document_title: Air conditioning

question_text: when was the first residential air conditioning system invented

question_tokens: when was the first residential air conditioning system invented

text: Air conditioning

text: History[edit]

text: Evaporative cooling[edit]

text: Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling. The business of harvesting ice during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century.[4] This practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines.

text: The basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water cooled the air blowing through the window. This process also made the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. In ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the walls of certain houses to cool them. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season.[5]

text: The 2nd-century Chinese mechanical engineer and inventor Ding Huan of the Han Dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered by prisoners of the time.[6] In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Dian 涼殿) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song Dynasty (960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.[7]

text: In the 17th century, the Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" as an early form of modern air conditioning for James I of England by adding salt to water.[8]

text: Development of mechanical cooling[edit]

text: Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by American inventor Willis Carrier. The introduction of residential air conditioning in the 1920s helped enable the great migration to the Sun Belt in the United States.[citation needed]

text: In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor at Cambridge University, conducted an experiment to explore the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and ether) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to speed up the evaporation. They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C (7 °F) while the ambient temperature was 18 °C (64 °F). Franklin noted that, soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F), a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about 6 mm (1⁄4 in) thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching −14 °C (7 °F). Franklin concluded: "From this experiment one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."[9]

text: In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings. He even envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly, Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-making machine. Though his process improved the artificial production of ice, his hopes for its success vanished soon afterwards when his chief financial backer died and Gorrie did not get the money he needed to develop the machine. According to his biographer, Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed the "Ice King", Frederic Tudor, for his failure, suspecting that Tudor had launched a smear campaign against his invention. Dr. Gorrie died impoverished in 1855, and the dream of commonplace air conditioning went away for 50 years.[citation needed]

text: James Harrison's first mechanical ice-making machine began operation in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Australia. His first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1853, and his patent for an ether vapor compression refrigeration system was granted in 1855. This novel system used a compressor to force the refrigeration gas to pass through a condenser, where it cooled down and liquefied. The liquefied gas then circulated through the refrigeration coils and vaporized again, cooling down the surrounding system. The machine produced 3,000 kilograms (6,600 lb) of ice per day.[citation needed]

text: Though Harrison had commercial success establishing a second ice company back in Sydney in 1860, he later entered the debate over how to compete against the American advantage of ice-refrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom. He wrote: "Fresh meat frozen and packed as if for a voyage, so that the refrigerating process may be continued for any required period", and in 1873 prepared the sailing ship Norfolk for an experimental beef shipment to the United Kingdom. His choice of a cold room system instead of installing a refrigeration system upon the ship itself proved disastrous when the ice was consumed faster than expected.[citation needed]

text: Electrical air conditioning[edit]

text: In 1902, the first modern electrical air conditioning unit was invented by Willis Carrier in Buffalo, New York[citation needed]. After graduating from Cornell University, Carrier found a job at the Buffalo Forge Company. While there, he began experimenting with air conditioning as a way to solve an application problem for the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York. The first air conditioner, designed and built in Buffalo by Carrier, began working on 17 July 1902.[citation needed]

text: Designed to improve manufacturing process control in a printing plant, Carrier's invention controlled not only temperature but also humidity. Carrier used his knowledge of the heating of objects with steam and reversed the process. Instead of sending air through hot coils, he sent it through cold coils (filled with cold water). The air was cooled, and thereby the amount of moisture in the air could be controlled, which in turn made the humidity in the room controllable. The controlled temperature and humidity helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet rising demand. Over time, air conditioning came to be used to improve comfort in homes and automobiles as well. Residential sales expanded dramatically in the 1950s.[citation needed]

text: In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning", using it in a patent claim he filed that year as an analogue to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process. He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company.[10]

text: Shortly thereafter, the first private home to have air conditioning was built in Minneapolis in 1914, owned by Charles Gates.[11] Realizing that air conditioning would one day be a standard feature of private homes, particularly in regions with warmer climate, David St. Pierre DuBose (1898-1994) designed a network of ductwork and vents for his home Meadowmont, all disguised behind intricate and attractive Georgian-style open moldings.[when?] This building is believed to be one of the first private homes in the United States equipped for central air conditioning.[12]

text: In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.[13]

text: Refrigerant development[edit]

text: The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases, such as ammonia, methyl chloride, or propane, that could result in fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the first non-flammable, non-toxic chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The name is a trademark name owned by DuPont for any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant. The refrigerant names include a number indicating the molecular composition (e.g., R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134A). The blend most used in direct-expansion home and building comfort cooling is an HCFC known as chlorodifluoromethane (R-22).

text: Dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12) was the most common blend used in automobiles in the U.S. until 1994, when most designs changed to R-134A due to the ozone-depleting potential of R-12. R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the U.S. for this type of application, so the only source for air-conditioning repair purposes is the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems. Several non-ozone-depleting refrigerants have been developed as alternatives, including R-410A. It was first commercially used by Carrier Corp. under the brand name Puron.[citation needed]

text: Modern refrigerants have been developed to be more environmentally safe than many of the early chlorofluorocarbon-based refrigerants used in the early- and mid-twentieth century. These include HCFCs (R-22, as used in most U.S. homes before 2011) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs, in turn, are supposed to have been in the process of being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by HFCs such as R-410A, which lack chlorine.[14] HFCs, however, contribute to climate change problems. Moreover, policy and political influence by corporate executives resisted change.[15][16] Corporations insisted that no alternatives to HFCs existed. The environmental organization Greenpeace provided funding to a former East German refrigerator company to research an alternative ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant in 1992. The company developed a hydrocarbon mix of isopentane and isobutane, but as a condition of the contract with Greenpeace could not patent the technology, which led to its widespread adoption by other firms.[17][18][19] Their activist marketing first in Germany led to companies like Whirlpool, Bosch, and later LG and others to incorporate the technology throughout Europe, then Asia, although the corporate executives resisted in Latin America, so that it arrived in Argentina produced by a domestic firm in 2003, and then finally with giant Bosch's production in Brazil by 2004.[20][21]

text: In 1995, Germany made CFC refrigerators illegal.[22] DuPont and other companies blocked the refrigerant in the U.S. with the U.S. EPA, disparaging the approach as "that German technology".[21][23] Nevertheless, in 2004, Greenpeace worked with multinational corporations like Coca-Cola and Unilever, and later Pepsico and others, to create a corporate coalition called Refrigerants Naturally!.[22][24] Then, four years later, Ben & Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric began to take steps to support production and use in the U.S.[25] In 2011 the EPA decided in favor of the ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant for U.S. manufacture.[17][26][27]

text: Operating principles[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Refrigeration cycle[edit]

text: In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from a colder location to a hotter area. As heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction, work is required to achieve this. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the heat out of the interior and into its environment. The refrigerant is used as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently ejects that heat elsewhere.

text: Circulating refrigerant vapor enters the compressor, where its pressure and temperature are increased. The hot, compressed refrigerant vapor is now at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed and is routed through a condenser. Here it is cooled by air flowing across the condenser coils and condensed into a liquid. Thus, the circulating refrigerant removes heat from the system and the heat is carried away by the air.  The removal of this heat can be greatly augmented by pouring water over the condenser coils, making it much cooler when it hits the expansion valve.

text: The condensed, pressurized, and still usually somewhat hot liquid refrigerant is next routed through an expansion valve (often nothing more than a pinhole in the system's copper tubing) where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant, greatly lowering its temperature. The cold refrigerant is then routed through the evaporator. A fan blows the interior warm air (which is to be cooled) across the evaporator, causing the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture to evaporate as well, further lowering the temperature. The warm air is therefore cooled and is pumped by an exhaust fan/ blower into the room. To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor is routed back into the compressor. In order for the process to have any efficiency, the cooling/evaporative portion of the system must be separated by some kind of physical barrier from the heating/condensing portion, and each portion must have its own fan to circulate its own "kind" of air (either the hot air or the cool air).

text: Modern air conditioning systems are not designed to draw air into the room from the outside, they only recirculate the increasingly cool air on the inside. Because this inside air always has some amount of moisture suspended in it, the cooling portion of the process always causes ambient warm water vapor to condense on the cooling coils and to drip from them down onto a catch tray at the bottom of the unit from which it must then be routed outside, usually through a drain hole. As this moisture has no dissolved minerals in it, it will not cause mineral buildup on the coils. This will happen even if the ambient humidity level is low. If ice begins to form on the evaporative fins, it will reduce circulation efficiency and cause the development of more ice, etc.  A clean and strong circulatory fan can help prevent this, as will raising the target cool temperature of the unit's thermostat to a point that the compressor is allowed to turn off occasionally. A failing thermistor may also cause this problem. Refrigerators without a defrost cycle may have this same issue. Dust can also cause the fins to begin blocking air flow with the same undesirable result: ice.

text: By running an air conditioner's compressor in the opposite direction, the overall effect can be completely reversed and the indoor area will become heated instead of cooled (see heat pump). The engineering of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas–vapor mixtures is called psychrometrics.

text: Heat pump unit[edit]

text: A heat pump is an air conditioner in which the refrigeration cycle can be reversed, producing heating instead of cooling in the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to as a "reverse cycle air conditioner". The heat pump is significantly more energy efficient than electric resistance heating. Some homeowners elect to have a heat pump system installed as a feature of a central air conditioner. When the heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator, and discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air).

text: Air-source heat pumps are more popular in milder winter climates where the temperature is frequently in the range of 4–13 °C (40–55 °F), because heat pumps become inefficient in more extreme cold. This is because ice forms on the outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil back to being the condenser coil, so that it can heat up and defrost. A heat pump system will therefore have a form of electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode in order to compensate for the temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be uncomfortable in the winter.

text: The icing problem becomes much more severe with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are commonly installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as a natural gas or oil furnace, which is used instead of the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case, the heat pump is used efficiently during the milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower.

text: Absorption heat pumps are a kind of air-source heat pump, but they do not depend on electricity to power them. Instead, gas, solar power, or heated water is used as a main power source. An absorption pump dissolves ammonia gas in water, which gives off heat. Next, the water and ammonia mixture is depressurized to induce boiling, and the ammonia is boiled off, which absorbs heat from the outdoor air.[citation needed]

text: Some more expensive fixed window air conditioning units have a true heat pump function. However, a window unit may only have an electric resistance heater.

text: Evaporative cooling[edit]

text: In very dry climates, evaporative coolers, sometimes referred to as swamp coolers or desert coolers, are popular for improving coolness during hot weather. An evaporative cooler is a device that draws outside air through a wet pad, such as a large sponge soaked with water. The sensible heat of the incoming air, as measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The temperature of the incoming air is reduced, but it is also more humid, so the total heat (sensible heat plus latent heat) is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough, the results can be quite substantial.

text: Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window.[28] These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.

text: Free cooling[edit]

text: Air conditioning can also be provided by a process called free cooling which uses pumps to circulate a coolant (typically water or a glycol mix) from a cold source, which in turn acts as a heat sink for the energy that is removed from the cooled space. Common storage media are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of small-diameter boreholes, equipped with heat exchanger. Some systems with small storage capacity are hybrid systems, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added because the temperature of the storage gradually increases during the cooling season, thereby declining its effectiveness.

text: Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Free cooling and hybrid systems are mature technology.[29]

text: Humidity control[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 50% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space.[citation needed]

text: Dehumidification and cooling[edit]

text:
Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the dewpoint) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air, much like an ice-cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass. Therefore, water vapor is removed from the cooled air and the relative humidity in the room is lowered. The water is usually sent to a drain or may simply drip onto the ground outdoors.
The heat is rejected by the condenser which is located outside of room to be cooled.

text: Dehumidification Program[edit]

text: Most modern air-conditioning systems feature a dehumidification cycle during which the compressor runs while the fan is slowed as much as possible[citation needed] to reduce the evaporator temperature and therefore condense more water. When the temperature falls below a threshold, both the fan and compressor are shut off to mitigate further temperature drops;[clarification needed] this prevents moisture on the evaporator from being blown back into the room.[citation needed] When the temperature rises again[clarification needed], the compressor restarts and the fan returns to low speed.

text: Occasionally, to thaw any ice produced, the fan runs with the compressor shut down; this function is less effective when ambient temperatures are low.[citation needed]

text: Inverter air conditioners use the inside coil temperature sensor to keep the evaporator as cold as possible. When the evaporator is too cold,[clarification needed] the compressor is slowed or stopped with the indoor fan running.[citation needed]

text: Dehumidifier[edit]

text: A specialized air conditioner that is used only for dehumidifying is called a dehumidifier. It also uses a refrigeration cycle, but differs from a standard air conditioner in that both the evaporator and the condenser are placed in the same air path. A standard air conditioner transfers heat energy out of the room because its condenser coil releases heat outside. However, since all components of the dehumidifier are in the same room, no heat energy is removed. Instead, the electric power consumed by the dehumidifier remains in the room as heat, so the room is actually heated, just as by an electric heater that draws the same amount of power.

text: In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate that water also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification process is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead releases heat. Therefore, an in-room dehumidifier always will warm the room and reduce the relative humidity indirectly, as well as reducing the humidity directly by condensing and removing water.

text: Inside the unit, the air passes over the evaporator coil first, and is cooled and dehumidified. The now dehumidified, cold air then passes over the condenser coil where it is warmed up again. Then the air is released back into the room. The unit produces warm, dehumidified air and can usually be placed freely in the environment (room) that is to be conditioned.

text: Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent mold growth indoors, especially in basements. They are also used to protect sensitive equipment from the adverse effects of excessive humidity in tropical countries.

text: Energy transfer[edit]

text: In a thermodynamically closed system, any power dissipated into the system that is being maintained at a set temperature (which is a standard mode of operation for modern air conditioners) requires that the rate of energy removal by the air conditioner increase. This increase has the effect that, for each unit of energy input into the system (say to power a light bulb in the closed system), the air conditioner removes that energy.[30] To do so, the air conditioner must increase its power consumption by the inverse of its "efficiency" (coefficient of performance) times the amount of power dissipated into the system. As an example, assume that inside the closed system a 100 W heating element is activated, and the air conditioner has a coefficient of performance of 200%. The air conditioner's power consumption will increase by 50 W to compensate for this, thus making the 100 W heating element cost a total of 150 W of power.

text: It is typical for air conditioners to operate at "efficiencies" of significantly greater than 100%.[31] However, it may be noted that the input electrical energy is of higher thermodynamic quality (lower entropy) than the output thermal energy (heat energy).

text: Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration", with each  approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2000 pounds or 907 kilograms) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. The value is defined as 12,000 BTU per hour, or 3517 watts.[32] Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3.5 to 18 kW) in capacity.

text: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio[edit]

text: For residential homes, some countries set minimum requirements for energy efficiency. In the United States, the efficiency of air conditioners is often (but not always) rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER). The higher the SEER rating, the more energy efficient is the air conditioner. The SEER rating is the BTU of cooling output during its normal annual usage divided by the total electric energy input in watt hours (W·h) during the same period.[33]

text: this can also be rewritten as:

text: For example, a 5000 BTU/h air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10, would consume 5000/10 = 500 Watts of power on average.

text: The electrical energy consumed per year can be calculated as the average power multiplied by the annual operating time:

text: Assuming 1000 hours of operation during a typical cooling season (i.e., 8 hours per day for 125 days per year).

text: Another method that yields the same result, is to calculate the total annual cooling output:

text: Then, for a SEER of 10, the annual electrical energy usage would be:

text: SEER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly used in thermodynamics and also to the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). The EER is the efficiency rating for the equipment at a particular pair of external and internal temperatures, while SEER is calculated over a whole range of external temperatures (i.e., the temperature distribution for the geographical location of the SEER test). SEER is unusual in that it is composed of an Imperial unit divided by an SI unit. The COP is a ratio with the same metric units of energy (joules) in both the numerator and denominator. They cancel out, leaving a dimensionless quantity. Formulas for the approximate conversion between SEER and EER or COP are available.[34]

text: From equation (2) above, a SEER of 13 is equivalent to a COP of 3.43, which means that 3.43 units of heat energy are pumped per unit of work energy.

text: The United States now requires that residential systems manufactured in 2006 have a minimum SEER rating of 13 (although window-box systems are exempt from this law, so their SEER is still around 10).

text: Installation types[edit]

text: Window unit and packaged terminal[edit]

text: Window unit air conditioners are installed in an open window. The interior air is cooled as a fan blows it over the evaporator. On the exterior the heat drawn from the interior is dissipated into the environment as a second fan blows outside air over the condenser. A large house or building may have several such units, allowing each room to be cooled separately.

text: In 1971, General Electric introduced a popular portable in-window air conditioner designed for convenience and portability.[35]

text: Packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC) systems are also known as wall-split air conditioning systems.[36] They are ductless systems. PTACs, which are frequently used in hotels, have two separate units (terminal packages), the evaporative unit on the interior and the condensing unit on the exterior, with an opening passing through the wall and connecting them. This minimizes the interior system footprint and allows each room to be adjusted independently. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas, or other heater, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. While room air conditioning provides maximum flexibility, when used to cool many rooms at a time it is generally more expensive than central air conditioning.

text: The first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit was invented by engineers at Chrysler Motors and offered for sale starting in 1935.[37]

text: Split systems[edit]

text: Split-system air conditioners come in two forms: mini-split and central systems. In both types, the inside-environment (evaporative) heat exchanger is separated by some distance from the outside-environment (condensing unit) heat exchanger.

text: Mini-split (ductless) system[edit]

text: A mini-split system typically supplies air conditioned and heated air to a single or a few rooms of a building.[38] Multi-zone systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to 8 rooms (zones) to be conditioned from a single outdoor unit. Multi-zone systems typically offer a variety of indoor unit styles including wall-mounted, ceiling-mounted, ceiling recessed, and horizontal ducted. Mini-split systems typically produce 9,000 to 36,000 Btu (9,500–38,000 kJ) per hour of cooling. Multi-zone systems provide extended cooling and heating capacity up to 60,000 Btu's.

text: Advantages of the ductless system include smaller size and flexibility for zoning or heating and cooling individual rooms. The inside wall space required is significantly reduced. Also, the compressor and heat exchanger can be located farther away from the inside space, rather than merely on the other side of the same unit as in a PTAC or window air conditioner. Flexible exterior hoses lead from the outside unit to the interior one(s); these are often enclosed with metal to look like common drainpipes from the roof. In addition, ductless systems offer higher efficiency, reaching above 30 SEER.[39]

text: The primary disadvantage of ductless air conditioners is their cost. Such systems cost about US$1,500 to US$2,000 per ton (12,000 BTU per hour) of cooling capacity. This is about 30% more than central systems (not including ductwork) and may cost more than twice as much as window units of similar capacity."[40]

text: An additional possible disadvantage is that the cost of installing mini splits can be higher than some systems. However, lower operating costs and rebates or other financial incentives—offered in some areas—can help offset the initial expense.[41]

text: Central (ducted) air conditioning[edit]

text: Central (ducted) air conditioning offers whole-house or large-commercial-space cooling, and often offers moderate multi-zone temperature control capability by the addition of air-louver-control boxes.

text: In central air conditioning, the inside heat-exchanger is typically placed inside the central furnace/AC unit of the forced air heating system which is then used in the summer to distribute chilled air throughout a residence or commercial building.

text: The heat-exchanger cools the air that is being forced through it by the furnace blower. As the warm air comes in contact with this cool surface the water in the air condenses. By pulling the water molecules from the air. According to the psychometric chart[42] as relative humidity decreases in order to feel cool you will have to lower the temperature even more. A common way to counteract this effect is by installing a whole-home humidifier.[43] Similarly, installing a high efficient system this need to turn the temperature down wont have such and influence on your energy costs.

text: Multi-split system[edit]

text: Multi-split system[44] - is a conventional split system, which is divided into two parts (evaporator and condenser) and allows cooling or heating of several rooms with one external unit. In the outdoor unit of this air conditioner there is a more powerful compressor, ports for connecting several traces and automation with locking valves for regulating the volume of refrigerant supplied to the indoor units located in the room.

text: Difference between split system and multi-split system:

text: Other common types of air conditioning system are multi-split systems, the difference between separate split system and multi-split system in several indoor units. All of them are connected to the main external unit, but the principle of their operation is similar to a simple split-system.

text: Its unique feature is the presence of one main external unit that connected to several indoor units. Such systems might be the right solution for maintaining the microclimate in several offices, shops, large living spaces. Just few of outdoor units do not worsen the aesthetic appearance of the building.The main external unit can be connected to several different indoor types: floor, ceiling, cassette, etc.

text: Multi-split system Installation:

text: Before selecting the installation location of air conditioner, several main factors need to be considered. First of all, the direction of air flow from the indoor units should not fall on the place of rest or work area. Secondly, there should not be any obstacles on the way of the airflow that might prevent it from covering the space of the premises as much as possible. The outdoor unit must also be located in an open space, otherwise the heat from the house will not be effectively discharged outside and the productivity of the entire system will drop sharply. It is highly advisable to install the air conditioner units in easily accessible places, for further maintenance during operation.

text: The main problem when installing a multi-split system is the laying of long refrigerant lines for connecting the external unit to the internal ones. While installing a separate split system, workers try to locate both units opposite to each other, where the length of the line is minimal. Installing a multi-split system creates more difficulties, since some of indoor units can be located far from the outside. The first models of multi-split systems had one common control system that did not allow you to set the air conditioning individually for each room. However, now the market has a wide selection of multi-split systems, in which the functional characteristics of indoor units operate separately from each other.

text: The selection of indoor units has one restriction - their total power should not exceed the capacity of the outdoor unit. In practice, however, it’s very common to see a multi-split system with a total capacity of indoor units greater than the outdoor capacity by at least 20%. But, it is wrong to expect better performance when all indoor units are turned on at the same time, since the total capacity of the whole system is limited by the capacity of the outdoor unit. Simply put, the outdoor unit will distribute all its power to all operating indoor units in such a way that some of the rooms may not have a very comfortable temperature level. However, the calculation of the total power is not simple, since it takes into account not only the nominal power of the units, but also the cooling capacity, heating, dehumidification, humidification, venting, etc.

text: Portable units[edit]

text: A portable air conditioner can be easily transported inside a home or office. They are currently available with capacities of about 5,000–60,000 BTU/h (1,500–18,000 W) and with or without electric-resistance heaters. Portable air conditioners are either evaporative or refrigerative.

text: The compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to exchange heat, in the same way as a car radiator or typical household air conditioner does. Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.

text: Portable split system[edit]

text: A portable  system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit.

text: Portable hose system[edit]

text: Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-evaporates the water and discharges it through the ducted hose and can run continuously.

text: A single-hose unit uses air from within the room to cool its condenser, and then vents it outside. This air is replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms (due to the negative pressure inside the room), thus reducing the unit's overall efficiency.[45]

text: Modern units might have a coefficient of performance of approximately 3 (i.e., 1 kW of electricity will produce 3 kW of cooling). A dual-hose unit draws air to cool its condenser from outside instead of from inside the room, and thus is more effective than most single-hose units. These units create no negative pressure in the room.

text: Portable evaporative system[edit]

text: Evaporative coolers, sometimes called "swamp coolers", do not have a compressor or condenser. Liquid water is evaporated on the cooling fins, releasing the vapor into the cooled area. Evaporating water absorbs a significant amount of heat, the latent heat of vaporisation, cooling the air. Humans and animals use the same mechanism to cool themselves by sweating.

text: Evaporative coolers have the advantage of needing no hoses to vent heat outside the cooled area, making them truly portable. They are also very cheap to install and use less energy than refrigerative air conditioners.

text: Uses[edit]

text: Air-conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into comfort and process applications.

text: Comfort applications[edit]

text: Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively constant despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.

text: Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they would have to be built narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces received sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air conditioning also allows buildings to be taller, since wind speed increases significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very tall buildings.[citation needed] Comfort applications are quite different for various building types and may be categorized as:

text:
Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including offices, malls, shopping centers, restaurants, etc.
High-rise residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and apartment blocks
Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired
Cars, aircraft, boats, which transport passenger or fresh goods
Institutional buildings, which includes government buildings, hospitals, schools, etc.
Low-rise residential buildings, including single-family houses, duplexes, and small apartment buildings
Sports stadiums, such as the University of Phoenix Stadium[46] and in Qatar for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[47]

text: Women have, on average, a significantly lower resting metabolic rate than men.[48] Using inaccurate metabolic rate guidelines for air conditioning sizing can result in oversized and less efficient equipment,[48] and setting system operating setpoints too cold can result in reduced worker productivity.[49]

text: In addition to buildings, air conditioning can be used for many types of transportation, including automobiles, buses and other land vehicles, trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.

text: Domestic usage[edit]

text:
Air conditioning is common in the US, with 88% of new single-family homes constructed in 2011 including air conditioning, ranging from 99% in the South to 62% in the West.[50] In Canada, air conditioning use varies by province. In 2013, 55% of Canadian households reported having an air conditioner, with high use in Manitoba (80%), Ontario (78%), Saskatchewan (67%), and Quebec (54%) and lower use in Prince Edward Island (23%), British Columbia (21%), and Newfoundland and Labrador (9%).[51] In Europe, home air conditioning is generally less common. Southern European countries such as Greece have seen a wide proliferation of home air-conditioning units in recent years.[52] In another southern European country, Malta, it is estimated that around 55% of households have an air conditioner installed.[53]
In India AC sales have dropped by 40%[clarification needed] due to higher costs and stricter energy efficiency regulations.[54]

text: Process applications[edit]

text: Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for a process being carried out, regardless of internal heat and humidity loads and external weather conditions. It is the needs of the process that determine conditions, not human preference. Process applications include these:

text:
Chemical and biological laboratories
Cleanrooms for the production of integrated circuits, pharmaceuticals, and the like, in which very high levels of air cleanliness and control of temperature and humidity are required for the success of the process.
Environmental control of data centers
Facilities for breeding laboratory animals. Since many animals normally reproduce only in spring, holding them in rooms in which conditions mirror those of spring all year can cause them to reproduce year-round.
Food cooking and processing areas
Hospital operating theatres, in which air is filtered to high levels to reduce infection risk and the humidity controlled to limit patient dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the comfort range, some specialist procedures, such as open heart surgery, require low temperatures (about 18 °C, 64 °F) and others, such as neonatal, relatively high temperatures (about 28 °C, 82 °F).
Industrial environments
Mining
Nuclear power facilities
Physical testing facilities
Plants and farm growing areas
Textile manufacturing

text: In both comfort and process applications, the objective may be to not only control temperature, but also humidity, air quality, and air movement from space to space.

text: Health effects[edit]

text: In hot weather, air conditioning can prevent heat stroke, dehydration from excessive sweating and other problems related to hyperthermia. Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in developed countries. Air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being.  It is sometimes recommended for home use by people with allergies.

text: Poorly maintained water cooling towers can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms,[55] such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease, or thermophilic actinomycetes. As long as the cooling tower is kept clean (usually by means of a chlorine treatment), these health hazards can be avoided or reduced. Excessive air conditioning can have a negative effect on skin, causing it to dry out, and can also cause dehydration.[citation needed]

text: Environmental impacts[edit]

text: Power consumption and efficiency[edit]

text: Innovation in air conditioning technologies continues, with much recent emphasis placed on energy efficiency. Production of the electricity used to operate air conditioners has an environmental impact, including the release of greenhouse gases.

text: Cylinder unloaders are a method of load control used mainly in commercial air conditioning systems. On a semi-hermetic (or open) compressor, the heads can be fitted with unloaders which remove a portion of the load from the compressor so that it can run better when full cooling is not needed. Unloaders can be electrical or mechanical.

text: According to a 2015 government survey, 87% of the homes in the United States use air conditioning and 65% of those homes have central air conditioning. Most of the homes with central air conditioning have programmable thermostats, but approximately two-thirds of the homes with central air do not use this feature to make their homes more energy efficient.[56]

text: Lower-energy alternatives[edit]

text: Alternatives to continual air conditioning can be used with less energy, lower cost, and with less environmental impact.  These include:[57]

text:
In large commercial buildings, making windows able to be opened by occupants when the air outside is cool enough to be comfortable
Setting thermostats to around 82 °F (28 °C) and allowing workers to wear more climate-appropriate clothing, such as polo shirts and Bermuda shorts. This approach has worked for the Cool Biz campaign in Japan.
Passive cooling techniques, such as:
Natural ventilation under and through buildings
Operating windows to induce a stack effect breeze
Letting in cool air at night and closing windows during the day
Operating shades to reduce solar gain
Building slightly underground, to take advantage of unpowered conduction and geothermal mass
Placement of trees, architectural shades, windows (and using window coatings) to reduce solar gain
Thermal insulation placed to prevent heat from entering
Light-colored building materials reflect away more incoming infrared radiation
Using a fan if the air is below body temperature
Swamp coolers in hot but dry weather
Using a geothermal heat pump or ground-coupled heat exchanger
Using naturally cooler basement rooms more
Taking a siesta during the hottest part of the day
Sleeping outside on a porch or roof

text: Automobile power consumption[edit]

text: In an automobile, the A/C system will use around 4 horsepower (3 kW) of the engine's power, thus increasing fuel consumption of the vehicle.[58]

text: Refrigerants[edit]

text: The selection of the working fluids (refrigerants) has a significant impact not only on the performance of the air conditioners but on the environment as well. Most refrigerants used for air conditioning contribute to global warming, and many also deplete the ozone layer.[59] CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs are potent greenhouse gases when leaked to the atmosphere.

text: The use of CFC as a refrigerant was once common, including the refrigerants R-11 and R-12 (sold under the brand name Freon-12). Freon refrigerants were commonly used during the 20th century in air conditioners due to their superior stability and safety properties. When they are released accidentally or deliberately, these chlorine-bearing refrigerants eventually reach the upper atmosphere.[60] Once the refrigerant reaches the stratosphere, UV radiation from the Sun homolytically cleaves the chlorine-carbon bond, yielding a chlorine radical. These chlorine radicals catalyze the breakdown of ozone into diatomic oxygen, depleting the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active as a catalyst until it binds with another radical, forming a stable molecule and quenching the chain reaction.

text: Prior to 1994, most automotive air conditioning systems used R-12 as a refrigerant. It was replaced with R-134a refrigerant, which has no ozone depletion potential. Old R-12 systems can be retrofitted to R-134a by a complete flush and filter/dryer replacement to remove the mineral oil, which is not compatible with R-134a.

text: R22 (also known as HCFC-22) has a global warming potential about 1,800 times higher than CO2.[61] It was phased out for use in new equipment by 2010, and is to be completely discontinued by 2020. Although these gasses can be recycled when air conditioning units are disposed of, uncontrolled dumping and leaking can release gas directly into the atmosphere.

text: In the UK, the Ozone Regulations[62] came into force in 2000 and banned the use of ozone depleting HCFC refrigerants such as R22 in new systems. The Regulation banned the use of R22 as a "top-up" fluid for maintenance between 2010 (for virgin fluid) and 2015 (for recycled fluid). This means that equipment that uses R22 can still operate, as long as it does not leak. Although R22 is now banned, units that use the refrigerant can still be serviced and maintained.

text: The manufacture and use of CFCs has been banned or severely restricted due to concerns about ozone depletion (see also Montreal Protocol).[63][64]  In light of these environmental concerns, beginning on November 14, 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has restricted the sale, possession and use of refrigerant to only licensed technicians, per rules under sections 608 and 609 of the Clean Air Act.[65]

text: As an alternative to conventional refrigerants, other gases, such as CO2 (R-744), have been proposed.[66] R-744 is being adopted as a refrigerant in Europe and Japan. It is an effective refrigerant with a global warming potential of 1, but it must use higher compression to produce an equivalent cooling effect.[citation needed]

text: In 1992, a non-governmental organization, Greenpeace, was spurred by corporate executive policies and requested that a European lab find substitute refrigerants.  This led to two alternatives, one a blend of propane (R290) and isobutane (R600a), and one of pure isobutane.[18][22] Industry resisted change in Europe until 1993, and in the U.S. until 2011, despite some supportive steps in 2004 and 2008 (see Refrigerant Development above).[27][67]


document_title: Digboi

question_text: who discover the occurrence of oil in assam

root

text: Digboi

text: Etymology[edit]

text:
" Barely seven years after Edwin L. Drake drilled the world's first oil well in 1859 at Titusville, Pennsylvania, USA, history registered another exploration of the black liquid gold, in the largest continent.
More than a century ago, history was made in a remote corner of Assam in the midst of the dense and malaria infested jungles, by a band of intrepid pioneers searching for black gold. In 1867 Italian Engineers, commissioned by the Assam Railways and Trading Company, to build a railway line from Dibrugarh to Margherita (Headquarters of Assam Railways and Trading Company) accidentally discovered oil at Digboi around 10 miles from Margherita.
‘Dig boy, dig’, shouted the English engineer, Mr W L Lake, elephants emerging out of the dense forest with oil stains on their feet".[2]
This is possibly the most distilled – though fanciful – version of the legend explaining the siting and naming of Digboi. Two events separated by seven years have become fused, but although neither is likely to be provable, such evidence that does exist appears sufficiently detailed to be credible. Various web sites offer variations on the elephant’s foot story, a consensus of which would be that engineers extending the Dibru-Sadiya railway line to Ledo for the Assam Railways and Trading Company (AR&TC) in 1882 were using elephants for haulage and noticed that the mud on one pachyderm’s feet smelled of oil. Retracing the trail of footprints, they found oil seeping to the surface. One of the engineers, the Englishman Willie Leova Lake, was an ‘oil enthusiast’ and persuaded the company to drill a well. Oil India Ltd makes no reference to elephants’ feet in its company history,[3] although on its previous web site the company  noted that Lake had noticed "the oil seepages around Borbhil". Once the project had been approved, Lake assembled equipment, boilers, and local labour, and engaged elephants to haul the machinery to the site. The first well was started in September 1889, but an encouraging first strike at 178 feet (54 m) turned out to be a small pocket, and drilling recommenced. This continued until November 1890 when the well was completed at a total depth of 662 feet (202 m), and it was during this extended period of drilling that Oil India's old web site placed the legend of Lake exhorting one or more of his labourers to "Dig, boy!"

tag: p

text: Digboi as an oil town[edit]

text: It is said that the town gets its name from the phrase "dig-boy-dig," which is what the English told the labourers as they dug for crude oil. The town's history begins in 1867 when a small group of men from the Assam Railway and Trading Co. found their elephants' legs soaked in black mud, that smelt somewhat like oil. The men began exploring more, and in 1889, the English started a small oil installation. India (and Asia) obtained its first refinery in Digboi in the year 1901. Assam Oil Company was formed in 1899 to look after the running of the oil business in this area. The Digboi oil field produced close to 7,000 barrels per day (1,100 m3/d) of crude oil at its peak, which was during World War II. The field was pushed to produce the maximum amount of oil with little regard to reservoir management; as a result, production started to drop almost immediately after the war. The current production from the Digboi fields is about 240 barrels per day (38 m3/d). Over 1,000 wells have been drilled at Digboi – the first well in 1889 had stuck oil at 178 feet (54 m). In 1989, the Department of Posts, India came out with a stamp commemorating 100 years of the Digboi fields.

text: Today, though the crude production is not high, Digboi has the distinction of being India's oldest continuously producing oilfield. Digboi refinery, now a division of Indian Oil Corporation, had a capacity of about 0.65 MMTPA as of 2003.

text: Digboi is now Headquarter of Assam Oil Division of Indian Oil Corporation Limited. The Earliest recorded to the existence of oil in India is found in the memories and dispatches of the Army Officers who penetrated the jungles of Upper Assam since 1825. Lt. R. Wilcox, Major A. White, Capt. Francis Jenkins, Capt. P.S. Hanney—they all saw at different times petroleum exuding from banks of the Dihing River. Mr. C.A. Bruce (1828) and Mr. H.B. Medicott (1865) of the Geological Survey of India also saw oil while prospecting for coal in Upper Assam.

text: Mr. Goodenough of McKillop, Stewart & Co. Calcutta was the first in India to start a systematic programme of drilling for oil in November 1866, at Nahorpung about 30 miles (48 km) south east of Dibgoi, just seven years after the world's first commercial oil well was drilled in 1859, by Col Edwin L Drake in Pennsylvania, USA. This hand dug well—the first oil well in India—was drilled up to 102 feet (31 m) and proved dry. However the second well struck oil at Makum near Tinsukia, about 14 miles (23 km) from Digboi.

text: In 1939, there was a major labour union strike in the Refinery. The Gandhi Movement of Congress for Indian Independence struggle; backed by labour rights and equality status was headed by Sardar Amar Singh Marwah. The break of the World War II coincided with the Digboi labour strike resulted in harsh steps taken by the British Administrative offices to crush the strike. The Viceroy and the Governor had intervened to bring a settlement adopting sturdy steps were take to crush the union by shooting down of the president of the labour union to be followed by issuing orders of Quit Digboi, Quit Lakhimpur and finally Quit Assam to the leaders of the labour union.

text: Digboi Refinery[edit]

text: The Digboi Refinery modernization project was taken up in large scale in order to overcome the technological obsolescence of the old refinery. Subsequently, a number of other major projects were undertaken by Assam Oil Division to further revamp and modernise Digboi Refinery.Digboi refinery has been awarded the ISO-14001 and OHSMC certificate.

text: Geography[edit]

text: Digboi is located at 27°22'48.0"N 95°37'48.0"E.[4] It has an average elevation of 165 metres (541 ft).It is situated 510 km north east of Guwahati.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: As of  2011[update] India census,[5] Digboi has population of 21,736 of which 10,964 are males while 10,772 are females. Population of Children with age of 0-6 is 1745 which is 8.03 % of total population of Digboi.  Committee, Female Sex Ratio is of 982 against state average of 958. Moreover Child Sex Ratio in Digboi is around 981 compared to Assam state average of 962. Literacy rate of Digboi city is 92.08 % higher than state average of 72.19 %. In Digboi, Male literacy is around 95.09 % while female literacy rate is 89.02 %.

text: Digboi Oil Town was considered as a separate census town in 2011 India census.[5] The population is largely heterogeneous. Assamese, Bengali, Nepali, Bihari, Marwari communities form the majority. People from various tribes such as the tea-tribes (brought in by the colonial planters as indentured labourers from the Chhotanagpur plateau region), Bodos, Mishings etc. have also made it their home.

text: Culture & economy[edit]

text: As being a small part of the diverse state Assam. It is flooded with assamese culture and heritage. As being colonised by British and rising of industrial era the place have seen adverse changes. Workers, labourers were brought in. Digboi township accounted for diverse group of people that entered in search of livelihood. But the outskirts were still agriculture based. Assam being rich in fertility, tea is produced throughout the place bringing a bright opportunity to the people and the place itself. Yet small people here portrait the picture of the nation itself.

text: How to reach Digboi[edit]

text: This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (September 2015)

tag: table

text:
The nearest airport is the Mohanbari Airport, Dibrugarh and the  nearest railway junction is the Tinsukia Junction. One can get flight to Dibrugarh from Delhi and Kolkata on daily basis. Also Dibrugarh-New Delhi Rajdhani express runs daily from Dibrugarh via New Tinsukia Junction. There are also proper roadways which link the Digboi Oil town to some other towns like Duliajan, Makum etc.
Digboi has got a railway station and it connects well with Guwahati.
Digboi can be reached by public transport bus and mini-vans as well. Various companies run bus between Digboi and other neighbouring towns and Guwahati. Rickshaw is the main mode of transport within the city.

text: Places of interest[edit]

text:
Digboi Oil Centenary Museum
Digboi War Cemetery
Digboi 18 hole Golf Course
Digboi Oil Field
Digboi Centenary Park
Digboi Bar

tag: ul

text: Politics[edit]

text:
Digboi is part of Dibrugarh (Lok Sabha constituency) which is represented by Mr Rameswar Teli of Bharatiya Janata Party.It lies in the Digboi Constituency of the State Assembly where it is represented by Mr. Suren Phukan of Bharatiya Janata Party.
[6]


document_title: Stanley & Iris

question_text: where was the movie stanley and iris filmed

text: Stanley & Iris

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Iris King (Fonda), a widow still grieving a half-year after the loss of her husband, works in a baking factory in Connecticut and lives in a high-crime area. She lives from paycheck to paycheck as she raises her two children, Kelly and Richard. Also staying with her are her sister Sharon and Sharon's abusive husband Joe, both unemployed. With money already tight for the family, Kelly discovers she is pregnant, which makes matters worse.

text: Iris makes the acquaintance of Stanley Cox (De Niro), a cook in the bakery's lunchroom cafeteria, when he comes to her aid after her purse is snatched on a bus. But as their friendship develops, she begins noticing peculiarities about Stanley − he doesn't own a car (he instead bicycles wherever he needs to go), he lives with and supports his elderly father, becomes frustrated when asked to sign his name, doesn't believe in opening Chinese fortune cookies, and cannot pick out a specific item from a shelf. Iris soon realizes that Stanley is illiterate, and when she innocently mentions this to Stanley's boss, Stanley is fired the next day over food safety (and potential lawsuit) concerns, despite being a good cook and model employee. Afterwards, Stanley is unable to obtain any steady work, forcing him to move into a garage and put his father in a shabby retirement home. His father dies in the home only a few weeks later, upsetting Stanley over the fact that his illiteracy prevented him from caring for his father properly. Stanley seeks Iris out and asks her to teach him to read, explaining that his traveling-salesman father moved him all over the country when Stanley was a boy, bouncing him to nearly 50 different schools in total, resulting in Stanley developing no reading or writing skills from this lack of educational stability. Iris begins giving Stanley basic reading lessons and he gradually grows close to her and her family. It is during one of these reading exercises that he tells her that he's been wanting to get intimate with her since they first met, but Iris is hesitant.

text: Iris tests Stanley's developing reading skills by making him a map and having him meet her at a certain street corner within 15 minutes, but Stanley gets hopelessly lost. Hours later, he reaches the corner where a frantic Iris is still waiting. Frustrated, Stanley marches off alone without saying a word, his interest in learning to read gone. Iris visits him at his garage home to try to persuade him to continue learning to read. Looking around, she sees a large mechanical project that Stanley is working on, as he invents things as a hobby. He has designed a cake-cooling machine that can outperform anything in the commercial marketplace. Iris is immensely impressed and Stanley reveals that a local company has shown interest in his invention and even offered him a job. Stanley agrees to start reading again with Iris, and in time learns to write short sentences. Stanley surprises Iris by cooking a big dinner for her and her family, and the two of them begin to grow close again.

text: After Kelly has her baby, Iris is displeased when she drops out of school to work at the bakery, as she doesn't want her daughter wasting her life in the kind of dead-end job Iris herself is in. Stanley and Iris finally decide to make love, but Iris is still clinging to her late husband's memory. This threatens their budding relationship further and they don't see each other for some time. Not prepared to give up on Iris the way she didn't give up on him, Stanley finally goes to see her. Iris hands him an unmailed letter she wrote to him, and Stanley surprises her by reading it aloud nearly perfectly. Iris, now ready to start letting go of the past, accompanies Stanley to a fancy hotel where they order room service and spend the night together.

text: Stanley soon moves to Detroit for a new, well-paying job he has been offered, his inventing ability finally having paid off. Several months later, back in Connecticut, Iris is walking home carrying groceries when an expensive car pulls up next to her and she is surprised to find Stanley behind the wheel. Stanley tells her that he's been given a raise and is looking to buy a large six-bedroom house in Detroit − and that he wants her to move there with him as his wife. Iris accepts.

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Actor
Role

Jane Fonda
Iris King

Robert De Niro
Stanley Cox

Swoosie Kurtz
Sharon

Martha Plimpton
Kelly King

Harley Cross
Richard King

Jamey Sheridan
Joe

Feodor Chaliapin, Jr.
Leonides Cox

Zohra Lampert
Elaine

Loretta Devine
Bertha

Kathy Kinney
Bernice

Stephen Root
Mr. Hershey

text: Music[edit]

text:
Stanley & Iris: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

Film score by John Williams

Released
1990 (original); 2017 (expansion)

Recorded
Lorimar Music Scoring

Length
28:56 (original); 59:31 (on the Deluxe Edition)

Label
Varese Sarabande

Producer
John Williams

John Williams chronology

Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade
(1989)Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade1989
Stanley & Iris
(1990)
Home Alone
(1990)Home Alone1990

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

Filmtracks

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Stanley and Iris"
3:24

2.
"Reading Lessons"
2:26

3.
"The Bicycle"
3:07

4.
"Factory Work"
1:23

5.
"Finding a Family"
1:41

6.
"Stanley at Work"
1:31

7.
"Looking after Papa"
3:10

8.
"Stanley's Invention"
1:17

9.
"Night Visit"
1:58

10.
"Letters"
3:25

11.
"Putting it all Together"
1:46

12.
"End Credits"
3:03

text: Deluxe Edition track listing[edit]

text: In 2017 Varese Sarabande issued an expanded edition with John Williams' score for Martin Ritt's 1972 film Pete 'n' Tillie (tracks 27-36 - duration 17:51).

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Stanley and Iris"
3:26

2.
"The Bicycle"
3:09

3.
"The Pink Sweater"
1:07

4.
"Iris After Work"
0:40

5.
"Stanley at Work"
1:33

6.
"Looking after Papa"
3:05

7.
"Entering the Library"
1:07

8.
"Night Visit"
2:00

9.
"Factory Work"
1:26

10.
"Naming the Trees"
3:37

11.
"Finding a Family"
1:42

12.
"Lost in the Streets"
2:56

13.
"Stanley's Invention"
1:18

14.
"The Kitchen Table"
1:06

15.
"Seeing the Baby"
1:15

16.
"Reading Lessons"
2:28

17.
"Growing Together"
2:09

18.
"Putting It All Together"
1:47

19.
"Letters"
3:28

20.
"End Title"
3:04

21.
"Stanley and Iris (Film version)"
3:24

22.
"Stanley at Work (Film version)"
1:29

23.
"Looking after Papa (Film version)"
3:11

24.
"Stanley's Invention (Film version)"
1:18

25.
"Putting It All Together (Film version)"
1:49

26.
"Letters (Film version)"
4:00

27.
"Pete 'n' Tillie - Main Title"
1:57

28.
"Afterglow"
1:46

29.
"Marriage Book"
1:48

30.
"Bedroom Scene"
0:57

31.
"Vacation"
2:45

32.
"For Robbie"
1:33

33.
"Funeral"
0:52

34.
"Hospital"
0:42

35.
"End Title and End Cast"
3:49

36.
"Love Theme"
2:27

text: Production[edit]

text:
This film was shot on location in Toronto, Ontario, and Waterbury, Connecticut. During the filming in Waterbury, local Vietnam War veterans picketed the production protesting Jane Fonda's anti-war activities of a decade and a half earlier.[1]
Fonda and De Niro were each paid $3.5 million for their performances. Ritt received $1.65 million and the Ravetches $500,000.[1]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Stanley & Iris received negative reviews from critics, as the film holds a 29% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. It was also a commercial failure at the box office, grossing less than $6 million against its $23 million budget.


document_title: Deep ocean water

question_text: what is the temperature at bottom of ocean

text: Deep ocean water

text: Deep ocean water (DOW) is the name for cold, salty water found deep below the surface of Earth's oceans. Ocean water differs in temperature and salinity. Warm surface water is generally saltier than the cooler deep or polar waters;[1] in polar regions, the upper layers of ocean water are cold and fresh.[2] Deep ocean water makes up about 90% of the volume of the oceans. Deep ocean water has a very uniform temperature, around 0-3 °C, and a salinity of about 3.5% or as oceanographers state as 35 ppt (parts per thousand).[3]

text: In specialized locations such as the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii NELHA ocean water is pumped to the surface from approximately 900 metres (3000 feet) deep for applications in research, commercial and pre-commercial activities. DOW is typically used to describe ocean water at sub-thermal depths sufficient to provide a measurable difference in water temperature.

text: When deep ocean water is brought to the surface, it can be used for a variety of things. Its most useful property is its temperature. At the surface of the Earth, most water and air is well above 3 °C. The difference in temperature is indicative of a difference in energy. Where there is an energy gradient, skillful application of engineering can harness that energy for productive use by humans. Assuming the source of deep ocean water is environmentally friendly and replenished by natural mechanisms, it forms a more innovative basis for cleaner energy than current fossil-fuel-derived energy.

text: The simplest use of cold water is for air conditioning: using the cold water itself to cool air saves the energy that would be used by the compressors for traditional refrigeration. Another use could be to replace expensive desalination plants. When cold water passes through a pipe surrounded by humid air, condensation results. The condensate is pure water, suitable for humans to drink or for crop irrigation. Via a technology called Ocean thermal energy conversion, the temperature difference can be turned into electricity.

text: Cold-bed agriculture[edit]

text: During condensation or Ocean thermal energy conservation operations, the water does not reach ambient temperature, because a certain temperature gradient is required to make these processes viable. The water leaving those operations is therefore still colder than the surroundings, and a further benefit can be extracted by passing this water through underground pipes, thereby cooling agricultural soil. This reduces evaporation, and even causes water to condense from the atmosphere.[4] This allows agricultural production where crops would normally not be able to grow. This technique is sometimes referred to as "cold agriculture"[5] or "cold-bed agriculture".[6]


document_title: Rizzoli & Isles

question_text: who plays the mother on rizzoli and isles

text: Rizzoli & Isles

text: Premise[edit]

text: The series' backstory is inspired by the Maura Isles/Jane Rizzoli series of novels by Tess Gerritsen. Rizzoli appears in the series' first novel, The Surgeon, and Isles is introduced in the second, The Apprentice, which serves as the basis for the television series. Boston detective Jane Rizzoli has been investigating a serial killer named Charles Hoyt. Hoyt, who was banned from medical school for fondling a corpse, used his vast medical knowledge to systematically torture and kill people, usually choosing couples so that he could induce the most fear in his victims. Jane ascertains Hoyt's location, but as she is searching for him, she is hit in the back of the head and knocked unconscious. She is pinned to the floor by scalpels and awakes as Hoyt prepares to cut her throat, but Vince Korsak, Jane's partner, locates her and shoots Hoyt, saving her life. Jane, reasoning that Korsak would never trust her as his partner after seeing her so vulnerable, applies for a new partner.

text: The series pilot, "See One. Do One. Teach One", is largely based on the novel The Apprentice. Jane and medical examiner Maura Isles investigate a killer with Hoyt's modus operandi plus an interest in necrophilia. Jane and Maura discover that the copycat was John Stark (Brendan McCarthy), a soldier who met Hoyt in medical school, had his identity erased for CIA black operations, and mimicked Hoyt's MO in a killing spree during said operations. Meanwhile, Hoyt escapes from prison and rejoins his apprentice to continue in his killing. Later, Jane's home is broken into, and she is told by someone posing as part of BPD that her neighbor had been killed; she rushes into the van to see the body but finds Hoyt instead. Hoyt and his apprentice knock her out and kidnap her. When she wakes up they attempt to kill her, but she manages to disarm them by Tasing them and burning Hoyt's eye with a flare. In self-defense, she shoots the apprentice to death, and, when Hoyt reaches for her gun, she shoots him through the hands, giving him injuries similar to the ones he gave her.

text: New twists are introduced when Jane and Maura discover that a recent murder victim is actually Maura's previously unknown half-brother, resulting in her discovery that her father is notorious criminal Patrick Doyle.

text: Hoyt returns 18 months later through another apprentice, Lola, in "I'm Your Boogie Man". Having murdered Lola's abusive husband two years earlier, Hoyt uses her Stockholm syndrome to his advantage and uses her to stalk Jane. Lola seduces and captures Frankie Rizzoli before tying Jane up. She plans to kidnap Jane until Hoyt can escape from prison, but Jane manages to distract Lola long enough for Frankie to kill Lola with her own revolver.

text: Hoyt returns again when he arranges for another inmate to be stabbed while he is dying of cancer, luring Jane into the prison so that he can taunt her about another unsolved murder he committed. While speaking to Jane in the prison infirmary, Hoyt tells her to look at what he is reading—Tess Gerritsen's novel The Silent Girl. Although she manages to find the bodies of his victims—the family of an old college professor of Hoyt's who was unaware of his expulsion—Hoyt, aided by a third apprentice, manages to capture Jane and Maura, only to have Jane beat Hoyt and then stab him when he and his apprentice try to kill Maura.

text: Production[edit]

text: The untitled project was on TNT's development slate as early as March 2008.[3] In October 2009, TNT placed a cast-contingent pilot order under the original title, Rizzoli.[4][5] The pilot script was written by Janet Tamaro. Angie Harmon was the first actress cast, taking the title role of police detective Jane Rizzoli.[6] Sasha Alexander won the role of medical examiner Dr. Maura Isles after auditioning with Harmon.[7] Bruce McGill signed as Rizzoli's former partner, Sgt. Vince Korsak.[8] Lee Thompson Young was cast as her new partner, Barry Frost.[8] The role of Rizzoli's younger brother Frankie was filled by Jordan Bridges.[8] Lorraine Bracco signed on as Rizzoli's mother, Angela.[9] In early 2010, Billy Burke was announced as FBI agent Gabriel Dean.[10]

text: In late January 2010, TNT green-lighted the pilot to series with the new title Rizzoli & Isles.[10][11] Ten episodes were ordered and the show premiered on July 12, 2010.[10][12] The series is produced on the Paramount Pictures lot in Hollywood, California.[13] Owing to a sponsorship deal between MillerCoors and Turner Broadcasting for the summer 2010 season, the series included product placement for MGD 64, including billboards in the backgrounds of some scenes.[14][15] The first season was additionally sponsored by Vonage. After having aired three episodes in 2010, the series was renewed for a second season,[16] which aired from July 11 to December 26, 2011. In August 2011, TNT ordered a third season, which aired from June 5 through December 25, 2012.[17] On June 29, 2012, TNT ordered a fourth season, which aired from June 25, 2013, through March 18, 2014.[18][19][20] On December 9, 2014, TNT renewed Rizzoli & Isles for an 18-episode sixth season.[21][22]

text: In August 2013, production on the fourth season was suspended when cast member Lee Thompson Young was found dead at his Los Angeles apartment from a self-inflicted gunshot wound.[23] In the second half of the fifth season, a new character, crime scene analyst Nina Holiday, played by Idara Victor, was introduced. Series executive producer Jan Nash stated that Nina would not replace Young's character, Frost, but is her own character. Instead, the existing characters were given "new dynamics", according to Nash. For example, Jane and Korsak work more cases together, and Frankie is more involved and has more access.[24]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main characters[edit]

text:
Jane Clementine Rizzoli (Angie Harmon): a Boston detective in the Homicide Unit. From an Italian American family, Jane is brash, brilliant, and often prickly but also a confident and independent woman. She is the tomboy daughter of an overprotective mother. She is extremely competitive, especially with her younger brother, Frankie (also a cop), who is often caught in her shadow. Jane can tackle a perp like a linebacker. She rarely lets her guard down with anyone, except her best friend, Maura Isles. She is something of a slob; her apartment has been shown on several occasions to be quite messy, and in one episode she claimed to have just opened a box of cereal five years after originally buying it. As a child, she was slightly chubby, earning her the nickname "Roly-Poly Rizzoli". She mentioned in one episode that she played field hockey as an attacker in junior college. She is the eldest Rizzoli sibling,[25] and graduated from high school in 1994, which puts Jane's birth year at 1976.[26] She is hopeless with men and allergic to dogs, but she winds up taking in Jo Friday, a stray dog rescued by her former partner, Korsak. Raised in the blue-collar Boston suburb of Revere, Jane has fought long and hard to win the respect of her colleagues, but it is her relationship with her equally stubborn mother, Angela Rizzoli, that sometimes proves to be her biggest headache. During her time on the force, she had a traumatic experience at the hands of a serial killer known as "The Surgeon", Charles Hoyt. While trying to rescue one of his victims, she was taken by surprise from behind and almost became a victim herself. She has matching scars in the center of her palms where Hoyt stabbed her with scalpels, keeping her pinned to the ground. Her original partner, Vince Korsak, saved her life, and Jane survived the brutal, near-death attack by Hoyt. Although she put Hoyt behind bars, she is still haunted by him. She learned that she was pregnant at the end of season four, owing to a liaison with her old boyfriend Casey, but lost the baby midway through the fifth season when she was attacked while protecting a key witness in a case. In the final season, Jane takes a new job as an instructor at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia, and works her final case with the Boston PD in the series finale, "Ocean-Frank".
Dr. Maura Dorothea Isles (Sasha Alexander): the Commonwealth of Massachusetts' Chief Medical Examiner. Isles is a forensic expert working at the Boston Police Department. She is Jane's best friend. Maura is a walking encyclopedia, able to spout out facts regardless of whether or not they are relevant to a case. She has a pet tortoise named Bass, after noted forensic anthropologist William M. Bass. Maura is not easily ruffled and has a steady temperament. She absolutely loves examining dead bodies, but she has a tendency to diagnose living people a little too often. She is the adopted only child of a wealthy family. In high school, she was nicknamed "Maura-The-Bore-A" because her classmates thought she was boring. She is always impeccably dressed and is known around the force as "Queen of the Dead"; her ring tone on Jane's phone appropriately plays Chopin's "Funeral March". Maura is the complete opposite of Jane, though they are best friends; Rizzoli is more of a tomboy, while Maura always looks like she is going to a fashion shoot rather than to the morgue or a crime scene. Though Maura is socially awkward and has trouble with men because of her brutal honesty and habit of revealing all their medical conditions, she is not awkward around Jane. She can analyze x-rays and blood chemistries and can slice open muscles and organs but possesses no scalpel with which to dissect human emotions. Maura also cannot lie; if she does, she breaks out in hives. It is later revealed that her biological father is an Irish crime boss named Paddy Doyle, something she finds out while investigating her half-brother's death. She finds out in the episode "What Doesn't Kill You" (3.1) that her father told her biological mother that she died on the day she was born, August 7, 1976. She subsequently visited a cemetery containing a gravestone with the name "Baby Maura Doyle" on it. In the series finale, "Ocean-Frank", Maura takes a sabbatical from the ME's office to go to Paris, France, and work on her novel.
Angela Rizzoli (Lorraine Bracco): Jane, Frankie and Tommy's mother. Angela is fiercely protective of her children, saying she has not slept since Jane decided to become a cop. Angela wishes Jane could be a little more feminine and is constantly trying to set her up on dates. After her divorce, she spent some time working in the precinct's café, and dated Lieutenant Cavanagh, but she quit the job and broke up with Cavanagh when she decided that she needed to re-evaluate her life. She currently works at the bar that Vince Korsak bought and that they all frequent.
Vincent "Vince" Walter Korsak (Bruce McGill): Rizzoli's former partner. The two maintain a close bond after years of working together, but Korsak is clearly bothered that he is no longer partnered with Jane. He seems to care for her like a daughter and is nearly as protective of her as Angela is. It is revealed in the series pilot that he saved her life from Hoyt. He will drop whatever he is doing on a moment's notice to rescue an animal, and enjoys watching videos of dogs on the Internet. After remaining a detective for nearly his entire career, Korsak was finally promoted to sergeant-detective in season two, and took the lieutenant's exam in season five. In preparing for retirement, Vince bought the local bar that they all frequent, the Dirty Robber, and employed Angela. He was a US Marine and served during the Vietnam War. Korsak has been divorced 3 times, despite the jokes that he is behind the times he is very wise and observant. He also has several hobbies including playing guitar and sailing, Maura has even once before asked him for his expertise on seaman knots and skills. In the series finale, "Ocean-Frank", Korsak retires from the Boston PD after a thirty-two year career.

text: Barold "Barry" Frost (Lee Thompson Young) (Seasons 1-4): Rizzoli's second partner. A whiz when it comes to computers and technology, he is terrified of dead bodies and becomes ill at the sight of blood. He is very protective of Jane and stands by her like a loyal, tough partner. In the season five premiere, he is killed in a car accident while returning from vacation. In the season five finale, the team establish the Barry Frost Memorial Scholarship, intended for students who are academically gifted and seek to go into professions that would help others but lack the resources to do so.

text:
Francesco "Frankie" Rizzoli, Jr. (Jordan Bridges): Jane's brother and police officer. He looks up to Jane, but does not like feeling caught in her shadow, especially as he tries to make his own way on the police force. Like all the men in Jane's life, Frankie is more protective of Jane than she would like. He is a cop against his mother's wishes, and sees his sister as a role model. In season four, Frankie is promoted to detective and starts taking night classes in computer science in season five to increase his skill set in Frost's absence. In season seven, he begins a romantic relationship with Nina and eventually successfully proposes to her.
Sean Cavanaugh (Brian Goodman) (Seasons 3-4, main; 1-2, 5, recurring): the lieutenant of the Boston PD's Homicide Unit. Fiercely loyal to Jane and an old friend of Korsak, Sean is willing to bend the rules for his guys. It is later discovered that Sean lost his wife and son in a fire (set by Paddy Doyle) back when he and Korsak were rookies.
Nina Holiday (Idara Victor) (Seasons 6-7, main; 5, recurring): a crime scene analyst and computer technician. Formerly a detective, Holiday transferred to Boston Homicide in order to hone her analytical skills in an office-based environment.[27] Following her being shot in the sixth-season finale, Frankie Rizzoli begins a romantic relationship with her and later successfully proposes to her in the seventh.
Dr. Kent Drake (Adam Sinclair) (Season 7, main; 6, recurring): a lab technician, and Maura's new assistant starting in the sixth season. In the series finale, "Ocean-Frank", Kent is set to oversee the Commonwealth of Massachusetts' Medical Examiner's Office during Maura's sabbatical.

text: Recurring cast and characters[edit]

text:
Annabeth Gish as Alice Sands. Alice was born into a distinguished law enforcement family, but she dropped out of the police academy while Jane was enrolled. Alice was second in her class behind Jane, after having been the best at everything prior to then. This created her dangerous fixation on Jane, which led to Alice inserting herself into a circle of tunnel residents and having them do her bidding. Following a shootout at Korsak's wedding reception, Jane seems to make a personal vendetta against Alice. Jane ultimately corners Alice, who has taken a teenager hostage, and shoots her dead. This leaves her team to wonder if Jane shot her in the line of duty or an act of vengeance.
Tina Huang as Susie Chang, the senior criminalist of the Boston Police Department's crime laboratory. She has described herself as having a very physical memory; when circumstances required her to take point in an investigation, she made various dioramas to explain her reasoning. She was killed in the sixth-season episode "Misconduct" as part of a complex plan to frame the forensics department for poor handling of a recent case, but the subsequent investigation exposed the killer's true agenda.
Donnie Wahlberg as Lieutenant Joe Grant, an old rival of Jane's who has known her since childhood. He constantly made fun of her, calling her "Frog-Face" and "Roly-Poly Rizzoli" because she was slightly chubby when she was younger. When he leaves for Washington, DC after being appointed as the liaison between Boston and Homeland Security, he claims that he had liked her for a very long time.
John Doman as Patrick "Paddy" Doyle, an Irish-American crime boss and biological father and protector of Maura Isles. Paddy claimed Maura had died as a baby and made sure she was adopted.[28]
Jacqueline Bisset as Constance Isles, a visual artist and the adoptive mother of Dr. Maura Isles. She loves Maura but is sorry that they don't have a close relationship.
Colin Egglesfield as Thomas "Tommy" Rizzoli: the youngest brother of Jane and Frankie; he is the youngest of the Rizzoli kids, arrested for running a priest over at a crosswalk on his third DUI violation. He returns to the family fold following his release from prison. As of the season two episode "He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother", he is 32 years old. He tries to kiss Maura when he comes back to pay her back for her kindness, but she stops him and he develops a huge crush on Maura as he works on starting a new life.[29]
Chris Vance as Charles (Casey) Jones, an old flame of Jane's during high school, reunited with Jane during season two. A US Army officer assigned to the Middle East, he returns to Boston in season three but breaks up with Jane because of injuries that left him partially paralyzed below the waist. He returns in season four's first episode after a successful operation and proposes to Jane, but when he receives the offer of a promotion to colonel, he decides to stay in the army, leaving Jane behind as she was unwilling to leave her life. He is aware that Jane was pregnant with his child, but respects her decision to raise the child alone as he had also made the choice to return to the army; she loses the baby midway through the fifth season after being attacked while protecting a witness.
Darryl Alan Reed as Rondo, a man with access to information in the criminal world. Although Jane initially dismisses his offer to be her confidential informant, he does become her informant later on and is currently providing Jane with information from the criminal world. He has also been shown to have a comical character persona, similar to Larry Laffer. He frequently hits on Jane, calling her "Vanilla", and eventually develops a friendship with Angela, referring to her as "Mrs. Vanilla". He is revealed to be an ex–jazz singer in "This Is How a Heart Breaks".
Billy Burke as Gabriel Dean, an FBI agent often seen working with the Boston Homicide detectives and Medical Examiner's Office. He later becomes romantically involved with Detective Jane Rizzoli, but she ends this relationship when he tries to use her as part of a plan to capture Paddy Doyle that forced Jane to shoot Paddy.
Chazz Palminteri as Francesco "Frank" Rizzoli Sr. – Jane, Frankie, and Tommy's father. He owns and runs a plumbing business called Rizzoli and Sons. He and Angela separate and then divorce after the first series. He later tries to have their marriage annulled so that he can remarry in a Catholic ceremony. He returns to announce he has stage 2 prostate cancer, and, despite the news, his family finds it difficult to overlook his past transgressions.
Matthew Del Negro as Giovanni Gilberti, a dim-witted former classmate of Jane's and a blue-collar auto mechanic. He is under the impression that Maura and Jane are dating, which Maura came up with in order to save the two of them from Giovanni's advances.
Michael Massee as Charles Hoyt, a former serial killer who stabbed Jane in both hands and continued to threaten Jane, even from behind bars. Hoyt appears in many episodes, including "See One, Do One, Teach One" (episode 1), "I'm Your Boogie Man", and "Remember Me". In the episode "See One, Do One, Teach One", Hoyt and the apprentice he went to medical school with kidnap Jane. Jane shoots and kills the apprentice and throws a flare at Hoyt. Jane then shoots him in the hands and says, "We match". In the episode "Remember Me", Hoyt, despite dying of cancer, lures Jane and Maura into his hospital room with the aid of a new apprentice with the goal of killing Jane before he dies, but Jane manages to get the upper hand and stabs and kills Hoyt with a scalpel while saying, "I win". Despite his death, he continues to haunt Jane and the team and has been mentioned at least once a season since his death; when dealing with the murders committed by Dennis Rockmond ("Melt My Heart of Stone"), Jane speculates that he may be an apprentice of Hoyt's due to the ritualistic nature of his crimes, and "No One Mourns the Wicked" saw the team deal with a forensic pathologist and her son (conceived by her father's abuse) who were committing murders inspired by Hoyt's methods.
Sharon Lawrence as Hope Martin, Maura's biological mother, who believed Maura died as a baby. She is a noted forensic pathologist.
Emilee Wallace as Cailin Martin, Hope's daughter and Maura's half-sister. Maura anonymously donated her kidney to Cailin to save her life.
Alexandra Holden as Lydia Sparks, a ditzy young woman who is heavily pregnant when she is befriended by Angela. It is soon revealed that the child she is carrying is either Tommy's or Angela's ex-husband Frank's. Eventually the child is known as TJ, for "Tommy Junior", once a test confirms that Tommy is the father.
Jaz Sinclair as Tasha Williams.

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Rizzoli & Isles started to air on GEM in Australia on 000000002010-11-29-0000November 29, 2010.[30] The series started to air on Super Channel in Canada on 000000002010-10-05-0000October 5, 2010.[31] As of 2016, Superchannel is no longer carrying the show.

text: The series moved to Showcase in Canada on 000000002012-01-03-0000January 3, 2012, on TVNorge in Norway on 000000002010-11-11-0000November 11, 2010, M-Net Series in South Africa on 000000002011-09-14-0000September 14, 2011, and on Warner TV in Singapore on 000000002011-02-01-0000February 1, 2011.[32]

text: Rizzoli & Isles started to air on Alibi in the United Kingdom on 000000002011-09-13-0000September 13, 2011. A subscription is required.[32][33] The series second season premiered on 000000002012-01-26-0000January 26, 2012.[32]

text:
Season
Time slot (EST)
Number of episodes
Premiere
Finale
TV season
Overall rank
Overall viewership

Date
Viewers
(millions)
18–49 Rating
Date
Viewers
(millions)
18–49 Rating

1

Monday 10:00 pm

10

July 12, 2010

7.55[34]
2.1[34]

September 13, 2010

6.56[35]
1.5[35]
2010
N/A
N/A

2
15

July 11, 2011

6.38[36]
1.2[36]

December 26, 2011

5.79[37]
1.1[37]
2011
N/A
N/A

3

Tuesday
9:00 pm

15

June 5, 2012

5.62[38]
1.2[38]

December 25, 2012

4.42[39]
0.8[39]
2012
#3[40]
7.40[40]

4
16

June 25, 2013

6.64[41]
1.4[41]

March 18, 2014

3.58[42]
0.7[42]
2013–14
N/A
N/A

5
18

June 17, 2014

5.81[43]
1.0[43]

March 17, 2015

3.62[44]
0.6[44]
2014–15
N/A
N/A

6
18

June 16, 2015

4.39[45]
0.7[45]

March 15, 2016

2.92[46]
0.5[46]
2015–16
N/A
N/A

7

Monday 9:00 pm

13

June 6, 2016

3.91[47]
0.6[47]

September 5, 2016

5.26[48]
0.7[48]
2016
TBA
TBA

text: Reception[edit]

text: The series started strong in the ratings, as 7.55 million viewers tuned in for the premiere episode. Rizzoli & Isles was the second most-watched cable program on the evening of July 12, 2010, behind its lead-in, The Closer, which had 110,000 more viewers.[49] The show finished the week in third behind The Closer and the final episode of Deadliest Catch.[50]

text: The premiere set a record as the highest-rated debut for a commercial-supported cable series, and it was the second-highest debut ever for a basic cable TV series.[51][52] Rizzoli & Isles is second only to the 2008 premiere of Raising the Bar, which attracted 7.7 million viewers during its commercial-free debut.[52][53][54] Live + 7 day ratings for the premiere updated the show's status as the all-time most-watched cable series launch, with DVR viewers increasing the show's rating to just over 9 million viewers.[55]

text: The show has ranked in the top five cable programs all five seasons and was the number one basic cable program in its fifth season.[56]

text: The show has been described as having lesbian undertones,[57][58][59] and the purported sexual attraction between Rizzoli and Isles has been the subject of critical and fan attention,[60][61][62][59][63] with sites such as The Advocate connecting the show's lesbian subtext to its popularity.[64] Harmon said that she was not surprised by the attention[65] and that, while it was "'super fun' to play a role that has some same-sex romantic vibes", the characters are "straight" and "just best friends".[60] Alexander said that she was not initially aware of the subtext but believed it reflected the characters' chemistry.[66] She also expressed skepticism that Rizzoli and Isles' friendship was out of the ordinary.[67]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Association
Category
Recipient(s)
Result

2012
Young Artist Awards
Best Performance in a TV Series – Guest Starring Young Actor 18–21
Cameron Monaghan
Nominated

2014
People's Choice Awards
Favorite Cable TV Actress
Angie Harmon
Nominated

2015
Favorite Cable TV Actress
Angie Harmon
Won

Favorite Cable TV Drama
Rizzoli & Isles
Nominated

2016
Favorite Cable TV Actress
Sasha Alexander
Won