document_title: Judge Judy

question_text: where is the tv show judge judy filmed

question_tokens: where is the tv show judge judy filmed

text: Judge Judy

text: Court show background[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: Sheindlin's pre-court show reputation as one of the toughest family court judges in the country was the topic of a February 14, 1993 edition of The Los Angeles Times written by—perhaps the man responsible for initiating her entertainment career—Josh Getlin (copy of the article here).[15][16] On May 21, 1993, Joseph Wapner was released from The People's Court. Sheindlin called up the program and said, "You know, if he doesn't want to do this show any more, I can do it." The receptionist snapped, "Are you crazy, lady?" and hung up.[17] Getlin's Los Angeles Times article on Sheindlin caught the attention of 60 Minutes, which aired a segment on her on October 24, 1993.[18] The segment brought her national recognition and first led to an offer for her to write her own book. Sheindlin accepted the book offer, writing Don't Pee On My Leg and Tell Me It's Raining.

text: In 1995 two former People's Court producers, Kaye Switzer and Sandi Spreckman (now involved in a lawsuit against Sheindlin and CBS as of January 2018, claiming they are owed compensation for discovering her[19]), asked Sheindlin if she would like to preside over her own courtroom series,[20] and she eventually accepted.[20] Sheindlin and her producers originally wanted the show title to be "Her Honor" but the production company, Big Ticket Television, decided on calling it "Hot Bench" instead,[21][22] even promoting the show as "Hot Bench With Judge Judy" for some time prior to the show's début.[23] However, Big Ticket ultimately decided on "Judge Judy".[24]

text: Petri Hawkins-Byrd, the court show's bailiff, was also Sheindlin's bailiff throughout her career in the Manhattan Family Court system. When Byrd found out about Sheindlin's show, he sent her a congratulatory letter, stating, "If you ever need a bailiff, I still look good in uniform." She phoned Byrd at his home in California to accept his offer and he has been the show's bailiff since its debut. Byrd is the longest-running bailiff in courtroom programming history. Sheindlin has stated that the show's producers desired different individuals for the role, but she refused.

text: Sheindlin appeared again on 60 Minutes on April 30, 2003. During the interview, Sheindlin stated:

text: I have a contract with the company to do the program through the 2006 season. At that point, we will have produced this program for 10 years. Right now, I would be satisfied with a good 10-year run. I think that would really be phenomenal. It would be lovely if we could end on a high note and for me to say "10 years and I still had people watching and I had a second career that was a blast."[21]

text: On September 14, 2015, Sheindlin began celebrating her 20th season anniversary presiding on Judge Judy. The program is the first in the court show genre to make it to 20 seasons without cancellation as well as the first to make it to this extent under one arbitrator. Her distinction as television's longest serving judge or arbitrator rewarded Sheindlin a place in the Guinness World Records on September 14, 2015.[25]

text: On-air format[edit]

text: Each episode of Judge Judy begins with an introductory preview of the main case, sensationalizing various moments of the case with dramatic music, voice-over commentary, graphics, etc. This is followed by the show's opening music video. At the beginning of each court proceeding, information regarding who is suing whom and what for is revealed originally by voice-over artist Michael Stull, who was later replaced by the show's current voice-over artist Jerry Bishop. Sheindlin typically begins each case by questioning the parties as to dates, times, locations and other facts central to the lawsuit. Monopolizing the discourse throughout the cases, Sheindlin will sometimes only listen to bits and pieces of each of the testimonies as she is quick to reply and tends to disallow responses that are not concise or made during her desire to speak.[26] Sometimes, however, Sheindlin will allow one or both of the opposing litigants to recount the entirety of their testimony. While delivering their testimony, litigants are not allowed to hesitate and must maintain fixed eye contact with Sheindlin at all times. Further, litigants are not allowed to speak out of turn or talk to each other. Small children who do not testify are usually removed from the courtroom at the start of the litigation, and unruly co-litigants and witnesses (and once an audience member who laughed too awkwardly during the proceedings) are ejected for disobeying the judge.

text: Like most modern court shows, cases on Judge Judy imitate small claims court cases in which civil trials (non-criminal cases) are heard and ruled on. Typically Sheindlin handles cases among former lovers, disputing neighbors, or family and friend relations.[27] Disputes generally revolve around issues such as broken engagements, unpaid personal loans, contract breaches, personal injuries from other litigants or their pets, minor property damages (e.g., fender benders, carpet stains, etc.), the fate of jointly purchased household appliances and rightful ownership of property.[27] As is standard practice in small claims court and most reality court shows alike, Judge Judy proceedings operate in the form of a bench trial (as opposed to its more common counterpart, the jury trial). Moreover, lawyers are not present and litigants must defend themselves.[28]

text: When the show goes into the first two commercial breaks, the voice-over sounds, stating "Judge Judy continues in a moment", followed by a preview of the remainder of the ongoing case, sometimes along with the following case, is typically shown. When the show comes out of the first two commercial breaks, the voice-over sounds, stating "Real cases, Real people, Judge Judy", followed by a verbal recap of the ongoing case. When the show comes out of the last commercial break, the voice-over sounds again, this time providing the show's telephone number and website to submit cases.[4] Generally each show presents two cases, but infrequently, an episode will present a single long case, three shorter ones, or even four shorter ones.

text: After expressing her views of the circumstances and behaviors of the litigants with regards to their testimonies, Sheindlin renders the judgment either by finding for the plaintiff (typically with the statement, "Judgment for the plaintiff in the amount of x dollars. We're done."), by dismissing the case, or by dismissing the case specifically without prejudice. Any counterclaims filed are handled similarly to this. Counterclaims are handled subsequently in the same segment, though often cursorily by Sheindlin as many counterclaims on the program have been filed out of vindictiveness as opposed to legitimacy. At the end of each case, there is typically an afterthoughts segment for the litigants. In these segments, the plaintiff(s), the defendant(s), and sometimes their witnesses deliver a monologue, expressing their feelings regarding the case directly to the viewers at home by speaking into the camcorder. Sometimes, however, these segments are omitted, especially after cases involving resentful litigants, too upset over the circumstances to remain in the studio and provide comment.[29]

text: Inner workings[edit]

text: The producers of Judge Judy hire extras from an audience service who compose the entire studio. Paid audience members are easier to control due to agreements and employment. They don't have to be trained or debriefed as much as your average person on how to act to make those in the spotlight look good. Producers also seek a certain demographic of individuals and seat them strategically throughout their audience. Most of these paid extras are aspiring actors.[16][30] Though tickets are not offered for the show, arrangements can sometimes be made with Sheindlin's production staff to allow fans of the show into the audience. The extras must not dress casually, and no logos or brand names may be visible on their clothing. Extras are also instructed to appear as if they are having discussions with each other before and after each case, so the bailiff may make such announcements as "Order! All rise."[31]

text: Audience members are not to make any noises during the proceedings and, unlike other court shows, may not applaud the judge or rightful litigant upon praiseworthy remarks; although on some occasions when Sheindlin delivers a crushing remark for a particularly egregious or ludicrous act, the audience is seen laughing or applauding without Sheindlin silencing them. For the most part, however, Sheindlin is seen bringing the audience to order (with a fountain pen; she never uses a gavel) and admonishing them for engaging in any such noise throughout the cases.

text: To acquire cases, the show generally uses one of the following three options:

text:
Its 60 to 65 researchers, spread out across the country, enter small claims courts and photocopy numerous cases. These photocopied cases are then sent to Judge Judy producers, who review them all in search of lawsuits they believe will make for good television. According to the show's producers, only 3% of the photocopied cases are worthy enough for television.[16]
Its telephone number posting/announcement presented on each episode for interested individuals to call in with lawsuits.
Its website whereby lawsuits can be written out and submitted into the show.[32]

text: After one of these three processes, if the producers are interested, their employees will then call both parties and ask them questions relating to their lawsuit, making sure they're suitable for Judge Judy. If the parties agree to be on the show and sign a waiver, agreeing that arbitration in Sheindlin's court is final and cannot be pursued elsewhere (unless Sheindlin dismisses the lawsuit without prejudice), their case will air on Judge Judy.[33]

text: The award limit on Judge Judy, as on most "syndi-court" shows (and most small claims courts in the U.S.), is $5,000. The award for each judgment is paid by the producers of the show from a fund reserved for the purpose.[34] Sheindlin rules by either A.) issuing a verdict of a specific dollar amount (not always in the full amount of what is requested and rarely if ever in excess of what is requested even if she believes complainants are deserving of more) or B.) by dismissing the lawsuit altogether. When ruled on in these manners, cases cannot be refiled or retried elsewhere. However, if Sheindlin specifically dismisses the lawsuit "without prejudice", that lawsuit may be refiled and retried in another forum. In some instances, Sheindlin has dismissed cases without prejudice deliberately so that complainants pursue defendants in an actual court of law so that the defendants themselves are held financially accountable, this as opposed to the show. In such cases, Sheindlin has expressed particular aversion to the defendants in question.[35] Further, Sheindlin has dismissed cases without prejudice when she has suspected both the plaintiff(s) and defendant(s) of conspiring together just to gain monetary rewards from the program.[35]

text: Both the plaintiff(s) and the defendant(s) also receive an appearance fee. The appearance fee amount has varied as between different litigants of the show: certain litigants have reported receiving a $500 appearance fee while others have reported receiving $100, and others $250.[36][37] In addition to the appearance fee amount, litigants are paid $35 a day by the show.[37] The litigants' stay lasts for the number of days that the show does taping for that week, which is two or three days. [38] In addition, the airfare (or other means of travel) and hotel expenses of the litigants and their witnesses are covered by the show, and the experience is generally treated as an all-expense-paid vacation outside of the actual court case.[37] If there is an exchange of property, Sheindlin signs an order, and a sheriff or marshal oversees the exchange.[39] Sheindlin sees only a half-page complaint and a defense response prior to the taping of the cases, sometimes only moments before.[40] Most of the cases, not including any footage deleted to meet the time constraints of the show, usually last anywhere from twelve to forty-five minutes.[41][42]

text: Judge Judy, like most court programs, is inexpensive to produce and thus creates considerable income. A budget for a week's worth of Judge Judy episodes is half the cost of a single network sitcom episode.[43]

text: Recordings and airings[edit]

text: Three days every other week (two weeks a month), Sheindlin and her producers tape the court show.[24] They usually produce ten to twelve cases for each day they tape the show. This makes for about a week's worth of episodes, all done within one day. Anywhere from thirty to thirty-six cases are taped over three days during the week. Sheindlin appeared as a guest on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on September 13, 2011. When asked by Kimmel how many days a month she works, Sheindlin replied, "Five days." [44]Sheindlin and her producers sometimes tape only five cases per day and two days per week.[10][45] The show has fifty-two taping days a year.[46] For each season, some 650 claims are brought to the set to be "presided" over by Judge Judy.[10] This means approximately 8,450 claims have been brought to Judy Sheindlin's Hollywood set as of the end of its thirteenth season (2008–09).

text: For the most part, cases are taped all throughout the year except for two breaks Sheindlin and all of the staff members of her show have for the year. One of the two breaks includes an extra week off in December, as the show is only taped one week out of that month because of the holidays. The other break is from mid-July (only taping one week in July) and all through August. According to members of the show, the reason for this break is that people are more interested in taking vacations than in filing lawsuits around that time.[47] When the show premieres in September, only the best episodes of the ones taped before Sheindlin's break are selected to begin out the season. Thus, the first few weeks (the first week in particular) will consist of what the show feels to be its best episodes. In Sheindlin's words, "It's like drinking wine. You don't serve the really good bottle of wine third."[48]

text: Altogether, there are 260 new episodes each season. There is at least one new episode for every weekday, with the exception of a few hiatuses during most of the summer and a couple of holidays.[49] The cases are all pre-recorded for editing purposes and will usually air one to three months after being taped. The cases are mixed up and not shown in order of when they were recorded.[50] While the cases taped in March end the seasons, the cases taped throughout April, May, June, and July start out each season in September and last through October.[51] Throughout the very beginning of each season, two new Judge Judy episodes air per day. After two weeks, this is reduced to one new airing a day, followed by a repeat. There are also various other moments throughout the year where two new episodes are shown for a few weeks. This has sometimes included January when the show returns from its winter hiatus. Two new episodes are also shown daily during the "sweeps" months of November, February, and May. Unlike other television programs, the Judge Judy season finale does not air in April or May; rather, it airs in June, July, or August. When the season finale is extended to July or August, most of the summer episodes preceding it are repeats with new episodes that are few and far in-between.

text: Two DVDs, featuring "memorable cases," have been released by the show: the first in 2007, "Judge Judy: Justice Served," and the second in 2008, "Judge Judy: Second To None."[52]

text: Location[edit]

text: Judge Judy tapes at the Sunset Bronson Studios on Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles, California.[53] In alternating weeks, Sheindlin, who owns a home in New York among other cities/states, flies out on her private jet to tape Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday.[24]

text: As of 2014, the Judge Judy set is located directly beside the set of the courtroom series Sheindlin created and produces, Hot Bench. Both shows are taped in the same studio. Previous to that, the space directly beside Sheindlin's set was used for the courtroom series Paternity Court for the 2013-14 season.[54] Prior to that, the space was used for Judge Judy's long-running former sister show Judge Joe Brown; that is, until Judge Joe Brown's 2013 cancellation. Like Judge Judy was and still is, Judge Joe Brown was also produced by Big Ticket Entertainment until its cancellation.[41] The two shows alternated taping weeks. Despite the show being taped primarily in California, it displays various images of New York City upon returning from commercial breaks, including a subway train and official signs bearing "State of New York" and "Family Court" (Sheindlin was previously a New York family court judge)[55] within the letterbox-like graphics used going to and from breaks since the ninth season. The set features a New York state flag behind Sheindlin's seat.

text: Remodeling[edit]

text: Over its existence, the show has changed very little from season to season.[56] Most modifications to the program have been done in minute detail, such as to the show's book shelf display seen near the courtroom entrance. Aesthetically, the show's theme song, graphics, and color scheme are the only aspects that have changed repeatedly over its past eighteen years.[57] The ninth season (2004–05) is one of few seasons in which the show underwent major remodeling when music for the show's opening, closing, and to/from commercial portions were modified. A modern version of a melody from Beethoven's 5th Symphony was then adopted as the show's opening theme song. This arrangement was composed by Non-Stop Music Productions.[58] For its scenes, Sheindlin is shown in a different courtroom from her own (part of a proposed renovation to the courtroom that was rejected by Sheindlin for being too dark), approaching the camera, followed by folding her arms and smiling at the camera. This is followed by showing various scenes of her presiding over different cases. As part of these modifications, the show's introductory previews, graphics, and images all began showing up in falu red.

text: Prior to the ninth season, the show used an original tune for its theme song composed by Bill Bodine. From the show's debut through its eighth season, various versions of this original tune were used, the show making moderate modifications to the tune every few seasons, as shown here and here. The actual full-length version of this original musical, which never played during the show's intro, played during the lengthier litigant-afterthought-segments as shown (full-length musical used for 1999-00, 2000-01, 2001-02). From seasons four through eight, the opening music video commenced with an approaching scene towards a computer animated courthouse display up until that scene entered into the courthouse. From there, several shots of Sheindlin gesticulating from her bench—as though presiding over various cases—were displayed in motion. These motioning images eventually developed into the courthouse logo that represents the program (the logo always displayed within the letter "D" in "Judy") by the end of this opening music video. The music video in seasons prior to this used relatively similar music with disparities in scenes, images, instrumental sound type and theme song length.

text: Further, early seasons of the show used graphics and images that were sea green and saffron. Blue and saffron then came to represent multiple seasons of the show before the show's current color scheme. By the show's sixth season (2001–02), music and graphics used in the introductory previews no longer resembled the rest of the program as they had previously, but instead used a high blue color scheme and a different song for each episode/intro preview. While the introductory preview's inconstant tunes have continued to the present season, the color scheme in the introductory previews began resembling the color scheme used in the rest of the program (falu red) once again by the ninth season.

text: Each opening music video consists of Voice-Over Artist Jerry Bishop stating: "You are about to enter the courtroom of Judge Judith Sheindlin. The people are real. The cases are real. The rulings are final. This is Judge Judy."[59] Originally between the statements "The rulings are final" and "This is Judge Judy" was the statement, "This is her courtroom."[60] This was removed in 2004. Beginning in September 2012, the show made a switch to high definition with its 17th season. The bumpers between commercials are also in HD, although most on-screen graphics such as plaintiff and defendant descriptions are framed to fit a 4:3 aspect ratio.[61]

text: By the 20th season beginning in September 2015, the show began using a shortened, scanty version of the same intro it had been using for 10 years since its 9th season. Both the Beethoven remix and lyrics have been curtailed. The present lyrics state only "You are about to enter the courtroom of Judge Judith Sheindlin. This is Judge Judy." In addition to not using much of an intro theme any longer, a "20th anniversary" caption is depicted above the "Judge Judy" logo in the intro. These are the only two updates for season 20.

text: Episode Specials[edit]

text: Primetime Judge Judy[edit]

text: On May 20, 2014, CBS aired a one-hour special called Judge Judy Primetime which aired at 8 p.m. ET/PT. The special was a combination of reshown clips from the 1993 60 Minutes Special on Sheindlin, as well as a few never-previously-seen cases. The special marked Judge Judy's first airing in primetime, a landmark for court shows which are typically limited to daytime or late night hours.[62][63] Although the special didn't rank nearly as high as Dancing with the Stars (14.86 million) and The Voice (11.57 million), it brought in 5.66 million viewers, enough to make it the night's top rated show on CBS. In addition, the special came in just behind American Idol, which brought in 6.61 million viewers.[64]

text: Contrived case[edit]

text: At least some of the cases on the series have been circumstances that were allegedly contrived by the litigants just to receive monetary payment from the program.

text: In April 2013, former litigants from a 2010 airing of the show revealed they conspired together in fabricating a lawsuit in which the logical outcome would be to grant payment to the plaintiff. The operation, devised by musicians Kate Levitt and Jonathan Coward, was successful: Sheindlin awarded the plaintiff (Levitt) $1,250. The litigants involved also walked away with an appearance fee of $250 each and an all expense paid vacation to Hollywood, California. In reality, all the litigants in question—plaintiffs and defendants alike—were friends who split the earnings up among each other. It was also reported that the show's producers were in on the sham and knew of the contrivance all along but went along with it. The lawsuit was over the fictitious death of a cat as a result of a television crushing it.[65][66]

text: Curb Your Enthusiasm pseudo-Judge Judy case featuring Sheindlin[edit]

text: Sheindlin and her program appeared on the November 26, 2017 broadcast of Curb Your Enthusiasm, presiding over a sketch comedy court case with Larry David as the plaintiff. The pseudo-Judge Judy case assumed the appearance of an actual case from Sheindlin's program, taking place from the show's courtroom set with trademarked voice-over briefs, theme music and audience response, as shown.[67]

text: Judge Judy Sheindlin[edit]

text: Judge Judy was born on October 21, 1942, in Brooklyn, New York, to German-Jewish parents Murray and Ethel Blum. Sheindlin described her father, a dentist, as "the greatest thing since sliced bread" and her mother as "a meat-and-potatoes kind of gal." It was reported in October 2012 that Sheindlin had a $45 million yearly contract with CBS Television Distribution, in effect until 2015 and up $20 million from 2007.[68] It was later reported in October 2013 that Sheindlin is the highest paid TV star, earning $47 million per year for Judge Judy, which translates into just over $900,000 per workday (she works 52 days per year).[69]

text: Judy has gained a reputation as a judge in both the family court and on television for her no-nonsense fact-finding, brusque management, and incisive decision-making.[70][71] In line with these attributes, her program has been touted as "a show where justice is dispensed at the speed of light." Moreover, resolute in her rulings, arguments and excuses are often to no avail under Sheindlin.[72]

text: Strict in her management of the proceedings,[73] Sheindlin coerces precise compliance of rules and is very quick to scold or even punish what she perceives as disobedience, misbehavior or even annoyance. And as result of her gruff disposition,[74] volatile temper,[75] and frequent saucy treatment,[76] taglines such as "Justice with an Attitude" have been used to characterize the program.[77] As examples of this, Sheindlin has regularly made such remarks as:

text: "Baloney!", "Do I have 'stupid' written over my forehead?",[78] "I'm here because I'm smart, not because I'm young and gorgeous, although I am",[78] "If you live to be 100, you will never be as smart as I am, sir",[78] "Clearly you are not wrapped too tight",[79] "Where did you think you were coming to today, a tea party?!",[80] "I'm speaking!",[80] "If you interrupt again madam, your case is dismissed, and I'm throwing you out. Do we understand each other?",[80] "I've been in this business for over 40 years",[80] "Do I look like I need help from you?",[80] "That's a lot of who shot John",[81] "This is my playpen",[80] etc.

text: Spawning from her "Judge Judy: Justice Served" DVD, Sheindlin's regular phrases on the program have become known as "Judyisms".[82] Some of these Judyisms are intended to provide a lesson, such as "A good deed never goes unpunished", "Beauty fades, dumb is forever", "If It doesn't make sense, it's not true", "Do you know when teenagers are lying? When their mouths move."[80] Sheindlin has used the position of television arbitrator to impart guidance, direction, and life lessons not only to her litigants but her viewers and public at large. An example of guidance often stressed by Sheindlin is to be independent through employment, especially so as to not live off the government where unwarranted or other people directly where oppression from or friction with the provider may eventuate. In the former, Sheindlin can often be quoted as stating, "No, you aren't supporting yourself. Byrd and I are supporting you."[83][84] Sheindlin has stated that the main message she wants viewers to take from her program is that people must take responsibility for their actions and do the right thing.[49][85]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Nielsen Ratings by season[edit]

text: Judge Judy went on the air in September 1996. By the end of October of that year, the show was averaging only a 1.5 rating, putting it in the mid-rank of the 159 syndicated shows on the air. At that time, it was never expected that the show's ratings would ever compete with highly successful daytime TV shows of the time, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show, The Rosie O'Donnell Show and The Jerry Springer Show.[49] According to Biography's documentary film on Sheindlin, "Judge Judy: Sitting in Judgment" (aired February 21, 2000),[86] producers of Judge Judy were disappointed that the show was barely making it on the radar. However, it did not take long for the court show to pick up momentum as Judge Judy rose to a 2.1 rating by the end of that first season. By its 2nd season (1997–98), the court show had already risen into the 4 ratings ranges, averaging a 4.3.[87]

text: The 3rd season (1998–99) of Judge Judy was the show's first season as the highest-rated program in daytime television, having surpassed the highly rated Jerry Springer Show and even then daytime powerhouse The Oprah Winfrey Show for the first time[88] (King World Productions which launched Oprah was a corporate sibling of CBS Television Studios, which distributed Judge Judy): the program's ratings more than doubled to a 5.6 for that season, marking Judge Judy as an early success.[89]

text: It was due, in part, to this early success that daytime television began to feature more court programming, such as a revival of The People's Court that re-debuted in fall 1997. In 1999, Judge Judy moved from Worldvision Enterprises to Paramount Domestic Television, which also distributed her stablemate Judge Joe Brown and eventually Judge Mills Lane. Many other retired judges were given their own court shows in syndication due in large part to Sheindlin's popularity. These include Greg Mathis, Glenda Hatchett, Alex Ferrer, Maria Lopez, Karen Mills-Frances, Cristina Perez, David Young, and many others. In addition, the series helped to spawn various nontraditional court programs. These include the reality-based revival of Divorce Court, which was originally presided over by Mablean Ephriam and now helmed by Lynn Toler; the short-lived Power of Attorney, capturing various high-profile attorneys arguing cases for litigants in front of Andrew Napolitano; Street Court, which took litigation outside of the courtroom; Jury Duty, featuring an all-celebrity jury hearing cases presided over by Bruce Cutler; etc. Furthermore, the role of Judge Judy in the rise in popularity of daytime court shows enabled several other non-real life judges to preside over courts, such as Nancy Grace, Jeanine Pirro, and Gloria Allred.

text: Also, partly due to Sheindlin's popularity, the producers of The People's Court decided to replace Ed Koch with Sheindlin's husband, Jerry Sheindlin, as their presiding judge during The People's Court's 3rd present life season/15th overall season (1999–2000); this meant that husband and wife would be either part of the same afternoon lineup or competing for ratings against each other. This experiment, however, did not last long as midway through The People's Court's fourth season, Sheindlin was replaced by the show's current judge, Marilyn Milian.[89][90]

text: For its 4th season (1999–00), Judy's ratings exploded to their highest to date, peaking at a 9.3 rating. At this point, Sheindlin's courtroom series was still more than ever the highest rated program in daytime. It was also at this point that Judge Judy held a record of increasing its ratings for each successive season since its debut. Because of the program's success, Judge Judy began airing at better time periods.[89]

text: It was by the show's 5th season (2000–01) that Judy's streak of growing in ratings from season to season since its debut had ceased. However, the court show still remained the highest-rated program in daytime that season with a 5.6 rating.[57] By the 6th season (2001–02), Judy was no longer the highest-rated program in daytime, beaten out by The Oprah Winfrey Show. The court show averaged a 5.0 rating that season.[57] Likewise, for her 7th season (2002–03), she also averaged a 5.0.[57] For her 8th season (2003–04), Sheindlin finally reversed the season-to-season downward turn in her ratings by averaging a 7.1.[91] Of the seven running court shows during the 2004–05 season, most of them earned a 3.63 rating; however, Judge Judy pulled in a 7.5 rating for that season (the show's 9th).[89] For her 10th season (2005–06), Judge Judy averaged a 4.8 rating.[92] Judge Judy averaged 4.6 rating for her 11th season (2006–07). Meanwhile, other programs in the genre were trailing Sheindlin from a vast distance (as has been the case since the debut of Judge Judy): Judge Joe Brown averaged a 2.9 rating; The People's Court averaged a 2.7; Judge Mathis averaged a 2.4; Divorce Court averaged a 2.0; Judge Alex averaged 1.9; Judge Hatchett averaged a 1.5; rookies--Cristina's Court averaged a 1.4, and Judge Maria Lopez came in last, averaging a 1.0 rating.[93]

text: For its 12th season (2007–08), Judge Judy averaged a 4.8 rating (4.8 HH AA%/7.4 HH GAA% rating) and 9.9 million average daily viewers.[52] Judy was the only first-run syndication program to increase in ratings for that season from the previous, leading CBS to immediately extend her contract through the 2012–13 season.[94] For its 13th season (2008–09), the show averaged a 4.2 rating (4.2 HH AA%/6.5 HH GAA% rating) and 9.02 million average daily viewers.[95] Its 14th season (2009–10) marked the first season in nearly a decade since the 2000–01 season that any daytime television program had been able to surpass The Oprah Winfrey Show's ratings (Judge Judy is also the show in question that during the 2000–01 television season surpassed The Oprah Winfrey Show in daytime TV ratings): Judy broke Winfrey's near decade-long streak with a 4.4 rating (4.4 HH AA%/6.9 HH GAA% rating) and 9.6 million average daily viewers.[96] It was also at that point that Sheindlin's courtroom series became the highest rated show in all of daytime television programming.[97] Judy secured this title in its 15th season (2010–11) as the program remained ahead of Oprah in her [Oprah] final season and the highest-rated daytime television offering, averaging a 5.11 rating[98] and 9.6 million viewers.[99] During this season, Judy also became the highest rated show in first-run syndication.[100] Late that same season in May 2011, as a result of continued high ratings, CBS again extended Sheindlin's contract, this time through the 2014–15 season (the show's 19th).[101]

text: In the first post-Oprah television season, the court show continued its reign as the most dominant show in daytime and also became the top-rated show in syndication, its 16th season (2011–12) racking up a 7.0 rating and 9.29 million average daily viewers.[102] As the top-rated show in all of syndication at this point, Sheindlin defeated first-run syndication programs and off-network syndication programs (rerun episodes of programs off their original network).[103] The title of overall syndication leader was previously held by off-network syndicated program Two and a Half Men (2010–11) and before that, first-run syndicated program Wheel of Fortune (2009–10).[104][105]

text: For its 17th season (2012–13), Judge Judy once again pulled in a 7.0 household rating.[100][107] The series delivered 9.63 million average daily viewers that season, growing by +32,000 viewers over the prior season.[108] Despite this, Judy lost its 1st place spot as the ratings leader in all of syndication that season, descending to 2nd place, only a tad behind The Big Bang Theory (off-network syndicate) which took home a 7.1 for that season. Still and all, this was the 3rd season in a row that Judy earned the title of ratings leader in all of first-run syndication.[100] Moreover, this was the 4th consecutive season that Judy was the ratings leader in all of daytime television programming.[109] For the 18th season (2013–14), Judy rose to a 7.2 household rating and brought in 9.94 million viewers, gaining 8% over its prior season. Also for this season, the show reclaimed the title as highest rated program in all of daytime (5th consecutive time, 8th time overall) and all of syndication (3rd time).[110][111] The show's 19th season (2014–15) pulled in a 7.0 household rating and remained the highest rated program in both daytime television as well as all of syndication.[112] The 20th season (2015–16) was Judy's 3rd consecutive year as syndication's top strip, the court show averaging a 7.0 full-season household rating.[113]

text: For its 21st season (2016-17), Judge Judy trounced all of its competitors in daytime and all of syndication. The court show scored a 6.8 household rating for its 21st season.[114][115]

text: Preeminence and success in struggling genre[edit]

text: The success of Judge Judy is particularly noteworthy in that, generally speaking, courtroom programming has a very limited shelf life. The shows in this genre are lucky to make it past a few seasons. In addition, most of the programs in this genre do not score very highly in ratings. The annual Forbes magazine Celebrity 100 for 2015 lists Judge Judy Sheindlin at number 43, along with Vin Diesel, with estimated earnings last year of $47 million.

text: Of the long list of court shows, the only programs still existent in the genre originating in the 1990s or prior are Divorce Court (1957), The People's Court (1981), Judge Judy (1996) and Judge Mathis (1999). Of those four, only Judge Judy and Judge Mathis have not suffered a temporary cancellation in their series run before a revival. Also of the four, Sheindlin and Mathis are the only two to have hosted their program for their entire run. This makes Sheindlin the genre's longest serving courtroom arbitrator. Greg Mathis is the second longest serving court show arbitrator, trailing Sheindlin by three seasons. As Divorce Court and The People's Court have both suffered temporary cancellation(s), Judge Judy has had the longest individual life of any court show followed by Judge Mathis.

text: Judge Judy producer Randy Douthit has stated that "they are guilty of cannibalizing each other. Most of these court shows are lucky to get above a 1 rating today."[116]

text: Addressing the subject in a September 2015 interview, Sheindlin stated: "It's clearly not the format since there are many court shows. So it has to be the message and the messenger and some excellent directing, which is why the show looks so good. The message is a simple one: it's your life, take responsibility for it, say you're sorry and fess up when you do something wrong. That has to be delivered in an entertaining way and, fortunately, I don't have to act. I don't have a script. It is what it is."[117]

text: Judge Mathis takes on Judy, her success and racial/gender privilege[edit]

text: In a January 2018 interview, Judge Mathis—the second longest serving arbitrator in the court television genre, surpassed only by Judge Judy's 3 year lead over him—suggested that Sheindlin has benefited from a white female privilege that he himself was never afforded in making a name for himself in the courtroom genre.

text: In speaking on the early days of his courtroom series, Mathis stated:

text: With that in mind, Mathis added that he decided to change things up and be “a little comical and a little socially conscious.”

text: Mathis also took care to note of his high opinion of Sheindlin. Ever humbly, he stated that he did not deserve her salary, that Sheindlin's salary is owed to her because of her impressive ratings and that she even "ran Oprah off television" with ratings that surpassed hers [Oprah]. He added [jokingly] that he is way behind Judge Judy.[118]

text: Audience makeup[edit]

text: Judge Judy's daytime audience is composed of approximately seventy-five percent women and twenty-five percent men.[47] In February 2014, it was reported that Judge Judy's audience is mostly composed of older women, blacks, and Latinos.[119]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: Sheindlin vs. Joseph Wapner[edit]

text: Despite her widespread popularity, Sheindlin's behavior and treatment of the parties that have appeared before her has often been the subject of criticism. Regular viewers of the program have also been criticized as sadistic for their delight in watching Sheindlin engage in her typical behaviors.[120] One such example of criticism has come from the first star of arbitration-based reality court shows, Joseph Wapner. Wapner, who presided over The People's Court from 1981 to 1993, is a long-time critic of Sheindlin. On November 26, 2002, Wapner criticized Judge Judy's courtroom behavior, stating "She is not portraying a judge as I view a judge should act. Judge Judy is discourteous, and she's abrasive. She's not slightly insulting. She's insulting in capital letters."

text: Judge Judy replied through her publicist, stating, "I refuse to engage in similar mud slinging. I don't know where or by whom Judge Wapner was raised. But my parents taught me when you don't have something nice to say about someone, say nothing. Clearly, Judge Wapner was absent on the day that lesson was taught."

text: Since then, Wapner has stated, "She is a disgrace to the profession. She does things I don't think a judge should do. She tells people to shut up. She's rude. She's arrogant. She demeans people. If she does this on purpose, then that's even worse. Judges need to observe certain standards of conduct. She just doesn't do it and I resent that. The public is apt to gain the impression that this is how actual judges conduct themselves. It says 'judge' on the nameplate on the bench and she's wearing a robe."[121]

text: Sheindlin has since stated, "As a young person, when I had watched The People's Court. . . I said 'you know what, I could do that.' And at least as well because while Joe Wapner is a very good judge, didn't have much of a sense of humor. And I always knew from a very practical perspective that you have to marry those two things in order to be successful in entertainment."[20]

text: In a November 2013 interview with Larry King, Sheindlin was asked whether she enjoyed watching Wapner on The People's Court. She replied, "Meh! Oatmeal!" Following this, King asked her what if any other television judges then did she enjoy, to which Sheindlin answered "Mills Lane" of Judge Mills Lane.[122]

text: Acclaim[edit]

text: In a September 2014 Rickey Smiley Morning Show interview, Judge Mathis was asked what 3 other court show judges he'd most enjoy sharing a meal with. For his first choice, he answered (laughing) "Are you kidding?! It would be Judge Judy at the head of the table. Oh my goodness, that Judge Judy is something else." His second choice was Judge Marilyn Milian, and third Judge Mills Lane.[123]

text: In August, 2010, rapper, singer and songwriter Nicki Minaj stated that she has an obsession with Judge Judy and that all of her free time is spent watching the program.[124]

text: In February 2013, then head Football coach for the San Francisco 49ers, Jim Harbaugh, was asked about the importance of truthfulness and enthusiastically remarked, "Somebody that's not truthful? That's big to me. I'm a big fan of the "Judge Judy" show. When you lie in Judge Judy's courtroom, it's over. Your credibility is completely lost, and you stand no chance of winning that case. So I learned that from her. It's very powerful and true. If somebody lies to you, how can you trust anything they ever say after that?"[125][126][127][128]

text: A couple months later, Harbaugh would even attend tapings of Judge Judy along with his father as audience members. As part of the experience, Harbaugh and his father had lunch with Sheindlin and visited with her both before and after tapings. After meeting Sheindlin and seeing cases in person, Harbaugh stated, "I've never seen Judy adjudicate one improperly. She is so smart. She is so good. I could sit there and watch those cases all day. I really could. It's fun to watch somebody that does their job well. I could watch Judge Judy do cases all day. I could watch people play football who do their job really well. People who direct traffic. I get a real kick out of watching people who direct traffic do it. I've done it for hours. I like football the most, but Judge Judy is right up there. She's the best."[125][126]

text: Brad Adgate, senior vice president of research for Horizon Media, said "Judge Judy is the new Oprah of daytime TV-actually, she was [already] beating Oprah while Oprah was still on."[12]

text: President and CEO of CBS, Leslie Moonves, stated "Over the last few decades, there have been very few shows that have achieved the remarkable success that she has. Not only has Judy sustained that success year after year, how many shows grow in their 15th or 16th year in syndication? She started as a fresh voice and she's been a remarkable presence in daytime television ever since."[129]

text: Many regular viewers and supporters of Judge Judy have defended Sheindlin's treatment of the parties that have appeared before her by describing the parties as an "endless parade of idiots" that Sheindlin has had to put up with.[130][131][132]

text: Lawsuits involving Sheindlin, executive producer, Big Ticket, and CBS[edit]

text: Judge Judy executive producer Randy Douthit has been sued twice by former staff members of the Judge Judy program for alleged wrongful termination, discriminatory practice, and mismanagement while on the job.

text: Racism termination lawsuit[edit]

text: In December 2007, Jonathan Sebastien, a former producer of the Judge Judy show of 7 years, filed a lawsuit against the production company in L.A. County Superior Court for wrongful termination. Sebastien claimed that when he proposed certain cases for the show involving black litigants, Douthit turned them down with his alleged reasons being he didn't want to see any more black people; their behaviors were too ghetto and more suited for former television jurist, Joe Brown; and they needed more pretty, upscale white people. Sebastien claimed that in January 2007, he objected to the alleged discrimination in a meeting and was verbally abused by Douthit. Three months later on March 30, Sebastien stated he was fired with the reason given that rating numbers were down. Sebastien claimed that the real reason he was fired was because he opposed his boss's alleged "discriminatory selection process."[133][134]

text: Ageism lawsuit[edit]

text: That same day in December 2007, the show's former associate producer Karen Needle was also fired. She later sued Douthit, claiming that she was wrongfully terminated because she was too old, 64 at the time. Sheindlin was not named as a defendant. Needle, who helped book audiences for the program, stated the reason she was given for being fired was "unspecified conflict from her audience work." Needle said she began suffering from back pain, sometimes even resorting to lying on the ground in pain, and when she asked her bosses for a new chair, nothing was done. According to the complaint, two weeks before Needle was fired, she took off four days to assist her ailing 88-year-old mother. Needle stated, "There is a lot of terrible stuff going on if two people file separate lawsuits. It's a toxic situation over there. This is supposed to be Judge Judy, the voice of justice, and yet her own staff isn't treated well. What is she getting paid all that money for if her own staff is treated with such little decency?"[134]

text: Conspiracy/fraud allegations[edit]

text: In March 2013, a lawsuit was filed against Sheindlin by Patric Jones, the estranged wife of Douthit. Jones alleged Douthit and Sheindlin had conspired to permit Sheindlin to buy Christofle fine china and Marley cutlery owned by Jones. She said Sheindlin had paid Douthit $50,815 for the items without her knowledge to deprive her of her valuables,[135] and she sought $514,421 from Sheindlin. The suit ended after Sheindlin returned the tableware to Douthit and Jones agreed to pay Douthit $12,500 and have the tableware handed back to her.[136]

text: Lawsuit by production against YouTube user[edit]

text: On October 17, 2013, Big Ticket Television and producers of Judge Judy filed a lawsuit against Ignacio De Los Angeles. The suit was made against the individual for posting an episode of Judge Judy on YouTube. According to the suit, Big Ticket directed Ignacio to remove the 2006 episode of Judge Judy that he had posted. Ignacio ignored the command.[137][138]

text: Copyright lawsuit filed by Judy Sheindlin[edit]

text: On Wednesday, March 12, 2014, Sheindlin filed a lawsuit of her own for the first time in her life. The suit was filed against Hartford, Connecticut, personal injury lawyer John Haymond and his law firm. In the lawsuit, Sheindlin accused Haymond and his firm of using her television image without consent in advertisements that falsely suggested she endorsed him and his firm. In March 2013, Sheindlin's producer allegedly told the firm that the use of her image was not permitted, but ads continued. The lawsuit filed in federal court sought more than $75,000 in damages. Sheindlin said in her statement that any money she wins through the lawsuit will go toward college scholarships through the Her Honor Mentoring Program. Sheindlin described the unauthorized use of her name as "outrageous", stating, "Mr. Haymond is a lawyer and should know better."[139][140][141] Haymond later filed a countersuit for punitive damages and attorney's fees, alleging defamation of him and his firm by Sheindlin.[142] Haymond insisted that local affiliates asked him to appear in Judge Judy promos to promote Sheindlin for which he obliged.[143][144] On August 8, 2014, it was reported that the case between Sheindlin and Haymond settled out of court in a resolution that favored Sheindlin. Haymond will be donating money to Sheindlin's charity, Her Honor Mentoring Program.[145]

text: Lawsuit by Rebel Entertainment aimed at CBS and Sheindlin's salary[edit]

text: On March 14, 2016, talent agency Rebel Entertainment and its president, Richard Lawrence, filed a multimillion-dollar lawsuit against CBS Television, claiming the media giant failed to pay the agency millions of dollars in profits. Rebel claims they are owed profits and contractually agreed to for their contributions to launching the program and discovering Sheindlin through their terminated employees Kaye Switzer and Sandi Spreckman. The lawsuit alleges CBS hasn’t paid Rebel for the past six years because CBS told them the net profits that go to “Judge Judy” have been wiped out due to Sheindlin’s annual salary boost to $45 and then $47 million. The lawsuit goes on to attack Sheindlin's salary as being far too high. Rebel described it as "exorbitant" and "grossly inconsistent with customary practice in the television industry," that similarly successful talk show hosts aren't paid nearly as much. Further, Rebel claims they were to be consulted before any spin-offs of the show were produced, but were not when Hot Bench (another courtroom arbitrated show launched by Sheindlin and her producers) was created.[146][147] In response to the lawsuit, Sheindlin has stated:

text: When Sheindlin was deposed for this case in the summer of 2016, she matter-of-factly let CBS know as follows: “CBS had no choice but to pay me what I wanted because otherwise I could take it wherever I wanted to take it or do it myself. Their back’s to the wall. They pay me the money that they do because they have no choice. They can’t find another one.” This case, which seeks widespread unspecified damages, is ongoing and faces a March 2018 trial start.[148]

text: Lawsuit by Kaye Switzer and trust of Sandi Spreckman against Sheindlin, CBS and Big Ticket[edit]

text: On Friday, January 19, 2018, a breach-of-contract lawsuit—similar and loosely related to the case filed by Rebel Entertainment—was filed in the Los Angeles Superior Court against Sheindlin, CBS Corporation, CBS Studios and Big Ticket Television by Kaye Switzer and the trust of the now deceased Sandi Spreckman (copy of the lawsuit here). Switzer and Sandi Spreckman are former employees of Rebel Entertainment, terminated by the employer. Switzer and Spreckman’s trustee, Jay Robinson, claim they discovered and introduced Sheindlin to producer Larry Little, asserting that if not for this move that there would be no Judge Judy and thus they are owed monetary rewards. The lawsuit also states that Sheindlin sold "The Judge Judy Library" to CBS Television Distribution for a sales price of over $95,000,000 to the House of Leslie Moonves. Switzer and the Spreckman's trustee contend that they were not paid any monetary rewards by Sheindlin, CBS or Big Ticket in this transaction.[149]

text: Not taking the lawsuit as a concern, Sheindlin was quoted as regarding the subject of "Who is owed what as just background noise," and that the monster success of her show came from nothing more than the sweat of her brow and the force of her personality. Sheindlin was also quoted as stating she has "fond feelings of Kaye and Sandi" but that they were fired before her show ever started and that she personally never entered into a contract with either of them.[150]


document_title: Biofilm

question_text: why do bacteria in a biofilm have different characteristics than free-floating bacteria

root

text: Biofilm

text: Formation[edit]

text: The formation of a biofilm begins with the attachment of free-floating microorganisms to a surface.[7][4] It is thought that the first colonist bacteria of a biofilm adhere to the surface initially through weak, reversible adhesion via van der Waals forces and hydrophobic effects.[13][14] If the colonists are not immediately separated from the surface, they can anchor themselves more permanently using cell adhesion structures such as pili.

tag: p

text: Hydrophobicity can also affect the ability of bacteria to form biofilms. Bacteria with increased hydrophobicity have reduced repulsion between the extracellular matrix and the bacterium.[15] Some bacteria species are not able to attach to a surface on their own successfully due to their limited motility but are instead able to anchor themselves to the matrix or directly to other, earlier bacteria colonists. Non-motile bacteria cannot recognize surfaces or aggregate together as easily as motile bacteria.[15]

text: During surface colonization bacteria cells are able to communicate using quorum sensing (QS) products such as N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL). Once colonization has begun, the biofilm grows through a combination of cell division and recruitment. Polysaccharide matrices typically enclose bacterial biofilms. In addition to the polysaccharides, these matrices may also contain material from the surrounding environment, including but not limited to minerals, soil particles, and blood components, such as erythrocytes and fibrin.[15] The final stage of biofilm formation is known as dispersion, and is the stage in which the biofilm is established and may only change in shape and size.

text: The development of a biofilm may allow for an aggregate cell colony (or colonies) to be increasingly resistant to antibiotics. Cell-cell communication or quorum sensing has been shown to be involved in the formation of biofilm in several bacterial species.[16]

text: Development[edit]

text: Biofilms are the product of a microbial developmental process.[17] The process is summarized by five major stages of biofilm development (see illustration on the right):[18]

text:
Initial attachment
Irreversible attachment
Maturation I
Maturation II
Dispersion

tag: ol

text: Dispersal[edit]

text: Dispersal of cells from the biofilm colony is an essential stage of the biofilm life cycle. Dispersal enables biofilms to spread and colonize new surfaces. Enzymes that degrade the biofilm extracellular matrix, such as dispersin B and deoxyribonuclease, may play a role in biofilm dispersal.[19][20] Biofilm matrix degrading enzymes may be useful as anti-biofilm agents.[21][22] Recent evidence has shown that a fatty acid messenger, cis-2-decenoic acid, is capable of inducing dispersion and inhibiting growth of biofilm colonies. Secreted by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, this compound induces cyclo heteromorphic cells in several species of bacteria and the yeast Candida albicans.[23] Nitric oxide has also been shown to trigger the dispersal of biofilms of several bacteria species[24][25] at sub-toxic concentrations. Nitric oxide has the potential for the treatment of patients that suffer from chronic infections caused by biofilms.[26]

text: It is generally assumed that cells dispersed from biofilms immediately go into the planktonic growth phase. However, recent studies have shown that the physiology of dispersed cells from Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms is highly different from those of planktonic and biofilm cells.[27][28] Hence, the dispersal process is a unique stage during the transition from biofilm to planktonic lifestyle in bacteria. Dispersed cells are found to be highly virulent against macrophages and Caenorhabditis elegans, but highly sensitive towards iron stress, as compared with planktonic cells.[27]

text: Properties[edit]

text: Biofilms are usually found on solid substrates submerged in or exposed to an aqueous solution, although they can form as floating mats on liquid surfaces and also on the surface of leaves, particularly in high humidity climates. Given sufficient resources for growth, a biofilm will quickly grow to be macroscopic (visible to the naked eye). Biofilms can contain many different types of microorganism, e.g. bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi and algae; each group performs specialized metabolic functions. However, some organisms will form single-species films under certain conditions. The social structure (cooperation/competition) within a biofilm depends highly on the different species present.[29]

text: Extracellular matrix[edit]

text: The EPS matrix consists of exopolysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids.[2][30][31] A large proportion of the EPS is more or less strongly hydrated, however, hydrophobic EPS also occur; one example is cellulose[32] which is produced by a range of microorganisms. This matrix encases the cells within it and facilitates communication among them through biochemical signals as well as gene exchange. The EPS matrix also traps extracellular enzymes and keeps them in close proximity to the cells. Thus, the matrix represents an external digestion system and allows for stable synergistic microconsortia of different species (Wingender and Flemming, Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 8, 623-633). Some biofilms have been found to contain water channels that help distribute nutrients and signalling molecules.[33] This matrix is strong enough that under certain conditions, biofilms can become fossilized (Stromatolites).

text: Bacteria living in a biofilm usually have significantly different properties from free-floating bacteria of the same species, as the dense and protected environment of the film allows them to cooperate and interact in various ways.[34] One benefit of this environment is increased resistance to detergents and antibiotics, as the dense extracellular matrix and the outer layer of cells protect the interior of the community. In some cases antibiotic resistance can be increased a thousandfold.[35] Lateral gene transfer is often facilitated within bacterial and archaeal biofilms[36] and leads to a more stable biofilm structure.[37] Extracellular DNA is a major structural component of many different microbial biofilms.[38] Enzymatic degradation of extracellular DNA can weaken the biofilm structure and release microbial cells from the surface.

text: However, biofilms are not always less susceptible to antibiotics. For instance, the biofilm form of Pseudomonas aeruginosa has no greater resistance to antimicrobials than do stationary-phase planktonic cells, although when the biofilm is compared to logarithmic-phase planktonic cells, the biofilm does have greater resistance to antimicrobials. This resistance to antibiotics in both stationary-phase cells and biofilms may be due to the presence of persister cells.[39]

text: Habitats[edit]

text: Biofilms are ubiquitous in organic life. Nearly every species of microorganism have mechanisms by which they can adhere to surfaces and to each other. Biofilms will form on virtually every non-shedding surface in non-sterile aqueous or humid environments. Biofilms can grow in the most extreme environments: from, for example, the extremely hot, briny waters of hot springs ranging from very acidic to very alkaline, to frozen glaciers.

text: Biofilms can be found on rocks and pebbles at the bottoms of most streams or rivers and often form on the surfaces of stagnant pools of water. Biofilms are important components of food chains in rivers and streams and are grazed by the aquatic invertebrates upon which many fish feed. Biofilms are found on the surface of and inside plants. They can either contribute to crop disease or, as in the case of nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium on roots, exist symbiotically with the plant.[40] Examples of crop diseases related to biofilms include Citrus Canker, Pierce's Disease of grapes, and Bacterial Spot of plants such as peppers and tomatoes.[41]

text: Recent studies in 2003 discovered that the immune system supports bio-film development in the large intestine. This was supported mainly with the fact that the two most abundantly produced molecules by the immune system also support bio-film production and are associated with the bio-films developed in the gut. This is especially important because the appendix holds a mass amount of these bacterial bio-films.[42] This discovery helps to distinguish the possible function of the appendix and the idea that the appendix can help reinoculate the gut with good gut flora.

text: In the human environment, biofilms can grow in showers very easily since they provide a moist and warm environment for the biofilm to thrive. Biofilms can form inside water and sewage pipes and cause clogging and corrosion. Biofilms on floors and counters can make sanitation difficult in food preparation areas. Biofilm in soil can cause bioclogging. Biofilms in cooling- or heating-water systems are known to reduce heat transfer.[43] Biofilms in marine engineering systems, such as pipelines of the offshore oil and gas industry,[44] can lead to substantial corrosion problems. Corrosion is mainly due to abiotic factors; however, at least 20% of corrosion is caused by microorganisms that are attached to the metal subsurface (i.e., microbially influenced corrosion).

text: Bacterial adhesion to boat hulls serves as the foundation for biofouling of seagoing vessels. Once a film of bacteria forms, it is easier for other marine organisms such as barnacles to attach. Such fouling can reduce maximum vessel speed by up to 20%, prolonging voyages and consuming fuel. Time in dry dock for refitting and repainting reduces the productivity of shipping assets, and the useful life of ships is also reduced due to corrosion and mechanical removal (scraping) of marine organisms from ships' hulls.

text: Stromatolites are layered accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by microbial biofilms, especially of cyanobacteria. Stromatolites include some of the most ancient records of life on Earth, and are still forming today.

text: Dental plaque[edit]

text: Within the human body, biofilms are present on the teeth as dental plaque, where they may cause tooth decay and gum disease. These biofilms can either be in an uncalcified state that can be removed by dental instruments, or a calcified state which is more difficult to remove. Removal techniques can also include antimicrobials.[45]

text: Dental plaque is an oral biofilm that adheres to the teeth and consists of many species of both bacteria and fungi (such as Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans), embedded in salivary polymers and microbial extracellular products. The accumulation of microorganisms subjects the teeth and gingival tissues to high concentrations of bacterial metabolites which results in dental disease.[46] Biofilm on the surface of teeth is frequently subject to oxidative stress[47] and acid stress.[48] Dietary carbohydrates can cause a dramatic decrease in pH in oral biofilms to values of 4 and below (acid stress).[48] A pH of 4 at body temperature of 37 °C causes depurination of DNA, leaving apurinic (AP) sites in DNA,[49] especially loss of guanine.[50]

text: The dental plaque biofilm can result in the disease dental caries if it is allowed to develop over time. An ecologic shift away from balanced populations within the dental biofilm is driven by certain (cariogenic) microbiological populations beginning to dominate when the environment favours them. The shift to an acidogenic, aciduric, and cariogenic microbiological population develops and is maintained by frequent consumption of fermentable dietary carbohydrate. The resulting activity shift in the biofilm (and resulting acid production within the biofilm, at the tooth surface) is associated with an imbalance between demineralization and remineralisation leading to net mineral loss within dental hard tissues (enamel and then dentin), the sign and symptom being a carious lesion. By preventing the dental plaque biofilm from maturing or by returning it back to a non-cariogenic state, dental caries can be prevented and arrested.[51] This can be achieved though the behavioural step of reducing the supply of fermentable carbohydrates (i.e. sugar intake) and frequent removal of the biofilm (i.e. toothbrushing).

text: A peptide pheromone quorum sensing signaling system in S. mutans includes the Competence Stimulating Peptide (CSP) that controls genetic competence.[52][53] Genetic competence is the ability of a cell to take up DNA released by another cell. Competence can lead to genetic transformation, a form of sexual interaction, favored under conditions of high cell density and/or stress where there is maximal opportunity for interaction between the competent cell and the DNA released from nearby donor cells. This system is optimally expressed when S. mutans cells reside in an actively growing biofilm. Biofilm grown S. mutans cells are genetically transformed at a rate 10- to 600-fold higher than S. mutans growing as free-floating planktonic cells suspended in liquid.[52]

text: When the biofilm, containing S. mutans and related oral streptococci, is subjected to acid stress, the competence regulon is induced, leading to resistance to being killed by acid.[48] As pointed out by Michod et al., transformation in bacterial pathogens likely provides for effective and efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages.[54] It appears that S. mutans can survive the frequent acid stress in oral biofilms, in part, through the recombinational repair provided by competence and transformation.

text: Taxonomic diversity[edit]

text: Many different bacteria form biofilms, including gram-positive (e.g. Bacillus spp, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus spp, and lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactococcus lactis) and gram-negative species (e.g. Escherichia coli, or Pseudomonas aeruginosa).[55] Cyanobacteria also form biofilms in aquatic environments.[56]

text: Biofilms are formed by bacteria that colonize plants, e.g. Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and related pseudomonads which are common plant-associated bacteria found on leaves, roots, and in the soil, and the majority of their natural isolates form biofilms.[57] Several nitrogen-fixing symbionts of legumes such as Rhizobium leguminosarum and Sinorhizobium meliloti form biofilms on legume roots and other inert surfaces.[57]

text: Along with bacteria, biofilms are also generated by archaea[58][36] and by a range of eukaryotic organisms, including fungi e.g. Cryptococcus laurentii[59] and microalgae. Among microalgae, one of the main progenitors of biofilms are diatoms, which colonise both fresh and marine environments worldwide.[60][61]

text: For other species in disease-associated biofilms and biofilms arising from eukaryotes see below.

text: Infectious diseases[edit]

text: Biofilms have been found to be involved in a wide variety of microbial infections in the body, by one estimate 80% of all infections.[62] Infectious processes in which biofilms have been implicated include common problems such as bacterial vaginosis, urinary tract infections, catheter infections, middle-ear infections, formation of dental plaque,[63] gingivitis, coating contact lenses,[64] and less common but more lethal processes such as endocarditis, infections in cystic fibrosis, and infections of permanent indwelling devices such as joint prostheses, heart valves, and intervertebral disc.[65][66][67] More recently it has been noted that bacterial biofilms may impair cutaneous wound healing and reduce topical antibacterial efficiency in healing or treating infected skin wounds.[68] Early detection of biofilms in wounds is crucial to successful chronic wound management. Although many techniques have developed to identify planktonic bacteria in viable wounds, few have been able to quickly and accurately identify bacterial biofilms. Future studies are needed to find means of identifying and monitoring biofilm colonization at the bedside to permit timely initiation of treatment.[69]

text: It has recently been shown that biofilms are present on the removed tissue of 80% of patients undergoing surgery for chronic sinusitis. The patients with biofilms were shown to have been denuded of cilia and goblet cells, unlike the controls without biofilms who had normal cilia and goblet cell morphology.[70] Biofilms were also found on samples from two of 10 healthy controls mentioned. The species of bacteria from intraoperative cultures did not correspond to the bacteria species in the biofilm on the respective patient's tissue. In other words, the cultures were negative though the bacteria were present.[71] New staining techniques are being developed to differentiate bacterial cells growing in living animals, e.g. from tissues with allergy-inflammations.[72]

text: Research has shown that sub-therapeutic levels of β-lactam antibiotics induce biofilm formation in Staphylococcus aureus. This sub-therapeutic level of antibiotic may result from the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in agriculture, or during the normal course of antibiotic therapy. The biofilm formation induced by low-level methicillin was inhibited by DNase, suggesting that the sub-therapeutic levels of antibiotic also induce extracellular DNA release.[73] Moreover, from an evolutionary point of view, the creation of the tragedy of the commons in pathogenic microbes may provide advanced therapeutic ways for chronic infections caused by biofilms via genetically engineered invasive cheaters who can invade wild-types ‘cooperators’ of pathogenic bacteria until cooperator populations go to extinction or overall population ‘cooperators and cheaters ’ go to extinction.[74]

text: Pseudomonas aeruginosa[edit]

text: P. aeruginosa represents a commonly used biofilm model organism since it is involved in different types of biofilm-associated infections.[75] Examples of such infections include chronic wounds, chronic otitis media, chronic prostatitis and chronic lung infections in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. About 80% of CF patients have chronic lung infection, caused mainly by P. aeruginosa growing in a non-surface attached biofilms surround by PMN.[76] The infection remains present despite aggressive antibiotic therapy and is a common cause of death in CF patients due to constant inflammatory damage to the lungs.[75]

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae[edit]

text: S. pneumoniae is the main cause of community-acquired pneumonia and meningitis in children and the elderly, and of septicemia in HIV-infected persons. When S. pneumonia grows in biofilms, genes are specifically expressed that respond to oxidative stress and induce competence.[77] Formation of a biofilm depends on competence stimulating peptide (CSP). CSP also functions as a quorum-sensing peptide. It not only induces biofilm formation, but also increases virulence in pneumonia and meningitis.

text: It has been proposed that competence development and biofilm formation is an adaptation of S. pneumoniae to survive the defenses of the host.[54] In particular, the host’s polymorphonuclear leukocytes produce an oxidative burst to defend against the invading bacteria, and this response can kill bacteria by damaging their DNA. Competent S. pneumoniae in a biofilm have the survival advantage that they can more easily take up transforming DNA from nearby cells in the biofilm to use for recombinational repair of oxidative damages in their DNA. Competent S. pneumoniae can also secrete an enzyme (murein hydrolase) that destroys non-competent cells (fratricide) causing DNA to be released into the surrounding medium for potential use by the competent cells.[78]

text: Uses and impact[edit]

text: In medicine[edit]

text: Infections associated with the biofilm growth usually are challenging to eradicate.[79] It is mostly due to the fact that mature biofilms display tolerance towards antibiotics and the immune response.[80] Biofilms often form on the inert surfaces of implanted devices such as catheters, prosthetic cardiac valves and intrauterine devices.[81]

text: The rapidly expanding worldwide industry for biomedical devices and tissue engineering related products is already at $180 billion per year, yet this industry continues to suffer from microbial colonization. No matter the sophistication, microbial infections can develop on all medical devices and tissue engineering constructs.[80] 60-70% of nosocomial or hospital acquired infections are associated with the implantation of a biomedical device.[80] This leads to 2 million cases annually in the U.S., costing the healthcare system over $5 billion in additional healthcare expenses.[80]

text: In industry[edit]

text: Biofilms can also be harnessed for constructive purposes. For example, many sewage treatment plants include a secondary treatment stage in which waste water passes over biofilms grown on filters, which extract and digest organic compounds. In such biofilms, bacteria are mainly responsible for removal of organic matter (BOD), while protozoa and rotifers are mainly responsible for removal of suspended solids (SS), including pathogens and other microorganisms. Slow sand filters rely on biofilm development in the same way to filter surface water from lake, spring or river sources for drinking purposes. What we regard as clean water is effectively a waste material to these microcellular organisms. Biofilms can help eliminate petroleum oil from contaminated oceans or marine systems. The oil is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB).[82] Biofilms are used in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) to generate electricity from a variety of starting materials, including complex organic waste and renewable biomass.[6][83][84] Biofilms are also relevant for the improvement of metal dissolution in bioleaching industry[85][86]

text: Food industry[edit]

text: Biofilms have become problematic in several food industries due to the ability to form on plants and during industrial processes.[87] Bacteria can survive long periods of time in water, animal manure, and soil, causing biofilm formation on plants or in the processing equipment.[88] The buildup of biofilms can affect the heat flow across a surface and increase surface corrosion and frictional resistance of fluids.[89] These can lead to a loss of energy in a system and overall loss of products.[89] Along with economic problems, biofilm formation on food poses a health risk to consumers due to the ability to make the food more resistant to disinfectants[87] As a result, from 1996 to 2010 the Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimated 48 million foodborne illnesses per year.[87] Biofilms have been connected to about 80% of bacterial infections in the United States.[87]

text: In produce, microorganisms attach to the surfaces and biofilms develop internally.[87] During the washing process, biofilms resist sanitization and allow bacteria to spread across the produce.[87] This problem is also found in ready-to-eat foods, because the foods go through limited cleaning procedures before consumption[87] Due to the perishability of dairy products and limitations in cleaning procedures, resulting in the buildup of bacteria, dairy is susceptible to biofilm formation and contamination.[87][89] The bacteria can spoil the products more readily and contaminated products pose a health risk to consumers. One bacteria that can be found in various industries and is a major cause of foodborne disease is Salmonella.[90] Large amounts of salmonella contamination can be found in the poultry processing industry as about 50% of salmonella strains can produce biofilms on poultry farms.[87] Salmonella increases the risk of foodborne illnesses when the poultry products are not cleaned and cooked correctly. Salmonella is also found in the seafood industry where biofilms form from seafood borne pathogens on the seafood itself as well as in water.[90] Shrimp products are commonly affected by salmonella because of unhygienic processing and handling techniques[90] The preparation practices of shrimp and other seafood products can allow for bacteria buildup on the products.[90]

text: New forms of cleaning procedures are being tested in order to reduce biofilm formation in these processes which will lead to safer and more productive food processing industries. These new forms of cleaning procedures also have a profound effect on the environment, often releasing toxic gases into the groundwater reservoirs.[89]

text: In aquaculture[edit]

text: In shellfish and algae farms, biofouling species tend to block nets and cages and ultimately outcompete the farmed species for space and food.[91] Bacterial biofilms start the colonization process by creating microenvironments that more favorable for biofouling species. In the marine environment, biofilms could reduce the hydrodynamic efficiency of ships and propellers, lead to pipeline blockage and sensor malfunction, and increase the weight of appliances deployed in seawater.[92] Numerous studies have shown that biofilm can be a reservoir for potentially pathogenic bacteria in freshwater aquaculture.[93][94][95][96] As mentioned previously, biofilms can be difficult to eliminate even when antibiotics or chemicals are used in high doses.[97][98] The role that biofilm plays as reservoirs of bacterial fish pathogens regarding has not been explored in detail but it certainly deserves to be studied.

text: Eukaryotic biofilms[edit]

text: Along with bacteria, biofilms are often initiated and produced by Eukaryotes. The biofilms produced by eukaryotes is usually occupied by bacteria and other Eukaryotes alike, however the surface is cultivated and EPS is secreted initially by the Eukaryote.[59][60][99] Both fungi and microalgae are known to form biofilms in such a way. Biofilms of fungal origin are important aspects of human infection and fungal pathagenicity, as the fungal infection is more resistant to antifungals.[100][101]

text: In the environment, fungal biofilms are an area of ongoing research. One key area of research are fungal biofilms on plants. For example, in the soil, plant associated fungi including mycorrhiza have been shown to decompose organic matter, protect plants from bacterial pathogens.[102]

text: Biofilms in aquatic environments are often founded by diatoms. The exact purpose of these biofilms is unknown, however there is evidence that the EPS produced by diatoms facilitates both cold and salinity stress.[61][103] These Eukaryotes interact with a diverse range of other organisms within a region known as the phycosphere, but importantly are the bacteria associated with diatoms, as it has been shown that although diatoms excrete EPS, they only do so when interacting with certain bacteria species.[104][105]


document_title: Nasrin

question_text: what is the meaning of the name nasreen

question_tokens: what is the meaning of the name nasreen

text: Nasrin

text:
Nasrin

The name Nasrin means wild rose.

Gender
Female

Language(s)
Arabic, Persian, Turkish

Origin

Word/name
Persian

Meaning
wild rose

Region of origin
Middle East

tag: table

text: Nasrin (translit. "nisriyn/ nisrīn"; Nesrin, or Nesreen; Persian: نِسْرِيْن) is a feminine given name of Persian origin meaning "wild rose".[1] It is among the most popular names given to baby girls born in Azerbaijan, in 2007.[2]

text: People[edit]

text:
Taslima Nasrin (born 1962), Bangladeshi author and former physician
Nasreen Pervin Huq (1958–2006), Bangladeshi women's rights activist
Nasreen Jahan (born 1966), award-winning Bangladeshi novelist
Nasreen Jalil (born 1947), Pakistani politician
Nasreen Karim (born 1986), Tanzanian beauty pageant contestant
Nasreen Mohamedi (1937–1990), Indian artist
Nesrin Nas (born 1958), Turkish politician of the Motherland Party
Nesrin Şamdereli (born 1979), Turkish-German screenwriter and film director
Nasrin Soltankhah (born 1963), Iranian politician
Nasrin Sotoudeh (born 1963) Iranian human rights lawyer
Nesreen Tafesh (born 1982) Syrian actress
Nesreen Ghaddar Lebanese engineer
Nesrine Merouane (born 1995) Algerian volleyball player
Naisrín Elsafty (born 1989) Irish-Egyptian singer

tag: ul

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Behind the Name
Jump up ^ Economics.apa.az

text: This page or section lists people that share the same given name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article.

text: Given namesArabic feminine given namesPersian feminine given namesTurkish feminine given namesPakistani feminine given names

text: All set index articles


document_title: Nucleus (neuroanatomy)

question_text: neuron cell bodies found in clusters in the cns are called

text: Nucleus (neuroanatomy)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In neuroanatomy, a nucleus (plural form: nuclei) is a cluster of neurons in the central nervous system,[1] located deep within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem.[2] The neurons in one nucleus usually have roughly similar connections and functions.[3] Nuclei are connected to other nuclei by tracts, the bundles (fascicles) of axons (nerve fibers) extending from the cell bodies. A nucleus is one of the two most common forms of nerve cell organization, the other being layered structures such as the cerebral cortex or cerebellar cortex. In anatomical sections, a nucleus shows up as a region of gray matter, often bordered by white matter. The vertebrate brain contains hundreds of distinguishable nuclei, varying widely in shape and size. A nucleus may itself have a complex internal structure, with multiple types of neurons arranged in clumps (subnuclei) or layers.

text: The term "nucleus" is in some cases used rather loosely, to mean simply an identifiably distinct group of neurons, even if they are spread over an extended area. The reticular nucleus of the thalamus, for example, is a thin layer of inhibitory neurons that surrounds the thalamus.

text: Some of the major anatomical components of the brain are organized as clusters of interconnected nuclei. Notable among these are the thalamus and hypothalamus, each of which contains several dozen distinguishable substructures. The medulla and pons also contain numerous small nuclei with a wide variety of sensory, motor, and regulatory functions.

text: In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), a cluster of cell bodies of neurons (homologous to a CNS nucleus) is called a ganglion. The fascicles of nerve fibers in the PNS (homologous to CNS tracts) are called nerves.

text: Examples[edit]

text:
Brainstem: red nucleus, vestibular nucleus, inferior olive
Cerebellum: dentate nucleus, emboliform nucleus, globose nucleus, fastigial nucleus
Basal ganglia: striatum (caudate and putamen), pallidum (globus pallidus, medial and lateral), substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus
Cranial nerve nuclei
Ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus: "The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is a distinct morphological nucleus involved in feeding, fear, thermoregulation, and sexual activity."