document_title: Memorial Day

question_text: when did they change decoration day to memorial day

text: Memorial Day

text: History[edit]

text: The practice of decorating soldiers' graves with flowers is an ancient custom.[5] Soldiers' graves were decorated in the U.S. before[6] and during the American Civil War.

text: Some believe that an annual cemetery decoration practice began before the American Civil War and thus may reflect the real origin of the "memorial day" idea.[7] Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are still held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in some rural areas of the American South, notably in the mountain areas. In cases involving a family graveyard where remote ancestors as well as those who were deceased more recently are buried, this may take on the character of an extended family reunion to which some people travel hundreds of miles. People gather, put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives and others. There often is a religious service and a picnic-like "dinner on the grounds," the traditional term for a potluck meal at a church.[7]

text: On June 3, 1861, Warrenton, Virginia was the location of the first Civil War soldier's grave ever to be decorated, according to a Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper article in 1906.[8] In 1862, women in Savannah, Georgia decorated Confederate soldiers' graves according to the Savannah Republican.[9] The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was a ceremony of commemoration at the graves of dead soldiers. On July 4, 1864, ladies decorated soldiers' graves according to local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania.[10] and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day.[11]

text: In April 1865, following President Abraham Lincoln's assassination, commemorations were ubiquitous. The more than 600,000 soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance. Under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the federal government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead.[12]

text: On May 1, 1865, in Charleston, South Carolina, recently freed African-Americans held a parade of 10,000 people to honor 257 dead Union Soldiers, whose remains they had reburied from a mass grave in a Confederate prison camp.[13] Historian David W. Blight cites contemporary news reports of this incident in the Charleston Daily Courier and the New-York Tribune. Although Blight claimed that "African Americans invented Memorial Day in Charleston, South Carolina",[14] in 2012, Blight stated that he "has no evidence" that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country.[15] Accordingly, investigators for Time Magazine, LiveScience, RealClearLife and Snopes have called this conclusion into question.[16][17][18][19]

text: In 1868, copying a southern annual observance,[20] General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of Union veterans founded in Decatur, Illinois, established Decoration Day as a time for the nation to decorate the graves of the Union war dead with flowers.[21] By the 20th century, various Union and Confederate memorial traditions, celebrated on different days, merged, and Memorial Day eventually extended to honor all Americans who died while in the military service.[1]

text: On May 26, 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated an "official" birthplace of the holiday by signing the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, as the holder of the title. This action followed House Concurrent Resolution 587, in which the 89th Congress had officially recognized that the patriotic tradition of observing Memorial Day had begun one hundred years prior in Waterloo, New York.[22] The village credits druggist Henry C. Welles and county clerk John B. Murray as the founders of the holiday. Scholars have determined that the Waterloo account is a myth.[23] Snopes and Live Science also discredit the Waterloo account.[24][25]

text: In the North[edit]

text: On May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan issued a proclamation calling for "Decoration Day" to be observed annually and nationwide; he was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of and for Union Civil War veterans.[7] With his proclamation, Logan adopted the Memorial Day practice that had begun in the Southern states three years earlier.[26][27][28]

text: The first northern Memorial Day was observed on May 30, 1868. One author claims that the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle.[29] According to a White House address in 2010, the date was chosen as the optimal date for flowers to be in bloom in the North.[30]

text: The northern states quickly adopted the holiday. In 1868, memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states, and 336 in 1869.[31] In 1871, Michigan made "Decoration Day" an official state holiday and by 1890, every northern state had followed suit. There was no standard program for the ceremonies, but they were typically sponsored by the Women's Relief Corps, the women's auxiliary of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), which had 100,000 members. By 1870, the remains of nearly 300,000 Union dead had been reinterred in 73 national cemeteries, located near major battlefields and thus mainly in the South. The most famous are Gettysburg National Cemetery in Pennsylvania and Arlington National Cemetery, near Washington, D.C.[32]

text: Memorial Day speeches became an occasion for veterans, politicians, and ministers to commemorate the Civil War and, at first, to rehash the "atrocities" of the enemy. They mixed religion and celebratory nationalism for the people to make sense of their history in terms of sacrifice for a better nation. People of all religious beliefs joined together and the point was often made that the German and Irish soldiers had become true Americans in the "baptism of blood" on the battlefield.[33]

text: Since 1868 Doylestown, Pennsylvania, has held annual Memorial Day parades which it claims to be the nation's oldest continuously running.  However, the Memorial Day parade in Rochester, Wisconsin, predates Doylestown's by one year.[34][35]

text: By the 1880s, ceremonies were becoming quite similar as the GAR provided handbooks that presented specific procedures, poems, and Bible verses for local post commanders to utilize in planning the local event. Historian Stuart McConnell reports:

text: on the day itself, the post assembled and marched to the local cemetery to decorate the graves of the fallen, an enterprise meticulously organized months in advance to assure that none were missed. Finally came a simple and subdued graveyard service involving prayers, short patriotic speeches, and music...and at the end perhaps a rifle salute.[36]

text: In the South[edit]

text: The U.S. National Park Service[37] and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to the ladies of Columbus, Georgia.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44] On April 25, 1866, women in Columbus, Mississippi laid flowers on the graves of both the Union and Confederate dead in the city's Friendship Cemetery, claiming to be the first "Decoration Day."[45][46] The early southern Memorial Day celebrations were simple, somber occasions for veterans and their families to honor the dead and tend to local cemeteries.[47]

text: Historians acknowledge the Ladies Memorial Association played a key role in these rituals of preservation of Confederate "memory."[48] Various dates ranging from April 25 to mid-June were adopted in different Southern states. Across the South, associations were founded, many by women, to establish and care for permanent cemeteries for the Confederate dead, organize commemorative ceremonies, and sponsor appropriate monuments as a permanent way of remembering the Confederate dead. The most important of these was the United Daughters of the Confederacy, which grew from 17,000 members in 1900 to nearly 100,000 women by World War I. They were "strikingly successful at raising money to build Confederate monuments, lobbying legislatures and Congress for the reburial of Confederate dead, and working to shape the content of history textbooks."[49]

text: In 1868, some southerners appended the label "Confederate" to what they originally called "Memorial Day" after northerners co-opted the holiday.[50] The tradition of observances were linked to the South, they served as the prototype for the national day of memory embraced by the nation in 1868.[37][51]

text: By 1890, there was a shift from the emphasis on honoring specific soldiers to a public commemoration of the Confederate south.[47] Changes in the ceremony's hymns and speeches reflect an evolution of the ritual into a symbol of cultural renewal and conservatism in the South. By 1913, David Blight argues, the theme of American nationalism shared equal time with the Confederate.[52]

text: At Gettysburg[edit]

text: Starting in 1868, the ceremonies and Memorial Day address at Gettysburg National Park became nationally known. In July 1913, veterans of the United States and Confederate armies gathered in Gettysburg to commemorate the fifty-year anniversary of the Civil War's bloodiest and most famous battle.[53]

text: Since the cemetery dedication at Gettysburg occurred on November 19, that day (or the closest weekend) has been designated as their own local memorial day that is referred to as Remembrance Day.[54]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Indiana from the 1860s to the 1920s saw numerous debates on how to expand the celebration. It was a favorite lobbying activity of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR).  An 1884 GAR handbook explained that Memorial Day was "the day of all days in the G.A.R. Calendar" in terms of mobilizing public support for pensions. It advised family members to "exercise great care" in keeping the veterans sober.[55]. As the years went by, the GAR complained more and more about the younger generation. In 1913, one Hoosier veteran complained that younger people born since the war had a "tendency ... to forget the purpose of Memorial Day and make it a day for games, races and revelry, instead of a day of memory and tears."[56] Indeed, in 1911 the scheduling of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway car race was vehemently opposed by the increasingly elderly GAR. The state legislature in  1923 rejected the race on that special day. But the new American Legion and local officials wanted the big race to continue, so Governor Warren McCray vetoed the bill and the race went on.[57]

text: In the national capital in 1913 the four-day "Blue-Gray Reunion" featured parades, re-enactments, and speeches from a host of dignitaries, including President Woodrow Wilson, the first Southerner elected to the White House since the War.  James Heflin of Alabama gave the main address. Heflin was a noted orator; his choice as Memorial Day speaker was criticized, as he was opposed for his support of segregation; however, his speech was moderate in tone and stressed national unity and goodwill, gaining him praise from newspapers.[58]

text: One of the longest-standing traditions is the running of the Indianapolis 500, an auto race which has been held in conjunction with Memorial Day since 1911.[59] Originally it was held on Memorial Day itself, and since 1974 it runs on the Sunday preceding the Memorial Day holiday. Since 1961 NASCAR's Coca-Cola 600 has been held during Memorial Day weekend, and has also been held on the previous Sunday since 1974.[citation needed] Since 1976 The Memorial Tournament golf event has been held on or close to the Memorial Day weekend.[citation needed] The Final of the NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship has been held on Memorial Day since 1986.[60]

text: The preferred name for the holiday gradually changed from "Decoration Day" to "Memorial Day," which was first used in 1882.[61] Memorial Day did not become the more common name until after World War II, and was not declared the official name by Federal law until 1967.[62] On June 28, 1968, Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, which moved four holidays, including Memorial Day, from their traditional dates to a specified Monday in order to create a convenient three-day weekend.[63] The change moved Memorial Day from its traditional May 30 date to the last Monday in May. The law took effect at the federal level in 1971.[63] After some initial confusion and unwillingness to comply, all 50 states adopted Congress' change of date within a few years.

text: 21st century[edit]

text: Memorial Day endures as a holiday which most businesses observe because it marks the unofficial beginning of summer. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) advocated returning to the original date, although the significance of the date is tenuous. The VFW stated in 2002:

text: Changing the date merely to create three-day weekends has undermined the very meaning of the day. No doubt, this has contributed a lot to the general public's nonchalant observance of Memorial Day.[64]

text: In 2000, Congress passed the National Moment of Remembrance Act, asking people to stop and remember at 3:00 PM.[65]

text: On Memorial Day, the flag of the United States is raised briskly to the top of the staff and then solemnly lowered to the half-staff position, where it remains only until noon.[66] It is then raised to full-staff for the remainder of the day.[67]

text: The National Memorial Day Concert takes place on the west lawn of the United States Capitol.[68] The concert is broadcast on PBS and NPR. Music is performed, and respect is paid to the men and women who gave their lives for their country.

text: Across the United States, the central event is attending one of the thousands of parades held on Memorial Day in large and small cities. Most of these feature marching bands and an overall military theme with the Active Duty, Reserve, National Guard and Veteran service members participating along with military vehicles from various wars.[citation needed]

text: Poppies[edit]

text: In 1915, following the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a physician with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, wrote the poem, "In Flanders Fields". Its opening lines refer to the fields of poppies that grew among the soldiers' graves in Flanders.

text: In 1918, inspired by the poem, YWCA worker Moina Michael attended a YWCA Overseas War Secretaries' conference wearing a silk poppy pinned to her coat and distributed over two dozen more to others present. In 1920, the National American Legion adopted it as their official symbol of remembrance.[69]

text: As civil religious holiday[edit]

text: Scholars,[70][71][72][73] following the lead of sociologist Robert Bellah, often make the argument that the United States has a secular "civil religion" – one with no association with any religious denomination or viewpoint – that has incorporated Memorial Day as a sacred event. With the Civil War, a new theme of death, sacrifice and rebirth enters the civil religion. Memorial Day gave ritual expression to these themes, integrating the local community into a sense of nationalism. The American civil religion, in contrast to that of France, was never anticlerical or militantly secular; in contrast to Britain, it was not tied to a specific denomination, such as the Church of England. The Americans borrowed from different religious traditions so that the average American saw no conflict between the two, and deep levels of personal motivation were aligned with attaining national goals.[74]

text: Memorial Day has been called a "modern cult of the dead". It incorporates Christian themes of sacrifice while uniting citizens of various faiths.[75]

text: In film, literature, and music[edit]

text: Films[edit]

text:
Memorial Day (2012) is a war film starring James Cromwell, Jonathan Bennett, and John Cromwell.
Logan Lucky (2017) starring Channing Tatum

text: Music[edit]

text: Charles Ives's symphonic poem Decoration Day depicted the holiday as he experienced it in his childhood, with his father's band leading the way to the town cemetery, the playing of "Taps" on a trumpet, and a livelier march tune on the way back to the town. It is frequently played with three other Ives works based on holidays, as the second movement of A Symphony: New England Holidays.

text: Poetry[edit]

text: Poems commemorating Memorial Day include:

text:
Michael Anania's "Memorial Day" (1994)[76]
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's "Decoration Day" (1882)[77]
Joyce Kilmer's "Memorial Day"

text: Observance dates (1971–present)[edit]

text:
Year

Memorial Day

1972
2000
2028
2056
2084

May 29

1973
2001
2029
2057
2085

May 28

1974
2002
2030
2058
2086

May 27

1975
2003
2031
2059
2087

May 26

1976
2004
2032
2060
2088
2100
May 31

1977
2005
2033
2061
2089
2101
May 30

1978
2006
2034
2062
2090
2102
May 29

1979
2007
2035
2063
2091
2103
May 28

1980
2008
2036
2064
2092
2104
May 26

1981
2009
2037
2065
2093
2105
May 25

1982
2010
2038
2066
2094
2106
May 31

1983
2011
2039
2067
2095
2107
May 30

1984
2012
2040
2068
2096
2108
May 28

1985
2013
2041
2069
2097
2109
May 27

1986
2014
2042
2070
2098
2110
May 26

1987
2015
2043
2071
2099
2111
May 25

1988
2016
2044
2072

2112
May 30

1989
2017
2045
2073

2113
May 29

1990
2018
2046
2074

2114
May 28

1991
2019
2047
2075

2115
May 27

1992
2020
2048
2076

2116
May 25

1993
2021
2049
2077

2117
May 31

1994
2022
2050
2078

2118
May 30

1995
2023
2051
2079

2119
May 29

1996
2024
2052
2080

2120
May 27

1997
2025
2053
2081

2121
May 26

1998
2026
2054
2082

2122
May 25

1971
1999
2027
2055
2083

2123
May 31


document_title: 60 Days In

question_text: what is angela's last name from 60 days in

question_tokens: what is angela 's last name from 60 days in

root

text: 60 Days In

text: Premise[edit]

text: The series follows seven individuals as they volunteer to go undercover, spending 60 days as inmates in the Clark County Jail [6] (also known as the Michael L. Becher Adult Correctional Complex[7]), in Jeffersonville, Indiana. Their goal is to obtain evidence of questionable or illegal activities within the jail that might be missed by the correctional officers and surveillance systems.

tag: p

text: The existence of the undercover program is kept secret from the inmates, the guards, and most of the jail officials.[8] Prior to entering the jail, the volunteers receive instruction on how to act around other inmates, and they are each given a pseudonym and a cover story, including details of the (fake) criminal charges on which they were arrested. Although it was repeatedly mentioned that Maryum Ali was given an alias to use because of her famous father (boxer Muhammad Ali), it was later revealed that volunteer Robert was also using an alias while imprisoned, and that he would blow his cover if he visited an emergency room and gave his real name.[9]

text: Because producers realized that it would be difficult for volunteers to remain undercover after the first season aired, a second season was produced before the series premiered.[10] Representatives from A&E told Business Insider that multiple corrections officers were fired due to the program.[8] According to the producers, valid legal releases to appear on television were obtained from inmates,[11] but they were not told the actual reason that the releases were needed.

text: The importance of tater tots was revealed throughout the series. Inmates were frequently served tater tots on their meal trays. The potato-based food was occasionally used as currency, and was allegedly the cause of one of the fights on the show between two of the real inmates.[12] The Clark County Sheriff's Office held a community fundraiser where they sold T-shirts and tater tots based on the show.[13]

text: Season 2 began airing on Thursday August 18, 2016, with 60 Days In: Meet the Participants premiering on August 11.[14] Season 2 episodes began airing on Wednesday, September 28, 2016 on Foxtel's crime + investigation network in Australia.[15]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Season 1 cast[edit]

text: Jamey Noel is the Sheriff of Clark County, Indiana, and the originator of the undercover program. Sheriff Noel is also prominently featured in "60 Days In: Season 2".

text: Scottie Maples is the Captain and Public Information Officer in the Clark County Sheriff's Office. He took responsibility for briefing the volunteers before the program began and debriefing them afterward. Captain Maples is also prominently featured in "60 Days In: Season 2".

text: Maryum May May Ali went by "Yazmin Brown" on the show and is the daughter of Muhammad Ali.[16] She has earned a Bachelor of Arts in Social Work from UNLV,[17] and worked in the field. A former rapper and comedian,[18] she has appeared previously on television as herself.

text: Barbra Roylance Williams went by "Barbra Weldon" on the show. She is married to Sam Williams and they have two children together.[19][20][21] As an inmate, she developed friendships and compassion for the women of Clark County Jail. She completed the full 60 days, but then refused to film an update episode. It is rumored that she chose not to film the update episode because she was in danger after the production of the show. Barbra is currently finishing her bachelor's degree and was spotted at a University in Florida.

text: Tami Ferraiuolo, a loss prevention agent and former police officer from Providence, Rhode Island,[22] also appeared in truTV's Caught Red Handed, a show about shoplifters. She went by "Tami Ferguson" on the show.[23] She was visited in jail by her wife, Joelle. Together they have one daughter.

text: Robert Holcomb, a teacher living in Philadelphia, spent a month in solitary confinement during his five-week stay in jail for tampering with a security camera. He left the program due to an alleged illness. The doctor told him a severe flank strain could not be detected by a CT scan, but was most likely caused from constipation. He previously appeared in TLC's Extreme Time Cheaters.[24]

text: Isaiah Jenkins is a recent high school graduate and has a brother who, at the time of filming, had been in jail for five years. He went by "Isaiah Johnson" on the show. He was visited by his mother during the show. Jenkins reported on Twitter that he visited his jailed brother who said, "Wassup, hot coffee?"[25] (the code phrases for the volunteers to be extricated from jail were "good coffee" or "hot coffee"). Isaiah had not previously appeared on television.

text: Zachary Baker is from Knoxville, Tennessee[26] and was in the US Marine Corps. He went by "Zac Holland" on the show. Baker participated in the show to help him in pursuing a career as a DEA agent. He was visited by his wife, Ashleigh Marie (Park) Baker, during the show. Baker discussed his wife's struggles on the show, as she has spent real time in jail.

text: Jeffrey Downs is from Iowa[27] and went by "Jeff Donahue" on the show. He participated in the show due to his interest in becoming a Correctional Officer. He left the project early, fearing for his safety after being punched in the face by a mentally ill inmate who was off his medication. Downs and his wife, Emily, previously participated in BYUtv's reality show Relative Race as relatives of contestants Heather and Bradley. He appears in the first two episodes and he and his wife are credited as Jeff and Emily Downs. Downs reveals to his newfound cousin they are both connected in their family trees to serial killer Ted Bundy.[28]

text: In 2014 and earlier, Downs also appeared in several Reno, Nevada online news episodes called News 4 Forum, for NBC affiliate KRNV-DT in an episode feature where people use webcams to comment on current events. These episodes also appeared on local TV. Episodes remain available on news anchor Melissa Carlson's YouTube account.[29]

text: DiAundré Newby (real inmate),[30] has criticized the editing, saying that events and timelines were altered. In June 2014, DiAundré Newby was charged with IC 35-42-4-2: Criminal Deviate Conduct, a Class B felony; IC 35-46-1-3: Incest, a Class C felony; and IC 35-42-4-8: Sexual Battery Compelled To Submit to the Touching By Force/Imminent Threat, a Class D felony. A male relative of Newby said Newby had performed a sexual act on a minor boy against the boy's will. Newby denied the allegations when interviewed by the ISP (Intensive Supervision Program) officer.[31][32]

text: Jaime Lind (real female inmate), has posted YouTube videos explaining, among other things, her opinion on the volunteers and the interpersonal relations between inmates.[33]

text: Season 2 cast[edit]

text: Ashleigh Marie (Park) Baker, wife of Season 1's Zachary Baker.[34] Ashleigh is an alcoholic from childhood but had been sober for four years before appearing on the show.[35]

text: Brian Thomas is an attorney for the California Department of Corrections & Rehabilitation's Office of Legal Affairs' Employment Advocacy Prosecution Team.[36][37] He is responsible for administratively prosecuting Correctional Officers who commit job-related misconduct. He entered the program to see how Correctional Officers behave when they believe nobody is looking.[38] He exited the program after being threatened by Corey Daffron, a real inmate charged with attempted murder.[36][39]

text: Chris Graf entered the program to better understand how jail impacted his younger brother, a former inmate.[40] He left the program within 24 hours after becoming violently ill.

text: Dion Shepherd is a criminology student from Detroit, Michigan. He grew up one of nine siblings and his parents separated shortly after he was born. He felt he could have easily ended up behind bars like many of his friends and family. He was able to leave home without a criminal record and is about to receive a Masters in Criminology, Law and Society.[38][41]

text: Monalisa Johnson is the founder of Parents of Incarcerated Children, a national support and advocacy group for parents with incarcerated children. Her daughter is serving a ten-year mandatory sentence.[42]

text: Quintin (Last Name Unknown) is a recently retired State Police Captain and currently works as a licensed private investigator and bounty hunter.[43]

text: Sheri Ray is a former corrections officer and mother of three children.[44] She is looking to re-enter her career after her husband's return from Afghanistan and learn from the show what changes she can make as she enters her field.[45] After the program, Sheri was offered a position at the Clark County Jail to continue her career as a correction officer.

text: Ryan Secord went by "Kyle Ryan" on the show. is a former military medic who wants to become a police officer and eventually a homicide detective.[46]

text: Shane Garza (real inmate). was a real inmate in season 2 and was very close with Ryan. After filming completed, Ryan and Garza remained close.

text: Season 3 cast[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Mark Adger is the Colonel in the Fulton County Jail in Atlanta, Georgia.

text: Calvin Crosby is a special education teacher at a local Public School. He hopes he will be able to relate to his students on a deeper level and he thinks it may even shock them into changing their own behaviors and patterns.

text: Don (Last Name Unknown) grew up in the projects of Newark, Delaware. His father and two brothers were all in and out of prison during his youth. As a convicted felon, his father could never find a job, so he continually returned to selling and using drugs. Don believes that the system has failed African Americans. He wants to join the program in order to uncover discrimination, unite the inmates, and learn how to actively fight recidivism and the escalating trends of convicted black men in America.

text: Gerson (Last Name Unknown) moved from El Salvador to California when he was seven years old. He went from a civil war to a gang war and living in the Los Angeles area during the 1980s and 90s. He eventually left California and moved to the east coast as he worked to escape the risk of becoming a statistic by his surroundings, including gangs, drugs, and violence. He works as a mentor to help people who are in schools, colleges and universities. When the program started, Gerson had concerns about it. So he called the producers and met him at a hotel near his home and decide not risk it.

text: Jessica Speigner-Page met her husband on an inmate pen pal site, and she was shocked at how institutionalized he was when he got released. After a decade behind bars, he was struggling to reintegrate. His "inmate-like" behavior has been a strain on their relationship. Jessica is determined to understand where these behaviors and instincts of his come from in order to help him and others, who recently released, reintegrate into society. Jessica believes this program will help her relate to her husband and strengthen their marriage. However, she left the program early.

text: Jon McAdams is a veteran and former law enforcement agent who became disenchanted with the system and now wants to dedicate his professional life to civil-rights activism. With his new MBA which he earned last year, Jon plans on starting a nonprofit organization in his conservative town. He wants to "walk the walk" and put his words into action, starting by living among a population he once put behind bars but now wants to serve.

text: Matt Michael served in the Marine Corps for four years. He was the honor graduate in his boot camp class, was promoted quickly and ultimately attaining the rank of Sergeant (E-5) in the infantry. Matt supports law enforcement, but he thinks the system needs a reality check. He believes if one has committed a serious crime, they should do their time.

text: Mauri Jackson worked three years as a correctional officer in a men's maximum security facility. As CO, Mauri was shocked by how many incarcerated men and women suffer from mental illness and are on medications while serving out their time behind bars. she is determined to be part of the solution when it comes to prison reform and mental health.

text: Michelle Polley is currently working in Property Management, but she has been interested in the Criminal Justice field all her life. She has taken various classes on criminal justice and criminal law. She hopes to connect with women inside through creating positive activities so they know there is more to life than four concrete walls.

text: Nate Burrell served as an active duty marine in the United States Marine Corps from 2006 to 2010 in the infantry where he completed two combat tours in Iraq. He continued to serve for three years in the reserves, and he was honorably discharged in 2013. Subsequently, he received his associate degree in criminal justice and law enforcement in 2014 in order to become a fish and wildlife officer. Nate decided to remain in custody for an additional 60 days when Colonel Adger offered him to opportunity to do so due to Nate's outstanding work in the program to date.

text: Season 4 cast[edit]

text:
Cast Member
Occupation
Cover
Biography
Reference

Mark Adger
Chief Jailer
Colonel of Jail
N/A
Returns from Season 3.
[47]

Alan Oliver
Police Officer

Entered the program to observe the behaviours of correction officers
[48]

Andrew Fellows
Substitute Teacher

Volunteered to join his father, Matt, in the program.
[49]

Angele Cooper 1
Writer

Desires to better understand the trauma experienced by those behind bars in order to help in their rehabilitation. Former high school and collegiate track and field athlete ranked among the top ten internationally for the 400M hurdles.
[50]

Emmanuel
Public Health Official

Nigerian born, Emmanuel believes the key to breaking the negative cycle of criminality amongst African-American men, especially youth, is for leaders like him to foster education, positive self-perception, and a culture of respect within the African-American community. He currently works for California Department of Corrections and is an active speaker at colleges and high schools nationally.
[51]

Jaclin Owen 2
Paralegal

Desires to gain knowledge of the criminal justice system to further her law career.
[52]

Johnny Ramirez

Grew up influenced by gangs. Wanted to experience what his life would have been like if he continued the lifestyle, and to understand his currently incarcerated son.
[53]

Matt Fellows 2
Mixed Martial Arts Trainer and former Prison Chaplain at Utah State Prison.

Brought his son, Andrew, into the program with him.
[54]

Stephanie
Pharmacy Tech

Has family members incarcerated; joined the program to understand what they go through.
[55]

Nate Burrell
US Marine

Returns from Season 3. Was offered an extension due to having already established a trustful and positive rapport with the inmates.
[56]

text:
^Note1 : Participant was removed for safety concerns and did not complete the program.
^Note2 : Participant left early and did not complete the program.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text:
#
Title
Original Air Date
Viewers

1
"Unusual Suspects"
March 10, 2016 (2016-03-10)
1.164

Seven volunteer civilians become undercover inmates in an effort to root out crime and corruption in Indiana's Clark County Jail.

2
"First Timers"
March 10, 2016 (2016-03-10)
1.314

The experimental program begins; the first participants include a Marine, a police officer; a teacher and a stay-at-home mother.

3
"Cell Shock"
March 17, 2016 (2016-03-17)
1.618

Maryum, the eldest daughter of boxer Muhammad Ali, joins the program and fits into F-pod effortlessly; the inmates grow suspicious of Robert; a mistake places Zac in peril; Barbra questions her commitment to the experiment.

4
"Fight Face"
March 24, 2016 (2016-03-24)
1.767

Isaiah and Robert worry that their covers may be blown; Capt. Maples follows through with consequences after Robert makes a risky move; Zac hunts for illegal drug use in C-pod; Tami clashes with another inmate.

5
"Friends Without Benefits"
March 31, 2016 (2016-03-31)
1.706

An unexpected call to court tests Zac's strength as an inmate; Barbra abandons a friendship with Tami in order to survive; a series of catastrophic mistakes endangers Jeff.

6
"Full Inmate"
April 7, 2016 (2016-04-07)
1.719

The midway point of the experiment approaches; anger rises among the women of F-Pod; an inmate in C-Pod poses a danger to one of the men.

7
"Pod Drama"
April 14, 2016 (2016-04-14)
1.772

Inmate Ricky attacks Jeff, jeopardizing the program; Zac and Isaiah move from the familiar confines of C-Pod to the more violent D-Pod; Barbra feels betrayed by her F-Pod bunkmates; Robert learns that he will return to general population.

8
"Shakedown"
April 21, 2016 (2016-04-21)
1.805

The participants cross the halfway point of the experiment; the sheriff orders a raid due to increased tensions and drug activity in D-pod; the residents of F-pod worry about a contagious rash.

9
"Alone for the Holidays"
April 28, 2016 (2016-04-28)
1.599

Thanksgiving presents new challenges and opportunities; one of the six remaining participants is pushed to the breaking point.

10
"Institutionalized"
May 5, 2016 (2016-05-05)
1.628

The participants near the end of the experiment; the program is compromised when a woman in F-Pod is pushed over the edge; both men in D-Pod struggle to avoid serious criminal activity.

11
"11th Hour"
May 12, 2016 (2016-05-12)
1.627

The five remaining participants try to finish up their final days inside jail as pressure builds within the pods.

12
"Exodus"
May 19, 2016 (2016-05-19)
1.978

Three participants remain in jail; Tami finds herself on the verge of a meltdown after a woman is released from F-Pod; a power struggle erupts when a boss is removed from D-Pod.

13
"The Aftermath"
May 26, 2016 (2016-05-26)
1.338

All seven participants discuss their experiences; the women relive a contentious moment from inside jail; Tami confronts Robert about not taking the program seriously. Hosted by Dan Abrams.

*
"The Full Story With Robert, Tami and Barbra"
July 14, 2016 (2016-07-14)
N/A

After serving time in the dangerous world of the Clark County Jail, Barbra, Robert and Tami are released, look back, and share never-before-seen insight into their time in jail.

*
"The Full Story With Zac, Isaiah, Jeff and Maryum"
July 21, 2016 (2016-07-21)
N/A

After serving time in the dangerous world of the Clark County Jail, Zac, Isaiah, Jeff and Maryum are released, look back, and share never-before-seen insight into their time in jail.

text: Season 2[edit]

text:
#
Title
Original Air Date
Viewers

1
"Meet the Participants"
August 18, 2016 (2016-08-18)
0.891

A former corrections officer, a bounty hunter and a young lawyer join others in the new group of innocent civilians selected to secretly live among the general population of Indiana's Clark County Jail.

2
"Re-entry"
August 18, 2016 (2016-08-18)
0.914

Phase two of Sheriff Jamey Noel's unprecedented program begins with four new participants entering the Clark County Jail to continue the covert operation designed to root out corruption and contraband.

3
"Friend or Foe"
August 25, 2016 (2016-08-25)
1.198[57]

As three new participants enter the program, the others fight for acceptance in the pods. One participant is forced into a confrontation that quickly turns physical.

4
"All Pain, No Gain"
September 1, 2016 (2016-09-01)
1.136[58]

The last participant enters the Clark County Jail and all eight must now face their new reality of life behind bars.

5
"Hazed and Confused"
September 8, 2016 (2016-09-08)
1.102[59]

Hazing, drug use, and violence envelop Clark County Jail as two participants are on the brink of dropping out of the program.

6
"Pod Wars"
September 15, 2016 (2016-09-15)
1.203[60]

All hell breaks loose in the Clark County Jail when two pod bosses threaten the safety of three participants.

7
"Criminal Justice"
September 22, 2016 (2016-09-22)
1.278[61]

While trying to survive constant harassment, violence, and the stress of incarceration, the participants continue to grind out their time in the Clark County Jail. But two of them are reaching a tipping point and for them everything is about to change.

8
"Dangerous Loyalty"
September 29, 2016 (2016-09-29)
1.241[62]

The remaining six participants face turning points; Ashleigh has a life-altering realization; Quintin and Sheri feel conflicted as they go deep under cover; Monalisa and Dion realize that they cannot escape their pasts.

9
"Institutional Knowledge"
October 6, 2016 (2016-10-06)
1.21[63]

New challenges arise after the men switch pods; the women suspect a snitch in their midst.

10
"Sewer Gate"
October 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)
1.199[64]

Ryan, Quintin and the other inmates of C-Pod wake up to raw sewage spewing out of their floor drain; as the odious situation threatens to invade F-Pod, the jail's water supply is shut off.

11
"Trouble in Store"
October 20, 2016 (2016-10-20)
1.077[65]

Following the repair of the sewer line, the participants return to their pods only to encounter new challenges and threats.

12
"Blood, Sweat and Tears"
October 27, 2016 (2016-10-27)
1.188[66]

Tension runs high in the pods as the six remaining participants enter their final days in the Clark County Jail.

13
"Bed and Baggage"
November 3, 2016 (2016-11-03)
1.209[67]

The three remaining participants gather evidence; conflict is narrowly avoided before names are called.

14
"The Aftermath: Part Two"
November 10, 2016 (2016-11-10)
0.892[68]

Following the end of the program, the eight participants meet with Sheriff Noel and Capt. Maples to discuss their journey as inmates and what they discovered while in the Clark County Jail.

*
"Season 2 Memorable Moments"
November 17, 2016 (2016-11-17)
N/A

Most memorable moments from Season 2.

15
"Where Are They Now?"
February 23, 2017 (2017-02-23)
N/A

After serving time in the dangerous world of the Clark County Jail, all 8 participants gave us an update after 60 days in. Ryan tells Garza the truth about the program. Also, Dion was engaged to his fiancé Ashlee and Brian, Chris, Ryan, Monalisa, Quintin and Sheri celebrate with them.

text: Season 3[edit]

text:
#
Title
Original Air Date
Viewers

1
"Fulton County Jail: Welcome to the A-T-L"
March 2, 2017 (2017-03-02)
TBD

The participants who infiltrate Atlanta's Fulton County Jail for this season include a special education who works as at-risk youth, a wife of a former convict, a marine, a criminal justice student and a youth mentor.

2
"Truth or Dare"
March 10, 2017 (2017-03-10)
TBD

The first five participants enter the Fulton County Jail and are immediately met with drug use, sexual behavior, and what it feels like to be locked in a cell for 12 hours. Gerson decided not to do the program. Don and Calvin begin to enter the jail but in different sections of the jail.

3
"Trust Issues"
March 16, 2017 (2017-03-16)
TBD

As participants settle into Fulton County Jail and Nate enters into the jail. Inmate Suspicions and power-plays keep everyone on the edge.

4
"Cellies"
March 23, 2017 (2017-03-23)
TBD

A violent fight in the women's pod in South Annex just 45 minutes away from the main jail. A power outage in pod 600 causes extended lockdowns, proving that the luck of the draw with cell mates can make or break the experience in jail. Meanwhile, The final participant Matt enters the Fulton County Jail.

5
"Dangerous Liaisons"
March 30, 2017 (2017-03-30)
TBD

The participants face difficult obstacles and must make risky alliances as they struggle to survive life on the inside.

6
"Vulnerable Positions"
April 6, 2017 (2017-04-06)
TBD

A flood in the Fulton County Jail's South Annex, escalating problems with cellmates, and respect issues push the participants to the brink of despair.

7
"Tapping Out"
April 13, 2017 (2017-04-13)
TBD

Suspicions surround the male participants; the women struggle to continue, as one considers dropping out of the program.

8
"Bloods Rising"
April 20, 2017 (2017-04-20)
TBD

The participants at Atlanta's Fulton County Jail learn that small mistakes can have big consequences; the Bloods in 500 continue to grow more powerful.

9
"Code Red"
April 27, 2017 (2017-04-27)
TBD

Inmates escape their restraints during a chaotic mass evacuation drill in 500; Mauri and Michelle are placed in a vulnerable position after a rumor spreads about the program in the women's pod.

10
"The Marine Test"
April 27, 2017 (2017-04-27)
TBD

An uproar in Zone 500 results when an inmate claims to be a Marine, Jon is taken advantage of by a new inmate with the same name, and Michelle gets caught in the middle of a drug deal gone wrong.

11
"Atlanta: High Times"
May 4, 2017 (2017-05-04)
TBD

Participants Matt and Michelle face tough choices regarding drug use that put their safety, and time in the program, at risk.

12
"Atlanta: In or Out? Part 1"
May 11, 2017 (2017-05-11)
TBD

The participants endure their final days at the Fulton County Jail; one of them has to make the tough decision to stay another 60 days.

13
"Atlanta: In or Out? Part 2"
May 11, 2017 (2017-05-11)
TBD

The participants endure their final days at the Fulton County Jail; one of them has to make the tough decision to stay another 60 days.

14
"Atlanta: The Aftermath"
May 18, 2017 (2017-05-18)
TBD

The eight participants from Season 3 come together with Col. Mark Adger to discuss how they assimilated, survived and navigated the challenges of being an inmate at the Fulton County Jail. Calvin and Mauri and others were not pleased with the fact that Gerson back down cause he thought the program was still in the Clark County Jail but it was in the Fulton County Jail and he explains it. Also, a sneak peek of the participants in Season 4 of 60 Days In.

text: Season 4[edit]

text:
#
Title
Original Air Date
Viewers

1
"The Beginning of the End"
January 1, 2018 (2018-01-01)
TBD

With two participants already inside the jail and three more entering, phase two will shatter expectations, open old wounds, and put everyone’s safety in jeopardy.

2
"Shank Anxiety"
January 4, 2018 (2018-01-04)
TBD

As the Phase Two participants settle into Fulton County Jail and new ones enter, inmate feuds and power-plays bring participants face to face with real danger and real charges.

3
"Pissed Off"
January 11, 2018 (2018-01-11)
TBD

In I-Pod, Jaclin begins to alienate the officers, inmates and her fellow participant, Stephanie, who decides to plot against her. Meanwhile, Zone 500 is raided for contraband after Alan’s roommate makes a shank, and Matt is at odds with his roommate Lawrence in Zone 600, and fears he may have to fight him.

4
"Party Favors"
January 18, 2018 (2018-01-18)
TBD

The participants toe the line between blowing their cover or going full inmate, all the while trying to stay focused on their purpose in the midst of wild parties and difficult cellmates. The inmates in Nate's pod celebrate his birthday in jail.

5
"Jail Crush"
January 25, 2018 (2018-01-25)
TBD

While Stephanie chooses to use drugs to bond with her fellow inmates, Jaclin finds acceptance by creating her own jail clothing line, bringing pink flare and positivity to the inmates of I-Pod, but causing heated confrontations with the officers.

6
"Blood Rules"
February 1, 2018 (2018-02-01)
TBD

The participants are faced with challenges when a gas scare happens in the women’s pod, a football kitty goes missing in 500 prompting a gang fight, and a new inmate in 600 tests Matt.

7
"Sexual Preference"
February 8, 2018 (2018-02-08)
TBD

When Jaclin tries to help Stephanie switch rooms, it puts a target on Jaclin’s back, Emmanuel also becomes a target when he tries to break up a fight, and a rumor about Andrew being gay could put him in harm’s way.

8
"See Nothing, Say Nothing"
February 15, 2018 (2018-02-15)
TBD

Jaclin and Matt both struggle with the decision to leave the program early, while the rest try to keep their wits as they finish the back half of the program. Jaclin decides to leave the program while Matt is still undecided.

9
"Nachos, Strippers, Whippit"
February 22, 2018 (2018-02-22)
TBD

Matt wrestles with the most devastating moment of his life. Alan gets a mysterious new cellmate, and the inmates in the South Annex Jail throw an unforgettable birthday party for Angele. Meanwhile Jaclin returns to the jail to tell them about her experience. After that, she is sent home. Matt makes his final decision to leave the program.

10
"The Inmate Who Loved Me"
March 1, 2018 (2018-03-01)
TBD

Alan is not sure he can continue in the program after his emotions begin effecting his resolve, Nate expands his meth investigation, and Johnny confronts an inmate on his lack of respect and attitude towards a female prison guard. Meanwhile in the South Annex Angele becomes more infatuated with a fellow inmate and reveals that she may have done something that impacts the entire program, potentially placing all participants at risk.

11
"Cover Blown"
March 8, 2018 (2018-03-08)
TBD

In the South Annex, Angele reveals to the producers and Stephanie that she has disclosed her undercover status to Gabrielle a fellow inmate not in the program and is immediately removed from the program by Colonel Adger for safety concerns while they evaluate the situation. In the Men's Facility, Alan sets up a buy to purchase meth being smuggled into the prison, and Johnny begins to sense repercussions from his confrontation in the previous episode. Even though Angele believed Gabrielle would not disclose her undercover status to the other inmates, after her sudden removal this information is revealed. Colonel Adger tells Angele of this fact and immediately decides all participants should be removed for their own safety.

12
"Get Them Out"
March 15, 2018 (2018-03-15)
TBD

Colonel Adger races against the clock to safely remove all the participants from Fulton County Jail.

13
"The Aftermath"
March 22, 2018 (2018-03-22)
TBD

After the most shocking finale in the program's history, all nine participants sit down with Journalist Soledad O' Brien and Colonel Mark Adger to discuss their experiences at the jail.

14
"Six Months Later: Where Are They Now?"
March 26, 2018 (2018-03-26)
TBD

Catching up with the series' most controversial group of participants six months after the Season 4 program at the Fulton County Jail ends.


document_title: Por una Cabeza

question_text: name of the song in scent of a woman tango

text: Por una Cabeza

text: Composition and lyrics[edit]

text: The name is a Spanish horse-racing phrase meaning "by a head", which refers to a horse winning a race narrowly - by just the length of its head. The lyrics speak of a compulsive horse-track gambler who compares his addiction for horses with his attraction to women.

text: Alfredo Le Pera was an Argentine, born in Brazil, son of Italian immigrants. Le Pera and Gardel died in an airplane crash in Medellín, on Monday, June 24, 1935.[2]

text: The starting phrase in the B section may be inspired by Mozart's Rondo for violin and orchestra in C major, K. 373.[3][4][5]

text: The song was originally composed in A major.[6] It was thereafter adapted to the violin and the piano sometimes in A major,[7][8] sometimes in G major.[9][10]

text: Notable uses[edit]

text: Por Una Cabeza was featured in a famous tango scene in Martin Brest's Scent of a Woman (1992), in the opening scene of Steve Spielberg's Schindler's List (1993) and in James Cameron's True Lies (1994).[11][12][13][14]

text: An arrangement, without vocals, is performed by Nicola Benedetti on her 2012 album The Silver Violin.[15][16]

text: Lyrics in public domain[edit]

text:
Por una cabeza
de un noble potrillo
que justo en la raya
afloja al llegar,
y que al regresar
parece decir:
No olvidés, hermano,
vos sabés, no hay que jugar.
Por una cabeza,
metejón de un día
de aquella coqueta
y risueña mujer,
que al jurar sonriendo
el amor que está mintiendo,
quema en una hoguera
todo mi querer.

Por una cabeza,
todas las locuras.
Su boca que besa,
borra la tristeza,
calma la amargura.
Por una cabeza,
si ella me olvida
qué importa perderme
mil veces la vida,
para qué vivir.

Cuántos desengaños,
por una cabeza.
Yo juré mil veces,
no vuelvo a insistir.
Pero si un mirar
me hiere al pasar,
su boca de fuego
otra vez quiero besar.
Basta de carreras,
se acabó la timba.
¡Un final reñido
yo no vuelvo a ver!
Pero si algún pingo
llega a ser fija el domingo,
yo me juego entero.
¡Qué le voy a hacer..!

Wikisource has sheet music and full lyrics in Spanish and English:
Por una Cabeza
Por una cabeza,
todas las locuras.
Su boca que besa,
borra la tristeza,
calma la amargura.
Por una cabeza,
si ella me olvida
qué importa perderme
mil veces la vida,
para qué vivir.


document_title: Mohs scale of mineral hardness

question_text: what is diamonds rating on the mohs hardness scale

text: Mohs scale of mineral hardness

text: Usage[edit]

text: Despite its lack of precision, the Mohs scale is highly relevant for field geologists, who use the scale to roughly identify minerals using scratch kits. The Mohs scale hardness of minerals can be commonly found in reference sheets.

text: Mohs hardness is useful in milling. It allows assessment of which kind of mill will best reduce a given product whose hardness is known.[6] The scale is also in use at digital electronic manufacturers, for testing the resilience of certain screen components.

text: Minerals[edit]

text: The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly. The samples of matter used by Mohs are all different minerals. Minerals are chemically pure solids found in nature. Rocks are made up of one or more minerals. As the hardest known naturally occurring substance when the scale was designed, diamonds are at the top of the scale. The hardness of a material is measured against the scale by finding the hardest material that the given material can scratch, or the softest material that can scratch the given material. For example, if some material is scratched by apatite but not by fluorite, its hardness on the Mohs scale would fall between 4 and 5.[7] "Scratching" a material for the purposes of the Mohs scale means creating non-elastic dislocations visible to the naked eye. Frequently, materials that are lower on the Mohs scale can create microscopic, non-elastic dislocations on materials that have a higher Mohs number. While these microscopic dislocations are permanent and sometimes detrimental to the harder material's structural integrity, they are not considered "scratches" for the determination of a Mohs scale number.[8]

text: The Mohs scale is a purely ordinal scale. For example, corundum (9) is twice as hard as topaz (8), but diamond (10) is four times as hard as corundum. The table below shows the comparison with the absolute hardness measured by a sclerometer, with pictorial examples.[9][10]

text:
Mohs hardness
Mineral
Chemical formula
Absolute hardness[11]
Image

1
Talc
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
1

2
Gypsum
CaSO4·2H2O
3

3
Calcite
CaCO3
9

4
Fluorite
CaF2
21

5
Apatite
Ca5(PO4)3(OH−,Cl−,F−)
48

6
Orthoclase feldspar
KAlSi3O8
72

7
Quartz
SiO2
100

8
Topaz
Al2SiO4(OH−,F−)2
200

9
Corundum
Al2O3
400

10
Diamond
C
1500

text: On the Mohs scale, a streak plate (unglazed porcelain) has a hardness of approximately 7.0. Using these ordinary materials of known hardness can be a simple way to approximate the position of a mineral on the scale.[1]

text: Intermediate hardness[edit]

text: The table below incorporates additional substances that may fall between levels:[12]

text:
Hardness
Substance or mineral

0.2–0.3
caesium, rubidium

0.5–0.6
lithium, sodium, potassium

1
talc

1.5
gallium, strontium, indium, tin, barium, thallium, lead, graphite, ice[13]

2
hexagonal boron nitride,[14] calcium, selenium, cadmium, sulfur, tellurium, bismuth, gypsum

2–2.5
halite (rock salt)

2.5–3
gold, silver, aluminium, zinc, lanthanum, cerium, Jet (lignite)

3
calcite, copper, arsenic, antimony, thorium, dentin

3.5
platinum

4
fluorite, iron, nickel

4–4.5
steel

5
apatite (tooth enamel), zirconium, palladium, obsidian (volcanic glass)

5.5
beryllium, molybdenum, hafnium, glass, cobalt

6
orthoclase, titanium, manganese, germanium, niobium, rhodium, uranium

6–7
fused quartz, iron pyrite, silicon, ruthenium, iridium, tantalum, opal, peridot, tanzanite, jade

7
osmium, quartz, rhenium, vanadium

7.5–8
emerald, hardened steel, tungsten, spinel

8
topaz, cubic zirconia

8.5
chrysoberyl, chromium, silicon nitride, tantalum carbide

9
corundum, tungsten carbide, titanium nitride

9–9.5
silicon carbide (carborundum), titanium carbide

9.5–10
boron, boron nitride, rhenium diboride (a-axis),[15] stishovite, titanium diboride

10
diamond, carbonado

>11
nanocrystalline diamond (hyperdiamond, ultrahard fullerite), rhenium diboride (c-axis)[15]

text: Comparison with Vickers scale[edit]

text: Comparison between hardness (Mohs) and hardness (Vickers):[16][not specific enough to verify]

text:
Mineral
name
Hardness (Mohs)
Hardness (Vickers)
kg/mm2

Graphite
1–2
VHN10=7–11

Tin
1½
VHN10=7–9

Bismuth
2–2½
VHN100=16–18

Gold
2½
VHN10=30–34

Silver
2½
VHN100=61–65

Chalcocite
2½–3
VHN100=84–87

Copper
2½–3
VHN100=77–99

Galena
2½
VHN100=79–104

Sphalerite
3½–4
VHN100=208–224

Heazlewoodite
4
VHN100=230–254

Carrollite
4½–5½
VHN100=507–586

Goethite
5–5½
VHN100=667

Hematite
5–6
VHN100=1,000–1,100

Chromite
5½
VHN100=1,278–1,456

Anatase
5½–6
VHN100=616–698

Rutile
6–6½
VHN100=894–974

Pyrite
6–6½
VHN100=1,505–1,520

Bowieite
7
VHN100=858–1,288

Euclase
7½
VHN100=1,310

Chromium
8½
VHN100=1,875–2,000


document_title: Central Pacific Railroad

question_text: where did union and central pacific railroads meet

text: Central Pacific Railroad

text: Authorization and construction[edit]

text: Planned by Theodore Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was authorized by Congress in 1862. It was financed and built through "The Big Four" (who called themselves "The Associates"): Sacramento, California businessmen Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins. Crocker was in charge of construction. Construction crews comprised 12,000 Chinese emigrant workers by 1868, when they constituted eighty percent of the entire work force.[5][6] They laid the first rails in 1863. The "Golden spike", connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869.[7] Coast-to-coast train travel in eight days became possible, replacing months-long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains.

text: In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was leased by the Southern Pacific Company. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific "Railway".) The original right-of-way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which bought Southern Pacific in 1996.

text: The Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) mainline followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska to San Francisco Bay.

text: Chinese labor was the most vital source for constructing the railroad. Fifty Chinese laborers were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad in February 1865, and soon more and more Chinese men were hired. Working conditions were harsh, and Chinese men were compensated less than their white counterparts. Chinese men were paid thirty-one dollars each month, and while white workers were paid the same, they were also given room and board.[8]

text: Financing[edit]

text: Construction of the road was financed primarily by 30-year, 6% U.S. government bonds authorized by Sec. 5 of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. They were issued at the rate of $16,000 per mile of tracked grade completed west of the designated base of the Sierra Nevada range near Roseville, CA where California state geologist Josiah Whitney had determined were the geologic start of the Sierras' foothills.[9] Sec. 11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds "shall be treble the number per mile" (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of 300 miles (480 km) at this rate), and "doubled" (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges.[10] The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.

text: Sec. 10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own "First Mortgage Bonds"[11] in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States. Such company-issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds.[12] (Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly. This materially slowed early construction efforts.) Sec. 3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads 10 square miles (26 km2) of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers. This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring 0.2 miles (320 m) by 10 miles (16 km).[13] These grants were later doubled to 20 square miles (52 km2) per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.

text: Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863-1865. When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, "An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto" (which was later amended by Section Five of the "Compromise Act" of April 4, 1864). On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.

text: The City and County's financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds. It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (The People of the State of California ex rel the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco. 25 Cal. 635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (The People ex rel The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk 27 Cal. 655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered. In 1863 the legislature's forcing of City and County action became known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle". Critics claimed the CPRR intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, to connect to the Dutch Flat Wagon Road which they already controlled.

text: Museums and archives[edit]

text: A replica of the Sacramento, California Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park.

text: Nearly all the company's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection. It has been released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have the microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; and Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners' Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.

text: Locomotives[edit]

text: The Central Pacific's first three locomotives were of the then common 4-4-0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4-2-4 or 4-2-2 types available. Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad's opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased by builders in the northeastern U.S. The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four-month journey that went around South America's Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.

text: Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others. Interestingly, the railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well-known firms. It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified). Consequently, the railroad refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific. The Central Pacific's dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific.

text: In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento. Central Pacific's 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP's engine construction. The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers. By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed. However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name: the El Gobernador.

text: Construction of the rails was often dangerous work. Towards the end of construction, almost all workers were Chinese immigrants. The ethnicity of workers depended largely on the "gang" of workers/specific area on the rails they were working.

text: Preserved locomotives[edit]

text: The following CP engines have been preserved:

text:
Central Pacific 1, Gov. Stanford
CP 233, a 2-6-2T the railroad had built, is stored at the California State Railroad Museum.
Central Pacific 3, C. P. Huntington
Former Western Pacific Mariposa, Central Pacific's second number 31. Was sold to Stockton Terminal and Eastern in 1914 and renumbered 1. Currently at the Travel Town Museum in Los Angeles.
Virginia and Truckee Railroad, though The Dayton was not built for, nor served on the Central Pacific, the engine was one of two locomotives built by the CP's Sacramento shops in preservation (the other being CP 233). Moreover, its specifications were derived from CP 173, and thus is the only surviving example of that engine's design.
Central Pacific's numbers 60, Jupiter, and 63 Leviathan. Although both engines have been scrapped, and therefore technically do not count as having been preserved, there were exact, full size operating replicas built in recent years. The Jupiter was built for the National Park Service along with a replica of Union Pacific's 119 for use at their Golden Spike National Historic Site. Leviathan was finished in 2009, is privately owned, and travels to various railroads to operate.

tag: ul

text: Timeline[edit]

text: June 28, 1861: "Central Pacific Rail Road of California" incorporated; name changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California" on October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer.[15]

text: July 1, 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorized the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean.[16]

text:
January 8, 1863: Ground-breaking ceremonies take place at Sacramento, California, at the foot of "K" Street at the waterfront of the Sacramento River.[17]
October 26, 1863: First rail laid at Sacramento.

text:
April 26, 1864: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, 18 miles (29 km), where it makes a junction with the California Central Railroad, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln.
June 3, 1864: The first revenue train on the Central Pacific operates between Sacramento and Newcastle, California
October 8, 1864: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California," a new corporation.

text:
May 13, 1865: Central Pacific opened 36 miles (58 km) to Auburn, California.
September 1, 1865: Central Pacific opened 54 miles (87 km) to Colfax, California (formerly known as "Illinoistown.")

text: December 3, 1866: Central Pacific opened 92 miles (148 km) to Cisco, California.

text:
August 28, 1867: The Sierra Nevadas were finally "conquered" by the Central Pacific Railroad, after almost five years of sustained construction effort, with the successful completion at Donner Pass of its 1,659-foot (506 m) Tunnel #6 (a.k.a. the "Summit Tunnel").[18]
December 1, 1867: Central Pacific opened to Summit of the Sierra Nevada, 105 miles (169 km).

text: June 18, 1868: The first passenger train crosses the Sierra Nevada to Lake's Crossing (modern day Reno, Nevada) at the eastern foot of the Sierra in Nevada Territory.

text:
April 28, 1869: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay 10 miles (16 km) of track in one day. This is the longest stretch of track that has been built in one day to date.
May 10, 1869: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in Promontory, Utah.
May 15, 1869: The first transcontinental trains are run over the new line to Sacramento.
November 8, 1869: Central Pacific subsidiaries Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad complete the final leg of the route, connecting Sacramento to Oakland.

text:
June 23, 1870: Central Pacific is consolidated with the Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad Co. to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co." (of June 1870).
August 22, 1870: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the California & Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland & Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad; to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co.", a new corporation.

text: April 30, 1876: Operates the California Pacific Railroad between South Vallejo and Sacramento, Calistoga and Marysville until April 1, 1885 (see below).

text: July 16, 1877: Start of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 when railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train; United States President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in Federal troops to break the strike.

text: November 18, 1883: A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using standard time.

text: April 1, 1885: Central Pacific is leased to Southern Pacific.

text: June 30, 1888: Listed by ICC as a "non-operating" subsidiary of Southern Pacific.

text: July 29, 1899: Central Pacific is reorganized as the "Central Pacific Railway".

text: June 30, 1959: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific.

text: Acquisitions[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2010)

text:
Stockton and Copperopolis Railroad[19]
Stockton and Visalia Railroad[20]
Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870)


document_title: Viva Las Vegas (song)

question_text: who sings viva las vegas in the big lebowski

text: Viva Las Vegas (song)

text: History[edit]

text: Released as the b-side of the "What'd I Say" single from the same film, "Viva Las Vegas" charted separately from its A-side, a modest hit reaching #29 on the Billboard Hot 100 pop singles chart.[2] The Elvis version of "What'd I Say" peaked at #21, the two sides having equivalent appeal in the marketplace. "Viva Las Vegas" reached #12 on the UK Singles Chart, improving to #15 after a reissue in 2007. It is noticeable on the recording that Presley erroneously sings 'Los Vegas' instead of 'Las Vegas', which detracts not only from the placename itself but suggests that Presley did not have personal knowledge of the correct pronunciation of the said location of the film, or was not corrected in the recording of the track. In the years since its first release, the song has become one of Presley's most recognized numbers. In the 1990s and 2000s, the song appeared in countless movies and TV sitcoms, either as a reference to the city of Las Vegas, or simply as an expression of joy or bewilderment in related comedic situations.

text: In 2002, the city of Las Vegas requested Elvis Presley Enterprises, the company that handles a portion of Elvis's legacy and all Elvis-related music rights, to allow it to be the official song of the city. Negotiations stalled over the price requested by EPE, notwithstanding that EPE had not controlled the copyright to the song since 1993, at which time it became the property of the families of the songwriters Doc Pomus[3] and Mort Shuman. Since EPE no longer owns the copyright to the song, it essentially means that EPE does not have the authority or right to negotiate the use of the song "Viva Las Vegas" within the United States, its territories and possessions, although EPE may be able to negotiate the use of the actual Elvis recording of the song.

text: Appearances in other media[edit]

text: The song is featured in Looney Tunes: Back in Action where Bugs Bunny sings the song.

text: Cover versions[edit]

text:
Punk band Dead Kennedys recorded a version of "Viva Las Vegas" on their debut album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (1980). The song had been a part of their live set almost since the band's inception. Their version strips the musical arrangement down to guitar, bass and drums, and uses a slightly faster tempo, yet maintains the song's melodic structure. It also features satirical lyric changes by lead singer Jello Biafra in the second and third verses, referencing a gambler using speed and cocaine in order not to "sleep a minute away". This version can also be found in Terry Gilliam's film adaptation of Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998).
Nina Hagen recorded a version of "Viva Las Vegas" on her album Nina Hagen (1989).
ZZ Top recorded a version of "Viva Las Vegas" as one of two new tracks on their Greatest Hits album (1992).
The Killers, who are from Las Vegas, often perform the song live, such as in the 2015 iHeartRadio Music Festival.
Film co-star Ann-Margret recut a version of the song for the live action movie The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000) under the pseudonym of her animated alter-ego Ann-Margrock and with the song's title changed to, of course, "Viva Rock Vegas".
Polish street punk, Oi! band The Analogs covered the song in Polish, without changing its name.
The bluegrass act The Grascals did a version of the song on their debut album (2005).
Those Darn Accordions recorded an all-accordion instrumental version on their album Vongole Fisarmonica (1992).
Chilean punk band Fiskales Ad-Hok covered the song in Spanish, changing its name to "Viva Santiago".
The song is featured in the film The Big Lebowski (1998). Shawn Colvin performs it as a folk ballad during the closing credits. A rock version in the film is credited to a band called Big Johnson, and is styled after the ZZ Top version. The Colvin version was recorded originally for the Rhino/Forward release, Til the Night is Gone: A Tribute to Songwriter Doc Pomus (1995), and is also featured prominently in Episode 11 of Twin Peaks.
The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas is a reference to the song.
The Scooby-Doo movie Scooby-Doo! and the Monster of Mexico (2003) featured a variation of the song entitled "Viva Mexico", done in a Latin beat.
The song is a part of Bruce Springsteen's live act, and was included in The Last Temptation of Elvis, a commemorative album of renditions by singers, and rock groups, of songs made famous by Presley. Springsteen's studio version of "Viva Las Vegas" was also included in the soundtrack of the film Honeymoon in Vegas (1992), and in his compilation The Essential Bruce Springsteen (2003).
The Thrills performed "Viva Las Vegas" with James Burton at Elvis' induction to the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2004. The song was recorded live and later released as a B-side to The Irish Keep Gate-crashing.
There are also cover versions of the song by Wayne Newton, The Residents, The Misfits, Billy Swan, Dolly Parton and The Grascals, Dread Zeppelin, Engelbert Humperdinck, Lee Rocker, Phil Cody, The Gipsy Vagabonds, The Stray Cats, Cornell Hurd, King Junior, The Blues Brothers, The Royal Crown Revue, Mort Shuman himself, The Southern Boys, and many, many others.
The Dread Zeppelin version of "Viva Las Vegas" was used as the theme to the Travel Channel reality series American Casino.
Radio station WGIR-FM in Manchester, New Hampshire, did a parody version, "Viva Manch Vegas" (referring to the sarcastic nickname of the city) on its "Morning Buzz Show".
At UNLV athletic events, UNLV's band often plays a version of "Viva Las Vegas" in the same way most college bands play schools' fight songs.
The song was recorded for a Viagra commercial with lyrics changed to "Viva Viagra".
The song served as the theme tune for NBC's short-lived animation series Father of the Pride.
The Mexican band Plastilina Mosh released "Viva Las Vegas" in their Tasty album.
Dwayne Johnson sang a portion of the song during his WWE stint with the chorus changed to "Viva Rock Vegas".
Johnny Ramone had recorded an instrumental version of this song.
Vince Neil covered the song on his solo release Tattoos & Tequila (2010).
Dark-synth band Lost Children (Formerly Depressed Children) performed a version of this song on their debut CD Our Fallen Cities.
Spanish band La Frontera has recorded and performs a version of the song.
Holly Cole, from the album Night (2012).
Amanda Lear covered the song on her tribute album My Happiness (2014).
Czech country singer Michal Tučný covered ZZ Top style version on his album Jižanský rok (1994).
Cover band Shake a Hamster Band did a parody cover for the 2003 KVSC Trivia Marathon, titled "Viva Las Trivia".[4]
Johnny Punish did a rock version of the song in August 2016 for his record "Rejuva Nation" supported by a music video on YouTube.com
Christian Rock singer and musician Marc Martel performed a slowed down version of the song to pay tribute to the victims of the Las Vegas shooting that happened two weeks before. [5]

text: Charts[edit]

text: Elvis Presley's original version[edit]

text:
Chart (1964)
Peak
position

U.S. Billboard Hot 100[6]
29