document_title: Pentagon Papers

question_text: when did the post print the pentagon papers

question_tokens: when did the post print the pentagon papers

text: Pentagon Papers

text: Contents[edit]

text: Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara created the Vietnam Study Task Force on June 17, 1967, for the purpose of writing an "encyclopedic history of the Vietnam War".[7] McNamara claimed that he wanted to leave a written record for historians, to prevent policy errors in future administrations.[8] McNamara neglected to inform either President Lyndon Johnson or Secretary of State Dean Rusk about the study.[7] One report claimed that McNamara planned to give the work to his friend Robert F. Kennedy, who sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968.[9][10] McNamara later denied this, although he admitted that he should have informed Johnson and Rusk.[10]

text: Instead of using existing Defense Department historians, McNamara assigned his close aide and Assistant Secretary of Defense John T. McNaughton to collect the papers.[7] McNaughton died in a plane crash one month after work began in June 1967, but the project continued under the direction of Defense Department official Leslie H. Gelb.[7] Thirty-six analysts—half of them active-duty military officers, the rest academics and civilian federal employees—worked on the study.[7] The analysts largely used existing files in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. In order to keep the study secret from others, including National Security Advisor Walt W. Rostow, conducted no interviews or consultations with the armed forces, with the White House, or with other federal agencies.[9]

text: McNamara left the Defense Department in February 1968, and his successor Clark M. Clifford received the finished study on January 15, 1969, five days before Richard Nixon's inauguration, although Clifford claimed he never read it. The study consisted of 3,000 pages of historical analysis and 4,000 pages of original government documents in 47 volumes, and was classified as "Top Secret – Sensitive". ("Sensitive" is not an official security designation; it meant that access to the study should be controlled.) The task force published 15 copies; the think tank RAND Corporation received two of the copies from Gelb, Morton Halperin and Paul Warnke, with access granted if at least two of the three approved.[9]

text: Actual objective of the Vietnam War: Containment of China[edit]

text: Although President Lyndon B. Johnson stated that the aim of the Vietnam War was to secure an "independent, non-Communist South Vietnam", a January 1965 memorandum by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that an underlying justification was "not to help a friend, but to contain China".[11]

text: On November 3, 1965, McNamara sent a memorandum to President Johnson, in which he explained the "major policy decisions with respect to our course of action in Vietnam". The memorandum begins by disclosing the rationale behind the bombing of North Vietnam in February 1965:

text: The February decision to bomb North Vietnam and the July approval of Phase I deployments make sense only if they are in support of a long-run United States policy to contain China.[12]

text: McNamara accused China of harboring imperial aspirations like those of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. According to McNamara, the Chinese were conspiring to "organize all of Asia" against the United States:

text: China—like Germany in 1917, like Germany in the West and Japan in the East in the late 30's, and like the USSR in 1947—looms as a major power threatening to undercut our importance and effectiveness in the world and, more remotely but more menacingly, to organize all of Asia against us.[12]

text: To encircle the Chinese, the United States aimed to establish "three fronts" as part of a "long-run effort to contain China":

text: There are three fronts to a long-run effort to contain China (realizing that the USSR “contains” China on the north and northwest):

text: (a) the Japan–Korea front;

text: (b) the India–Pakistan front; and

text: (c) the Southeast Asia front.[12]

text: However, McNamara admitted that the containment of China would ultimately sacrifice a significant amount of America's time, money and lives.[12]

text: Internal affairs of Vietnam[edit]

text:
Timeline

1950 (1950): The United States provided large-scale military equipment to the French in its fight against the communist Viet Minh[13]
1954 (1954): The United States began to engage in "acts of sabotage and terror warfare" in the defense of South Vietnam against communist North Vietnam[13]
1955 (1955): The United States encouraged and directly assisted South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm's rise to power[14]
1963 (1963): The United States encouraged and directly assisted the overthrow of the South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm[13]
August 2, 1964 (1964-08-02): Following the Gulf of Tonkin incident, the United States manipulated public opinion in its preparation for open warfare against a communist takeover of South Vietnam [13]

text: Years before the 2 August 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred, the U.S. government was indirectly or directly involved in Vietnam's affairs:

text:
Under President Harry S. Truman, the U.S. government aided France in its war against the communist-led Viet Minh during the First Indochina War.[13]
Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the U.S. government played a "direct role in the ultimate breakdown of the Geneva settlement" in 1954 by supporting the fledgling South Vietnam and covertly undermining the communist country of North Vietnam.[13]
Under President John F. Kennedy, the U.S. government transformed its policy towards Vietnam from a limited "gamble" to a broad "commitment".[13]
Under President Lyndon B. Johnson, the U.S. government began waging covert military operations against communist North Vietnam in defense of South Vietnam.[13]

tag: ul

text: Role of the United States in the rise of President Diem[edit]

text: In a section of the Pentagon Papers titled "Kennedy Commitments and Programs," America's commitment to South Vietnam was attributed to the creation of the country by the United States. As acknowledged by the papers:

text: "We must note that South Vietnam (unlike any of the other countries in Southeast Asia) was essentially the creation of the United States.[14]

text: In a sub-section titled "Special American Commitment to Vietnam", the papers emphasized once again the role played by the United States:

text:
"Without U.S. support [Ngo Dinh] Diem almost certainly could not have consolidated his hold on the South during 1955 and 1956."
"Without the threat of U.S. intervention, South Vietnam could not have refused to even discuss the elections called for in 1956 under the Geneva settlement without being immediately overrun by the Viet Minh armies."
"Without U.S. aid in the years following, the Diem regime certainly, and an independent South Vietnam almost as certainly, could not have survived".[14]

text: More specifically, the United States sent US$28.4 million worth of equipment and supplies to help the Diem regime strengthen its army. In addition, 32,000 men from South Vietnam's Civil Guard were trained by the United States at a cost of US$12.7 million. It was hoped that Diem's regime, after receiving a significant amount of U.S. assistance, would be able to withstand the Viet Cong.[14]

text: The papers identified General Edward Lansdale, who served in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and worked for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), as a "key figure" in the establishment of Ngo Dinh Diem as the President of South Vietnam, and the backing of Diem's regime thereafter. As written by Lansdale in a 1961 memorandum: "We (the U.S.) must support Ngo Dinh Diem until another strong executive can replace him legally."[14]

text: Role of the United States in the overthrow of Diem's regime[edit]

text: According to the Pentagon Papers, the U.S. government played a key role in the 1963 South Vietnamese coup, in which President Ngo Dinh Diem was assassinated. While maintaining "clandestine contact" with Vietnamese generals planning a coup, the U.S. cut off its aid to President Diem and openly supported a successor government in what the authors called an "essentially leaderless Vietnam":

text: "For the military coup d'etat against Ngo Dinh Diem, the U.S. must accept its full share of responsibility. Beginning in August 1963 we variously authorized, sanctioned and encouraged the coup efforts of the Vietnamese generals and offered full support for a successor government.

text: In October we cut off aid to Diem in a direct rebuff, giving a green light to the generals. We maintained clandestine contact with them throughout the planning and execution of the coup and sought to review their operational plans and proposed new government.

text: Thus, as the nine-year rule of Diem came to a bloody end, our complicity in his overthrow heightened our responsibilities and our commitment in an essentially leaderless Vietnam."[15]

text: As early as 23 August 1963, an unnamed U.S. representative had met with Vietnamese generals planning a coup against President Diem.[15] According to The New York Times, this U.S. representative was later identified to be CIA agent Lucien Conein.[16]

text: Proposed operations[edit]

text: The Director of Central Intelligence, John A. McCone, proposed the following categories of military action:

text:
Category 1 – Air raids on major Viet Cong supply centers, conducted simultaneously by South Vietnam's air force and the United States Air Force (codenamed Farmgate)[17]
Category 2 – Cross-border raids on major Viet Cong supply centers, conducted by South Vietnamese units and US military advisors.[17]
Category 3 – Limited air strikes on North Vietnamese targets by unmarked planes flown exclusively by non-US aircrews.[17]

text: However, McCone did not believe these military actions alone could lead to an escalation of the situation because the "fear of escalation would probably restrain the Communists".[17] In a memorandum addressed to President Johnson on July 28, 1964, McCone explained:

text: In response to the first or second categories of action, local Communist military forces in the areas of actual attack would react vigorously, but we believe that none of the Communist powers involved would respond with major military moves designed to change the nature of the conflict...

text: Air strikes on North Vietnam itself (Category 3) would evoke sharper Communist reactions than air strikes confined to targets in Laos, but even in this case fear of escalation would probably restrain the Communists from a major military response..."[17]

text: Barely a month after the Gulf of Tonkin incident on August 2, 1964, National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy warned that further provocations should not be undertaken until October, when the government of South Vietnam (GVN) would become fully prepared for a full-scale war against North Vietnam. In a memorandum addressed to President Johnson on September 8, 1964, Bundy wrote:

text: The main further question is the extent to which we should add elements to the above actions that would tend deliberately to provoke a DRV reaction, and consequent retaliation by us.

text: Examples of actions to be considered were running US naval patrols increasingly close to the North Vietnamese coast and/or [sic] associating them with 34A operations.

text: We believe such deliberately provocative elements should not be added in the immediate future while the GVN is still struggling to its feet. By early October, however, we may recommend such actions depending on GVN progress and Communist reaction in the meantime, especially to US naval patrols."[18]

text: While maritime operations played a key role in the provocation of North Vietnam, U.S. military officials had initially proposed to fly a Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over the country, but this was to be replaced by other plans.[11]

text: Leak[edit]

text: Daniel Ellsberg knew the leaders of the task force well. He had worked as an aide to McNaughton from 1964 to 1965, had worked on the study for several months in 1967, and Gelb and Halperin approved his access to the work at RAND in 1969.[9] Now opposing the war, Ellsberg and his friend Anthony Russo[19] photocopied the study in October 1969 intending to disclose it. Ellsberg approached Nixon's National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, Senators William Fulbright and George McGovern, and others, but none were interested.[9]

text: In February 1971, Ellsberg discussed the study with The New York Times reporter Neil Sheehan, and gave 43 of the volumes to him in March. Before publication, The New York Times sought legal advice. The paper's regular outside counsel, Lord Day & Lord, advised against publication,[9] but in-house counsel James Goodale prevailed with his argument that the press had a First Amendment right to publish information significant to the people's understanding of their government's policy.

text: The New York Times began publishing excerpts on June 13, 1971; the first article in the series was titled "Vietnam Archive: Pentagon Study Traces Three Decades of Growing US Involvement". The study was dubbed The Pentagon Papers during the resulting media publicity.[9][20] Street protests, political controversy, and lawsuits followed.

text: To ensure the possibility of public debate about the papers' content, on June 29, US Senator Mike Gravel, an Alaska Democrat, entered 4,100 pages of the papers into the record of his Subcommittee on Public Buildings and Grounds. These portions of the papers, which were edited for Gravel by Howard Zinn and Noam Chomsky, were subsequently published by Beacon Press, the publishing arm of the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations.[21] A federal grand jury was subsequently empaneled to investigate possible violations of federal law in the release of the report. Leonard Rodberg, a Gravel aide, was subpoenaed to testify about his role in obtaining and arranging for publication of the Pentagon Papers. Gravel asked the court (in Gravel v. United States) to quash the subpoena on the basis of the Speech or Debate Clause in Article I, Section 6 of the United States Constitution.

text: That clause provides that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, [a Senator or Representative] shall not be questioned in any other Place", meaning that Gravel could not be prosecuted for anything said on the Senate floor, and, by extension, for anything entered to the Congressional Record, allowing the papers to be publicly read without threat of a treason trial and conviction. When Gravel's request was reviewed by the U.S. Supreme Court, the Court denied the request to extend this protection to Gravel or his legislative aide, Leonard Rodberg, because the grand jury subpoena served on them related to a third party rather than any act they themselves committed for the preparation of materials later entered into the Congressional Record. Nevertheless, the grand jury investigation was halted, and the publication of the papers was never prosecuted.

text: Later, Ellsberg said the documents "demonstrated unconstitutional behavior by a succession of presidents, the violation of their oath and the violation of the oath of every one of their subordinates."[22] He added that he leaked the Papers to end what he perceived to be "a wrongful war."[22]

text: The Nixon administration's restraint of the media[edit]

text: President Nixon at first planned to do nothing about publication of the study since it embarrassed the Johnson and Kennedy administrations rather than his. But Henry Kissinger convinced the president that not opposing the publication set a negative precedent for future secrets.[9] The administration argued Ellsberg and Russo were guilty of a felony under the Espionage Act of 1917, because they had no authority to publish classified documents.[23] After failing to persuade the Times to voluntarily cease publication on June 14,[9] Attorney General John N. Mitchell and Nixon obtained a federal court injunction forcing the Times to cease publication after three articles.[9] Times publisher Arthur Ochs Sulzberger said:

text: Newspapers, as our editorial said this morning, were really [(sic), possibly "revealing"] a part of history that should have been made available, considerably longer ago. I just didn't feel there was any breach of national security, in the sense that we were giving secrets to the enemy.[24]

text: The newspaper appealed the injunction, and the case New York Times Co. v. United States (403 U.S. 713) quickly rose through the U.S. legal system to the Supreme Court.[25]

text: On June 18, 1971, The Washington Post began publishing its own series of articles based upon the Pentagon Papers;[9] Ellsberg had given portions to the Post reporter Ben Bagdikian. Bagdikian brought the information to editor Ben Bradlee. That day, Assistant U.S. Attorney General William Rehnquist asked the Post to cease publication. After the paper refused, Rehnquist sought an injunction in U.S. district court. Judge Murray Gurfein declined to issue such an injunction, writing that "[t]he security of the Nation is not at the ramparts alone. Security also lies in the value of our free institutions. A cantankerous press, an obstinate press, a ubiquitous press must be suffered by those in authority to preserve the even greater values of freedom of expression and the right of the people to know."[26] The government appealed that decision, and on June 26 the Supreme Court agreed to hear it jointly with the New York Times case.[25] Fifteen other newspapers received copies of the study and began publishing it.[9]

text: The Supreme Court allows further publication[edit]

text: On June 30, 1971, the Supreme Court decided, 6–3, that the government failed to meet the heavy burden of proof required for prior restraint injunction. The nine justices wrote nine opinions disagreeing on significant, substantive matters.

text: Only a free and unrestrained press can effectively expose deception in government. And paramount among the responsibilities of a free press is the duty to prevent any part of the government from deceiving the people and sending them off to distant lands to die of foreign fevers and foreign shot and shell.

text: Thomas Tedford and Dale Herbeck summarized the reaction of editors and journalists at the time:

text: As the press rooms of the Times and the Post began to hum to the lifting of the censorship order, the journalists of America pondered with grave concern the fact that for fifteen days the 'free press' of the nation had been prevented from publishing an important document and for their troubles had been given an inconclusive and uninspiring 'burden-of-proof' decision by a sharply divided Supreme Court. There was relief, but no great rejoicing, in the editorial offices of America's publishers and broadcasters.

text: Legal charges against Ellsberg[edit]

text: Ellsberg surrendered to authorities in Boston, and admitted that he had given the papers to the press: "I felt that as an American citizen, as a responsible citizen, I could no longer cooperate in concealing this information from the American public. I did this clearly at my own jeopardy and I am prepared to answer to all the consequences of this decision".[29] He was indicted by a grand jury in Los Angeles on charges of stealing and holding secret documents.[29] Federal District Judge William Matthew Byrne, Jr. declared a mistrial and dismissed all charges against Ellsberg and Russo on May 11, 1973, after it was revealed that: agents acting on the orders of the Nixon administration illegally broke into the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist and attempted to steal files; representatives of the Nixon administration approached the Ellsberg trial judge with an offer of the job of FBI directorship; several irregularities appeared in the government's case including its claim that it had lost records of illegal wiretapping against Ellsberg conducted by the White House Plumbers in the contemporaneous Watergate scandal. Byrne ruled: "The totality of the circumstances of this case which I have only briefly sketched offend a sense of justice. The bizarre events have incurably infected the prosecution of this case." Ellsberg and Russo were freed due to the mistrial; they were not acquitted of violating the Espionage Act.[9]

text: In March 1972, political scientist Samuel L. Popkin, then assistant professor of Government at Harvard University, was jailed for a week for his refusal to answer questions before a grand jury investigating the Pentagon Papers case, during a hearing before the Boston Federal District Court. The Faculty Council later passed a resolution condemning the government's interrogation of scholars on the grounds that "an unlimited right of grand juries to ask any question and to expose a witness to citations for contempt could easily threaten scholarly research".[30]

text: Gelb estimated that the Times only published about 5% of the study's 7,000 pages. The Beacon Press edition was also incomplete. Halperin, who had originally classified the study as secret, obtained most of the unpublished portions under the Freedom of Information Act and the University of Texas published them in 1983. The National Security Archive published the remaining portions in 2002. The study itself remained formally classified until 2011.[9]

text: Impact[edit]

text: The Papers revealed that the United States had expanded its war with the bombing of Cambodia and Laos, coastal raids on North Vietnam, and Marine Corps attacks, none of which had been reported by the American media.[4] The most damaging revelations in the papers revealed that four administrations (Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson), had misled the public regarding their intentions. For example, the Eisenhower administration actively worked against the Geneva Accords. The John F. Kennedy administration knew of plans to overthrow South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem before his death in a November 1963 coup. President Johnson had decided to expand the war while promising "we seek no wider war" during his 1964 presidential campaign,[9] including plans to bomb North Vietnam well before the 1964 Election. President Johnson had been outspoken against doing so during the election and claimed that his opponent Barry Goldwater was the one that wanted to bomb North Vietnam.[29]

text: In another example, a memo from the Defense Department under the Johnson Administration listed the reasons for American persistence:

text:
"70% – To avoid a humiliating U.S. defeat (to our reputation as a guarantor).
20% – To keep [South Vietnam] (and the adjacent) territory from Chinese hands.
10% – To permit the people [of South Vietnam] to enjoy a better, freer way of life.
ALSO – To emerge from the crisis without unacceptable taint from methods used.
NOT – To help a friend, although it would be hard to stay in if asked out."[9][31]

text: Another controversy was that President Johnson sent combat troops to Vietnam by July 17, 1965, before pretending to consult his advisors on July 21–27, per the cable stating that "Deputy Secretary of Defense Cyrus Vance informs McNamara that President had approved 34 Battalion Plan and will try to push through reserve call-up."[32] In 1988, when that cable was declassified, it revealed "there was a continuing uncertainty as to [Johnson's] final decision, which would have to await Secretary McNamara's recommendation and the views of Congressional leaders, particularly the views of Senator [Richard] Russell."[33]

text: Nixon's Solicitor General Erwin N. Griswold later called the Papers an example of "massive overclassification" with "no trace of a threat to the national security." The Papers' publication had little or no effect on the ongoing war because they dealt with documents written years before publication.[9]

text: After the release of the Pentagon Papers, Goldwater said:

text: During the campaign, President Johnson kept reiterating that he would never send American boys to fight in Vietnam. As I say, he knew at the time that American boys were going to be sent. In fact, I knew about ten days before the Republican Convention. You see I was being called trigger-happy, warmonger, bomb happy, and all the time Johnson was saying, he would never send American boys, I knew damn well he would.[34]

text: Senator Birch Bayh, who thought the publishing of the Pentagon Papers was justified, said:

text: The existence of these documents, and the fact that they said one thing and the people were led to believe something else, is a reason we have a credibility gap today, the reason people don't believe the government. This is the same thing that's been going on over the last two-and-a-half years of this administration. There is a difference between what the President says and what the government actually does, and I have confidence that they are going to make the right decision, if they have all the facts.[34]

text: Full release in 2011[edit]

text: On May 4, 2011 the National Archives and Records Administration announced that the papers would be declassified and released to the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California on June 13, 2011.[35][36] The release date included the Nixon, Kennedy, and Johnson Libraries and the Archives office in College Park, Maryland.[37]

text: The full release was coordinated by the Archives's National Declassification Center (NDC) as a special project to mark the anniversary of the report.[38] The NDC worked with the agencies having classification control over the material to prevent the redaction of the last 11 words of the Pentagon Papers that would not have been made available.[38] It is unknown which 11 words were at issue.[39]

text: The Archives released each volume of the Papers as a separate PDF file,[38] available on their website.[40]

text: In films and television[edit]

text: Films[edit]

text:
The Pentagon Papers (2003), directed by Rod Holcomb and Executive Produced by Joshua D. Maurer, is a historical film made for FX, in association with Paramount Television and City Entertainment, about the Pentagon Papers and Daniel Ellsberg's involvement in their publication. The film represents Ellsberg's life, beginning with his work for RAND Corp. and ending with the day on which his espionage trial was declared a mistrial by a federal court judge. The film starred James Spader, Paul Giamatti, Alan Arkin, and Claire Forlani.
The Most Dangerous Man in America: Daniel Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers (2009) is an Oscar nominated documentary film, directed by Judith Ehrlich and Rick Goldsmith, that follows Ellsberg and explores the events leading up to the publication of the Pentagon Papers.
"Daniel Ellsberg Secrets – Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers". Voices. UCSB Arts & Lectures. January 2003.  "In 1971 Defense Department analyst, former U.S. Marine company commander and anti-Communist Daniel Ellsberg leaked the Pentagon Papers to the media. In this talk, Ellsberg presents an explosive inside account of how and why he helped bring an end to the Vietnam War and Richard Nixon's presidency. He also talks about the current potential for war with Iraq and why he feels that would be a major mistake for the United States." Series: Voices [1/2003] [Public Affairs] [Humanities] [Show ID: 7033]"
The Post (2017) is a historical drama film directed and co-produced by Steven Spielberg from a script written by Liz Hannah and Josh Singer about a pair of Washington Post employees who battle the federal government over their right to publish the Pentagon Papers. The film stars Tom Hanks as Ben Bradlee and Meryl Streep as Katharine Graham. Daniel Ellsberg is played by Matthew Rhys.

text: Television[edit]

text: "The Pentagon Papers, Daniel Ellsberg and The Times". POV. PBS. October 5, 2010.  "On September 13, 2010, the New York Times Community Affairs Department and POV presented a panel discussion on the Pentagon Papers, Daniel Ellsberg, and the Times. The conversation, featuring Daniel Ellsberg, Max Frankel, former New York Times executive editor, and Adam Liptak, New York Times Supreme Court reporter, was moderated by Jill Abramson, managing editor of The New York Times" and former Washington bureau chief, marking the 35th anniversary of the Supreme Court ruling. Live podcast


document_title: Adrian R'Mante

question_text: esteban full name from zack and cody 2015

root

text: Adrian R'Mante

text:
Adrian R'ManteBorn
 (1978-02-03) February 3, 1978 (age 40)Tampa, Florida, United StatesOccupation
Actor, acting coachYears active
2000-present

tag: table

text: Adrian R'Mante (born February 3, 1978) is an American actor and acting coach best known for his role as Esteban Julió Ricardo Montoya de la Rosa Ramírez in the Disney Channel Original Series, The Suite Life of Zack & Cody.  He was born in Tampa, Florida, United States. He is married to Mayara Reina and they both have two children.

tag: p

text: R'Mante finished filming the thriller Underground that came out in Autumn 2010, and he also made a return to The Suite Life on Deck in January 2010 .

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Title
Role
Year
Notes

NCIS: Los Angeles
Diego Gonzalez
2015
episode: Black Wind

The Suite Life on Deck
Esteban Julio Ricardo Montoya de la Rosa Ramirez
2010
episode: Mother of the Groom

CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
Paramedic Rivera
2006-2009
4 episodes

The Suite Life of Zack & Cody
Esteban Julio Ricardo Montoya de la Rosa Ramirez
2005-2008
39 episodes

24
Omar
2007
episode: Day 6: 7:00 a.m.-8:00 a.m.

CSI: NY
Besim Lumani
2007
episode: The Deep

Alias
Diego
2005
episode: The Orphan

Summerland
Boyle
2004
2 episodes

JAG
Marine Lance Cpl. Frank Medina
2005
episode: Two Towns

Frasier
Servant
2003
episode: The Doctor Is Out

Graduation Night
Nam
2002

The Diplomat
Rome
2002
Short

Madison Heights
Eddie
2002
2 episodes

S1m0ne
Premiere Audience Member
2002

All or Nothing
Ice
2001

Battery Park
Paul
2000
2 episodes

The Huntress
Carlos
2000
episode: Bad Boys & Why We Love Them


document_title: Juke Box Hero

question_text: when did the song jukebox hero come out

question_tokens: when did the song jukebox hero come out

text: Juke Box Hero

text:
"Juke Box Hero"

Single by Foreigner

from the album 4

B-side
"I'm Gonna Win"

Released
January, 1982

Format
7"

Length
4:05 (Single version)
4:18 (Album version)

Label
Atlantic

Songwriter(s)
Lou Gramm, Mick Jones

Producer(s)
Robert John "Mutt" Lange

Foreigner singles chronology

"Waiting for a Girl Like You"
(1981)
"Juke Box Hero"
(1982)
"Break It Up"
(1982)

"Waiting for a Girl Like You"
(1981)
"Juke Box Hero"
(1982)
"Break It Up"
(1982)

Audio sample

file
help

text: "Juke Box Hero" is a song written by Lou Gramm and Mick Jones and performed by their band Foreigner, from their 1981 album 4. It first entered the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in July 1981. Released as the album's third single in early 1982, it subsequently went to #26 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.[1]

text: Although the physical 45 sold less than 500,000 copies, 'Juke Box Hero' has been certified platinum by the RIAA for over a million digital downloads.

text: The song focuses on a boy unable to purchase a ticket to a sold-out rock concert. Listening from outside, he hears "one guitar" and has an epiphany, leading him to buy a guitar and learn to play it. He realizes that with the guitar he has a chance to achieve musical stardom.

text: The song then goes on to describe the struggle he has to stay on top of the music charts, which makes him a "Juke Box Hero." He eventually encounters another fan outside the stage door at one of his concerts, who reminds him of himself and how it all began. Mick Jones told Songfacts that the song was inspired by an actual fan who stood waiting outside an arena for about five hours in the rain. Jones, impressed by his dedication, decided to take him in and give him a glimpse of what happens backstage at a show. On July 19th 2016 Lou said on the Brother Wease radio show in Rochester, that the song was about him waiting outside the Rochester War Memorial to see Jimi Hendrix but the show was sold out.[2]

text: The song was developed out of two separate song ideas that were combined with the help of producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange. One of the ideas was the "Juke Box Hero" portion that Jones had developed and the other was developed by Gramm and had been called "Take One Guitar."[3]

text: This song was also re-recorded live at a 2005 Las Vegas concert where it includes portions of the Led Zeppelin song "Whole Lotta Love" (from Led Zeppelin II), and released on Foreigner's Extended Versions album. A live version of "Juke Box Hero" was also released on the 2014 album Best of Foreigner 4 & More.[4][5]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The song appears as background music in at least three sport documentaries or videos: once in 2004 about American professional snowboarder and skateboarder Shaun White,[6] to differentiate Aaron Feinberg's part in MindGame's rollerblading video "Brain Fear Gone",[7] and lastly in the late Shane McConkey's "Claim" video.[8]

text: In addition, the song has been employed commercially. It appeared in a commercial for the product launch in late 2007 of the Samsung Juke cellphone.[9] It is a downloadable track for the video game Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock[10] and the music video game series Rock Band.[11] A mash-up based on the song is featured in DJ Hero, composed and performed by DJ Z-Trip.[12]

text: The song was used in a mashup with "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" in the 2012 film adaptation of the Broadway musical Rock of Ages.

text: The song was featured episode "The Dim Knight", an episode of the 2010 television series The Good Guys.[13]

text: The phrase Juke Box Hero is used by Grace Kelly in the 1956 film musical High Society, in reference to Bing Crosby's character.


document_title: The Vampire Diaries (season 4)

question_text: what episode of the vampire diaries does jeremy become a hunter

text: The Vampire Diaries (season 4)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Nina Dobrev as Elena Gilbert / Katherine Pierce / Silas
Paul Wesley as Stefan Salvatore / Silas
Ian Somerhalder as Damon Salvatore / Silas
Steven R. McQueen as Jeremy Gilbert / Silas
Kat Graham as Bonnie Bennett
Zach Roerig as Matt Donovan / Silas
Candice Accola as Caroline Forbes / Silas
Michael Trevino as Tyler Lockwood (possessed by Klaus; himself)
Joseph Morgan as Klaus Mikaelson / Silas

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Claire Holt as Rebekah Mikaelson / Silas
David Alpay as Professor Atticus Shane / Silas
Grace Phipps as April Young
Phoebe Tonkin as Hayley Marshall
Marguerite MacIntyre as Sheriff Elizabeth "Liz" Forbes / Silas
Todd Williams as Connor Jordan
Rick Worthy as Rudy Hopkins
Nathaniel Buzolic as Kol Mikaelson
Charlie Bewley as Galen Vaughn
Susan Walters as Carol Lockwood
Arielle Kebbel as Alexia "Lexi" Branson
Daniel Gillies as Elijah Mikaelson

text: Special guest[edit]

text: Jasmine Guy as Sheila Bennett / Silas

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Alyssa Diaz as Kimberly "Kim"
Matt Davis as Alaric Saltzman / Silas
Torrey DeVitto as Meredith Fell
Paul Telfer as Alexander
Scott Parks as Silas
Michael Reilly Burke as Pastor Young
Camille Guaty as Caitlin Shane / Silas
Cynthia Addai-Robinson as Aja
Blake Hood as Dean
Ser'Darius Blain as Chris
Madeline Zima as Charlotte
Adina Porter as Nandi LaMarche
Persia White as Abby Bennett Wilson
Charles Michael Davis as Marcellus "Marcel" Gerard
Daniella Pineda as Sophie Deveraux
Leah Pipes as Camille O'Connell
Callard Harris as Thierry Vanchure
Eka Darville as Diego
Malaya Rivera Drew as Jane-Anne Deveraux

text: Episodes[edit]

text: This section's plot summaries may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve them by removing unnecessary details and making them more concise. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeU.S. viewers(millions)671"Growing Pains"Chris GrismerCaroline DriesOctober 11, 2012 (2012-10-11)2J66513.18[3]
Picking up where the third season left off, Elena awakens and finds herself in transition to becoming a vampire. Damon insists she feeds on human blood as soon as possible while Stefan insists they try to find another way to keep Elena alive. Unbeknownst to the vampires, Pastor Young takes over the Founders Council, excommunicating Sheriff Forbes. He, along with a team of police officers, arrives at Caroline's house and kidnaps her and then Rebekah, but Klaus, still possessing Tyler's body, rescues Caroline, and purposely leaves Rebekah behind. It's revealed that she is taken to Pastor Young's farm. Thinking Tyler was dead, Caroline kisses "Tyler" but soon discovers Tyler is possessed by Klaus. Later Klaus, upon finding his body wasn't completely destroyed, forces Bonnie to tap into dark magic to make the body switch by threatening to kill Tyler. This results in the spirits punishing the ghost of Grams in front of Bonnie. By now, Stefan and Elena have been taken to Pastor Young's farm. Captured within the cages, Stefan realizes Elena is dying because she hasn't fed so, with Rebekah's help, he kills one of the guards and Elena is barely able to reach the blood in time. Meanwhile, Damon and Matt are outside of Pastor Young's farm to rescue them. After Matt lets them out, Damon tries to kill Matt (because Elena told Stefan to save Matt from the sunken car first, leading to Elena her new predicament). Elena stops him and they argue. During this argument she mentions to him that the memories he compelled her to forget are coming back. Meanwhile Klaus, now in his own body, is confronted by a hurt Rebekah, who destroys the bags of Elena's blood, making it impossible for Klaus to make more hybrids. Back at the Salvatore's house, Stefan gives Elena a daylight ring created by Bonnie. Pastor Young calls a meeting of the secret council on his farm and intentionally starts a gas leak in his kitchen and says "we are the beginning" before striking his lighter in the air and blowing everyone up.
682"Memorial"Rob HardyJose Molina & Julie PlecOctober 18, 2012 (2012-10-18)2J66522.91[4]
The Pastor's daughter, and old friend of the Gilberts, April Young, returns to town following her father's death. Meanwhile, a vampire hunter, Connor Jordon, is investigating the supernatural population of Mystic Falls under the ruse of investigating the explosion that killed the Council. Using gloves made of vervain, Connor discovers Tyler has vampire blood in him and immediately shoots him, but Tyler escapes while Connor is reloading. Jeremy meets Connor at the Mystic Grill and notices a tattoo only he can see. Despite Stefan's best efforts, Elena is having trouble keeping animal blood down, and turns to Damon for help. Insisting she needs blood from the vein, he allows Elena to drink from him; however, she is unable to keep down Damon's blood as well. At the memorial held for the victims of the explosion, Connor kidnaps, stabs, and brings April to the second floor of the church, trying to use her blood to draw out any vampires in the church. Matt allows Elena, who is losing control because of the blood, to feed on him inconspicuously. Since Tyler is a hybrid, he reveals himself and allows Connor to shoot him to protect his vampire friends, who escape during the panic started by the public shooting. When Elena and Caroline go to rescue April, Elena begins to lose control and tries to attack April. However, Caroline stops her, and Elena pulls it together enough to heal and compel April. Damon tries to fight Connor in the parking lot, but is overpowered. Stefan comes to his aid and Connor makes a run for it. However, Stefan is upset that Damon blood-shared with Elena and punches him. The episode ends with Connor finding a note written by the Pastor about a "greater evil," and Elena and her friends having a private memorial for everyone they have lost.
693"The Rager"Lance AndersonBrian YoungOctober 25, 2012 (2012-10-25)2J66532.87[5]
In the hospital, Connor breaks in and steals Tyler's werewolf venom. The gang returns to school, and Matt allows Elena to feed on him in their old make-out spot. On their way inside, they discover that a curfew has been put into effect due to the shooting at the church. Stefan tries to show Elena that being a vampire can be fun, but Rebekah also returns to school and begins to torment Elena by bringing up Alaric and tempting her with blood. Connor comes to the school and tells Jeremy that the reason he can see Connor's tattoo is because he is a potential hunter. Connor uses force to get Matt to confess who is feeding off him, but he lies and says it's Rebekah. Klaus returns to protect his hybrids from Connor, and takes residence in the Lockwood house. Hayley, a female werewolf who helped Tyler break Klaus' sire-bond, arrives, and Klaus suspects they had a less-than-platonic relationship in the Appalachia's. Meanwhile, Rebekah decides to throw an anti-curfew party at her house, and Elena and Stefan decide to attend. At the party, Rebekah steals Elena's ring and nearly destroys it. Elena, who had previously convinced Damon to give her the White Oak Stake, plans to stake Rebekah, but Stefan intervenes and convinces her to come with him to blow off steam (not before Elena makes a grand exit from the party by doing an unassisted keg stand). When Stefan and Elena return, she becomes sick due to the keg being spiked with werewolf venom. Meanwhile, Damon and Klaus, who have temporarily teamed up, trap Connor in the hospital storage room via rigged explosives. Connor attempts to stake Klaus, but Klaus disarms him. Upon seeing a familiar symbol on the stake, Klaus realizes Connor is one of The Five. When Connor triggers the explosives, Klaus saves him and holds him captive to pump him for information. Klaus, acting out of character, gives Elena his blood and heals her, saying he may have a use for her after all. At the end of the episode, April stays behind at Rebekah's, who is also recovering from the werewolf venom, to help clean up and befriends her.
704"The Five"Joshua ButlerBrett Matthews & Rebecca SonnenshineNovember 1, 2012 (2012-11-01)2J66543.27[6]
Klaus and Rebekah realize Connor is one of "The Five," a clan of legendary vampire hunters that existed 900 years before. Rebekah, who had fallen in love with their leader, Alexander, discovered they possessed an "Ultimate Weapon" against vampires, and that the key to finding it was using their swords to decode their tattoos (hunter's mark). However, Alexander discovered Rebekah was a vampire, and used a dagger on her and her brothers. Klaus, unaffected by the dagger, killed Alexander and his fellow hunters, and un-daggered his family. Meanwhile, Bonnie, Elena, and Damon head to Whitmore College, where they meet Professor Shane, who appears to be a believer in the supernatural, and takes a liking to Bonnie. At a party being thrown on campus, Damon teaches Elena how to feed properly. At the party, Elena becomes intoxicated by the blood and dances with Damon. However, she is snapped out of her trance by a scared Bonnie. Elena becomes scared she might become like Damon, much to his offense. Stefan learns the "Ultimate Weapon" of The Five is a possible cure for vampirism, and tricks Rebekah into revealing she buried Alexander with his sword. Klaus has Jeremy draw a picture of the tattoo, but finds it's incomplete, and that it only continues to form as long as Connor kills vampires. Meanwhile, Connor escapes Klaus by killing one of his hybrids, and leaves to find the one who sent him to Mystic Falls in the first place - Professor Shane. Klaus once again daggers Rebekah.
715"The Killer"Chris GrismerMichael NarducciNovember 8, 2012 (2012-11-08)2J66553.02[7]
After being told by Shane that the truth about his tattoo will be revealed, Connor returns to Mystic Falls, agreeing to kill humans if necessary. Stefan and Klaus team up once again to stop Connor, but Klaus leaves to find Alexander's sword. Connor takes Jeremy, Matt and April hostage. April who doesn't know of vampires yet, and so thinks Connor is delusional and is naturally scared of him. Stefan and Damon argue on the best course of action. Damon is knocked unconscious and the situation turns violent when one of Klaus's minions is sent to stand up to Connor. Meanwhile, Shane is trying to get Bonnie to get over her guilt via hypnosis, which at first appears not to work when he tries to get her to light a single candle, but when Bonnie opens her eyes she sees she lit every candle in the room. Jeremy tries to talk to Connor, who explains a friend of his was once turned into a vampire but he had to put that friend down, and then the tattoo began to appear. Elena breaks in and attacks Connor, but he is taken away by Stefan. Damon catches up to them and confronts Stefan on why he doesn't kill Connor and he explains Connor is the key to a cure. When Connor makes a run for it, the brothers witness him being killed by Elena, much to her guilt.
726"We All Go a Little Mad Sometimes"Wendey StanzlerEvan Bleiweiss & Julie PlecNovember 15, 2012 (2012-11-15)2J66562.84[8]
Elena is hallucinating about the death of Connor, which is slowly driving her mad. Klaus informs the Salvatore brothers that Elena needs to be locked away, because eventually she will try to kill herself. After stealing her away from the brothers, he explains that due to killing the original five hunters, he experienced the same thing and there is no cure. Meanwhile, Shane is hosting an exhibition at the school with Bonnie's help. Damon and Bonnie turn to him for answers. He tells them that Elena's hallucinations are due to a witch's curse and the only cure is for a potential hunter to make a first kill and pass along the last hunter's powers. Jeremy has discovered the beginnings of the mark on him. Stefan goes to break Elena out only to have her attack him and escape. She goes to the bridge where she died and the hunter, Katherine, and her mother convince her to take her own life. She drops her daylight ring into the water. Stefan sends Damon to bring her back. Klaus provides Jeremy with one of his hybrids to kill to complete his transition to a hunter and break the curse in return for a single date with Caroline. This causes tension between Caroline and Tyler, not just because of her having a date with Klaus but also because in Tyler's eyes "[Caroline] sacrificed one friend for another." He feels as if he's the only one in the group that considers the hybrids' safety. The curse is broken just as dawn comes, and Damon saves Elena by throwing them both in the river. He tells Elena that Stefan had been lying to them, but it was all for her. Stefan and Elena sit on the front steps and talk. Elena admits that as a vampire, her feelings for Damon have been magnified, and Stefan tells her he can't do this any more so they mutually decide to split up.
737"My Brother's Keeper"Jeffrey HuntCaroline Dries & Elisabeth R. FinchNovember 29, 2012 (2012-11-29)2J66572.86[9]
The Miss Mystic Falls pageant is back, and Elena and Caroline help April find something to wear. Meanwhile, Caroline calls Stefan and Stefan tells Caroline about Elena's feelings for Damon, which Caroline objects to. Klaus shows up shortly afterwards, questioning Stefan's trust in him. Damon and Stefan's relationship is even more strained, but they continue their search for the cure to vampirism for Elena's sake. Caroline and Elena are suspicious of Shane, who Damon decides to confront. Ever since awakening as a hunter, Jeremy has been having nightmares in which he kills Elena. Stefan uses criminals to create vampires for Jeremy to use to complete his tattoo. Hayley and Tyler work to break the sire bond of Klaus's hybrids. Caroline is stressed by a favor she owes Klaus- a date, which Klaus convinces Caroline to let him escort her to the Miss Mystic Pageant. Klaus manipulates her into feeling jealous of Hayley and Tyler's friendship, while also charming her. She asks if he ever wanted to be human again, and Klaus shares with her that he considered being human momentarily while looking at a hummingbird and contemplated the fragility of mortality and how struggling to stay alive would make every day you're living that much more meaningful. Caroline bonds with Klaus as Tyler jealously looks on with Hayley. Jeremy's hunter instinct- a hatred of vampires- develops to the point that he attacks Stefan. Damon asks why Shane showed up in Mystic Falls in the first place causing Shane to reveal that he is a vampire. Jeremy arrives at the pageant and attacks Elena, nearly killing her. She is rescued by Stefan and Matt. Stefan reveals to Elena he provided vampires for Jeremy to kill, to which she replies that she doesn't want her humanity back if it costs her brother his. Matt moves into her house and Elena decides to stay in the Salvatore House. Stefan then decides to leave, unable to stay in the same house as Elena. It is eventually revealed that Shane and Hayley are working together to break the sire bond with Klaus's hybrids. Later, Elena has a talk with Damon, which leads to a dance between the two and Passionate sex afterwards, all while Caroline and Stefan figure out that Elena is sired to Damon.
748"We'll Always Have Bourbon Street"Jesse WarnCharlie Charbonneau & Jose MolinaDecember 6, 2012 (2012-12-06)2J66582.42[10]
After Elena and Damon wake up and continue where they left off the night before, Stefan arrives to the Salvatore house and approaches Damon with the suspicion that Elena is sired to him. Stefan advises Damon to ask Elena to try and drink from a blood bag again and see if she can keep it down, since he believes the only reason she can only drink straight from the vein is because Damon told her to. He does and sees that she can now keep the blood down. Damon decides to help Stefan investigate the sire bond in New Orleans, Louisiana hoping to find a former flame of Damon's who was also sired to him. While the Salvatore brothers are out of town, Elena, Caroline and Bonnie share a girls night, but an argument quickly ensues when Caroline starts criticizing Damon. When Caroline gets angry at Elena's stubbornness and her obvious devotion to Damon, Elena reveals that she and Damon slept together, which leads to Caroline telling Elena that she is sired to Damon. Meanwhile, at Hayley's urging, Tyler confronts one of Klaus's hybrids, Kimberly, and the situation quickly escalates into violence when the hybrids start fighting over who takes the pack-leader role. Kimberly then captures Caroline to try and prove that she is the leader. Tyler and Elena save Caroline, causing the other hybrids (including Kimberly) to accept Tyler as their leader. While in New Orleans, a witch tells Damon that the only way to break a sire bond is by telling the sired vampire to forget they ever existed and move on with their life. The witch also reveals that a vampire only becomes sired to their maker when they have human feelings for their maker before they are turned. Damon knows he has to do the right thing with Elena and decides to tell her to move on. When he approaches Elena with this final instruction, Elena realizes that he wants to break things off and tries to convince him that her feelings are as real as she believes they are, and that the sire bond only affects the way she acts. Also in the episode, we find out that Professor Shane is teaching Bonnie a type of magic called "expression," which the witch in New Orleans called more evil than dark magic; that other witches don't even call it magic at all.
759"O Come, All Ye Faithful"Pascal VerschoorisMichael J. Cinquemani & Julie PlecDecember 13, 2012 (2012-12-13)2J66592.81[11]
A winter-themed party takes place in Mystic Falls, but amongst the celebration Caroline and Stefan argue with Tyler over what to do with Klaus and his hybrids. Stefan breaks into Klaus's house and attempts to steal Alexander the hunter's sword while Caroline once again plays "the distraction" to Klaus at the winter party. She comments on the piece of art Klaus donated for display, telling him honestly that it feels "lonely" to her. Meanwhile, Elena and Damon go to the Gilbert Lake House to help Jeremy face some dangerous inner demons with the help of Bonnie and Professor Shane, who shares that he knows where to find the cure to vampirism. When Hayley snaps Caroline's neck, to save her and Professor Shane's plan, April finds Caroline "Dead." April finds out about the supernatural things happening in Mystic Falls and that Rebekah is daggered in the Lockwood cellar. Finally, Klaus discovers Tyler's plan which leads to all 12 of the hybrids being killed and Klaus drowning Tyler's mother.
7610"After School Special"David Von AnckenBrett MatthewsJanuary 17, 2013 (2013-01-17)2J66602.95[12]
Following Carol's death, Bonnie's father steps in as the new mayor and shows concern about Bonnie. Meanwhile, Rebekah and April work together to get Elena to speak to Rebekah, trapping Elena in the library. Stefan is called to rescue Elena, and he calls Caroline for back up. Both are tricked and locked into the library with Elena, although Rebekah allows April to leave. Meanwhile Matt and Damon continue training Jeremy to expand the hunters mark. Klaus gets impatient and Damon shoots him several times for killing Carol. Regardless, Klaus offers to provide vampires for Jeremy to kill starting with a pizza delivery woman; who attacks them, forcing Jeremy to kill her. Bonnie talks to Shane, who gives her an amulet made from human bone. Kol soon shows up and abducts Shane, taking him to the school's library. Rebekah talks to them about the cure and, more personally, to Elena about her break up with Stefan and her feelings for Damon, in an effort to torment Stefan. Tyler gets a call from Rebekah to rescue his friends. Kol brings in Shane and torture him about the location of the cure, who tells him and Rebekah about Silas, and how he intends to release him, and how Silas will resurrect those who died on his behalf. Rebekah refuses to listen and Kol attempts to drown Shane, then impales him, but Bonnie manages to put a protection spell on Shane. April suffers from the spell due to a link between her and Shane. Tyler arrives and Rebekah orders him to turn. As Tyler begins to transform, he tells his friends to run for it. As they do, Stefan finds an unconscious April with Bonnie and manages to revive her, telling Bonnie to get her out. Rebekah walks up to Elena and Stefan and offers to erase Stefan's memories of Elena, but when he accepts, Rebekah goes back on her word; saying that Stefan's pain is her own revenge. At the end of the episode, April talks to the sheriff and the mayor, revealing that she knows about the supernatural and everyone's lies. Damon and Elena talk on the phone and Elena says that sire bond or not, she loves him . Damon being happy tells Elena to come to him. Rebekah comes to Stefan after he calls her and admits that she still wants the cure so she can use it on Klaus, they agree to work together. Klaus calls Jeremy, Matt, and Damon to a bar, full of people transforming into vampires.
7711"Catch Me If You Can"John DahlBrian Young & Michael NarducciJanuary 24, 2013 (2013-01-24)2J66612.71[13]
The episode begins at the bar, where Jeremy refuses to kill the new vampires. Klaus threatens to compel them to attack Matt in order to force Jeremy to kill them. Matt is injured and he and Jeremy run for it. They are attacked by the vampires before Elena's intervention. They make it back to the lake house. The next day Elena scolds Damon for using innocent people. They realize the vampires will return and Damon says Jeremy finishing the job will be necessary. Rebekah visits Stefan, telling him she has a plan; to steal Silas' headstone, forcing Shane to join forces with them. Sheriff Forbes arrives and arrests Shane. Damon and Jeremy head back to the bar and find the vampires have already been killed by Kol. Kol tells them that long ago he killed a cult that worshipped Silas, and how he can't allow Silas to awaken. Kol attempts to rip Jeremy's arm off but gets into a fight with Damon. Bonnie and her father talk to each other, and he tells her that Shane is the type of person who manipulates the weak minded. Shane talks to Bonnie in the interrogation room and he confesses to the mass murder that occurred over the season's course. Elena goes to Klaus, asking him to call off Kol's attack. She reminds him that they both want the cure, and Klaus calmly calls Kol off, warning him to stay away from Jeremy. Regardless, Kol tortures Damon and compels him into hunting Jeremy. In Shane's study, Rebekah and Stefan look for the headstone, and talk about their old relationship. Rebekah says they had fun, but they didn't care; so Rebekah tells him to stop caring. A man walks into Shane's study room but is cornered by Rebekah. Meanwhile, Bonnie calls Shane out for the mass murder, but Shane tells her that Silas will resurrect the murder victims. Bonnie refuses to listen before Shane reminds her of her grandmother, and that she can see her again. Afterwards, Shane tells Bonnie's father that she could be the most powerful witch on earth, or a time bomb. Soon, Damon goes to the bar where Matt works and Jeremy is there. Jeremy runs into an isolated room and Damon tells Elena Kol ordered him to kill Jeremy. Jeremy finds a hidden cave, Damon follows him, warning that he is out to get him and tells him to run away. In Shane's study, Rebekah tortures the man, only for him to spit out his tongue and kill himself. Elena calls Stefan, asking for his help, but he doesn't seem to listen. Damon corners Jeremy, who shoots him in the head, giving Jeremy a head start. Kol heads back into town and meets with Rebekah, who tries to dagger him, but Kol has the white ash dagger and is stopped by Klaus. Back at the chase, which is now in a forest, Elena tries to use her feelings to get Damon to ignore the compulsion. It doesn't work, but he stops when Stefan subdues him. He takes Damon back to the Salvatore house, where he locks Damon up. He says once Elena is cured and Damon is un-compelled, then they can do what they want. Elena shows up and Stefan says she can't see Damon. He tells Elena he doesn't love her, but she says he's just hurt. Bonnie has dinner with her father, who says he's getting her help. Stefan goes to see Rebekah asking about the headstone but she changes the subject; asking if he's over Elena. He says yes and engages Rebekah in sex. Klaus shows up at the Gilbert house, saying he intends to take Jeremy with him, insisting only he can protect Jeremy from Kol. They refuse, and Elena works on a plan to kill Kol.
7812"A View to a Kill"Brad TurnerRebecca SonnenshineJanuary 31, 2013 (2013-01-31)2J66622.56[14]
Stefan wakes up not really sure of where he is until he glances around. It becomes obvious to him that he spent the night with Rebekah. He quietly dresses and plans to leave without her knowing it, but when he opens the door to leave, Klaus is there. Klaus makes an offer to Rebekah to help him stop Kol and protect Jeremy and when she refuses he turns to Stefan for help. Mayor Hopkins' unconventional way of ending the violence sends his daughter further away from him, then she has an angry meeting with Kol followed by an unexpected visitor, Bonnie's mother. Klaus complicates matters between Damon and Stefan by revealing a bit of Stefan's personal life and then surprises Damon by asking for advice. Elena tells Stefan about her dangerous plan for Jeremy which leaves him in a difficult spot. When the 1980s decade dance is cancelled Stefan finds a charming way to make it up to Rebekah. Kol is finally staked by Jeremy at the end of the episode. Later, knowing about Elena's plan to kill his brother, Klaus wants to hurt her and Jeremy. Bonnie arrives and puts a spell on Klaus that will lock him in the Gilbert's living room until the next full moon. Stefan informs the others that he has not stabbed Rebekah and that she is on their side and can be trusted which leaves Elena furious. Finally after Jeremy killed Kol, his tattoo is now completed and everyone is ready to go search for the cure.
7913"Into the Wild"Michael AllowitzCaroline DriesFebruary 7, 2013 (2013-02-07)2J66632.50[15]
Shane leads an expedition to a desolate island off the coast of Nova Scotia, where he believes the secret of the cure lies hidden. On the trek to the island's interior, Rebekah and Elena continue their bitter rivalry, Stefan does his best to keep the peace, and Damon accuses Shane of leading them into a trap. Bonnie and Jeremy try to figure out the message of the Hunter's mark, while Shane reveals more of the legend of Silas and the witch Qetsiyah, along with his own personal history. Back in Mystic Falls, Tyler confronts Klaus, and Caroline is caught up in the violence that follows.
8014"Down the Rabbit Hole"Chris GrismerJose MolinaFebruary 14, 2013 (2013-02-14)2J66642.31[16]
Back in Mystic Falls, Caroline and Tyler find that their attempt to translate the code on the Hunter's Sword is futile without help from Klaus, who has his own reasons for solving the puzzle. On the island, Damon has an ugly run-in with a Hunter named Vaughn (guest star Charlie Bewley), and realizes he is one of The Five. Stefan confesses his true feelings about the possibility of becoming human again to Elena. When a stunning new piece of information about the cure is suddenly revealed (there's only enough for one person), it changes the stakes for everyone. Jeremy helps Bonnie recognize what is real and what is an illusion, and Shane is comforted by his deceased wife. Katherine makes an appearance and forces Jeremy to feed Silas in order get the cure that is fossilized with his body. Silas ends up draining Jeremy's body and breaks his neck, killing him.
8115"Stand by Me"Lance AndersonJulie PlecFebruary 21, 2013 (2013-02-21)2J66652.91[17]
After much denial, Elena realizes that Jeremy is truly dead. Bonnie agrees to help Shane by killing twelve more people to get the proper magic needed to break the veil between this realm and where all supernatural beings go when they die. If this veil is broken successfully, every supernatural being that has died will come back to life. Also, with the veil broken, Silas will no longer be trapped on the otherside when he dies, thus finally being able to be reunited with his true love. When Bonnie tells everyone about her plans, they all tell her it's a terrible idea. Caroline tries to reach Tyler but is unsuccessful. Matt has a hard time with Jeremy's death. Rebekah leaves Vaughn to die in a cave after he warns her that no one is safe from Silas. Damon makes Elena shut off her humanity because the pain of losing Jeremy is too much for her. After she flips the switch, Elena burns down the Gilbert house as a cover story for Jeremy's death. Disguised as Shane, Silas returns back to Mystic Falls with the group.
8216"Bring It On"Jesse WarnElisabeth R. Finch & Michael NarducciMarch 14, 2013 (2013-03-14)2J66662.41[18]
Elena's new outlook has everyone concerned, leading Stefan and Damon to agree that going back to the normal routine of high school would be the best thing for her. Caroline is pleasantly surprised when Elena decides to rejoin the cheerleading squad, but her pleasure turns to shock when Elena's behavior proves dangerous. Not giving up on their search for the cure, Damon and Rebekah work together until his unwanted advice catches her off-guard. Klaus tries to use Hayley to get the information he's after and makes an intriguing discovery in the process. Meanwhile, a bored Elena throws a wild party and gets into a big fight.
8317"Because the Night"Garreth StoverBrian Young & Charlie CharbonneauMarch 21, 2013 (2013-03-21)2J66672.65[19]
Realizing that Elena needs some time away from Mystic Falls, Damon takes her to New York City, where he lived and partied in the 1970s. Damon is also looking for Katherine to get the cure. Damon thinks that Elena is oblivious to that fact, but she is actually trying to get to the cure as well. When Rebekah also shows up in New York, she's impressed with Elena's secret agenda of getting the cure. Flashbacks reveal Damon's hedonistic life in the underground club scene and a complicated encounter with Lexi, where Lexi tried to get Damon to flip the switch like she did with Stefan before. Damon also briefs Elena with his experience with Lexi in New York and tries to convince her to flip the switch as well. Meanwhile Caroline and Stefan try to convince Klaus that it would be in his own best interest to help them track down Silas. They team up and try to figure out Silas's next move. They find out that the last massacre has to be involved with witches. Silas is still trying to convince Bonnie to do the last massacre. Bonnie is hesitant, but Silas reminds her that when the third massacre is performed, all supernatural creatures that died come back to life. So Bonnie decides to perform the massacre. Stefan, Klaus and Caroline look for the location and find it. The twelve witches try to save Bonnie from the use of dark magic, but they find out Silas has control of her. So they try to kill her with a knife, but Caroline takes the knife and stabs the witch who is connected with eleven other witches. All twelve witches die, completing the massacre and Bonnie faints. While in New York, Elena attempts to take away a paper Damon found to track down Katherine. She tries to grab it while seducing him, but Damon catches her by revealing he used the same trick. He confides that it took a while but he finally got Lexi to let her guard down and re-enforced the door and locked her outside in daylight. Lexi has no choice, but to hide in the shade. So Damon runs away and confesses that he felt guilty after and still does. But while talking, Rebekah breaks his neck and they take the paper and go. Bonnie wakes up and her memory after the cave is gone. Silas bribes Klaus to help him, threatening to kill him with a white-oak stake he stole from Rebekah. Elena and Rebekah steal Damon's car and search for Katherine.
8418"American Gothic"Kellie CyrusEvan Bleiweiss & Jose MolinaMarch 28, 2013 (2013-03-28)2J66682.46[20]
Rebekah and Elena find Katherine in Willoughby, PA, where Katherine has compelled the entire town. While Elena pretends to be Katherine with Elijah, Rebekah keeps an eye on Katherine. Soon, Stefan and Damon arrive. Rebekah and Damon go with Katherine to her house to get the cure. While Rebekah searches the house, Damon finds that the cure is contained in a fish tank filled with vervain water. Katherine dunks Damon's head in the water and temporarily incapacitates him. Katherine distracts Rebekah by tossing the cure into the air and making a run for it. Damon, still weak from the vervain, tries to convince Rebekah not to take the cure, but Rebekah tells him to give her one good reason why he wants Elena to take it. Damon does not answer. Rebekah drinks from the vial, just as Stefan arrives too late, and loses consciousness. When she awakens, even though she states that she feels human, she quickly learns that she is still a vampire and that Katherine tricked them. Later, Rebekah meets with Elijah and asks him to give her the cure stating that she wants to be human. Klaus then calls her and asks about her progress. She gives the phone to Elijah, who tells Klaus that he has the cure and is on his way back to Mystic Falls. Rebekah and Elijah leave together.
8519"Pictures of You"J. Miller TobinNeil Reynolds & Caroline DriesApril 18, 2013 (2013-04-18)2J66692.14[21]
Prom will be held in this episode and Tyler will return (which would be his final appearance this season.) Rebekah insists on taking the cure to which Elijah asks her to pass one day without any vampire powers but she has to feed her blood to April because she chooses to be good over standing to Elijah's condition. Silas impersonates Rebekah and takes the cure from Elijah. Damon and Stefan try to flip Elena's switch by walking her through her memories but they end up locking her.
8620"The Originals"Chris GrismerJulie PlecApril 25, 2013 (2013-04-25)2J66702.24[22]
In this pilot for the spin-off series, Klaus, at Katherine's suggestion, returns to his former home of New Orleans to find a witch with ties to him. He instead finds a former protegé, named Marcel, who is ruling the city with an iron fist. As Klaus continues his search, he finds that the witches who live there are trying to overthrow Marcel and that they plan to use Hayley who is carrying a Klaus' child. After Elijah arrives to help out and persuades him to stay, Klaus decides to stay in New Orleans and return the city to his command with his brother by his side. Rebekah is offered a spot in Klaus' new domain, but she turns them down. Back in Mystic Falls, Damon and Stefan begin extreme measures to return Elena's humanity by imprisoning her in the basement of the Salvatore house.
8721"She's Come Undone"Darnell MartinMichael Narducci & Rebecca SonnenshineMay 2, 2013 (2013-05-02)2J66712.17[23]
Damon and Stefan try a brutal new approach to provoke Elena into turning her humanity back on, and Caroline is frustrated when her attempt to intervene backfires and Elena attempts to kill her. When Elena figures out a way to call the Salvatore brothers' bluff, they call on Katherine to create real fear. Katherine has a go, pushing her hand into Elena and grabbing her heart. Then she deliberately leaves the door unlocked so that Elena can escape. Matt gives Rebekah some unsolicited advice on her life choices, and she tries to help him in return. Caroline has a confusing and dangerous encounter with Klaus, who turns out to be Silas looking for Bonnie. Silas is persistent, and mortally injures Caroline's mother to take her place. Bonnie reaffirms her promise to help Silas open the veil to purgatory, and Caroline has to inject some of her blood into her mother to bring her back to life. Katherine is suspicious when Bonnie makes her the offer of Silas's immortality and invulnerability in exchange for the tombstone that Katherine took from the island, which Bonnie needs to lift the veil between our world and purgatory. Katherine appears to accept the deal. Meanwhile, the Salvatore brothers use Matt to switch on Elena's humanity, with Damon snapping Matt's neck in front of Elena. He is, of course, wearing the ring that protects him from being killed by supernatural beings, and recovers in the presence of Rebekah. Elena decides that she is going to kill Katherine.
8822"The Walking Dead"Rob HardyBrian Young & Caroline DriesMay 9, 2013 (2013-05-09)2J66722.28[24]
As graduation approaches, Caroline tries to distract Elena by focusing on simple tasks like sending out announcements about graduation, but Elena won't be swayed from her new obsession. Sheriff Forbes calls Damon and Stefan to the hospital, where someone has been attacking patients. Still trying to force Katherine to help her, Bonnie refuses to give up on her plan to defeat Silas. As a violent wind storm causes a power outage in Mystic Falls, ghosts suddenly appear some with good intentions and some bent on revenge. Bonnie turns Silas into stone and dies trying to bring Jeremy back to life.
8923"Graduation"Chris GrismerCaroline Dries & Julie PlecMay 16, 2013 (2013-05-16)2J66732.24[25]
On Graduation Day, Mystic Falls is overrun with ghosts intent on settling old scores and fulfilling their supernatural destinies. Damon's life is in danger after a ghostly encounter with one of the hunters, while Matt and Rebekah join forces to battle a ghost determined to find the cure. When Matt's life falls in the line of danger Rebekah kisses him and says that it was the bravest thing she wanted to do. As Elena, Stefan, Caroline, Bonnie and Matt gather for the graduation ceremony and the ghosts converge, help comes from the now-hero Klaus, after Caroline repeatedly calls him to help. Caroline receives a touching and unexpected graduation present from him: He gives Tyler his freedom back, allowing him to return to Mystic Falls to be with Caroline. He tells her that though Tyler is her first love, he wants to be the last one she ever loves. Then Bonnie bravely gives her own life to bring Jeremy back but ensures she'll be fine with her Grams, and the Spirits of Witches. Elena then tells Damon that she loves him and in death he is the only one who makes her feel alive. They kiss passionately as Stefan overhears the conversation with tears in his eyes. Elena faces Katherine which eventually leads to Elena shoving the cure down Katherine's throat, turning her back into a human. Finally, Stefan discovers a horrifying clue to the mystery surrounding Silas: Stefan is Silas' doppelganger. Then a vengeful Silas traps Stefan in a safe and drops him into the lake.

text: Production[edit]

text: On May 3, 2012 The CW renewed The Vampire Diaries for a fourth season.[26][27] Unlike previous seasons, it started on October 11.[28] Kevin Williamson, Julie Plec, Leslie Morgenstein and Bob Levy are executive producers for the series. The season was concluded on May 16, 2013.

text: Casting[edit]

text:
The series stars Nina Dobrev who plays Elena Gilbert and Katherine Pierce,
Paul Wesley as Stefan Salvatore,
Ian Somerhalder as Damon Salvatore,
Steven R. McQueen as Jeremy Gilbert,
Kat Graham as Bonnie Bennett,
Candice Accola as Caroline Forbes,
Zach Roerig as Matt Donovan,
Michael Trevino as Tyler Lockwood,
Joseph Morgan as Klaus Mikaelson and
Claire Holt as Rebekah Mikaelson.

text: On August 7, 2012 it was announced that Phoebe Tonkin and Todd Williams will join the show as recurring characters in the fourth season. Phoebe Tonkin will portray Hayley, a friend of Tyler's. Todd Williams will portray Connor, a vampire hunter.

text: The Olympic gymnast Gabby Douglas made an appearance in "My Brother's Keeper" as a volunteer decorator for the Miss Mystic Falls Beauty Pageant. On the CW website, an interview with Douglas shares her experience on set and with the cast.

text: Starting with episode 13, Charlie Bewley will join the show as Vaughn, like Connor a vampire hunter, and Camille Guaty as Professor Shane's dead wife Caitlin, who is going to reveal information about him.[29]

text: On February 2013, it was announced that Daniella Pineda was cast as the witch Sophie for episode 20 "The Originals". This episode serves as a backdoor-pilot for a possible spin-off series, revolving around the Originals and taking place in the French Quarter of New Orleans. If the series gets picked up for the 2013-2014 season, she'd be a regular cast member.

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
18–49 rating (Live + SD)
Viewers(millions) increase
Total 18-49 increase
Total viewers(millions)
Ref

1
"Growing Pains"
October 12, 2012 (2012-10-12)
1.6
0.95
2.1
4.43
[30]

2
"Memorial"
October 19, 2012 (2012-10-19)
1.3
1.33
1.9
4.24
[31]

3
"The Rager"
October 26, 2012 (2012-10-26)
1.3
1.54
2.0
4.41
[32]

4
"The Five"
November 1, 2012 (2012-11-01)
1.5
1.20
2.1
4.47
[33]

5
"The Killer"
November 8, 2012 (2012-11-08)
1.5
1.05
1.9
4.07
[34]

6
"We All Go a Little Mad Sometimes"
November 15, 2012 (2012-11-15)
1.3
1.19
1.7
4.03
[35]

7
"My Brother's Keeper"
November 29, 2012 (2012-11-29)
1.4
1.43
2.1
4.29
[36]

8
"We'll Always Have Bourbon Street"
December 6, 2012 (2012-12-06)
1.2
1.21
1.8
3.63
[37]

9
"O Come, All Ye Faithful"
December 13, 2012 (2012-12-13)
1.3
1.51
2.0
4.32
[38]

10
"After School Special"
January 17, 2013 (2013-01-17)
1.4
1.26
2.0
4.21
[39]

11
"Catch Me If You Can"
January 24, 2013 (2013-01-24)
1.3
1.46
2.0
4.17
[40]

12
"A View To Kill"
January 31, 2013 (2013-01-31)
1.3
1.17
1.9
3.73
[41]

13
"Into The Wild"
February 7, 2013 (2013-02-07)
1.1
1.60
1.8
4.10
[42]

14
"Down the Rabbit Hole"
February 14, 2013 (2013-02-14)
1.0
1.84
1.8
4.15
[43]

15
"Stand by Me"
February 21, 2013 (2013-02-21)
1.3
1.57
2.0
4.48
[44]

16
"Bring It On"
March 14, 2013 (2013-03-14)
1.1
1.16
1.8
3.60
[45]

17
"Because the Night"
March 21, 2013 (2013-03-21)
1.3
1.21
1.9
3.86
[46]

18
"American Gothic"
March 28, 2013 (2013-03-28)
1.2
1.23
1.8
3.69
[47]

19
"Pictures of You"
April 18, 2013 (2013-04-18)
1.0
1.14
1.6
3.28
[48]

20
"The Originals"
April 25, 2013 (2013-04-25)
1.0
1.34
1.6
3.58
[49]

21
"She's Come Undone"
May 2, 2013 (2013-05-02)
1.0
1.30
1.6
3.47
[50]

22
"The Walking Dead"
May 9, 2013 (2013-05-09)
1.0
1.36
1.6
3.64
[51]

23
"Graduation"
May 16, 2013 (2013-05-16)
1.1
1.23
1.7
3.47
[52]


document_title: Cochlea

question_text: what is the fluid-filled space behind the oval window

text: Cochlea

text: Structure[edit]

text: The cochlea (plural is cochleae) is a spiralled, hollow, conical chamber of bone, in which waves propagate from the base (near the middle ear and the oval window) to the apex (the top or center of the spiral). Rosenthal's canal or the spiral canal of the cochlea is a section of the bony labyrinth of the inner ear that is approximately 30 mm long and makes 2¾ turns about the modiolus. The cochlear structures include:

text:
Three scalae or chambers:

the vestibular duct or scala vestibuli (containing perilymph), which lies superior to the cochlear duct and abuts the oval window
the tympanic duct or scala tympani (containing perilymph), which lies inferior to the cochlear duct and terminates at the round window
the cochlear duct or scala media (containing endolymph) a region of high potassium ion concentration that the stereocilia of the hair cells project into

The helicotrema, the location where the tympanic duct and the vestibular duct merge, at the apex of the cochlea
Reissner's membrane, which separates the vestibular duct from the cochlear duct
The basilar membrane, a main structural element that separates the cochlear duct from the tympanic duct and determines the mechanical wave propagation properties of the cochlear partition
The Organ of Corti, the sensory epithelium, a cellular layer on the basilar membrane, in which sensory hair cells are powered by the potential difference between the perilymph and the endolymph
hair cells, sensory cells in the Organ of Corti, topped with hair-like structures called stereocilia.

text: The cochlea is a portion of the inner ear that looks like a snail shell (cochlea is Greek for snail.) The cochlea receives sound in the form of vibrations, which cause the stereocilia to move. The stereocilia then convert these vibrations into nerve impulses which are taken up to the brain to be interpreted. Two of the three fluid sections are canals and the third is a sensitive 'organ of Corti' which detects pressure impulses which travel along the auditory nerve to the brain. The two canals are called the vestibular canal and the tympanic canal.

text: Detailed anatomy[edit]

text: The walls of the hollow cochlea are made of bone, with a thin, delicate lining of epithelial tissue. This coiled tube is divided through most of its length by an inner membranous partition. Two fluid-filled outer spaces (ducts or scalae) are formed by this dividing membrane. At the top of the snailshell-like coiling tubes, there is a reversal of the direction of the fluid, thus changing the vestibular duct to the tympanic duct. This area is called the helicotrema. This continuation at the helicotrema allows fluid being pushed into the vestibular duct by the oval window to move back out via movement in the tympanic duct and deflection of the round window; since the fluid is nearly incompressible and the bony walls are rigid, it is essential for the conserved fluid volume to exit somewhere.

text: The lengthwise partition that divides most of the cochlea is itself a fluid-filled tube, the third duct. This central column is called the cochlear duct. Its fluid, endolymph, also contains electrolytes and proteins, but is chemically quite different from perilymph. Whereas the perilymph is rich in sodium ions, the endolymph is rich in potassium ions, which produces an ionic, electrical potential.

text: The hair cells are arranged in four rows in the organ of Corti along the entire length of the cochlear coil. Three rows consist of outer hair cells (OHCs) and one row consists of inner hair cells (IHCs). The inner hair cells provide the main neural output of the cochlea. The outer hair cells, instead, mainly receive neural input from the brain, which influences their motility as part of the cochlea's mechanical pre-amplifier. The input to the OHC is from the olivary body via the medial olivocochlear bundle.

text: The cochlear duct is almost as complex on its own as the ear itself. The cochlear duct is bounded on three sides by the basilar membrane, the stria vascularis, and Reissner's membrane. Stria vascularis is a rich bed of capillaries and secretory cells; Reissner's membrane is a thin membrane that separates endolymph from perilymph; and the basilar membrane is a mechanically somewhat stiff membrane, supporting the receptor organ for hearing, the organ of Corti, and determines the mechanical wave propagation properties of the cochlear system.

text: Function[edit]

text: The cochlea is filled with a watery liquid, the perilymph, which moves in response to the vibrations coming from the middle ear via the oval window. As the fluid moves, the cochlear partition (basilar membrane and organ of Corti) moves; thousands of hair cells sense the motion via their stereocilia, and convert that motion to electrical signals that are communicated via neurotransmitters to many thousands of nerve cells. These primary auditory neurons transform the signals into electrochemical impulses known as action potentials, which travel along the auditory nerve to structures in the brainstem for further processing.

text: Detailed events[edit]

text: The stapes (stirrup) ossicle bone of the middle ear transmits vibrations to the fenestra ovalis (oval window) on the outside of the cochlea, which vibrates the perilymph in the vestibular duct (upper chamber of the cochlea). The ossicles are essential for efficient coupling of sound waves into the cochlea, since the cochlea environment is a fluid–membrane system, and it takes more pressure to move sound through fluid–membrane waves than it does through air; a pressure increase is achieved by the area ratio of the tympanic membrane to the oval window, resulting in a pressure gain of about 20× from the original sound wave pressure in air. This gain is a form of impedance matching – to match the soundwave travelling through air to that travelling in the fluid–membrane system.

text: At the base of the cochlea, each duct ends in a membranous portal that faces the middle ear cavity: The vestibular duct ends at the oval window, where the footplate of the stapes sits. The footplate vibrates when the pressure is transmitted via the ossicular chain. The wave in the perilymph moves away from the footplate and towards the helicotrema. Since those fluid waves move the cochlear partition that separates the ducts up and down, the waves have a corresponding symmetric part in perilymph of the tympanic duct, which ends at the round window, bulging out when the oval window bulges in.

text: The perilymph in the vestibular duct and the endolymph in the cochlear duct act mechanically as a single duct, being kept apart only by the very thin Reissner's membrane. The vibrations of the endolymph in the cochlear duct displace the basilar membrane in a pattern that peaks a distance from the oval window depending upon the soundwave frequency. The organ of Corti vibrates due to outer hair cells further amplifying these vibrations. Inner hair cells are then displaced by the vibrations in the fluid, and depolarise by an influx of K+ via their tip-link-connected channels, and send their signals via neurotransmitter to the primary auditory neurons of the spiral ganglion.

text: The hair cells in the organ of Corti are tuned to certain sound frequencies by way of their location in the cochlea, due to the degree of stiffness in the basilar membrane.[4] This stiffness is due to, among other things, the thickness and width of the basilar membrane,[5] which along the length of the cochlea is stiffest nearest its beginning at the oval window, where the stapes introduces the vibrations coming from the eardrum. Since its stiffness is high there, it allows only high-frequency vibrations to move the basilar membrane, and thus the hair cells. The farther a wave travels towards the cochlea's apex (the helicotrema), the less stiff the basilar membrane is; thus lower frequencies travel down the tube, and the less-stiff membrane is moved most easily by them where the reduced stiffness allows: that is, as the basilar membrane gets less and less stiff, waves slow down and it responds better to lower frequencies. In addition, in mammals, the cochlea is coiled, which has been shown to enhance low-frequency vibrations as they travel through the fluid-filled coil.[6] This spatial arrangement of sound reception is referred to as tonotopy.

text: For very low frequencies (below 20 Hz), the waves propagate along the complete route of the cochlea – differentially up vestibular duct and tympanic duct all the way to the helicotrema. Frequencies this low still activate the organ of Corti to some extent, but are too low to elicit the perception of a pitch. Higher frequencies do not propagate to the helicotrema, due to the stiffness-mediated tonotopy.

text: A very strong movement of the basilar membrane due to very loud noise may cause hair cells to die. This is a common cause of partial hearing loss and is the reason why users of firearms or heavy machinery often wear earmuffs or earplugs.

text: Amplification by the hair cells[edit]

text: Not only does the cochlea "receive" sound, it generates and amplifies sound when it is healthy. Where the organism needs a mechanism to hear very faint sounds, the cochlea amplifies by the reverse transduction of the OHCs, converting electrical signals back to mechanical in a positive-feedback configuration. The OHCs have a protein motor called prestin on their outer membranes; it generates additional movement that couples back to the fluid–membrane wave. This "active amplifier" is essential in the ear's ability to amplify weak sounds.[7][8]

text: The active amplifier also leads to the phenomenon of soundwave vibrations being emitted from the cochlea back into the ear canal through the middle ear (otoacoustic emissions).

text: Otoacoustic emissions[edit]

text: Otoacoustic emissions are due to a wave exiting the cochlea via the oval window, and propagating back through the middle ear to the eardrum, and out the ear canal, where it can be picked up by a microphone. Otoacoustic emissions are important in some types of tests for hearing impairment, since they are present when the cochlea is working well, and less so when it is suffering from loss of OHC activity.

text: Role of gap junctions[edit]

text: Gap-junction proteins, called connexins, expressed in the cochlea play an important role in auditory functioning.[9] Mutations in gap-junction genes have been found to cause syndromic and nonsyndromic deafness.[10] Certain connexins, including connexin 30 and connexin 26, are prevalent in the two distinct gap-junction systems found in the cochlea. The epithelial-cell gap-junction network couples non-sensory epithelial cells, while the connective-tissue gap-junction network couples connective-tissue cells. Gap-junction channels recycle potassium ions back to the endolymph after mechanotransduction in hair cells.[11] Importantly, gap junction channels are found between cochlear supporting cells, but not auditory hair cells.[12]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2015)

text: Bionics[edit]

text: In 2009, engineers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology created an electronic chip that can quickly analyze a very large range of radio frequencies while using only a fraction of the power needed for existing technologies; its design specifically mimics a cochlea.[13][14]

text: In other animals[edit]

text: The coiled form of cochlea is unique to mammals. In birds and in other non-mammalian vertebrates, the compartment containing the sensory cells for hearing is occasionally also called "cochlea," despite not being coiled up. Instead, it forms a blind-ended tube, also called the cochlear duct. This difference apparently evolved in parallel with the differences in frequency range of hearing between mammals and non-mammalian vertebrates. The superior frequency range in mammals is partly due to their unique mechanism of pre-amplification of sound by active cell-body vibrations of outer hair cells. Frequency resolution is, however, not better in mammals than in most lizards and birds, but the upper frequency limit is – sometimes much – higher. Most bird species do not hear above 4–5 kHz, the currently known maximum being ~ 11 kHz in the barn owl. Some marine mammals hear up to 200 kHz. A long coiled compartment, rather than a short and straight one, provides more space for additional octaves of hearing range, and has made possible some of the highly derived behaviors involving mammalian hearing.[15]

text: As the study of the cochlea should fundamentally be focused at the level of hair cells, it is important to note the anatomical and physiological differences between the hair cells of various species. In birds, for instance, instead of outer and inner hair cells, there are tall and short hair cells. There are several similarities of note in regard to this comparative data. For one, the tall hair cell is very similar in function to that of the inner hair cell, and the short hair cell, lacking afferent auditory-nerve fiber innervation, resembles the outer hair cell. One unavoidable difference, however, is that while all hair cells are attached to a tectorial membrane in birds, only the outer hair cells are attached to the tectorial membrane in mammals.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
MRI of left Cochlea and semicirculars

Ear labyrinth

Right osseous labyrinth. Lateral view.

Interior of right osseous labyrinth.

The cochlea and vestibule, viewed from above.

Diagrammatic longitudinal section of the cochlea.