unless both amusements of that color are owned by one player; in which case, the player who drew the Chance card must discard it and draw another. No reward or penalty is given for landing on the Rest Rooms, as they are "Just Waiting". Players who land on "Pay $3 Take the Tramway to the Rest Rooms" must pay $3 and place it on Uncle Pennybag's Loose Change and move their token to the Rest Rooms (without passing GO or collecting $2). On their next turn they may roll the die and move their token as usual. Players who land on the Fireworks or Water Show must place $2 on Uncle Pennybag's Loose Change. A player who lands on Uncle Pennybag's Loose Change is rewarded with any money on the space. Players who land on any of the Railroads must roll the die again and move their token.

text: The game is over when a player is bankrupted by not having enough money to pay rent, buy an amusement or pay a fee. All remaining players count their money, and the player with the most money wins.

text: 2006 rules changes[edit]

text: There are no Uncle Pennybag's Loose Change or Restroom spots

text: Players who land on 'Go To Lunch' pay $3 to the bank, then move the pawn directly to Lunch without passing 'GO'.

text: Differences between Monopoly and Monopoly Junior[edit]

text:
Monopoly
Monopoly Junior

Players start with $1,500 ($1×5, $5×5, $10×5, $20×6, $50×2, $100×2 and $500×2)
Players start with $16-20 ($31 in the original game)

The board is made up of 40 spaces.
The board is made up of 24 spaces. (32 on the original board.)

Players roll 2 six-sided dice for each turn. Players may roll again when rolling doubles, but must go to Jail if doubles are rolled three times in a row.
Players roll 1 six-sided die for each turn. (Players must roll again when landing on a Railroad space on the original board.)

Players collect $200 when passing or landing on GO.
Players collect $2 when passing or landing on GO.

Buying properties is optional. If a player declines to buy a property for its asking price the property is auctioned.
Buying properties (or amusements) is compulsory. There is no auction.

Properties can be improved with houses and hotels.
Properties (or amusements) cannot be improved.

Color groups have two or three properties.
Color groups have two properties (or amusements).

Denominations of money are $1 (white), $5 (pink), $10 (yellow), $20 (green), $50 (blue), $100 (beige), and $500 (orange) notes.
The only denomination is 1 Monopoly money (white). (The original game featured denominations of $1 (white), $2 (yellow), $3 (blue), $4 (green) and $5 (pink) notes.)

Ownership of properties is marked by Title Deed.
Ownership of properties is marked by a sold sign placed on the board. (In the original game ownership of amusements is marked by a ticket booth.)

When the player lands on Go To Jail they must go straight to Jail.
In the original game when the player must take the tramway to the Rest Rooms they must go straight to the Rest Rooms and pay $3.

To get out of Jail the player must throw doubles on one of their next three turns, use a Get Out of Jail Free card, or pay a fine of $50 (which must be paid if doubles are not thrown by the third turn).
To get out of Jail the player must use a Get Out of Jail Free card or pay a fine of $1 on their next turn. (In the original game the player is free to leave the Rest Rooms on their next turn.)

There are Chance and Community Chest cards.
All cards are Chance cards.

The game ends when one player forces all other players to go bankrupt.
The game ends when one player is bankrupted. The winner is the remaining player with the most cash on hand.

Extra money can be borrowed by mortgaging properties.
It is not possible to borrow money in any way.

Free Parking jackpot is a common house rule, but not official.
In the original game Uncle Pennybag's Loose Change is an official rule.

text: Versions[edit]

text: In addition to the standard Monopoly Junior, several variations have been released.[1] Among them:

text:
Travel Edition (1994)
Deep Sea Adventure (2000)
Dig 'N Dinos (2001)
Toy Story (2001)
Disney Princess (2004)
Shrek 2 (2004)
Lemonade (2005)
Disney Channel (2007)
Trek Alaska
Despicable Me 2 (2013) - this version omits the Railway spaces and uses a spinner similar to the "pod" in the Despicable Me 2 Battle Pods game in place of a die, as well as figures shared between the two games and the Despicable Me 2 edition of Operation.
Finding Dory (2016)