document_title: History of smoking

question_text: what came first the cigar or the cigarette

root

text: History of smoking

text: Early usages[edit]

text: Smoking has been practiced in one form or another since ancient times. Tobacco and various hallucinogenic drugs were smoked all over the Americas as early as 5000 BC in shamanistic rituals and originated in the Peruvian and Ecuadorian Andes.[1] Many ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonians, Indians and Chinese, burnt incense as a part of religious rituals, as did the Israelites and the later Catholic and Orthodox Christian churches.

tag: p

text: In Ancient Greece, smoke was used as healing practice and the Oracle of Delphi made prophecies while intoxicated by inhaling natural gases from a natural bore hole. The Greek historian Herodotos also wrote that the Scythians used cannabis for ritual mourning purposes and, to some degree, pleasure. He describes how Scythians burned hemp seed (IV, 75):

text:
“
At once it begins to smoke, giving off a vapour unsurpassed by any vapour-bath one could find in Greece. The Scythians enjoy it so much that they howl with pleasure.[2]
”

tag: table

text: James L. Butrica criticized this view, emphasizing that the term "ἀγάμενοι" should be translated as "astounded" or "in mourning", as this is "closer to what one might expect in a ritual connected with death".[3] This type of ritual has been confirmed as a result of archeological discoveries.[4][5]

text: Robicsek posits that smoking in the Americas probably originated in incense-burning ceremonies, and was later adopted for pleasure or as a social tool.[6] The Maya employed it in classical times (at least from the 10th century) and the Aztecs included it in their mythology. The Aztec goddess Cihuacoahuatl had a body consisting of tobacco, and the priests that performed human sacrifices wore tobacco gourds as symbols of divinity. Even today certain Tzeltal Maya sacrifice 13 calabashes of tobacco at New Year.[7] The smoking of tobacco and various other hallucinogenic drugs was used to achieve trances and to come into contact with the spirit world. Reports from the first European explorers and conquistadors to reach the Americas tell of rituals where native priests smoked themselves into such high degrees of intoxication that it is unlikely that the rituals were limited to just tobacco. No concrete evidence of exactly what they smoked exists, but the most probable theory is that the tobacco was much stronger, consumed in extreme amounts, or was mixed with other, unknown psychoactive drugs.

text: In early North America the most common form of smoking by indigenous peoples was in pipes, either for social or religious purposes (which varied between different cultures). Sometimes pipes were smoked by representatives of warring tribes, and later with European settlers, as a gesture of goodwill, diplomacy, or to seal a peace treaty (hence the misnomer, "peace pipe"). In the Caribbean, Mexico and Central and South America, early forms of cigarettes include smoking reeds or cigars were the most common smoking tools. Only in modern times has the use of pipes become fairly widespread. Smoking is depicted in engravings and on various types of pottery as early as the 9th century, but it is not known whether it was limited to just the upper class and priests.[8]

text: After Europeans arrived in the Americas in the late 15th century tobacco smoking as a recreational activity became widespread. At the banquets of Aztec nobles, the meal would commence by passing out fragrant flowers and smoking tubes for the dinner guests. At the end of the feast, which would last all night, the remaining flowers, smoking tubes and food would be given as a kind of alms to old and poor people who had been invited to witness the social occasion, or it would be rewarded to the servants.[9]

text: Popularization of smokes[edit]

text: Europe[edit]

text: A Frenchman named Jean Nicot (from whose name the word nicotine derives) introduced tobacco to France in 1560 from Spain. From there, it spread to England. The first report of a smoking Englishman is of a sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen "emitting smoke from his nostrils."[10] Like tea, coffee and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants originally used as a form of medicine.[11]

text: Early modern European medical science was still to a great extent based on humorism, the idea that everything had a specific humoral nature that varied between hot and cold, dry and moist. Tobacco was often seen as something that was beneficial in its heating and drying properties and was assigned an endless list of beneficial properties. The concept of ingesting substances in the form of smoke was also entirely new and was met with both astonishment and great skepticism by Europeans.

text: The debate raged among priests, scientists and laymen whether tobacco was a bane or boon and both sides had powerful supporters. The English king James I was one of the first outspoken skeptics and wrote A Counterblaste to Tobacco, an unforgiving literary assault on what he believed was a menace to society. Though rife with, at times, irrelevant and partial arguments, it did address some of the health issues and pointed out the peculiar fact that tobacco was frequently assigned conflicting, and at times almost miraculous, properties:

text:
“
It makes a man sober that was drunke. It refreshes a weary man, and yet makes a man hungry. Being taken when they goe to bed, it makes one sleepe soundly, and yet being taken when a man is sleepie and drowsie, it will, as they say, awake his braine, and quicken his understanding. As for curing of the Pockes, it serves for that use but among the pockie Indian slaves. Here in England it is refined, and will not deigne to cure heere any other than cleanly and gentlemanly diseases.[12]
”

text: South Asia[edit]

text: Cannabis smoking in India has been known since at least 2000 BC[13] and is first mentioned in the Atharvaveda, which dates back a few hundred years BC. Fumigation (dhupa) and fire offerings (homa) are prescribed in the Ayurveda for medical purposes and have been practiced for at least 3,000 years while smoking, dhumrapana (literally "drinking smoke"), has been practiced for at least 2,000 years.

text: Fumigation and fire offerings have been performed with various substances, including clarified butter (ghee), fish offal, dried snake skins, and various pastes molded around incense sticks and lit to spread the smoke over wide areas. The practice of inhaling smoke was employed as a remedy for many different ailments. It was not limited to just cannabis, but various plants and medicinal concoctions recommended to promote general health were also used.

text: Before modern times, smoking was done with pipes with stems of various lengths, or chillums. Today dhumapana has been replaced almost entirely by cigarette smoking, but both dhupa and homa are still practiced. Beedi, a type of handrolled herbal cigarette consisting of cloves, ground betel nut, and tobacco, usually with rather low proportion of tobacco, are a modern descendant of the historical dhumapana.[14]

text: In Indonesia, a specific type of cigarette that includes cloves called kretek was invented in the early 1880s as a way of delivering the therapeutic properties of clove oil, or eugenol, to the lungs. It quickly became a popular cough remedy, and in the early 20th century kretek, producers began to market pre-rolled clove cigarettes. In the 1960s and 70s, kretek took on the form of a national symbol, with tax breaks compared to "white" cigarettes[15] and the production began to shift from traditional hand-rolling to machine-rolling.

text: The industrial method passed the hand-rolled type in numbers in the mid-1980s and today kretek dominates up to 90% of the Indonesian cigarette market. The production is one of the largest sources of income for the Indonesian government and the production, which is spread out on some 500 independent manufacturers, employs some 180,000 people directly and over 10 million indirectly.[16]

text: The Middle East[edit]

text: Cannabis smoking was common in the Middle East before the arrival of tobacco, and, early on, was a common social activity centered on the type of water pipe called a hookah. As today, the pipes often had several tubes to accommodate multiple smokers, or smokers would pass the nozzle around in the many smoking houses that functioned as social hubs in major centers of Muslim culture like Istanbul, Baghdad, and Cairo. Smoking, especially after the introduction of tobacco, was an essential component of Muslim society and culture and became integrated with important traditions like weddings, funerals and was expressed in architecture, clothing, literature and poetry.[17]

text: There is reference to tobacco in Persian poem dating from before 1536, but because of the lack of any corroborating sources, the authenticity of the source has been questioned. The next reliable eyewitness account of tobacco smoking is by a Spanish envoy in 1617, but by this time the practice was already deeply engrained in Persian society.

text: The water pipe called Argila (or hookah) was created in Persia. The pipes of the rich were made of finely crafted glass and precious metals while common people used coconuts with bamboo tubing, and these were used to smoke cannabis before the arrival of tobacco.

text: The two substances in combination became very popular and were also smoked in normal "dry" pipes. The water pipe, however, remained the most common smoking tool until the introduction of the cigarette in the 20th century. Foreign visitors to the region often remarked that smoking was immensely popular among Persians. On Ramadan, the Muslim period of fasting when no food is eaten while the sun is up, among the first thing many Persians did after sunset was light their pipes.

text: Both sexes smoked, but for women it was a private affair enjoyed in the seclusion of private homes. In the 19th century Iran was one of the world's largest tobacco exporters, and the habit had by then become a national Iranian trait.[18]

text: East Asia[edit]

text: After the European discovery of the Americas, tobacco spread to Asia—first via Spanish and Portuguese sailors, and later by the Dutch and English. Spain and Portugal were active in Central and South America, where cigarettes and cigars were the smoking tools of choice, and their sailors smoked mostly cigars. The English and Dutch had contact with the pipe smoking natives of North America, and adopted the habit. While the southern Europeans began smoking earlier, it was the long-stemmed pipes of the northerners that became popular in East and Southeast Asia. Tobacco smoking arrived through expatriates in the Philippines and was introduced as early as the 1570s.[19]

text: By the early 17th century the kiseru, a long-stemmed Japanese pipe inspired by Dutch clay pipes, was common enough to be mentioned in Buddhist text books for children. The practice of tobacco smoking evolved as a part of the Japanese tea ceremony by employing many of the traditional object used to burn incense for tobacco smoking. The kō-bon (the incense tray) became the tabako-bon, the incense burner evolved into a pot for tobacco embers and the incense pot became an ash tray.

text: During the Edo period, weapons were frequently used as objects of ostentation, indicating wealth and social status. Since only samurai were allowed to carry weapons, an elaborate kiseru slung from the waist served a similar purpose. After the Meiji restoration and abolishing of the caste system, many craftsmen who previously decorated swords switched to designing kiserus and buckles for tobacco pouches. Though mass-production of cigarettes began in the late 19th century, not until after World War II did the kiseru go out of style and become an object of tradition and relative obscurity.[20]

text: Sub-Saharan Africa[edit]

text: Cannabis smoking was introduced to Sub-Saharan Africa through Ethiopia and the east African coast by either Indian or Arab traders in the 13th century or earlier and spread on the same trade routes as those that carried coffee, which originated in the highlands of Ethiopia.[21] It was smoked in calabash water pipes with terra cotta smoking bowls, apparently an Ethiopian invention later conveyed to eastern, southern, and central Africa.

text: Around 1600, French merchants introduced tobacco in what is now Gambia and Senegal. At the same time, caravans from Morocco brought tobacco to the area around Timbuktu, and the Portuguese brought the commodity (and the plant) to southern Africa. This established the popularity of tobacco throughout all of Africa by the 1650s. Imported tobacco and tobacco pipes became prized and valuable trading goods and were both quickly absorbed into African cultural traditions, rituals, and politics. The practice spawned a rich artistic tradition of decorated pipes of wood, ceramics, and eventually metal in an endless variety of themes and motifs of all shapes and sizes.

text: Tobacco and cannabis were used, much like elsewhere in the world, to confirm social relations, but also created entirely new ones. In what is today Congo, a society called Bena Diemba ("People of Cannabis") was organized in the late 19th century in Lubuko ("The Land of Friendship").

text: The Bena Diemba were collectivist pacifists that rejected alcohol and herbal medicines in favor of cannabis.[22] Certain other herbs have been and still are smoked by certain African communities. Tabwa shamans smoke lubowe (Amaranthus dubius), a plant said to help shamans see invisible spirit sorcerers, even though there are no reports of the substance being hallucinogenic.[citation needed]

text: Some groups, such as the Fang of Gabon consume eboga (Tabernanthe iboga), a mind-altering drug in religious rituals. In modern Africa, smoking is, in most areas, considered an expression of modernity, and many of the strong adverse opinions that prevail in the West receive less attention.[23]

text: Opium[edit]

text: In the 19th century, smoking opium became common. Previously it had only been eaten, and then primarily for its medical properties. A massive increase in opium smoking in China was more or less directly instigated by the British trade deficit with Qing dynasty China. As a way to amend this problem, the British began exporting large amounts of opium grown in the Indian colonies.

text: The social problems and the large net loss of currency led to several Chinese attempts to stop the imports, which eventually culminated in the First and Second Opium Wars. Opium smoking later spread with Chinese immigrants and spawned many infamous opium dens in China towns around South and Southeast Asia and Europe.

text: In the latter half of the 19th century, opium smoking became popular in the artistic community in Europe, especially Paris in artists' neighborhoods such as Montparnasse and Montmartre being virtual opium capitals. While opium dens that catered primarily to emigrant Chinese continued to exist in China Towns around the world, the trend among the European artists largely abated after the outbreak of World War I.[24]

text: Social stigma[edit]

text: Early opposition[edit]

text: Ever since smoking was introduced outside of the Americas, there has been much vehement opposition to it. Arguments ranged from socio-economic, with tobacco called a usurper of good farm land—to purely moralistic, where many religiously devout individuals saw tobacco as another form of immoral intoxication. Many arguments were presented to the effect that smoking was harmful, and even if the critics were in the end right about many of their claims, the complaints were usually not based on scientific arguments, and if they were, these often relied on humorism and other pre-modern scientific methods.

text: Dr Eleazar Duncon, 1606, wrote [25] that tobacco "...is so hurtful and dangerous to youth that it might have the pernicious nation expressed in the name, and that it were as well known by the name of Youths-bane as by the name of tobacco."

text: Early 17th century descriptive notices of various characteristic types and fashions of men portray tobacconists and smokers as individuals who suffer from false self-images and mistaken illusions about the properties of tobacco taking.[26] Though physicians such as Benjamin Rush claimed tobacco use (including smoking) negatively impacted health as far back as 1798,[27] not until the early 20th century did researchers begin to conduct serious medical studies.

text: Nascent political resistance[edit]

text: The late-19th century invention of automated cigarette-making machinery in the American South made possible mass production of cigarettes at low cost, and cigarettes became elegant and fashionable among society men as the Victorian era gave way to the Edwardian. In 1912, American Dr. Isaac Adler was the first to strongly suggest that lung cancer is related to smoking.[28]

text: Prior to World War I, lung cancer was a rare disease that most physicians never saw in their career.[29][30]

text: With the postwar rise in cigarette smoking, however, the significant increase in lung cancer promoted nascent investigations into the link between smoking and cancer. In 1929, Fritz Lickint of Dresden, Germany, published a formal statistical evidence of a lung cancer–tobacco link, based on a study that showed lung cancer sufferers were likely to be smokers.[31] Lickint also argued that tobacco use was the best way to explain the fact that lung cancer struck men four or five times more often than women (since women smoked much less).[31]

text: In Germany, anti-smoking groups, often associated with anti-liquor groups,[32] first published advocacy against the consumption of tobacco in the journal Der Tabakgegner (The Tobacco Opponent), by the Bohemian organization between 1912 and 1932. The Deutsche Tabakgegner (German Tobacco Opponents) was published in Dresden from 1919 to 1935, and was the second journal on this subject.[33]

text: After Adolf Hitler rose to power during the great depression, he condemned his earlier smoking habit as a waste of money.[34] In later years, Hitler viewed smoking as "decadent"[35] and "the wrath of the Red Man against the White Man, vengeance for having been given hard liquor,"[34] lamenting that "...so many excellent men have been lost to tobacco poisoning."[36]

text: Nazi reproductive policy likewise strengthened the anti-smoking movement. Women who smoked were considered vulnerable to premature aging and loss of physical attractiveness—unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family. Werner Huttig of the Nazi Party's Rassenpolitisches Amt (Office of Racial Politics) said that a smoking mother's breast milk contained nicotine,[37] a claim modern research has verified.[38] Nazi political resistance to smoking, however, did not cross enemy lines.

text: Scientific rationalization[edit]

text: A true breakthrough came in 1948, when the British epidemiologist Richard Doll published the first major studies that demonstrated that smoking could cause serious health damage.[39] While some physicians in the United States once pitched cigarettes as health-improving products, some commentators now argue that it is unethical for physicians, as role models, to smoke at all.[40]

text: In 1950, Richard Doll published research in the British Medical Journal that showed a close link between smoking and lung cancer.[41] Four years later, in 1954 the British Doctors Study, a study of some 40 thousand doctors over 20 years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related.[42] The British Doctors Study lasted till 2001, with result published every ten years and final results published in 2004 by Doll and Richard Peto.[43] Much early research was also done by Dr. Ochsner. Reader's Digest magazine for many years published frequent anti-smoking articles.

text: In 1964 the United States Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health began the font, suggesting a link between smoking and cancer. This eventually led to bans on certain advertising, and requirements for warning labels on tobacco products.

text: Since the 1990s, smoking defense groups have reacted against legislation in some countries with increased taxes, restrictions on where to smoke, and anti-smoking campaigns. These groups feel that new regulations and the general atmosphere are oppressive, and stigmatization placed on them is excessive. Some smoking defense groups are independent,[44] while others are funded by tobacco companies.[45]

text: In the 21st century, smoking has become stigmatized throughout Western societies[46], but it is still a frequent practice among individuals with lower socioeconomic status.[47] Research implies that the act of smoking generates intimidating impressions, and it has been suggested that individuals with low socioeconomic status are motivated to smoke by a desire to appear intimidating and forceful.[48][49]

text: Other substances[edit]

text: In the early 1980s, the majority of cocaine shipped to the United States that arrived at Miami came through the Bahamas. However, overproduction of cocaine powder in those islands drove the price down by as much as 80 percent. Confronted with falling profits for their illegal product, drug dealers decided to convert the powder to crack, a solid, smokable form of cocaine, that they could sell in smaller quantities to more people. It was cheap, simple to produce, ready to use, and highly profitable. As early as 1980, reports of crack appeared in Los Angeles, San Diego, Houston, and the Caribbean.[50]

text: This growth in popularity abated in the late 1990s. Described by criminologist Alfred Blumstein, this change resulted from four factors: tighter gun restrictions in areas where crack cocaine is prevalent, a shrinking market and its institutionalization, the robustness of the economy, and the availability of jobs.[51]


document_title: Burmese invasions of Assam

question_text: who was the prime minister of assam when the burmese army came with badanchandra

text: Burmese invasions of Assam

text: Background[edit]

text: In the later part of 18th century, the Ahom Kingdom in Assam was wreaked by series of rebellions. The Moamoria rebellion in Upper Assam and the Dundiya rebellion in Western Assam severely weakened the Ahom Kingdom due to loss of lives and property. The Prime Minister Purnananda Burhagohain tried his best to reestablish Ahom rule over the region. With great efforts, he finally suppressed all the rebellions, and firmly established the royal authority over the kingdom. For smooth functioning of administration or to consolidate his power, he appointed all his relatives in high posts of Ahom Kingdom. Badan Chandra Borphukan, the governor of Guwahati, was anxious of the growing power of Purnananda Burhagohain. At first, he tried to make friendship with Purnananda Burhagohain. He gave his daughter Pijou Gabhoru to Purnananda's son, Urekhanath Dhekial Phukan along with a huge amount of gold ornaments and utensils as dowry. The move backfired when Purnananda Burhagohain expressed his displeasure and suspected Badan Chandra Borphukan of misusing his office. Angered by the behaviour of Purnananda Burhagohain, Badan Chandra Borphukan encouraged conspirators in the capital Jorhat with the aim to assassinate Purnananda Burhagohain. The conspiracy failed and the conspirators were punished. The alleged link of Badan Chandra Borphukan with the conspirators got revealed. Meanwhile the people of Western Assam, complained Burhagohain about the atrocities committed by Badan Chandra Borphukan and his two sons, Janmi and Piyoli. Finally in 1815 CE, Purnananda Burhagohain decided to act and he send a deputation with orders to arrest Badan Chandra Borphukan and bring him to the capital Jorhat for justice. Pijou Gabhoru, the daughter-in-law of Purnananda Burhagohain, who was also the daughter of Badan Chandra Borphukan, send an early message to her father, warning him of the impending danger. Warned by his daughter, Badan Chandra Borphukan escaped to Bengal, which was under British rule. Burhagohain's men caught him at Chilmari in Bengal, but he again escaped with the help of local Thanedar or Police officer. He went to Calcutta and visited the Governor General Lord Hastings with the plea for help to oust Purnananda Burhagohain. The Governor-General declined his plea stating their Policy of Non-interference in the internal matter of another kingdom. Around that time, Badan Chandra Borphukan met the envoy of Burmese King Bodawpaya, who was on a visit at Calcutta. The envoy, after hearing his plea took him to Burma and fixed an appointment with Bodawpaya.[1][2]

text: First Burmese invasion[edit]

text: In 1816, Badan Chandra Borphukan came to the court of Burmese King Bodawpaya and sought help to defeat his political rival Purnananda Burhagohain. The Burmese monarch agreed and send an expedition under a general of Bhamo, with Badan Chandra Borphukan which entered Assam in January 1817. The first battle took place on March 27, 1817 at Ghiladhari. The Assam forces were led by Daman Gogoi, Hao Bora and Jama Khan. The battle continued for a week when Purnananda Burhagohain died due to natural causes.[3] This, according to chronicles, led to the division in the ranks of the Ahom nobility, and due to lack of reinforcements the Assam army surrendered. Ruchinath, the son of Purnananda, became the Burhagohain, and asked the king to evacuate, who refused. This led Ruchinath to suspect that Chandrakanta Singha was in alliance with Badan Chandra Borphukan,[4] and left for Guwahati without the king when the Burmese army advanced toward the Ahom capital at Jorhat. The king, Chandrakanta Singha, stayed behind, received Badan Chandra Borphukan and made him the Mantri Phukan.

text: The Burmese army was paid 100,000 rupees and the commanders were given suitable presents. Hemo Aideo, a daughter of an Ahom prince was sent to the king of Burma with 50 elephants and dowry. The Burmese army left Assam in April 1817. Soon after, Badan Chandra was assassinated. Ruchinath marched against Chandrakanta Singha and made Purandar Singha the king.[5]

text: Second Burmese invasion[edit]

text: Bodawpaya, on hearing this news, sent an army of 30,000 under the command of Kiamingi (Alumingi Borgohain) and guided by Patalang Senapati (Momai Barua). This army was met by an army led by Jaganath Dhekial Phukan on February 15, 1819 at Phulpanisiga, near Janji. The Burmese army was defeated with a loss of about 300 soldiers and retreated a short distance. The Assam army, instead of pursuing the defeated Burmese, returned to the Ahom capital Jorhat leading to much confusion and panic. Failing to instill confidence, Ruchinath Burhagohain and Purandar Singha sailed down to Guwahati, and the Burmese army was able to occupy the capital two days later.[6]

text: Chandrakanta was reinstated as the king on March 9, 1819 followed by execution of the Ahom officials who had supported Ruchinath Burhagohain; and in the middle of April 1819 Kiamingi left for Burma leaving Mingimaha Tilwa in charge. Under Tilwa's orders, Patalang pursued Ruchinath, engaged his forces in Nagaon and finally pushed him beyond Assam chokey. Patalang was made the Borbarua and the Burmese contingent returned to Burma on January 27, 1820.[7] To express his gratitude to Bodawpaya, Chandrakanta Singha sent a princess, Upama Aideo, along with officials and attendants.

text: Nevertheless, Chandrakanta's attitude toward the Burmese changed soon after. Patalang, who was originally a native of Namrup, persuaded the king to shake off Burmese allegiance and had a fort constructed at Jaypur (Dighalighat).[8]

text: Third Burmese invasion[edit]

text: In 1819, Bagyidaw became the king of Burma and decided to annex Assam. He sent Mingimaha Tilwa to Assam in February 1821. Patalang Borbarua was killed and Chandrakanta Singha fled to Guwahati. Mingimaha killed a number of Ahom officials and installed Punyadhar (Jogeshwar Singha), a brother of Hemo Aideo, as the king.[9]

text: Chandrakanta Singha's response[edit]

text: Chandrakanta Singha made his camp at Guwahati and lead his campaign against the Burmese without any help from Ruchinath or Purandar Singha. Purandar, who was unable to raise an army in the British territory, raised one in Bhutan under Robert Bruce, but this force was dispersed by Chandrakanta's forces in May 1821.[9] A large force, deputed by Tilwa, advanced against Chandrakanta (September 1821), who retreated to Assam Chokey and then to the British territories. Unlike Purandar, Chandrakanta was able to raise a force mainly of Sikhs and Hindustani soldiers, and he retook Assam Chokey (October 1821) and Guwahati (December 1821) and pitched his camp at Mahgarh, near Jorhat, on March 15, 1822.[10]

text: Bagyidaw, on hearing of the Assam situation, sent in a 20,000 strong contingent under Mingi Maha Bandula who attacked and defeated the forces of Chandrakanta in April 1822. Chandrakanta fell back to Guwahati, and finally to Assam chaki, where he encountered Mingimaha Tilwa in June 1822. He was defeated and had to further retreat into the British territory. After this victory, the Burmese declared Mingimaha Tilwa the Raja of Assam and brought an end to the sovereign Ahom rule in Assam.[11]

text: Burmese rule[edit]

text: The defeat of Chandrakanta at Assam Chokey brought the Burmese face-to-face with the British in the Brahmaputra valley. Tilwa demanded the British hand over the fugitive king, and threatened to enter British territory to seize him, with about 7,000 troops at Assam Chokey and 1,000 more at Guwahati under Bandula. Nevertheless, the Burmese troops faced logistics issues, and as a result Bandula left Guwahati, leaving Tilwa at Guwahati with only 1,000 troops.[12] At this juncture, the Chandrakanta Singha was invited by the Burmese to come back and rule. Chandrakanta abandoned his Baruas and Phukan's and surrendered to Tilwa at Assam Chokey. When he reached Jorhat, he was seized and imprisoned instead.[13]

text: Alternative Burmese account[edit]

text: This account differs a little from the Burmese account in which the expedition that started in February 1821 with the 20,000 (including 10,000 Hkamti Shan and Kachin levies) Burmese Army is said to take one and a half years to reach Assam when it defeated Chandrakanta Singha in July 1822 and made Assam a Burmese province under a military governor-general, extinguishing the 600-year-old Ahom court once and for all.[14][15] Chandrakanta Singha fled to British territory of Bengal. The British ignored Bandula's demands to surrender the fugitive king, and instead sent reinforcement units to frontier forts.[16] Maha Bandula left a military garrison of 2000 men commanded by Maha Thilawa, and returned to Ava.[17]

text: This period is remembered in Assam as very difficult, with the garrison soldiers and native marauders committing atrocities on the common people leading to thousands leaving Assam for Bengal. Much of the neighboring State of Manipur was also laid waste by the marauding armies.

text: By 1825, the Meiteis had repulsed the Burmese and drove them past the Chindwin river.[18] The occupation led to frequent contacts between the Burmese and the British and finally to the First Burmese war and the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826. This treaty marked the end of Burmese rule and the beginning of British rule in Assam.

text: Alleged atrocities[edit]

text: In Buranji-vivek-ratna, Maniram Dewan, an eyewitness writes:[19]

text: ...in attacking the house of a rich man, would tie him with ropes and then set fire to his body. Some they flayed alive, others they burnt in oil and others again they drove in crowds to village Naamghars or prayer-houses, which they then set on fire... It was dangerous for a beautiful woman to meet a Burmese even on the public road. Brahmans were made to carry loads of beef, pork and wine. The Gosains were robbed of all their possessions. Fathers of damsels whom the Burmese took as wives rose speedily to affluence and power.

text: The sort of fighting and bloody killings that took place between 1812-19 when the Burmese kings of Mandalay tried to conquer and subdue the Shan Ahom kingdom in Assam, India, where the Burmese garrison commander Maha Thilawa's troops committed atrocities. However, the native marauders and hilly tribes, taking advantage of the unstable situation, disguised themselves as Burmese, looted the cities and probably killed more people than the invaders did.[20] The population of Assam was greatly reduced by 2/3 and 1/3 of the men and boys were killed during this period.[not in citation given][21]

text: This event so weakened and disorganized the Shan Ahom that by 1839 the kingdom was completely annexed by the British. Before that from about 1228 - 1839 AD they maintained themselves under one Dynasty, (that of Mong Mao 568-1604 AD when its descendants ruled Hsenwi or Theinni in Burmese). Indeed the Shan Ahom resisted conquest by the Mughals who had conquered much of India before the British incursion.[22] [1] Burmese translation of above interview [2]

text: The Muslim Pangal of Manipur devastated and were taken as slaves by the invading Burmese armies.[23]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ E. A. Gait 1926: 224-225
Jump up ^ S.K. Bhuyan 1968 Tungkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam(1681-1826) : 197-199
Jump up ^ (Baruah 1993, pp. 216–218)
Jump up ^ "The new Burha Gohain endeavoured in vain to induce the king to retreat to Lower Assam, and then, perceiving that the latter intended to sacrifice him, in order to conciliate the Bar Phukan and his Burmese allies, fled westwards to Gauhati." (Gait 1906, p. 222)
Jump up ^ (Gait 1906, p. 223)
Jump up ^ (Baruah 1993, pp. 221–222)
Jump up ^ (Baruah 1993, p. 222)
Jump up ^ (Baruah 1993, pp. 222–223)
^ Jump up to: a b (Baruah 1993, p. 223)
Jump up ^ (Baruah 1993, p. 225)
Jump up ^ (Baruah 1992, p. 225)
Jump up ^ (Baruah 1993, p. 226)
Jump up ^ (Baruah 1993, p. 227)
Jump up ^ Myint-U, River of Lost Footsteps, p. 112
Jump up ^ Myint-U, Making of Modern Burma, pp. 15–16
Jump up ^ Shakespear, pp. 62–63
Jump up ^ Phayre, pp. 233–234
Jump up ^ CHAHI-TARET KHUNTAKPA, 1819-1825 AD (seven years of Manipur anarchy, 3212-3218 MF) IIT Guwahati
Jump up ^ H. K. Barpujari (1980). Assam in the days of the Company, 1826-1858. Spectrum Publications. p. 11.
Jump up ^ (Gait 1906:228)
Jump up ^ (Gait 1906:228) Gait quotes from J Butler, Travels and Adventures in the Province of Assam (1855)
Jump up ^ “DIALOGUE WITH A SHAN LEADER, H.R.H HSO KHAN PHA” . Tiger Yawnghwe or His Royal Highness Prince Hso Khan Pha; he is the eldest son of Sao Shwe Thaik, the former Saopha[Prince] of Yawnghwe[Nyaung-Shwe] and the first President of Burma after Burma's Independence from British colonial rule. Interview with Dr Tayza, Chief Editor of Burma Digest.
Jump up ^ The Muslims of Manipur

tag: ol


document_title: Declarations of war during World War II

question_text: when did germany declare war on belgium ww2

text: Declarations of war during World War II

text: This is a timeline of formal declarations of War during World War II.

text: A declaration of war is a formal act by which one nation goes to war against another.  The declaration is usually an act of delivering a performative speech (not to be confused with a mere speech) or the presentation of a signed document by an authorized party of a national government in order to create a state of war between two or more sovereign states.  The official international protocol for declaring war was defined in The Hague Peace Conference of 1907 (or Hague II).[1]  For the diplomatic maneuvering behind these events, which led to hostilities between nations during World War II, see the article entitled Diplomatic history of World War II.

text: List of war declarations[edit]

text: Below is a table showing the Outbreaks of Wars between Nations which occurred during World War II.  Indicated are the dates (during the immediate build-up to, or during the course of, World War II), from which a de facto state of war existed between nations.  The table shows both the "Initiator Nation(s)" and the nation at which the aggression was aimed, or "Targeted Nation(s)".  Events listed include those in which there were simple diplomatic breaking of relations that did not involve any physical attack, as well as those involving overt declarations or acts of aggression.[2]

text:
Date
Initiator Nation(s)
Targeted Nation(s)
Declaration of War: Type
Notes/Comments
Document/Event

1939-09-01
 Nazi Germany
 Poland
U[3][4]
German attack began at 4:44 am[3][5]
Invasion

1939-09-01
 Slovak Republic
 Poland
A

Invasion

1939-09-03
 United Kingdom   France
 Nazi Germany
U[3][4]
At 11 a.m., British PM, Neville Chamberlain publicly delivered his Ultimatum Speech.[4][6][7]
Document
Declaration

1939-09-03
 Australia   New Zealand
 Nazi Germany
W[3][4]

Australia
New Zealand

1939-09-04
 Nepal
 Nazi Germany
W

Declaration

1939-09-06
 South Africa
 Nazi Germany
W[3][4]

Declaration

1939-09-10
 Bahrain   Canada   Oman
 Nazi Germany
W[3][4]

Declaration
Declaration
Declaration

1939-09-17
 Soviet Union
 Poland
A[3][4]

Invasion

1939-11-30
 Soviet Union
 Finland
A[3][4]
First war between these nations.
Invasion

1940-04-09
 Nazi Germany
 Denmark   Norway
A[3]

Invasion of Denmark  Invasion of Norway

1940-04-12
 United Kingdom
Faroe Islands
A[4]

Invasion

1940-05-10
 Nazi Germany
 Belgium   Netherlands
A/W[3][4]
Date of the German offensive in the West, W from Belgium and the Netherlands.[8]

Belgium
Netherlands

1940-05-10
 Nazi Germany
 Luxembourg
A[4]

Luxembourg

1940-05-10

 United Kingdom

 Iceland

A

Invasion

1940-06-10
 Italy
 France   United Kingdom
W[3][4]

France and the UK

1940-06-10
 Canada
 Italy
W[3]

Declaration

1940-06-11
 South Africa   Australia   New Zealand
 Italy
W[3]

South Africa
Australia
New Zealand

1940-06-11
 France
 Italy
W[3]

Declaration

1940-06-16
 Soviet Union
 Lithuania
A

Occupation

1940-06-17
 Soviet Union
 Estonia Latvia
A

Occupation

1940-06-25
 United Kingdom
 Vichy France
A
Vichy France cuts off diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 8 July 1940.
Attack

1940-09-09
 Italy
 Egypt
A
Egypt maintained neutrality until 1945.
Invasion

1940-09-22
 Japan
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1940-09-23
 Free France Australia
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1940-10-??
 Thailand
 Vichy France
A

Franco-Thai War

1940-10-28
 Italy
 Greece
U[4]
Italy invades Greece
Invasion

1941-02-05
 Free France
 Italy
A

Invasion

1941-04-06
 Nazi Germany
 Greece
W[3][4]

Invasion

1941-04-06
 Nazi Germany   Bulgaria
 Yugoslavia
A[3][4]

Invasion

1941-04-06
 Italy   Hungary
 Yugoslavia
A[4]

Invasion

1941-04-14
 Nazi Germany
 Egypt
A
Egypt maintained neutrality until 1945.
Invasion

1941-05-02
 United Kingdom
 Iraq
A

Invasion

1941-06-08
 Free France
 Nazi Germany
A

Invasion

1941-06-22
 Nazi Germany   Italy   Romania
 Soviet Union
A[3][4]
A timed-declaration of war was given by Germany at the time of the attack[9]
Invasion

1941-06-22
Tuva
 Nazi Germany
W
Tuva was a client state of the Soviet Union. Part of the USSR from 1944.

1941-06-25
 Finland
 Soviet Union
W
Finland recognized a state of war with the Soviet Union; second war between these nations.
Continuation War

1941-06-27
 Hungary
 Soviet Union
W[4]

Invasion

1941-08-25
 Soviet Union   United Kingdom   Australia
 Iran
A

Invasion

1941-12-06
 United Kingdom
 Finland
U[4]

Declaration

1941-12-07
 United Kingdom
 Romania   Hungary
U[4]

Declaration

1941-12-07
 Japan
 United States   United Kingdom
A[3]
W (Japanese point of view); A The "Western" (Attack on Pearl Harbor);

Declaration
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Invasion of Malaya
Attack on Singapore
Invasion of Hong Kong

1941-12-07
 Canada   Australia   New Zealand
 Japan   Finland   Romania   Hungary
W[4]

Canada
Australia
New Zealand

1941-12-07
 United Kingdom
 Romania   Finland   Hungary
W[4]

Declaration

1941-12-07
 Panama
 Japan
W[4]

Declaration

1941-12-08
 United States   United Kingdom   Australia   Philippines   Costa Rica   Dominican Republic   El Salvador   Guatemala   Haiti   Honduras   Netherlands   New Zealand   Nicaragua
 Japan
W[4]

British declaration
Australian declaration
Cost Rican declaration
Dominican Republic's declaration
Salvadorian declaration
Haitian declaration
Honduran declaration
Dutch declaration
New Zealand's declaration
Nicaraguan declaration
Philippine declaration

1941-12-08
 South Africa
 Japan
W[4]

South African declaration

1941-12-08
 China
  Italy   Japan
W[4]
China and Japan had been at war since 1937
Second Sino-Japanese war
Declaration

1941-12-08
 Mongolia
 Nazi Germany
W[citation needed]

Mongolian declaration

1941-12-09
 Australia   New Zealand
 Japan
W[4]

Australian declaration
New Zealand's declaration

1941-12-11
 Nazi Germany   Italy
 United States
W[3][4]

German declaration
Italian declaration

1941-12-11
 United States
 Nazi Germany   Italy
W[3]

Germany
Italy

1941-12-11
 Poland (in-exile)
 Japan
W[3]
Japan rejected declaration of War. Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō's answer was following: "We don't accept the Polish declaration of war. The Poles, fighting for their freedom, declared war under the British pressure".

1941-12-12
 Romania   Bulgaria
 United States   United Kingdom
W[4]

Romanian declaration
Bulgarian declaration

1941-12-12
 Australia   Netherlands
 Portugal
A
Portugal maintained neutrality throughout World War II.

Invasion

1941-12-13
 United Kingdom   New Zealand   South Africa
 Bulgaria
W[4]

British declaration
New Zealand's declaration
South African declaration

1941-12-13
 Hungary
 United States
W[4]

Declaration

1941-12-14
 Independent State of Croatia
 United States   United Kingdom
W[4]

Declaration

1941-12-16
 Czechoslovakia (In-exile)
 Nazi Germany   Italy   Finland   Romania   Hungary   Japan   Bulgaria   Independent State of Croatia[10]
W

Declaration

1941-12-17
 Albania
 United States
W

Declaration

1941-12-19
 Nicaragua
 Bulgaria   Hungary   Romania
W

Declaration

1941-12-20
 Belgium
 Japan
W

Declaration

1942-01-01
United Nations
Axis Powers
W
Declared during Arcadia Conference
Declaration

1942-01-06
 Australia
 Bulgaria
W

Declaration

1942-01-16
 Iraq
 Nazi Germany   Italy   Japan
W

Declaration

1942-01-25
 United Kingdom   New Zealand   South Africa
 Thailand
W

British declaration
New Zealand's declaration
South African declaration

1942-01-19
 Japan
 Portugal
A
Portugal maintained neutrality throughout World War II.
Invasion

1942-05-05
 South Africa   Netherlands (in-exile)  Poland
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1942-05-05
 United Kingdom   Northern Rhodesia   Southern Rhodesia   South Africa   Tanganyika   Belgian Congo
 Vichy France   Japan
A

Invasion

1942-05-22
 Mexico
 Nazi Germany   Italy   Japan
W[4]

Declaration

1942-08-22
 Brazil
 Nazi Germany   Italy
W

Declaration

1942-11-08
 United States   Canada
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1942-11-10
 Nazi Germany   Italy
 Vichy France
A

Invasion

1942-12-14
 Ethiopia
 Nazi Germany   Italy   Japan
W
On 3 October 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia without a formal declaration of war. In response to the Italian invasion, Ethiopia declared war on Italy. Most of Ethiopia was occupied by Italy in 1936, however parts of Ethiopia remained under the control of the Ethiopian Patriots Movement, which begun its guerrilla war against the occupying Italian forces the day Addis Ababa fell in May 1936. In May 1941, Addis Ababa was liberated by the Gideon Force, restoring sovereignty to Ethiopia.
Second Italo-Ethiopian War
Declaration

1943-09-01
 China Regime of Wang Jingwei
Allied Powers
W

Declaration

1943-04-02
 Bolivia
Axis powers
W

Declaration

1943-09-09
 Iran
 Nazi Germany
W

Declaration

1943-10-13
 Italy
 Nazi Germany
W[3]
Italy had changed side after the fall of Mussolini. The Declaration of War was given by Pietro Badoglio to the German ambassador in Madrid.[3]
Declaration

1943-11-26
 Colombia
 Nazi Germany
W

Declaration

1944-01-17
 Free France
 Italian Social Republic
A

Invasion

1944-01-27
 Liberia
 Nazi Germany   Japan
W

Declaration

1944-06-06
  France
 Nazi Germany
A

Invasion

1944-07-25
  France
 Japan
A

Invasion

1944-08-25
 Romania
 Nazi Germany   Hungary
W
Romania switched sides
Declaration

1944-09-05
 Soviet Union
 Bulgaria
W

Declaration

1944-09-08
 Bulgaria
 Nazi Germany
W
Bulgaria switched sides
Declaration

1944-09-15
 Nazi Germany
 Finland
A

Lapland War

1944-09-23
 Philippines
 United States   United Kingdom
W[11]

Lapland War

1944-12-31
 Hungary
 Nazi Germany
W[12]
Hungary switched sides
Declaration

1945-02-02
 Ecuador
 Nazi Germany   Japan
W

Ecuadorian declaration

1945-02-07
 Argentina   Paraguay
 Nazi Germany   Japan
W

Argentinean declaration
Paraguayan declaration

1942-02-12
 Peru
 Nazi Germany   Japan
W

Declaration

1945-02-15
 Venezuela   Uruguay
 Nazi Germany   Japan
W

Venezuelan declaration
Uruguayan declaration

1945-02-21
 San Marino
 Nazi Germany
W

Declaration

1945-02-23
 Turkey
 Nazi Germany   Japan
W

Declaration

1945-02-24
 Egypt
 Nazi Germany   Japan
W

Declaration

1945-02-26
 Syria   Lebanon
 Nazi Germany   Japan
W

Declaration

1945-04-01
 Saudi Arabia
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-04-03
 Finland
 Nazi Germany
W
Finland switched sides
Lapland War

1945-04-11
 Chile
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-07-06
 Brazil
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-07-14
 Italy
 Japan
W

Declaration

1945-08-08
 Soviet Union
 Japan
W[3]
Last outbreak of war during the entire Second World War.
Declaration

1945-08-10
 Mongolia
 Japan
W[13]
W (de jure) A (de facto 1945-08-09) War declared 24 hours after crossing the border with Soviet troops

Soviet Invasion of Manchuria Mongolia in World War II

text:
German ambassador, Hans-Adolf von Moltke, Polish leader Józef Piłsudski, German propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels and Józef Beck, Polish Foreign minister meeting in Warsaw on June 15, 1934, five months after signing the Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact.]]

British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, landing at Heston aerodrome on 30 September 1938 after his meeting with Hitler at Munich. In his hand he holds the peace agreement between Britain and Germany.

Common parade of German Wehrmacht and Soviet Red Army on September 23, 1939 in Brest, Eastern Poland at the end of the Poland Campaign.  In the center is Major General Heinz Guderian; and on the right is Brigadier General Semyon Krivoshein.

Counsellor of state J.K. Paasikivi and his team arriving from Moscow for the first round of negotiations on 16 October 1939. From left, minister Aarno Yrjö-Koskinen, J.K. Paasikivi, chief of staff Johan Nykopp and colonel Aladár Paasonen.

German paratroopers taking the Greek island of Crete, May 1941.

Photograph from a Japanese plane of Battleship Row at the beginning of the surprise Attack on Pearl Harbor. The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the USS Oklahoma. Two attacking Japanese planes can be seen: one over the USS Neosho and one over the Naval Yard.

tag: ul

text: Literature about the War[edit]

text:
Harman, Nicholas (1990). Dunkirk: the Necessary Myth. Jove. ISBN 978-0340517857.
German White Book. All World Wars.
Hitler, Adolph (2012). The Great Tragedy: Germany's Declaration of War against the United States of America. ISBN 978-1300127703.
Torrie, Julia S. (2010). "For Their Own Good": Civilian Evacuations in Germany and France, 1939-1945. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1845457259.


document_title: 1996–97 Charlotte Hornets season

question_text: who did charlotte hornets trade kobe bryant for

text: 1996–97 Charlotte Hornets season

text: NBA Draft[edit]

text: In the 1996 NBA Draft, the Hornets selected Kobe Bryant with the 13th overall pick. Before he was chosen by the Hornets, the 17-year-old Bryant had made a lasting impression on then-Lakers general manager Jerry West, who immediately foresaw potential in Bryant's basketball ability during pre-draft workouts. West even went on to state that Bryant's workouts were some of the best he had seen. Immediately after the draft, Dave Cowens expressed that the Hornets had no use for him. Fifteen days later, West traded his starting center, Vlade Divac to the Hornets for the young Kobe Bryant.

text:
Round
Pick
Player
Position
Nationality
School

1
13
Kobe Bryant
SG
 United States
Lower Merion HS

text: Roster[edit]

text: Note: Statistics are correct through the end of the 2015–16 season.

text:
Charlotte Hornets roster

v
t
e

Players
Coaches

Pos.
No.
Name
Height
Weight
DOB (YYYY-MM-DD)
From

3.0 !SF
7000700000000000000♠7
USA !
Addison, Rafael
7000200659999999999♠6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)
215 lb (98 kg)

Syracuse

1.0 !PG
7000100000000000000♠1
USA !
Bogues, Muggsy
7000160020000000000♠5 ft 3 in (1.60 m)
136 lb (62 kg)

Wake Forest

2.0 !SG
7001300000000000000♠30
USA !
Curry, Dell
7000193040000000000♠6 ft 4 in (1.93 m)
190 lb (86 kg)

Virginia Tech

1.0 !PG
5000000000000000000♠00
USA !
Delk, Tony
7000185420000000000♠6 ft 1 in (1.85 m)
189 lb (86 kg)

Kentucky

6.0 !C
7001120000000000000♠12
Yugoslavia !
Divac, Vlade
7000215899999999999♠7 ft 1 in (2.16 m)
243 lb (110 kg)

Yugoslavia

6.0 !C
7001520000000000000♠52
USA !
Geiger, Matt
7000213360000000000♠7 ft 0 in (2.13 m)
243 lb (110 kg)

Georgia Tech

4.5 !PF
7001140000000000000♠14
USA !
Mason, Anthony
7000200659999999999♠6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)
250 lb (113 kg)

Tennessee State

2.0 !SG
7001210000000000000♠21
USA !
Pierce, Ricky
7000193040000000000♠6 ft 4 in (1.93 m)
205 lb (93 kg)

Rice

3.0 !SF
7001410000000000000♠41
USA !
Rice, Glen
7000200659999999999♠6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)
215 lb (98 kg)

Michigan

4.5 !PF
7001310000000000000♠31
USA !
Rose, Malik
7000200659999999999♠6 ft 7 in (2.01 m)
250 lb (113 kg)

Drexel

3.0 !SF
7000500000000000000♠5
USA !
Royal, Donald
7000203200000000000♠6 ft 8 in (2.03 m)
210 lb (95 kg)

Notre Dame

2.0 !SG
7001340000000000000♠34
USA !
Smith, Tony
7000190500000000000♠6 ft 3 in (1.91 m)
185 lb (84 kg)

Marquette

Head coach

 Dave Cowens (Florida State)

Legend

(C) Team captain
(DP) Unsigned draft pick
(FA) Free agent
(S) Suspended
 Injured

text: Depth chart[edit]

text:
Pos.
Starting 5
Bench 1
Reserve

C
Vlade Divac
Matt Geiger

PF
Anthony Mason
Malik Rose

SF
Glen Rice
Donald Royal
Rafael Addison

SG
Ricky Pierce
Dell Curry
Tony Smith

PG
Muggsy Bogues
Tony Delk

text: Regular season[edit]

text: Season standings[edit]

text:
Central Division

v
t
e

W
L
PCT
GB
Home
Road
Div

y-Chicago Bulls
69
13
.841
–
39–2
30–11
24–4

x-Atlanta Hawks
56
26
.683
13
36–5
20–21
17–11

x-Detroit Pistons
54
28
.659
15
30–11
24–17
17–11

x-Charlotte Hornets
54
28
.659
15
30–11
24–17
14–14

Cleveland Cavaliers
42
40
.512
27
25–16
17–24
13–15

Indiana Pacers
39
43
.476
30
21–20
18–23
11–17

Milwaukee Bucks
33
49
.402
36
20–21
13–28
10–18

Toronto Raptors
30
52
.366
39
18–23
12–29
6–22

text: Record vs. opponents[edit]

text:
1996-97 NBA Records

Team
ATL
BOS
CHA
CHI
CLE
DAL
DEN
DET
GSW
HOU
IND
LAC
LAL
MIA
MIL
MIN
NJN
NYK
ORL
PHI
PHO
POR
SAC
SAS
SEA
TOR
UTA
VAN
WAS

Atlanta
—
3–1
1–3
1–3
3–1
2–0
1–1
1–3
2–0
1–1
3–1
2–0
1–1
1–2
4–0
2–0
3–1
1–3
3–1
4–0
1–1
2–0
2–0
2–0
1–1
4–0
1–1
2–0
2–1

Boston
1–3
—
0–4
0–4
1–2
1–1
1–1
0–4
1–1
0–2
1–2
0–2
1–1
0–4
1–3
0–2
0–4
0–4
0–4
1–3
1–1
1–1
0–2
1–1
0–2
3–1
0–2
0–2
0–4

Charlotte
3–1
4–0
—
0–4
3–1
1–1
2–0
2–2
2–0
2–0
2–2
1–1
1–1
1–2
2–2
2–0
4–0
3–1
1–2
4–0
1–1
0–2
2–0
2–0
2–0
2–2
0–2
2–0
3–1

Chicago
3–1
4–0
4–0
—
3–1
2–0
2–0
3–1
2–0
1–1
4–0
2–0
1–1
2–2
4–0
2–0
3–1
2–2
3–0
4–0
2–0
2–0
2–0
2–0
2–0
3–1
1–1
2–0
2–1

Cleveland
1–3
2–1
1–3
1–3
—
2–0
1–1
2–2
1–1
0–2
3–1
2–0
1–1
0–4
2–2
2–0
4–0
1–3
2–2
3–0
1–1
1–1
2–0
0–2
0–2
3–1
1–1
2–0
1–3

Dallas
0–2
1–1
1–1
0–2
0–2
—
3–1
0–2
0–4
0–4
1–1
2–2
0–4
0–2
0–2
1–3
1–1
1–1
1–1
2–0
1–3
1–3
2–2
1–3
1–3
0–2
1–3
3–1
0–2

Denver
1–1
1–1
0–2
0–2
1–1
1–3
—
0–2
1–3
1–3
0–2
1–3
0–4
0–2
1–1
0–4
1–1
0–2
0–2
1–1
2–2
0–4
2–2
2–2
0–4
1–1
0–4
3–1
1–1

Detroit
3–1
4–0
2–2
1–3
2–2
2–0
2–0
—
2–0
1–1
3–1
2–0
1–1
0–4
3–1
2–0
4–0
1–2
2–2
2–1
0–2
1–1
1–1
2–0
1–1
3–1
1–1
2–0
4–0

Golden State
0–2
1–1
0–2
0–2
1–1
4–0
3–1
0–2
—
0–4
1–1
1–3
0–4
0–2
1–1
1–3
2–0
0–2
1–1
2–0
0–4
2–2
1–3
4–0
0–4
2–0
0–4
3–1
0–2

Houston
1–1
2–0
0–2
1–1
2–0
4–0
3–1
1–1
4–0
—
1–1
3–1
3–1
0–2
1–1
4–0
2–0
1–1
0–2
2–0
2–2
2–2
4–0
3–1
3–1
1–1
2–2
3–1
2–0

Indiana
1–3
2–1
2–2
0–4
1–3
1–1
2–0
1–3
1–1
1–1
—
2–0
1–1
1–3
2–2
2–0
2–2
1–3
1–3
3–0
1–1
1–1
1–1
1–1
1–1
4–0
0–2
2–0
1–3

L.A. Clippers
0–2
2–0
1–1
0–2
0–2
2–2
3–1
0–2
3–1
1–3
0–2
—
2–2
0–2
2–0
1–3
1–1
0–2
1–1
1–1
2–2
0–4
2–2
4–0
1–3
2–0
1–3
4–0
0–2

L.A. Lakers
1–1
1–1
1–1
1–1
1–1
4–0
4–0
1–1
4–0
1–3
1–1
2–2
—
1–1
2–0
3–1
2–0
1–1
1–1
2–0
4–0
1–3
4–0
2–2
3–1
1–1
1–3
4–0
2–0

Miami
2–1
4–0
2–1
2–2
4–0
2–0
2–0
4–0
2–0
2–0
3–1
2–0
1–1
—
4–0
1–1
3–1
1–3
2–2
3–1
2–0
1–1
2–0
2–0
0–2
3–1
0–2
2–0
3–1

Milwaukee
0–4
3–1
2–2
0–4
2–2
2–0
1–1
1–3
1–1
1–1
2–2
0–2
0–2
0–4
—
0–2
2–1
1–2
2–2
3–1
1–1
0–2
0–2
1–1
1–1
3–1
1–1
2–0
1–3

Minnesota
0–2
2–0
0–2
0–2
0–2
3–1
4–0
0–2
3–1
0–4
0–2
3–1
1–3
1–1
2–0
—
2–0
1–1
1–1
1–1
3–1
2–2
0–4
4–0
0–4
1–1
1–3
4–0
1–1

New Jersey
1–3
4–0
0–4
1–3
0–4
1–1
1–1
0–4
0–2
0–2
2–2
1–1
0–2
1–3
1–2
0–2
—
2–2
1–3
2–2
1–1
0–2
1–1
2–0
1–1
0–3
0–2
2–0
1–3

New York
3–1
4–0
1–3
2–2
3–1
1–1
2–0
2–1
2–0
1–1
3–1
2–0
1–1
3–1
2–1
1–1
2–2
—
3–1
3–2
1–1
1–1
2–0
2–0
0–2
3–0
1–1
2–0
4–0

Orlando
1–3
4–0
2–1
0–3
2–2
1–1
2–0
2–2
1–1
2–0
3–1
1–1
1–1
2–2
2–2
1–1
3–1
1–3
—
2–2
1–1
2–0
1–1
1–1
1–1
4–0
0–2
1–1
1–3

Philadelphia
0–4
3–1
0–4
0–4
0–3
0–2
1–1
1–2
0–2
0–2
0–3
1–1
0–2
1–3
1–3
1–1
2–2
2–3
2–2
—
1–1
1–1
0–2
1–1
0–2
1–3
0–2
2–0
1–3

Phoenix
1–1
1–1
1–1
0–2
1–1
3–1
2–2
2–0
4–0
2–2
1–1
2–2
0–4
0–2
1–1
1–3
1–1
1–1
1–1
1–1
—
1–3
4–0
3–1
2–2
0–2
1–3
2–2
1–1

Portland
0–2
1–1
2–0
0–2
1–1
3–1
4–0
1–1
2–2
2–2
1–1
4–0
3–1
1–1
2–0
2–2
2–0
1–1
0–2
1–1
3–1
—
2–2
4–0
1–3
0–2
2–2
4–0
0–2

Sacramento
0–2
2–0
0–2
0–2
0–2
2–2
2–2
1–1
3–1
0–4
1–1
2–2
0–4
0–2
2–0
4–0
1–1
0–2
1–1
2–0
0–4
2–2
—
3–1
1–3
1–1
0–4
4–0
0–2

San Antonio
0–2
1–1
0–2
0–2
2–0
3–1
2–2
0–2
0–4
1–3
1–1
0–4
2–2
0–2
1–1
0–4
0–2
0–2
1–1
1–1
1–3
0–4
1–3
—
0–4
1–1
1–3
1–3
0–2

Seattle
1–1
2–0
0–2
0–2
2–0
3–1
4–0
1–1
4–0
1–3
1–1
3–1
1–3
2–0
1–1
4–0
1–1
2–0
1–1
2–0
2–2
3–1
3–1
4–0
—
2–0
1–3
4–0
2–0

Toronto
0–4
1–3
2–2
1–3
1–3
2–0
1–1
1–3
0–2
1–1
0–4
0–2
1–1
1–3
1–3
1–1
3–0
0–3
0–4
3–1
2–0
2–0
1–1
1–1
0–2
—
1–1
1–1
2–2

Utah
1–1
2–0
2–0
1–1
1–1
3–1
4–0
1–1
4–0
2–2
2–0
3–1
3–1
2–0
1–1
3–1
2–0
1–1
2–0
2–0
3–1
2–2
4–0
3–1
3–1
1–1
—
4–0
2–0

Vancouver
0–2
2–0
0–2
0–2
0–2
1–3
1–3
0–2
1–3
1–3
0–2
0–4
0–4
0–2
0–2
0–4
0–2
0–2
1–1
0–2
2–2
0–4
0–4
3–1
0–4
1–1
0–4
—
1–1

Washington
1–2
4–0
1–3
1–2
3–1
2–0
1–1
0–4
2–0
0–2
3–1
2–0
0–2
1–3
3–1
1–1
3–1
0–4
3–1
3–1
1–1
2–0
2–0
2–0
0–2
2–2
0–2
1–1
—

text: Game log[edit]

text: Playoffs[edit]

text:
1997 playoff game log

First round: 0–3 (Home: 0–1; Road: 0–2)[hide]

Game
Date
Time
Team
Score
High points
High rebounds
High assists
Location
Attendance
Series

1
April 24
@ New York
L 99–109
Vlade Divac (27)
Anthony Mason (13)
Anthony Mason (5)
Madison Square Garden
19,763
0–1

2
April 26
@ New York
L 93–100
Glen Rice (39)
Vlade Divac,
Anthony Mason (12)
4-way tie (2)
Madison Square Garden
19,763
0–2

3
April 28
New York
L 95–104
Glen Rice (22)
Anthony Mason (11)
Glen Rice (9)
Charlotte Coliseum
24,042
0–3

1997 playoff schedule

text: Player statistics[edit]

text:
Legend

  GP
Games played
  GS
Games started
 MPG
Minutes per game

 FG%
Field-goal percentage
 3P%
3-point field-goal percentage
 FT%
Free-throw percentage

 RPG
Rebounds per game
 APG
Assists per game
 SPG
Steals per game

 BPG
Blocks per game
 PPG
Points per game

text: Season[edit]

text:
Player
GP
GS
MPG
FG%
3FG%
FT%
RPG
APG
SPG
BPG
PPG

Addison, Rafael !Rafael Addison
41
3
8.7
.402
.400
.786
1.1
0.8
0.2
0.1
3.1

Bogues, Muggsy !Muggsy Bogues
65
65
28.9
.460
.417
.844
2.2
7.2
1.3
0.0
8.0

Burrell, Scott !Scott Burrell
28
2
17.2
.344
.345
.792
2.8
1.4
0.5
0.4
5.4

Chambers, Tom !Tom Chambers
12
5
6.9
.226
.667
.750
1.2
0.3
0.1
0.0
1.6

Curry, Dell !Dell Curry
68
20
30.6
.459
.426
.803
3.1
1.7
0.9
0.2
14.8

Delk, Tony !Tony Delk
61
1
14.2
.465
.464
.824
1.6
1.6
0.6
0.1
5.4

Divac, Vlade !Vlade Divac
81
80
35.1
.494
.234
.683
9.0
3.7
1.3
2.2
12.6

Feick, Jamie !Jamie Feick
3
0
3.3
.500
1.000
.000
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.7

Geiger, Matt !Matt Geiger
49
13
21.3
.489
.300
.701
5.3
0.8
0.4
0.6
8.9

Goldwire, Anthony !Anthony Goldwire
33
9
17.5
.403
.439
.750
1.2
2.8
0.6
0.0
5.8

Leckner, Eric !Eric Leckner
1
0
11.0
.000

1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

Mason, Anthony !Anthony Mason
73
73
43.1
.525
.333
.745
11.4
5.7
1.0
0.5
16.2

Pierce, Ricky !Ricky Pierce
27
17
24.1
.502
.536
.889
2.5
1.8
0.5
0.1
12.0

Rice, Glen !Glen Rice
79
78
42.6
.477
.470
.867
4.0
2.0
0.9
0.3
26.8

Rose, Malik !Malik Rose
54
1
9.7
.477
.000
.613
3.0
0.6
0.5
0.3
3.0

Royal, Donald !Donald Royal
25
2
12.8
.525

.800
2.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
2.8

Smith, Tony !Tony Smith
69
39
18.7
.409
.323
.644
1.4
2.2
0.7
0.3
5.0

Zidek, George !George Zidek
36
2
8.0
.388
.000
.781
1.8
0.3
0.1
0.1
2.5

text: Playoffs[edit]

text:
Player
GP
GS
MPG
FG%
3FG%
FT%
RPG
APG
SPG
BPG
PPG

Bogues, Muggsy !Muggsy Bogues
2
2
29.0
.579
.857
1.000
1.5
2.5
0.5
0.0
16.0

Curry, Dell !Dell Curry
3
1
16.7
.294
.250
1.000
0.3
1.7
1.3
0.0
4.7

Delk, Tony !Tony Delk
3
1
28.3
.419
.385

3.3
2.0
0.7
0.0
10.3

Divac, Vlade !Vlade Divac
3
3
38.7
.457
.000
.800
8.7
3.3
1.0
2.0
18.0

Geiger, Matt !Matt Geiger
3
0
10.3
.667

1.000
2.7
0.7
0.7
0.3
2.0

Mason, Anthony !Anthony Mason
3
3
43.7
.421

.538
12.0
3.0
0.3
0.3
13.0

Pierce, Ricky !Ricky Pierce
3
2
29.0
.458
.143

2.7
1.3
0.7
0.0
7.7

Rice, Glen !Glen Rice
3
3
45.7
.491
.375
.913
3.7
3.7
1.3
0.3
27.7

Rose, Malik !Malik Rose
2
0
6.0
.500

2.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
2.0

Royal, Donald !Donald Royal
1
0
4.0
.000

2.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

Smith, Tony !Tony Smith
2
0
4.5
.000
.000
.500
0.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5

text: Awards and records[edit]

text:
Glen Rice, NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award
Bob Bass, NBA Executive of the Year Award
Glen Rice, All-NBA Second Team
Anthony Mason, All-NBA Third Team
Anthony Mason, NBA All-Defensive Second Team

text: Transactions[edit]

text: July 11, 1996

text: Released Michael Adams.

text: Traded Kobe Bryant to the Los Angeles Lakers for Vlade Divac.

text: Released Robert Parish.

text: July 14, 1996

text: Traded Larry Johnson to the New York Knicks for Brad Lohaus and Anthony Mason.

text: October 3, 1996

text: Signed Bob McCann as a free agent.

text: October 19, 1996

text: Signed Tony Smith as a free agent.

text: October 31, 1996

text: Waived Brad Lohaus.

text: January 6, 1997

text: Signed Jamie Feick to the first of two 10-day contracts.

text: January 28, 1997

text: Signed Eric Leckner to a 10-day contract.

text: January 30, 1997

text: Signed Tom Chambers to a contract for the rest of the season.

text: February 20, 1997

text: Traded Scott Burrell to the Golden State Warriors for Donald Royal.

text: Traded Anthony Goldwire and George Zidek to the Denver Nuggets for Ricky Pierce.

text: April 8, 1997

text: Waived Tom Chambers.


document_title: Rikki-Tikki-Tavi

question_text: where does the beginning of rikki-tikki-tavi take place

text: Rikki-Tikki-Tavi

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: The story follows the experiences of a mongoose named Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (for his chattering vocalizations) after he is adopted into a British family residing in India, as a pet and as protection against cobras.

text: After becoming friendly with some of the other creatures inhabiting the garden, Rikki is warned of two cobras Nag and Nagaina, who are angered by the family's presence on their territory. Accordingly, Nag enters the house's bathroom before dawn to kill the humans and make Rikki leave so their babies will grow in a safe place without worries. Nag is subsequently ambushed and attacked by Rikki from behind. The struggle that ensues awakens the human family and the father kills Nag with a shotgun.

text: The grieving Nagaina attempts revenge against Rikki's humans, cornering them as they have breakfast on an outdoor veranda. While she is distracted by a female tailor bird, Rikki destroys the cobra's unhatched brood of eggs except for one. He carries it to where Nagaina is threatening to bite the child Teddy while his parents watch helplessly.

text: Nagaina recovers her egg, but is pursued by Rikki away from the house to the cobra's underground nest where an unseen final battle takes place. Rikki emerges triumphant from the hole declaring Nagaina dead. His subsequent role is to protect the family by keeping the garden free from any future intrusion by snakes.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text: In 1965, in the Soviet Union, at the film studio "Soyuzmultfilm," the director Alexandra Snezhko-Blotskaya shot an animated short of the story, titled Рикки-Тикки-Тави (Rikki-Tikki-Tavi). Ten years later, Chuck Jones adapted the story for a half hour television special in the United States, and four years later, Aleksandr Zguridi and Nana Kldiashvili directed a live action feature film titled Rikki-Tikki-Tavi.[2]

text: Literature[edit]

text: There have been numerous book adaptions,[3] including:

text:
Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and Other Animal Stories (1984), illustrated by Charles Keeping[4]
Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (1997), illustrated by Jerry Pinkney

text: Music[edit]

text: Three related songs are:

text:
Donovan's  "Riki Tiki Tavi" on his album from 1970, Open Road, in which Donovan compares the little mongoose to large institutions, such as the church and the government.
"Rikki Tikki Tavi" is a song by alternative metal band Fair to Midland on their 2011
Boneske's  song "Nagaina"
A composition by Alfred Schnittke made for the 1975 film of the same name.
Tatsuro Yamashita includes the line "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" in the chorus of his song "夏への扉"

text: slang[edit]

text: During the Vietnam War the slang term for getting something done quickly was "Most Rikki-Tick".


question_text: when does trails of cold steel take place

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: The basic gameplay is similar to the previous Trails in the Sky titles with some changes. The biggest change to the battle system and also counting as a brand new feature is the "Tactical Link System", which allow players to follow up with three different kinds of link attacks, dealing additional damage and providing various other benefits. Tactical Links becomes a more useful asset to the player as the story progress and characters level up their "Link Levels" with other characters. Another change is the Orbment system. Trails of Cold Steel inherits the "Master Quartz" system from Ao no Kiseki. The game features 360 degree camera control, fully 3D character models, and voiced conversations between characters during major story moments, all of which were new features to the Cold Steel series. Players can also transfer save data between the PlayStation 3 and Vita versions using the cross-save function.

text: Plot[edit]

text: The game is set in the Erebonian Empire and takes place after the Trails in the Sky series of games and during the same time period as the Crossbell series of games. The game's plot is centered around Rean Schwarzer and his fellow "Class VII" at Thors Military Academy, which is a newly formed class composed of both Erebonian nobility and commoners, being the only one at the entire academy that does not segregate based on social class. The game follows Class VII throughout the school year from March to October, primarily focusing on their field studies that takes them to various cities and areas across Erebonia. The primary purpose of doing so is for the class to witness first hand the reality of the empire, as the power struggle between the nobility, led by four great aristocratic Houses, and the working class reformists led by Chancellor Osborne, which threatens to lead to a civil war.

text: During their time at the academy, Class VII also are tasked with investigating the "Old Schoolhouse", an unused mysterious building on campus that changes its internal layout monthly. At the bottom of the seventh and final floor, they discover an ancient mecha known as Valimar. The story comes to a climax with the assassination of Osbourne in the capital by the terrorist known as "C", who is revealed to be fellow Class VII student Crow Armbrust. Alongside the assassination, a coup lead by the noble faction leads to Thors being occupied by forces led by Crow piloting his own mecha. Unable to fight it with normal means, Rean calls Valimar in order to fight Crow with it one on one, in which Rean is defeated, leading directly into Trails of Cold Steel II.

text: Development[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2014)

text: The game was also localized into Chinese and Korean with the assistance of Sony Computer Entertainment Japan Asia.[1][2] The English localization was handled by Xseed Games, who also ported the game to Microsoft Windows in 2017, with the latter including additional voice acting not seen in the original release.[3][4][5] A remastered version for the PlayStation 4, The Legend of Heroes: Trails of Cold Steel I: Kai -Thors Military Academy 1204-, is also planned for release in Japan in March 2018. It will include many features seen in the PC release, such as support for 4k resolution and a "high speed skip" combat feature.[6]

text: Reception[edit]

text:
Reception

Aggregate score

Aggregator
Score

Metacritic
86/100 (PS3)[7]

Review scores

Publication
Score

Destructoid
7/10[8]

Famitsu
34/40[9]

Game Informer
8.5/10[10]

Hardcore Gamer
[11]

PlayStation LifeStyle
9.5/10[12]

RPGamer
4.5/5[13]

Awards

Publication
Award

PlayStation LifeStyle Awards 2015
Editor's Choice[14]

Game Informer's Best of 2015
Best of 2015[15]

Metacritic
Best PS3 Game of 2015[7]

text: In Japan, Famitsu gave both versions a review score of 34/40.[9] The game received a generally positive reception, according to review aggregator Metacritic, making it the highest-rated PS3 game of 2015.[7] PlayStation LifeStyle said it is "a role-playing masterpiece with all the right stuff: Xseed’s superior localization, which bypasses anime cliches in favor of real depth; an addictive set of life-sim mechanics, from bonding with the lovable cast to cooking a bevy of dishes; and a combat system that rewards customization and cooperation between party members."[12] Hardcore Gamer said it "is hands down the best JRPG this year" and that if "this is what’s in store for us with future Legend of Heroes titles, it’s safe to say that the JRPG genre has a bright future ahead of it."[11] Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer stated that, with "fun combat, interesting twists, and a cool social system, Trails of Cold Steel is one of my favorite recent RPGs".[10] Adriaan den Ouden of RPGamer said it is his favorite RPG of 2015.[13] Multiplayer.it said it is "complex, deep and varied, and sports surprisingly realistic and mature storyline and setting" and an "unforgettable cast of characters."[16] Destructoid said it "follows a lot of classic JRPG conventions" and "doesn't do a whole lot of things that haven't been done before" but concluded "the combat system still holds up, and the characters are charming enough to see the story through until the end."[8]

text: During the first week after release, the PlayStation Vita version outsold the PlayStation 3 version, placing second place in the Media Create software sales charts with 81,622 copies sold, compared to the 67,718 copies sold for the PS3 version in fourth place.[17] The game resulted in significant profits for Falcom, with 1.9 billion yen in net sales, and 700 million yen in operating profit.[18] The game was awarded during the Japan Game Awards 2013 during the Tokyo Game Show by the Computer Entertainment Supplier’s Association, as one of eleven titles within the Future Division winners.[19]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ The Legend of Heroes: Trails of Cold Steel (Japanese: 英雄伝説 閃の軌跡, Hepburn: Eiyū Densetsu: Sen no Kiseki)


document_title: August Weismann

question_text: who disproved the idea of inheritance using tailless mice

text: August Weismann

text: Life[edit]

text: Youth and studies[edit]

text: Weismann was born a son of high school teacher Johann (Jean) Konrad Weismann (1804–1880), a graduate of ancient languages and theology, and his wife Elise (1803–1850), née Lübbren, the daughter of the county councillor and mayor of Stade, on 17 January 1834 in Frankfurt am Main. He had a typical 19th century bourgeois education, receiving music lessons from the age of four, and drafting and painting lessons from Jakob Becker (1810–1872) at the Frankfurter Städelsche Institut from the age of 14. His piano teacher was a devoted butterfly collector and introduced him to the collecting of imagos and caterpillars. But studying natural sciences was out of the question due to the cost involved and limited job prospects. A friend of the family, chemist Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882), recommended studying medicine. A foundation from the inheritance of Weismann's mother allowed him to take up studies in Göttingen. Following his graduation in 1856, he wrote his dissertation on the synthesis of hippuric acid in the human body.

text: Professional life[edit]

text: Immediately after university, Weismann took on a post as assistant at the Städtische Klinik (city clinic) in Rostock. Weismann successfully submitted two manuscripts, one about hippuric acid in herbivores, and one about the salt content of the Baltic Sea, and won two prizes. The paper about the salt content dissuaded him from becoming a chemist, since he felt himself lacking in apothecarial accuracy.

text: After a study visit to see Vienna's museums and clinics, he graduated as a physician and settled in Frankfurt with a medical practice in 1868. During the war between Austria, France and Italy in 1859, he became Chief Medical Officer in the military. During a leave from duty, he walked through Northern Italy and the County of Tyrol. After a sabbatical in Paris, he worked with Rudolf Leuckart at the University of Gießen. He returned to Frankfurt as personal physician to the banished Archduke Stephen of Austria at Schaumburg Castle from 1861 to 1863.

text: From 1863, he was privatdozent in comparative anatomy and zoology; from 1866 extraordinary professor; and from 1873 to 1912 full professor, first holder of the chair in zoology and director of the zoological institute at Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg in Breisgau. He retired in 1912.[6]

text: His son Julius Weismann (1879-1950) was a composer.

text: Contributions to evolutionary biology[edit]

text: At the beginning of Weismann's preoccupation with evolutionary theory was his grappling with Christian creationism as a possible alternative. In his work Über die Berechtigung der Darwin'schen Theorie (On the justification of the Darwinian theory) he compared creationism and evolutionary theory, and concluded that many biological facts can be seamlessly accommodated within evolutionary theory, but remain puzzling if considered the result of acts of creation.

text: After this work, Weismann accepted evolution as a fact on a par with the fundamental assumptions of astronomy (e.g. Heliocentrism). Weismann's position towards the mechanism of inheritance and its role for evolution changed during his life. Three periods can be distinguished.

text: German work on cells[edit]

text: Weismann's work on the demarcation between germ-line and soma can scarcely be appreciated without considering the work of (mostly) German biologists during the second half of the 19th century. This was the time that the mechanisms of cell division began to be understood. Eduard Strasburger, Walther Flemming, Heinrich von Waldeyer and the Belgian Edouard Van Beneden laid the basis for the cytology and cytogenetics of the 20th century. Strasburger, the outstanding botanical physiologist of that century, coined the terms nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. He said "new cell nuclei can only arise from the division of other cell nuclei". Van Beneden discovered how chromosomes combined at meiosis, during the production of gametes, and discovered and named chromatin. Walther Flemming, the founder of cytogenetics, named mitosis, and pronounced "omnis nucleus e nucleo" (which means the same as Strasburger's dictum). The discovery of mitosis, meiosis and chromosomes is regarded as one of the 100 most important scientific discoveries of all times,[7] and one of the 10 most important discoveries in cell biology.[8]

text: Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876, by Oscar Hertwig. It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by Van Beneden in Ascaris eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was first described in 1890 by Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. Thus the work of the earlier cytologists laid the ground for Weismann, who turned his mind to the consequences for evolution, which was an aspect the cytologists had not addressed.[9] All this took place before the work of Mendel had been rediscovered

text: Weismann starts out believing, like many other 19th century scientists, among them Charles Darwin, that the observed variability of individuals of one species is due to the inheritance of sports (Darwin's term). He believed, as written in 1876, that transmutation of species is directly due to the influence of environment. He also wrote, "if every variation is regarded as a reaction of the organism to external conditions, as a deviation of the inherited line of development, it follows that no evolution can occur without a change of the environment". (this is close to the modern use of the concept that changes in the environment can mediate selective pressures on a population, so leading to evolutionary change.) Weismann also used the classic Lamarckian metaphor of use and disuse of an organ.

text: Weismann's first rejection of the inheritance of acquired traits was in a lecture in 1883, titled "On inheritance" ("Über die Vererbung"). Again, as in his treatise on creation vs. evolution, he attempts to explain individual examples with either theory. For instance, the existence of non-reproductive castes of ants, such as workers and soldiers, cannot be explained by inheritance of acquired characters. Germ plasm theory, on the other hand, does so effortlessly. Weismann used this theory to explain Lamark's original examples for "use and disuse", such as the tendency to have degenerate wings and stronger feet in domesticated waterfowl.

text: Weismann worked on the embryology of sea urchin eggs, and in the course of this observed different kinds of cell division, namely equatorial division and reductional division, terms he coined (Äquatorialteilung and Reduktionsteilung respectively).

text: His germ plasm theory states that multicellular organisms consist of germ cells containing heritable information, and somatic cells that carry out ordinary bodily functions. The germ cells are influenced neither by environmental influences nor by learning or morphological changes that happen during the lifetime of an organism, which information is lost after each generation. The concept as he proposed it was referred to as Weismannism in his day, for example in the book An examination of Weismannism by George Romanes[1] This idea was illuminated and explained by the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's work in the early years of the 20th century (see Mendelian inheritance).

text: Experiments on the inheritance of mutilations[edit]

text: The idea that germline cells contain information that passes to each generation unaffected by experience and independent of the somatic (body) cells, came to be referred to as the Weismann barrier, and is frequently quoted as putting a final end to the theory of Lamarck and the inheritance of acquired characteristics. What Lamarck claimed was the inheritance of characteristics acquired through effort, or will.

text: Weismann conducted the experiment of removing the tails of 68 white mice, repeatedly over 5 generations, and reporting that no mice were born in consequence without a tail or even with a shorter tail. He stated that "901 young were produced by five generations of artificially mutilated parents, and yet there was not a single example of a rudimentary tail or of any other abnormality in this organ."[10] Weismann was aware of the limitations of this experiment, and made it clear that he embarked on the experiment precisely because, at the time, there were many claims of animals inheriting mutilations (he refers to a claim regarding a cat that had lost its tail having numerous tail-less offspring). There were also claims of Jews born without foreskins. None of these claims, he said, were backed up by reliable evidence that the parent had in fact been mutilated, leaving the perfectly plausible possibility that the modified offspring were the result of a mutated gene. The purpose of his experiment was to lay the claims of inherited mutilation to rest. The results were consistent with Weismann's germ plasm theory.

text: Awards[edit]

text: He was awarded the Linnean Society of London's Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908.

text: Publications by Weismann[edit]

text:
1868. Über die Berechtigung der Darwin'schen Theorie: Ein akademischer Vortrag gehalten am 8. Juli 1868 in der Aula der Universität zu Freiburg im Breisgau. Engelmann, Leipzig.
1872. Über den Einfluß der Isolierung auf die Artbildung. Engelmann, Leipzig.
1875. Studien zur Descendenz-Theorie. I. Ueber den Saison-Dimorphismus der Schmetterlinge. Leipzig.
1876. Studien zur Descendenztheorie: II. Ueber die letzten Ursachen der Transmutationen. Leipzig.
1883. Die Entstehung der Sexualzellen bei den Hydromedusen: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Lebenserscheinungen dieser Gruppe. Fischer, Jena.
1885. Die Continuität des Keimplasmas als Grundlage einer Theorie der Vererbung. Fischer, Jena.
1887. Zur Frage nach der Vererbung erworbener Eigenschaften. In: Biol. Zbl. 6:33–48
1887. Über die Zahl der Richtungskörper und über ihre Bedeutung für die Vererbung. Fischer, Jena.
1889 Translations: Essays upon Heredity Oxford Clarendon Press – Full online text[11]
1892. Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung. Fischer, Jena.
1893 Translation: Germ-Plasm, a theory of Heredity Charles Scribner's Sons – Full online text
1892. Aufsätze über Vererbung und angewandet biologische Fragen. Fischer, Jena.
1893. Die Allmacht der Naturzüchtung: eine Erwiderung an Herbert Spencer. Jena.
1902. Vorträge über Deszendenztheorie: Gehalten an der Universität zu Freiburg im Breisgau. Fischer, Jena. 2 volums


document_title: Goalkeeper (association football)

question_text: who has the most clean sheets in the world

text: Goalkeeper (association football)

text: History[edit]

text: Association football, like many sports, has experienced many changes in tactics resulting in the generation and elimination of different positions. Goalkeeper is the only position that is certain to have existed since the codification of the sport. Even in the early days of organised football, when systems were limited or non-existent and the main idea was for all players to attack and defend, teams had a designated member to play as the goalkeeper.

text: The earliest account of football teams with player positions comes from Richard Mulcaster in 1581 and does not specify goalkeepers. The earliest specific reference to keeping goal comes from Cornish Hurling in 1602. According to Carew: "they pitch two bushes in the ground, some eight or ten foot asunder; and directly against them, ten or twelve score off, other twayne in like distance, which they term their Goals. One of these is appointed by lots, to the one side, and the other to his adverse party. There is assigned for their guard, a couple of their best stopping Hurlers".[2] Other references to scoring goals begin in English literature in the early 16th century; for example, in John Day's play The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (performed circa 1600; published 1659): "I'll play a gole at camp-ball" (an extremely violent variety of football, popular in East Anglia). Similarly, in a 1613 poem, Michael Drayton refers to "when the Ball to throw, And drive it to the Gole, in squadrons forth they goe". It seems inevitable that wherever a game has evolved goals, some form of goalkeeping must also be developed. David Wedderburn refers to what has been translated from Latin as to "keep goal" in 1633, though this does not necessarily imply a fixed goalkeeper position.

text: Initially, goalkeepers typically played between the goalposts and had limited mobility, except when trying to save opposition shots. Throughout the years, goalkeeping has evolved, due to the changes in systems of play, to be a more active role. The goalkeeper is the only player in association football allowed to use their hands to control the ball (other than during throw-ins). The original Laws of the Game permitted goalkeepers to handle the ball anywhere in their half of the pitch. This was revised in 1912, restricting use of the hands by the goalkeeper to the penalty area.

text: Due to several time-wasting techniques which were used by goalkeepers, such as bouncing the ball on the ground or throwing it in the air and then catching it again, in the 1960s, the Laws of the game were revised further, and the goalkeeper was given a maximum of four steps to travel while holding, bouncing or throwing the ball in the air and catching it again, without having to release it into play. The FIFA Board later also devised an anti-parrying rule, saying that such deliberate parrying for the purpose of evading the Law was to be regarded also as holding the ball.[3]

text: In 1992, the International Football Association Board made changes in the laws of the game that affected goalkeepers – notably the back-pass rule,[4] which prohibits goalkeepers from handling the ball when receiving a deliberate pass from a teammate that is made with their feet. This rule change was made to discourage time-wasting and overly defensive play after the 1990 FIFA World Cup which was described as exceedingly dull, rife with back-passing and goalkeepers holding the ball. Also, goalkeepers would frequently drop the ball and dribble it around, only to pick it up again once opponents came closer to put them under pressure, a typical time-wasting technique. Therefore, another rule was introduced at the same time as the back-pass rule. This rule prohibits the goalkeeper from handling the ball again once he or she has released it for play; an offence results in an indirect free kick to the opposition. Furthermore any player negating the spirit of the new rule would be likely to be cautioned for unsporting behaviour and punished by an indirect free-kick.[3]

text: On 1 July 1997, FIFA decided to extend the back-pass rule by applying it also to throw-ins from defenders to their own goalkeeper; in order to prevent further time-wasting, FIFA also established that if a goalkeeper holds the ball for more than five or six seconds the referee must adjudge this as time-wasting and award an indirect free-kick to the opposing team.[3]

text: General play and technique[edit]

text: The goalkeeper position is the most specialised of all positions on the field. Unlike other players, goalkeepers may touch the ball with any part of their body while in their own penalty area. Outside their penalty area, goalkeepers have the same restrictions as other players.

text: Goalkeepers routinely perform extension dives. To execute this, they push off the ground with the foot nearest to the ball, launching themselves into a horizontal position. At this point, the ball may be caught or pushed away. In the latter case, a good goalkeeper will attempt to ensure that the rebound cannot be taken by a player of the opposite team, although this is not always possible.

text: Responsibilities[edit]

text: The tactical responsibilities of goalkeepers include:

text:
To keep goal by physically blocking attempted shots with any part of their body. The keeper is permitted to play the ball anywhere on the field, but may not handle the ball using their hands outside the penalty area.
To organise the team's defenders during defensive set pieces such as free kicks and corners. In the case of free kicks, this includes picking the numbers and the organisation of a defensive man "wall". The wall serves to provide a physical barrier to the incoming ball, but some goalkeepers position their wall in a certain position to tempt the kick-taker to a certain type of shot. Occasionally, goalkeepers may opt to dispense with the wall. Some goalkeepers are also entrusted with the responsibility of picking markers while defending at set pieces.
To pick out crosses and attempted long passes either by punching them clear or collecting them in flight.

text: Although goalkeepers have special privileges, including the ability to handle the ball in the penalty area, they are otherwise subject to the same rules as any other player.

text: Goalkeepers in playmaking and attack[edit]

text: Goalkeepers are not required to stay in the penalty area; they may get involved in play anywhere on the pitch, and it is common for them to act as an additional defender (or 'sweeper') during certain passages of the game. Goalkeepers with a long throwing range or accurate long-distance kicks may be able to quickly create attacking positions for a team and generate goal-scoring chances from defensive situations, a tactic known as the long ball.

text: Sweeper-keeper[edit]

text: Gyula Grosics from the Hungary "Golden Team" of the 1950s was thought to be the first goalkeeper to play as the 'sweeper-keeper'.[6] The rushing playing style used by Liverpool legend Bruce Grobbelaar seen during the 1980s–90s makes him one of the original sweeper-keepers of the modern era.[7] René Higuita was another who became known for his unorthadox, skilful but sometimes reckless techniques.[8] As of 2011, Manuel Neuer has been described as a sweeper-keeper due to his speed and unique style of play which occasionally includes him acting as a sweeper for his team by rushing off his line to anticipate opposing forwards who have beaten the offside trap.[9][10] With his excellent ball control and distribution, which enables him to start plays from the back,[9][10] he has said he could play in the German third division as a centre-back if he wanted to.[11][12] Hugo Lloris of Tottenham Hotspur and France, and former goalkeepers Fabien Barthez and Edwin van der Sar, have also been described as sweeper-keepers,[13] while Claudio Bravo has even been described as a playmaker.[14]

text: Goalscorers[edit]

text: Some goalkeepers have scored goals. Other than by accident when a long kicked clearance reaches the other end of the field and evades the opposing goalkeeper with the aid of strong winds and/or unexpected bounces, this most commonly occurs where a goalkeeper has rushed up to the opposite end of the pitch to give his team a numerical advantage in attack, leaving his own goal undefended. As such, it is normally only done late in a game at set-pieces where the consequences of scoring far outweigh those of conceding a further goal, such as for a team trailing in a knock-out tournament.

text: Some goalkeepers, such as Higuita, Rogério Ceni, Hans-Jörg Butt and José Luis Chilavert, are also expert set-piece takers. These players may take their team's attacking free kicks or penalties. Ceni, São Paulo's long-time custodian, has scored 100 goals in his career, more than many outfield players.[15][16]

text: Equipment and attire[edit]

text: Goalkeepers must wear kit that distinguishes them clearly from other players and match officials, as this is all that the FIFA Laws of the Game require. Some goalkeepers have received recognition for their match attire, like Lev Yashin of the Soviet Union, who was nicknamed the "Black Spider" for his distinctive all-black outfit; Klaus Lindenberger of Austria, who designed his own variation of a clown's costume; Jorge Campos of Mexico, who was popular for his colourful attire; Raul Plassman of Cruzeiro Esporte Clube and his all-yellow outfit; and Gábor Király for wearing a pair of grey tracksuit bottoms instead of shorts.

text: Although it was initially more common for goalkeepers to wear long-sleeved jerseys, recently several goalkeepers, such as Gianluigi Buffon, have been known to wear short-sleeves".[17][18][19][20]

text: Most goalkeepers also wear gloves to improve their grip on the ball, and to protect themselves from injury. Some gloves now include rigid plastic spines down each finger to help prevent injuries such as jammed and sprained fingers. Though gloves are not mandatory attire, it is uncommon for goalkeepers to opt against them due to the advantages they offer. At UEFA Euro 2004, Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo famously took off his gloves for the quarter-final penalty shoot-out against England. He then went on to score a penalty in sudden death before saving Darius Vassell's penalty to win it for the Portuguese.

text: Common injuries[edit]

text: Lower and upper extremity injuries are very common and vary from cartilage tears, anterior cruciate ligaments (ACL), and knee sprains. In general, goalkeepers can incur any injury that their outfield counterparts are also vulnerable to. The main exception to this guideline is that goalkeepers, as they run much less than outfield players, very rarely fall victim to fatigue-related injuries, such as leg cramps, pulled hamstrings, and dehydration.[21]

text: Records[edit]

text: Goalkeepers are crucial in penalty shoot-outs. The record for most penalties saved in a shoot-out is held by Helmuth Duckadam of Steaua București. Duckadam defended four consecutive penalties in the 1986 European Cup Final against Barcelona.[22] Stefano Tacconi is the only goalkeeper to have won all official Club Competitions.[23]

text: José Luis Chilavert is the only goalkeeper to score a hat-trick (three goals in a game), doing so through penalty kicks. He also was a free kick expert. Rogério Ceni has scored the most goals for a goalkeeper, having scored his 100th goal in official games on 27 March 2011. Ceni scored his goals through free kicks and penalty kicks.[24]

text: Buffon is the only goalkeeper to have won the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year Award.[25] Oliver Kahn holds the record for most UEFA Best Club Goalkeeper and Best European Goalkeeper Awards, with four.[26] Casillas holds the record for most appearances by a goalkeeper in the FIFPro World XI, and in the UEFA Team of the Year; he also holds the record for the most IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper Awards, winning the Award for five consecutive years between 2008–2012.[27] Casillas also holds the record for the most clean-sheets in UEFA Champions League history.[28]

text: At international level, Dino Zoff is the goalkeeper who has remained unbeaten for the longest period of time,[29] whilst Walter Zenga holds the record for the longest unbeaten run in a FIFA World Cup tournament, as he went unbeaten for 517 minutes in the 1990 edition of the tournament.[30] Gianluigi Buffon, Fabien Barthez and Iker Casillas hold the record for least goals conceded by a winning goalkeeper in a World Cup tournament, only conceding two goals and leading their team to victory, as they were also awarded the Yashin Award for best keeper. Gianluigi Buffon is also the only World Cup winning goalkeeper not to have conceded a goal in open play throughout the whole tournament (one goal coming from an own goal after a free-kick, and the second from a penalty). Fabien Barthez and Peter Shilton hold the record for most clean sheets in World Cup matches, with 10 clean sheets each.

text: Pascal Zuberbühler holds the record for least goals conceded by a goalkeeper in a World Cup tournament and holds the record for most successive matches at an international tournament without conceding (five games), he did not concede a goal in 463 minutes of World Cup games against hard shots from France, South Korea, and Togo as his team lost in the last 16 on penalties against Ukraine. Pascal Zuberbühler made Switzerland the only team in the history of the tournament not to concede a goal in normal time. Tim Howard holds the record for most saves made in a FIFA World Cup match, with 16 saves against Belgium in the Round of 16 of the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Oliver Kahn is the only goalkeeper to have won the Adidas Golden Ball for the best player of the tournament in a World Cup; Lev Yashin is the only goalkeeper to have won the Ballon d'Or. Gianluca Pagliuca of Italy became the first goalkeeper to be sent off in a World Cup Finals match, dismissed for handling outside his area against Norway in 1994. His team went on to win 1–0 and reached the final before losing to Brazil in a penalty shoot-out, in which he became the first goalkeeper ever to stop a penalty in a final shoot-out.

text: Iker Casillas holds both the record for fewest goals conceded in a European Championship (1) and the record for longest unbeaten run at a European Championship, beating the previous record held by Dino Zoff.[31] He also holds the records for most international clean sheets (74) by a male goalkeeper beating the previous record held by Edwin van der Sar (72).[32] Buffon holds the record for most minutes without conceding a goal in European Championship Qualifying matches, going 644 minutes without conceding a goal.[33]

text: The overall record for the most international clean sheets is held by US goalkeeper Hope Solo, who became the first goalkeeper to reach 100 clean sheets at international level in 2016.

text: Highest fees[edit]

text: As of June 2017[update], the most expensive goalkeeper of all time was Gianluigi Buffon following his 2001 €51.646 million (100 billion lire) transfer to Juventus from Parma.[34][35][36][37] Ederson Moraes is, however, the most expensive goalkeeper in history in pounds sterling, following his £35 million transfer (€40 million) to Manchester City in 2017.[38]

text:
Player
From
To
Fee (£)
Fee (€)
Year

 Gianluigi Buffon[34][35][39]
 Parma
 Juventus
£33m
€51.646m[a]
2001

 Ederson Moraes[42]
 Benfica
 Manchester City
£35m
€40m
2017

 Jordan Pickford[43][44]
 Sunderland
 Everton
£25m[b]

2017

 Francesco Toldo[45][46]
 Fiorentina
 Internazionale

€28.405m[c]
2001

 Manuel Neuer[48]
 Schalke 04
 Bayern Munich
£19m
€24m[d]
2011

 David de Gea[49]
 Atlético Madrid
 Manchester United
£18m
€22m[d]
2011

 Angelo Peruzzi[50]
 Internazionale
 Lazio

€20.658m[e]
2000

 Sébastien Frey[45][52]
 Internazionale
 Parma

€20.658m[f]
2001

 Samir Handanović[53][54]
 Udinese
 Internazionale

€19m[g]
2012

 Claudio Bravo[56]
 Barcelona
 Manchester City

€18m[h]
2016

 Ivan Pelizzoli[57][58]
 Atalanta
 Roma

€17.043m[i]
2001

 Jan Oblak[61][62]
 Benfica
 Atlético Madrid
£12.6m
€16m
2014

 Angelo Peruzzi[50][63]
 Juventus
 Internazionale

€14.461m[j]
1999

 Petr Čech[64]
 Chelsea
 Arsenal
£10m
€13.9m[d]
2015

 Fraser Forster[65]
 Celtic
 Southampton
£10m
€12.5m[d]
2014

 Wojciech Szczęsny[66]
 Arsenal
 Juventus

€12.2m[k]
2017

 Marc-André ter Stegen[67][68]
 Borussia Mönchengladbach
 Barcelona
£9.7m
€12m
2014

 Claudio Bravo[69][70]
 Real Sociedad
 Barcelona
£9.7m
€12m[d]
2014

 Asmir Begović[71]
 Chelsea
 Bournemouth
£10m[d]

2017

 Simon Mignolet[72]
 Sunderland
 Liverpool
£9m[d]
€10.5m[not in citation given]
2013