document_title: United States Air Force enlisted rank insignia

question_text: what rank is an e5 in the air force

question_tokens: what rank is an e5 in the air force

root

text: The chart below represents the current enlisted rank insignia of the United States Air Force.

tag: p

text:
US DoD Pay grade
E-1
E-2
E-3
E-4
E-5
E-6
E-7
E-8
E-9

Insignia
No Insignia

Title
Airman Basic
Airman
Airman First Class
Senior Airman
Staff Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Master Sergeant¹
Senior Master Sergeant¹
Chief Master Sergeant¹
Command Chief Master Sergeant
Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force

Abbreviation
AB
Amn
A1C
SrA
SSgt
TSgt
MSgt
SMSgt
CMSgt
CCM
CMSAF

NATO Code
OR-1
OR-2
OR-3
OR-4
OR-5
OR-6
OR-7
OR-8
OR-9
OR-9
OR-9

¹: The U.S. Air Force does not have a separate First Sergeant rank; it is instead a duty position denoted by a diamond within the upper field of the E-7/MSgt, E-8/SMSgt, E-9/CMSgt paygrades/chevrons/ranks and is abbreviated "1st Sgt."

tag: table

text: While all Air Force military personnel are referred to as Airmen, it can specifically refer to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4 which are below the level of non-commissioned officers (NCOs).[1] Above the pay grade of E-4 (E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into NCOs (E-5 & E-6) and Senior NCOs (E-7 through E-9); the term Junior NCO is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (E-5 & E-6).[1]

text: The Air Force is the only one of the five branches of the United States military where NCO status is now only achieved at the grade of E-5. Formerly, the grade of Sergeant was obtained after a time as a Senior Airman and successful completion of the Air Force NCO School. In all other branches, NCO status can be achieved at the grade of E-4 (a Corporal in the Army and Marine Corps, Petty Officer Third Class in the Navy and Coast Guard). However, E-4s in the Army with the rank of Specialist are not NCOs. The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 2 May 1991 with an E-4 being either a Senior Airman wearing three stripes without a star or a Sergeant (informally referred to as "Buck Sergeant") which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO.[2] Despite not being an NCO, a Senior Airman who has completed Airman Leadership School can be a supervisor.[1]

text: Evolution of the chevrons[edit]

text: Although the Air Force became an independent service with the National Security Act of 1947, it retained the Army Air Force rank structure and corresponding insignia of years past. This rank structure provided for seven enlisted ranks: Private, Private First Class, Corporal/Technician Fifth Grade, Sergeant/Technician Fourth Grade, Staff Sergeant/Technician Third Grade, Technical Sergeant and Master Sergeant/First Sergeant. Additionally, Air Force personnel were still referred to as soldiers.[2] During the Second World War, many USAAF NCOs wore the Army Air Corps branch insignia of the winged propeller underneath their chevrons.[3]

text: Changes to the rank structure were proposed almost immediately but did not start occurring until the next year. Sometime during late 1947 and early 1948, new chevron designs were tested at Bolling Air Force Base. The style preferred was the one used today, the inverted chevron. Air Force Chief of Staff General Hoyt Vandenberg approved the new chevron on 9 March 1948.[2] A new Air Force "Uxbridge Blue" uniform and black leather replaced the US Army Air Corps Olive Drab uniform and russet leather in 1949. Air Force personnel were allowed to wear their old Army World War Two pattern uniforms and rank insignia until July, 1952. Recolored "hash marks" and Overseas Service Bars were worn on the uniform until 1957.

text: Although the new chevrons were approved, the titles did not change. Two years would pass (February 1950) before General Vandenberg ordered all enlisted personnel in the Air Force be referred to as "airman" (singular) and "airmen" (plural) rather than "soldier.". A further two years would go by while the enlisted rank structure was studied and changes proposed. The end results finally became effective on 24 April 1952 with the release of a revised Air Force Regulation (AFR) 39-36. This revision changed the names of the enlisted ranks to Basic Airman, Airman Third Class, Airman Second Class, Airman First Class (with resultant loss of NCO status that was not restored until 1967), Staff Sergeant, Technical Sergeant and Master Sergeant.[2]

text: With the new titles came a proposal for new rank insignia for Airman Third Class through Airman First Class. The proposed insignia would have horizontal stripes for Airman Third Class through Airman First Class while NCOs keep their inverted chevrons. The purpose of the two different types of insignia was to more readily differentiate the airman and NCO tiers while increasing the prestige of the latter. These were not approved at the time of the release of the revised regulation. When they were finally approved by General Vandenberg in December 1952, procurement of these stripes was deferred until approximately June 1955. This change would eventually be reversed, on 12 March 1956, by General Vandenberg's successor, General Twining.[2]

text: During his tenure, General Twining also approved the diamond insignia for First Sergeants. This became available on 21 September 1955.[2] With this approval, the foundations of the first seven ranks and insignia the Air Force uses today were in place.

text: The next major change came with the Military Pay Act of 1958. This established the pay grades of E-8 and E-9 but without corresponding rank titles. The titles of Senior Master Sergeant and Chief Master Sergeant were chosen between July and December 1958 after comments were solicited from the major Air Force commands of the day. After much discussion, the insignia for these two ranks were designed by simply adding one and two chevrons to the top of the Master Sergeant insignia (for E-8 and E-9 respectively), each stripe pointing up.[2]

text: The rank of Basic Airman was renamed Airman Basic on 5 February 1959, still with no insignia attached.[2]

text: The next series of changes to Air Force enlisted ranks did not occur for almost eight years. In January 1967 the position of Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force was created. This position gained its own special insignia, the Chief Master Sergeant chevrons with a wreath encircling the center star. On 1 August 1967 the lower enlisted rank names changed (revised AFR 39-36 on 19 October 1967) renamed Airman Third Class, Airman Second Class and Airman First Class to Airman, Airman First Class and Sergeant (known unofficially as "Buck Sergeant" by the NCO ranks at the time) respectively. This returned Sergeant to the rank structure as the first step in the NCO tier as a retention move but required achievement of a 5-skill Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) level. No changes to the respective insignias were made.[2] Footnote: On 1 July 1969 the Air Force Serial Number was changed to the member's Social Security Number (SSAN). This change was for all grades and the three major US military forces including guard and reserve components. The commandant of the USMC did not adopt the serial number change to his forces.

text: In a 30 December 1975 directive the grade of Sergeant was split into two separate ranks while retaining the grade of E-4. Senior Airman would be the last junior enlisted tier rank while Sergeant would remain the first rank in the NCO tier. The impetus behind this was to laterally promote senior E-4 airmen who were ready for NCO responsibilities but not prepared to take on the role of a Staff Sergeant. This permitted airmen who had not yet reached the AFSC 5-skill level to achieve the pay grade of E-4, while according those who had NCO status. To differentiate the two ranks, the directive changed the silver star in the center of Airman, Airman First Class and Senior Airman changed to blue while the star on Sergeant chevrons remained silver. Having two ranks within one grade mirrored the Army's Specialist/Corporal division of E-4. This dual role would last until March 1991 when then Chief of Staff General McPeak terminated the rank of Sergeant effective 2 May 1991. This termination was due in part to the manning reductions that occurred in the post–Cold War drawdowns of the early 1990s. The last of the "Buck Sergeants" would have either been promoted or discharged under High Year Tenure by December 1998.[2]

text: The year 1991 also saw the last major change to the enlisted rank insignia. In October 1991 General McPeak and Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force Pfingston announced that the senior NCO tier would have new chevron layouts and that all chevrons would have a white star in the center. The change in senior NCO chevrons was the first since chevrons came into being in 1948. Until that time, Master Sergeant had been composed of six inverted chevrons (six down) with none pointing up, Senior Master Sergeant six down with one up and Chief Master Sergeant six down with two up. The new layout changed the insignia to the current layout (see chart above). The second change, changing the star color to white, was actually two changes in one. It added a star to the Airman through Senior Airman rank insignias where there had been none since 1975 (the blue star carried by these chevrons was the same color as the blue in the stripes giving the impression that the star was not there) and changing the silver star on the NCO and senior NCO chevrons to white.[2]

text: In November 1998, the duty position of Senior Enlisted Advisor was changed to Command Chief Master Sergeant. Along with the change, the addition of a star in the empty blue area between the chevrons was added to denote those holding this position.

text: In November 2004, the Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force insignia was updated to include the Great Seal of the United States with a white star on either side. These additions were placed in the empty blue area between the chevrons.


document_title: List of Hawaii hurricanes

question_text: when was the last time hawaii was hit by a hurricane

text: List of Hawaii hurricanes

text: List of tropical cyclones[edit]

text: This list contains every tropical cyclone that had a somewhat notable effect on the State of Hawaiʻi.

text:
September 1843: The earliest report of a tropical cyclone that could have affected Hawaiʻi was made in 1843. On September 23, a German ship recorded a cyclone (known later as the "Cyclone of the Lark") near 17°N and 141°W. No further records are available, but extrapolation of its forward movement predicted that it would make landfall on the southern coast of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi.[2]
August 9, 1871: Indigenous newspapers record a major category 3 hurricane causing significant damage across the islands of Hawai'i and Maui.[3]
November 1874: In November, a possible tropical cyclone may have dropped over 20 inches (510 mm) of rain on Honolulu, and southerly gales destroyed 23 homes and damaged at least 50.[2]
December 1902–03: A low pressure system (known later as "The Froc Cyclone") that took a path similar to that of a tropical cyclone, passed through Kaulakahi Channel in late December 1902. No records of unusual weather were recorded, so the storm was likely still forming as it crossed Hawaiʻi.[4]
October 1906: In October a tropical cyclone passed about 60 miles (97 km) south of South Point. Heavy rains were recorded; "the heaviest in years". A little over 12 inches (300 mm) fell in 4½ hours.[4]
November 1906: 90 miles (140 km) south of Honolulu on November 3, 1906, a tropical cyclone was recognized. The storm supposedly tracked northward, passing through the Kauai channel. This cyclone must have been abnormally small or very weak, because climatological records show no unusual rainfall, wind, surge, or low pressure. The storm dissipated near British Columbia.[4]
August 1925: In August high seas and gusty winds were recorded in Hawaiʻi from a nearby tropical cyclone.[4]
August 1938: Again in August a possible tropical cyclone produced heavy wind and rain in the state.[4]

tag: ul

text:
August 1950: Hurricane Hiki passed north of the islands, bringing gale winds. 68 mph (110 km/h) winds were recorded in Kauai. Additionally, at total of 52 inches (1321 mm) of rain fell over 4 days in Kauai. One person died from Hiki.[4]
July 1957: Hurricane Kanoa, after taking a long journey across the eastern Pacific, became a non-tropical circulation a few miles east of Hawaiʻi. The remnants of Kanoa brought welcomed rain.[5]
November 1957: Hurricane Nina was a Category 1 hurricane that formed in November south of Hawaiʻi. Nina moved north and took a sharp turn to the west without actually striking the state. Nina's closest approach to land, which was relatively far off the coast, was only about 120 miles (190 km) southwest of Kauai. Nina caused about $100,000 damage in Kauai and dropped over 20 inches (510 mm) of rain in 14 hours. Nina set a record for the highest wind gust ever recorded in Honolulu: 82 miles per hour (132 km/h). Nina killed four people throughout the islands.[5]
August 1958: On August 7, a tropical storm seemed to rapidly appear directly off the coast of Hilo. It moved across the islands, dropping considerable rainfall and causing about $500,000 of damage, before dissipating.[6]
August 1959: Hurricane Dot was another powerful August arrival. Dot entered the Central Pacific as a Category 4 hurricane just south of Hawaiʻi. On August 5, Dot seemed to turn more northwest, aiming it directly at Kauai. On the 6th, Dot began weakening, and at its landfall in Kauai, Dot was only a Category 1 hurricane. Despite being greatly weakened, the hurricane brought gusts of over 100 miles per hour (160 km/h). In some areas of the island, palm trees snapped in half, suggesting winds were locally over 125 miles per hour (201 km/h). Damages from Dot cost no more than a few million dollars, and rainfall was relatively light; around 4 inches (100 mm). No Dot-related deaths were recorded.[7]

text:
September 1963: Tropical Storm Irah crossed the islands as a tropical depression, bringing 36 miles per hour (58 km/h) winds, but caused little damage.[8]
August 1966: Hurricane Connie brought heavy rain to  Big Island and Maui without making landfall.[9]

text:
August 1970: Tropical Storm Maggie passed just south of the Big Island, dropping nearly 10 inches (250 mm) of rain.[10]
January 1971: Although not having existed in the Central Pacific as a tropical cyclone, the extratropical low that was Tropical Storm Sarah in the West Pacific passed over Hawaiʻi in mid January, causing high winds and heavy rain.[11]
July 1971: Hurricane Denise dissipated before reaching Hawaiʻi, but brought beneficial rain of over one inch to dry farms and sugarcane plantations. Denise's outer winds helped Sheila Scott while she was flying solo around the world, and a boat named Winward Passage win the Transpacific Yacht Race. Both were headed to Honolulu.[11]
August 1972: Hurricane Diana dissipated a few miles off shore of the Big Island, dropping over 10 inches (250 mm) of rain in some parts.[12]
September 1972: Hurricane Fernanda may have caused flash flooding near Waipio as it passed to the northeast.[12]
August 1976: Tropical Storm Gwen passed north of Hawaiʻi, dropping 1–2 inches (25–51 mm) of rain across the entire state.[13]
July 1978: Hurricane Fico created 15 feet (4.6 m) waves, felled trees and knocked out power across the islands.[14]

text:
July 1982: Hurricane Daniel passed through the islands as a tropical depression, causing little if any damage.[15]
November 1982: Hurricane Iwa was one of Hawaii's most damaging hurricanes. Although it was only a category 1 storm, it passed just miles west of Kauai, moving at a speed of nearly 50 miles per hour (80 km/h). Severe property damage was inflicted on the island; up to $250 million (a record for that time). Iwa was the most damaging hurricane to ever hit Hawaiʻi until Hurricane Iniki took over the title 10 years later.[15]
July–August 1983: Hurricane Gil passed over northern Hawaiʻi as a tropical storm, causing minor damage.[16]
October 1983: Hurricane Raymond took a path similar to Gil's, but as a depression, causing no damage.[16]
July 1985: Hurricane Ignacio, although missing the islands, generated surf that measured from 10 to 15 feet (3.0 to 4.6 m) causing damage to coastal roads and structures. Only light rain was reported.[17]
July 1986: Waves caused by Hurricane Estelle caused $2 million in damage when they destroyed five houses and damaged several others. Two people on Oʻahu drowned in rough surf.[18]
August 1988: Tropical Storm Gilma moved through the island chain as a depression, dropping locally heavy rainfall of up to 4 inches (100 mm) in some places.[19]
August 1988: Hurricane Uleki approached the state. Two drownings on Oahu were attributed to rough surf caused by the hurricane.[19]
July 1989: Hurricane Dalilia dropped heavy rains over Hawaiʻi, setting a new July record for Honolulu International Airport, 2.33 inches (59 mm) in 24 hours. Rain was heavier elsewhere, with up to 8 inches (200 mm) falling near the North Shore.[20]

text:
August 1991: Hurricane Fefa dissipated shortly before landfall. Two people were injured by lightning. Locally strong wind gusts reached 58 miles per hour (93 km/h) at some localities, mainly over Hawaiʻi and Maui. Some heavy downpours occurred, particularly on the Big Island. Localized flash flooding was reported in the Kohala and Hamakua districts.[21]
July 1992: Hurricane Georgette brought locally squally winds over the state as a depression. Several large waterspouts were sighted off Hapuna Beach in the South Kohala district.[22]
September 1992: Hurricane Iniki caused more damage than any other hurricane to affect Hawaiʻi since records began. It hit the island of Kauai as a Category 4 on September 11. Iniki caused $3.1 billion in damage, mainly to Kauai.[23] It remains the costliest East/Central Pacific hurricane on record. Six died as a result. Iniki brought winds of 140 miles per hour (230 km/h).[22]
September 1992: Hurricane Orlene struck Hawaii as a tropical depression causing heavy rainfall, washing out roads, shortly after Iniki ravaged the island.[22]
July 1993: Hurricane Eugene dropped valuable rain on the state as it dissipated. Minor power outages and rain made traffic conditions hazardous. One fisherman was reported missing.[24]
August 1993: Hurricane Fernanda brought heavy surf of up to 15 feet (4.6 m) on the east facing beaches from the Big Island to Kauai. Wave heights between 15 and 20 feet (4.6 and 6.1 m) was reported on Kauai. Shoreline roads on all islands were damaged and some homes flooded.[24]
July 1994: Tropical Storm Daniel dumped 5 inches (130 mm) of rain over the windward slopes of Big Island. Moderate surf of up to 6 feet (1.8 m) affected the east and southeast shorelines on the Big Island.[25]
July 1994: Hurricane Emilia damaged trees and foliage while passing south of Hawaiʻi. Surf reached 10 feet (3.0 m) along the Puna and Kau shorelines.[25]
July 1994: The remnants of Tropical Storm Fabio brought heavy showers to Big Island and Oahu. Rainfall accumulated to 4 inches (100 mm).[25]
August 1994: Tropical Depression One-C passed just south of the islands, causing severe flooding in Hilo.[25]
August 1999: Hurricane Dora caused minor wind gusts of up to 58 miles per hour (93 km/h) on the southern part of Big Island as it passed south of Hawaiʻi.[26]

text:
August 2000: Hurricane Daniel passed north of the islands, bringing a few thunderstorms but no significant flooding. High surf with waves of up to 10 feet (3.0 m) impacted the eastern side of the island of Hawaiʻi.[27]
August 2003: Hurricane Jimena brought up to 10 inches (250 mm) of rain as it passed the Big Island. High surf with heights of up to 15 feet (4.6 m) were reported on the windward sections of Big Island. A gust of 53 miles per hour (85 km/h) was recorded at South Point.[28]
August 2004: The remnants of Hurricane Darby passed over the islands and combined with an upper level trough to create unstable moisture, dropping up to 5 inches (130 mm) of rain in a few hours on the Big Island, causing flooding and road closures. Rainfall up to 5 inches (130 mm) was also reported in Oahu.[29]
September 2005: An upper level trough which had resulted in the remnants of Hurricane Jova brought unstable conditions to Hawaiʻi, allowing locally heavy rainfall to occur.[30]
September 2005: The remnants of Hurricane Kenneth brought locally heavy rainfall, with up to 12 inches (300 mm) falling on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi. Intense rains over Oahu and Kauai caused flash floods on Kaukonahua Stream and the overflow of Lake Wilson at Wahiawa Dam. Flash floods occurred on Hanalei River forcing the closure of Kuhio Highway.[30]
August 2007: Hurricane Flossie passed within 100 miles (160 km) of the Big Island of Hawaii bringing rain and tropical storm-force winds to the island.
August 2008: The remnants of Hurricane Hernan  brought moisture to the island of Hawaii causing cloud and shower activity.
August 2009: The remnants of Hurricane Felicia brought light rainfall to the northern islands.[31]
October 2009: Hurricane Neki caused minor damage to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, striking the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument as a tropical storm.

text:
December 2010: Tropical Storm Omeka brushed Lisianski Island as a weak tropical storm, although no damage was reported.
July 2013: Tropical Storm Flossie passed just 5 miles (8.0 km) north of Kauai as a weak tropical depression.
August 2014: Hurricane Iselle approached the Island of Hawaiʻi as a Category 1 Hurricane, prompting hurricane warnings for the area[32] before it made landfall in the southeast portion of the island as a moderate tropical storm, bringing heavy rain, flooding and minor structural damage. Overall, Iselle caused $79.2 million (2014 USD) in damage, mainly to the papaya crop. One person was killed indirectly having been swept away by a stream engorged with heavy rain from the storm.[33]
October 2014: Hurricane Ana skirted just south of the Hawaiian islands, passing 85 miles (137 km) southwest of Kauai as a category 1 hurricane. Damage was limited to a few downed trees.
August 2015: Hurricane Hilda passed within 200 miles (320 km) southeast of Island of Hawaiʻi as a tropical depression.
August 2015: Hurricane Kilo passed within 410 miles (660 km) southeast of Island of Hawaiʻi as a tropical depression, it brought enhanced moisture into Hawaii, leading to locally heavy rainfall in that state.
August 2015: Hurricane Loke brushed Pearl and Hermes Atoll as a minimal hurricane, although no damage was reported.
August–September 2015: Hurricane Ignacio passed about 230 miles (370 km) northeast of Maui and Molokai as a category 1 hurricane, causing only minimal impacts.
September 2015: Hurricane Jimena passed about 220 miles (350 km) northeast of Oahu as a weak tropical depression, it brought scattered heavy rains to Hawaii.
September 2015: Tropical Storm Malia brushed Maro Reef as a weak tropical storm, although no damage was reported.
September 2015: Tropical Storm Niala passes to the southeast of the Big Island, bringing tropical storm force winds to the island. Flood and High Wind Advisories were released.
July 2016: Moisture associated with the remnants of Hurricane Blas brought showers to Hawaii. Peak daily rainfall totals primarily ranged between 1 to 2 in (25 to 50 mm) and did not cause any serious flooding.
July 2016: Large swells as high as 15 ft (4.6 m) generated by the remnants of Hurricane Celia affected the east-facing shores of the Hawaiian Islands. These swells produced rough surf that caused two drowning deaths on the southeastern shore of the island of Oahu on July 16.
July 2016: Hurricane Darby made landfall in southeast Island of Hawaiʻi as a minimal tropical storm. Darby brought heavy rain and widespread flash floods to the windward sides of the Hawaiian Islands, however, overall damage was minor.
July 2016: Remnant moisture from Hurricane Georgette brought heavy rain to Oahu on July 31 but caused only minor flooding.
August 2016: The remnants of Tropical Storm Howard moved across the main Hawaiian Island group on August 7, dropping up to 2 in (51 mm) of rain over portions of Kauai, Oahu, and Maui, with minor flooding occurring on northwestern Oahu and northern sections of Maui.
September 2016: Hurricane Madeline passes to the southeast of the Big Island as a weakening tropical storm, producing heavy rain and gusty winds. Total rainfall accumulations amounted up to 5–11 inches (13–28 cm) across the Big Island.
September 2016: Hurricane Lester passed slowly to the northeast of the islands as a category 1 hurricane. Its outer rainbands produced heavy showers and minor flooding over the leeward slopes of the Big Island and portions of east Maui.
July 2017: The remnants of Hurricane Fernanda passed to the north of the islands on July 24, producing thunderstorms and heavy showers in the region.[34]
August 2018: Hurricane Hector passed about 200 miles (320 km) south of the Island of Hawaiʻi as a Category 3 hurricane, generating 20 foot high surf along the southern side of the island. At least 90 people had to be rescued off the shores of Oahu due to dangerous swells generated by the cyclone.[35]
August 2018: Hurricane Lane slowly approached the islands from the southeast, peaking as a powerful Category 5 hurricane (one of only two recorded within 350 miles of the state), prompting the issuance of hurricane watches and warnings for every island in Hawaii and becoming the first major threat to the state since Hurricane Iniki. Lane weakened significantly as it moved towards the islands, however its outer rainbands caused severe mudslides and flash flooding especially in the Island of Hawaiʻi, where a maximum of 52.02 inches (1,321 mm) of rain was recorded at Mountainview, Hawaii on August 26.[36]

text: Monthly statistics and landfalls[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: 62 tropical cyclones have affected Hawaiʻi since 1949.

text:
Number of recorded storms affecting Hawaiʻi

Month

Number of storms

January

1

July

14

August

28

September

10

October

4

November

3

December

2

Recorded tropical cyclone landfalls in Hawaii

Name

Date

Year

SSHWS category

Sustained winds

Unnamed

August 9

1871

Category 3 hurricane

Unknown [nb 1]

Unnamed

August 8

1958

Tropical storm

50 mph (85 km/h)

Dot

August 6

1959

Category 1 hurricane

85 mph (140 km/h)

Raymond

October 20

1983

Tropical depression

30 mph (45 km/h)

Gilma

August 3

1988

Tropical depression

25 mph (40 km/h)

Iniki

September 11

1992

Category 4 hurricane

145 mph (230 km/h)

Orlene

September 14

1992

Tropical depression

30 mph (45 km/h)

Eugene

July 24

1993

Tropical depression

35 mph (55 km/h)

Iselle

August 8

2014

Tropical storm

60 mph (95 km/h)

Darby

July 24

2016

Tropical storm

40 mph (65 km/h)

text: Deadliest storms[edit]

text: A total of 28 people have died in Hawaiʻi as a result of tropical cyclones since reliable record-keeping began in 1949.

text:
Name

Year

Number of deaths

Iniki
1992
6

Nina
1957
4

Iwa
1982
4

Dot
1959
2

Estelle
1986
2

Uleki
1988
2

Celia
2016
2

Hiki
1950
1

Unnamed
1958
1

Gil
1983
1

Raymond
1983
1

Eugene
1993
1

Iselle
2014
1

text: Hawaii's apparent immunity to most hurricanes[edit]

text:
The islands of Hawaii, with Kauai as the notable exception, appear to be remarkably immune from direct hurricane hits. The USGS states that "more commonly, near-misses that generate large swell and moderately high winds causing varying degrees of damage are the hallmark of hurricanes passing close to the islands."[37] This has also drawn media attention.[38][39]
One notion is that Hawaii’s volcanic peaks slow down or divert storms.[40] A partial source of this idea may be the long list of hurricanes in the above paragraphs that dissipated into tropical storms or depressions upon approaching the islands. Satellite images of Hurricane Flossie's breakup when approaching Hawaii Island fueled this idea.[41] Another example may be Hurricane Felicia which dropped from Category 4 down to a tropical depression with residual winds predicted at only 35 miles per hour (56 km/h).[42]

text: Tropical Storm Flossie (not to be confused with Hurricane Flossie in 2007) provides still another example.  On July 28, 2013, the storm appeared headed for a direct hit to the Big Island, home to Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa.  Both mountains rise to elevations in excess of 13,000 feet above sea level, and as Flossie approached the island, its track shifted abruptly overnight and assumed a more northerly alignment, heading instead to the island of Maui on July 29.[43]

text: Wind data in particular supports the USGS assertion that hurricane damage has been low on all islands except for Kauai. Data collected by the Western Regional Climate Center show no hurricane-strength winds on any Hawaii Islands with the exception of Kauai.[44] Despite this data, FEMA classified all of Hawaii as being in a "Wind-Borne Debris Region".[45][46][47]

text: Before Hurricane Iniki in 1992, a standard homeowner's insurance policy with extended coverage provided hurricane coverage. Since Iniki, many insurance policies exclude hurricane and a separate hurricane policy is required to obtain hurricane coverage.


document_title: Birth control

question_text: where was the first birth control pill invented

question_tokens: where was the first birth control pill invented

text: Birth control

text: Methods[edit]

text:
Chance of pregnancy during first year of use[21][22]

Method
Typical use
Perfect use

No birth control
85%
85%

Combination pill
9%
0.3%

Progestin-only pill
13%
1.1%

Sterilization (female)
0.5%
0.5%

Sterilization (male)
0.15%
0.1%

Condom (female)
21%
5%

Condom (male)
18%
2%

Copper IUD
0.8%
0.6%

Hormonal IUD
0.2%
0.2%

Patch
9%
0.3%

Vaginal ring
9%
0.3%

MPA shot
6%
0.2%

Implant
0.05%
0.05%

Diaphragm and spermicide
12%
6%

Fertility awareness
24%
0.4–5%

Withdrawal
22%
4%

Lactational amenorrhea method (6 months failure rate)
0–7.5%[23]
<2%[24]

text: Birth control methods include barrier methods, hormonal birth control, intrauterine devices (IUDs), sterilization, and behavioral methods. They are used before or during sex while emergency contraceptives are effective for up to five days after sex. Effectiveness is generally expressed as the percentage of women who become pregnant using a given method during the first year,[25] and sometimes as a lifetime failure rate among methods with high effectiveness, such as tubal ligation.[26]

text: The most effective methods are those that are long acting and do not require ongoing health care visits.[27] Surgical sterilization, implantable hormones, and intrauterine devices all have first-year failure rates of less than 1%.[21] Hormonal contraceptive pills, patches or vaginal rings, and the lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), if adhered to strictly, can also have first-year (or for LAM, first-6-month) failure rates of less than 1%.[27] With typical use, first-year failure rates are considerably high, at 9%, due to inconsistent use.[21] Other methods such as condoms, diaphragms, and spermicides have higher first-year failure rates even with perfect usage.[27] The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends long acting reversible birth control as first line for young individuals.[28]

text: While all methods of birth control have some potential adverse effects, the risk is less than that of pregnancy.[27] After stopping or removing many methods of birth control, including oral contraceptives, IUDs, implants and injections, the rate of pregnancy during the subsequent year is the same as for those who used no birth control.[29]

text: For individuals with specific health problems, certain forms of birth control may require further investigations.[30] For women who are otherwise healthy, many methods of birth control should not require a medical exam—including birth control pills, injectable or implantable birth control, and condoms.[31] For example, a pelvic exam, breast exam, or blood test before starting birth control pills does not appear to affect outcomes.[32][33] In 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a detailed list of medical eligibility criteria for each type of birth control.[30]

text: Hormonal[edit]

text: Hormonal contraception is available in a number of different forms, including oral pills, implants under the skin, injections, patches, IUDs and a vaginal ring. They are currently available only for women, although hormonal contraceptives for men have been and are being clinically tested.[34] There are two types of oral birth control pills, the combined oral contraceptive pills (which contain both estrogen and a progestin) and the progestogen-only pills (sometimes called minipills).[35]  If either is taken during pregnancy, they do not increase the risk of miscarriage nor cause birth defects.[33] Both types of birth control pills prevent fertilization mainly by inhibiting ovulation and thickening cervical mucus.[36][37] They may also change the lining of the uterus and thus decrease implantation.[37] Their effectiveness depends on the user's adherence to taking the pills.[33]

text: Combined hormonal contraceptives are associated with a slightly increased risk of venous and arterial blood clots.[38] Venous clots, on average, increase from 2.8 to 9.8 per 10,000 women years[39] which is still less than that associated with pregnancy.[38] Due to this risk, they are not recommended in women over 35 years of age who continue to smoke.[40] Due to the increased risk, they are included in decision tools such as the DASH score and PERC rule used to predict the risk of blood clots.[41]

text: The effect on sexual desire is varied, with increase or decrease in some but with no effect in most.[42] Combined oral contraceptives reduce the risk of ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer and do not change the risk of breast cancer.[43][44] They often reduce menstrual bleeding and painful menstruation cramps.[33] The lower doses of estrogen released from the vaginal ring may reduce the risk of breast tenderness, nausea, and headache associated with higher dose estrogen products.[43]

text: Progestin-only pills, injections and intrauterine devices are not associated with an increased risk of blood clots and may be used by women with a history of blood clots in their veins.[38][45] In those with a history of arterial blood clots, non-hormonal birth control or a progestin-only method other than the injectable version should be used.[38] Progestin-only pills may improve menstrual symptoms and can be used by breastfeeding women as they do not affect milk production. Irregular bleeding may occur with progestin-only methods, with some users reporting no periods.[46] The progestins drospirenone and desogestrel minimize the androgenic side effects but increase the risks of blood clots and are thus not first line.[47] The perfect use first-year failure rate of injectable progestin is 0.2%; the typical use first failure rate is 6%.[21]

text:
Three varieties of birth control pills in calendar oriented packaging

Birth control pills

A transdermal contraceptive patch

A NuvaRing vaginal ring

text: Barrier[edit]

text: Barrier contraceptives are devices that attempt to prevent pregnancy by physically preventing sperm from entering the uterus.[48] They include male condoms, female condoms, cervical caps, diaphragms, and contraceptive sponges with spermicide.[48]

text: Globally, condoms are the most common method of birth control.[49] Male condoms are put on a man's erect penis and physically block ejaculated sperm from entering the body of a sexual partner.[50] Modern condoms are most often made from latex, but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane, or lamb's intestine.[50] Female condoms are also available, most often made of nitrile, latex or polyurethane.[51] Male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive, easy to use, and have few adverse effects.[52] Making condoms available to teenagers does not appear to affect the age of onset of sexual activity or its frequency.[53] In Japan, about 80% of couples who are using birth control use condoms, while in Germany this number is about 25%,[54] and in the United States it is 18%.[55]

text: Male condoms and the diaphragm with spermicide have typical use first-year failure rates of 18% and 12%, respectively.[21] With perfect use condoms are more effective with a 2% first-year failure rate versus a 6% first-year rate with the diaphragm.[21] Condoms have the additional benefit of helping to prevent the spread of some sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS, however, condoms made from animal intestine do not.[5][56]

text: Contraceptive sponges combine a barrier with a spermicide.[27] Like diaphragms, they are inserted vaginally before intercourse and must be placed over the cervix to be effective.[27] Typical failure rates during the first year depend on whether or not a woman has previously given birth, being 24% in those who have and 12% in those who have not.[21] The sponge can be inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse and must be left in place for at least six hours afterward.[27] Allergic reactions[57] and more severe adverse effects such as toxic shock syndrome have been reported.[58]

text:
A rolled up male condom.

An unrolled male latex condom

A polyurethane female condom

A diaphragm vaginal-cervical barrier, in its case with a quarter U.S. coin.

A contraceptive sponge set inside its open package.

text: Intrauterine devices[edit]

text: The current intrauterine devices (IUD) are small devices, often 'T'-shaped, containing either copper or levonorgestrel, which are inserted into the uterus. They are one form of long-acting reversible contraception which are the most effective types of reversible birth control.[59] Failure rates with the copper IUD is about 0.8% while the levonorgestrel IUD has a failure rates of 0.2% in the first year of use.[60] Among types of birth control, they, along with birth control implants, result in the greatest satisfaction among users.[61] As of 2007, IUDs are the most widely used form of reversible contraception, with more than 180 million users worldwide.[62]

text: Evidence supports effectiveness and safety in adolescents[61] and those who have and have not previously had children.[63] IUDs do not affect breastfeeding and can be inserted immediately after delivery.[64] They may also be used immediately after an abortion.[65] Once removed, even after long term use, fertility returns to normal immediately.[66]

text: While copper IUDs may increase menstrual bleeding and result in more painful cramps,[67] hormonal IUDs may reduce menstrual bleeding or stop menstruation altogether.[64] Cramping can be treated with painkillers like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.[68] Other potential complications include expulsion (2–5%) and rarely perforation of the uterus (less than 0.7%).[64][68] A previous model of the intrauterine device (the Dalkon shield) was associated with an increased risk of pelvic inflammatory disease, however the risk is not affected with current models in those without sexually transmitted infections around the time of insertion.[69]

text: Sterilization[edit]

text: Surgical sterilization is available in the form of tubal ligation for women and vasectomy for men.[2] There are no significant long term side effects, and tubal ligation decreases the risk of ovarian cancer.[2] Short term complications are twenty times less likely from a vasectomy than a tubal ligation.[2][70] After a vasectomy, there may be swelling and pain of the scrotum which usually resolves in one or two weeks.[71] With tubal ligation, complications occur in 1 to 2 percent of procedures with serious complications usually due to the anesthesia.[72] Neither method offers protection from sexually transmitted infections.[2]

text: This decision may cause regret in some men and women. Of women aged over 30 who have undergone tubal ligation, about 5% regret their decision, as compared with 20% of women aged under 30.[2] By contrast, less than 5% of men are likely to regret sterilization. Men who are more likely to regret sterilization are younger, have young or no children, or have an unstable marriage.[73] In a survey of biological parents, 9% stated they would not have had children if they were able to do it over again.[74]

text: Although sterilization is considered a permanent procedure,[75] it is possible to attempt a tubal reversal to reconnect the fallopian tubes or a vasectomy reversal to reconnect the vasa deferentia. In women, the desire for a reversal is often associated with a change in spouse.[75] Pregnancy success rates after tubal reversal are between 31 and 88 percent, with complications including an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy.[75] The number of males who request reversal is between 2 and 6 percent.[76] Rates of success in fathering another child after reversal are between 38 and 84 percent; with success being lower the longer the time period between the vasectomy and the reversal.[76] Sperm extraction followed by in vitro fertilization may also be an option in men.[77]

text: Behavioral[edit]

text: Behavioral methods involve regulating the timing or method of intercourse to prevent introduction of sperm into the female reproductive tract, either altogether or when an egg may be present.[78] If used perfectly the first-year failure rate may be around 3.4%, however if used poorly first-year failure rates may approach 85%.[79]

text: Fertility awareness[edit]

text: Fertility awareness methods involve determining the most fertile days of the menstrual cycle and avoiding unprotected intercourse.[78] Techniques for determining fertility include monitoring basal body temperature, cervical secretions, or the day of the cycle.[78] They have typical first-year failure rates of 24%; perfect use first-year failure rates depend on which method is used and range from 0.4% to 5%.[21] The evidence on which these estimates are based, however, is poor as the majority of people in trials stop their use early.[78] Globally, they are used by about 3.6% of couples.[80] If based on both basal body temperature and another primary sign, the method is referred to as symptothermal. First-year failure rates of 20% overall and 0.4% for perfect use have been reported in clinical studies of the symptothermal method.[81][21] A number of fertility tracking apps are available, as of 2016, but they are more commonly designed to assist those trying to get pregnant rather than prevent pregnancy.[82]

text: Withdrawal[edit]

text: The withdrawal method (also known as coitus interruptus) is the practice of ending intercourse ("pulling out") before ejaculation.[83] The main risk of the withdrawal method is that the man may not perform the maneuver correctly or in a timely manner.[83] First-year failure rates vary from 4% with perfect usage to 22% with typical usage.[21] It is not considered birth control by some medical professionals.[27]

text: There is little data regarding the sperm content of pre-ejaculatory fluid.[84] While some tentative research did not find sperm,[84] one trial found sperm present in 10 out of 27 volunteers.[85] The withdrawal method is used as birth control by about 3% of couples.[80]

text: Abstinence[edit]

text: Sexual abstinence may be used as a form of birth control, meaning either not engaging in any type of sexual activity, or specifically not engaging in vaginal intercourse, while engaging in other forms of non-vaginal sex.[86][87] Complete sexual abstinence is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy.[88][89] However, among those who take a pledge to abstain from premarital sex, as many as 88% who engage in sex, do so prior to marriage.[90] The choice to abstain from sex cannot protect against pregnancy as a result of rape, and public health efforts emphasizing abstinence to reduce unwanted pregnancy may have limited effectiveness, especially in developing countries and among disadvantaged groups.[91][92]

text: Deliberate non-penetrative sex without vaginal sex or deliberate oral sex without vaginal sex are also sometimes considered birth control.[86] While this generally avoids pregnancy, pregnancy can still occur with intercrural sex and other forms of penis-near-vagina sex (genital rubbing, and the penis exiting from anal intercourse) where sperm can be deposited near the entrance to the vagina and can travel along the vagina's lubricating fluids.[93][94]

text: Abstinence-only sex education does not reduce teenage pregnancy.[7][95] Teen pregnancy rates and STI rates are generally the same or higher in states where students are given abstinence-only education, as compared with comprehensive sex education.[95] Some authorities recommend that those using abstinence as a primary method have backup methods available (such as condoms or emergency contraceptive pills).[96]

text: Lactation[edit]

text: The lactational amenorrhea method involves the use of a woman's natural postpartum infertility which occurs after delivery and may be extended by breastfeeding.[97] This usually requires the presence of no periods, exclusively breastfeeding the infant, and a child younger than six months.[24] The World Health Organization states that if breastfeeding is the infant's only source of nutrition, the failure rate is 2% in the six months following delivery.[98] Six uncontrolled studies of lactational amenorrhea method users found failure rates at 6 months postpartum between 0% and 7.5%.[99][needs update] Failure rates increase to 4–7% at one year and 13% at two years.[100] Feeding formula, pumping instead of nursing, the use of a pacifier, and feeding solids all increase its failure rate.[101] In those who are exclusively breastfeeding, about 10% begin having periods before three months and 20% before six months.[100] In those who are not breastfeeding, fertility may return four weeks after delivery.[100]

text: Emergency[edit]

text: Emergency contraceptive methods are medications (sometimes misleadingly referred to as "morning-after pills")[102] or devices used after unprotected sexual intercourse with the hope of preventing pregnancy.[8] They work primarily by preventing ovulation or fertilization.[2][103] They are unlikely to affect implantation, but this has not been completely excluded.[103] A number of options exist, including high dose birth control pills, levonorgestrel, mifepristone, ulipristal and IUDs.[104][needs update] Levonorgestrel pills, when used within 3 days, decrease the chance of pregnancy after a single episode of unprotected sex or condom failure by 70% (resulting in a pregnancy rate of 2.2%).[8] Ulipristal, when used within 5 days, decreases the chance of pregnancy by about 85% (pregnancy rate 1.4%) and might be a little more effective than levonorgestrel.[8][104][105] Mifepristone is also more effective than levonorgestrel, while copper IUDs are the most effective method.[104] IUDs can be inserted up to five days after intercourse and prevent about 99% of pregnancies after an episode of unprotected sex (pregnancy rate of 0.1 to 0.2%).[2][106] This makes them the most effective form of emergency contraceptive.[107] In those who are overweight or obese, levonorgestrel is less effective and an IUD or ulipristal is recommended.[108]

text: Providing emergency contraceptive pills to women in advance does not affect rates of sexually transmitted infections, condom use, pregnancy rates, or sexual risk-taking behavior.[109][110] All methods have minimal side effects.[104]

text: Dual protection[edit]

text: Dual protection is the use of methods that prevent both sexually transmitted infections and pregnancy.[111] This can be with condoms either alone or along with another birth control method or by the avoidance of penetrative sex.[112][113]

text: If pregnancy is a high concern, using two methods at the same time is reasonable.[112] For example, two forms of birth control are recommended in those taking the anti-acne drug isotretinoin or anti-epileptic drugs like carbamazepine, due to the high risk of birth defects if taken during pregnancy.[114][115]

text: Effects[edit]

text: Health[edit]

text: Contraceptive use in developing countries is estimated to have decreased the number of maternal deaths by 40% (about 270,000 deaths prevented in 2008) and could prevent 70% of deaths if the full demand for birth control were met.[17][18] These benefits are achieved by reducing the number of unplanned pregnancies that subsequently result in unsafe abortions and by preventing pregnancies in those at high risk.[17]

text: Birth control also improves child survival in the developing world by lengthening the time between pregnancies.[17] In this population, outcomes are worse when a mother gets pregnant within eighteen months of a previous delivery.[17][117] Delaying another pregnancy after a miscarriage however does not appear to alter risk and women are advised to attempt pregnancy in this situation whenever they are ready.[117]

text: Teenage pregnancies, especially among younger teens, are at greater risk of adverse outcomes including early birth, low birth weight, and death of the infant.[12] In the United States 82% of pregnancies in those between 15 and 19 are unplanned.[68] Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control are effective in decreasing pregnancy rates in this age group.[118]

text: Finances[edit]

text: 7–8 Children   6–7 Children   5–6 Children   4–5 Children     3–4 Children   2–3 Children   1–2 Children   0–1 Children

text: In the developing world, birth control increases economic growth due to there being fewer dependent children and thus more women participating in or increased contribution to the workforce.[19] Women's earnings, assets, body mass index, and their children's schooling and body mass index all improve with greater access to birth control.[19] Family planning, via the use of modern birth control, is one of the most cost-effective health interventions.[119] For every dollar spent, the United Nations estimates that two to six dollars are saved.[16] These cost savings are related to preventing unplanned pregnancies and decreasing the spread of sexually transmitted illnesses.[119] While all methods are beneficial financially, the use of copper IUDs resulted in the greatest savings.[119]

text: The total medical cost for a pregnancy, delivery and care of a newborn in the United States is on average $21,000 for a vaginal delivery and $31,000 for a caesarean delivery as of 2012.[120] In most other countries, the cost is less than half.[120] For a child born in 2011, an average US family will spend $235,000 over 17 years to raise them.[121]

text: Prevalence[edit]

text: 6%   12%   18%   24%     36%   48%   60%   60%     66%   78%   86%   No data

text: Globally, as of 2009, approximately 60% of those who are married and able to have children use birth control.[122] How frequently different methods are used varies widely between countries.[122] The most common method in the developed world is condoms and oral contraceptives, while in Africa it is oral contraceptives and in Latin America and Asia it is sterilization.[122] In the developing world overall, 35% of birth control is via female sterilization, 30% is via IUDs, 12% is via oral contraceptives, 11% is via condoms, and 4% is via male sterilization.[122]

text: While less used in the developed countries than the developing world, the number of women using IUDs as of 2007 was more than 180 million.[62] Avoiding sex when fertile is used by about 3.6% of women of childbearing age, with usage as high as 20% in areas of South America.[123] As of 2005, 12% of couples are using a male form of birth control (either condoms or a vasectomy) with higher rates in the developed world.[124] Usage of male forms of birth control has decreased between 1985 and 2009.[122] Contraceptive use among women in Sub-Saharan Africa has risen from about 5% in 1991 to about 30% in 2006.[125]

text: As of 2012, 57% of women of childbearing age want to avoid pregnancy (867 of 1,520 million).[126] About 222 million women however were not able to access birth control, 53 million of whom were in sub-Saharan Africa and 97 million of whom were in Asia.[126] This results in 54 million unplanned pregnancies and nearly 80,000 maternal deaths a year.[122] Part of the reason that many women are without birth control is that many countries limit access due to religious or political reasons,[2] while another contributor is poverty.[127] Due to restrictive abortion laws in Sub-Saharan Africa, many women turn to unlicensed abortion providers for unintended pregnancy, resulting in about 2–4% obtaining unsafe abortions each year.[127]

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: The Egyptian Ebers Papyrus from 1550 BC and the Kahun Papyrus from 1850 BC have within them some of the earliest documented descriptions of birth control: the use of honey, acacia leaves and lint to be placed in the vagina to block sperm.[128][129] It is believed that in Ancient Greece silphium was used as birth control which, due to its effectiveness and thus desirability, was harvested into extinction.[130]

text: In medieval Europe, any effort to halt pregnancy was deemed immoral by the Catholic Church,[128] although it is believed that women of the time still used a number of birth control measures, such as coitus interruptus and inserting lily root and rue into the vagina.[131] Women in the Middle Ages were also encouraged to tie weasel testicles around their thighs during sex to prevent pregnancy.[132] The oldest condoms discovered to date were recovered in the ruins of Dudley Castle in England, and are dated back to 1640.[132] They were made of animal gut, and were most likely used to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases during the English Civil War.[132] Casanova, living in 18th century Italy, described the use of a lambskin covering to prevent pregnancy; however, condoms only became widely available in the 20th century.[128]

text: Birth control movement[edit]

text: The birth control movement developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[133] The Malthusian League, based on the ideas of Thomas Malthus, was established in 1877 in the United Kingdom to educate the public about the importance of family planning and to advocate for getting rid of penalties for promoting birth control.[134] It was founded during the "Knowlton trial" of Annie Besant and Charles Bradlaugh, who were prosecuted for publishing on various methods of birth control.[135]

text: In the United States, Margaret Sanger and Otto Bobsein popularized the phrase "birth control" in 1914.[136][137] Sanger primarily advocated for birth control on the idea that it would prevent women from seeking unsafe abortions, but during her lifetime, she began to campaign for it on the grounds that it would reduce mental and physical defects.[138][139] She was mainly active in the United States but had gained an international reputation by the 1930s. At the time, under the Comstock Law, distribution of birth control information was illegal. She jumped bail in 1914 after her arrest for distributing birth control information and left the United States for the United Kingdom.[140] In the U.K., Sanger, influenced by Havelock Ellis, further developed her arguments for birth control. She believed women needed to enjoy sex without fearing a pregnancy. During her time abroad, Sanger also saw a more flexible diaphragm in a Dutch clinic, which she thought was a better form of contraceptive.[139] Once Sanger returned to the United States, she established a short-lived birth-control clinic with the help of her sister, Ethel Bryne, based in the Brownville section of Brooklyn, New York[141] in 1916. It was shut down after eleven days and resulted in her arrest.[142] The publicity surrounding the arrest, trial, and appeal sparked birth control activism across the United States.[143] Besides her sister, Sanger was helped in the movement by her first husband, William Sanger, who distributed copies of “Family Limitation.” Sanger’s second husband, James Noah H. Slee, would also later become involved in the movement, acting as its main funder.[139]

text: The first permanent birth-control clinic was established in Britain in 1921 by Marie Stopes working with the Malthusian League.[144] The clinic, run by midwives and supported by visiting doctors,[145] offered women's birth-control advice and taught them the use of a cervical cap. Her clinic made contraception acceptable during the 1920s by presenting it in scientific terms. In 1921, Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, which later became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.[146] In 1924 the Society for the Provision of Birth Control Clinics was founded to campaign for municipal clinics; this led to the opening of a second clinic in Greengate, Salford in 1926.[147] Throughout the 1920s, Stopes and other feminist pioneers, including Dora Russell and Stella Browne, played a major role in breaking down taboos about sex. In April 1930 the Birth Control Conference assembled 700 delegates and was successful in bringing birth control and abortion into the political sphere – three months later, the Ministry of Health, in the United Kingdom, allowed local authorities to give birth-control advice in welfare centres.[148]

text: The National Birth Control Association was founded in Britain in 1931, and became the Family Planning Association eight years later. The Association amalgamated several British birth control-focused groups into 'a central organisation' for administering and overseeing birth control in Britain. The group incorporated the Birth Control Investigation Committee, a collective of physicians and scientists that was founded to investigate scientific and medical aspects of contraception with 'neutrality and impartiality'.[149] Subsequently, the Association effected a series of 'pure' and 'applied' product and safety standards that manufacturers must meet to ensure their contraceptives could be prescribed as part of the Association's standard two-part-technique combining ‘a rubber appliance to protect the mouth of the womb’ with a ‘chemical preparation capable of destroying... sperm’.[150] Between 1931 and 1959, the Association founded and funded a series of tests to assess chemical efficacy and safety and rubber quality.[151] These tests became the basis for the Association's Approved List of contraceptives, which was launched in 1937, and went on to become an annual publication that the expanding network of FPA clinics relied upon as a means to 'establish facts [about contraceptives] and to publish these facts as a basis on which a sound public and scientific opinion can be built'.[152]

text: In 1936 the U.S. court ruled in U.S. v. One Package that medically prescribing contraception to save a person's life or well-being was not illegal under the Comstock Law; following this decision, the American Medical Association Committee on Contraception revoked its 1936 statement condemning birth control. A national survey in 1937 showed 71 percent of the adult population supported the use of contraception. By 1938 347 birth control clinics were running in the United States despite their advertisement still being illegal. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt publicly supported birth control and family planning.[153] In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson started endorsing public funding for family planning services, and the Federal Government began subsidizing birth control services for low-income families.[154] The Affordable Care Act, passed into law on March 23, 2010 under President Barack Obama, requires all plans in the Health Insurance Marketplace to cover contraceptive methods. These include barrier methods, hormonal methods, implanted devices, emergency contraceptives, and sterilization procedures.[155]

text: Modern methods[edit]

text: In 1909, Richard Richter developed the first intrauterine device made from silkworm gut, which was further developed and marketed in Germany by Ernst Gräfenberg in the late 1920s.[156] In 1951, a chemist, named Carl Djerassi from Mexico City made the hormones in progesterone pills using Mexican yams.[157] Djerassi had chemically created the pill but was not equipped to distribute it to patients. Meanwhile, Gregory Pincus and John Rock with help from the Planned Parenthood Federation of America developed the first birth control pills in the 1950s, such as mestranol/noretynodrel, which became publicly available in the 1960s through the Food and Drug Administration under the name Enovid.[146][158] Medical abortion became an alternative to surgical abortion with the availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and mifepristone in the 1980s.[159]

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: Legal positions[edit]

text: Human rights agreements require most governments to provide family planning and contraceptive information and services. These include the requirement to create a national plan for family planning services, remove laws that limit access to family planning, ensure that a wide variety of safe and effective birth control methods are available including emergency contraceptives, make sure there are appropriately trained healthcare providers and facilities at an affordable price, and create a process to review the programs implemented. If governments fail to do the above it may put them in breach of binding international treaty obligations.[160]

text: In the United States, the 1965 Supreme Court decision Griswold v. Connecticut overturned a state law prohibiting dissemination of contraception information based on a constitutional right to privacy for marital relationships. In 1971, Eisenstadt v. Baird extended this right to privacy to single people.[161]

text: In 2010, the United Nations launched the Every Woman Every Child movement to assess the progress toward meeting women's contraceptive needs. The initiative has set a goal of increasing the number of users of modern birth control by 120 million women in the world's 69 poorest countries by the year 2020. Additionally, they aim to eradicate discrimination against girls and young women who seek contraceptives.[162] The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommended in 2014 that oral birth control pills should be over the counter medications.[163]

text: Since at least the 1870s, American religious, medical, legislative, and legal commentators have debated contraception laws. Ana Garner and Angela Michel have found that in these discussions men often attach reproductive rights to moral and political matters, as part of an ongoing attempt to regulate human bodies. In press coverage between 1873–2013 they found a divide between institutional ideology and real-life experiences of women.[164]

text: Religious views[edit]

text: Religions vary widely in their views of the ethics of birth control.[165] The Roman Catholic Church officially only accepts natural family planning,[166] although large numbers of Catholics in developed countries accept and use modern methods of birth control.[167][168][169] Among Protestants, there is a wide range of views from supporting none, such as in the Quiverfull movement, to allowing all methods of birth control.[170] Views in Judaism range from the stricter Orthodox sect, which prohibits all methods of birth control, to the more relaxed Reform sect, which allows most.[171] Hindus may use both natural and modern contraceptives.[172] A common Buddhist view is that preventing conception is acceptable, while intervening after conception has occurred is not.[173] In Islam, contraceptives are allowed if they do not threaten health, although their use is discouraged by some.[174]

text: World Contraception Day[edit]

text: September 26 is World Contraception Day, devoted to raising awareness and improving education about sexual and reproductive health, with a vision of a world where every pregnancy is wanted.[175] It is supported by a group of governments and international NGOs, including the Office of Population Affairs, the Asian Pacific Council on Contraception, Centro Latinamericano Salud y Mujer, the European Society of Contraception and Reproductive Health, the German Foundation for World Population, the International Federation of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, International Planned Parenthood Federation, the Marie Stopes International, Population Services International, the Population Council, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and Women Deliver.[175]

text: Misconceptions[edit]

text: There are a number of common misconceptions regarding sex and pregnancy.[176] Douching after sexual intercourse is not an effective form of birth control.[177] Additionally, it is associated with a number of health problems and thus is not recommended.[178] Women can become pregnant the first time they have sexual intercourse[179] and in any sexual position.[180] It is possible, although not very likely, to become pregnant during menstruation.[181]

text: Research directions[edit]

text: Females[edit]

text: Improvements of existing birth control methods are needed, as around half of those who get pregnant unintentionally are using birth control at the time.[27] A number of alterations of existing contraceptive methods are being studied, including a better female condom, an improved diaphragm, a patch containing only progestin, and a vaginal ring containing long-acting progesterone.[182] This vaginal ring appears to be effective for three or four months and is currently available in some areas of the world.[182] For women who rarely have sex, the taking of the hormonal birth control levonorgestrel around the time of sex looks promising.[183]

text: A number of methods to perform sterilization via the cervix are being studied. One involves putting quinacrine in the uterus which causes scarring and infertility. While the procedure is inexpensive and does not require surgical skills, there are concerns regarding long-term side effects.[184] Another substance, polidocanol, which functions in the same manner is being looked at.[182] A device called Essure, which expands when placed in the fallopian tubes and blocks them, was approved in the United States in 2002.[184]

text: Males[edit]

text: Methods of male birth control include condoms, vasectomies and withdrawal.[185][186] Between 25 and 75% of males who are sexually active would use hormonal birth control if it was available for them.[124][185] A number of hormonal and non-hormonal methods are in trials,[124] and there is some research looking at the possibility of contraceptive vaccines.[187]

text: A reversible surgical method under investigation is reversible inhibition of sperm under guidance (RISUG) which consists of injecting a polymer gel, styrene maleic anhydride in dimethyl sulfoxide, into the vas deferens. An injection with sodium bicarbonate washes out the substance and restores fertility. Another is an intravas device which involves putting a urethane plug into the vas deferens to block it. A combination of an androgen and a progestin seems promising, as do selective androgen receptor modulators.[124] Ultrasound and methods to heat the testicles have undergone preliminary studies.[188]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Neutering or spaying, which involves removing some of the reproductive organs, is often carried out as a method of birth control in household pets. Many animal shelters require these procedures as part of adoption agreements.[189] In large animals the surgery is known as castration.[190]

text: Birth control is also being considered as an alternative to hunting as a means of controlling overpopulation in wild animals.[191] Contraceptive vaccines have been found to be effective in a number of different animal populations.[192][193] Kenyan goat herders fix a skirt, called an olor, to male goats to prevent them from impregnating female goats.[194]


document_title: Fastest animals

question_text: what is the fastest an ostrich can run

question_tokens: what is the fastest an ostrich can run

text: Fastest animals

text: Fastest organism[edit]

text: The fastest land animal is the cheetah, which has a recorded speed of 109.4–120.7 km/h (68.0–75.0 mph).[1] The peregrine falcon is the fastest bird and the fastest member of the animal kingdom with a diving speed of 389 km/h (242 mph).[2] The fastest animal in the sea is the black marlin, which has a recorded speed of 129 km/h (80 mph).[3]

text: While comparing between various classes of animals, a different unit is used, body length per second for organisms. The fastest organism on earth, relative to body length, is the South Californian mite Paratarsotomus macropalpis, which has a speed of 322 body lengths per second.[4] The equivalent speed for a human running as fast as this mite would be 1,300 mph (2,092 km/h).[5] This is far in excess of the previous record holder, the Australian tiger beetle, Cicindela eburneola, the fastest insect in the world relative to body size, which has been recorded at 1.86 metres per second (6.7 km/h; 4.2 mph) or 171 body lengths per second.[6] The cheetah, the fastest land mammal, scores at only 16 body lengths per second [4] while Anna's hummingbird has the highest known length-specific velocity attained by any vertebrate

text:
List of animals by speed

Rank
Animal
Maximum speed
Class
Notes

1
Peregrine falcon
389 km/h (242 mph)[2][7]
Flight
The peregrine falcon is the fastest aerial animal, fastest animal in flight, fastest bird, and the overall fastest member of the animal kingdom. The peregrine achieves its highest velocity not in horizontal level flight, but during its characteristic hunting stoop. While stooping, the peregrine falcon soars to a great height, then dives steeply at speeds of over 200 mph (320 km/h).[2]

2
Golden eagle
240–320 km/h (150–200 mph)
Flight

3
White-throated needletail swift
169 km/h (105 mph)[8][9][10]
Flight

4
Eurasian hobby
160 km/h (100 mph)[11]
Flight
Can sometimes outfly the swift

5
Frigatebird
153 km/h (95 mph)[12]
Flight
The frigatebird's high speed is helped by its having the largest wing-area-to-body-weight ratio of any bird.

6
Rock dove (pigeon)
148.9 km/h (92.5 mph)[13]
Flight
Pigeons have been clocked flying 92.5 mph (148.9 km/h) average speed on a 400-mile (640 km) race.

7
Spur-winged goose
142 km/h (88 mph)[14]
Flight

8
Black marlin
129 km/h (80 mph)[3]
Swimming
A hooked black marlin has been recorded stripping line off a fishing reel at 120 feet per second (82 mph; 132 km/h).[3]

9
Gyrfalcon
128 km/h (80 mph)
Flight

10
Grey-headed albatross
127 km/h (79 mph)[15][16][note 1]
Flight

11
Cheetah
109.4–120.7 km/h (68.0–75.0 mph)[a]
Land
Fastest land-animal, fastest feline, the cheetah can accelerate from 0 to 96.6 km/h (60.0 mph) in under three seconds, though endurance is limited.[1]

12
Sailfish
109.19 km/h (67.85 mph)
Flight-swimming

13
Anna's hummingbird
98.27 km/h (61.06 mph)[22]
Flight

14[note 2]
Swordfish
97 km/h (60 mph)[23]
Swimming

15
Pronghorn
7001245833333333333♠88.5 km/h (55.0 mph)[b]
Land

16
Springbok
7001244444444444444♠88 km/h (55 mph)[28][29]
Land

17[note 3]
Blue wildebeest
7001223611111111111♠80.5 km/h (50.0 mph)[c]
Land

18[note 3]
Lion
7001223611111111111♠80.5 km/h (50.0 mph)[33]
Land

19
Blackbuck

7001222222222222222♠80 km/h (50 mph)[28][34]

Land

text: Birds[edit]

text:
Animal
Maximum recorded speed
Notes

Peregrine falcon
389 km/h (242 mph)[2][7]
The peregrine falcon is the fastest bird, and the fastest member of the animal kingdom. When in its hunting dive, the stoop, it soars to a great height, then dives steeply at speeds of over 200 mph (320 km/h). However, it does not hold first place when travelling in level flight.

Golden eagle

240–320 km/h (150–200 mph)

In full stoop, a golden eagle can reach spectacular speeds of up to 240 to 320 kilometers per hour (150 to 200 mph) when diving after prey. Although less agile and maneuverable, the golden eagle is apparently quite the equal and possibly even the superior of the peregrine falcon’s stooping and gliding speeds.

White-throated needletail
169 km/h (105 mph)[8][9][10]
The fastest-flying bird in flapping flight.

Eurasian hobby
160 km/h (100 mph)[11]
It can sometimes even outfly birds such as the swift when hunting.

Frigatebird
153 km/h (95 mph)[12]
The frigatebird's high speed is helped by its having the largest wing-area-to-body-weight ratio of any bird.

Rock dove (pigeon)
148.9 km/h (92.5 mph)[13]
Pigeons have been clocked flying 92.5 mph (148.9 km/h) average speed on a 400-mile (640 km) race.

Spur-winged goose
142 km/h (88 mph)[14]

Red-breasted merganser
129 km/h (80 mph)[35]

Gyrfalcon
128 km/h (80 mph)

Grey-headed albatross
127 km/h (79 mph)[15][16][note 4]

Anna's hummingbird
98.27 km/h (61.06 mph)[22]
The stated speed equals 276 body lengths per second, the highest known length-specific velocity attained by any vertebrate.

Ostrich
96.6 km/h (60 mph)[36]
The ostrich is the tallest and heaviest species of all living birds. Although its bulky body means that flying is out of the question, the ostrich has adapted to life on the ground with impressive agility. Ostriches are superb runners that can sprint at speeds of up to 45 mph (72 km/h)[37] on average, with a peak 60 mph (96.6 km/h) during short periods, with 12-foot (3.7 m) strides. This also makes the ostrich the fastest animal on two legs. The ostrich is also an endurance runner and can jog at 30 mph (48 km/h) for as long as half an hour.

text:
Jump up ^ Sustained ground speed for approximately nine hours with no rest on high tailwinds during an Antarctic storm.
Jump up ^ Swordfish and ostrich have approximately equal average recorded speeds.
^ Jump up to: a b The average recorded speeds of both blue wildebeest and lion are approximately equal.
Jump up ^ Sustained ground speed for approximately nine hours with no rest on high tailwinds during an Antarctic storm.

tag: ol

text: Reptiles[edit]

text:
Animal
Maximum recorded speed
Notes

Central bearded dragon
40 km/h (25 mph)[38]

Green Iguana
35 km/h (22 mph)[39]
Green Iguanas are the largest lizards to dwell in trees, and can move faster than the fastest snake can move along the ground.

Leatherback sea turtle
35.28 km/h (21.92 mph)[40]
Leatherback turtles have the most hydrodynamic body design of any sea turtle, with a large, teardrop-shaped body.

Black mamba
23 km/h (14 mph)[41]

Komodo dragon
21 km/h (13 mph)[42]
Komodo dragons are also speedy reptiles. They can run briefly up to 13 mph (21 km/h) but prefer to hunt by stealth.[42]

text: Fish[edit]

text:
Animal
Maximum recorded speed
Notes

Black marlin
129 km/h (80 mph)[3]
A hooked black marlin has been recorded stripping line off a fishing reel at 120 feet per second (82 mph; 132 km/h).[3]

Sailfish
109.19 km/h (67.85 mph)[43]
In a series of tests carried out in a fishing cam at Long Key, Florida, United States, sailfish swam and leapt 91 meters (300 feet) in 3 seconds, equivalent to a speed of 109 km/h (68 mph), although this speed includes leaps out of the water, which do not strictly qualify as swimming speed.[44]

Swordfish
97 km/h (60 mph)[23]
The 60 mph (97 km/h) figure listed for the swordfish is based on a corrupted version of calculations made by Sir James Gray to estimate the impact speed necessary for a hypothetical 600-pound (270 kg) swordfish to embed its sword 3 feet in the timbers of ships, as has been known to occur; the figure seems to have entered the literature without question as though someone had actually timed a swordfish at that speed.[45]

Yellowfin tuna
76 km/h (47 mph)[46]
Many tuna species are capable of swimming at fast speeds colloquially cited at around 80 km/h (50 mph). The tails of tuna move fast enough to cause cavitation, which slows them down as vapour accumulates.[47] Tuna have bony fins without nerve endings, which prevents the fish from feeling the pain of cavitation but does not fully protect them from the implosive damage.

Shortfin mako shark
72 km/h (45 mph)[48]
Underwater and unimpeded by a fishing line, the Shortfin Mako has been reliably clocked at 31 miles (50 kilometres) per hour, and there is a claim that one individual of this species achieved a burst speed of 46 miles (74 kilometres) per hour. But it is extremely difficult to get a fish in the wild to swim in a straight line over a measured course. Laboratory measurements of numerous kinds of fishes — representing a wide range of body sizes — swimming against an artificial current have revealed a surprisingly uniform maximum burst speed of about 10 times the body length per second. Thus, for an average-sized, 6.5-foot (2-metre) Shortfin, its theoretical maximum speed might be something on the order of 45 miles (72 kilometres) per hour. Yet some estimates of the top-speed of a Shortfin Mako are considerably higher.[49]

text: Mammals[edit]

text:
Animal
Maximum speed
Notes

Mexican free-tailed bat
(in flight)
7001444444444444444♠160 km/h (99 mph)[50]

Cheetah
109.4–120.7 km/h (68.0–75.0 mph)[d]
The cheetah can accelerate from 0 to 96.6 km/h (60.0 mph) in under three seconds, though endurance is limited: most cheetahs run for only 60 seconds at a time.[1] When sprinting, cheetahs spend more time in the air than on the ground.[51] See Sarah, the fastest cheetah.

Pronghorn
7001245833333333333♠88.5 km/h (55.0 mph)[e]
The pronghorn (American antelope) is the fastest animal over long distances; it can run 56 km/h for 6 km (35 mph for 4 mi), 67 km/h for 1.6 km (42 mph for 1 mi), and 88.5 km/h for 0.8 km (55 mph for 0.5 mi).[1]

Springbok
7001244444444444444♠88 km/h (55 mph)[28][29]
The springbok, an antelope of the gazelle tribe in southern Africa,[29] can make long jumps and sharp turns while running. Unlike pronghorns, springboks are poor long-distance runners.[1]

Wildebeest
7001223611111111111♠80.5 km/h (50.0 mph)[f]
The wildebeest, an antelope, exists as two species: the blue wildebeest and the black wildebeest. Both are extremely fast runners, which allows them to flee from predators.[32] They are better at endurance running than at sprinting.[31]

Lion
80.5 km/h (50.0 mph)[33]
The lion (Panthera leo) It is the second fastest wild cat with a top running speed of 80.5 km/h though it lasts only for very short bursts and can be highly exhausting, hence they have to be close to their prey before starting the attack.[33]

Blackbuck
7001222222222222222♠80 km/h (50 mph)[28][34]
The blackbuck antelope can sustain speeds of 80 km/h (50 mph) for over 1.5 km (0.93 mi) at a time.[34] Each of its strides (i.e., the distance between its hoofprints) is 5.8–6.7 m (19–22 ft).[28]

Hare
7001223520000000000♠80 km/h (50 mph)
Hares can reach maximum speeds of 35 mph (56 km/h)[52] in short distances of approximately 90 meters, and a top speed of 50 mph (80 km/h) for about 20 meters.

Greyhound
7001205555555555555♠74 km/h (46 mph)[g]
Greyhounds are the fastest dogs, and have primarily been bred for coursing game and racing.

Jackrabbit
7001200000000000000♠72 km/h (45 mph)[h]
The jackrabbit's strong hind legs allow it to leap 3 m (9.8 ft) in one bound; some can even reach 6 m (20 ft).[63] Jackrabbits use a combination of leaps and zig-zags to outrun predators.[56]

African wild dog
7001197222222222222♠71 km/h (44 mph)[i]
When hunting, African wild dogs can sprint at 66 km/h (41 mph) in bursts, and they can maintain speeds of 56–60 km/h (35–37 mph) for up to 4.8 km (3 mi).[67][68] Their targeted prey rarely escapes.[65]

Kangaroo
7001197222222222222♠71 km/h (44 mph)[j]
The comfortable hopping speed for a kangaroo is about 21–26 km/h (13–16 mph), but speeds of up to 71 km/h (44 mph) can be attained over short distances, while it can sustain a speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) for nearly 2 km (1.2 mi).[70] The faster a kangaroo hops, the less energy it consumes (up to its cruising speed).[69]

Horse
7001196555555555555♠70.76 km/h (43.97 mph)[71]
The fastest horse speed was achieved by a thoroughbred.

Onager
7001194444444444444♠70 km/h (43 mph)[k]
The onager consists of several subspecies, which most likely share the same ability to run at high speeds.[74]

Thomson's gazelle
7001194444444444444♠70 km/h (43 mph)[l]
Thomson's gazelles, being long-distance runners, can escape cheetahs by sheer endurance.[76] Their speed is partially due to their "stotting", or bounding leaps.[75]

Coyote
7001180555555555555♠65 km/h (40 mph)[m]
Coyotes can easily reach 48 km/h (30 mph), and can sprint at 65 km/h (40 mph) when hunting.[78] Even when lacking a front foot, a coyote can still run at around 32 km/h (20 mph).[77]

Common dolphin
7001180555555555555♠65 km/h (40 mph)[n]
Common dolphins are the fastest marine mammal. When reaching their top speed, they take very short breaths. As an example, fin whales, which are much larger, can empty and refill their lungs in 2 seconds

Zebra
7001177777777777777♠64 km/h (40 mph)[o]
Zebras have a home range anywhere between 11 and 232 sq mi (28 and 601 km2) and they can travel 10 mi (16 km) a day while grazing.[83]

Tiger
7001177777777777777♠64 km/h (40 mph)[p]
They live in jungles, and have been recorded going anywhere from 30 mph (48 km/h) to 40 mph (64 km/h), although only in short bursts.

Hyena
7001166666666666666♠60 km/h (37 mph)[q]
The hyena can run up to 60 km/h (37 mph); some attribute this performance specifically to the spotted hyena.[87] They use their speed to chase their prey, sometimes traveling 15 mi (24 km) in a single chase.

Human
Instantaneous max. 7001132100320000000♠47.56 km/h (29.55 mph)
Avg max over fastest 10 to 20m was 45 kmh/28 mph[88] Compared to other land animals, humans are exceptionally capable of endurance, but exceptionally incapable of great speed.

*Usain Bolt set the 100 m world record at 9.58 seconds. His absolute fastest recorded speeds (between individual strides) during that sprint were 13.2 meters/second (29.55 mph / 47.52 km/h) between strides during the 50m to 70m intervals. Average overall maximum speeds over this 20m section of the race (where max speed is reached during approx. the middle) to 75m were 44–45 km/h (28 mph) before tapering from 75m onwards.[89]

Hicham El Guerrouj set the current men's mile run (5,280 feet/1,609.344 metres) world record of 3:43.13.
Svetlana Masterkova set the current women's mile run (5,280 feet/1,609.344 metres) world record of 4:12.56.[90]

In the absence of significant external factors, non-athletic humans tend to walk at about 1.4 m/s (5.0 km/h; 3.1 mph) and run at about 5.1 m/s (18 km/h; 11 mph).[91][92][93] Although humans are capable of walking at speeds from nearly 0 m/s to upwards of 2.5 m/s (9.0 km/h; 5.6 mph) and running 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) in 6.5 minutes, humans typically choose to use only a small range within these speeds.[94]

African elephant
7000692912000000000♠24.9 km/h (15.5 mph)[95]

text: Invertebrates[edit]

text:
Animal
Maximum recorded speed
Notes

Horsefly
145 km/h (90 mph)[96][unreliable source?]
The pursuit maneuver used by male Hybomitra hinei wrighti, measured by interpolation of slow-motion cinematography.

Members of Loliginidae and Ommastrephidae
36 km/h (22 mph)
Many of these species "fly" out of the water to escape danger. The Japanese flying squid can glide for 3 seconds over 30 metres.

Paratarsotomus macropalpis
~22 cm/s or 800 m/h
(8.7 in/s or 0.51 mph)
0.7 mm long mite endemic to Southern California, tracked running up to 322 body lengths per second, equivalent to a human running at around 2,092 km/h (1,300 mph). It can withstand temperatures of 60 °C (140 °F), which are lethal to many animals.[5][97]

Tiger beetle
6.8 km/h (4.2 mph)[6]
The Australian tiger beetle Cicindela eburneola, is one of the fastest running insects in the world relative to body size, which has been recorded at 6.8 km/h (4.2 mph) or 171 body lengths per second. It can fly at a speed of 27 mph


document_title: Chuck steak

question_text: where does the bread and butter roast come from

text: Chuck steak

text: Variations[edit]

text: Other boneless chuck cuts include the chuck eye (boneless cuts from the center of the roll, sold as mock tender steak or chuck tender steak), chuck fillet (sold as chuck eye steak and chuck tender steak,) cross-rib roast (sold as cross-rib pot roast, English roast, or "the bread and butter cut"), top blade steak or chicken steak, under blade steak, shoulder steak and shoulder roast, and arm steak and arm roast.

text: The average meat market cuts thick and thin chuck steaks (often sold as chuck steak or chuck steak family pack) from the neck and shoulder, but some markets also cut it from the center of the cross-rib portion. Short ribs are cut from the lip of the roll.

text: Some meat markets will sell cross-rib pot roast under the generic name "pot roast." The difference between a pot roast and a cross-rib pot roast is the vertical line of fat separating the two types of chuck meat; the cross-rib pot roast contains the line of fat. This is what creates richness of flavor in the roast.

text: Common uses[edit]

text: The chuck contains a lot of connective tissue, including collagen, which partially melts during cooking. Meat from the chuck is usually used for stewing, slow cooking, braising, or pot roasting.

text: Classification[edit]

text: In the United States, chuck has the meat-cutting classification NAMP 113.


document_title: Fez (That '70s Show)

question_text: what does fes stand for that 70s show

question_tokens: what does fes stand for that 70s show

text: Fez (That '70s Show)

text: Origins[edit]

text: Fez was born on August 4, 1960. His real name is deemed unpronounceable by his friends, so they call him "Fez" (short for Foreign Exchange Student). The series' official web site explains the spelling "Fez" (as opposed to "Fes") as "poetic license".[2][3] Red usually calls him "the foreign kid", or by a random foreign (or Native American) name through various backgrounds (e.g., Hadji, Tonto, Anwar, Sabu, Muhammad Ali, Ali Baba, Pelé, Ahmad, Tutankhamun, etc.), which Fez does not mind, with one exception: he hates being called Tarzan because Tarzan is a white man. Eric's grandmother calls him "Desi".

text: A flashback episode shows when Fez first meets the others. They rescue him from a janitor's closet where several bullies have hung him on a coat hook. The bullies had asked him if he wanted to hang out; he tells the group he "shouldn't have said yes". Moments later, he states his real name, which is drowned out by a long, ringing school bell (what Valderrama was actually saying was the first names of the main actors who appear in the show), after which Hyde (hearing the name) says "OK... I'm not going to remember that." The only known fact about his name is, as he states in the episode "Killer Queen", the first five K's of his last name are silent. His name has no consonants, only vowels.

text: Valderrama has stated that he fabricated the accent he used on the show so that no one could identify which country his character is from, a mystery the show creators deliberately kept a secret.

text: Fez's host parents, Matthew (Kevin Farley) and Rebecca Erdman (Shannon Holt) appear only in one episode, "Drive In".

text: Fez's homeland[edit]

text: Fez's secret country of origin is one of the longest running gags on the show.[4] Through all eight seasons, Fez's nationality remains a mystery, even to his closest friends, and the continual hints and clues Fez drops about his country only leave them more confused. In the episode "Eric's Birthday," Kitty, fantasizing about Eric's friends causing trouble, imagines Fez saying, "in my home country of...wherever it is I'm from; I can never tell..." Much is revealed in the episode "Love of My Life," where one of Fez's compatriots (played by Justin Long) comes for a visit. In the first teaser, when his friend suggests that he goes home, he says "Yes, I will go to Brazil...and then catch a flight home." In the final teaser, when Hyde finally asks them, "Where the hell are you guys from?", his friend says that the name depends on whether you ask the British or the Dutch. But the British won't say it, Fez explains, because they hate the island, and no one understands a word the Dutch say. The friend has a heavy English accent; Fez's explanation to this is that his friend is from the west side of the island.

text: Fez is often assumed to be of Hispanic or Latino descent; it is never revealed if this is so, though earlier episodes, such as "Sunday, Bloody Sunday," imply he can speak Spanish. In "Eric's Burger Job," during a job interview at Fatso Burger, Fez claims he can speak Dutch. In "The Immigrant Song," Fez retells his catch phrase ("I said good day!") in his native tongue, which sounds like gibberish.

text: Personality[edit]

text: Initially burdened by cultural barriers, Fez is fascinated by American life and thinks the knowledge he gains from America makes him superior to other people from his island. In an early episode, he suggests he would one day return to his home country "and rule with an iron fist." Fez is openly regarded as weird by his friends. He exhibits a creepy side, which manifests itself in Fez spying on Kelso and Eric when they are making out with their girlfriends (with Kelso even allowing him to do so). More than once he is caught hiding in Donna's closet. He frequently complains about being lonely and love-starved.

text: Later on, Fez develops metrosexual habits, appreciating stylish clothes and at times appearing vain and narcissistic about his looks. He shares an antagonistic relationship with his landlord Fenton (played by Jim Rash) because of a previous dispute over what Fez described as "a pair of pants that made my butt look like an oil painting." Fez shows off his superior dancing skills in numerous episodes.


document_title: Big Mouth (TV series)

question_text: who does the voice of missy on big mouth

text: Big Mouth (TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Nick Kroll[2] as Nick Birch/Maurice the Hormone Monster/Coach Steve/Lola/Lady Liberty/Joe Walsh
John Mulaney[2] as Andrew Glouberman/Mint/Grandpa Andrew/Babe the Blue Ox
Jessi Klein[2] as Jessi Glaser
Jason Mantzoukas[2] as Jay Bilzerian/Socrates/Guy Bilzerian
Jenny Slate[2] as Missy
Fred Armisen[2] as Elliot Birch/Ghost of Antonin Scalia/Bus Driver/Stavros
Maya Rudolph[2] as Diane Birch/Connie the Hormone Monstress/Bath Mat/Ghost of Elizabeth Taylor/Ghost of Whitney Houston
Jordan Peele[2] as The Ghost of Duke Ellington/Freddie Mercury/Atlanta Claus/DJ/Cyrus/Patrick Ewing

text: Also starring[edit]

text:
Paula Pell as Barbara Glouberman
Richard Kind as Marty Glouberman
Andrew Rannells as Matthew
June Diane Raphael as Devin
Jak Knight as DeVon
Neil Casey
John Gemberling
Joe Wengert
Seth Morris as Greg Glaser
Emily Altman
Jessica Chaffin as Shannon Glaser
Rob Huebel as Mr. Lizer
Kat Dennings as Leah Birch
Jon Gabrus
Kristen Bell as Jay's pillow/uninterested girl
Jess Harnell as Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson
Mark Rivers
Heather Lawless
Chelsea Peretti as Monica
Mark Duplass as Val Bilzerian/Clerk
Paul Scheer as Kurt Bilzerian
Nathan Fillion as himself
Anna Graves
Kristen Wiig as Jessi's genitalia
Nasim Pedrad as Fatima
Carlos Alazraqui as Gustavo
Alia Shawkat as Roland
Mae Whitman as Tallulah Levine
Zach Woods as Daniel
Jon Hamm as Scallops
Jack McBrayer as Nick's pubic hair #1
Craig Robinson as Nick's pubic hair #2
Jon Daly as Judd Birch
Rosa Salazar
Michaela Watkins
Gil Ozeri
Ashley London

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

1
1
"Ejaculation"
Joel Moser
Nick Kroll & Andrew Goldberg & Jennifer Flackett & Mark Levin
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

As Andrew falls under the spell of the randy Hormone Monster, his buddy Nick becomes obsessed with the lack of changes in his own body. The gang go to the school dance.

2
2
"Everybody Bleeds"
Bryan Francis
Kelly Galuska
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

A field trip goes from awkward to mortifying as Jessi is pressured into being Nick's girlfriend, then gets her first period -- inside the Statue of Liberty.

3
3
"Am I Gay?"
Mike L. Mayfield
Joe Wengert
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

A trailer for a new movie starring The Rock leaves Andrew questioning his sexuality. Jessi and Nick's budding romance turns ugly fast.

4
4
"Sleepover: A Harrowing Ordeal of Emotional Brutality"
Joel Moser
Jess Dweck & Victor Quinaz
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

While the boys head to Jay's for a testosterone-fueled sleepover, Jessi throws a party of her own and gets caught up in mean-girl drama.

5
5
"Girls Are Horny Too"
Bryan Francis
Emily Altman
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

A steamy novel making the rounds at school inspires Jessi to explore her own sexuality -- and leaves the boys totally confused about what girls want.

6
6
"Pillow Talk"
Mike L. Mayfield
Peter A. Knight
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

Nick drags Andrew into the city to visit an old camp crush, but the day doesn't go as planned. Jay embarks on an emotional journey with his pillow.

7
7
"Requiem for A Wet Dream"
Joel Moser
Duffy Boudreau
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

Andrew struggles to keep the Hormone Monster in check as he works with Missy on a science fair project. Jessi and Matthew have fun at Jay's expense.

8
8
"The Head Push"
Bryan Francis
Emily Altman & Jennifer Flackett & Mark Levin
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

When Leah hosts a party for the high school drama crowd, Nick wrestles with a romantic dilemma, and Andrew and Missy witness a disturbing scene.

9
9
"I Survived Jessi's Bat Mitzvah"
Mike L. Mayfield
Kelly Galuska
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

Family blowups, secret liaisons and an unflattering dress make Jessi's bat mitzvah a night to remember.

10
10
"The Pornscape"
Joel Moser
Gil Ozeri
September 29, 2017 (2017-09-29)

Andrew tries to drown his sorrows in a sea of porn, only to become hopelessly addicted. Coach Steve becomes a suspect in a murder spree.

text: Season 2[edit]

text: On October 24, 2017, Netflix announced it has renewed Big Mouth for a second season set to be released in 2018.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Big Mouth has received critical acclaim since its official release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the show has a 100% approval rating based on 12 reviews, with the critical consensus "Big Mouth's simplistic animation and scatalogical humor belie its finely sketched characters and smart, empathetic approach to the messiness of adolescence."[4] At Metacritic, the show currently holds a rating of 80, indicating generally favorable reviews.[5] Vox described the show as sharp, and as jarringly depicting the awkwardness of pubescence, postpubescence and prepubescence.[6]