document_title: United States Senate election in Missouri, 2018

question_text: who is running for us senate in missouri

text: Background[edit]

text: Located at the crossroads of the Midwest, the South, and the Great Plains, Missouri was long a swing state with a compelling record of predicting the presidential winner. However, with Barack Obama's razor thin defeat in 2008, the state began a rightward trek. In 2016, President Donald Trump won it by almost 20 points.

text: Incumbent Democrat Claire McCaskill is running for reelection, but is seen by many pundits as a vulnerable incumbent, as only 46% of her constituents approve of the job she is doing in the United States Senate. McCaskill's slightly unpopularity[2] and the Show Me State's reddening landscape have given Republicans cautious optimism[3], despite McCaskill's double digit victory in 2012. Missouri Attorney General Josh Hawley is seen as a favorite to challenge her by many GOP donors.[4][5][6]

text: Democratic primary[edit]

text: Candidates[edit]

text: Declared[edit]

text:
Angelica Earl, former insurance verification specialist[7]
Claire McCaskill, incumbent U.S. Senator[1][8]

text: Endorsements[edit]

text:
[show]Claire McCaskill

Organizations

EMILY's List[9]

text: Republican primary[edit]

text: Candidates[edit]

text: Declared[edit]

text:
Josh Hawley, Missouri Attorney General[10]
Tony Monetti, retired bomber pilot and assistant dean of aviation at University of Central Missouri[11]
Austin Petersen, Libertarian candidate for President of the United States in 2016[12][13]
Courtland Sykes, Navy veteran and former congressional aide[14][15]

text: Potential[edit]

text:
Marsha Haefner, State Representative[16]
Aaron Hedlund, economics professor[17]
Ed Martin, former Chairman of the Missouri Republican Party, nominee for MO-03 in 2010 and nominee for Attorney General in 2012[18]

text: Declined[edit]

text:
Paul Curtman, State Representative[19][20]
Eric Greitens, Governor of Missouri[21][22][18]
Vicky Hartzler, U.S. Representative[23]
Todd Richardson, Speaker of the Missouri House of Representatives[24]
Eric Schmitt, State Treasurer[25]
Ann Wagner, U.S. Representative and former U.S. Ambassador to Luxembourg[26]
David Wasinger, attorney[27][28]

text: Endorsements[edit]

text:
[show]Josh Hawley

State Officials

Eric Schmitt, Treasurer of Missouri [29]

Former Cabinet-level officials

Steve Bannon, former White House Chief Strategist and executive chair of Breitbart News [30]

Organizations

Club for Growth [31]

text:
[show]Austin Petersen

U.S. Representatives

Bob Barr, former U.S. Congressman (R-GA) and 2008 presidential candidate[32]
Joe Walsh, former U.S. Congressman (R-IL)[33]

State Legislators

Eric Brakey, State Senator in Maine, and candidate for U.S Senate in Maine for 2018[34]

Individuals

Ron Coleman, legal scholar and journalist[35]
B. Wayne Hughes, Jr., businessman and philanthropist[36]
Ryan Moran, Entrepreneur and founder of capitalism.com[37]
Mark Pellegrino, actor[38]
Dave Rubin, host of The Rubin Report[39]
Thomas Woods, historian, author, and host of the Tom Woods Show[40]
Kurt Schlichter, conservative commentator and political columnist at Townhall[41]
Elias Atienza, conservative columnist, associate editor for the Libertarian Republic[42]
Ben Shapiro, conservative commentator and editor-at-large of the Daily Wire [43]
Brian Nichols, associate editor for the Libertarian Republic, host of the Libertarian Republic's podcast, "Around the Republic[44]

Organizations

Building St. Louis[45]

text: Libertarian primary[edit]

text: Candidates[edit]

text: Declared[edit]

text: Japheth Campbell[46]

text: Potential[edit]

text: Alicia Dearn, attorney and candidate for Vice President of the United States in 2016[47]

text: Declined[edit]

text: Austin Petersen, candidate for President of the United States in 2016 (running as a Republican)[48]

text: General election[edit]

text: Polling[edit]

text: with Generic Republican[edit]

text:
Poll Source
Date(s)
Administered

Sample
Size

Margin of
Error

Claire
McCaskill (D)

Generic
Republican
(R)

Unsure/Depends/Refused

Fabrizo Lee
July 10–11, 2017
500
± 4.4%
38%
54%
8%

text:
Poll source
Date(s)
Administered
Sample
Size
Margin of
Error
Claire McCaskill (D)
Josh Hawley (R)
Undecided

Missouri Scout/Remington Research (R)
October 11–12, 2017
965
± 3.1%
45%
48%
7%

Missouri Scout/Remington Research (R)
August 16–18, 2017
922
± 3.0%
45%
50%
5%

Fabrizo Lee
July 10–11, 2017
500
± 4.4%
42%
46%
12%

Missouri Scout/Remington Research (R)
July 7–8, 2017
928
± 3.2%
44%
50%
6%

text:
Poll source
Date(s)
Administered
Sample
Size
Margin of
Error
Claire McCaskill (D)
Blaine Luetkemeyer (R)
Undecided

Missouri Scout/Remington Research (R)
July 7–8, 2017
928
± 3.2%
43%
50%
7%

text:
Poll source
Date(s)
Administered
Sample
Size
Margin of
Error
Claire McCaskill (D)
Jason Smith (R)
Undecided

Missouri Scout/Remington Research
June 7–8, 2017
928
± 3.2%
45%
48%
7%

text:
[show]
Hypothetical polling

with Vicky Hartzler

Poll source
Date(s)
Administered
Sample
Size
Margin of
Error
Claire McCaskill (D)
Vicky Hartzler (R)
Undecided

Missouri Scout/Remington Research (R)
July 7–8, 2017
928
± 3.2%
44%
48%
8%

with Eric Schmitt

Poll source
Date(s)
Administered
Sample
Size
Margin of
Error
Claire McCaskill (D)
Eric Schmitt (R)
Undecided

Missouri Scout/Remington Research (R)
July 7–8, 2017
928
± 3.2%
45%
49%
6%

with Todd Richardson

Poll source
Date(s)
Administered
Sample
Size
Margin of
Error
Claire McCaskill (D)
Todd Richardson (R)
Undecided

Missouri Scout/Remington Research (R)
July 7–8, 2017
928
± 3.2%
43%
48%
9%


document_title: Line length

question_text: what is the optimal line length for ideal legibility

root

text: Line length

text: In typography, line length is the width of a block of typeset text, usually measured in units of length like inches or points or in characters per line (in which case it is a measure). A block of text or paragraph has a maximum line length that fits a determined design. If the lines are too short then the text becomes disjointed; if they are too long the content loses rhythm as the reader searches for the start of each line.

tag: p

text: Line length is determined by typographic parameters based on a formal grid and template with several goals in mind; balance and function for fit and readability with a sensitivity to aesthetic style in typography. Typographers adjust line length to aid legibility or copy fit. Text can be flush left and ragged right, flush right and ragged left, or justified where all lines are of equal length. In a ragged right setting line lengths vary to create a ragged right edge of lines varying in length. Sometimes this can be visually satisfying. For justified and ragged right settings typographers can adjust line length to avoid unwanted hyphens, rivers of white space, and orphaned words/characters at the end of lines (e.g.: "The", "I", "He", "We").

text: Printed text[edit]

text: Traditional line length research, limited to print based text, resulted in a variety of results but generally for printed text it is widely accepted that line length fall between 45-75 characters per line (cpl), though the ideal is 66 cpl (including letters and spaces).[1] For conventional books line lengths tend to be 30 times the size of the type, but between 20 and 40 times is considered acceptable (i.e. 30 x 10pt font = 300 pt line).[1] Early studies considered line lengths between 59–97 mm (about 57 cpl) is optimum for 10 point font.[2] For printed works with multiple columns 40-50 cpl is often better.[1] For justified, English language text the minimum number of characters per line is 40 characters; anything less than 38-40 characters often results in splotches of white spaces (or rivers) or too many hyphenations in the block of text.[1] Longer lines (between 85-90 cpl) may be acceptable for discontinuous text such as in bibliographies or footnotes, but for continuous text lines with more than 80 characters may be too long. Short text, such as ragged marginal notes, may be as little as 12-15 characters per line.[1] Studies have shown that short lines are often preferred over long lines by study participants, likely because they feel more at ease with format, which contradicts research suggesting longer lines are best for quick reading.[3]

text: Punctuation should preferably hang outside the measure.[4] Generally, if the measure is wide, the leading of a text should be increased—if the measure is short, it can safely be decreased. Reverse text, i.e. white text on black also requires more leading.[5][6]

text: Electronic text[edit]

text: Screen reading may be more difficult, making the adoption of traditional line length research to the digital format problematic.[7] Unlike printed text, an online writer must be accommodating of factors such as glare, flicker, and Scrolling/paging.[8] Technological progress has made reading on screen much easier. How much or little scrolling is required to read the text will influence the speed of reading digital text. On-screen reading tasks can be completed faster with text containing long lines which allow the user to quickly scan across the page. Some studies have shown that 100 cpl can be read faster than lines with 25 characters, but the level of comprehension remains the same.[7] In order for on-screen text to have both the best speed and comprehension possible about 55 cpl should be used.[9] Like with printed text if lines are too long or too short it will result in slower reading. If lines are too long it is difficult for the reader to quickly return to the start of the next line (saccade) whereas if lines are too short more scrolling or paging will be required.[9] Research suggests that longer lines are better for quick scanning, but shorter lines are better for accuracy.[3] Longer lines should be used when the information will likely be scanned, while shorter lines should be used when the information is meant to be read thoroughly.[3] Web design is often intended to be read in full rather than skimmed, so shorter lines should be used when possible.[3]


document_title: Heart transplantation

question_text: where was the first heart transplant performed in the united states

text: Heart transplantation

text: History[edit]

text: One of the first mentions of the possibility of heart transplantation was by American medical researcher Simon Flexner, who declared in a reading of his paper on “Tendencies in Pathology” in the University of Chicago in 1907 that it would be possible in the then-future for diseased human organs substitution for healthy ones by surgery — including arteries, stomach, kidneys and heart.[4]

text: Not having a human donor heart available, James D. Hardy of the University of Mississippi Medical Center transplanted the heart of a chimpanzee into the chest of a dying Boyd Rush in the early morning of Jan. 24, 1964. Hardy used a defibrillator to shock the heart to restart beating. This heart did beat in Rush's chest for 60 to 90 minutes (sources vary), and then Rush died without regaining consciousness.[5][6][7] Although Hardy was a respected surgeon who had performed the world's first human-to-human lung transplant a year earlier,[8][9] author Donald McRae states that Hardy could feel the "icy disdain" from fellow surgeons at the Sixth International Transplantation Conference several weeks after this attempt with the chimpanzee heart.[10] Hardy had been inspired by the limited success of Keith Reemtsma at Tulane University in transplanting chimpanzee kidneys into human patients with kidney failure.[11] The consent form Hardy asked Rush's step sister to sign did not include the possibility that a chimpanzee heart might be used, although Hardy stated that he did include this in verbal discussions.[6][11][12]

text: Norman Shumway is widely regarded as the father of heart transplantation, although the world's first human-to-human heart transplant was performed by South African cardiac surgeon Christiaan Barnard utilizing the techniques developed and perfected by Shumway and Richard Lower.[13][14] Barnard performed the first transplant on Louis Washkansky on December 3, 1967, at the Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa.[13][15] Adrian Kantrowitz performed the world's first pediatric heart transplant on December 6, 1967, at Maimonides Hospital in Brooklyn, New York, barely three days after Christiaan Barnard's pioneering operation.[13] Since the 19-day-old infant died little more than six hours after receiving the heart, this operation was considered a failure.[16] Norman Shumway performed the first adult heart transplant in the United States on January 6, 1968, at the Stanford University Hospital.[13] A team led by Donald Ross performed the first heart transplant in the United Kingdom on May 3, 1968.[17]

text: Worldwide, more than 100 transplants were performed by various doctors during 1968.[18] Only a third of these patients lived longer than three months.[19]

text: The next big breakthrough came in 1983 when cyclosporine entered widespread usage. This drug enabled much smaller amounts of corticosteroids to be used to prevent many cases of rejection (the "corticosteroid-sparing" effect of cyclosporine).[20]

text: On 9 June 1984 “JP” Lovette IV of Denver became the world’s first successful pediatric heart transplant. Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center surgeons transplanted the heart of 4-year-old John Nathan Ford of Harlem into 4-year-old JP a day after the Harlem child died of injuries received in a fall from a fire escape at his home. JP was born with multiple heart defects. The transplant was done by a surgical team led by Dr. Eric A. Rose, director of cardiac transplantation at NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital. Drs. Keith Reemtsma and Fred Bowman also were members of the team for the six-hour operation.[21]

text: Worldwide, about 3,500 heart transplants are performed annually. The vast majority of these are performed in the United States (2,000–2,300 annually).[1] Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, currently is the largest heart transplant center in the world, having performed 132 adult transplants in 2015[22] alone. About 800,000 people have NYHA Class IV heart failure symptoms indicating advanced heart failure.[23] The great disparity between the number of patients needing transplants and the number of procedures being performed spurred research into the transplantation of non-human hearts into humans after 1993. Xenografts from other species and artificial hearts are two less successful alternatives to allografts.[2]

text: The ability of medical teams to perform transplants continues to expand. For example, Sri Lanka’s first heart transplant was successfully performed at the Kandy General Hospital on July 7, 2017.[24]

text: During heart transplant, the vagus nerve is severed, thus removing parasympathetic influence over the myocardium. However, some limited return of sympathetic nerves has been demonstrated in humans.[25]

text: Contraindications[edit]

text: Some patients are less suitable for a heart transplant, especially if they suffer from other circulatory conditions related to their heart condition. The following conditions in a patient increase the chances of complications;

text: Absolute contraindications:

text:
Advanced kidney, lung, or liver disease
Active cancer if it is likely to impact the survival of the patient
Life-threatening diseases unrelated to heart failure including acute infection or systemic disease such as systemic lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, or amyloidosis
Vascular disease of the neck and leg arteries.
High pulmonary vascular resistance - over 5 or 6 Wood units.

tag: ul

text: Relative contraindications:

text:
Insulin-dependent diabetes with severe organ dysfunction
Recent thromboembolism such as stroke
Severe obesity
Age over 65 years (some variation between centers) - older patients are usually evaluated on an individual basis.
Active substance abuse, such as alcohol, recreational drugs or tobacco smoking (which increases the chance of lung disease)

text: Patients who are in need of a heart transplant but do not qualify, may be candidates for an artificial heart[1] or a left ventricular assist device (LVAD).

text: Complications[edit]

text: Post-operative complications include infection, sepsis, organ rejection, as well as the side-effects of the immunosuppressive medication. Since the transplanted heart originates from another organism, the recipient's immune system typically attempts to reject it. The risk of rejection never fully goes away, and the patient will be on immunosuppressive drugs for the rest of his or her life, but these may cause unwanted side effects, such as increased likelihood of infections or development of certain cancers. Recipients can acquire kidney disease from a heart transplant due to side effects of immunosuppressant medications. Many recent advances in reducing complications due to tissue rejection stem from mouse heart transplant procedures.[27] Surgery death rate is 5-10% in 2011.[28]

text: People who have had heart transplants are monitored in various ways to test for the development of rejection.[29]

text: Prognosis[edit]

text: The prognosis for heart transplant patients following the orthotopic procedure has increased over the past 20 years, and as of June 5, 2009, the survival rates were:[30]

text:
1 year: 88.0% (males), 86.2% (females)
3 years: 79.3% (males), 77.2% (females)
5 years: 73.2% (males), 69.0% (females)

text: In 2007, researchers from the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine discovered that "men receiving female hearts had a 15% increase in the risk of adjusted cumulative mortality" over five years compared to men receiving male hearts. Survival rates for women did not significantly differ based on male or female donors.[31]


document_title: List of presidents of the United States by age

question_text: who is the youngest us president elected to the office

text: Age of U.S. presidents[edit]

text: The median age upon accession to the presidency is 55 years and 3 months. This is how old Lyndon B. Johnson was at the time of his inauguration. The youngest person to assume the office was Theodore Roosevelt, who became president at the age of 42 years, 322 days, following William McKinley's assassination; the oldest was Donald Trump, who was 70 years, 220 days old at his inauguration. The youngest person to be elected president was John F. Kennedy, at 43 years, 163 days of age on election day; the oldest was Ronald Reagan, who was 73 years, 274 days old at the time of his election to a second term.

text: Assassinated three years into his term, John F. Kennedy was the youngest at the time of leaving office (46 years, 177 days); the youngest president to leave office at the conclusion of a normal transition was Theodore Roosevelt (50 years, 128 days). The oldest at the time of leaving office was Ronald Reagan (77 years, 349 days).

text: Born on May 29, 1917, John F. Kennedy was younger than four of his successors, the greatest number to date: Lyndon Johnson (8 years, 9 months, and 2 days); Ronald Reagan (6 years, 3 months, and 23 days); Richard Nixon (4 years, 4 months, and 16 days); and Gerald Ford (3 years, 10 months, and 15 days).

text: Born on February 6, 1911, Ronald Reagan was older than four of his predecessors, the greatest number to date: Richard Nixon (1 year, 11 months, and 7 days); Gerald Ford (2 years, 5 months, and 8 days); John F. Kennedy (6 years, 3 months, and 23 days); and Jimmy Carter (13 years, 7 months, and 25 days).

text: Three presidents—Donald Trump, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton—were born in 1946 (all within the span of 9 weeks). This is the only calendar year in which three presidents have been born. Two presidents—James K. Polk and Warren G. Harding—were born on November 2 (70 years apart). This is the only day of the year having the birthday of multiple presidents.[1]

text: The oldest living U.S. president is George H. W. Bush, born June 12, 1924 (age 94 years, 76 days). On November 25, 2017, he also became the longest-lived president, surpassing the lifespan of Gerald Ford, who died at the age of 93 years, 165 days. The second oldest living president, Jimmy Carter, has the distinction of having the longest post-presidency in U.S. history, currently at 37 years, 219 days. He surpassed the previous record, held by Herbert Hoover (31 years, 230 days) on September 7, 2012. The youngest living president is Barack Obama, born August 4, 1961 (age 57 years, 23 days).

text: The shortest-lived president to have died by natural causes (thereby excluding John F. Kennedy and James A. Garfield, who were both assassinated) was James K. Polk, who died of cholera at the age of 53 years, 225 days; only 103 days after leaving office.

text: Six U.S. presidents have lived into their 90s, with two of them currently alive. They are (in order of birth):

text:
John Adams(aged 90 years, 247 days)

Herbert Hoover(aged 90 years, 71 days)

Ronald Reagan(aged 93 years, 120 days)

Gerald Ford(aged 93 years, 165 days)

George H. W. Bush(age 94 years, 76 days)

Jimmy Carter(age 93 years, 330 days)

text: Table[edit]

text:
President

Birthdate

Start of presidency

End of presidency

Post-presidency

Death

Date
Age
Date
Age
timespan
Date
Age

01 • George Washington

Feb 22, 1732[a]

Apr 30, 1789

7004208870000000000♠57 years, 67 days

Mar 4, 1797

7004237520000000000♠65 years, 10 days

7003101500000000000♠2 years, 285 days

Dec 14, 1799

7004247670000000000♠67 years, 295 days

02 • John Adams

Oct 30, 1735[a]

Mar 4, 1797

7004224060000000000♠61 years, 125 days

Mar 4, 1801

7004238660000000000♠65 years, 125 days

7003925300000000000♠25 years, 122 days

Jul 4, 1826

7004331190000000000♠90 years, 247 days

03 • Thomas Jefferson

Apr 13, 1743[a]

Mar 4, 1801

7004211440000000000♠57 years, 325 days

Mar 4, 1809

7004240660000000000♠65 years, 325 days

7003633100000000000♠17 years, 122 days

Jul 4, 1826

7004303970000000000♠83 years, 82 days

04 • James Madison

Mar 16, 1751[a]

Mar 4, 1809

7004211720000000000♠57 years, 353 days

Mar 4, 1817

7004240940000000000♠65 years, 353 days

7003705600000000000♠19 years, 116 days

Jun 28, 1836

7004311500000000000♠85 years, 104 days

05 • James Monroe

Apr 28, 1758

Mar 4, 1817

7004214940000000000♠58 years, 310 days

Mar 4, 1825

7004244160000000000♠66 years, 310 days

7003231300000000000♠6 years, 122 days

Jul 4, 1831

7004267290000000000♠73 years, 67 days

06 • John Q. Adams

Jul 11, 1767

Mar 4, 1825

7004210550000000000♠57 years, 236 days

Mar 4, 1829

7004225160000000000♠61 years, 236 days

7003693000000000000♠18 years, 356 days

Feb 23, 1848

7004294460000000000♠80 years, 227 days

07 • Andrew Jackson

Mar 15, 1767

Mar 4, 1829

7004226340000000000♠61 years, 354 days

Mar 4, 1837

7004255560000000000♠69 years, 354 days

7003301800000000000♠8 years, 96 days

Jun 8, 1845

7004285740000000000♠78 years, 85 days

08 • Martin Van Buren

Dec 5, 1782

Mar 4, 1837

7004198120000000000♠54 years, 89 days

Mar 4, 1841

7004212730000000000♠58 years, 89 days

7003781200000000000♠21 years, 142 days

Jul 24, 1862

7004290850000000000♠79 years, 231 days

09 • William H. Harrison

Feb 9, 1773

Mar 4, 1841

7004248590000000000♠68 years, 23 days

Apr 4, 1841[b]

7004248900000000000♠68 years, 54 days

00,0000 days

Apr 4, 1841

7004248900000000000♠68 years, 54 days

10 • John Tyler

Mar 29, 1790

Apr 4, 1841

7004186330000000000♠51 years, 6 days

Mar 4, 1845

7004200630000000000♠54 years, 340 days

7003616400000000000♠16 years, 320 days

Jan 18, 1862

7004262270000000000♠71 years, 295 days

11 • James K. Polk

Nov 2, 1795

Mar 4, 1845

7004180190000000000♠49 years, 122 days

Mar 4, 1849

7004194800000000000♠53 years, 122 days

7002103000000000000♠103 days

Jun 15, 1849

7004195830000000000♠53 years, 225 days

12 • Zachary Taylor

Nov 24, 1784

Mar 4, 1849

7004234750000000000♠64 years, 100 days

Jul 9, 1850[b]

7004239670000000000♠65 years, 227 days

00,0000 days

Jul 9, 1850

7004239670000000000♠65 years, 227 days

13 • Millard Fillmore

Jan 7, 1800

Jul 9, 1850

7004184450000000000♠50 years, 183 days

Mar 4, 1853

7004194140000000000♠53 years, 56 days

7003767400000000000♠21 years, 4 days

Mar 8, 1874

7004270880000000000♠74 years, 60 days

14 • Franklin Pierce

Nov 23, 1804

Mar 4, 1853

7004176330000000000♠48 years, 101 days

Mar 4, 1857

7004190940000000000♠52 years, 101 days

7003460100000000000♠12 years, 218 days

Oct 8, 1869

7004236950000000000♠64 years, 319 days

15 • James Buchanan

Apr 23, 1791

Mar 4, 1857

7004240560000000000♠65 years, 315 days

Mar 4, 1861

7004255170000000000♠69 years, 315 days

7003264600000000000♠7 years, 89 days

Jun 1, 1868

7004281630000000000♠77 years, 39 days

16 • Abraham Lincoln

Feb 12, 1809

Mar 4, 1861

7004190130000000000♠52 years, 20 days

Apr 15, 1865[b]

7004205160000000000♠56 years, 62 days

00,0000 days

Apr 15, 1865

7004205160000000000♠56 years, 62 days

17 • Andrew Johnson

Dec 29, 1808

Apr 15, 1865

7004205610000000000♠56 years, 107 days

Mar 4, 1869

7004219800000000000♠60 years, 65 days

7003234000000000000♠6 years, 149 days

Jul 31, 1875

7004243200000000000♠66 years, 214 days

18 • Ulysses S. Grant

Apr 27, 1822

Mar 4, 1869

7004171130000000000♠46 years, 311 days

Mar 4, 1877

7004200350000000000♠54 years, 311 days

7003306300000000000♠8 years, 141 days

Jul 23, 1885

7004230980000000000♠63 years, 87 days

19 • Rutherford B. Hayes

Oct 4, 1822

Mar 4, 1877

7004198750000000000♠54 years, 151 days

Mar 4, 1881

7004213360000000000♠58 years, 151 days

7003433700000000000♠11 years, 319 days

Jan 17, 1893

7004256730000000000♠70 years, 105 days

20 • James A. Garfield

Nov 19, 1831

Mar 4, 1881

7004180030000000000♠49 years, 105 days

Sep 19, 1881[b]

7004182020000000000♠49 years, 304 days

00,0000 days

Sep 19, 1881

7004182020000000000♠49 years, 304 days

21 • Chester A. Arthur

Oct 5, 1829

Sep 19, 1881

7004189770000000000♠51 years, 349 days

Mar 4, 1885

7004202390000000000♠55 years, 150 days

7002624000000000000♠1 year, 259 days

Nov 18, 1886

7004208630000000000♠57 years, 44 days

22 • Grover Cleveland

Mar 18, 1837

Mar 4, 1885

7004175180000000000♠47 years, 351 days

Mar 4, 1889

7004189790000000000♠51 years, 351 days

15 years, 112 days[c]

Jun 24, 1908

7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days

23 • Benjamin Harrison

Aug 20, 1833

Mar 4, 1889

7004202850000000000♠55 years, 196 days

Mar 4, 1893

7004217460000000000♠59 years, 196 days

7003293000000000000♠8 years, 9 days

Mar 13, 1901

7004246760000000000♠67 years, 205 days

24 • Grover Cleveland

Mar 18, 1837

Mar 4, 1893

7004204400000000000♠55 years, 351 days

Mar 4, 1897

7004219010000000000♠59 years, 351 days

15 years, 112 days[c]

Jun 24, 1908

7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days

25 • William McKinley

Jan 29, 1843

Mar 4, 1897

7004197580000000000♠54 years, 34 days

Sep 14, 1901[b]

7004214120000000000♠58 years, 228 days

00,0000 days

Sep 14, 1901

7004214120000000000♠58 years, 228 days

26 • Theodore Roosevelt

Oct 27, 1858

Sep 14, 1901

7004156620000000000♠42 years, 322 days

Mar 4, 1909

7004183900000000000♠50 years, 128 days

7003359500000000000♠9 years, 308 days

Jan 6, 1919

7004219850000000000♠60 years, 71 days

27 • William H. Taft

Sep 15, 1857

Mar 4, 1909

7004187970000000000♠51 years, 170 days

Mar 4, 1913

7004202580000000000♠55 years, 170 days

7003621300000000000♠17 years, 4 days

Mar 8, 1930

7004264710000000000♠72 years, 174 days

28 • Woodrow Wilson

Dec 28, 1856

Mar 4, 1913

7004205190000000000♠56 years, 66 days

Mar 4, 1921

7004234410000000000♠64 years, 66 days

7003106600000000000♠2 years, 336 days

Feb 3, 1924

7004245070000000000♠67 years, 37 days

29 • Warren G. Harding

Nov 2, 1865

Mar 4, 1921

7004202100000000000♠55 years, 122 days

Aug 2, 1923[b]

7004210910000000000♠57 years, 273 days

00,0000 days

Aug 2, 1923

7004210910000000000♠57 years, 273 days

30 • Calvin Coolidge

Jul 4, 1872

Aug 2, 1923

7004186550000000000♠51 years, 29 days

Mar 4, 1929

7004206960000000000♠56 years, 243 days

7003140300000000000♠3 years, 307 days

Jan 5, 1933

7004220990000000000♠60 years, 185 days

31 • Herbert Hoover

Aug 10, 1874

Mar 4, 1929

7004199290000000000♠54 years, 206 days

Mar 4, 1933

7004213900000000000♠58 years, 206 days

7004115530000000000♠31 years, 230 days

Oct 20, 1964

7004329430000000000♠90 years, 71 days

32 • Franklin D. Roosevelt

Jan 30, 1882

Mar 4, 1933

7004186600000000000♠51 years, 33 days

Apr 12, 1945[b]

7004230820000000000♠63 years, 72 days

00,0000 days

Apr 12, 1945

7004230820000000000♠63 years, 72 days

33 • Harry S. Truman

May 8, 1884

Apr 12, 1945

7004222530000000000♠60 years, 339 days

Jan 20, 1953

7004250930000000000♠68 years, 257 days

7003728000000000000♠19 years, 341 days

Dec 26, 1972

7004323730000000000♠88 years, 232 days

34 • Dwight D. Eisenhower

Oct 14, 1890

Jan 20, 1953

7004227430000000000♠62 years, 98 days

Jan 20, 1961

7004256650000000000♠70 years, 98 days

7003298900000000000♠8 years, 67 days

Mar 28, 1969

7004286540000000000♠78 years, 165 days

35 • John F. Kennedy

May 29, 1917

Jan 20, 1961

7004159420000000000♠43 years, 236 days

Nov 22, 1963[b]

7004169780000000000♠46 years, 177 days

00,0000 days

Nov 22, 1963

7004169780000000000♠46 years, 177 days

36 • Lyndon B. Johnson

Aug 27, 1908

Nov 22, 1963

7004201750000000000♠55 years, 87 days

Jan 20, 1969

7004220610000000000♠60 years, 146 days

7003146300000000000♠4 years, 2 days

Jan 22, 1973

7004235240000000000♠64 years, 148 days

37 • Richard Nixon

Jan 9, 1913

Jan 20, 1969

7004204650000000000♠56 years, 11 days

Aug 9, 1974[d]

7004224920000000000♠61 years, 212 days

7003719600000000000♠19 years, 256 days

Apr 22, 1994

7004296880000000000♠81 years, 103 days

38 • Gerald Ford

Jul 14, 1913

Aug 9, 1974

7004223060000000000♠61 years, 26 days

Jan 20, 1977

7004232010000000000♠63 years, 190 days

7004109320000000000♠29 years, 340 days

Dec 26, 2006

7004341330000000000♠93 years, 165 days

39 • Jimmy Carter

Oct 1, 1924

Jan 20, 1977

7004191040000000000♠52 years, 111 days

Jan 20, 1981

7004205650000000000♠56 years, 111 days

7004137330000000000♠37 years, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004342980000000000♠93 years, 330 days

40 • Ronald Reagan

Feb 6, 1911

Jan 20, 1981

7004255510000000000♠69 years, 349 days

Jan 20, 1989

7004284730000000000♠77 years, 349 days

7003561500000000000♠15 years, 137 days

Jun 5, 2004

7004340880000000000♠93 years, 120 days

41 • George H. W. Bush

Jun 12, 1924

Jan 20, 1989

7004235980000000000♠64 years, 222 days

Jan 20, 1993

7004250590000000000♠68 years, 222 days

7003935000000000000♠25 years, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004344090000000000♠94 years, 76 days

42 • Bill Clinton

Aug 19, 1946

Jan 20, 1993

7004169560000000000♠46 years, 154 days

Jan 20, 2001

7004198780000000000♠54 years, 154 days

7003642800000000000♠17 years, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004263060000000000♠72 years, 8 days

43 • George W. Bush

Jul 6, 1946

Jan 20, 2001

7004199220000000000♠54 years, 198 days

Jan 20, 2009

7004228440000000000♠62 years, 198 days

7003350600000000000♠9 years, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004263500000000000♠72 years, 52 days

44 • Barack Obama

Aug 4, 1961

Jan 20, 2009

7004173360000000000♠47 years, 169 days

Jan 20, 2017

7004202580000000000♠55 years, 169 days

7002584000000000000♠1 year, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004208420000000000♠57 years, 23 days

45 • Donald Trump

Jun 14, 1946

Jan 20, 2017

7004257880000000000♠70 years, 220 days

2018-08-27

7004288540000000000♠78 years, 364 days

2018-08-27

7004263720000000000♠72 years, 74 days

President

Birthdate

Date
Age

Date
Age

Post-presidency

Date
Age

Start of presidency

End of presidency

timespan

Death

tag: table

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d Birthdate as changed to New Style.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Died in office.

^ Jump up to: a b Cleveland was retired for 1,461 days between his two terms (1889–1893), and then another 4,129 days from the end of his 2nd term (1897) until his death (1908).

Jump up ^ Resigned from office.

tag: ol

text: Oldest living U.S. presidents[edit]

text: Of the 44 persons who have served as president, 24 have become the oldest such individual of their time. Herbert Hoover held this distinction for the longest period of any, from the death of Calvin Coolidge in January 1933 until his own death 31 years later. Lyndon B. Johnson held it for the shortest, from the death of Harry S. Truman in December 1972 until his own death only 27 days later.

text: On three occasions the oldest living president lost this distinction not by his death, but by the inauguration of a president who was older. Theodore Roosevelt (born 1858) lost this distinction when William Taft (born 1857) was inaugurated, then four years later Taft lost it when Woodrow Wilson (born 1856) was inaugurated. More recently, Richard Nixon (born 1913) ceased being the oldest living president when Ronald Reagan (born 1911) was inaugurated. Furthermore, although Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest ever to become both the oldest living president (at age 49) and a former president (at age 50), he was the only living president or former president by the end of his term. Consequently, Taft was the oldest living president twice: first during his presidency (having succeeded the younger Roosevelt), and a second time after Wilson (his successor as president but an older man) died. Gerald Ford was the oldest individual to acquire this distinction, at the age of 90.

text: On seven occasions, the oldest living president has acquired this distinction during his term in office. In the cases of John Adams, Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt, Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon, this happened at the same time as their becoming the only living president; in the cases of Andrew Jackson and Benjamin Harrison, the only other living president at the time was a younger predecessor (John Quincy Adams and Grover Cleveland respectively). By contrast, the president who acquired this distinction furthest from his time in office was Gerald Ford, who had been retired for 7003999800000000000♠27 years, 137 days.

text:
President

Dates

Age atstart date

Age atend date

Length

George Washington

April 30, 1789 – December 14, 1799

7004208870000000000♠57 years, 67 days

7004247670000000000♠67 years, 295 days

7003388000000000000♠10 years, 228 days

John Adams

December 14, 1799 – July 4, 1826

7004234210000000000♠64 years, 45 days

7004331190000000000♠90 years, 247 days

7003969800000000000♠26 years, 202 days

James Madison

July 4, 1826 – June 28, 1836

7004275030000000000♠75 years, 110 days

7004311500000000000♠85 years, 104 days

7003364700000000000♠9 years, 360 days

Andrew Jackson

June 28, 1836 – June 8, 1845

7004253070000000000♠69 years, 105 days

7004285740000000000♠78 years, 85 days

7003326700000000000♠8 years, 345 days

John Quincy Adams

June 8, 1845 – February 23, 1848

7004284560000000000♠77 years, 332 days

7004294460000000000♠80 years, 227 days

7002990000000000000♠2 years, 260 days

Martin Van Buren

February 23, 1848 – July 24, 1862

7004238200000000000♠65 years, 80 days

7004290850000000000♠79 years, 231 days

7003526500000000000♠14 years, 151 days

James Buchanan

July 24, 1862 – June 1, 1868

7004260240000000000♠71 years, 92 days

7004281630000000000♠77 years, 39 days

7003213900000000000♠5 years, 313 days

Millard Fillmore

June 1, 1868 – March 8, 1874

7004249820000000000♠68 years, 146 days

7004270880000000000♠74 years, 60 days

7003210600000000000♠5 years, 280 days

Andrew Johnson

March 8, 1874 – July 31, 1875

7004238100000000000♠65 years, 69 days

7004243200000000000♠66 years, 214 days

7002510000000000000♠1 year, 145 days

Ulysses S. Grant

July 31, 1875 – July 23, 1885

7004194530000000000♠53 years, 95 days

7004230980000000000♠63 years, 87 days

7003364500000000000♠9 years, 357 days

Rutherford B. Hayes

July 23, 1885 – January 17, 1893

7004229380000000000♠62 years, 292 days

7004256730000000000♠70 years, 105 days

7003273500000000000♠7 years, 178 days

Benjamin Harrison

January 17, 1893 – March 13, 1901

7004217000000000000♠59 years, 150 days

7004246760000000000♠67 years, 205 days

7003297600000000000♠8 years, 55 days

Grover Cleveland

March 13, 1901 – June 24, 1908

7004233700000000000♠63 years, 360 days

7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days

7003266000000000000♠7 years, 103 days

Theodore Roosevelt

June 24, 1908 – March 4, 1909

7004181370000000000♠49 years, 241 days

7004183900000000000♠50 years, 128 days

7002253000000000000♠253 days

William Howard Taft

March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913

7004187970000000000♠51 years, 170 days

7004202580000000000♠55 years, 170 days

7003146100000000000♠4 years, 0 days

Woodrow Wilson

March 4, 1913 – February 3, 1924

7004205190000000000♠56 years, 66 days

7004245070000000000♠67 years, 37 days

7003398800000000000♠10 years, 336 days

William Howard Taft

February 3, 1924 – March 8, 1930

7004242460000000000♠66 years, 141 days

7004264710000000000♠72 years, 174 days

7003222500000000000♠6 years, 33 days

Calvin Coolidge

March 8, 1930 – January 5, 1933

7004210650000000000♠57 years, 247 days

7004220990000000000♠60 years, 185 days

7003103400000000000♠2 years, 303 days

Herbert Hoover

January 5, 1933 – October 20, 1964

7004213320000000000♠58 years, 148 days

7004329430000000000♠90 years, 71 days

7004116110000000000♠31 years, 289 days

Harry S. Truman

October 20, 1964 – December 26, 1972

7004293840000000000♠80 years, 165 days

7004323730000000000♠88 years, 232 days

7003298900000000000♠8 years, 67 days

Lyndon B. Johnson

December 26, 1972 – January 22, 1973

7004234970000000000♠64 years, 121 days

7004235240000000000♠64 years, 148 days

7001270000000000000♠27 days

Richard Nixon

January 22, 1973 – January 20, 1981

7004219280000000000♠60 years, 13 days

7004248480000000000♠68 years, 11 days

7003292000000000000♠7 years, 364 days

Ronald Reagan

January 20, 1981 – June 5, 2004

7004255510000000000♠69 years, 349 days

7004340880000000000♠93 years, 120 days

7003853700000000000♠23 years, 137 days

Gerald Ford

June 5, 2004 – December 26, 2006

7004331990000000000♠90 years, 327 days

7004341330000000000♠93 years, 165 days

7002934000000000000♠2 years, 204 days

George H. W. Bush

December 26, 2006 – present

7004301470000000000♠82 years, 197 days

Current

7003426200000000000♠11 years, 244 days

President

Dates

Age atstart date

Age atend date

Length


document_title: Pratima Singh

question_text: which indian sportsperson wife will represent in basketball

text: Pratima Singh

text: Playing career[edit]

text: Singh started playing basketball in 2003 in Uttar Pradesh and later learned basketball at Udai Pratap college. With her growing basketball skills she was selected to the Junior Indian team in the year of 2006 and captained the Junior Indian Girls team in 2008. In her leadership Delhi has won many medals such as Junior National championship in Bhilwara, Rajasthan.

text: She led the Delhi University Team in All India Inter-university, Kottayam, Kerala, 2010 and won the gold medal. She was vice Captain when University of Delhi won a gold medal in the All India University basketball Championship at Nellore, where she was given joint best player award along with her sister Akanksha Singh.[citation needed].

text: She is a product of Jesus and Mary College (2008–09), she won many 'Best Player' titles at the university level. Her peers in college knew her as someone with a lot of style and chutzpah. She won a gold medal for the country in the first 3×3 FIBA Asia Championship. She was also known as a fighter as she fought through her knee injury with a lot of hard work and avoided an operation and then performed after a year of hard work and became the highest scorer of the tournament in 2012.

text: Personal life[edit]

text: She comes from a family of Indian basketball players, three of her sisters currently are a member of the Indian women's national basketball team. They are also known as Singh Sisters.

text:
Priyanka Singh (a National Institute of Sports Basketball Coach)
Divya Singh (Currently Coach of U16 Indian Men Basketball Team)
Prashanti Singh (Current captain of India women's national basketball team)
Akanksha Singh (Currently member of India women's national basketball team)

text: On 10 December 2016, She got married to Indian cricketer Ishant Sharma[2]

text: Awards and achievements[edit]

text:
Gold Medallist in Diploma in Sports Coaching from Netaji Subhas National Institute of Sports, 2014–15[3]
Achievers Award from Women sports foundation of India 2013[3]
Top Scorer of the Tournament in Senior National Basketball Championship in Chennai, Tamil Nadu 2011-2016[3]
Shri Prakash Jyoti Award for Excellence in sports in Jesus & Mary College,2009–10[3]
Century Sports Award for Excellence in Sports 2010 Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh[3]
Sports women of the year in Jesus and Mary College for year 2008-09[3]
Best Player in All India Intra University, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh.[3]

text: International sporting achievement[edit]

text:
Asian Games 2010 Guangzhou, China, 12 November to 27 November 2010
24th FIBA Asian Basketball Championship for Senior Women, 2009, Chennai, India
18th FIBA Asian Basketball Championship for Junior Women 2007, Bangkok, Thailand
2nd FIBA Asian Basketball Championship for Young Women, 2006, Singapore


document_title: Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother

question_text: where did the queen mother live after the king died

text: Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother

text: Early life

text: Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the youngest daughter and the ninth of ten children of Claude Bowes-Lyon, Lord Glamis (later the 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne in the Peerage of Scotland), and his wife, Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck. Her mother was descended from British Prime Minister William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, and Governor-General of India Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, who was the elder brother of another Prime Minister, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington.[b]

text: The location of her birth remains uncertain, but reputedly she was born either in her parents' Westminster home at Belgrave Mansions, Grosvenor Gardens, or in a horse-drawn ambulance on the way to a hospital.[9] Other possible locations include Forbes House in Ham, London, the home of her maternal grandmother, Louisa Scott.[10] Her birth was registered at Hitchin, Hertfordshire,[11] near the Strathmores' English country house, St Paul's Walden Bury, which was also given as her birthplace in the census the following year.[12] She was christened there on 23 September 1900, in the local parish church, All Saints, and her godparents included her paternal aunt Lady Maud Bowes-Lyon and cousin Venetia James.[13]

text: She spent much of her childhood at St Paul's Walden and at Glamis Castle, the Earl's ancestral home in Scotland. She was educated at home by a governess until the age of eight, and was fond of field sports, ponies and dogs.[14] When she started school in London, she astonished her teachers by precociously beginning an essay with two Greek words from Xenophon's Anabasis. Her best subjects were literature and scripture. After returning to private education under a German Jewish governess, Käthe Kübler, she passed the Oxford Local Examination with distinction at age thirteen.[15]

text: On her fourteenth birthday, Britain declared war on Germany. Four of her brothers served in the army. Her elder brother, Fergus, an officer in the Black Watch Regiment, was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in 1915. Another brother, Michael, was reported missing in action on 28 April 1917.[16] Three weeks later, the family discovered he had been captured after being wounded. He remained in a prisoner of war camp for the rest of the war. Glamis was turned into a convalescent home for wounded soldiers, which Elizabeth helped to run. She was particularly instrumental in organising the rescue of the castle's contents during a serious fire on 16 September 1916.[17] One of the soldiers she treated wrote in her autograph book that she was to be "Hung, drawn, & quartered ... Hung in diamonds, drawn in a coach and four, and quartered in the best house in the land."[18]

text: Marriage to Prince Albert

text: Prince Albert, Duke of York—"Bertie" to the family—was the second son of King George V. He initially proposed to Elizabeth in 1921, but she turned him down, being "afraid never, never again to be free to think, speak and act as I feel I really ought to".[19] When he declared he would marry no other, his mother, Queen Mary, visited Glamis to see for herself the girl who had stolen her son's heart. She became convinced that Elizabeth was "the one girl who could make Bertie happy", but nevertheless refused to interfere.[20] At the same time, Elizabeth was courted by James Stuart, Albert's equerry, until he left the Prince's service for a better-paid job in the American oil business.[21]

text: In February 1922, Elizabeth was a bridesmaid at the wedding of Albert's sister, Princess Mary, to Viscount Lascelles.[22] The following month, Albert proposed again, but she refused him once more.[23] Eventually, in January 1923, Elizabeth agreed to marry Albert, despite her misgivings about royal life.[24] Albert's freedom in choosing Elizabeth, not a member of a royal family, though the daughter of a peer, was considered a gesture in favour of political modernisation; previously, princes were expected to marry princesses from other royal families.[25] They selected a platinum engagement ring featuring a Kashmir sapphire with two diamonds adorning its sides.[26]

text: They married on 26 April 1923, at Westminster Abbey. Unexpectedly,[27] Elizabeth laid her bouquet at the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior on her way into the Abbey,[28] in memory of her brother Fergus.[29] Elizabeth became styled Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York.[30] Following a wedding breakfast at Buckingham Palace prepared by chef Gabriel Tschumi, the new Duchess and her husband honeymooned at Polesden Lacey, a manor house in Surrey, and then went to Scotland, where she caught "unromantic" whooping cough.[31]

text: Duchess of York (1923–1936)

text: After a successful visit to Northern Ireland in July 1924, the Labour government agreed that Albert and Elizabeth could tour East Africa from December 1924 to April 1925.[32] The Labour government was defeated by the Conservatives in a general election in November (which Elizabeth described as "marvellous" to her mother)[33] and the Governor-General of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Sir Lee Stack, was assassinated three weeks later. Despite this, the tour went ahead, and they visited Aden, Kenya, Uganda, and Sudan, but Egypt was avoided because of political tensions.[34]

text: Albert had a stammer, which affected his ability to deliver speeches, and after October 1925, Elizabeth assisted in helping him through the therapy devised by Lionel Logue, an episode portrayed in the 2010 film The King's Speech. In 1926, the couple had their first child, Princess Elizabeth—"Lilibet" to the family—who would later become Queen Elizabeth II. Another daughter, Princess Margaret Rose, was born four years later. Albert and Elizabeth, without their child, travelled to Australia to open Parliament House in Canberra in 1927.[35] She was, in her own words, "very miserable at leaving the baby".[36] Their journey by sea took them via Jamaica, the Panama Canal and the Pacific; Elizabeth fretted constantly over her baby back in Britain, but their journey was a public relations success.[37] She charmed the public in Fiji when, shaking hands with a long line of official guests, a stray dog walked in on the ceremony and she shook its paw as well.[38] In New Zealand she fell ill with a cold and missed some engagements, but enjoyed the local fishing[39] in the Bay of Islands accompanied by Australian sports fisherman Harry Andreas.[40] On the return journey, via Mauritius, the Suez Canal, Malta and Gibraltar, their transport, HMS Renown, caught fire and they prepared to abandon ship before the fire was brought under control.[41]

text: Accession and abdication of Edward VIII

text: On 20 January 1936, King George V died and Albert's brother, Edward, Prince of Wales, became King Edward VIII. George had expressed private reservations about his successor, saying, "I pray God that my eldest son will never marry and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne."[42]

text: Just months into his reign, Edward forced a constitutional crisis by insisting on marrying the American divorcée Wallis Simpson. Although legally Edward could have married Simpson, as King he was also head of the Church of England, which at that time did not allow divorced people to remarry. Edward's ministers believed that the people would never accept Simpson as Queen and advised against the marriage. As a constitutional monarch, Edward was obliged to accept ministerial advice.[43]

text: Rather than abandon his plans to marry Simpson, he chose to abdicate in favour of Albert,[44] who reluctantly became King in his place on 11 December 1936 under the regnal name of George VI. George VI and Elizabeth were crowned King and Queen of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions, and Emperor and Empress of India in Westminster Abbey on 12 May 1937, the date previously scheduled for Edward VIII. Elizabeth's crown was made of platinum and was set with the Koh-i-Noor diamond.[45]

text: Edward and Simpson married and became the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, but while Edward was a Royal Highness, George VI withheld the style from the Duchess, a decision that Elizabeth supported.[46] Elizabeth was later quoted as referring to the Duchess as "that woman",[47] and the Duchess referred to Elizabeth as "Cookie", because of her supposed resemblance to a fat Scots cook.[6] Claims that Elizabeth remained embittered towards the Duchess were denied by her close friends; the Duke of Grafton wrote that she "never said anything nasty about the Duchess of Windsor, except to say she really hadn't got a clue what she was dealing with."[48]

text: Queen consort (1936–1952)

text: State visits and royal tour

text: In summer 1938, a state visit to France by the King and Queen was postponed for three weeks because of the death of the Queen's mother, Lady Strathmore. In two weeks, Norman Hartnell created an all-white trousseau for the Queen, who could not wear colours as she was still in mourning.[49] The visit was designed to bolster Anglo-French solidarity in the face of aggression from Nazi Germany.[50] The French press praised the demeanour and charm of the royal couple during the delayed but successful visit, augmented by Hartnell's wardrobe.[51]

text: Nevertheless, Nazi aggression continued, and the government prepared for war. After the Munich Agreement of 1938 appeared to forestall the advent of armed conflict, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was invited onto the balcony of Buckingham Palace with the King and Queen to receive acclamation from a crowd of well-wishers.[52] While broadly popular among the general public, Chamberlain's policy towards Hitler was the subject of some opposition in the House of Commons, which led historian John Grigg to describe the King's behaviour in associating himself so prominently with a politician as "the most unconstitutional act by a British sovereign in the present century".[53] However, historians argue that the King only ever followed ministerial advice and acted as he was constitutionally bound to do.[54]

text: In May and June 1939, Elizabeth and her husband toured Canada from coast to coast and back, and visited the United States, spending time with President Roosevelt at the White House and his Hudson Valley estate.[55][56][57][58] U.S. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt said that Elizabeth was "perfect as a Queen, gracious, informed, saying the right thing & kind but a little self-consciously regal".[59] The tour was designed to bolster trans-Atlantic support in the event of war, and to affirm Canada's status as an independent kingdom sharing with Britain the same person as monarch.[60][61][62][63]

text: According to an often-told story, during one of the earliest of the royal couple's repeated encounters with the crowds, a Boer War veteran asked Elizabeth, "Are you Scots or are you English?" She replied, "I am a Canadian!"[64] Their reception by the Canadian and U.S. public was extremely enthusiastic,[65] and largely dissipated any residual feeling that George and Elizabeth were a lesser substitute for Edward.[66] Elizabeth told Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, "that tour made us",[67] and she returned to Canada frequently both on official tours and privately.[68]

text: Second World War

text: During the Second World War, the King and Queen became symbols of the fight against fascism.[69] Shortly after the declaration of war, The Queen's Book of the Red Cross was conceived. Fifty authors and artists contributed to the book, which was fronted by Cecil Beaton's portrait of the Queen and was sold in aid of the Red Cross.[70] Elizabeth publicly refused to leave London or send the children to Canada, even during the Blitz, when she was advised by the Cabinet to do so. She declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave the King. And the King will never leave."[71]

text: She visited troops, hospitals, factories, and parts of Britain that were targeted by the German Luftwaffe, in particular the East End, near London's docks. Her visits initially provoked hostility; rubbish was thrown at her and the crowds jeered,[6] in part because she wore expensive clothes that served to alienate her from people suffering the deprivations of war. She explained that if the public came to see her they would wear their best clothes, so she should reciprocate in kind; Norman Hartnell dressed her in gentle colours and avoided black to represent "the rainbow of hope".[72] When Buckingham Palace itself took several hits during the height of the bombing, Elizabeth was able to say, "I'm glad we've been bombed. It makes me feel I can look the East End in the face."[73]

text: Though the King and Queen spent the working day at Buckingham Palace, partly for security and family reasons they stayed at night at Windsor Castle about 20 miles (32 km) west of central London with the Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret. The Palace had lost much of its staff to the army, and most of the rooms were shut.[74] The windows were shattered by bomb blasts, and had to be boarded up.[75] During the "Phoney War" the Queen was given revolver training because of fears of imminent invasion.[76]

text: Adolf Hitler is said to have called her "the most dangerous woman in Europe" because he viewed her popularity as a threat to German interests.[5] However, before the war both she and her husband, like most of Parliament and the British public, had supported appeasement and Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, believing after the experience of the First World War that war had to be avoided at all costs. After the resignation of Chamberlain, the King asked Winston Churchill to form a government. Although the King was initially suspicious of Churchill's character and motives, in due course both the King and Queen came to respect and admire him.[77][78]

text: Post-war years

text: In the 1945 British general election, Churchill's Conservative party was soundly defeated by the Labour party of Clement Attlee. Elizabeth's political views were rarely disclosed,[79] but a letter she wrote in 1947 described Attlee's "high hopes of a socialist heaven on earth" as fading and presumably describes those who voted for him as "poor people, so many half-educated and bemused. I do love them."[80] Woodrow Wyatt thought her "much more pro-Conservative" than other members of the royal family,[81] but she later told him, "I like the dear old Labour Party."[82] She also told the Duchess of Grafton, "I love communists".[83]

text: During the 1947 royal tour of South Africa, Elizabeth's serene public behaviour was broken, exceptionally, when she rose from the royal car to strike an admirer with her umbrella because she had mistaken his enthusiasm for hostility.[84] The 1948 royal tour of Australia and New Zealand was postponed because of the King's declining health. In March 1949, he had a successful operation to improve the circulation in his right leg.[85] In summer 1951, Queen Elizabeth and her daughters fulfilled the King's public engagements in his place. In September, he was diagnosed with lung cancer.[86] After a lung resection, he appeared to recover, but the delayed trip to Australia and New Zealand was altered so that Princess Elizabeth and her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, went in the King and Queen's place, in January 1952.[87] The King died in his sleep on 6 February 1952 while Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh were in Kenya en route to the southern hemisphere, and they returned immediately to London, as queen and prince consort.

text: Queen mother (1952–2002)

text: Widowhood

text: Shortly after George VI's death, Elizabeth began to be styled as Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother because the normal style for the widow of a king, "Queen Elizabeth", would have been too similar to the style of her elder daughter, now Queen Elizabeth II.[88] Popularly, she became the "Queen Mother" or the "Queen Mum".[89]

text: She was devastated by her husband's death and retired to Scotland. However, after a meeting with the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, she broke her retirement and resumed her public duties.[90] Eventually she became just as busy as queen mother as she had been as queen consort. In July 1953, she undertook her first overseas visit since the funeral when she visited the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland with Princess Margaret. She laid the foundation stone of the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland – the current University of Zimbabwe.[91]

text: Upon her return to the region in 1957, she was inaugurated as the College's President, and attended other events that were deliberately designed to be multi-racial.[92] During her daughter's extensive tour of the Commonwealth over 1953–54, Elizabeth acted as a Counsellor of State and looked after her grandchildren, Charles and Anne.[93]

text: She oversaw the restoration of the remote Castle of Mey, on the north coast of Scotland, which she used to "get away from everything"[94] for three weeks in August and ten days in October each year.[95] She developed her interest in horse racing, particularly steeplechasing, which had been inspired by the amateur jockey Lord Mildmay in 1949.[96]

text: She owned the winners of approximately 500 races. Her distinctive colours of blue with buff stripes were carried by horses such as Special Cargo, the winner of the 1984 Whitbread Gold Cup, and Devon Loch, which spectacularly halted just short of the winning post at the 1956 Grand National[97] and whose jockey Dick Francis later had a successful career as the writer of racing-themed detective stories. Peter Cazalet was her trainer for over 20 years. Although (contrary to rumour) she never placed bets, she did have the racing commentaries piped direct to her London residence, Clarence House, so she could follow the races.[98] As an art collector, she purchased works by Claude Monet, Augustus John and Peter Carl Fabergé, among others.[99]

text: In February 1964, she had an emergency appendectomy, which led to the postponement of a planned tour of Australia, New Zealand and Fiji until 1966.[100] She recuperated during a Caribbean cruise aboard the royal yacht, Britannia.[101] In December 1966, she underwent an operation to remove a tumour after she was diagnosed with colon cancer. Contrary to rumours, she did not have a colostomy.[102][103] In 1984, she was diagnosed with breast cancer and a lump was removed from her breast. Her bouts with cancer were never made public during her lifetime.[104]

text: In 1982, she was rushed to hospital when a fish bone became stuck in her throat, and had an operation to remove it. Being a keen angler, she calmly joked afterwards, "The salmon have got their own back."[105] Similar incidents occurred at Balmoral in August 1986, when she was hospitalised at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary overnight but no operation was needed,[106] and May 1993, when she was admitted to the Infirmary for surgery under general anaesthetic.[107]

text: In 1975, she visited Iran at the invitation of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The British ambassador and his wife, Anthony and Sheila Parsons, noted how the Iranians were bemused by her habit of speaking to everyone regardless of status or importance, and hoped the Shah's entourage would learn from the visit to pay more attention to ordinary people.[108] Between 1976 and 1984, she made annual summer visits to France,[109] which were among 22 private trips to continental Europe between 1963 and 1992.[110]

text: Centenarian

text: In her later years, the Queen Mother became known for her longevity. Her 90th birthday—4 August 1990—was celebrated by a parade on 27 June that involved many of the 300 organisations of which she was patron.[111] In 1995, she attended events commemorating the end of the war fifty years before, and had two operations: one to remove a cataract in her left eye, and one to replace her right hip.[112] In 1998, her left hip was replaced after it was broken when she slipped and fell during a visit to Sandringham stables.[113]

text: Her 100th birthday was celebrated in a number of ways: a parade that celebrated the highlights of her life included contributions from Sir Norman Wisdom and Sir John Mills;[114] her image appeared on a special commemorative £20 note issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland;[115] and she attended a lunch at the Guildhall, London, at which George Carey, the Archbishop of Canterbury, accidentally attempted to drink her glass of wine. Her quick admonition of "That's mine!" caused widespread amusement.[116] In November 2000, she broke her collarbone in a fall that kept her recuperating at home over Christmas and the New Year.[117]

text: On 1 August 2001, she had a blood transfusion for anaemia after suffering from mild heat exhaustion, though she was well enough to make her traditional appearance outside Clarence House three days later to celebrate her 101st birthday.[118][119] Her final public engagements included planting a cross at the Field of Remembrance on 8 November 2001;[120] a reception at the Guildhall, London, for the reformation of the 600 Squadron, Royal Auxiliary Air Force on 15 November;[121] and attending the re-commissioning of HMS Ark Royal on 22 November.[122]

text: In December 2001, aged 101, she fractured her pelvis in a fall. Even so, she insisted on standing for the National Anthem during the memorial service for her husband on 6 February the following year.[123] Just three days later, her second daughter Princess Margaret died. On 13 February 2002, the Queen Mother fell and cut her arm in her sitting room at Sandringham House; an ambulance and doctor were called, and the wound was dressed.[124] She was still determined to attend Margaret's funeral at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, two days later on the Friday of that week,[125] even though the Queen and the rest of the royal family were concerned about the journey the Queen Mother would face to get from Norfolk to Windsor;[126] she was also rumoured to be hardly eating.[127] Nevertheless, she flew to Windsor by helicopter, and so that no photographs of her in a wheelchair could be taken—she insisted that she be shielded from the press[126]—she travelled to the service in a people carrier with blacked–out windows,[128][129] which had been previously used by Margaret.[126][130]

text: On 5 March 2002, she was present at the luncheon of the annual lawn party of the Eton Beagles, and watched the Cheltenham Races on television; however, her health began to deteriorate precipitately during her last weeks after retreating to Royal Lodge for the final time.[131]

text: Death

text: On 30 March 2002, at 15:15 (GMT), the Queen Mother died in her sleep at the Royal Lodge, Windsor Great Park, with her surviving daughter, Queen Elizabeth II, at her bedside. She had been suffering from a cold for the previous four months.[124] At 101 years and 238 days old she was the longest-lived member of the royal family in British history. Her last surviving sister-in-law Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester,[132] exceeded that, dying aged 102 on 29 October 2004.[133]

text: Elizabeth grew camellias in every one of her gardens, and before her flag-draped coffin was taken from Windsor to lie in state at Westminster Hall, an arrangement of camellias from her own gardens was placed on top.[134] An estimated 200,000 people over three days filed past as she lay in state in Westminster Hall at the Palace of Westminster.[135] Members of the household cavalry and other branches of the armed forces stood guard at the four corners of the catafalque. At one point, her four grandsons Prince Charles, Prince Andrew, Prince Edward and Viscount Linley mounted the guard as a mark of respect—an honour similar to the Vigil of the Princes at the lying in state of King George V.[136][137]

text: On the day of her funeral, 9 April, the Governor General of Canada issued a proclamation asking Canadians to honour her memory that day.[138] In Australia, the Governor-General read the lesson at a memorial service held in St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney.[139]

text: In London, more than a million people filled the area outside Westminster Abbey and along the 23-mile (37 km) route from central London to her final resting place beside her husband and younger daughter in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.[140] At her request, after her funeral the wreath that had lain atop her coffin was placed on the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior, in a gesture that echoed her wedding-day tribute 79 years before.[141]

text: Public perception

text: Elizabeth—known for her personal and public charm[19]—was one of the most popular members of the royal family,[142] and helped to stabilise the popularity of the monarchy as a whole.[143][144]

text: Critics included Kitty Kelley, who falsely alleged that during the Second World War Elizabeth did not abide by the rationing regulations.[145][146] This, however, was contradicted by the official records,[147][148] and Eleanor Roosevelt during her wartime stay at Buckingham Palace reported expressly on the rationed food served in the Palace and the limited bathwater that was permitted.[149][150]

text: Further allegations that Elizabeth used racist slurs to refer to black people[145] were strongly denied by Major Colin Burgess.[151] Major Burgess was the husband of Elizabeth Burgess, a mixed-race secretary who accused members of the Prince of Wales's Household of racial abuse.[152] Queen Elizabeth made no public comments on race, but according to Robert Rhodes James in private she "abhorred racial discrimination" and decried apartheid as "dreadful".[153] Woodrow Wyatt records in his diary that when he expressed the view that non-white countries have nothing in common with "us", she told him, "I am very keen on the Commonwealth. They're all like us."[154] However, she did distrust Germans; she told Woodrow Wyatt, "Never trust them, never trust them."[155] While she may have held such views, it has been argued that they were normal for British people of her generation and upbringing, who had experienced two vicious wars with Germany.[156]

text: In 1987, she was criticised when it emerged that two of her nieces, Katherine and Nerissa Bowes-Lyon, had both been committed to a psychiatric hospital because they were severely handicapped. However, Burke's Peerage had listed the sisters as dead, apparently because their mother, Fenella (the Queen Mother's sister-in-law), "was 'extremely vague' when it came to filling in forms and might not have completed the paperwork for the family entry correctly".[157] When Nerissa died the year before, her grave was originally marked with a plastic tag and a serial number. The Queen Mother said that the news of their institutionalisation came as a surprise to her.[158]

text: Legacy

text: Sir Hugh Casson said Elizabeth was like "a wave breaking on a rock, because although she is sweet and pretty and charming, she also has a basic streak of toughness and tenacity. ... when a wave breaks on a rock, it showers and sparkles with a brilliant play of foam and droplets in the sun, yet beneath is really hard, tough rock, fused, in her case, from strong principles, physical courage and a sense of duty."[159] Sir Peter Ustinov described her during a student demonstration at the University of Dundee in 1968:

text: As we arrived in a solemn procession the students pelted us with toilet rolls. They kept hold of one end, like streamers at a ball, and threw the other end. The Queen Mother stopped and picked these up as though somebody had misplaced them. [Returning them to the students she said,] 'Was this yours? Oh, could you take it?' And it was her sang-froid and her absolute refusal to be shocked by this, which immediately silenced all the students. She knows instinctively what to do on those occasions. She doesn't rise to being heckled at all; she just pretends it must be an oversight on the part of the people doing it. The way she reacted not only showed her presence of mind, but was so charming and so disarming, even to the most rabid element, that she brought peace to troubled waters.[160]

text: Elizabeth was well known for her dry witticisms. On hearing that Edwina Mountbatten was buried at sea, she said: "Dear Edwina, she always liked to make a splash."[105] Accompanied by the gay writer Sir Noël Coward at a gala, she mounted a staircase lined with Guards. Noticing Coward's eyes flicker momentarily across the soldiers, she murmured to him: "I wouldn't if I were you, Noël; they count them before they put them out."[161]

text: After being advised by a Conservative Minister in the 1970s not to employ homosexuals, the Queen Mother observed that without them, "we'd have to go self-service".[161] On the fate of a gift of a nebuchadnezzar of champagne (20 bottles' worth) even if her family did not come for the holidays, she said, "I'll polish it off myself."[162] Emine Saner of The Guardian suggests that with a gin and Dubonnet at noon, red wine with lunch, a port and martini at 6 pm and two glasses of champagne at dinner, "a conservative estimate puts the number of alcohol units she drank at 70 a week".[163] Her lifestyle amused journalists, particularly when it was revealed she had a multi-million pound overdraft with Coutts Bank.[164]

text: Her habits were parodied by the satirical 1980s television programme Spitting Image.[165] She was portrayed by Juliet Aubrey in Bertie and Elizabeth, Sylvia Syms in The Queen, Natalie Dormer in W.E., Olivia Colman in Hyde Park on Hudson, Victoria Hamilton in The Crown, and in The King's Speech by Helena Bonham Carter, who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and won a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her portrayal.[166][167]

text: The Cunard White Star Line's RMS Queen Elizabeth was named after her. She launched the ship on 27 September 1938 in Clydebank, Scotland. Supposedly, the liner started to slide into the water before Elizabeth could officially launch her, and acting sharply, she managed to smash a bottle of Australian red over the liner's bow just before it slid out of reach.[168] In 1954, Queen Elizabeth sailed to New York on her namesake.[169]

text: A statue of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother by sculptor Philip Jackson was unveiled in front of the George VI Memorial, off The Mall, London, on 24 February 2009, creating the George VI and Queen Elizabeth Memorial.[170]

text: In March 2011, her eclectic musical taste was revealed when details of her small record collection kept at the Castle of Mey were made public. Her records included ska, local folk, Scottish reels and the musicals Oklahoma! and The King and I, and artists such as yodeller Montana Slim, Tony Hancock, The Goons and Noël Coward.[171]

text: Eight years before her death, she had reportedly placed two-thirds of her money into trusts, for the benefit of her great-grandchildren. She left the bulk of her estate, estimated to be worth £70 million, including paintings, Fabergé eggs, jewellery, and horses, to her surviving daughter, Queen Elizabeth II.[172] As property passing from monarch to monarch is exempt from Inheritance Tax, as is property passing from the consort of a former monarch to the current monarch, a tax liability estimated at £28 million (40 percent of the value of the estate) was not incurred.[173] The most important pieces of art were transferred to the Royal Collection by Elizabeth II.[172]

text: Titles, styles, honours and arms

text: Titles and styles

text:
4 August 1900 – 16 February 1904: The Honourable Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
16 February 1904 – 26 April 1923: Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
26 April 1923 – 11 December 1936: Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York
11 December 1936 – 6 February 1952: Her Majesty The Queen
6 February 1952 – 30 March 2002: Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother

text: Arms

text: Queen Elizabeth's coat of arms was the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom (in either the English or the Scottish version) impaled with the arms of her father, the Earl of Strathmore; the latter being: 1st and 4th quarters, Argent, a lion rampant Azure, armed and langued Gules, within a double tressure flory-counter-flory of the second (Lyon); 2nd and 3rd quarters, Ermine, three bows stringed paleways proper (Bowes).[174] The shield is surmounted by the imperial crown, and supported by the crowned lion of England and a lion rampant per fess Or and Gules.[175]

text: Issue

text:
Name
Birth
Death
Marriage
Their children
Their grandchildren

Date
Spouse

Elizabeth II
21 April 1926

20 November 1947
Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark
Charles, Prince of Wales
Prince William, Duke of Cambridge
Prince Henry of Wales

Anne, Princess Royal
Peter Phillips
Zara Tindall

Prince Andrew, Duke of York
Princess Beatrice of York
Princess Eugenie of York

Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex
Lady Louise Windsor
James, Viscount Severn

Princess Margaret
21 August 1930
9 February 2002
6 May 1960
Divorced 11 July 1978
Antony Armstrong-Jones
David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon
Charles Armstrong-Jones
Margarita Armstrong-Jones

Lady Sarah Chatto
Samuel Chatto
Arthur Chatto

text: Ancestry

text:
[show]Ancestors of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother

16. Thomas Lyon-Bowes, 11th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne

8. Thomas Lyon-Bowes, Lord Glamis

17. Mary Elizabeth Louisa Carpenter

4. Claude Bowes-Lyon, 13th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne

18. Joseph Valentine Grimstead

9. Charlotte Grimstead

19. Charlotte Jane Sarah Walsh

2. Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne

20. George Smith

10. Oswald Smith

21. Frances Mary Mosley

5. Frances Dora Smith

22. Robert Hodgson, Dean of Carlisle

11. Henrietta Mildred Hodgson

23. Mary Tucker

1. Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother

24. William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland

12. Lord Charles Cavendish-Bentinck

25. Lady Dorothy Cavendish

6. Charles William Cavendish-Bentinck

26. Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley

13. Anne Wellesley

27. Hyacinthe-Gabrielle Roland

3. Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck

28. Edwyn Andrew Burnaby

14. Edwyn Burnaby

29. Mary Browne

7. Caroline Louisa Burnaby

30. Thomas Salisbury

15. Anne Caroline Salisbury

31. Frances Webb

text: Notes

text:
Jump up ^ The hyphenated version of the surname was used in official documents at the time of her marriage, but the family itself tends to omit the hyphen.[1]
Jump up ^ Lady Colin Campbell claims Elizabeth's biological mother was the family cook, Marguerite Rodiere, by means of a surrogacy arrangement that was not uncommon in aristocratic families at the time. This theory is dismissed by royal biographers such as Michael Thornton and Hugo Vickers.[7] In an earlier allegation, published by Kitty Kelley in 1997, Elizabeth's mother is said to have been a Welsh maid.[8]


document_title: Cross country running

question_text: how far do you run in middle school cross country

text: Cross country running

text: Race course

text: Cross country courses are laid out on an open or woodland area. The IAAF recommends that courses be grass-covered, and have rolling terrain with frequent but smooth turns. Courses consist of one or more loops, with a long straight at the start and another leading to the finish line.

text: Course design

text: Terrain can vary from open fields to forest hills and even across rivers. It also includes running down and up hills. Because of variations in conditions, international standardization of cross country courses is impossible, and not necessarily desirable. Part of cross country running's appeal is the distinct characteristics of each venue's terrain and weather, as in other outdoor sports like motor racing, cycling and golf.

text: According to the IAAF, an ideal cross country course has a loop of 1,750 to 2,000 metres (1,910 to 2,190 yd) laid out on an open or wooded land. It should be covered by grass, as much as possible, and include rolling hills "with smooth curves and short straights". While it is perfectly acceptable for local conditions to make dirt or snow the primary surface, courses should minimize running on roads or other macadamized paths. Parks and golf courses often provide suitable locations.

text: While a course may include natural or artificial obstacles, cross country courses support continuous running, and do not require climbing over high barriers, through deep ditches, or fighting through the underbrush, as do military-style assault courses.[3]

text: A course at least 5 metres (5.5 yd) full allows competitors to pass others during the race. Clear markings keep competitors from making wrong turns, and spectators from interfering with the competition. Markings may include tape or ribbon on both sides of the course, chalk or paint on the ground, or cones. Some classes use colored flags to indicate directions: red flags for left turns, yellow flags for right turns, and blue flags can mean continue straight ahead or stay within ten feet (of the flag). Courses also commonly include distance markings, usually at each kilometer or each mile.[4]

text: The course should have 400 to 1,200 m (440 to 1,310 yd) of level terrain before the first turn, to reduce contact and congestion at the start. However, many courses at smaller competitions have their first turn after a much shorter distance.[5]

text: Distances

text: Courses for international competitions consist of a loop between 1750 and 2000 meters. Athletes complete three to six loops, depending on the race. Senior men compete on a 12-kilometre course. Senior women and junior men compete on an 8-kilometre course. Junior women compete on a 6-kilometre course.[3]

text: In the United States, college men typically compete on 8 km (5.0 mi) or 10 km (6.2 mi) courses, while college women race for 5 km (3.1 mi) or 6 km (3.7 mi).[5] High school courses are generally 5 km (3.1 mi).

text: Start

text: All runners start at the same time, from a starting arc (or line) marked with lines or boxes for each team or individual. An official, 50 meters or more in front of the starting line, fires a pistol to indicate the start. If runners collide and fall within the first 100 meters, officials can call the runners back and restart the race, however this is done only once. Crossing the line or starting before the starting pistol is fired is considered a false start and most often results in disqualification of the runner.

text: Finish

text: The course ends at a finish line located at the beginning of a funnel or chute (a long walkway marked with flags) that keeps athletes single-file in order of finish and facilitates accurate scoring.

text: Depending on the timing and scoring system, finish officials may collect a small slip from each runner's bib, to keep track of finishing positions. An alternative method (standard in the UK) is to have four officials in two pairs. In the first pair, one official reads out numbers of finishers and the other records them. In the second pair, one official reads out times for the other to record. At the end of the race, the two lists are joined along with information from the entry information. The primary disadvantage of this system is that distractions can easily upset the results, particularly when scores of runners finish close together.

text: Chip timing has grown in popularity to increase accuracy and decrease the number of officials required at the finish line. Each runner attaches a transponder with RFID to his or her shoe. When the runner crosses the finish line, an electronic pad records the chip number and matches the runner to a database. Chip timing allows officials to use checkpoint mats throughout the race to calculate split times, and to ensure runners cover the entire course. This is by far the most efficient method, although it is also the most expensive. The drawback to chip timing is its inability to separate a close finish properly. Chips times the feet, when the rule books say it is the torso that counts. It is technically possible for an athlete to fall across the finish line, legally crossing the finish line, but with their feet too far away from the sensor to have their finish recorded.

text: Contemporary races have now started to use fully automatic timing systems for photo finish accuracy to their results. This has dramatically improved the timing mechanisms of Cross Country over the last few years.

text: Scoring

text: Scores are determined by summing the top four or five individual finishing places on each team. In international competition, a team typically consists of six runners, with the top four scoring. In the United States, the most common scoring system is seven runners, with the top five scoring. Points are awarded to the individual runners of eligible teams, equal to the position in which they cross the finish line (first place gets 1 point, second place gets 2 points, etc.). The points for these runners are summed, and the lowest score wins. Individual athletes, and athletes from incomplete teams ( teams consisting of less than 5 athletes or teams) and individuals who have been disqualified are excluded from scoring. Ties are usually broken by the position of each team's sixth runner.

text: The lowest possible score in a five-to-score match is 15 (1+2+3+4+5), achieved by a team's runners finishing in each of the top five positions. If there is a single opposing team then they would have a score of 40 (6+7+8+9+10), which can be considered a "sweep" for the winning team. In some competitions a team's sixth and seventh runner are scored in the overall field and are known as "pushers" or "displacers" as their place can count ahead of other runners, giving other teams more points. In the above match, if there are two non-scoring runners and they came 6th and 7th overall, the opponent's score would be 50 (8+9+10+11+12). Accordingly, the official score of a forfeited dual meet is 15–50.

text: Strategy

text: Because of differences between courses in running surface, frequency and tightness of turns, and amount of up and downhill, cross country strategy does not necessarily simplify to running a steady pace from start to finish. Coaches and cross country runners debate the relative merits of fast starts to get clear of the field, versus steady pacing to maximize physiological efficiency. Some teams emphasize running in a group in order to provide encouragement to others on the team, while others hold that every individual should run his or her own race. In addition, whether you run ahead 'of the pack' or behind it and pull ahead in the end is important, but can vary according to the runner's individual skill, endurance, and the length of the race. Runners should also account for food intake prior to the race. Most important, however, is the training beforehand.[6][7][8]

text: Equipment

text: Cross country running involves very little specialized equipment. Most races are run in shorts and vests or singlets, usually in club or school colours. In particularly cold conditions, long-sleeved shirts and tights can be worn to retain warmth without losing mobility. The most common footwear are cross country spikes, lightweight racing shoes with a rubber sole and five or more metal spikes screwed into the forefoot part of the sole. Spike length depends on race conditions, with a muddy course appropriate for spikes as long as 25 millimetres (0.98 in). If a course has a harder surface, spikes as short as 6 millimetres (0.24 in) may be most effective. While spikes are suitable for grassy, muddy, or other slippery conditions, runners may choose to wear racing flats, rubber-soled racing shoes without spikes, if the course includes significant portions of paved surfaces or dirt road.[9]

text: History

text: Formal cross country competition traces its history to the 19th century and an English game called "hare and hounds" or "the paper chase". English schools started competing in cross country races in 1837, and established a national championship on December 7, 1867. It was held on Wimbledon Common in south-west London. It was the first cross country race that was considered "open", or could be run by anyone. Its original purpose was to imitate steeplechase for off-season training, and was considered a bit of a joke.[citation needed] The race was about 3.5 miles long, and went through very boggy and hilly terrain. The course was not well marked, and many competitors got lost. Matters were not helped by the fact that the race was run in the dark, as it began at 5 pm.[10]

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text: Olympic Games

text: Cross country was contested as a team and individual event at the 1912, 1920 and 1924 Summer Olympics. Sweden took gold in 1912, and Finland, led by Paavo Nurmi, captured the gold in 1920 and 1924. During the 1924 race in the Paris heat wave, only 15 of the 38 competitors reached the finish.[11] Eight of those were taken away on stretchers.[11] One athlete began to run in tight circles after reaching the stadium and later knocked himself unconscious,[12] while another fainted 50 meters from the finish.[13] José Andía and Edvin Wide were reported dead,[14] and medics spent hours trying to find all the competitors who had blacked out along the course.[13] Although the reports of deaths were unfounded, spectators were shocked by the attrition rate and Olympic officials decided to ban cross country running from future Games.[14] Since 1928, cross country has been contested only as the fifth discipline of the modern pentathlon, and until 2016 it was the only discipline where the Olympic competition was only part of the modern pentathlon.[15] The sport will have a separate medal event at the 2018 Youth Olympic Games in Buenos Aires.

text: World championships

text: Europeans dominated early International Cross Country Championships, first held at the Hamilton Park Racecourse in Scotland on 28 March 1903. England won the first 14 titles, and 43 of 59 until the IAAF took over the competition in 1973. France was the next most successful country in the early years, winning 12 championships between 1922 and 1956. Belgium is the only other country to win at the International Cross Country Championship, capturing titles in 1948, 1957, 1961 and 1963. The English also dominated the individual competition, with an Englishman winning the individual title 35 times, including three wins by Jack Holden (1933–1935).

text: The first international cross country championship for women was held in 1931, and thirteen more times through 1972. England won 12 of these early championships, losing only in 1968 and 1969 (to the United States). American Doris Brown won five consecutive individual titles between 1967 and 1971.

text: Beginning in 1973, the IAAF began hosting the renamed World Cross Country Championships each year. In 1975, the New Zealand men and United States women won, marking the first championships by non-European countries. In 1981 an African nation (Ethiopia) won the men's race for the first time, and a decade later an African nation (Kenya) won the women's race for the first time. Ethiopia or Kenya has captured every men's title since 1981 and every women's title since 2001. Through 2010, Kenya has won 40 World Cross Country Championships and Ethiopia has won 23.[16]

text: Notable athletes

text: Men

text:
Kenenisa Bekele won both short and long World Cross Country course titles in the same year five times (2002–2006), after a junior men victory and senior long course silver in 2001. The IAAF calls him the "greatest ever male cross country runner to have graced the sport."[17]
Carlos Lopes – first man to win World Cross Country title three times.
John Ngugi – first man to win five World Cross Country titles, including four consecutively in the late 1980s.
Paavo Nurmi was a four-time Olympic gold medalist and undefeated throughout his 19-year career in cross country running
Gaston Roelants – four-time champion at the International Cross Country Championship between 1962 and 1972.
Paul Tergat – long course champion five years in a row (1995–1999), plus a bronze medal finish in 2000.

text: Women

text:
Doris Brown – won the International Cross Country Championship for five consecutive years (1967–1971).
Zola Budd – young prodigy who twice won women's World championship (1985–1986), known for running barefooted.
Tirunesh Dibaba – won three times at the World long course and once at the short.
Lynn Jennings – won World title three times.
Edith Masai – won the World short race three times.
Derartu Tulu – won World titles three times in six years (1995, 1997, 2000).
Grete Waitz – first athlete to win five IAAF World Cross Country titles.
Gete Wami – won twice at the World long course and once at the short.
Sonia O'Sullivan – was the first person who achieved wins in both the short and long races in the World Cross-Country Championships (1998)

text: Regional organizations

text: In addition to the World Cross Country Championships, the IAAF sponsors six annual area-level competitions: the African Cross Country Championships, Asian Cross Country Championships, European Cross Country Championships, NACAC Cross Country Championships, Oceania Cross Country Championships and South American Cross Country Championships.

text: Beyond championships, IAAF world cross country meetings include the Great Edinburgh International Cross Country, Cross Internacional de Itálica, Antrim International Cross Country, Cinque Mulini, Nairobi Cross, Chiba International Cross Country, Fukuoka International Cross Country meet, Eurocross and Almond Blossom Cross Country.[18]

text: Australia

text: Cross country running is organized at the state level by the athletics association for each state. In Queensland this Queensland Athletics.[19] In the Masters category (over 30), this is organized by Australian Masters Athletics. Brisbane will host the Australian Masters Nationals Championships,[20] April 21–24, 2011 with the Cross Country hosted by Thompson Estate and Eastern Suburbs Athletics [21] at Minnippi Parklands.

text: The cross country season in Brisbane is usually March – September. During the season there is usually one race each week in a different park, generally organized and hosted by one of the participating clubs. Photos of such events can be found here.[22]

text: Canada

text: Cross country running is a far-reaching sport in Canada. In middle school, races are more serious and are divided by grade and gender. In high school, the races are far-reaching and tend to be the main talent pool (especially at the senior level) for university or national-level runners. At the university level, the sport is administered by Canadian Interuniversity Sport.[23]

text: United Kingdom

text: The organization of cross country running in the United Kingdom has continued to be mostly devolved to the four national associations: England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The sport is based around the clubs, which usually are mixed cross country and road running clubs. The current position (which is changing) is that in England, the English Cross Country Association is part of the Amateur Athletic Association.

text: Cross country running takes place from roughly September until March. Most matches are parts of different cross country leagues, which are organized on an ad hoc basis. These vary from large, high quality leagues, such as the London Metropolitan Cross Country League, Birmingham League, Hampshire League, Essex League and Surrey League (which is unusual in requiring ten runners to score) to small, local leagues (such as the Gloucestershire AA league), and individual clubs can (and typically are) member of several leagues.

text: Typically there will be four or five fixtures a season. Also, there are county championships, area championships (north, south, and Midlands), the national championship (whose location rotates around the three areas), and the Inter-Counties Championship (which is often the best quality race owing to its restricted entry and its role as the trial for the World Championships).

text: Also there can be many inter-club matches, particularly among the older clubs. Most league matches are around 10 km (6.2 mi) long, and most championships 12 to 15 km (c. 7½ to 9 miles) long. Most clubs are mixed, though men's and women's races tend to be run separately.

text: Secondary school aged students are also to compete at local schools races, with a set number of students qualifying for county level, at which there is a further race to be eligible for the relevant national schools cross country race (e.g. the English Schools Cross Country).

text: At University level, there is considerable competition available. University clubs typically compete both locally (via English Athletics) as well as between universities - with larger fixtures organized through BUCS (formerly known as BUSA).

text: Primary schools, although more often the juniors, also participate in cross country events and some areas of England have done so since the late 1960s. An example would be schools near Ouston, County Durham which compete as part of Chester-le-Street & District Primary Cross Country Association.[24]

text: United States

text: USA Track & Field hosts four annual national cross country championships. The USA Cross Country Championships, first held in 1890, include six races: masters women (8 km), masters men (8 km), junior women (6 km), junior men (8 km), open women (8 km) and open men (12 km). In addition to crowning national champions, the championships serve as the trials race to select the Team USA squad for the IAAF World Cross Country Championships. The USA Masters 5  a km Cross Country Championships, first held in 2002, incl men's race and a women's race. The USATF National Club Cross Country Championships, first held in 1998, feature the top clubs from across the United States as they vie for honors and bragging rights as the nation's top cross country team. The USATF National Junior Olympic Cross Country Championships, first held in 2001, has raced for boys and girls in five different two-year age divisions.[25]

text: Most American universities and colleges field men's and women's cross country teams as part of their athletic program. Over 900 men's cross country teams and over 1000 women's cross country teams compete in the three divisions of the National Collegiate Athletic Association.[26] Men usually race 10 km (6.2 mi) or 8 km (5.0 mi), and women usually race 6 km (3.7 mi) or 5 km (3.1 mi).[5] The season culminates in men's and women's championships. Jr. College men often race 4 miles.

text: Every state offers cross country as a high school sport for boys and girls. Over 440,000 high school students compete in cross country each year, making it the sixth-most popular sport for girls, and seventh most popular for boys.[27] The standard high school cross country race distance is 5 km (3.1 mi) for most states with California high schools running 3 mile races, though some counties run a shorter, 3- to 4-kilometer course for girls. Beginning in 1979, the Foot Locker Cross Country Championships have offered a national championship for high school cross country runners. Since 2004, the Nike Cross Nationals have offered an alternative national championship, focused on teams rather than individuals. A 2008 film, The Long Green Line, documented the success of Joe Newton, cross country coach at York Community High School in Elmhurst, Illinois.[28]

text: While many middle schools (grades 6–8) in the U.S. offer cross country as a school sport, youth running clubs dominate in this age group. A typical middle school course is 3 km (1.9 mi) or 2 mi (3.2 km), and races may not split up boys and girls. Few elementary schools in the U.S. have school teams, but many running clubs exist for youth runners. Youth running clubs compete in local, regional, and national championships sanctioned by the AAU or USATF. Course distances for this age group vary depending on the age of the athlete. Common championship distances are:

text:
Group
Ages
Race Distance

Bantam
Under 10
3 km (1.9 mi)

Midget
10 to 12
3 km (1.9 mi)

Youth
12 to 14
4 km (2.5 mi)

Intermediate
14 to 16
5 kilometres (3.1 miles)

Young
16 to 18
5 kilometres (3.1 miles)

text: Mt. San Antonio College in Walnut, California hosts the largest cross country invitational in the United States, with over 22,000 runners from community colleges, high schools and elementary schools competing. The meet started in 1948 and continued today.[29]

text: Outstanding American cross country runners include Don Lash, who won seven consecutive national championships from 1934 to 1940, Pat Porter, who won eight titles from 1982 to 1989, and Steve Prefontaine, who won three NCAA national titles in cross country. Only two American athletes have won the IAAF World Cross Country Championships: Craig Virgin, who won in 1980 and again in 1981 and Lynn Jennings from 1990–1992.

text: The 2015 Disney movie McFarland, USA revolves around a cross-country team at a small high school.

text: Variations

text: One variation on traditional cross country is mountain running, which incorporates significant uphill and/or downhill sections as an additional challenge to the course.