document_title: A Place to Call Home (TV series)

question_text: where is a place to call home filmed

question_tokens: where is a place to call home filmed

text: A Place to Call Home (TV series)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main current cast[edit]

text:
Marta Dusseldorp as Sarah Adams, who despite a strictly religious Catholic upbringing, had moved to Paris to be with the man she loved and to adopt his Jewish faith. However, a new life awaits her when she comes to work for the local hospital near the Bligh family, whom she met while serving as a nurse on the ship taking them all back to Australia from Europe. Later, she is astonished to hear a report that her husband is still alive following World War II, and her life again spins into troubled times.[3]
Noni Hazlehurst as Elizabeth Bligh, the headstrong and stubborn matriarch of the Bligh family. She is at first rude and cruel to Sarah, but she grudgingly mellows over time. Later in the series, she leaves for Sydney to live with her daughter Carolyn, and to become a better person.[3]
Brett Climo as Elizabeth's son, George Bligh, a good-hearted man who takes Sarah under his protection and gradually falls in love with her. He is Elaine's widower; at the beginning of the series, he appears to be father to James and Anna; eventually it emerges that Anna is actually a secret child of his sister Carolyn and their friend Jack, taken in by George and Elaine to spare Carolyn any scandal. His worst flaw may be his trust in people who seek to take advantage of him.[3]
Craig Hall as Jack Duncan, the secret past lover of Carolyn, who now faces many challenges in his work as a doctor in a hospital run by the Bligh family. He is a genuine person despite his personal problems and would do anything to help others.[3]
David Berry as James Bligh (regular: seasons 1–4; recurring: season 5), the only son of George and Elaine, who grows up unaware of his "sister" Anna's true background. He marries Olivia, but is tormented by the realisation that he is gay, and tries to commit suicide. He later feels betrayed when his wife has an affair, but returns to Ash Park to live for his young son.[3]
Arianwen Parkes-Lockwood as Olivia Bligh, James' wife, a newlywed from England at the start of the series. She develops anger toward James for his indifference to her desperate need for affection, but does try to come to terms with his "condition".[3]
Abby Earl as Anna Bligh, the secret child of Carolyn and Jack, who was raised believing she was daughter of George and Elaine. Anna marries a local farmer, Gino, after rebelling against the Bligh family. However the marriage faces difficulties when Gino goes into debt, and his attempts to expand the farm fail.[3]
Frankie J. Holden as Roy Briggs, a kindly old farmer who lives alone at the series start. He is very generous toward Sarah from the time she arrives in town, eventually offering her a refuge in his small home. They develop an easy, informal, mutually-supportive friendship.[3]
Sara Wiseman as Carolyn Bligh (regular: season 2–present; recurring: season 1). Much like her secret daughter Anna, Carolyn was the rebel child of her generation. For a long time, she gave up on her relationship with the Bligh family, and has had little contact for years. Once her secret is revealed, she is reunited with her long-separated daughter Anna and they develop an even closer relationship than before. Later on Carolyn works for Sir Richard Bennett, encountering new problems.[3]
Tim Draxl as Doctor Henry Fox (regular: season 3–present), the doctor who helps to save George's life after he is shot. Henry then goes on to befriend James, and they realize their mutual attraction to each other is stronger than mere friendship. Henry falls under the devious control of Regina, when she blackmails him into supplying her with morphine for her addiction.[3]
Deborah Kennedy as Doris Collins (regular: season 4–present; recurring: seasons 1–3), the most widely-known member of the Inverness village, who seems omnipresent on her bicycle. Although she means well, her gossiping ways can sometimes make her seem rude and intrusive. Sarah dislikes her at first, but as time goes on, finds her helpful as someone who always knows who has done what in the village.

text: Main departed cast[edit]

text:
Aldo Mignone as Gino Poletti (seasons 1–4), the young, handsome Italian farmer who has set Anna's heart on fire. He has a real passion for farming and trying to please everybody, but his ambitious business decisions are not very successful.[3]
Jenni Baird as Regina Standish (season 1–5), the widowed, formerly wealthy and still money-hungry sister of George's late wife, Elaine. Regina is the opposite of who Elaine had been: cold, bitter, and scheming, she despises Jews and openly displays religious intolerance toward Sarah. Regina has now set her sights on the widower George's inheritance, and would take extreme actions to achieve her goals regardless of anyone she sees as an obstacle. After being committed in an asylum for the murder of Millie Davis and a policeman, Regina was let go in 1958. She returned to the town and helped Sarah and George fight Sir Richard's cruel intentions. She committed suicide at the end of season 5, overdosing on morphine and making her death appear to be homicide.
Dominic Allburn as Harry Polson (regular: season 1; recurring: season 4), Amy's gay brother. He has a brief romantic involvement with James, but when much of the village learns of Harry's true nature, he leaves Inverness for a new life elsewhere. Later, when he returns after having been severely beaten, Sarah helps him to settle back into a more stable life at Inverness.
Matt Levett as Andrew Swanson (regular: season 2; recurring: season 1), a somewhat entitled heir apparent who tries to win the hand of Anna Bligh.
Ben Winspear as Doctor Rene Nordmann (regular: season 3; recurring: season 2), the long-lost first love and husband of Sarah Adams. First seen only in flashback, Rene had been arrested by the Nazi occupiers of Paris, and had disappeared without a trace. Later, when Sarah is amazed to learn that he is still alive, she travels to Paris to rescue him from the deep psychological damage caused by his long ordeal of imprisonment and torture. Rene has great difficulty adjusting to normal life, and still seems to carry his imprisonment within him.
Brenna Harding as Rose O'Connell (regular: season 4; recurring: season 3)
Robert Coleby as Douglas Goddard, a retiree who ran a club for Australian war veterans. He married Elizabeth Bligh but died in season 5.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Heather Mitchell as Prudence Swanson, the wealthy friend of Elizabeth. Prudence socializes with Elizabeth whenever she comes to visit Sydney. As a member of Sydney's upper class, she is very aristocratic and looks down her nose at Sarah when she arrives for a garden party.
Judi Farr as Peg Maloney, the aunt of Sarah Adams, who writes to her frequently from her home in Sydney. She and Sarah have grown very close, and when Sarah later decides to take a difficult action, she asks Peg for help.
Dina Panozzo as Carla Poletti, the mother of Gino. She is very critical of the relationship with Anna and her son, saying that it will never work because she is not Catholic. But when George accedes, she does so as well.
Krew Boylan and then Amy Mathews as Amy Polson, the maid of the Bligh household. When Regina suspects that James is gay she manipulates Amy into spying for her, which eventually forces Elizabeth to fire Amy with great sorrow.
Angelo D'Angelo as Amo Poletti, the father of Gino
Jacinta Acevski as Alma Grey
Scott Grimley as Norman Parker (driver)
Rick Donald as Lloyd Ellis-Parker, a talented portrait artist on temporary assignment, who seems to offer Olivia the romantic affection she desperately craves.
Michael Sheasby as Bert Ford, a local yobbo who always seems to be looking for a fight. His suspicion of outsiders and religious intolerance make Sarah a natural target, as are the Italian Poletti family. Bert disappears under mysterious circumstances, but his unknown fate continues to haunt his former victims.
Mark Lee as Sir Richard Bennett, a rich and powerful, but unprincipled owner of a major city newspaper. He is used to taking whatever he wishes to possess, including the people around him.
Conrad Coleby as Matthew Goddard, Douglas' son who returns to town after his father's death. He starts dating Olivia and later asks her to marry him.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development for A Place to Call Home began after Bevan Lee completed his "domestic trilogy" (Always Greener, Packed to the Rafters and Winners & Losers).[4] He took inspiration from film director Douglas Sirk's 1950s films such as Written on the Wind (1956) and All That Heaven Allows (1955).[5] Lee told The Age that he wanted to create a romance-driven melodrama based in the 1950s because people's lives in the present are "relatively bland". He said: "At the end of the day, conflict is drama and we live in relatively conflict-free society. I had to go to a place where there was pain and damage and hurt; after the war there was."[6] The script is co-written by Lee and Trent Atkinson.[7]

text: Noni Hazlehurst (Elizabeth Bligh) was the first cast member to be announced for A Place to Call Home, on 18 June 2012.[8] Marta Dusseldorp (Sarah Adams), Brett Climo (George Bligh) and Frankie J. Holden (Roy Briggs) were announced a month later, with Dusseldorp leading the overall cast.[9] Newcomers David Berry (James Bligh), Arianwen Parkes-Lockwood (Olivia Bligh), Abby Earl (Anna Bligh) and Aldo Mignone (Gino Poletti), made up the rest of the main cast.[10]

text: A Place to Call Home is set primarily in both the fictional estate "Ash Park" and the nearby fictional town of "Inverness" in country New South Wales.[11] Inverness was also used as the country setting of Always Greener. Camden and the Southern Highlands in New South Wales serves as the backdrop for Inverness. Ash Park is actually Camelot, a heritage-listed property located at Kirkham, on the outskirts of Camden.[1][12][13] Sydney, the capital city of New South Wales, is a third location where major events occur, but most city scenes are filmed indoors, aside from some establishing shots such as historic footage of the Sydney Harbour Bridge.

text: Filming for the first season began on 9 July 2012 and concluded on 12 December 2012.[14] Season one was shot on a Sony F65 camera, the first Australian television production to do so.[15]

text: In June 2013, Erin McWhirter of TV Week announced that A Place to Call Home had been renewed for another season. Abby Earl told McWhirter, "We're locked in pre-production in August and then we start filming in September, so there's plenty of time for me to get back in Anna's shoes."[16]  The second season started on 11 May 2014 and concluded on 13 July 2014.

text: TV Week confirmed that a third season had been commissioned.[17] However, in June 2014, the magazine reported that Channel Seven had declined the option to renew the series, and that the cast and crew had been told that they would not be required for a third season.[18]

text: On 15 October 2014, it was announced that Foxtel had finalised a deal with Channel Seven that would see a third season written by Bevan Lee, produced by Seven Productions, but aired on Foxtel.[19] On 25 October 2014, The Daily Telegraph announced that A Place to Call Home was renewed for another two seasons and would return in late 2015, airing on Foxtel channel, SoHo. It was also announced that all the original cast and crew members would return.[20]

text: On 16 August 2015 it was announced via the official Facebook page that season 3 would premiere on 27 September 2015 on SoHo. Season 4 premiered on Foxtel's Showcase channel on 11 September 2016.

text: Season 5 was announced by Foxtel on 16 November 2016. The timeline of season 5 skips ahead from 1954 to the year 1958. Production of A Place to Call Home resumed in February 2017 with principal photography continuing through July 2017. Season 5 premiered on Foxtel's Showcase Channel in Australia starting on 8 October 2017.[21]

text: A sixth and final season was announced by Foxtel on 6 December 2017 to be aired in 2018.[22]

text: Release[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Series overviewSeriesEpisodesOriginally airedOzTAM ratingsFirst airedLast airedNetworkRankAverage viewership11328 April 2013 (2013-04-28)21 July 2013 (2013-07-21)Seven Network8[23]1,480,000[23]21011 May 2014 (2014-05-11)13 July 2014 (2014-07-13)7[24]1,150,000[24]31027 September 2015 (2015-09-27)29 November 2015 (2015-11-29)SoHo2168,00041211 September 201627 November 2016Showcase[25]2139,0005128 October 201724 December 20173104,000610[26]19 August 2018TBATBATBA

text: When Seven Network revealed its new television series lineup for 2012, A Place to Call Home was mentioned alongside other titles.[27] Seven Network's Angus Ross said that it would potentially premiere in late 2012, but would not be rushed to air by a certain date unless "casting and other elements" were right.[28] The first season of A Place to Call Home consisted of thirteen episodes.[6] The pilot episode was originally broadcast on 28 April 2013, in the 8:30 pm time slot (previously occupied by Downton Abbey).[1]

text: International[edit]

text: Shortly after airing in Australia A Place to Call Home started broadcasting on TV One in New Zealand.[29]

text: Series one and two began airing on BBC2 in the United Kingdom on 17 November 2014, series three on 25 February 2016,[30] and series four on 13 February 2017. The fifth series was promoted to a BBC1 daytime slot, and began airing daily on 13 March 2018.

text: The first five seasons are available for streaming in the U.S. on Acorn TV. The show is also distributed to television stations by American Public Television.[31]

text: Home media[edit]

text:
Title

Set details

DVD release dates

Blu-ray release dates

Special features

Region 1[32]

Region 2[33]

Region 4[34]

Region B[34]

A Place to Call Home — Season 1

Discs: 4[A]
Episodes: 13

3 March 2015 (2015-03-03)
23 February 2015 (2015-02-23)
8 August 2013 (2013-08-08)

Photo gallery (region 2 only)
Interviews with the Cast (region 4 only)

A Place to Call Home — Season 2

Discs: 3[B]
Episodes: 10

30 June 2015 (2015-06-30)
23 February 2015 (2015-02-23)
17 July 2014 (2014-07-17)

Interviews
Young to Old: Sarah's Transformation
Character Profiles (region 1 & 2 only)

A Place to Call Home — Season 2: Revised Edition

Discs: 3
Episodes: 10

N/A
N/A
29 October 2015 (2015-10-29)
N/A

Interviews
Young to Old: Sarah's Transformation
Season 3 Character Profiles
Season 3 Trailer

A Place to Call Home — Season 2: Collector's Edition

Discs: 1
Episodes: 3

N/A
N/A
29 October 2015 (2015-10-29)
N/A

Interviews
Young to Old: Sarah's Transformation
Season 3 Character Profiles
Season 3 Trailer

A Place to Call Home — Season 3

Discs: 3[C]
Episodes: 10

5 April 2016 (2016-04-05)
14 March 2016 (2016-03-14)
7 April 2016 (2016-04-07)
N/A

New season 2 finale
Picture gallery
Season 3 episode recaps (region 4 only)

A Place to Call Home — Season 4

Discs: 3[D]
Episodes: 12

28 February 2017 (2017-02-28)
6 March 2017 (2017-03-06)
26 April 2017 (2017-04-26)
N/A

Region 1:

Cast and crew interviews (region 1 only)
Behind-the-scenes featurettes (region 1 only)
Photo gallery

A Place to Call Home — Season 5

Discs: 3[E]
Episodes: 12

3 April 2018 (2018-04-03)
2 April 2018 (2018-04-02)
28 March 2018 (2018-03-28)
N/A

Q and A with Jenni Baird (region 1 only)

text: Box sets[edit]

text:
Title

Set details

DVD release dates

Special features

Region 1[32]

Region 2[33]

Region 4[34]

A Place to Call Home — Season 1 & 2

Discs: 7
Episodes: 23

N/A
N/A
29 October 2015 (2015-10-29)

Interviews
Young to Old: Sarah's Transformation
Season 3 Character Profiles
Season 3 Trailer

A Place to Call Home — Complete Seasons One to Three

Discs: 10[F]
Episodes: 33

N/A
14 March 2016 (2016-03-14)
1 September 2016 (2016-09-01)

Interviews
Young to Old: Sarah's Transformation
Season 3 Character Profiles
Season 3 Trailer
New season 2 finale (region 2 & 4)
Picture gallery (region 2 & 4)
Season 3 episode recaps

A Place to Call Home — Complete Seasons 1–4

Discs: 13[G]
Episodes: 45

N/A
6 March 2017 (2017-03-06)
26 April 2017 (2017-04-26)

Alternative series two finale (region 2)

A Place to Call Home — Complete Seasons 1–5

Discs: 16
Episodes: 57

TBA
TBA
28 March 2018 (2018-03-28)

Region 4:
Interviews
Young to Old: Sarah's Transformation
Season 3 Character Profiles
Season 3 Trailer
New Season 2 Finale
Season 3 Episode Recaps
Photo Gallery

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ 2 discs in the UK. Blu-ray includes 3 discs.

Jump up ^ Blu-ray and UK release includes 2 discs.

Jump up ^ 2 discs in the UK.

Jump up ^ 2 discs in the UK.

Jump up ^ 4 discs in the U.S. and 2 in the UK.

Jump up ^ 6 discs in the UK.

Jump up ^ 8 discs in the UK.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: A Place to Call Home — Music from Seasons 1–5 was released on 20 October 2017[35][36]

text: showDisc 1No.TitleArtistLength1."A Place to Call Home Theme" (season 2)Michael Yezerski1:432."Motherland" (season 1)Michael Yezerski2:443."Ebb Tide" (season 1)Stuie French featuring Shanley Del2:454."Music! Music! Music!" (season 1)Teresa Brewer2:465."Heart and Soul" (season 1)The Four Aces featuring Al Alberts2:196."We're Going to have a Baby" (season 1)Michael Yezerski1:587."Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered" (season 1)Ella Fitzgerald7:058."It's Coming" (season 2)Michael Yezerski3:039."The Anniversary Waltz" (season 1)Vera Lynn2:4610."You Belong to Me" (season 1)Jo Stafford3:1511."Mona Lisa" (season 1)Michael Yezerski featuring Glenn Cunningham1:5112."When I Fall in Love" (season 2)Nat King Cole3:1313."Mr. & Mrs. James Bligh" (season 1)Michael Yezerski1:5314."A Kiss to Build a Dream On" (season 2)Louis Armstrong3:0515."Lullaby of Broadway" (season 1)Doris Day with the Norman Luboff Choir and the Buddy Cole Quartet2:3016."Ash Park Morning" (season 1)Michael Yezerski1:1917."Rag Mop" (season 1)The Ames Brothers2:4118."Botch-a-Me (Ba-Ba-Baciami Piccina)" (season 1)Rosemary Clooney2:2019."Sh-Boom" (Single Version; season 2)The Crew Cuts2:5020."Sway" (season 1)Stuie French featuring Paul Fisher2:4421."Paris" (season 2)Michael Yezerski2:1622."I Believe" (season 2)Michael Yezerski featuring Martha Marlow1:5623."Are You Awake?" (season 2)Michael Yezerski1:4624."No Other Love" (season 2)Michael Yezerski featuring Alex Oomens3:4125."Side by Side" (season 1)Kay Starr2:5526."You're Nobody till Somebody Loves You" (season 1)The Mills Brothers2:2527."Undecided" (season 1)The Ames Brothers3:0128."At Last" (season 1)Etta James3:0429."Amazing Grace" (season 1)Michael Yezerski featuring Mahalia Barnes1:50

text: Reception[edit]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Category

Nominee(s)

Work

Result

Ref

2014

Telefeatures, TV Drama & Mini Series Award of Distinction

John Stokes

Season 1, Episode 9: "Cane Toad"

Won

[37]

text:
Year

Category

Nominee(s)

Work

Result

Ref

2014

Most Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series

Cast

Season 1

Nominated

[38]

text:
Year

Category

Nominee

Work

Result

Ref

2014

Most Outstanding Drama Series

N/A

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

[39]

Most Popular Actress

Marta Dusseldorp

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

Most Popular New Talent

Abby Earl

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

2016

Best Actress

Marta Dusseldorp

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

[40]

Most Outstanding Supporting Actor

David Berry

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

Most Outstanding Supporting Actress

Jenni Baird

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

Best Drama Program

N/A

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

Most Outstanding Drama Series

N/A

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

2017

Best Actress

Marta Dusseldorp

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

Most Outstanding Supporting Actress

Jenni Baird

A Place to Call Home

Nominated

Most Outstanding Drama Series

N/A

A Place to Call Home

Won


document_title: Commissural fiber

question_text: the great majority of which tracts pass through the corpus callosum

root

text: Commissural fiber

text: Structure[edit]

text: The commissural fibers make up tracts that include the corpus callosum, the anterior commissure, and the posterior commissure.

tag: p

text: Corpus callosum[edit]

text: The corpus callosum is the largest commissural tract in the human brain. It consists of about 200-300 million axons that connect the two cerebral hemispheres. The corpus callosum is essential to the communication between the two hemispheres.[2]

text: A recent study of individuals with agenesis of the corpus callosum suggests that the corpus callosum plays a vital role in problem solving strategies, verbal processing speed, and executive performance. Specifically, the absence of a fully developed corpus callosum is shown to have a significant relationship with impaired verbal processing speed and problem solving.[3]

text: Another study of individuals with multiple sclerosis provides evidence that structural and microstructural abnormalities of the corpus callosum are related to cognitive dysfunction. Particularly, verbal and visual memory, information processing speed, and executive tasks were shown to be impaired when compared to healthy individuals. Physical disabilities in multiple sclerosis patients also seem to be related to abnormalities of the corpus callosum, but not to the same extent of other cognitive functions.[4]

text: Using diffusion tensor imaging, researchers have been able to produce a visualization of this network of fibers, which shows the corpus callosum has an anteroposterior topographical organization that is uniform with the cerebral cortex.

text: Anterior commissure[edit]

text: The anterior commissure (also known as the precommissure) is a tract that connects the two temporal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres across the midline, and placed in front of the columns of the fornix. The great majority of fibers connecting the two hemispheres travel through the corpus callosum, which is over 10 times larger than the anterior commissure, and other routes of communication pass through the hippocampal commissure or, indirectly, via subcortical connections.  Nevertheless, the anterior commissure is a significant pathway that can be clearly distinguished in the brains of all mammals.

text: Using diffusion tensor imaging, researchers were able to approximate the location of the anterior commissure where it crosses the midline of the brain. This tract can be observed to be in the shape of a bicycle as it branches through various areas of the brain. Through diffusion tensor imaging results, the anterior commissure was categorized into two fiber systems: 1) the olfactory fibers and 2) the non-olfactory fibers.[5]

text: Posterior commissure[edit]

text: The posterior commissure (also known as the epithalamic commissure) is a rounded nerve tract crossing the middle line on the dorsal aspect of the upper end of the cerebral aqueduct. It is important in the bilateral pupillary light reflex.

text:
Evidence suggests the posterior commissure is a tract that plays a role in language processing between the right and left hemispheres of the brain.
It connects the pretectal nuclei.
A case study described recently in The Irish Medical Journal discussed the role the posterior commissure plays in the connection between the right occipital cortex and the language centers in the left hemisphere. This study explains how visual information from the left side of the visual field is received by the right visual cortex and then transferred to the word form system in the left hemisphere though the posterior commissure and the splenium. Disruption of the posterior commissure can cause alexia without agraphia. It is evident from this case study of alexia without agraphia that the posterior commissure plays a vital role in transferring information from the right occipital cortex to the language centers of the left hemisphere.[6]

text: Other[edit]

text: The lyra or hippocampal commissure.

text: Function[edit]

text: Aging

text: Age-related decline in the commissury fiber tracts that make up the corpus callosum indicate the corpus callosum is involved in memory and executive function. Specifically, the posterior fibers of the corpus callosum are associated with episodic memory. Perceptual processing decline is also related to diminished integrity of occipital fibers of the corpus callosum. Evidence suggests that the genu of the corpus callosum does not contribute significantly to any one cognitive domain in the elderly. As fiber tract connectivity in the corpus callosum declines due to aging, compensatory mechanisms are found in other areas of the corpus callosum and frontal lobe. These compensatory mechanisms, increasing connectivity in other parts of the brain, may explain why elderly individuals still display executive function as a decline of connectivity is seen in regions of the corpus callosum.[7]

text: Older adults compared to younger adults show poorer performance in balance exercises and tests. A decline in white matter integrity of the corpus callosum in older individuals may explain declines in the ability to balance. Changes in the white matter integrity of the corpus callosum may also be related to cognitive and motor function decline as well. Decreased white matter integrity effects proper transmission and processing of sensorimotor information. White matter degeneration of the genu of the corpus callosum  is also associated with gait, balance impairment, and the quality of postural control.[8]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The corpus callosum allows for communication between the two hemispheres and is found only in placental mammals (the eutherians), while it is absent in monotremes and marsupials, as well as other vertebrates such as birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. The anterior commissure  serves as the primary mode of interhemispheric communication in marsupials,[9][10] and which carries all the commissural fibers arising from the neocortex (also known as the neopallium), whereas in placental mammals the anterior commissure carries only some of these fibers).[11]


document_title: DNA replication

question_text: where does dna synthesis begin on a chromosome

text: DNA replication

text: DNA structure[edit]

text: DNA exists as a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double-helix. Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase. The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly abbreviated as A, C, G and T. Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nucleobases pointing inward (i.e., toward the opposing strand). Nucleobases are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and guanine pairs with cytosine (three hydrogen bonds).

text: DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the "3' (three-prime) end" and the "5' (five-prime) end". By convention, if the base sequence of a single strand of DNA is given, the left end of the sequence is the 5' end, while the right end of the sequence is the 3' end. The strands of the double helix are anti-parallel with one being 5' to 3', and the opposite strand 3' to 5'. These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a DNA strand.

text: The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the information contained within each strand is useless. phosphoodiester (intra-strand) bonds are stronger than hydrogen (inter-strand) bonds. This allows the strands to be separated from one another. The nucleotides on a single strand can therefore be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand.[5]

text: DNA polymerase[edit]

text: DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication.[7] DNA polymerases in general cannot initiate synthesis of new strands, but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand.

text: DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3' end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds. The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high-energy phosphate (phosphoanhydride) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base. Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides; in particular, bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates. When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphates as a pyrophosphate. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high-energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible.[Note 1]

text: In general, DNA polymerases are highly accurate, with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 107 nucleotides added.[8] In addition, some DNA polymerases also have proofreading ability; they can remove nucleotides from the end of a growing strand in order to correct mismatched bases. Finally, post-replication mismatch repair mechanisms monitor the DNA for errors, being capable of distinguishing mismatches in the newly synthesized DNA strand from the original strand sequence. Together, these three discrimination steps enable replication fidelity of less than one mistake for every 109 nucleotides added.[8]

text: The rate of DNA replication in a living cell was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage-infected E. coli.[9] During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phage T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 108.[10]

text: Replication process[edit]

text: DNA replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination.

text: Initiation[edit]

text: For a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA.[11] This process is initiated at particular points in the DNA, known as "origins", which are targeted by initiator proteins.[4] In E. coli this protein is DnaA; in yeast, this is the origin recognition complex.[12] Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be "AT-rich" (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair) and thus are easier to strand-separate.[13] Once the origin has been located, these initiators recruit other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, which unwinds the double-stranded DNA.

text: Elongation[edit]

text: DNA polymerase has 5′–3′ activity. All known DNA replication systems require a free 3' hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (note: the DNA template is read in 3′ to 5′ direction whereas a new strand is synthesized in the 5′ to 3′ direction—this is often confused). Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized:

text:
All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmids use a primase to synthesize a short RNA primer with a free 3′ OH group which is subsequently elongated by a DNA polymerase.
The retroelements (including retroviruses) employ a transfer RNA that primes DNA replication by providing a free 3′ OH that is used for elongation by the reverse transcriptase.
In the adenoviruses and the φ29 family of bacteriophages, the 3' OH group is provided by the side chain of an amino acid of the genome attached protein (the terminal protein) to which nucleotides are added by the DNA polymerase to form a new strand.
In the single stranded DNA viruses—a group that includes the circoviruses, the geminiviruses, the parvoviruses and others—and also the many phages and plasmids that use the rolling circle replication (RCR) mechanism, the RCR endonuclease creates a nick in the genome strand (single stranded viruses) or one of the DNA strands (plasmids). The 5′ end of the nicked strand is transferred to a tyrosine residue on the nuclease and the free 3′ OH group is then used by the DNA polymerase to synthesize the new strand.

tag: ol

text: The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms. In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds RNA primers to the template strands. The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several. The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments. RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps. When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found. Ligase works to fill these nicks in, thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule.

text: The primase used in this process differs significantly between bacteria and archaea/eukaryotes. Bacteria use a primase belonging to the DnaG protein superfamily which contains a catalytic domain of the TOPRIM fold type.[14] The TOPRIM fold contains an α/β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann-like topology. This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD-family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the RecR protein.

text: The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes, in contrast, contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM). This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A/B/Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair. In eukaryotic replication, the primase forms a complex with Pol α.[15]

text: Multiple DNA polymerases take on different roles in the DNA replication process. In E. coli, DNA Pol III is the polymerase enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication. It assembles into a replication complex at the replication fork that exhibits extremely high processivity, remaining intact for the entire replication cycle. In contrast, DNA Pol I is the enzyme responsible for replacing RNA primers with DNA. DNA Pol I has a 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity in addition to its polymerase activity, and uses its exonuclease activity to degrade the RNA primers ahead of it as it extends the DNA strand behind it, in a process called nick translation. Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions.

text: In eukaryotes, the low-processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with primase.[16] In eukaryotes, leading strand synthesis is thought to be conducted by Pol ε; however, this view has recently been challenged, suggesting a role for Pol δ.[17] Primer removal is completed Pol δ[18] while repair of DNA during replication is completed by Pol ε.

text: As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs. In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process creates a "theta structure" (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ). In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these.[19]

text: Replication fork[edit]

text: The replication fork is a structure that forms within the nucleus during DNA replication. It is created by helicases, which break the hydrogen bonds holding the two DNA strands together. The resulting structure has two branching "prongs", each one made up of a single strand of DNA. These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand template.

text: DNA is always synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. Since the leading and lagging strand templates are oriented in opposite directions at the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of nascent (new) lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork.

text: Leading strand[edit]

text: The leading strand is the strand of nascent DNA which is being synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork. This sort of DNA replication is continuous.

text: Lagging strand[edit]

text: The lagging strand is the strand of nascent DNA whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. Because of its orientation, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated as compared to that of the leading strand. As a consequence, the DNA polymerase on this strand is seen to "lag behind" the other strand.

text: The lagging strand is synthesized in short, separated segments. On the lagging strand template, a primase "reads" the template DNA and initiates synthesis of a short complementary RNA primer. A DNA polymerase extends the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments. The RNA primers are then removed and replaced with DNA, and the fragments of DNA are joined together by DNA ligase.

text: Dynamics at the replication fork[edit]

text: As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate. This process results in a build-up of twists in the DNA ahead.[20] This build-up forms a torsional resistance that would eventually halt the progress of the replication fork. Topoisomerases are enzymes that temporarily break the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix.[21]

text: Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase. To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation.[22]

text: Clamp proteins form a sliding clamp around DNA, helping the DNA polymerase maintain contact with its template, thereby assisting with processivity. The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it. Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double-stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase. Clamp-loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers.[3]:274-5

text: DNA replication proteins[edit]

text: At the replication fork, many replication enzymes assemble on the DNA into a complex molecular machine called the replisome. The following is a list of major DNA replication enzymes that participate in the replisome:[23]

text:
Enzyme
Function in DNA replication

DNA Helicase
Also known as helix destabilizing enzyme. Helicase separates the two strands of DNA at the Replication Fork behind the topoisomerase.

DNA Polymerase
The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the addition of nucleotide substrates to DNA in the 5' to 3' direction during DNA replication. Also performs proof-reading and error correction. There exist many different types of DNA Polymerase, each of which perform different functions in different types of cells.

DNA clamp
A protein which prevents elongating DNA polymerases from dissociating from the DNA parent strand.

Single-Strand Binding (SSB) Proteins
Bind to ssDNA and prevent the DNA double helix from re-annealing after DNA helicase unwinds it, thus maintaining the strand separation, and facilitating the synthesis of the nascent strand.

Topoisomerase
Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature.

DNA Gyrase
Relieves strain of unwinding by DNA helicase; this is a specific type of topoisomerase

DNA Ligase
Re-anneals the semi-conservative strands and joins Okazaki Fragments of the lagging strand.

Primase
Provides a starting point of RNA (or DNA) for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis of the new DNA strand.

Telomerase
Lengthens telomeric DNA by adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. This allows germ cells and stem cells to avoid the Hayflick limit on cell division.[24]

tag: table

text: Replication machinery[edit]

text: Replication machineries consist of factors involved in DNA replication and appearing on template ssDNAs. Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes; DNA polymerase, DNA helicases, DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases, and replication proteins; e.g. single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB). In the replication machineries these components coordinate. In most of the bacteria, all of the factors involved in DNA replication are located on replication forks and the complexes stay on the forks during DNA replication. These replication machineries are called replisomes or DNA replicase systems. These terms are generic terms for proteins located on replication forks. In eukaryotic and some bacterial cells the replisomes are not formed.

text: Since replication machineries do not move relatively to template DNAs such as factories, they are called a replication factory.[25] In an alternative figure, DNA factories are similar to projectors and DNAs are like as cinematic films passing constantly into the projectors. In the replication factory model, after both DNA helicases for leading strands and lagging strands are loaded on the template DNAs, the helicases run along the DNAs into each other. The helicases remain associated for the remainder of replication process. Peter Meister et al. observed directly replication sites in budding yeast by monitoring green fluorescent protein(GFP)-tagged DNA polymerases α. They detected DNA replication of pairs of the tagged loci spaced apart symmetrically from a replication origin and found that the distance between the pairs decreased markedly by time.[26] This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories. That is, couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other. Also, template DNAs move into the factories, which bring extrusion of the template ssDNAs and nascent DNAs. Meister’s finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model. Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis.[25]

text: The replication factories perform disentanglement of sister chromatids. The disentanglement is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication. Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by Cohesin rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication. Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the success rate of DNA replication. If replication forks move freely in chromosomes, catenation of nuclei is aggravated and impedes mitotic segregation.[26]

text: Termination[edit]

text: Eukaryotes initiate DNA replication at multiple points in the chromosome, so replication forks meet and terminate at many points in the chromosome. Because eukaryotes have linear chromosomes, DNA replication is unable to reach the very end of the chromosomes. Due to this problem, DNA is lost each replication cycle from the end of the chromosome. Telomeres are regions of repetitive DNA close to the ends and help prevent loss of genes due to this shortening. Shortening of the telomeres is a normal process in somatic cells. This shortens the telomeres of the daughter DNA chromosome. As a result, cells can only divide a certain number of times before the DNA loss prevents further division. (This is known as the Hayflick limit.) Within the germ cell line, which passes DNA to the next generation, telomerase extends the repetitive sequences of the telomere region to prevent degradation. Telomerase can become mistakenly active in somatic cells, sometimes leading to cancer formation. Increased telomerase activity is one of the hallmarks of cancer.

text: Termination requires that the progress of the DNA replication fork must stop or be blocked. Termination at a specific locus, when it occurs, involves the interaction between two components: (1) a termination site sequence in the DNA, and (2) a protein which binds to this sequence to physically stop DNA replication. In various bacterial species, this is named the DNA replication terminus site-binding protein, or Ter protein.

text: Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome. E. coli regulates this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, enable only one direction of replication fork to pass through. As a result, the replication forks are constrained to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome.[27]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: Eukaryotes[edit]

text: Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase). The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints. Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases.[28] Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus.[29]

text: The G1/S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division. Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA.

text: Replication of chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes occurs independently of the cell cycle, through the process of D-loop replication.

text: Replication focus[edit]

text: In vertebrate cells, replication sites concentrate into positions called replication foci.[26] Replication sites can be detected by immunostaining daughter strands and replication enzymes and monitoring GFP-tagged replication factors. By these methods it is found that replication foci of varying size and positions appear in S phase of cell division and their number per nucleus is far smaller than the number of genomic replication forks.

text: P. Heun et al.(2001) tracked GFP-tagged replication foci in budding yeast cells and revealed that replication origins move constantly in G1 and S phase and the dynamics decreased significantly in S phase.[26] Traditionally, replication sites were fixed on spatial structure of chromosomes by nuclear matrix or lamins. The Heun’s results denied the traditional concepts, budding yeasts don't have lamins, and support that replication origins self-assemble and form replication foci.

text: By firing of replication origins, controlled spatially and temporally, the formation of replication foci is regulated. D. A. Jackson et al.(1998) revealed that neighboring origins fire simultaneously in mammalian cells.[26] Spatial juxtaposition of replication sites brings clustering of replication forks. The clustering do rescue of stalled replication forks and favors normal progress of replication forks. Progress of replication forks is inhibited by many factors; collision with proteins or with complexes binding strongly on DNA, deficiency of dNTPs, nicks on template DNAs and so on. If replication forks stall and the remaining sequences from the stalled forks are not replicated, the daughter strands have nick obtained un-replicated sites. The un-replicated sites on one parent's strand hold the other strand together but not daughter strands. Therefore, the resulting sister chromatids cannot separate from each other and cannot divide into 2 daughter cells. When neighboring origins fire and a fork from one origin is stalled, fork from other origin access on an opposite direction of the stalled fork and duplicate the un-replicated sites. As other mechanism of the rescue there is application of dormant replication origins that excess origins don't fire in normal DNA replication.

text: Bacteria[edit]

text: Most bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication.[30] In E. coli, the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.

text: Because E. coli methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences. This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein SeqA, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, DnaA (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA. As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication.[31]

text: ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size. ATP competes with ADP to bind to DnaA, and the DnaA-ATP complex is able to initiate replication. A certain number of DnaA proteins are also required for DNA replication — each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for DnaA doubles, requiring the synthesis of more DnaA to enable another initiation of replication.

text: Polymerase chain reaction[edit]

text: Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase. Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region. At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template. Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these. As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially.[32]


document_title: Penelope

question_text: who reveals penelope's ruse to the suitors

question_tokens: who reveals penelope 's ruse to the suitors

text: Penelope

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The origin of her name is believed by Robert S. P. Beekes to be Pre-Greek and related to pēnelops (πηνέλοψ)[3] or pēnelōps (πηνέλωψ), glossed by Hesychius as "some kind of bird"[4] (today arbitrarily identified with the Eurasian wigeon, to which Linnaeus gave the binomial Anas penelope), where -elōps (-έλωψ) is a common Pre-Greek suffix for predatory animals;[5] however, the semantic relation between the proper name and the gloss is not clear. In folk etymology, Pēnelopē (Πηνελόπη) is usually understood to combine the Greek word pēnē (πήνη), "weft", and ōps (ὤψ), "face", which is considered the most appropriate for a cunning weaver whose motivation is hard to decipher.[6]

text: Role in the Odyssey[edit]

text: Penelope is the wife of the main character, the king of Ithaca, Odysseus (Ulysses in Roman mythology), and daughter of Icarius of Sparta and his wife Periboea. She only has one son by Odysseus, Telemachus, who was born just before Odysseus was called to fight in the Trojan War. She waits twenty years for the final return of her husband,[7] during which she devises various strategies to delay marrying one of the 108[8] suitors (led by Antinous and including Agelaus, Amphinomus, Ctessippus, Demoptolemus, Elatus, Euryades, Eurymachus and Peisandros).

text: On Odysseus's return, disguised as an old beggar, he finds that Penelope has remained faithful. She has devised tricks to delay her suitors, one of which is to pretend to be weaving a burial shroud for Odysseus's elderly father Laertes and claiming that she will choose a suitor when she has finished. Every night for three years, she undoes part of the shroud, until Melantho, one of twelve unfaithful serving women, discovers her chicanery and reveals it to the suitors.

text: Because of her efforts to put off remarriage, Penelope is often seen as a symbol of connubial fidelity and we are reminded several times of her fidelity. But due to Athena's meddling, who wants her "to show herself to the wooers, that she might set their hearts a-flutter and win greater honor from her husband and her son than heretofore", Penelope does appear before the suitors (xviii.160–162). As Irene de Jong comments:

text: As so often, it is Athena who takes the initiative in giving the story a new direction ... Usually the motives of mortal and god coincide, here they do not: Athena wants Penelope to fan the Suitors’ desire for her and (thereby) make her more esteemed by her husband and son; Penelope has no real motive ... she simply feels an unprecedented impulse to meet the men she so loathes ... adding that she might take this opportunity to talk to Telemachus (which she will indeed do).[9]

text: She is ambivalent, variously asking Artemis to kill her and, apparently, considering marrying one of the suitors. When the disguised Odysseus returns, she announces in her long interview with the disguised hero that whoever can string Odysseus's rigid bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe heads may have her hand. "For the plot of the Odyssey, of course, her decision is the turning point, the move that makes possible the long-predicted triumph of the returning hero".[10]

text: There is debate as to whether Penelope is aware that Odysseus is behind the disguise.  Penelope and the suitors know that Odysseus (were he in fact present) would easily surpass all in any test of masculine skill, so she may have intentionally started the contest as an opportunity for him to reveal his identity.  On the other hand, because Odysseus seems to be the only person (perhaps excepting Telemachus) who can actually use the bow, she could just be further delaying her marriage to one of the suitors.

text: When the contest of the bow begins, none of the suitors are able to string the bow, but Odysseus does, and wins the contest. Having done so, he proceeds to slaughter the suitors—beginning with Antinous whom he finds drinking from Odysseus' cup—with help from Telemachus, Athena and two servants, Eumaeus the swineherd and Philoetius the cowherd. Odysseus has now revealed himself in all his glory (with a little makeover by Athena); yet Penelope cannot believe that her husband has really returned—she fears that it is perhaps some god in disguise, as in the story of Alcmene—and tests him by ordering her servant Eurycleia to move the bed in their bridal-chamber. Odysseus protests that this cannot be done since he made the bed himself and knows that one of its legs is a living olive tree. Penelope finally accepts that he truly is her husband, a moment that highlights their homophrosýnē (ὁμοφροσύνη, "like-mindedness").[11]  Homer implies, that from then on, Odysseus would live a long and happy life together with Penelope and Telemachus, wisely ruling his kingdom and enjoying wide respect and much success.[12]

text: In some early sources such as Pindar, Pan's father is Apollo via Penelope.[13] Herodotus (2.145), Cicero (ND 3.22.56), Apollodorus (7.38) and Hyginus (Fabulae 224) all make Hermes and Penelope his parents. Pausanias 8.12.5 records the story that Penelope had in fact been unfaithful to her husband, who banished her to Mantineia upon his return. 5th-century AD source Dionysiaca by Nonnus (14.92) names Penelope of Mantineia in Arcadia Pan's mother. Other sources (Duris of Samos; the Vergilian commentator Servius) report that Penelope slept with all 108 suitors in Odysseus' absence, and gave birth to Pan as a result.[14] This myth reflects the folk etymology that equates Pan's name (Πάν) with the Greek word for "all" (πᾶν).[15]

text: Iconography[edit]

text: Penelope is recognizable in Greek and Roman works, from Attic vase-paintings—the Penelope Painter is recognized by his representations of her—to Roman sculpture copying or improvising upon classical Greek models, by her seated pose, by her reflective gesture of leaning her cheek on her hand, and by her protectively crossed knees, reflecting her long chastity in Odysseus' absence, an unusual pose in any other figure.[16]

text: Latin tradition[edit]

text: Latin references to Penelope revolved around the sexual loyalty to her absent husband. It suited the marital aspect of Roman society representing the tranquility of the worthy family.[17]  She is mentioned by various classical authors including Plautus,[18] Propertius,[19] Horace, Ovid, Martial and Statius.  The use of Penelope in Latin texts provided a basis for her ongoing use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance as a representation of the chaste wife. This was reinforced by her being named by Saint Jerome among pagan women famed for their chastity.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ J.W. Mackail, Penelope in the Odyssey (Cambridge University Press, 1916)

Jump up ^ Robinson, Margaret A. (1984). Homer's The Odyssey. Woodbury, N.Y.: Barron's. ISBN 0812034295.

Jump up ^ R. S. P. Beekes (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Brill. p. 1186.

Jump up ^ Γλῶσσαι.

Jump up ^ Zeno.org lemma relating πηνέλωψ (gen. πηνέλοπος) and <χην(ά)λοπες>· ὄρνεα (predators) ποιά. ὅπερ ἔνιοι <χηναλώπεκες>.

Jump up ^ For the mythology of weaving, see Weaving (mythology).

Jump up ^ Odysseus spends ten years in the Trojan War and ten years travelling home.

Jump up ^ Homer. The Odyssey, Book XVI, in The Iliad & The Odyssey. Trans. Samuel Butler. p. 628. ISBN 978-1-4351-1043-4

Jump up ^ , Irene de Jong. (2001). A Narratological commentary on the Odyssey, p. 445. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-46844-2

Jump up ^ Bernard Knox. (1996). Introduction to Robert Fagles's translation of The Odyssey p. 55.

Jump up ^ Austin, Norman (1975). Archery at the Dark of the Moon: Poetic Problems in Homer's Odyssey. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 231.

Jump up ^ Lawall, Thalman, Patterson, James, Spacks. "The Norton Anthology: Western Literature."The Odyssey". New York, London. 1984.

Jump up ^ Pindar, Fr. 90 (Bowra)

Jump up ^ Footnote in the Library by Apollodorus (of Athens), edited by E. Capps Ph.D, LL.D.; T. E. Page, Litt.D.; W. H. D. Rouse, Litt.d.; Webster Collection of Social Anthropology, p. 305

Jump up ^ The Homeric Hymn to Pan provides the earliest example of this wordplay, suggesting that Pan's name was born from the fact that he delighted "all" the gods.

Jump up ^ But compare, for an unusual exception, the seated aulos player on the "Ludovisi Throne.

Jump up ^ Mactoux, Marie-Madeleine (1975). Pénélope: Légende et Mythe. Paris: Annales Litteraires de L'Universite de Basancon. pp. 129–30.

Jump up ^ Nixon, Paul (1968). Plautus. London: William Heinemann Ltd.  She is mentioned in the opening lines of the play Stychus

Jump up ^ Propertius (2004). Complete Elegies of Propertius. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. see Elegies 2.6; 2.9 and 3.12. Propertius was one of the few Latin authors to mention Penelope's weaving ruse.

text: Sources[edit]

text: Primary sources[edit]

text:
Homer, Odyssey
Ovid, Heroides I
Lactantius Placidus, Commentarii in Statii Thebaida

tag: ul

text: Secondary sources[edit]

text:
Finley, M.I. The World of Odysseus, London. Pelican Books (1962)
The Penelopiad, by Margaret Atwood, retells the story of Odysseus from the point of view of Penelope.
Seth L. Schein, ed. (1996). Reading the Odyssey: Selected Interpretive Essays. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04440-6. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
del Giorgio, J.F. The Oldest Europeans A.J. Place (2006). It underlines Penelope's power and her role in a cataclysmic time.
Richard Heitman (2005). Taking Her Seriously: Penelope and the Plot of Homer's Odyssey. Michigan University Press, Ann Arbor. ISBN 0-472-11489-1.
Felson-Ruben, Nancy (1994). Regarding Penelope: from Character to Poetics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.


document_title: 2018–19 NHL season

question_text: when will the 2018-19 nhl schedule be released

text: 2018–19 NHL season

text: League business[edit]

text: Salary cap[edit]

text: On December 9, 2017, the National Hockey League Players' Association announced that the salary cap would be set at between $78–82 million per team for the 2018–19 season.[1]

text: Rule changes[edit]

text: This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (April 2018)

text: Media rights[edit]

text: This is the eighth season under the NHL's ten year U.S. rights deal with NBC Sports and fifth season of its twelve year Canadian rights deals with Sportsnet and TVA Sports. The CBC's rights to air Hockey Night in Canada which was due to expire after last season was renewed through the end of the current Rogers deal.[2]

text: Draft[edit]

text: The 2018 NHL Entry Draft will be held June 22 and 23, 2018. The Buffalo Sabres, by virtue of winning the draft lottery on April 28, hold the first overall selection.

text: Preseason games in China[edit]

text: Two preseason games will be played in China.[3] The Calgary Flames and Boston Bruins will play one game at the Shenzhen Universiade Sports Center in Shenzhen on September 15, 2018 and another game at Cadillac Arena in Beijing on September 19, 2018.[4]

text: Coaching changes[edit]

text:
Coaching changes

Offseason

Team
2017–18 coach
2018–19 coach
Story / Accomplishments

Calgary Flames
Glen Gulutzan
Bill Peters
Gulutzan was fired on April 17, following the Flames' failure to make the playoffs. In two seasons, the Flames went 82–68–14 under Gulutzan. The Flames made the playoffs in Gulutzan's first season with the team before missing out the following year.[5] On April 23, Peters was named the Flames' new head coach.[6] He had coached the Carolina Hurricanes the previous four seasons.

Carolina Hurricanes
Bill Peters
Rod Brind'Amour
Peters resigned on April 20, following the Hurricanes' failure to make the playoffs. Under Peters the Hurricanes went 137–138–53 and missed the playoffs in all four seasons.[7] On May 8, Brind'Amour, who had spent the previous seven years as an assistant coach for the Hurricanes, was named the Hurricanes' new head coach.[8]

Dallas Stars
Ken Hitchcock
Jim Montgomery
Hitchcock retired from coaching on April 13, following the Stars' failure to make the playoffs to become a consultant for the franchise. The Stars went 319–186–60–20 under Hitchcock, winning the Stanley Cup in 1999, going back the following season, and winning the Presidents' Trophy twice.[9] On May 4, Montgomery was named the Stars' new head coach.[10] He led the Denver Pioneers to the 2017 NCAA championship.

New York Rangers
Alain Vigneault
David Quinn
Vigneault was fired by the New York Rangers on April 7, hours after the team's last regular season game after failing to make the playoffs for the first time in nearly a decade and the second time since the 2004–05 NHL lockout. The Rangers went 226–147–37 under Vigneault, going to the Finals in his first year as head coach and winning the Presidents' Trophy the following season.[11] On May 23, Quinn was named the Rangers' new head coach.[12] He previously served as the assistant coach for the Colorado Avalanche during the 2012–13 season.

text: Arena changes[edit]

text:
The Toronto Maple Leafs' home arena is scheduled to be renamed from the Air Canada Centre to Scotiabank Arena on July 1, 2018.[13]
The St. Louis Blues’ home arena is scheduled to be renamed from Scottrade Center to Enterprise Center on July 1, 2018.

text: Regular season[edit]

text: The regular season will begin in October 2018, and will end in April 2019. Each team will receive a five-day "bye week", all of which will take place in mid-January. The regular season schedule will be released in June.

text: International games[edit]

text: Three regular season games will be played in Europe.[14] The Edmonton Oilers will play against the New Jersey Devils at Scandinavium in Gothenburg, Sweden on October 6, 2018. The Florida Panthers and Winnipeg Jets will play two games at Hartwall Arena in Helsinki, Finland on November 1 and 2, 2018.[15] All three games will be branded as the NHL Global Series.[15]

text: Outdoor games[edit]

text:
The Winter Classic will be held on January 1, 2019, at Notre Dame Stadium in South Bend, Indiana, and will feature the Chicago Blackhawks and the Boston Bruins.[16]
A Stadium Series game will be held on February 23, 2019, at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and will feature the Pittsburgh Penguins and the Philadelphia Flyers.[17]

text: All–Star Game[edit]

text: The 64th National Hockey League All-Star Game will be held in San Jose, California, at SAP Center, home of the San Jose Sharks, on January 26, 2019, the first time it will be held on a Saturday after many years of the All-Star game being played on a Sunday.[18][19]


document_title: University Grants Commission (India)

question_text: who gave the recommendation for setting up of university grant commission

text: University Grants Commission (India)

text: History[edit]

text: The UGC was first formed in 1945 to oversee the work of the three Central Universities of Aligarh, Banaras and Delhi. Its responsibility was extended in 1947 to cover all Indian universities.[3]

text: In August 1949 a recommendation was made to reconstitute the UGC along similar lines to the University Grants Committee of the United kingdom. This recommendation was made by the University Education Commission of 1948-1949 which was set up under the chairmanship of S. Radhakrishnan "to report on Indian university education and suggest improvements and extensions".[4][5] In 1952 the government decided that all grants to universities and higher learning institutions should be handled by the UGC. Subsequently, an inauguration was held on 28 December 1953 by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the Minister of Education, Natural Resources and Scientific Research.

text: In November 1956 the UGC became a statutory body upon the passing of the "University Grants Commission Act, 1956" by the Indian Parliament.[1]

text: In 1994 and 1995 the UGC decentralised its operations by setting up six regional centres at Pune, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Bhopal, Guwahati and Bangalore.[6] The head office of the UGC is located at Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg in New Delhi, with two additional bureaus operating from 35, Feroze Shah Road and the South Campus of University of Delhi as well.[7]

text: In December 2015 the Indian government set a National Institutional of Ranking Framework under UGC which will rank all educational institutes by April 2016.[8]

text: In December 2017 D.P. Singh, former director of National Assessment and Accreditation Council  (NAAC), was appointed chairman for a period of five years, replacing UGC member Virander Singh Chauhan, who officiated the position since the retirement of Ved Prakash in April 2017.[9]

text: Professional councils[edit]

text: UGC, along with CSIR currently conducts NET for appointments of teachers in colleges and universities.[10] It has made NET qualification mandatory for teaching at Graduation level and at Post Graduation level since July 2009. However, those with Ph.D are given five percent relaxation.

text: Accreditation for higher learning over Universities under the aegis of University Grants Commission is overseen by following fifteen autonomous statutory institutions :[11][12]

text:
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
Distance Education Council (DEC)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
Bar Council of India (BCI)
Board of Theological Education of the Senate of Serampore College (BTESSC)
National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
Medical Council of India (MCI)
Pharmacy Council of India (PCI)
Indian Nursing Council (INC)
Dental Council of India (DCI)
Central Council of Homoeopathy (CCH)
Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM)
National Council for Rural Institutes (NCRI)
State Councils of Higher Education (SCHE)
Council of Architecture
Veterinary Council of India (VCI)

text: Future[edit]

text: In 2009, the Union Minister of Human Resource Development, Kapil Sibal made known the government of India's plans to consider the closing down of the UGC and the related body All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), in favour of a higher regulatory body with more sweeping powers.[13] This goal, proposed by the Higher Education and Research (HE&R) Bill, 2011, intends to replace the UGC with a "National Commission for Higher Education & Research (NCHER)" "for determination, coordination, maintenance and continued enhancement of standards of higher education and research".[14] The bill proposes absorbing the UGC and other academic agencies into this new organisation. Those agencies involved in medicine and law would be exempt from this merger "to set minimum standards for medical and legal education leading to professional practice".[15] The bill has received opposition from the local governments of the Indian states of Bihar, Kerala, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal, but has received general support.[14]

text: On 27 June 2018, the Ministry of Human Resource Development announced its plans to repeal the UGC Act, 1956. A bill is expected to be introduced in the 2018 monsoon session of the Parliament, which if passed will lead to the dissolution of the UGC. The bill also stipulates formation of a new body, the Higher Education Commission of India (HECI).[16][17]


document_title: Rolex Submariner

question_text: what is the case diameter of a rolex submariner

text: Rolex Submariner

text: Early models[edit]

text: The Submariner model went into production in 1953 and was showcased at the Basel Watch Fair in 1954. The assigned case reference number of this first Submariner was either 6204 or 6205. It is unclear which model came first; in any event, the two watches are nearly identical. Neither has the distinctive "cathedral" or "Mercedes" hands now so strongly associated with the Submariner line. Rather, both of these early submariners have straight "pencil" style hands. Few, if any, of the 6205 watches bear the name "Submariner" on the dial, a major distinction of modern Submariners. Some 6204 models have the Submariner logo printed below the center pinion, while others have the logo blacked out. It is believed that there were unexpected trademark issues connected with the name "Submariner" at the time the 6204 and 6205 were released, accounting for the inconsistent use of the Submariner mark on these early Submariners. Trademark irregularities notwithstanding, both the 6204 and 6205 are designated Submariner models in Rolex product literature.

text: In 1954, Rolex also produced a small number of ref. 6200 Submariners. This was the first Submariner (although not the first Rolex) to make use of the Mercedes hand set, a feature of all subsequent Submariners. The 6200 also featured an oversized winding crown compared to the 6204 and 6205 models. Within a few years, Rolex revised its Submariner line, producing the 6536 (small crown) and 6538 (oversized crown) models. These watches had "improved" movements (the cal. 1030), including a chronometer version in some 6536 models (designated 6536/1), the now-familiar Mercedes hands, and the Submariner logo and depth rating printed on the dial.

text: By the early 1960s, these models had given way to the 5508 (small crown) and 5510 (large crown) models. All of these early Submariners used either gilt (6200, 6204, 6205) or gilt/silver gilt (6536, 6538) printing on glossy black dials. Radium paint was used for the luminous indices.

text: The next wave of Submariners, the 5512 (chronometer version) and 5513 (non-chronometer), marked a significant change in the appearance of the popular Rolex design. "Shoulders" were added to the crown side of the case to provide protection for the winding/setting mechanism. In early watches—until 1964 or so—these shoulders were pyramid-shaped and ended in points. Later watches were manufactured with rounded shoulders. The 5512 and 5513 were both fitted with the oversized crown, which thereafter became a standard feature of the Submariner line. In the early 1960s, Rolex discontinued the use of radium paint for the luminous indices, switching to safer tritium-infused paint.

text: In 1965–1966, Rolex discontinued use of gilt/silver gilt dials on the Submariner watches, switching to white printing. A final important change came with the introduction of the 1680 model in the late 1960s: the 1680 was the first Submariner to be equipped with a date function, marking the completion of the transition of the Submariner line from specialist tool watch to mass market fashion accessory. While many professional and military divers used—and continue to use—Submariners in the most demanding underwater environments, by the late 1960s, the watch had undeniably become a mass market product as well.

text: Later models[edit]

text: Throughout the next 40 years, the Submariner was updated with improved water resistance, new movements, and numerous small cosmetic changes. In 2003, Rolex celebrated the Submariner's 50th anniversary by launching the Rolex Submariner-Date anniversary edition (16610 LV), with distinguishing features such as the green bezel and Maxi dial; its production ended in 2010 with the final watches being issued with the new "random" serial number. In 2008, a new case from the GMT II was introduced for the Submariner-Date, featuring heavier lugs and crownguard; a cerachrome bezel and updated clasp featuring a quick adjust function were also added. The 14060M did not have these modifications.

text: A new Submariner-Date, model 116613 (not to be confused with model 16613), based on the "supercase" used in the GMT II, was presented at the 2008 Basel show. The first Submariner-Date models offered were a yellow gold with blue face and bezel and a new white gold with blue face and bezel. The stainless steel case model was presented at the 2010 Basel show. Its reference is 116610.

text: At the 2012 BaselWorld watch show, an updated Submariner ref 114060 was introduced. It replaced the 14060M, with newer "Maxi Case" with "Chromalight" hour markers, ceramic bezel, blue Parachrom hairspring and bracelet with "Glidelock" extension system.[6]

text: The Rolex Submariner watch case has a diameter of 40.0 mm (1.57 in) mm and a thickness of 13.0 mm (0.51 in), and the case and bracelet weigh 155 g (5.5 oz).[7]

text: Usage[edit]

text: The French diving company COMEX adopted the Rolex Submariner and Sea Dweller as standard issue for their saturation divers in the late 1960s; this continued until the company was sold in 1997.[8]

text: Current models[edit]

text:
Model number
Model
Material
Bezel
Movement
Production
2015 USD MSRP

114060
Submariner 40 mm
Steel
Black
3130 COSC
2012–
$7,500

116610LN
Submariner Date 40 mm
Steel
Black
3135 COSC
2010–
$8,550

116610LV
Submariner Date 40 mm
Steel
Green
3135 COSC
2010–
$9,050

116613LB
Submariner Date 40 mm
Steel and Yellow Gold
Blue
3135 COSC
2009–
$13,400

116613LN
Submariner Date 40 mm
Steel and Yellow Gold
Black
3135 COSC
2009–
$13,400

116618LB
Submariner Date 40 mm
Yellow Gold
Blue
3135 COSC
2009–
$38,800

116618LN
Submariner Date 40 mm
Yellow Gold
Black
3135 COSC
2009–
$34,250

116619LB
Submariner Date 40 mm
White Gold
Blue
3135 COSC
2008–
$40,250

text: All models feature 300-meter (1000 feet) water resistance.

text: Discontinued models[edit]

text:
Model number
In production
Note

6200
1955

6204
1953

6205
1953–1957

6536
1954–1958

6536/1
1955–1961

A/6538
1957

6538
1958-1961

5508
1958–1965

5510
1959

5512
1959–1978

5513
1962–1990

5513/17
1972–1978

5514
1972–1978

5517
1972–1978

1680
1966–1981

16800
1977–1987

168000
1987

16610
1987–2010

14060
1990–2002

14060M
2002–2012
Certified chronometer 2007–2012

16610LV
2003–2010
50th anniversary model

text: Submariner spinoff[edit]

text: The Rolex Sea-Dweller, introduced in 1971, is a heavier-duty steel version of the Submariner, with a thicker case and crystal, as well as a date feature, sans cyclops magnifier. The Sea-Dweller incorporates a helium escape valve for use when decompressing and helium is in the gas mixture of a pressurized habitat; this model (ref 16600) has a guaranteed waterproof depth of 1,220 metres (4,000 ft).

text: The Sea-Dweller was superseded by the DeepSea Sea-Dweller in late 2008, with the last 16600 Sea-Dwellers produced running into the V-series (late 2008). The DeepSea features a 44 mm case that guarantees a depth of 3,900 metres (12,800 ft) (ref. 116660).

text: Model information and characteristics[edit]

text:
Waterproof to a maximum depth of 300 m (1000 ft). Earlier models were thinner and resistant to 200 metres (660 ft).
Triplock system waterproof crown, featuring a triple gasket system, identified by three dots on the crown. Screws down tightly onto the case tube and against the Oyster case to provide extra waterproof protection for underwater diving.
Case made from solid block of 904L stainless steel, a corrosion-resistant alloy, or gold. The golds (white or yellow) are made in Rolex's own foundry.
Unidirectional bezel that enables a diver to memorize and follow immersion time. As the bezel only rotates counterclockwise, the dive time can only become "shorter" in case of accidental bezel movement, averting the danger of spending too much time underwater.
Perpetual rotor in the self-winding wristwatch mechanism, allowing the watch to run continuously, as every slight movement of the wrist winds the movement. The energy generated is stored in the mainspring, allowing the watch to continue to function with no movement for several days. Each movement is a Swiss chronometer officially certified by the COSC.
Rolex calendar mechanism that advances to the next date at midnight in a single short rotation.
Removable hologram on the caseback, featured until 2007.
Recent models of the Submariner and Submariner-Date (late 2008) feature a distinctive "ROLEX ROLEX ROLEX" and serial number engraved on the "inner bezel", also known as the "Rehaut" (French) or "Flange" (English).[9] It also contains a minuscule laser-etched Rolex Crown at the bottom of the crystal in line with 6 o'clock mark.

text: James Bond[edit]

text: The Rolex Submariner has appeared in a number of James Bond movies. Sean Connery wore a reference 6538 in his four first movies. In Dr. No.[10] and From Russia with Love, the watch was used with a leather strap, while in Goldfinger and Thunderball the strap had been swapped for an undersized Nato type nylon band (The Ministry of Defence "G10" strap not being commissioned until 1973, and then only in admiralty grey without stripes). George Lazenby wore a reference 5513 with an oyster bracelet in parts of On Her Majesty's Secret Service,[11] as did Roger Moore in his first two movies Live and Let Die and The Man with the Golden Gun, but with a 7206 “riveted”' bracelet. Timothy Dalton is so far the last Bond actor to wear a Rolex in the Bond franchise. He is seen wearing a Submariner with a date window in his last film Licence to Kill. The watch is arguably a 16800 or 168000, as the movie was shot in the summer of 1988. In the newer James Bond movies, from GoldenEye onwards, he is now seen wearing Omega watches.


document_title: Regions of Brazil

question_text: in which region are most of the cities of brazil

text: Regions of Brazil

text: The five regions[edit]

text:
Name

Population(2016 estimate)

Largest city

Largest metropolitan area

Number of states

North

17.7 million

Manaus

Manaus metropolitan area

7

Northeast

56.9 million

Salvador

Recife metropolitan area

9

Central-West

15.6 million

Brasília

Brasilia Urban Metropolitan Complex

3 + DC

Southeast

86.3 million

São Paulo

São Paulo metropolitan area

4

South

29.4 million

Curitiba

Porto Alegre metropolitan area

3

text: North Region[edit]

text:
Area: 3,869,637.9 km² (45.27%)
Population: 17,707,783 (4,6 people/km²; 6.2%; 2016)
GDP: R$ 308 billion / US$94,8 billion (2016; 4.7%)  (5th)
Climate: Equatorial
States: Acre, Amapá, Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, Roraima, Tocantins
Largest Cities: Manaus (2,094,391); Belém (1,446,042); Porto Velho (511,219); Ananindeua (510,834); Macapá (465,495); Rio Branco (377,057); Boa Vista (326,419); Santarém (294,447); Palmas (279 856).
Economy: Iron, Energy production, electronic manufacturing, tourism.
Transport: Mainly rivers (which are abundant in the region). Highways are scarce and present mainly in the east. Airplanes are commonly used in small remote communities and sometimes in the larger cities.
Vegetation: Almost the entire region is covered by Amazon Rainforest, except the state of Tocantins, which has savanna-like vegetation (cerrado). Although most of the native vegetation still remains, the region suffers from critical problems due to the growing deforestation of the area.
Notable characteristics: Presence of the Amazon Rainforest, which is the vegetation dominant in every state but Tocantins. Cities are spread far apart in the region, and it has the lowest population density of the country. There are very few paved highways in the region, as it is almost isolated from the rest of the country. It is also the biggest region of Brazil, being responsible for almost half of the Brazilian territorial extension. Economic growth is above national average (especially in Amazonas and in Tocantins).

text: Northeast Region[edit]

text:
Area: 1,       561,177 km² (18.3%)
Population: 53,340,945 (30.55 people/km²; 29%; 2009)
GDP: R$437 billion / US$273,1 billion (2009; ~12%)  (3rd)
Climate: Hot all the year long. Tropical near the coast and semi-arid in the interior; semi-equatorial in the far west of the region.
States: Alagoas, Bahia, Ceará, Maranhão, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Piauí, Rio Grande do Norte, Sergipe
Largest Cities: Salvador (2,676,606); Fortaleza (2,447,409); Recife (1,536,934); São Luís (1,011,943); Maceió (932,608); Natal (789,836); Teresina (714,583); João Pessoa (595,429); Jaboatão dos Guararapes; (580,795); Feira de Santana (481,137); Aracaju (461,083); Olinda (368,666); Campina Grande (354,546).
Economy: Tourism, cocoa, machinery manufacturing, textiles.
Transport: Mainly highways, which are more abundant along the coast, although transport by sea is also important.
Vegetation: Mainly desert-like vegetation, with tropical forests along the coast and in the west and savanna-like vegetation in the southwest.
Notable characteristics: This region was the first part of Brazil discovered by the Portuguese, and the first Brazilian capital, Salvador, was founded here. It has the lowest levels in the country in almost all of the social indicators, being considered the most impoverished region in Brazil. However, has been growing above national average since the start of 21st century, gradually reducing the socio-economic distance to the other regions.

text: Central-West Region[edit]

text:
Area: 1,612,077.2 km² (18.86%)
Population: 13,357,154 (7.2 people/km²; 6.4%)
GDP: R$279 billion / US$174,3 billion (2008; 8.3%)  (4th)
Climate: Savanna climate (hot, with little precipitation during winter in the northeast and the east; Tropical in the east and in the west; Equatorial in the north; Some temperate climate places in the south).
States: Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Distrito Federal (Federal District).
Largest Cities: Brasília (national capital) (2,562,963); Goiânia (1,318,148); Campo Grande (796,252); Cuiabá (556,298); Aparecida de Goiânia (442,978); Anápolis (334,613).
Economy: Livestock, Soybeans, tourism.
Transport: Highways where they are present (mostly in the center and east regions); transport by rivers is common in the north and in the east; airplanes are used in remote and smaller communities.
Vegetation: Mainly savanna-like vegetation, including the Pantanal (Chaco, in Paraguay), flooded areas in the west, equatorial rainforests in the north.
Notable characteristics: With a low population density, most of the land in the region is used for grazing instead of agriculture. The region is also the least industrialized in the country, based mainly in food & meat processing.

text: Southeast Region[edit]

text:
Area: 927,286 km² (10.85%)
Population: 80,303,750 (77.96 people/km², 38%)
GDP: R$1,629 billion / US$803 billion (2008; ~49%)  (1st)
Climate: Tropical in the northwest (warm, relatively dry in the winter and wet in the summer); Semi-arid in the north; temperate in the south
States: Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo
Largest cities: São Paulo (11,037,593); Rio de Janeiro (6,186,710); Belo Horizonte (2,452,617); Guarulhos (1,299,283); Campinas (1,064,669); São Gonçalo (991,382); Duque de Caxias (872,762); Nova Iguaçu (865,089); São Bernardo do Campo (810,979); Osasco (718,646); Santo André (673,396); Uberlândia (634,345); Contagem (625,393); São José dos Campos (615,871); Sorocaba (584,313); Ribeirão Preto (563,107); Juiz de Fora (526,706); Belford Roxo (501,544); Niterói (479,384);  São João de Meriti (469,827); Betim (441,748); Campos dos Goytacazes (434,008).
Economy: Manufacturing (machinery, electronics, automobiles and aviation), coffee, sugar cane, tourism, petroleum, textiles, energy production (not sufficient, however, to fulfill its demand.) The Southeast is the economic center of Brazil, and most large companies present in Brazil have their headquarters in this region.The economical success of this region is a combination of its 4 states. São Paulo state is the most developed in the country, it has a population density as high as European Occident, and a HDI [1] comparable to European East. Rio de Janeiro is the leader in petroleum production (with almost 3/4 of national production) [2]. Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo are placed in the richest mining region in Brazil.
Transport: The region is heavily covered by highways, and, to some extent, railways. Railways and rivers are used mainly for freight, and used where they are present. The region also contains several airport hubs which provide many domestic and international air routes.
Vegetation: Mainly tropical-like semi-deciduous forests (Mata Atlântica); semi-arid in the north, with almost no vegetation; savannah-like vegetation in the west and in the northwest (Cerrado). Very little of the native vegetation still remains (~2%, mostly in parks.)
Notable characteristics: The southeast region is the major powerhouse of the Brazilian economy, responsible as it is for 49% of the Brazilian GDP (approximately US$1024 billion in 2010). It is also the most populous region in the country, with more than 80 million people, and contains the two most important metropolitan regions (São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro), as well as many other large cities (such as Belo Horizonte, Vitória, both State capitals, Campinas and several others.)

text: South Region[edit]

text:
Area: 577,214 km² (6.75%)
Population: 25,800,000 (43.46 people/km², 12.5%)
GDP: R$503 billion / US$313,8 billion (2008; ~15%)  (2nd)
Climate: Subtropical by the coast, hot to moderately hot in the summer, mild and very humid winters and temperate by the mountain range, the valleys and the plateaus in the interior, with moderate temperatures in the summer and cold in the winter, with well distributed rainfalls. Snow is relatively common, mainly in the highlands (for example in Santa Catarina state's São Joaquim).
States: Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina
Largest Cities:[1] Curitiba (1,764,540); Porto Alegre (1,413,094); Joinville (520,905); Londrina (511,278); Caxias do Sul (441,332); Florianópolis (427,298);  Maringá (362,329); Pelotas (328,864); Canoas (325,188); Ponta Grossa (314,527); Blumenau (312,634); Cascavel (289,339); Foz do Iguaçu (255,900); and Santa Maria (262,368).
Economy: Machinery and automobile industries, textiles, tourism, energy production, information technology, orange, apple, grapefruit.
Transport: There are many developed highways and railways throughout the region, although the latter is mainly used for freight. Rivers are used when possible.
Vegetation: Rainforests along the coast (Mata Atlântica), subtropical semiciduous in the north and west (Araucárias) and prairie-like vegetation in the south (Pampas). Little native vegetation still remains due to deforestation.
Notable characteristics: The South Region of Brazil is historically characterized by its high standard of living, with considerably better social indicators, which include some of the cities with the highest HDI levels in the country, including their capitals. Cities also feature an advanced level of urbanism in comparison with other parts of Brazil. The region is almost the newest in terms of urbanization, it was recently populated by European immigrants (almost 19th century immigration and  refugees of World War I and World War IIs). They have added to the local culture, especially in architecture, cuisine and forms of agriculture. Southern region, however, is not immune from poverty, violence and other social issues, especially in the larger cities, even though in a lower level than poorer areas in the country. The state of Santa Catarina is proportionally the Whitest state in Brazil with over 87% of its population being European. The other Southern states also have the highest percentage rates of European population.

text: Ethnic composition of regions[edit]

text: The composition of regions of Brazil according to autosomal genetic studies focused on the Brazilian population (which has been found to be a complex melting pot of European, African and Native Americans components):

text: A 2011 autosomal DNA study, with nearly 1000 samples from all over the country ("whites", "pardos" and "blacks"), found a major European contribution, followed by a high African contribution and an important Native American component.[2] The study showed that Brazilians from different regions are more homogeneous than previously thought by some based on the census alone. "Brazilian homogeneity is, therefore, a lot greater between Brazilian regions than within Brazilian regions."[3]

text:
Region[2]

European

African

Native American

Northern Brazil

68.80%

10.50%

18.50%

Northeast of Brazil

60.10%

29.30%

8.90%

Southeast Brazil

74.20%

17.30%

7.30%

Southern Brazil

79.50%

10.30%

9.40%

text: According to an autosomal DNA study from 2010, a new portrayal of each ethnicity contribution to the DNA of Brazilians, obtained with samples from the five regions of the country, has indicated that, on average, European ancestors are responsible for nearly 80% of the genetic heritage of the population. The variation between the regions is small, with the possible exception of the South, where the European contribution reaches nearly 90%. The results, published by the scientific American Journal of Human Biology by a team of the Catholic University of Brasília, show that, in Brazil, physical indicators such as colour of skin, eyes and hair have little to do with the genetic ancestry of each person, which has been shown in previous studies (regardless of census classification).[4] Ancestry informative SNPs can be useful to estimate individual and population biogeographical ancestry. Brazilian population is characterized by a genetic background of three parental populations (European, African, and Brazilian Native Amerindians) with a wide degree and diverse patterns of admixture. In this work we analyzed the information content of 28 ancestry-informative SNPs into multiplexed panels using three parental population sources (African, Amerindian, and European) to infer the genetic admixture in an urban sample of the five Brazilian geopolitical regions. The SNPs assigned apart the parental populations from each other and thus can be applied for ancestry estimation in a three hybrid admixed population. Data was used to infer genetic ancestry in Brazilians with an admixture model. Pairwise estimates of F(st) among the five Brazilian geopolitical regions suggested little genetic differentiation only between the South and the remaining regions. Estimates of ancestry results are consistent with the heterogeneous genetic profile of Brazilian population, with a major contribution of European ancestry (0.771) followed by African (0.143) and Amerindian contributions (0.085). The described multiplexed SNP panels can be useful tool for bioanthropological studies but it can be mainly valuable to control for spurious results in genetic association studies in admixed populations."[5]

text:
Region[5]

European

African

Native American

Northern Brazil

71.10%

18.20%

10.70%

Northeast of Brazil

77.40%

13.60%

8.90%

West-Central Brazil

65.90%

18.70%

11.80%

Southeast Region, Brazil

79.90%

14.10%

6.10%

Southern Brazil

87.70%

7.70%

5.20%

text: An autosomal DNA study from 2009 found a similar profile "all the Brazilian samples (regions) lie more closely to the European group than to the African populations or to the Mestizos from Mexico."[6]

text:
Region[6]

European

African

Native American

Northern Brazil

60.6%

21.3%

18.1%

Northeast of Brazil

66.7%

23.3%

10.0%

West-Central Brazil

66.3%

21.7%

12.0%

Southeast Region, Brazil

60.7%

32.0%

7.3%

Southern Brazil

81.5%

9.3%

9.2%

text: According to another autosomal DNA study from 2008, by the University of Brasília (UnB), European ancestry dominates in the whole of Brazil (in all regions), accounting for 65.90% of heritage of the population, followed by the African contribution (24.80%) and the Native American (9.3%); the European ancestry being the dominant ancestry in all regions including the Northeast of Brazil.[7]

text: A study from 1965, "Methods of Analysis of a Hybrid Population" (Human Biology, vol 37, number 1), led by geneticists D. F. Roberts and R. W. Hiorns, found out the average Northeastern Brazilian to be predominantly European in ancestry (65%), with minor but important African and Native American contributions (25% and 9%).[8]