document_title: Day of the Dead

question_text: where was the day of the dead first celebrated

text: Day of the Dead

text: Observance in Mexico

text: Origins

text: The Day of the Dead celebrations in Mexico developed from ancient traditions among its pre-Columbian cultures. Rituals celebrating the deaths of ancestors had been observed by these civilizations perhaps for as long as 2,500–3,000 years.[11] The festival that developed into the modern Day of the Dead fell in the ninth month of the Aztec calendar, about the beginning of August, and was celebrated for an entire month. The festivities were dedicated to the goddess[12] known as the "Lady of the Dead", corresponding to the modern La Calavera Catrina.

text: By the late 20th century in most regions of Mexico, practices had developed to honor dead children and infants on November 1, and to honor deceased adults on November 2. November 1 is generally referred to as Día de los Inocentes ("Day of the Innocents") but also as Día de los Angelitos ("Day of the Little Angels"); November 2 is referred to as Día de los Muertos or Día de los Difuntos ("Day of the Dead").[13]

text: Beliefs

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Frances Ann Day summarizes the three-day celebration, the Day of the Dead:

text:
“
On October 31, All Hallows Eve, the children make a children's altar to invite the angelitos (spirits of dead children) to come back for a visit. November 1 is All Saints Day, and the adult spirits will come to visit. November 2 is All Souls Day, when families go to the cemetery to decorate the graves and tombs of their relatives. The three-day fiesta is filled with marigolds, the flowers of the dead; muertos (the bread of the dead); sugar skulls; cardboard skeletons; tissue paper decorations; fruit and nuts; incense, and other traditional foods and decorations.
”

— Frances Ann Day, Latina and Latino Voices in Literature[4]

text: People go to cemeteries to be with the souls of the departed and build private altars containing the favorite foods and beverages, as well as photos and memorabilia, of the departed. The intent is to encourage visits by the souls, so the souls will hear the prayers and the comments of the living directed to them. Celebrations can take a humorous tone, as celebrants remember funny events and anecdotes about the departed.[13]

text: Plans for the day are made throughout the year, including gathering the goods to be offered to the dead. During the three-day period families usually clean and decorate graves;[12] most visit the cemeteries where their loved ones are buried and decorate their graves with ofrendas (altars), which often include orange Mexican marigolds (Tagetes erecta) called cempasúchil (originally named cempoaxochitl, Nāhuatl for "twenty flowers"). In modern Mexico the marigold is sometimes called Flor de Muerto (Flower of Dead). These flowers are thought to attract souls of the dead to the offerings.

text: Toys are brought for dead children (los angelitos, or "the little angels"), and bottles of tequila, mezcal or pulque or jars of atole for adults. Families will also offer trinkets or the deceased's favorite candies on the grave. Some families have ofrendas in homes, usually with foods such as candied pumpkin, pan de muerto ("bread of dead"), and sugar skulls; and beverages such as atole. The ofrendas are left out in the homes as a welcoming gesture for the deceased.[12] Some people believe the spirits of the dead eat the "spiritual essence" of the ofrendas food, so though the celebrators eat the food after the festivities, they believe it lacks nutritional value. Pillows and blankets are left out so the deceased can rest after their long journey. In some parts of Mexico, such as the towns of Mixquic, Pátzcuaro and Janitzio, people spend all night beside the graves of their relatives. In many places, people have picnics at the grave site, as well.

text: Some families build altars or small shrines in their homes;[12] these sometimes feature a Christian cross, statues or pictures of the Blessed Virgin Mary, pictures of deceased relatives and other people, scores of candles, and an ofrenda. Traditionally, families spend some time around the altar, praying and telling anecdotes about the deceased. In some locations, celebrants wear shells on their clothing, so when they dance, the noise will wake up the dead; some will also dress up as the deceased.

text: Public schools at all levels build altars with ofrendas, usually omitting the religious symbols. Government offices usually have at least a small altar, as this holiday is seen as important to the Mexican heritage.

text: Those with a distinctive talent for writing sometimes create short poems, called calaveras (skulls), mocking epitaphs of friends, describing interesting habits and attitudes or funny anecdotes. This custom originated in the 18th or 19th century after a newspaper published a poem narrating a dream of a cemetery in the future, "and all of us were dead", proceeding to read the tombstones. Newspapers dedicate calaveras to public figures, with cartoons of skeletons in the style of the famous calaveras of José Guadalupe Posada, a Mexican illustrator. Theatrical presentations of Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla (1817–1893) are also traditional on this day.

text: José Guadalupe Posada created a famous print of a figure he called La Calavera Catrina ("The Elegant Skull") as a parody of a Mexican upper-class female. Posada's striking image of a costumed female with a skeleton face has become associated with the Day of the Dead, and Catrina figures often are a prominent part of modern Day of the Dead observances.

text: A common symbol of the holiday is the skull (in Spanish calavera), which celebrants represent in masks, called calacas (colloquial term for skeleton), and foods such as sugar or chocolate skulls, which are inscribed with the name of the recipient on the forehead. Sugar skulls can be given as gifts to both the living and the dead. Other holiday foods include pan de muerto, a sweet egg bread made in various shapes from plain rounds to skulls and rabbits, often decorated with white frosting to look like twisted bones.

text: The traditions and activities that take place in celebration of the Day of the Dead are not universal, often varying from town to town. For example, in the town of Pátzcuaro on the Lago de Pátzcuaro in Michoacán, the tradition is very different if the deceased is a child rather than an adult. On November 1 of the year after a child's death, the godparents set a table in the parents' home with sweets, fruits, pan de muerto, a cross, a rosary (used to ask the Virgin Mary to pray for them) and candles. This is meant to celebrate the child's life, in respect and appreciation for the parents. There is also dancing with colorful costumes, often with skull-shaped masks and devil masks in the plaza or garden of the town. At midnight on November 2, the people light candles and ride winged boats called mariposas (butterflies) to Janitzio, an island in the middle of the lake where there is a cemetery, to honor and celebrate the lives of the dead there.

text: In contrast, the town of Ocotepec, north of Cuernavaca in the State of Morelos, opens its doors to visitors in exchange for veladoras (small wax candles) to show respect for the recently deceased. In return the visitors receive tamales and atole. This is done only by the owners of the house where someone in the household has died in the previous year. Many people of the surrounding areas arrive early to eat for free and enjoy the elaborate altars set up to receive the visitors.

text: In some parts of the country (especially the cities, where in recent years other customs have been displaced) children in costumes roam the streets, knocking on people's doors for a calaverita, a small gift of candies or money; they also ask passersby for it. This relatively recent custom is similar to that of Halloween's trick-or-treating in the United States.

text: Some people believe possessing Day of the Dead items can bring good luck. Many people get tattoos or have dolls of the dead to carry with them. They also clean their houses and prepare the favorite dishes of their deceased loved ones to place upon their altar or ofrenda.

text: Food

text: During Day of the Dead festivities, food is both eaten by living people and given to the spirits of their departed ancestors as ofrendas ("offerings").[14] Tamales are one of the most common dishes prepared for this day for both purposes.[15]

text: Pan de muerto and calaveras are associated specifically with Day of the Dead. Pan de muerto is a type of sweet roll shaped like a bun, topped with sugar, and often decorated with bone-shaped phalanges pieces.[16] Calaveras, or sugar skulls, display colorful designs to represent the vitality and individual personality of the departed.[15]

text: In addition to food, drink is also important to the tradition of Day of the Dead. Historically, the main alcoholic drink was pulque while today families will commonly drink the favorite beverage of their deceased ancestors.[15] Other drinks associated with the holiday are atole and champurrado, warm, thick, non-alcoholic masa drinks.

text: Jamaican iced tea is a popular herbal tea made of the flowers and leaves of the Jamaican hibiscus plant (Hibiscus sabdariffa), known as flor de Jamaica in Mexico. It is served cold and quite sweet with a lot of ice. The ruby-red beverage is called hibiscus tea in English-speaking countries and called agua de Jamaica (water of Jamaica) in Spanish.[17]

text: Observances outside Mexico

text: Americas

text: Belize

text: In Belize, Day of the Dead is practiced by people of the Yucatec Maya ethnicity. The celebration is known as Hanal Pixan which means "food for the souls" in their language. Altars are constructed and decorated with food, drinks, candies, and candles put on them.

text: Bolivia

text: Día de las Ñatitas ("Day of the Skulls") is a festival celebrated in La Paz, Bolivia, on May 5. In pre-Columbian times indigenous Andeans had a tradition of sharing a day with the bones of their ancestors on the third year after burial. Today families keep only the skulls for such rituals. Traditionally, the skulls of family members are kept at home to watch over the family and protect them during the year. On November 9, the family crowns the skulls with fresh flowers, sometimes also dressing them in various garments, and making offerings of cigarettes, coca leaves, alcohol, and various other items in thanks for the year's protection. The skulls are also sometimes taken to the central cemetery in La Paz for a special Mass and blessing.[18][19][20]

text: Brazil

text: The Brazilian public holiday of Finados (Day of the Dead) is celebrated on November 2. Similar to other Day of the Dead celebrations, people go to cemeteries and churches with flowers and candles and offer prayers. The celebration is intended as a positive honoring of the dead. Memorializing the dead draws from indigenous, African and European Catholic origins.

text: Guatemala

text: Guatemalan celebrations of the Day of the Dead, on November 1, are highlighted by the construction and flying of giant kites[21] in addition to the traditional visits to grave sites of ancestors. A big event also is the consumption of fiambre, which is made only for this day during the year.

text: Ecuador

text: In Ecuador the Day of the Dead is observed to some extent by all parts of society, though it is especially important to the indigenous Kichwa peoples, who make up an estimated quarter of the population. Indigena families gather together in the community cemetery with offerings of food for a day-long remembrance of their ancestors and lost loved ones. Ceremonial foods include colada morada, a spiced fruit porridge that derives its deep purple color from the Andean blackberry and purple maize. This is typically consumed with guagua de pan, a bread shaped like a swaddled infant, though variations include many pigs—the latter being traditional to the city of Loja. The bread, which is wheat flour-based today, but was made with masa in the pre-Columbian era, can be made savory with cheese inside or sweet with a filling of guava paste. These traditions have permeated mainstream society, as well, where food establishments add both colada morada and gaugua de pan to their menus for the season. Many non-indigenous Ecuadorians visit the graves of the deceased, cleaning and bringing flowers, or preparing the traditional foods, too.[22]

text: Peru

text: Usually people visit the cemetery and bring flowers to decorate the graves of dead relatives. Sometimes people play music at the cemetery.[23]

text: United States

text: In many American communities with Mexican residents, Day of the Dead celebrations are very similar to those held in Mexico. In some of these communities, in states such as Texas,[24] New Mexico,[25] and Arizona,[26] the celebrations tend to be mostly traditional. The All Souls Procession has been an annual Tucson, Arizona event since 1990. The event combines elements of traditional Day of the Dead celebrations with those of pagan harvest festivals. People wearing masks carry signs honoring the dead and an urn in which people can place slips of paper with prayers on them to be burned.[27] Likewise, Old Town San Diego, California annually hosts a traditional two-day celebration culminating in a candlelight procession to the historic El Campo Santo Cemetery.[28]

text: In Missoula, Montana, celebrants wearing skeleton costumes and walking on stilts, riding novelty bicycles, and traveling on skis parade through town.[29]

text: The festival also is held annually at historic Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston's Jamaica Plain neighborhood. Sponsored by Forest Hills Educational Trust and the folkloric performance group La Piñata, the Day of the Dead festivities celebrate the cycle of life and death. People bring offerings of flowers, photos, mementos, and food for their departed loved ones, which they place at an elaborately and colorfully decorated altar. A program of traditional music and dance also accompanies the community event.

text: The Smithsonian Institution, in collaboration with the University of Texas at El Paso and Second Life, have created a Smithsonian Latino Virtual Museum and accompanying multimedia e-book: Día de los Muertos: Day of the Dead. The project's website contains some of the text and images which explain the origins of some of the customary core practices related to the Day of the Dead, such as the background beliefs and the offrenda (the special altar commemorating one's deceased loved one).[30] The Made For iTunes multimedia e-book version provides additional content, such as further details; additional photo galleries; pop-up profiles of influential Latino artists and cultural figures over the decades; and video clips[31] of interviews with artists who make Dia de Muertos-themed artwork, explanations and performances of Aztec and other traditional dances, an animation short that explains the customs to children, virtual poetry readings in English and Spanish.[32][33]

text: California

text: Santa Ana, California is said to hold the "largest event in Southern California" honoring Día de Muertos, called the annual Noche de Altares, which began in 2002.[34] The celebration of the Day of the Dead in Santa Ana has grown to two large events with the creation of an event held at the Santa Ana Regional Transportation Center for the first time on November 1, 2015.[35]

text: In other communities, interactions between Mexican traditions and American culture are resulting in celebrations in which Mexican traditions are being extended to make artistic or sometimes political statements. For example, in Los Angeles, California, the Self Help Graphics & Art Mexican-American cultural center presents an annual Day of the Dead celebration that includes both traditional and political elements, such as altars to honor the victims of the Iraq War, highlighting the high casualty rate among Latino soldiers. An updated, intercultural version of the Day of the Dead is also evolving at Hollywood Forever Cemetery.[36] There, in a mixture of Native Californian art, Mexican traditions and Hollywood hip, conventional altars are set up side-by-side with altars to Jayne Mansfield and Johnny Ramone. Colorful native dancers and music intermix with performance artists, while sly pranksters play on traditional themes.

text: Similar traditional and intercultural updating of Mexican celebrations are held in San Francisco. For example, the Galería de la Raza, SomArts Cultural Center, Mission Cultural Center, de Young Museum and altars at Garfield Square by the Marigold Project.[37] Oakland is home to Corazon Del Pueblo in the Fruitvale district. Corazon Del Pueblo has a shop offering handcrafted Mexican gifts and a museum devoted to Day of the Dead artifacts. Also, the Fruitvale district in Oakland serves as the hub of the Dia de Muertos annual festival which occurs the last weekend of October. Here, a mix of several Mexican traditions come together with traditional Aztec dancers, regional Mexican music, and other Mexican artisans to celebrate the day.[38]

text: Asia

text: Goa, India

text: The Catholic traditions were initiated with the arrival of the Portuguese in 1510. The Almacho Dis (Souls Day) is commemorated on Nov 2, following all Saints Day (Nov. 1). On this day, the forgotten souls are remembered and spiritual charity is done though prayer for the deceased family and ancestral souls. Charity is practiced also by offering food for the poor called beggars lunch (bikareanchem jevonn) where the poor are invited for lunch, from the village and treated with dignity and respect. The invited down trodden are served as guest and usually commences with prayers for the deceased souls. Following mass on all souls day, the deceased visit the graveyard of the deceased souls and pray and also decorate their graves.[39]

text: The Philippines

text: While ancestor veneration is an ancient part of Filipino culture, the modern observance is believed to have been imported from Mexico when the islands (as part of the Spanish East Indies) were governed from Mexico City as part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.[citation needed] During the holiday (observed every November 1), Filipinos customarily visit family tombs and other graves, which they repair and clean. Entire families spend a night or two at their loved ones' tombs, passing time with card games, eating, drinking, singing and dancing. Prayers such as the rosary are often said for the deceased, who are normally offered candles, flowers, food, and even liquor. Some Catholic Chinese Filipino families additionally offer joss sticks to the dead, and observe customs otherwise associated with the Hungry Ghost Festival.

text: Europe

text: In Christian Europe, Roman Catholic customs absorbed pagan traditions. All Saints Day and All Souls Day became the autumnal celebration of the dead. Over many centuries, rites which had occurred in cultivated fields, where the souls of the dead were thought to leave after the harvest, to cemeteries.

text: In many countries with a Roman Catholic heritage, All Saints Day and All Souls Day have evolved traditions in which people take the day off work, go to cemeteries with candles and flowers, and give presents to children, usually sweets and toys.[10][40] In Portugal and Spain ofrendas ("offerings") are made on this day. In Spain, the play Don Juan Tenorio is traditionally performed.[10] In Belgium, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain, people bring flowers (typically chrysanthemums in France and northern Europe) to the graves of dead relatives and say prayers over the dead.

text: In Eastern Europe holiday is called Dziady and also has pagan origins. In Belarus the ancient tradition involved cooking ritual dishes for supper. Part of each dish was put into a separate plate and left overnight for the dead ancestors. Public meetings are often organized on this day to commemorate the victims of Soviet political repressions.

text: As part of a promotion by the Mexican embassy in Prague, Czech Republic, since the late 20th century, some local citizens join in a Mexican-style Day of the Dead. A theatre group produces events featuring masks, candles, and sugar skulls.[41]

text: Oceania

text: Mexican-style Day of the Dead celebrations occur in major cities in Australia, Fiji, and Indonesia. Additionally, prominent celebrations are held in Wellington, New Zealand, complete with altars celebrating the deceased with flowers and gifts.[42]

text: Similar traditions

text: Many other cultures around the world have similar traditions of a day set aside to visit the graves of deceased family members. Often included in these traditions are celebrations, food, and beverages, in addition to prayers and remembrances of the departed.

text: In some African cultures, visits to ancestors' graves, the leaving of food and gifts, and the asking of protection from them serve as important parts of traditional rituals. One such ritual is held just before the start of the hunting season.[43]

text: The Qingming Festival (simplified Chinese: 清明节; traditional Chinese: 清明節; pinyin: qīng míng jié) is a traditional Chinese festival usually occurring around April 5 of the Gregorian calendar. Along with Double Ninth Festival on the 9th day of the 9th month in the Chinese calendar, it is a time to tend to the graves of departed ones. In addition, in the Chinese tradition, the seventh month in the Chinese calendar is called the Ghost Month (鬼月), in which ghosts and spirits come out from the underworld to visit earth.

text: The Bon Festival (O-bon (お盆), or only Bon (盆)), is a Japanese Buddhist holiday held in August to honor the spirits of departed ancestors. It is derived in part from the Chinese observance of the Ghost Month, and was affixed to the solar calendar along with other traditional Japanese holidays.

text: In Korea, Chuseok (추석, 秋夕; also called Hangawi) is a major traditional holiday. People go where the spirits of their ancestors are enshrined, and perform ancestral worship rituals early in the morning. They visit the tombs of immediate ancestors to trim plants, clean the area around the tomb, and offer food, drink, and crops to their ancestors.

text: During the Nepalese holiday of Gai Jatra ("Cow Pilgrimage"), every family who has lost a member during the previous year creates a tai out of bamboo branches, cloth, and paper decorations, in which are placed portraits of the deceased. As a cow traditionally leads the spirits of the dead into the afterlife, an actual or symbolic cow is used depending on local custom. The festival is also a time to dress up in a costume reminiscent of the western Halloween, with popular subjects including political commentary and satire.[44]

text: In popular culture

text: Disneyland Resorts' annual "Halloween Time" celebrates the art and traditions of Dias de los Muertos located at Frontierland.[45][46][47]

text: The 1998 Grim Fandango video game features Mexican Day of the Dead iconography with Aztec and Egyptian influences.[48]

text: The 2014 The Book of Life film follows a bullfighter who, on the Day of the Dead, embarks on an afterlife adventure.[49]

text: In the 2015 James Bond film, Spectre, the opening sequence featured a Day of the Dead parade in Mexico City. At the time, no such parade took place in Mexico City; one year later, due to the interest in the film and the government desire to promote the pre-Hispanic Mexican culture, the federal and local authorities decided to organize an actual "Día de Muertos" parade through Paseo de la Reforma and Centro Historico on October 29, 2016, which was attended by 250,000 people.[50][51][52]

text: The 2016 Elena of Avalor season one episode "A Night to Remember" focused on Dias de los Muertos.[53]

text: The 2017 Pixar film Coco features the Dias de los Muertos holiday as a major element in its plot.[54]


document_title: Mimosa (cocktail)

question_text: what is it called when you mix orange juice and champagne

root

text: Mimosa (cocktail)

text:
MimosaIBA official cocktail
Two MimosasType
Wine cocktailPrimary alcohol by volume
Champagne
Served
Neat; undiluted and without iceStandard garnish
Orange twistStandard drinkware
 Champagne fluteIBA specifiedingredients
7.5 cl champagne
7.5 cl orange juice
Preparation
Ensure both ingredients are well chilled, then mix into the glass. Serve cold.
 Mimosa recipe at International Bartenders Association

tag: table

text: A mimosa cocktail is composed of one part champagne (or other sparkling wine) and one part chilled citrus juice, usually orange juice unless otherwise specified. It is traditionally served in a tall champagne flute at brunch, at weddings, by the pint, or as part of first class service on some passenger railways and airlines.

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text:
It is believed to have been invented at the Hôtel Ritz Paris by Frank Meier, in about 1925.[1]
It is probably named after the common name in Europe for the yellow flowers of Acacia dealbata.[2]

text: Variations[edit]

text: The Buck's Fizz is a similar type of cocktail, invented a few years earlier in London, which has twice as much champagne as orange juice.[3]

text: The poinsettia is cranberry juice with champagne (sometimes with vodka and/or Cointreau).

text: The Megmosa[4] [5] is a similar type of cocktail, composed of equal parts champagne and grapefruit juice.


document_title: 2011 Census of India

question_text: the number of females per 1000 males in urban areas according to census 2011

text: 2011 Census of India

text: Census[edit]

text: C Chandramauli was the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India for the 2011 Indian Census. Census data was collected in 16 languages and the training manual was prepared in 18 languages. In 2011, India and Bangladesh also conducted their first-ever joint census of areas along their border.[14][15] The census was conducted in two phases. The first, the house-listing phase, began on 1 April 2010 and involved collection of data about all the buildings and census houses.[16] Information for the National Population Register was also collected in the first phase. The second, the population enumeration phase, was conducted from 9 – 28 February 2011 all over the country. The eradication of epidemics, the availability of more effective medicines for the treatment of various types of diseases and the improvement in the standard of living were the main reasons for the high decadal growth of population in India.

text: Information[edit]

text: House-listings[edit]

text: The House-listing schedule contained 35 questions.[17]

text:
Building number
Census house number
Predominant material of floor, wall and roof of the census house
Ascertain use of actual house
Condition of the census house
Household number
Total number of persons in the household
Name of the head of the household
Sex of the head
Caste status (SC or ST or others)
Ownership status of the house
Number of dwelling rooms
Number of married couple the household
Main source of drinking water
Availability of drinking water source
Main source of lighting
Latrine within the premises
Type of latrine facility
Waste water outlet connection
Bathing facility within the premises
Availability of kitchen
Fuel used for cooking
Radio/Transistor
Television
Computer/Laptop
Telephone/Mobile phone
Bicycle
Scooter/Motor cycle/Moped
Car/Jeep/Van
Availing Banking services.

text: Population enumeration[edit]

text: The Population enumeration schedule contained 30 questions.[18][19]

text:
Name of the person
Relationship to head
Sex
Date of birth and age
Current marital status
Age at marriage
Religion
Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe
Disability
Mother tongue
Other languages known
Literacy status
Status of attendance (Education)
Highest educational level attained
Working any time during last year
Category of economic activity
Occupation Nature of industry
Trade or service
Class of worker
Non economic activity
Seeking or available for work
Travel to place of work
Birthplace
Place of last residence
Reason for migration
Duration of stay in the place of migration
Children surviving
Children ever born
Number of children born alive during last one year

text: National Population Register[edit]

text: The National Population Register household schedule contained 9 questions.[20]

text:
Name of the person and resident status
Name of the person as should appear in the population register
Relationship to head
gender
Date of birth
Marital status
Educational qualification
Occupation/Activity
Names of father, mother and spouse

text: Once the information was collected and digitised, fingerprints were taken and photos collected. Unique Identification Authority of India was to issue a 12-digit identification number to all individuals and the first ID was to have been issued in 2011.[21][22][23]

text: Census report[edit]

text: Provisional data from the census was released on 31 March 2011 (and was updated on 20 May 2013).[24][25][26][27][28] Transgender population was counted in population census in India for first time in 2011.[29][30] The official count of the third gender in India is 4.9 lakh[31]

text:
Population
Total
1,210,854,977

Males
623,724,248

Females
586,469,174

Literacy
Total
74%

Males
82.10%

Females
65.50%

Density of population
per km2
382

Sex ratio
per 1000 males
940 females

Child sex ratio (0–6 age group)
per 1000 males
919

text: Population[edit]

text: The population of India as per 2011 census was 1,210,193,422.[32] India added 181.5 million to its population since 2001, slightly lower than the population of Brazil. India, with 2.4% of the world's surface area, accounts for 17.5% of its population. Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state with roughly 200 million people. A little over 5 out of 10 Indians live in the six states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.[33] Of the 121 crore Indians, 83.3 crore (68.84%) live in rural areas while 37.7 crore stay in urban areas.[34][35] 45.36 crore people in India are migrants, which is 37.8% of total population.[36][37][38]

text: India is the homeland of major belief systems such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism, while also being home to several indigenous faiths and tribal religions which have survived the influence of major religions for centuries.

text: Ever since its inception, the Census of India has been collecting and publishing information about the religious affiliations as expressed by the people of India. In fact, population census has the rare distinction of being the only instrument that collects this diverse and important characteristic of the Indian population.

text:
Population distribution in India by states

[hide]Rank
State /
Union Territory (UT)
Type
Population[39]
 % of total population[40]
Males
Females
Sex Ratio
[41]
Literacy rate (%)
Rural[42]
Population
Urban[42]
Population
Area[43]
(km²)
Density
(/km²)
Decadal Growth% (2001-2011)

1
Uttar Pradesh
State
199,812,341
16.5
104,480,510
95,331,831
930
67.68
155,111,022
44,470,455
240,928
828
20.1%

2
Maharashtra
State
112,374,333
9.28
58,243,056
54,131,277
929
82.34
61,545,441
50,827,531
307,713
365
16.0%

3
Bihar
State
104,099,452
8.6
54,278,157
49,821,295
918
61.80
92,075,028
11,729,609
94,163
1,102
25.1%

4
West Bengal
State
91,276,115
7.54
46,809,027
44,467,088
950
76.26
62,213,676
29,134,060
88,752
1,030
13.9%

5
Andhra Pradesh
State
84,580,777
6.99
42,442,146
42,138,631
993
67.02
56,361,702
28,219,075
275,045
308
11.1%

6
Madhya Pradesh
State
72,626,809
6.00
37,612,306
35,014,503
931
69.32
52,537,899
20,059,666
308,245
236
20.3%

7
Tamil Nadu
State
72,147,030
5.96
36,137,975
36,009,055
996
80.09
37,189,229
34,949,729
130,058
555
15.6%

8
Rajasthan
State
68,548,437
5.66
35,550,997
32,997,440
928
66.11
51,540,236
17,080,776
342,239
201
21.4%

9
Karnataka
State
61,095,297
5.05
30,966,657
30,128,640
973
75.36
37,552,529
23,578,175
191,791
319
15.7%

10
Gujarat
State
60,439,692
4.99
31,491,260
28,948,432
919
78.03
34,670,817
25,712,811
196,024
308
19.2%

11
Odisha
State
41,974,218
3.47
21,212,136
20,762,082
979
72.87
34,951,234
6,996,124
155,707
269
14.0%

12
Kerala
State
33,406,061
2.76
16,027,412
17,378,649
1,084
94.00
17,445,506
15,932,171
38,863
859
4.9%

13
Jharkhand
State
32,988,134
2.72
16,930,315
16,057,819
948
66.41
25,036,946
7,929,292
79,714
414
22.3%

14
Assam
State
31,205,576
2.58
15,939,443
15,266,133
958
72.19
26,780,526
4,388,756
78,438
397
16.9%

15
Punjab
State
27,743,338
2.29
14,639,465
13,103,873
895
75.84
17,316,800
10,387,436
50,362
550
13.7%

16
Chhattisgarh
State
25,545,198
2.11
12,832,895
12,712,303
991
70.28
19,603,658
5,936,538
135,191
189
22.6%

17
Haryana
State
25,351,462
2.09
13,494,734
11,856,728
879
75.55
16,531,493
8,821,588
44,212
573
19.9%

18
Delhi
UT
16,787,941
1.39
8,887,326
7,800,615
868
86.21
944,727
12,905,780
1,484
11,297
21%

19
Jammu and Kashmir
State
12,541,302
1.04
6,640,662
5,900,640
889
67.16
9,134,820
3,414,106
222,236
56
23.7%

20
Uttarakhand
State
10,086,292
0.83
5,137,773
4,948,519
963
79.63
7,025,583
3,091,169
53,483
189
19.2%

21
Himachal Pradesh
State
6,864,602
0.57
3,481,873
3,382,729
972
82.80
6,167,805
688,704
55,673
123
12.8%

22
Tripura
State
3,673,917
0.30
1,874,376
1,799,541
960
87.22
2,710,051
960,981
10,486
350
14.7%

23
Meghalaya
State
2,966,889
0.25
1,491,832
1,475,057
989
74.43
2,368,971
595,036
22,429
132
27.8%

24
Manipur
State
2,721,756
0.21
1,290,171
1,280,219
992
79.21
1,899,624
822,132
22,327
122
18.7%

25
Nagaland
State
1,978,502
0.16
1,024,649
953,853
931
79.55
1,406,861
573,741
16,579
119
-0.5%

26
Goa
State
1,458,545
0.12
739,140
719,405
973
88.70
551,414
906,309
3,702
394
8.2%

27
Arunachal Pradesh
State
1,383,727
0.11
713,912
669,815
938
65.38
1,069,165
313,446
83,743
17
25.9%

28
Puducherry
UT
1,247,953
0.10
612,511
635,442
1,037
85.85
394,341
850,123
479
2,598
27.7%

29
Mizoram
State
1,097,206
0.09
555,339
541,867
976
91.33
529,037
561,997
21,081
52
22.8%

30
Chandigarh
UT
1,055,450
0.09
580,663
474,787
818
86.05
29,004
1,025,682
114
9,252
17.1%

31
Sikkim
State
610,577
0.05
323,070
287,507
890
81.42
455,962
151,726
7,096
86
12.4%

32
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
UT
380,581
0.03
202,871
177,710
876
86.63
244,411
135,533
8,249
46
6.7%

33
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
UT
343,709
0.03
193,760
149,949
774
76.24
183,024
159,829
491
698
55.5%

34
Daman and Diu
UT
243,247
0.02
150,301
92,946
618
87.10
60,331
182,580
112
2,169
53.5%

35
Lakshadweep
UT
64,473
0.01
33,123
31,350
946
91.85
14,121
50,308
32
2,013
6.2%

TOTAL
India
35
1,210,854,977
100
623,724,248
586,469,174
943
73.00
833,087,662
377,105,760
3,287,240
382
17.64%

text: Religious demographics[edit]

text: The religious data on India Census 2011 was released by the Government of India on 25 August, 2015.[44][45][46] Hindus are 79.8% (966.3 million), while Muslims are 14.23% (172.2 million) in India.[47][47][48][49]and Christians are 2.30 % (28.7 million). For the first time, a "No religion" category was added in the 2011 census.[50][51] 2.87 million were classified as people belonging to "No Religion" in India in the 2011 census.[52][53] - 0.24% of India's population of 1.21 billion.[54][55] Given below is the decade-by-decade religious composition of India till the 2011 census.[56][57][58] There are six religions in India that have been awarded "National Minority" status - Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists and Parsis.[59][60] Sunnis, Shias, Bohras, Agakhanis and Ahmadiyyas were identified as sects of Islam in India.[61][62][63] As per 2011 census, six major faiths- Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains make up over 99.4% of India’s 121 crore population, while “other religions, persuasions” (ORP) count is 82. Among the ORP faiths, six faiths- 49.57 lakh-strong Sarna, 10.26 lakh-strong Gond, 5.06 lakh-strong Sari, Doni Polo (3.02 lakh) in Arunachal Pradesh, Sanamahi (2.22 lakh) in Manipur, Khasi (1.38 lakh) in Meghalaya dominate.[64] Maharashtra is having the highest number of atheists in the country with 9,652 such people, followed by Meghalaya (9,089) and Kerala.[65]

text:
Religious
group
Population
% 1951
Population
% 1961
Population
% 1971
Population
% 1981
Population
% 1991
Population
% 2001
Population
% 2011[66]

Hinduism
84.1%
83.45%
82.73%
82.30%
81.53%
80.46%
79.80%

Islam
9.8%
10.69%
11.21%
11.75%
12.61%
13.43%
14.23%

Christianity
2.3%
2.44%
2.60%
2.44%
2.32%
2.34%
2.30%

Sikhism
1.79%
1.79%
1.89%
1.92%
1.94%
1.87%
1.72%

Buddhism
0.74%
0.74%
0.70%
0.70%
0.77%
0.77%
0.70%

Jainism
0.46%
0.46%
0.48%
0.47%
0.40%
0.41%
0.37%

Zoroastrianism
0.13%
0.09%
0.09%
0.09%
0.08%
0.06%
n/a

Other religions / No religion
0.43%
0.43%
0.41%
0.42%
0.44%
0.72%
0.9%

text: Literacy[edit]

text: Any one above age 7 who can read and write in any language with an ability to understand was considered a literate. In censuses before 1991, children below the age 5 were treated as illiterates. The literacy rate taking the entire population into account is termed as "crude literacy rate", and taking the population from age 7 and above into account is termed as "effective literacy rate". Effective literacy rate increased to a total of 74.04% with 82.14% of the males and 65.46% of the females being literate.[67]

text:
S.No.
Census Year
Total (%)
Male (%)
Female (%)

1
1901
5.35
9.83
0.60

2
1911
5.92
10.56
1.05

3
1921
7.16
12.21
1.81

4
1931
9.50
15.59
2.93

5
1941
16.10
24.90
7.30

6
1951
16.67
24.95
9.45

7
1961
24.02
34.44
12.95

8
1971
29.45
39.45
18.69

9
1981
36.23
46.89
24.82

10
1991
42.84
52.74
32.17

11
2001
64.83
75.26
53.67

12
2011
74.04
82.14
65.46

text: The table lists the "crude literacy rate" in India from 1901 to 2011.[citation needed]

tag: ul


document_title: French passport

question_text: where can you live with a french passport

text: French passport

text: History[edit]

text: History of French passport can be traced to 19th century documents.

text: Types[edit]

text: Passports are valid for 10 years for applicants aged 18 or over and 5 years for applicants under the age of 18. Optical passports (older) have no sign under the word "Passeport" on the front page. Electronic passport contains an embedded chip and has the chip logo under the word "Passeport". Biometric passeports are the most recent ones and are decorated as the electronic passports but the word "Passeport" is underlined. The 3 types of passport are shown above.

text: Physical appearance[edit]

text: Front cover[edit]

text: Unlike those from most other EU countries which are burgundy, ordinary passports have a Bordeaux-red front cover, with the national emblem of France emblazoned in the centre of the front cover. The word "PASSEPORT" (Passport) is inscribed below the coat of arms and "Union européenne" (European Union), "République française" (French Republic) above. The "e-passport" cover has a microchip symbol at the bottom. On the biometric variant of e-passports, the word "PASSEPORT" is underlined. French passports use the standard EU design, with the standard passport containing 32 pages.

text: Identity information page[edit]

text:
Biodata page of a French non-biometric passport

First page of a French non-biometric passport

text: The biodata page includes the following data:

text:
Photo of Passport Holder
Type (P)
Code (FRA)
Passport No. 22244
Surname JOHN
Given Names CHRISTIAN
Nationality (Française) (3)
Date of Birth 01/10/1970
Sex M
Place of Birth FRANCE
Date of Issue (7)
Date of Expiry (8)
Authority (9)
Holder's Signature (10)
Height (12)
Colour of Eyes (13)
Residence (15) - Page 36

text: The information page ends with the Machine Readable Zone starting with P<FRA.

text: Languages[edit]

text: The data page is printed in French and English with translation of the fields on the bearer's page in the other languages of the European Union elsewhere in the document.

text: Visa free travel[edit]

text: Visa requirements for French citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of France. As of 17 October 2018, French citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 188 countries and territories, ranking the French passport third in the world in terms of travel freedom (tied with German and South Korean passports) as well as the joint most powerful passport in Europe and the EU (alongside the German passport) according to the Henley Passport Index. Additionally, Arton Capital's Passport Index currently rank the French passport second in the world in terms of travel freedom, with a visa-free score of 164 (tied with Danish, Dutch, Finnish, Italian, Luxembourgish, Norwegian, Spanish, South Korean, Swedish and United States passports), as of 17 October 2018.[3]

text: French citizens can live and work in any country within the EU as a result of the right of free movement and residence granted in Article 21 of the EU Treaty.[4]


document_title: Nikki Newman

question_text: nikki's sister on young and the restless

question_tokens: nikki 's sister on young and the restless

text: Nikki Newman

text: Casting[edit]

text: The role of Nikki Reed  was first portrayed by actress Erica Hope from 1978 to early 1979.[1] The role was then recast with Scott, who took over soon after and has portrayed Nikki since.[2] Scott recalled in 1989 that she was surprised to have received the role, as she hadn't acted in a few years.[3][4][5]

text: In May 2001, Scott and the show's producers entered contract negotiations following rumors that she was unhappy because of Nikki's lack of airtime. Soap Opera Digest speculated that she was possibly joining General Hospital as Heather Webber.[6] Three months later, controversy arose when Scott was seen moving personal belongings from her dressing room.[7] However, speculation ended in August 2001, when it was announced that Scott had inked a contract to further extend her portrayal of Nikki.[8]

text: In May 2009, Nelson Branco of TV Guide Canada reported that Scott had been asked to accept a salary cut, or be taken off her contract and dropped to a recurring status. The actress reportedly refused either option.[9] Scott later began contract negotiations again, which resulted in Nikki being written out of the soap opera after an agreement could not be met.[10] Scott later signed another contract to continue her portrayal,[11] but in 2011, the actress' future was left in uncertainty, because of the soap opera's financial issues. Scott expressed disappointment, stating: "It was not handled very well. I've been in this business since I was three and I know how this works. If a show is having problems with money or budget, they call the actor very respectfully and say, "We have a little financial crunch here. Let's try to work something out, okay?" That's what should have happened. The problem was that such a phone call was never made to me and I was left in the lurch."[12] However, Scott renewed her contract and returned after an onscreen absence.[12]

text: Development[edit]

text: Characterization[edit]

text: According to the soap opera's website, the character "has matured from the girl from the wrong side of the tracks to the serial’s luminous and resourceful heroine."[13] The Observer–Reporter described Nikki as "oft-married".[14] Of playing the character's ongoing tragic life, Scott stated: "Ever since I have been an actress, which is 56 years now, I have always preferred high drama, angst, and catastrophes. I find it more interesting to play. I guess it’s no accident that I found my way into soap operas."[15] In 1988, Scott stated in an interview that in her first nine years on the soap opera, she thought that Nikki had "grown up".[16] In 1995, Scott said that she was "quite bored" with her character, stating: "We seem to be in a bit of a slump — all Nikki seems to do is have coffee and do needlepoint. She has beautiful clothes and her makeup is perfect and she never leaves her house. She used to sit here and drink — that was actually more fun. But needlepoint — I'm sorry."[17] Speaking about Nikki's "desperation housewife" problems with Michael Logan of TV Guide, Scott stated, "Nikki should never have a job! She would never want a job. She's not capable of doing anything, and she wouldn't want to be trained to do anything. It's so much better when she stays home. I'm looking forward to playing her as a crazy old lady."[18]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: For over three decades, Nikki has been romantically linked with Victor Newman (Eric Braeden). Nikki was originally from the lower walks of life, having been a prostitute and stripper. After multiple failed relationships, she began a romance with Victor, who taught her about society.[19] They fall in love and have a child, Victoria Newman (Amelia Heinle), and later a son, Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow).[19] The couple are widely considered a supercouple within the soap opera media. The writers of The Young and the Restless detailed their characters to marry and divorce or depart from each other in some form or fashion in a continuous cycle, which is a take on the original supercouple formula.[20] Soap Opera Digest relayed the beginning of the pairing's creation and their impact, described as an "inspired decision", led to Victor and Nikki becoming the series' most successful supercouple.[21] In an interview with Dose magazine, Scott said that the couple always has to get back together, but not without a challenge.[22]

text:
"Nikki and Victor have played this cycle over and over again and it’s very successful because people care about them. I would imagine just because I’ve watched the show for 33 years as well as played it – they’ve got to get back together! There’s nothing else they could do! They have to get back together, as for how, I don’t know."[22]
—Scott, on Nikki and Victor's "formula" (2012)

tag: div

text: Nikki and Victor are recognized as one of daytime television's most prominent couples.[23] They have also garnered a large fan following, dubbed "Niktor" by viewers.[24] In addition, the couple's weddings have been reported by mainstream media.[25][26] Scott has said: "Let’s face facts:  Victor and Nikki will always be a huge dynamic, they’ve been in a circular cycle for over 30 years!  Finding a new leading man that you have chemistry with is like finding gold."[27] In a 1994 interview with The Los Angeles Times, the newspaper reported that Victor's relationship with Nikki had "registered an enduring appeal among viewers", with Braeden replying that, "Arguably, it's the idea of this incredibly powerful, wealthy man taking a woman who comes from the wrong side of the tracks into his life, and shaping her and forming her more to his liking. But, of course, no one can shape or form anyone, she remains who she is, has retained her strength, and that causes conflict."[28] In other interviews, Braeden stated that he loves working with Scott and that he "always thought it was an honestly felt love story with great material for conflict with Nikki".[29] He also stated in an interview that he considers Victor's storylines with Nikki to be some of his favorites.[30] Discussing Victor and Nikki's union, former As the World Turns actress Martha Byrne stated: "Young and Restless' Victor and Nikki are the perfect example of a couple who they can tear apart and put back together how many times? And [the writers] do it really well because they're so stable as characters that you can basically do anything with them now, and the audience will go on the journey with them."[31] The Museum of Television and Radio wrote: "Combined with a series of social-issue storylines covering everything from AIDS to date rape to the plight of the elderly, as well as featuring a group of popular young African-American characters, and several long-term romantic and professional relationships, Victor and Nikki's love story has kept viewers enthralled for many years." They also described their relationship as being a "dominant force" in the soap opera.[32] Daytime journalist Michael Fairman stated: "Victor and Nikki just can’t, we mean can’t, ever get it together long enough to find any happiness with each other. So, many would say that they deserve each other and the baggage and betrayals that come along with their co-dependent relationship."[33]

text: Aside from Victor, Nikki is known for her relationships with Paul Williams (Doug Davidson) and Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman), Victor's business rival. Tommy Garrett of Canyon News called the character the love of Paul's life.[34] Nikki often "ditches" other men if Victor is in trouble; Scott called her leaving Brad Carlton (Don Diamont) at the altar following Victor being shot "another dramatic ditching".[15] In 2012, she left Jack the day after their wedding to find a missing Victor; Scott commented, "It was written as it was, so I don’t speculate. She has done it before ... perhaps she will do it again."[15] She stated that she doesn't desire for Nikki and Victor to be happy together for long because it is "boring" and there must be some kind of conflict.[15] Teasing the Nikki and Victor storyline, Scott said that, "Trouble follows trouble and when it rains it pours."[15] From 2010 onward, Nikki was in a relationship with Deacon Sharpe (Sean Kanan). However, it was later revealed that he was working with Meggie McClaine (Sean Young) to ruin her sobriety and send her back to rehab.[35] However, Deacon began to fall for Nikki. Of their relationship, Scott stated: "Deacon has more balls than Nikki expected and he keeps coming back, determined to convince her he truly loves her. At one point, he slips the AA serenity prayer under her door, which she is disgusted to see. She just ignores it and drinks all night. She really does have feelings for him. But this betrayal is something she won't get over soon."[35]

text: Illnesses[edit]

text: Over the course of her duration on the soap opera, the character has battled alcoholism, breast cancer and most recently, multiple sclerosis. Scott has stated in multiple interviews that she enjoys portraying Nikki's struggle with alcohol.[15] In an interview with Entertainment Weekly in 2011, Scott said that she "loves Nikki drinking" and enjoys the material as an actress, stating: "It’s much more fun, and everybody seems to prefer a drunk Nikki."[36] During the character's battle with alcoholism, she also developed an addiction for prescription pills. To the dismay of Scott, the storyline concluded abruptly. The actress said, "It never really finished properly. Nikki just woke up one day and decided that she's fine now. I felt that was unrealistic. I would like to follow Nikki through rehab and detox. I want to find a good conclusion. Maybe this new story line will address that. It's looking like it might."[37] Scott has previously voiced her admiration for playing Nikki's alcoholism because "it's so much fun to play" a "drunk or insane or flawed".[38]

text: In February 2013, it was revealed that Nikki would be diagnosed with multiple sclerosis (MS). Jillian Bowe of Zap2it said viewers got "a bit of shock when they saw the socialite’s hands shake after she tickled the ivories in her new deluxe apartment."[39] Scott discussed the storyline with TV Guide. She said she wants the story to "educate people" that it's "controllable with the proper treatment". It should be noted, however, that not all people can easily "control" their MS. MS is a highly variable and often disabling disease, and effects each person very differently. Scott met a worker on the set of the show who was diagnosed with MS, and said it was "very encouraging" to know about her for the storyline. She further said, "I did have a sit-down meeting, a little three-way with [head writer] Josh Griffith and [executive producer] Jill Farren Phelps. They wanted to know how I felt about the idea, and I told them I thought it was great. Josh didn't know I used to play piano on Y&R way back when, so he decided to revive that and use it to show the beginnings of Nikki's symptoms — the shaky hands, the cramping, the feeling you've got arthritis."[40]

text: Rivalries and friendships[edit]

text: Nikki is known for her rivalries with Ashley Abbott (Eileen Davidson), Jill Abbott (Jess Walton), Sharon Newman (Sharon Case) and Diane Jenkins (Maura West).[41] She fought with Diane over Victor for years as their bitter rivalry climaxed; she later killed Diane in self-defense in August 2011.[12] Scott didn't think Nikki should have been the killer in a whodunnit? storyline.[12] She stated, "Nikki has always hated Diane and because Maura is so good in the role, Nikki hates her even more now."[35] Sharon is Nikki's former daughter-in-law, having been married to her son Nicholas (Joshua Morrow) for over a decade. Nikki later became outraged when Sharon had a brief romance with Victor.[12] Luke Kerr of Zap2it said: "It’s always reassuring to know Nikki will usually jump to "blame Sharon" for just about everything. Based on their past, it’s not surprising, but it’s a comfort food type Y&R trope."[42] Nikki and Sharon even ended up in a physical fight in the Newman stables over Victor in 2012; Jillian Bowe, also of Zap2it, called it the "Newman Divas" face off, and said, "Victor's ladies go for blood. It boggles the mind these two sophisticated women are fighting over Victor's giblets and gravy."[43] Scott stated that she loved the Newman stables fight, saying: "Our director was very gracious, and was very loose and not rigid about blocking, and let us do our own choreography. So, if you look at it again, there are many elements of an I Love Lucy episode. Guess where that came from? But I couldn’t resist it. I had to do it! All the water and hair pulling and dunking in the bucket, that was all me, because that was "Lucy"!"[44]

text: Amid her rivalries with most women in Genoa City, she is close with the show's matriarch Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper), Scott said that "Katherine and Nikki have a very special relationship, and they have a very special heartbeat".[15] However, off-screen, there was a period of time in which Scott experienced a "rocky" relationship with Cooper. Cooper explained: "It was just some silly thing, I guess [...] You think it’s strange. You should have been me! I mean, here is someone who is like a daughter to me. I really was very protective of her".[45]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Nikki was introduced with her sister Casey in 1978. The following year, she killed her abusive father Nick Reed (Quinn Redeker) in self-defense after he drunkenly tried to rape her. During the murder trial, Jill Foster (Brenda Dickson) hired a Nick look-alike named Joseph Thomas to scare Nikki and Casey. Following the trial, she dated Paul Williams (Doug Davidson), but it ended after he gave her a venereal disease. Nikki would go on to romance Greg Foster (Wings Hauser). While Paul opposed the relationship, she ultimately married Greg. Rose Deville (Darlene Conley) signed Nikki to a "modelling agency" which was later revealed to be a prostitution ring. Nikki resisted a customer, who later had a heart attack. A man named Tony was charged for the murder, with Greg representing him. Nikki was threatened not to testify in the case or Greg would be killed. She decided to leave town, but returned a little while later. Nikki would later join the New World Commune and Paul would join her. However, they discovered that it was actually a cult, and Nikki would become pregnant after being raped by a cult leader, Ian Ward. Steven Williams and Peggy Brooks worked to expose the cult, and Nikki ended up escaping to Chicago. She gave birth to the child, later to be known as Dylan McAvoy, in a church, but passed out during labor and the nuns took the baby away. Greg, thinking Nikki and Paul had reunited, divorced Nikki. Once Nikki returned to Genoa City, she became a stripper while romancing Kevin Bancroft (Christopher Holder). Kevin's mother Allison Bancroft (Lynn Wood) hated Nikki, and bought a pornographic film titled Hot Hips, purportedly starring Nikki, hoping Kevin would leave her, which he did. A criminal named Tony DiSalvo distributed the film. Nikki married him in hopes of getting her hands on the film rights, and later found out she wasn't even in the film. Paul and his partner Andy Richards investigated Tony and killed him.

text: While still a stripper, she had a fling with rich business tycoon Victor Newman (Eric Braeden), and became pregnant with his child. Initially, however, Nikki believed that the child was Kevin's, but it turned out to be Victor's. She gave birth to Victoria in 1982 while still married to Kevin. After Tony's death, Victor moved on with Lorie Brooks (Jamie Lyn Bauer), while Nikki hooked up with Rick Daros. Unknown to Nikki, Rick killed his first wife and intended on doing the same to Nikki. Once Victor learned of Rick and Victoria's true paternity, he, Paul, and Andy rushed to St. Croix to save Nikki. In a gunfight, Rick escaped while a shot Victor professed his love for Nikki and proposed. Once Victor recovered, he and Nikki married in 1984 despite interference from his ex Eve Howard. Eve had previously tried to kill Nikki before the wedding ceremony, later running off with Rick Daros. Victor and Nikki's marriage was strong until he had an affair with Ashley Abbott (Eileen Davidson), the sister of rival businessman Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman). At the same time, Jack was attracted to Nikki, and they began an affair. Victor left Nikki for Ashley who ended up pregnant, but secretly had an abortion. Nikki schemed to break up Victor and Ashley by using Matt Miller (Victor's brother) to seduce Ashley, but failed. Nikki was soon diagnosed with a terminal illness bringing Victor back. Once she recovered and lied to Victor about it, Victor returned to Ashley until he learned of her abortion. Nikki ended up giving birth to a son, Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow), but shortly thereafter Victor divorced Nikki thinking she was involved in Jack's role in a tell-all biography about Victor. Unknown to Victor, the book was actually written by Leanna Love (Barbara Crampton).

text: Once Victor learned the truth of Leanna's book, he tried to win back Nikki through a business deal with Jack. Yet the deal fell through and, out of spite, Jack and Nikki married in 1990 as Victor ended up marrying Ashley. Her marriage to Jack was unsuccessful; his business with Jabot Cosmetics got in the way of their "friendly" marriage. Following a riding accident where she miscarried a child of hers and Jack's, she sunk into a state of depression, developing addictions to painkillers and being an alcoholic to help her recovery. Victor would eventually return to Nikki's side in her addictions, but Nikki ended up pregnant with Jack's son. After an argument with Victor, Nikki gave birth to a stillborn, John Abbott III, and Jack divorced Nikki, but they remained friends. Nikki was devastated soon after when Victor "died" after finding a burned body inside his car in Kansas, although it turned out he was alive. Victor had been living in Kansas with Hope Adams (Signy Coleman). Nikki during this time began a relationship with Brad Carlton (Don Diamont) and later got engaged. Victor and Hope came back to Genoa City, much to everyone's amazement. On the night of Nikki and Brad's wedding, Victor was shot by Mari Jo Mason. She left Brad at the altar and rushed to Victor's side. Victor ended up choosing to return to Hope.

text: While Victor returned to Kansas, Nikki married her doctor Dr. Joshua Landers (Heath Kizzier). Victor's relationship with Hope ended, and he returned to Genoa City to stop Nikki and Joshua from marrying. However, Victor would go on to get involved with Jack's former lover Diane Jenkins (Alex Donelley). Jealous of Diane, Nikki convinced Victor to have a vasectomy before she secretly stored his sperm in a bank. Joshua was shot and killed by his presumed dead mentally ill ex-wife, Veronica (Candice Daly), who had disguised herself and had been posing as Nikki and Joshua's maid, Sarah Lindsey. Hours later, having been the victim of emotional abuse from Nikki for many months, Veronica shot and severely wounded her employer, leading Victor to divorce Diane and remarry Nikki on her deathbed. Victor promised Diane that he would remarry her after Nikki died. When Nikki miraculously recovered, Victor decided to be with her instead of Diane. Yet, Victor was still legally married to Diane and their divorce continued into 2000. Diane remained in love with Victor and stole his sperm to impregnate herself with his child. However, Ashley and Nikki too stole the sperm and a mix-up was created. Ashley became pregnant with Victor's child and Diane with Jack's. Ashley gave birth to Abby Carlton (Brad was thought to be the father) and Nikki was engaged to Victor by 2002. Their engagement was hindered by Victor's old fiancée Lorie Brooks and her soon to be ex-husband Max Hollister schemed to break them up. Max was involved in a bad business deal with Victor regarding Julia Newman Martin's design firm. In the end, Lorie couldn't follow through, and Victor and Nikki remarried in September.

text: Shortly into Victor and Nikki's remarriage, Nikki was kidnapped resulting in post-traumatic stress disorder and was shot by a carjacker. Nikki began having more memories about her childhood and ended up having an affair with Bobby Marsino, who was the brother of one of Nikki's childhood friends whom she accidentally killed. In 2005, their granddaughter Cassie (Camryn Grimes) was killed in a car accident. Then, Nikki developed more of an interest in business. Several years earlier, with Jabot in dire straits, Nikki gave them $35 million to help get the company out of debt. Nikki then became a stockholder at the company and had a seat on the board; much to everyone's dismay. Nikki later sold her stock to start her own company, NVP Retreats (a wellness spa company). In 2007, she ran against ex-husband Jack in the race for Wisconsin state senate, but after a few mistakes and being caught on tape kissing her campaign manager, David Chow (Vincent Irizarry), she lost the election. Victor and Nikki eventually divorced, fueled by her involvement with David Chow. She walked away with a $100-million divorce settlement. After Katherine Chancellor stepped down as CEO of Jabot, Nikki took over; this caused tension between Nikki and Katherine's "daughter" Jill. Nikki stepped down as CEO of Jabot after hearing that David had killed Ji Min Kim, Jill's current lover. Regardless, Nikki married David Chow in June 2008 in Mexico. It was revealed that he was addicted to gambling. Paul Williams investigated David and found that "David" was not even his real name. Upon learning David was going to drug her, Nikki was going to ask for a divorce. However, David died in a car accident, which also killed Victor's wife Sabrina Newman. Victor and Nikki's relationship as friends broke down around this time, too, after she tried to console him. After Victor disappeared again, Nikki became determined to find him, however, she ended up getting involved with her early love, private investigator and long time friend Paul, while Victor and Ashley reconnected. By May 2009, Nikki accepted Paul's marriage proposal, but the night before their wedding, she broke things off and left town. She once again returned, and after Victor was shot by Patty Williams, Nikki left with him after a heart transplant to undergo rehabilitation in a center in Europe.

text: When Victor and Nikki returned in 2010, they were engaged. Meggie McClaine, a friend of Victor, had moved in for her own protection. Meggie sabotaged Nikki, getting her drunk so that she could marry Victor instead of Nikki. Meggie recruited Deacon Sharpe to help get Nikki off the wagon. Nikki went to rehab. When she learned of Victor and Meggie's marriage (which was just a scam to have Meggie caught) she had an affair with Deacon, ending her relationship with Victor. Nikki continued her romance with Deacon, without knowing the truth. Nikki and Victor slept together after he lost a lawsuit against his children; however, he was involved with Diane Jenkins at the time. Upon learning the truth about Deacon's role in her drinking, Nikki left him but it was too late for her to return to Victor, who had married Diane. Alone, she began drinking once again. After several attempts at trying to get back together, Victor and Nikki parted ways, and she returned to rehab. Diane was killed months after, and Victor was jailed for her murder.

text: After being missing from rehab for several months, Nikki returned home. She confesses that she escaped rehab to help her family in the aftermath of the Diane Jenkin's murder investigation. Deacon threatened to confess that he saw Victor, Victoria and Nicholas in the park the night of Diane's murder unless Nikki would marry him; she agreed. Nikki began having memory lapses of her night in the park with Diane; realizing that she had killed her, not Victor. She confessed to this at Victor's trial. Detective Ronan Malloy arrested Nikki for the murder; however, footage from the night, shot by Deacon, revealed that while Nikki did kill Diane at the park, it was in self-defense. Additional footage showed that Deacon finished her off, serving the last fatal blow to Diane's head. Deacon was jailed and his marriage to Nikki ended. Nikki's brief relationship with Victor failed; she began to reconnect with Jack who was suffering from a gunshot wound from Patty Williams that had left him paralyzed. Their relationship heated up, much to the dismay of Kyle, yet he came to accept the relationship, and Nikki and Jack remarried. Yet, the day of her marriage, Victor remarried Sharon Newman, but then went suddenly missing. Nikki ended up leaving Genoa City to try to find Victor, but to no avail. When she returned, Jack decided they should divorce. Victor later returned, having lived in Los Angeles with amnesia. He reunited with Nikki and set out to destroy Sharon and Tucker McCall who took control of Newman during his absence. After Victor lost control of Newman to Jack through a hostile takeover, Victor suffered a heart attack, and later Sharon burned down the Newman Ranch during a mental breakdown. Once Victor escaped the hospital to visit the ruins, he and Nikki finally got engaged. However, their wedding was delayed because Nikki was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis.

text: Victor and Nikki finally remarried on March 20, 2013, in a ceremony that ended with Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) taking an assassin's bullet meant for Victor. Adam survived, and he and Victor began to rebuild their relationship. Nikki continued with her MS treatments, and held fundraisers for research. Katherine Chancellor died in August after a three-month vacation around the world. Katherine left Nikki and Jill in charge of her memorial service, and left Nikki a letter encouraging her to look into the child she had following her stay at the New World Commune.

text: Reception[edit]

text:
"Nikki has done some outrageous things, from sleeping with Victor's worst enemy, Jack Abbott, to hitting the bottle and blacking out. Victor gets disgusted with Nikki's actions, yet he always find his way right back to her bed. No matter how many men Nikki sleeps with, she finds her way back to Victor as well."[24]
—Jae Jones of Yahoo! on Nikki's storylines over the years (2011)

text: The character and actress are considered icons in American daytime television.[46] TV Guide has said that Scott has become "immensely popular" over the course of her run.[47] Michael Fairman of On-Air On-Soaps describes Scott as the "leading lady of Y&R".[44] BuzzWorthy Radio wrote that Scott is "a true fan favorite and daytime royalty".[48] Former executive producer and head writer Maria Arena Bell called Nikki one of the "hearts and souls" on the soap opera, and said: "Melody is a phenomenal actress. Nikki is one of the great core characters of The Young and the Restless."[49] Nikki's pairing with Victor has received positive reviews from critics throughout the years; The News & Advance cited Victor and Nikki with other romances considered "epic" of the early supercouple era.[50] Global News wrote of their long-standing relationship, "Victor is the consummate womanizer and has been a part of many relationships over the years. Nonetheless, his heart belongs to one woman alone, the stunning Nikki Reed. Despite true love and good intention, the relationship between Victor and Nikki has always been troubled by poor timing and miscommunication."[51] Jae Jones of Yahoo! wrote in 2011, "Over the years fans have watch Victor and Nikki break up and get back together more times than they can keep track. The love between the two has always been strong, but it doesn't seem strong enough to keep the two together."[24] In 1987, Lilana Novakovich of the Toronto Star wrote that Nikki was the "lucky missus of the sexy Eric Braeden".[52] A syndicated article that appeared in The Vindicator in 2003 stated of Nikki and Victor's relationship, "Their relationship is both strong and mistrustful, fraught with passion and tension."[53] The Austin American-Statesman acclaimed Scott's portrayal in 1991, writing: "After 12 long years of portraying Nikki Newman Abbott on The Young and the Restless, Melody Thomas Scott has become a master at tackling one on-screen dilemma after another. Since Nikki's arrival in Genoa City back in 1979, she has been brainwashed by a bizarre religious cult; gotten caught up in the world of striptease and circa 1987 miraculously survived a "fatal" disease called sarcoidosis."[54] In October 1992, Marla Hart of the Chicago Tribune wrote of the character's life at the time, saying: "There's the Newman living room and its bar, where Nikki has gotten plastered; the ruffly bedroom where she has fretted over her two main squeezes, Jack Abbott and Victor Newman; and Victor's marble-ized office, where Nikki Newman Abbott has cried on the leather sofa scores of times."[55] In 2002, Entertainment Weekly wrote that the soap opera was "keeping it real" with Victor and Nikki's third wedding.[56] Upon their fourth wedding in 2013, the magazine stated: "Say what you will about Victor (and we’ve all said a lot), but the ol’ boy definitely knows who is best for him — Nikki."[57]

text: In 2006, when Scott celebrated 27 years on the soap opera, the Jamaica Gleaner wrote of her portrayal and the character's evolution, "As Nikki Reed Newman — a character who has been married seven times (twice to Victor), been addicted to alcohol and pain pills, killed her sexual-molester father and been shot several times — Melody has an exciting alter ego. Through it all, Nikki has matured into the strong, independent woman that she is today."[58] In 2011, the soap opera's ratings reportedly decreased when Scott was absent.[59] When she renewed her contract with the series, Michael Logan of TV Guide wrote: "Our long national nightmare is over! Execs at The Young and the Restless have finally seen the light and are bringing Melody Thomas Scott back to the show." He also wrote that it was "not a smooth move" to keep Scott off the soap opera, saying: "Considering Thomas Scott was at the top of storyline — and giving the performance of her career — when Nikki suddenly left Genoa City and went into rehab. Curiously, those money issues at Y&R didn't stop the suits from hiring lots of new high-profile faces in recent months, including Emmy-winning suds greats Genie Francis and Debbi Morgan — a fact that did not go ignored by Thomas Scott's legion of irate fans who organized a massive Twitter campaign to bring their girl back."[47] Lori Harito of Global wrote that "the woman we love to hate" would be "back on our screens, no doubt butting heads with Victor Newman".[60]

text: Sara Bibel of Xfinity wrote that she had hoped Nikki's relationship with Deacon Sharpe (Sean Kanan) would blossom into a "real romance". She also wrote about Nikki and Victor's union, stating: "Nikki and Victor’s (Eric Braeden) romance has lasted three decades because they were separated for years at a time, involved in fully developed, longterm relationships with other characters, while continuing to be drawn into each other’s orbit. It’s a shame that the current regime has not realized the story potential of keeping these characters apart."[61] Bibel criticized Nikki's reunion with Jack in 2012, blaming it on the soap opera's "creative trouble". She wrote: "They were a great couple the first time they got together. There seemed like a parallel between the back problems that Nikki was struggling with when they were married and Jack’s paralysis. It seemed like the recipe for a beautiful love story, as Nikki helped Jack realize that he was still desirable despite his injury and help him adjust to the changes in his life until, being that this is a soap, he miraculously regains the ability to walk again. Instead of watching a friendship bloom into romance, Jack and Nikki hooked up one night in Vegas and, bam, instant relationship."[62] The following year, she predicted Nikki could be potentially diagnosed with either multiple sclerosis or Parkinson's disease. Bibel wrote that she usually finds soap opera medical storylines "tedious because I know going in that the character will inevitably be cured. But giving a character a chronic but manageable illness is a fresh spin."[63]

text: Scott's portrayal has garnered numerous accolades throughout the years, including nominations for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series in 1999 and the Special Fan Award in 2001.[64] She has received six Soap Opera Digest Award nominations, winning once in 2001 for Outstanding Lead Actress.[65]


document_title: Sphenoid bone

question_text: where is the pituitary gland located in the sphenoid bone

text: Sphenoid bone

text: Structure[edit]

text: It is divided into the following parts:

text:
a median portion, known as the body of sphenoid bone, containing the sella turcica, which houses the pituitary gland as well as the paired paranasal sinuses, the sphenoidal sinuses[5]
two greater wings on the lateral side of the body and two lesser wings from the anterior side.
Pterygoid processes of the sphenoides, directed downwards from the junction of the body and the greater wings.[4]

text: Two sphenoidal conchae are situated at the anterior and inferior part of the body.

text: Intrinsic ligaments of the sphenoid[edit]

text: The more important of these are:

text:
the pterygospinous, stretching between the spina angularis and the lateral pterygoid plate see (cervical fascia);
the interclinoid, a fibrous process joining the anterior to the posterior clinoid process;
and the caroticoclinoid, connecting the anterior to the middle clinoid process.

text: These ligaments occasionally ossify.

text: Features[edit]

text:
pterygoid notch
pterygoid fossa
scaphoid fossa
pterygoid hamulus
pterygoid canal
pterygospinous process
sella turcica

text: Articulations[edit]

text: The sphenoid articulates with the frontal, parietal, ethmoid, temporal, zygomatic, palatine, vomer, and occipital bones and helps to connect the neurocranium to the facial skeleton.

text: Body of sphenoid[edit]

text: Superior or cerebral surface[edit]

text: Articulates with ethmoid bone anteriorly and basilar part of occipital bone posteriorly. It shows:

text:
Jugum sphenoidale
Sulcus chiasmaticus
Tuberculum sellae
Sella turcica
Dorsum sellae
Clivus

tag: ol

text: Inferior surface[edit]

text:
Rostrum of sphenoid
Sphenoidal conchae
Vaginal processes of medial pterygoid plate

text: Anterior surface[edit]

text: Sphenoidal crest articulates with the perpendicular plate of ethmoid leading to formation of a part of the septum of nose.

text: Posterior surface[edit]

text: Basilar part of occipital bone

text: Lateral surface[edit]

text: Carotid sulcus lodging cavernous sinus and internal carotid artery

text: Sphenoidal sinuses[edit]

text: These are asymmetrical air sinuses in the body of the sphenoid, closed by Sphenoidal conchae

text: Greater wings[edit]

text: Superior or cerebral surface[edit]

text: This forms the floor of the middle cranial fossa. It presents (starting from the front):

text:
Foramen rotundum
Foramen ovale
Emissary sphenoidale foramen
Foramen spinosum[4]

text: Lateral surface[edit]

text: This is divided into (by infratemporal crest):

text:
Upper or temporal surface
Lower or infratemporal surface[4]

text: Foramen pierce it:

text:
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum

text: Orbital surface[edit]

text: This forms the posterior wall of the orbit [4]

text: Lesser wings[edit]

text: These are two triangular wings projecting laterally from anterosuperior part of the body. Each consists of:

text:
A base forming medial end of the wing.
Tip forming the lateral end of the wing.
Superior surface forming floor of anterior cranial fossa.
Inferior surface forming upper boundary of superior orbital fissure.
Posterior surface projects into the Sylvian point.
Medially, terminates in the anterior clinoid process.[4]

text: Development[edit]

text: Until the seventh or eighth month of fetal development, the body of the sphenoid consists of two parts: one in front of the tuberculum sellæ, the presphenoid, with which the small wings are continuous; the other, consisting of the sella turcica and dorsum sellae, the postsphenoid, with which are associated the great wings, and pterygoid processes.

text: The greater part of the bone is ossified in cartilage. There are fourteen centers in all, six for the presphenoid and eight for the postsphenoid.

text: Presphenoid[edit]

text: By about the ninth week of fetal development an ossific center appears for each of the small wings (orbito-sphenoids) just lateral to the optic foramen; this is followed by the appearance of two nuclei in the presphenoid part of the body.

text: The sphenoidal conchae are each developed from a center that makes its appearance about the fifth month; at birth they consist of small triangular laminae, and it is not until the third year that they become hollowed out and coneshaped; about the fourth year they fuse with the labyrinths of the ethmoid bone, and between the ninth and twelfth years they unite with the sphenoid bone.

text: Postsphenoid[edit]

text: The first ossific nuclei are those for the great wings (alisphenoids). One makes its appearance in each wing between the foramen rotundum and foramen ovale about the eighth week. The orbital plate and that part of the sphenoid, which is found in the temporal fossa, as well as the lateral pterygoid plate, are ossified in membrane (Fawcett).

text: Soon after, the centers for the postsphenoid part of the body appear, one on either side of the sella turcica, and become blended together about the middle of fetal life.

text: Each medial pterygoid plate (except its hamulus) is ossified in membrane, and its center probably appears about the ninth or tenth week; the hamulus becomes chondrified during the third month, and almost at once ossifies (Fawcett).

text: The medial joins the lateral pterygoid plate about the sixth month.

text: About the fourth month, a center appears for each lingula and speedily joins the rest of the bone.

text: The presphenoid is united to the postsphenoid about the eighth month, and at birth the sphenoid is in three pieces [Fig. 4]: a central, consisting of the body and small wings, and two lateral, each comprising a great wing and pterygoid process.

text: In the first year after birth the great wings and body unite, and the small wings extend inward above the anterior part of the body, and, meeting with each other in the middle line, form an elevated smooth surface, termed the jugum sphenoidale.

text: By the twenty-fifth year the sphenoid and occipital are completely fused.

text: Between the pre- and postsphenoid there are occasionally seen the remains of a canal, the canalis cranio-pharyngeus, through which, in early fetal life, the hypophyseal diverticulum of the buccal ectoderm is transmitted.

text: The sphenoidal sinuses are present as minute cavities at the time of birth (Onodi), but do not attain their full size until after puberty.

text: Function[edit]

text: This bone assists with the formation of the base and the sides of the skull, and the floors and walls of the orbits. It is the site of attachment for most of the muscles of mastication. Many foramina and fissures are located in the sphenoid that carry nerves and blood vessels of the head and neck, such as the superior orbital fissure (with ophthalmic nerve), foramen rotundum (with maxillary nerve) and foramen ovale (with mandibular nerve).[6]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The sphenoid bone of humans is homologous with a number of bones that are often separate in other animals, and have a somewhat complex arrangement.

text: In the early lobe-finned fishes and tetrapods, the pterygoid bones were flat, wing-like bones forming the major part of the roof of the mouth. Above the pterygoids were the epipterygoid bones, which formed part of a flexible joint between the braincase and the palatal region, as well as extending a vertical bar of bone towards the roof of the skull. Between the pterygoids lay an elongated, narrow parasphenoid bone, which also spread over some of the lower surface of the braincase, and connected, at its forward end, with a sphenethmoid bone helping to protect the olfactory nerves. Finally, the basisphenoid bone formed part of the floor of the braincase and lay immediately above the parasphenoid.[7]

text: Aside from the loss of the flexible joint at the rear of the palate, this primitive pattern is broadly retained in reptiles, albeit with some individual modifications. In birds, the epipterygoids are absent and the pterygoids considerably reduced. Living amphibians have a relatively simplified skull in this region; a broad parasphenoid forms the floor of the braincase, the pterygoids are relatively small, and all other related bones except the sphenethmoid are absent.[7]

text: In mammals, these various bones are often (though not always) fused into a single structure; the sphenoid. The basisphenoid forms the posterior part of the base, while the pterygoid processes represent the pterygoid bones. The epipterygoids have extended into the wall of the cranium; they are referred to as alisphenoids when separate in mammals, and form the greater wings of the sphenoid when fused into a larger structure. The sphenethmoid bone forms as three bones: the lesser wings and the anterior part of the base. These two parts of the sphenethmoid may be distinguished as orbitosphenoids and presphenoid, respectively, although there is often some degree of fusion. Only the parasphenoid appears to be entirely absent in mammals.[7]

text: In the dog the sphenoid is represented by 8 bones: basisphenoid, alisphenoids, presphenoid, orbitosphenoids, pterygoids. These bones remain separate and are the:

text:
2 Alisphenoids: each greater wing
2 Orbitosphenoids: each lesser wing
Basisphenoid: back part of body
Presphenoid: front part of body
2 Pterygoids: medial pterygoid plate

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Position of sphenoid bone (shown in green). Animation.

Seen from below (mandible is removed)

Seen from above (parietal bones are removed)

Shape of sphenoid bone.

Facial bones.

Lateral wall of nasal cavity, showing ethmoid bone in position.

Base of skull. Inferior surface.

Lateral view of the skull.

Horizontal section of nasal and orbital cavities.

Floor of the skull.

Roof, floor, and lateral wall of left nasal cavity.

The skull from the front. The sphenoid is labeled with yellow to the left of the picture, both in the orbit and behind the zygomatic process

Sphenoid bone

Sphenoid bone - anterior view

Sphenoid bone superior view

Sphenoid bone and temporal bones

Tympanic cavity. Facial canal. Internal carotid artery.


document_title: Metabolic waste

question_text: nitrogenous wastes may be produced as a result of the metabolism of

text: Metabolic waste

text: Nitrogen wastes[edit]

text: The nitrogen compounds through which excess nitrogen is eliminated from organisms are called nitrogenous wastes (/naɪˈtrɒdʒɪnəs/) or nitrogen wastes. They are ammonia, urea, uric acid, and creatinine. All of these substances are produced from protein metabolism. In many animals, the urine is the main route of excretion for such wastes; in some, the feces is.

text: Ammonotelism[edit]

text: Ammonotelism is the excretion of ammonia and ammonium ions. Ammonia (NH3) forms with the oxidation of amino groups.(-NH2), which are removed from the proteins when they convert into carbohydrates. It is a very toxic substance to tissues and extremely soluble in water. Only one nitrogen atom is removed with it. A lot of water is needed for the excretion of ammonia, about 0.5 L of water is needed per 1 g of nitrogen to maintain ammonia levels in the excretory fluid below the level in body fluids to prevent toxicity. Thus, the marine organisms excrete ammonia directly into the water and are called ammonotelic.[1] Ammonotelic animals include protozoans, crustaceans, platyhelminths, cnidarians, poriferans, echinoderms, and other aquatic invertebrates.[2]

text: Ureotelism[edit]

text: The excretion of urea is called ureotelism. Land animals, mainly amphibians and mammals, convert ammonia into urea, a process which occurs in the liver and kidney. These animals are called ureotelic.[2] Urea is a less toxic compound than ammonia; two nitrogen atoms are eliminated through it and less water is needed for its excretion. It requires 0.05 L of water to excrete 1 g of nitrogen, approximately only 10% of that required in ammonotelic organisms.

text: Uricotelism[edit]

text: Uricotelism is the ridding of excess nitrogen using uric acid. This method is used by birds and diapsids, insects, lizards, and snakes, and these animals are called uricotelic.[2] Uric acid is less toxic than ammonia or urea. It contains four nitrogen atoms and only a small amount of water (about 0.001 L per 1 g of nitrogen) is needed for its excretion. Uric acid is the least soluble in water and can be stored in cells and body tissues without toxic effects. A single molecule of uric acid can remove four atoms of nitrogen making uricotelism more efficient than ammonotelism or ureotelism.[2]

text: Uricotelic organisms typically have white pasty excreta. Some mammals including humans excrete uric acid as a component of their urine but it is only a small amount.

text: Water and gases[edit]

text: These compounds form during the catabolism of carbohydrates and lipids in condensation reactions, and in some other metabolic reactions of the amino acids. Oxygen is produced by plants and some bacteria in photosynthesis, while CO2 is a waste product of all animals and plants. Nitrogen gases are produced by denitrifying bacteria and as a waste product, and bacteria for decaying yield ammonia, as do most invertebrates and vertebrates. Water is the only liquid waste from animals and photosynthesizing plants.[3]

text: Solids[edit]

text: Nitrates and nitrites are wastes produced by nitrifying bacteria, just as sulfur and sulfates are produced by sulfur-reducing bacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria. Insoluble iron waste can be made by iron bacteria by using soluble forms. In plants, resins, fats, waxes, and complex organic chemicals are exuded from plants, e.g., the latex from rubber trees and milkweeds. Solid waste products may be manufactured as organic pigments derived from breakdown of pigments like hemoglobin, and inorganic salts like carbonates, bicarbonates, and phosphate, whether in ionic or molecular form, are excreted as solids.[3]

text: Animals dispose of solid waste as feces.