document_title: List of Latin phrases (D)

question_text: how do you say in god we trust in latin

question_tokens: how do you say in god we trust in latin

text: List of Latin phrases (D)

text: This page lists English translations of notable Latin phrases, such as veni vidi vici and et cetera. Some of the phrases are themselves translations of Greek phrases, as Greek rhetoric and literature reached its peak centuries before the rise of ancient Rome.

text: List of Latin phrases

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text:
Latin
Translation
Notes

da Deus fortunae
God give fortune/happiness
A traditional greeting of Czech brewers.

da mihi factum, dabo tibi ius
give me the fact, I will give you the law
Also da mihi facta, dabo tibi ius (plural "facta" (facts) for the singular "factum"). A legal principle of Roman law that parties to a suit should present the facts and the judge will rule on the law that governs them. Related to iura novit curia (the court knows the law).

damnant quod non intellegunt
They condemn what they do not understand
Paraphrase of Quintilianus, De Institutione Oratoria, Book 10, Chapter 1, 26:
Modesto tamen et circumspecto iudicio de tantis viris pronuntiandum est, ne, quod plerisque accidit, damnent quae non intellegunt.
Yet students must pronounce with diffidence and circumspection on the merits of such illustrious characters, lest, as is the case with many, they condemn what they do not understand. (translated by Rev. John Selby Watson)

damnatio ad bestias
condemnation to [the] beasts
Colloquially, "thrown to the lions".

damnatio memoriae
damnation of memory
The ancient Roman custom by which it was pretended that disgraced Romans, especially former emperors), never existed, by eliminating all records and likenesses of them.

damnum absque injuria
damage without injury
Meaning a loss that results from no one's wrongdoing. In Roman law, a person is not responsible for unintended, consequential injury to another that results from a lawful act. This protection does not necessarily apply to unintended damage caused by one's negligence or folly.

dat deus incrementum ordeus dat incrementum
God gives growth
Motto of several schools.

data venia
with due respect / given the excuse
Used before disagreeing with someone.

datum perficiemus munus
We shall accomplish the mission assigned
Motto of Batalhão de Operações Policiais Especiais (BOPE), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

de bene esse
as well done
In law, a de bene esse deposition is used to preserve the testimony of a witness who is expected not to be available to appear at trial and be cross-examined.

de bonis asportatis
carrying goods away
In law, trespass de bonis asportatis was the traditional name for larceny, i.e., the unlawful theft of chattels (moveable goods).

decessit sine prole
died without issue
Used in genealogical records, often abbreviated as d.s.p., to indicate a person who died without having had any children.

decessit sine prole legitima
died without legitimate issue
Used in genealogical records, often abbreviated as d.s.p.l., to indicate a person who died without having had any children with a spouse.

decessit sine prole mascula superstite
died without surviving male issue
Used in genealogical records, often abbreviated as d.s.p.m., to indicate a person who died without having had any male children who survived, i.e., outlived, him.

decessit sine prole mascula legitima
died without legitimate male issue
Used in genealogical records in cases of nobility or other hereditary titles, often abbreviated as d.s.p.m.l. or d.s.p.m. legit, to indicate a person who died without having had any legitimate male children (indicating there were illegitimate male children)

decessit sine prole superstite
died without surviving issue
Used in genealogical records, often abbreviated as d.s.p.s., to indicate a person who died without having had any children who survived, i.e., outlived him.

decessit vita matris
died in the lifetime of the mother
Used in genealogical records, often abbreviated as d.v.m., to indicate a person who predeceased his mother.

decessit vita patris
died in the lifetime of the father
Used in genealogical records, often abbreviated as d.v.p., to indicate a person who predeceased his father.

decus et tutamen
an ornament and a safeguard
A phrase from the Aeneid of Virgil. Inscription on British one-pound coins. Originally inscribed on coins of the 17th century, it refers to the inscribed edge of the coin as a protection against the clipping of its precious metal.

de dato
of the date
Used, e.g., in "as we agreed in the meeting d.d. 26th May 2006".

de facto
by deed
Said of something that is the actual state of affairs, in contrast to something's legal or official standing, which is described as de jure. De facto refers to "the way things really are" rather than what is officially presented as the fact of the matter in question.

de praescientia Dei
from/through the foreknowledge of God
Motto of the Worshipful Company of Barbers.

defendit numerus
there is safety in numbers

de fideli
with faithfulness
A clerk of a court makes this declaration when he is appointed, by which he promises to perform his duties faithfully as a servant of the court.

de fideli administratione
of faithful administration
Describes an oath taken to faithfully administer the duties of a job or office, like that taken by a court reporter.[1]

de futuro
regarding the future
Usually used in the context of "at a future time".

de gustibus non est disputandum
of tastes there is nothing to be disputed
Less literally, "there is no accounting for taste", because they are judged subjectively and not objectively: everyone has his own and none deserve preeminence. The complete phrase is "de gustibus et coloribus non est disputandum" ("when we talk about tastes and colours there is nothing to be disputed"). Probably of Scholastic origin; see Wiktionary.

Dei Gratia Regina
By the Grace of God, Queen
Also Dei Gratia Rex ("By the Grace of God, King"). Abbreviated as D G REG preceding Fidei Defensor (F D) on British pound coins, and as D G Regina on Canadian coins.

de integro
again, a second time

de jure
by law
"Official", in contrast with de facto; analogous to "in principle", whereas de facto is to "in practice". In other contexts, it can mean "according to law", "by right", and "legally".

de lege ferenda
of/from law to be passed

de lege lata
of/from law passed / of/from law in force

de minimis non curat lex
The law does not care about the smallest things.
A court does not care about small, trivial things. A case must have some importance in order for a court to hear it. See "de minimis non curat praetor".

de minimis non curat praetor
the commander does not care about the smallest things.
Also, "the chief magistrate does not concern himself with trifles." Trivial matters are no concern of a high official; cf. aquila non capit muscas (the eagle does not catch flies). Sometimes rex (king) or lex (law) is used in place of praetor. De minimis is a legal phrase referring to things unworthy of the law's attention.

de mortuis aut bene aut nihil
about the dead, either well or nothing
Less literally, "speak well of the dead or not at all"; cf. de mortuis nil nisi bonum.

de mortuis nil nisi bonum
about the dead, nothing unless a good thing
From de mortuis nil nisi bonum dicendum est ("nothing must be said about the dead except the good"), attributed by Diogenes Laërtius to Chilon. In legal contexts, this quotation is used with the opposite meaning: defamation of a deceased person is not a crime. In other contexts, it refers to taboos against criticizing the recently deceased.

de nobis fabula narratur
about us is the story told
Thus: "their story is our story". Originally it referred to the end of Rome's dominance. Now often used when comparing any current situation to a past story or event.

de novo
from the new
"Anew" or "afresh". In law, a trial de novo is a retrial. In biology, de novo means newly synthesized, and a de novo mutation is a mutation that neither parent possessed or transmitted. In economics, de novo refers to newly founded companies, and de novo banks are state banks that have been in operation for five years or less. (Cf. ex novo)

de omni re scibili et quibusdam aliis
about every knowable thing, and even certain other things
The Italian scholar Giovanni Pico della Mirandola of the 15th century wrote the De omni re scibili ("concerning every knowable thing") part, and a wag added et quibusdam aliis ("and even certain other things").

de omnibus dubitandum
be suspicious of everything / doubt everything
Attributed to the French philosopher René Descartes. It was also Karl Marx's favorite motto and a title of one of Søren Kierkegaard's works, namely, De Omnibus Dubitandum Est.

de oppresso liber
free from having been oppressed
Loosely, "to liberate the oppressed". Motto of the United States Army Special Forces.[2]

de profundis
from the depths
Meaning from out of the depths of misery or dejection. From the Latin translation of the Vulgate Bible of Psalm 130, of which it is a traditional title in Roman Catholic liturgy.

de re
about/regarding the matter
In logic, de dicto statements regarding the truth of a proposition are distinguished from de re statements regarding the properties of a thing itself.

Defensor Fortis
Defender of the Force
Official motto of the United States Air Force Security Forces (Security Police).

Dei gratia
By the grace of God
Part of the full style of a monarch historically considered to be ruling by divine right, notably in the style of the English and British monarch since 1521

Dei sub numine viget
under God's Spirit she flourishes
Motto of Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States.

delectatio morosa
peevish delight
In Catholic theology, pleasure taken in a sinful thought or imagination, such as brooding on sexual images. As voluntary and complacent erotic fantasizing, without attempt to suppress such thoughts, it is distinct from actual sexual desire.

delegata potestas non potest delegari
delegated powers can not be [further] delegated
A legal principle whereby one to whom certain powers were delegated may not ipso facto re-delegate them to another. A distinction may be had between delegated powers and the additional power to re-delegate them.

delirant isti Romani
they are mad, those Romans[!]
A Latin translation of René Goscinny's phrase in French ils sont fous, ces romains! or Italian Sono pazzi questi Romani. Cf. SPQR, which Obelix frequently used in the Asterix comics.

Deo ac veritati
for God and for truth
Motto of Colgate University.

Deo confidimus
in God we trust
Motto of Somerset College.

Deo domuique
For God and for home
Motto of Methodist Ladies' College, Melbourne.

Deo et patriae
For God and country
Motto of Regis High School in New York City, New York, United States.

Deo gratias
Thanks [be] to God
A frequent phrase in the Roman Catholic liturgy, used especially after the recitation of a lesson, the Last Gospel at Mass or as a response to Ite Missa Est / Benedicamus Domino.

Deo juvante
with God's help
Motto of Monaco and its monarch, which is inscribed on the royal arms.

Deo non fortuna
by God, not fortune/luck
Motto of the Epsom College in Surrey, England.

Deo optimo maximo (DOM)
To the best and greatest God
Derived from the pagan Iupiter optimo maximo ("to the best and greatest Jupiter"). Printed on bottles of Bénédictine liqueur.

Deo patriae litteris
For God, country, [and] learning
Motto of Scotch College (Melbourne).

Deo volente
God willing
This was often used in conjunction with a signature at the end of letters. It was used in order to signify that "God willing" this letter will get to you safely, "God willing" the contents of this letter come true. As an abbreviation (simply "D.V.") it is often found in personal letters (in English) of the early 1900s, employed to generally and piously qualify a given statement about a future planned action, that it will be carried out, so long as God wills (see James 4:13-15, which encourages this way of speaking). The motto of Southern Illinois University-Carbondale.

descensus in cuniculi cavum
The descent into the cave of the rabbit
Down the rabbit hole. See Alice's Adventures in Wonderland#Famous lines and expressions.

desiderantes meliorem patriam
they desired a better land
From Hebrews 11: 16. Adopted as the motto of the Order of Canada.

Deus Caritas Est
God Is Love
Title and first words of the first encyclical of Pope Benedict XVI. For other meanings see Deus caritas est (disambiguation).

deus ex machina
a god from a machine
From the Greek ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός (apò mēchanēs theós). A contrived or artificial solution, usually to a literary plot. Refers to the practice in Greek drama of lowering by crane (the mechanê) an actor playing a god or goddess onto the stage to resolve an insuperable conflict in the plot. The device is most commonly associated with Euripides.

Deus lux mea est
God is my light
The motto of The Catholic University of America.

Deus meumque jus
God and my right
The principal motto of Scottish Rite Freemasonry. See also Dieu et mon droit.

Deus nobis haec otia fecit
God has given us these days of leisure
Motto of the city of Liverpool, England.

Deus otiosus
God at leisure

Deus spes nostra
God is our hope
The motto of Sir Thomas de Boteler, founder of Boteler Grammar School in Warrington in 1526.

Deus vult
God wills it
The principal slogan of the Crusades. Motto of Bergen Catholic High School in New Jersey, United States.

dictatum erat (dict)
as previously stated
A recent academic substitution for the spacious and inconvenient phrase "as previously stated". Literally, has been stated. Compare also "dicta prius"; literally, said previously.

dicto simpliciter
[from] a maxim, simply
I.e. "from a rule without exception." Short for a dicto simpliciter, the a is often dropped because it is confused with the English indefinite article. A dicto simpliciter occurs when an acceptable exception is ignored or eliminated. For example, the appropriateness of using opiates is contingent on suffering extreme pain. To justify the recreational use of opiates by referring to a cancer patient or to justify arresting said patient by comparing him to the recreational user would be a dicto simpliciter.

dictum factum
what is said is done
Motto of United States Navy Fighter Squadron VF-194.

dictum meum pactum
my word [is] my bond
Motto of the London Stock Exchange.

diem perdidi
I have lost the day
From the Roman Emperor Titus. Recorded in the biography of him by Suetonius in Lives of the Twelve Caesars.

Dies irae
Day of wrath
Reference to the Judgment Day in Christian eschatology. The title of a famous Medieval Latin hymn by Tommaso da Celano in the 13th century and used in the Requiem Mass.

dies non juridicum
Day without judiciary
Days under common law (traditionally Sunday), during which no legal process can be served and any legal judgment is invalid. The English Parliament first codified this precept in the reign of King Charles II.

dirigo
I direct
In Classical Latin, "I arrange". Motto of the State of Maine, United States; based on a comparison of the State to the star Polaris.

dis aliter visum
it seemed otherwise to the gods
In other words, the gods have ideas different to those of mortals, and so events do not always occur in the way persons wish them to. Confer Virgil, Aeneid, 2: 428. Also confer "Man proposes and God disposes."

dis manibus sacrum (D.M.S.)
Sacred to the ghost-gods
Refers to the Manes, i.e. Roman spirits of the dead. Loosely, "to the memory of". A conventional pagan inscription preceding the name of the deceased on his tombstone; often shortened to dis manibus (D.M.), "for the ghost-gods". Preceded in some earlier monuments by hic situs est (H. S. E.), "he lies here".

disce aut discede
learn or depart
Motto of Royal College, Colombo.

disce ut semper victurus, vive ut cras moriturus
Learn as if always going to live; live as if tomorrow going to die.
Attributed to St. Edmund of Abingdon. First seen in Isidoro de Sevilla

discendo discimus
while teaching we learn

discere faciendo
learn by doing
Motto of California Polytechnic State University, California, United States.

disiecta membra
scattered limbs
I.e., "scattered remains". Paraphrased from Horace, Satires, 1, 4, 62, where it is written "disiecti membra poetae" (limbs of a scattered poet).

ditat Deus
God enriches
Motto of the State of Arizona, United States, adopted in 1911. Probably derived from the translation of the Vulgate Bible of Genesis 14: 23.

divide et impera
divide and rule / "divide and conquer"
A Roman maxim adopted by Roman Dictator Julius Caesar, King Louis XI of France and the Italian political author Niccolò Machiavelli.

dixi
I have spoken
A popular, eloquent expression, usually used in the end of a speech. The implied meaning is that the speaker has said all that he had to say and thus his argument is completed.

["...", ...] dixit
["...", ...] said
Used to attribute a statement or opinion to its author, rather than the speaker.

do ut des
I give that you may give
Often said or written of sacrifices, in which one "gives" and expects a return from the gods.

docendo discitur
It is learned by teaching / one learns by teaching
Attributed to Seneca the Younger.

docendo disco, scribendo cogito
I learn by teaching, I think by writing

dolus specialis
special intent
"The ... concept is particular to a few civil law systems and cannot sweepingly be equated with the notions of 'special' or 'specific intent' in common law systems. Of course, the same might equally be said of the concept of 'specific intent', a notion used in the common law almost exclusively within the context of the defense of voluntary intoxication." (Genocide scholar William A. Schabas)[3]

Domine dirige nos
Lord guide us
Motto of the City of London, England.

Domine salvam fac reginam
God save the queen

Domine salvum fac regem
God save the king

Dominica in albis [depositis]
Sunday in [Setting Aside the] White Garments
Latin name of the Octave of Easter in the Roman Catholic liturgy.

Dominus illuminatio mea
the Lord is my light
Motto of the University of Oxford, England.

Dominus fortitudo nostra
The Lord is our strength
Motto of the Southland College, Philippines.

Dominus pastor
the Lord [is our] shepherd
Motto of St. John's College and Prep School, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Dominus vobiscum
The Lord be with you.
A phrase used in the Roman Catholic liturgy, and sometimes in its sermons and homilies, and a general form of greeting among and towards members of Catholic organizations. See also Pax vobiscum.

dona nobis pacem
give us peace
Often set to music, either by itself or as the final phrase of the Agnus Dei prayer of the Holy Mass. Also an ending in the video game Haunting Ground.

donatio mortis causa
a donation in expectation of death
A legal concept in which a person in imminent mortal danger need not satisfy the otherwise requisite consideration to effect a testamentary donation, i.e., a donation by instituting or modifying a will.

draco dormiens nunquam titillandus
a sleeping dragon is never to be tickled
Motto of the fictional Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry of the Harry Potter series; translated more loosely in the books as "never tickle a sleeping dragon".

dramatis personae
the parts/characters of the play
More literally, "the masks of the drama"; the cast of characters of a dramatic work.

duae tabulae rasae in quibus nihil scriptum est
two blank slates with nothing written upon them
Stan Laurel, inscription for the fan club logo of The Sons of the Desert.

ducimus
we lead
Motto of the Royal Canadian Infantry Corps.

ducit amor patriae
love of country leads me
Motto of the 51st Battalion, Far North Queensland Regiment, Australia.

ducunt volentem fata, nolentem trahunt
the fates lead the willing and drag the unwilling
Attributed to Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Sen. Ep. 107.11).

ductus exemplo
leadership by example
Motto of the United States Marine Corps Officer Candidates School, at the base in Quantico, Virginia, United States.

dulce bellum inexpertis
war is sweet to the inexperienced
Meaning: "war may seem pleasant to those who have never been involved in it, though the experienced know better". Erasmus of Rotterdam.

dulce est desipere in loco
It is sweet on occasion to play the fool. / It is pleasant to relax once in a while.
Horace, Odes 4, 12, 28. Also used by George Knapton for the portrait of Sir Bourchier Wrey, 6th Baronet in 1744.

dulce et decorum est pro patria mori
It is sweet and honorable to die for the fatherland.
Horace, Odes 3, 2, 13. Also used by Wilfred Owen for the title of a poem regarding World War I, Dulce et Decorum Est.

dulce et utile
a sweet and useful thing / pleasant and profitable
Horace, Ars Poetica: poetry must be dulce et utile, i.e., both enjoyable and instructive.

dulce periculum
danger is sweet
Horace, Odes, 3 25, 16. Motto of the Scottish clan MacAulay.

dulcius ex asperis
sweeter after difficulties
Motto of the Scottish clan Fergusson.[4]

dum cresco spero
I hope when I grow
Motto of The Ravensbourne School.

dum Roma deliberat Saguntum perit
while Rome debates, Saguntum is in danger
Used when someone has been asked for urgent help, but responds with no immediate action. Similar to Hannibal ante portas, but referring to a less personal danger.

dum spiro spero
while I breathe, I hope
Cicero. Motto of the State of South Carolina. Motto of the Clan MacLennan.

dum vita est, spes est
while there is life, there is hope

dum vivimus servimus
while we live, we serve
Motto of Presbyterian College.

dum vivimus, vivamus
while we live, let us live
An encouragement to embrace life. Motto inscribed on the sword of the main character of the novel Glory Road.

dura lex sed lex
[the] law [is] harsh, but [it is the] law
Ulpian, Digesta Iustiniani, Roman jurist of the 3rd century AD.

dura mater
tough mother
The outer covering of the brain.

durante bene placito
during good pleasure
Meaning: "serving at the pleasure of the authority or officer who appointed". A Mediaeval legal Latin phrase.

durante munere
while in office
For example, the Governor General of Canada is durante munere the Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada.

dux bellorum
war leader

initium sapientiae timor Domini
The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.
A quotation of the Psalter. Motto of the University of Aberdeen, Scotland.


document_title: Running mate

question_text: when did presidential candidates start choosing running mates

root

text: Running mate

text: In United States politics[edit]

text: In the United States, "running mate" refers not only to a candidate for vice president (federal), but also to a candidate for lieutenant governors of those states where the governor and lieutenant governor are jointly elected. Historically, American running mates were chosen by political parties in consultation with the principal candidate (i.e., the person running for president or governor). In the late 1960s, it became the practice of the principal candidate in presidential elections to announce his or her preferred choice of running mate at his or her political party's national convention. The current practice is for the presumptive nominee of a political party to announce his or her choice for running mate before the national convention which, because of the extensive primary election and caucus system, is becoming increasingly irrelevant.

tag: p

text: The practice of running candidates for president and vice president together evolved in the nineteenth century. Originally, electors cast two ballots for president and whoever took second place in the tabulation became vice president. Starting in 1804, the president and vice president were elected on separate ballots as specified in the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution which was adopted in that year. As more and more states subsequently began to choose their electors by popular election instead of appointment (South Carolina being the last state to change, in 1860), candidates began to realize they could run together as a team for president and vice president instead of running completely separately for each office.

text: The practice of a presidential candidate having a running mate was solidified during the American Civil War. In 1864, in the interest of fostering national unity, Abraham Lincoln from the Republican Party (popular in the North) and Andrew Johnson of the Democratic Party (popular in the South), were co-endorsed and run together for President and Vice-President as candidates of the National Union Party. Notwithstanding this party disbanded after the war ended, with the result that Republican Lincoln was succeeded by Democrat Johnson; the states began to place candidates for President and Vice-President together on the same ballot ticket - thus making it impossible to vote for a presidential candidate from one party and a vice-presidential candidate from another party, as had previously been possible.

text: Presidential candidates from smaller states sometimes choose a vice presidential running mate from a state with a large number of electoral votes - as when Walter Mondale of Minnesota (10 votes) selected Geraldine Ferraro of New York (then 36 votes). It is preferred, but not legally required, that the running mate be from a different state from the presidential nominee, because each elector can vote for no more than one candidate from his or her own state. Running mates can also be chosen from swing states in order to boost a candidate's chance of winning in the state.

text: In electing a subordinate officer the Electors will not require those qualifications requisite for supreme command. The office of the Vice President will be sinecure. It will be brought to market and exposed to sale to procure votes for the President.

text: Outside the United States[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2017)

tag: table

text: In many countries in which there are a President and Vice-President with both positions being directly elected, the running mate of the winning presidential candidate automatically assumes the Vice-Presidency; a notable exception is the Philippines, in which one presidential candidate can (and usually is) elected with the running mate of an opposing candidate.

text: List of adoption of a Running Mate system =[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2017)

text:
Country
Formal Adoption
First Election Used
Before

 United States
Never[2]
Never (de jure); 1864 (de facto)
Separate Election

 Taiwan
1992
1996
Separate and indirect election

 Malawi
1994
1994
N/A (No Vice-Presidency)

 Indonesia
2002
2004
Separate and indirect election

 Palau
2004
2008
Separate election[3]

 Zambia
2015
2016
Appointment by President

 Ivory Coast
2016
2020
N/A (No Vice-Presidency)[4]


document_title: History of Texas (1845–1860)

question_text: who was sent to the rio grande to claim the southern border of texas

text: History of Texas (1845–1860)

text: Annexation[edit]

text: The Republic of Texas had formed in 1836, after breaking away from Mexico in the Texas Revolution. The following year, an ambassador from Texas approached the United States about the possibility of becoming an American state. Fearing a war with Mexico, which did not recognize Texas independence, the United States declined the offer.[1] In 1844, James K. Polk was elected the United States president after promising to annex Texas. Before he assumed office, the outgoing president, John Tyler, entered negotiations with Texas. On February 26, 1845, six days before Polk took office, the U.S. Congress approved the annexation. The Texas legislature approved annexation in July 1845 and constructed a state constitution. In October, Texas residents approved the annexation and the new constitution, and Texas was officially inducted into the United States on December 29, 1845.[2]

text: Mexican–American War[edit]

text: When Texas was annexed, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. The annexation bill did not specifically define the boundaries of Texas. The former republic claimed the Rio Grande as its southern border, while Mexican authorities had always considered the Nueces River, situated further north, to be the boundary of Mexican Texas. The United States sent John Slidell to negotiate with the Mexican government, offering l $25 million ($692,019,231 today) to set the Texas border at the Rio Grande and to purchase Mexico's provinces of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Popular sentiment in Mexico was against any sale, and the army deposed President José Joaquín de Herrera when he appeared inclined to negotiate with Slidell.

text: The United States positioned troops along the Rio Grande. On April 25, 1846, in an event known as the Thornton Affair, a large contingent of Mexican cavalry attacked an American patrol in the area between the Rio Grande and the Nueces, killing 16 Americans. On May 3, Mexican troops initiated the siege of Fort Texas, bombarding a makeshift American fort along the Rio Grande. On May 8, Zachary Taylor led 2,500 U.S. troops to relieve the fort. He was intercepted by Mexican troops, leading to the Battle of Palo Alto. Mexican troops retreated a short distance to regroup, and the following day the two sides fought fiercely in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. The U.S. cavalry captured the Mexican artillery, and the Mexican soldiers retreated.

text: The United States officially declared war against Mexico on May 13. Mexico declared war against the U.S. on July 7. Throughout the official hostilities, the United States maintained two fronts—one in the Mexican interior south of the Rio Grande, and one in California. There was no further fighting in Texas.

text: The war ended on February 2, 1848 with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico ceded claims to Texas, and the border was set at the Rio Grande.

text: Compromise of 1850[edit]

text: The expansion of the United States after the Mexican–American War led to tensions between the slave and free states as to how to maintain the balance between the opposing viewpoints. Texas had been admitted to the United States as a slave state, yet Texas claimed territory north of the 36°30' demarcation line for slavery set by the 1820 Missouri Compromise. According to the annexation agreement, if Texas were to be subdivided into multiple states, those north of the compromise line would become free states. Following the conclusion of the Mexican–American War, Texas also tried to exert control over much of New Mexico.

text: In an effort to avoid some states seceding from the United States, Congress passed the Compromise of 1850. Texas gave up much of the western territories it had claimed in exchange for $10 million to pay off previous debts.

text: Settlement[edit]

text: Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.[3] German immigrants started to arrive in the early 1840s because of economic, social and political conditions in their states. In 1842, German nobles organized the Adelsverein, banding together to buy land in central Texas to enable German settlement. The Revolutions of 1848 acted as another catalyst for so many immigrants that they became known as the "Forty-Eighters." Many were educated artisans and businessmen. Germans continued to arrive in considerable numbers until 1890.[4]

text: The first Czech immigrants started their journey to Texas on August 19, 1851 headed by Jozef Šilar. The rich farmland of Central Texas attracted the Czech immigrants. The counties of Austin, Fayette, Lavaca, and Washington had early Czech settlements. The Czech-American communities are characterized by a strong sense of community and social clubs were a dominant theme of Czech-American life in Texas. By 1865, the Czech population numbered 700 and climbed to over 60,000 Czech-Americans by 1940.[5]

text: With their investments in cotton cultivation, Texas planters imported enslaved blacks from the earliest years of settlement. They established cotton plantations mostly in the eastern part of the state, where labor was done by enslaved African Americans. The central area of the state had more subsistence farmers.

text: Indian wars[edit]

text: In the late 1850s, settlers continued to push west and north, and by 1856 had begun settling, parts of the Comancheria in large numbers. Angry at the loss of their traditional hunting grounds, several bands of Comanche conducted raids on Texas settlers. In an effort to stop the violence and subdue the Comanche, in 1858 the Texas Rangers paired with members of the Tonkawa tribe—traditionally, enemies of the Comanche—for the Antelope Hills Expedition. Federal law promised Indian tribes safety in Indian Territory, located just north of Texas. Nevertheless, the Rangers crossed into Indian Territory and attacked a Comanche village at the Battle of Little Robe Creek. This was the first time any American forces had penetrated to the heart of the Comancheria, attacked Comanche villages with impunity, and successfully made it home. The expedition exhausted the annual Texas defense budget, and the governor disbanded the Rangers.


document_title: Easter Island

question_text: when were the statues on easter island built

question_tokens: when were the statues on easter island built

text: Easter Island

text: Name[edit]

text: The name "Easter Island" was given by the island's first recorded European visitor, the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen, who encountered it on Easter Sunday (5 April) in 1722, while searching for Davis or David's island. Roggeveen named it Paasch-Eyland (18th-century Dutch for "Easter Island").[9][10] The island's official Spanish name, Isla de Pascua, also means "Easter Island".

text: The current Polynesian name of the island, Rapa Nui ("Big Rapa"), was coined after the slave raids of the early 1860s, and refers to the island's topographic resemblance to the island of Rapa in the Bass Islands of the Austral Islands group.[11] However, Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the original name of Easter Island and that Rapa Iti was named by refugees from there.[12]

text: The phrase Te pito o te henua has been said to be the original name of the island since French ethnologist Alphonse Pinart gave it the romantic translation "the Navel of the World" in his Voyage à l'Île de Pâques, published in 1877.[13] William Churchill (1912) inquired about the phrase and was told that there were three te pito o te henua, these being the three capes (land's ends) of the island. The phrase appears to have been used in the same sense as the designation of "Land's End" at the tip of Cornwall. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island itself, and concluded that there may not have been one.[14]

text: According to Barthel (1974), oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka "The little piece of land of Hau Maka".[15] However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning 'end' and one 'navel', and the phrase can thus also mean "the Navel of the World". Another name, Mata ki te rangi, means "Eyes looking to the sky".[16]

text: Islanders are referred to in Spanish as pascuense; however it is common to refer to members of the indigenous community as Rapa Nui.

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Easter Island

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name
Rapa Nui National Park

Location
Chile, Easter Island Province, Easter Island Commune, Chile

Coordinates
27°07′10″S 109°21′17″W / 27.1194°S 109.3547°W / -27.1194; -109.3547

Area
164 km2 (1.77×109 sq ft)

Criteria
i, iii, v

Reference
715

Inscription
1995 (19th Session)

Website
www.municipalidaddeisladepascua.cl

[edit on Wikidata]

text: Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200 AD, approximately coinciding with the arrival of the first settlers in Hawaii. Rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia. Rapa Nui is now considered to have been settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 AD. Ongoing archaeological studies suggest a still-later date: "Radiocarbon dates for the earliest stratigraphic layers at Anakena, Easter Island, and analysis of previous radiocarbon dates imply that the island was colonized late, about 1200 AD. Significant ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement."[17][18]

text: According to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena. Researchers have noted that the Caleta Anakena landing point provides the island's best shelter from prevailing swells as well as a sandy beach for canoe landings and launchings so it appeals as a likely early place of settlement. However, this conclusion contradicts radiocarbon dating, according to which other sites preceded Anakena by many years, especially the Tahai, whose radiocarbon dates precede Anakena's by several centuries.

text: The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier Islands (Mangareva, 2,600 km (1,600 mi) away) or the Marquesas Islands, 3,200 km (2,000 mi) away. According to some theories, such as the Polynesian Diaspora Theory, there is a possibility that early Polynesian settlers arrived from South America due to their remarkable sea-navigation abilities. Theorists have supported this through the agricultural evidence of the sweet potato. The sweet potato was a favoured crop found among Polynesian society for generations. However, the origins of the sweet potato trace back to South America, proving evidence of interaction at some point in time between these two geographic areas.[19] When James Cook visited the island, one of his crew members, a Polynesian from Bora Bora, Hitihiti, was able to communicate with the Rapa Nui.[20]:296-297 The language most similar to Rapa Nui is Mangarevan, with an estimated 80 percent similarity in vocabulary. In 1999, a voyage with reconstructed Polynesian boats was able to reach Easter Island from Mangareva in 19 days.[21]

text: According to oral traditions recorded by missionaries in the 1860s, the island originally had a strong class system, with an ariki, or high chief, wielding great power over nine other clans and their respective chiefs. The high chief was the eldest descendent through first-born lines of the island's legendary founder, Hotu Matu'a. The most visible element in the culture was the production of massive statues called moai that some believe represented deified ancestors. According to National Geographic, "Most scholars suspect that the moai were created to honor ancestors, chiefs, or other important personages, However, no written and little oral history exists on the island, so it’s impossible to be certain."[23]

text: It was believed that the living had a symbiotic relationship with the dead in which the dead provided everything that the living needed (health, fertility of land and animals, fortune etc.) and the living, through offerings, provided the dead with a better place in the spirit world. Most settlements were located on the coast and most moai were erected along the coastline, watching over their descendants in the settlements before them, with their backs toward the spirit world in the sea.

text: Jared Diamond suggested that cannibalism took place on Easter Island after the construction of the moai contributed to environmental degradation when extreme deforestation destabilized an already precarious ecosystem.[24] Archeological record shows that at the time of the initial settlement the island was home to many species of trees, including at least three species which grew up to 15 metres (49 ft) or more: Paschalococos – possibly the largest palm trees in the world at the time, Alphitonia zizyphoides, and Elaeocarpus rarotongensis, as well as at least six species of native land birds. A major factor that contributed to the extinction of multiple plant species was the introduction of the Polynesian rat. Studies by paleobotanists have shown rats can dramatically affect the reproduction of vegetation in an ecosystem. In the case of Rapa Nui, recovered plant shell seeds showed markings of being gnawed on by rats.[4] Barbara A. West wrote, "Sometime before the arrival of Europeans on Easter Island, the Rapanui experienced a tremendous upheaval in their social system brought about by a change in their island's ecology... By the time of European arrival in 1722, the island's population had dropped to 2,000–3,000 from a high of approximately 15,000 just a century earlier."[25]

text: By that time, 21 species of trees and all species of land birds became extinct through some combination of overharvesting/overhunting, rat predation, and climate change. The island was largely deforested, and it did not have any trees more than 3 metres (10 feet) tall. Loss of large trees meant that residents were no longer able to build seaworthy vessels, significantly diminishing their fishing abilities. One theory regarding the deforestation that caused such ecological and social damage was that the trees were used as rollers to move the statues to their place of erection from the quarry at Rano Raraku.[26] Deforestation also affected agricultural production on Rapa Nui. At first, the native tropical forests provided ideal shade cover for soil. But with many of the native forest being destroyed, the topsoil became eroded causing a sharp decline in agricultural production.[4] This was further exacerbated by the loss of land birds and the collapse in seabird populations as a potential source of food. By the 18th century, residents of the island were largely sustained by farming, with domestic chickens as the primary source of protein.[27]

text: As the island became overpopulated and resources diminished, warriors known as matatoa gained more power and the Ancestor Cult ended, making way for the Bird Man Cult. Beverly Haun wrote, "The concept of mana (power) invested in hereditary leaders was recast into the person of the birdman, apparently beginning circa 1540, and coinciding with the final vestiges of the moai period."[28] This cult maintained that, although the ancestors still provided for their descendants, the medium through which the living could contact the dead was no longer statues, but human beings chosen through a competition. The god responsible for creating humans, Makemake, played an important role in this process. Katherine Routledge, who systematically collected the island's traditions in her 1919 expedition,[29] showed that the competitions for Bird Man (Rapanui: tangata manu) started around 1760, after the arrival of the first Europeans, and ended in 1878, with the construction of the first church by Roman Catholic missionaries who formally arrived in 1864. Petroglyphs representing Bird Men on Easter Island are exactly the same as some in Hawaii, indicating that this concept was probably brought by the original settlers; only the competition itself was unique to Easter Island.

text: According to Diamond and Heyerdahl's version of the island's history, the huri mo'ai—"statue-toppling"—continued into the 1830s as a part of fierce internal wars. By 1838 the only standing moai were on the slopes of Rano Raraku, in Hoa Hakananai'a in Orongo, and Ariki Paro in Ahu Te Pito Kura. A study headed by Douglas Owsley published in 1994 asserted that there is little archaeological evidence of pre-European societal collapse. Bone pathology and osteometric data from islanders of that period clearly suggest few fatalities can be attributed directly to violence.[30]

text: The first-recorded European contact with the island was on 5 April (Easter Sunday), 1722, when Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveen[20] visited the island for a week and estimated a population of 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants. The number may have been greater, since some may have been frightened into hiding by a misunderstanding that led Roggeveen's men to fire on the natives, killing more than a dozen and wounding several more.

text: The next foreign visitors (on 15 November 1770) were two Spanish ships, San Lorenzo and Santa Rosalia, under the command of Captain Don Felipe Gonzalez.[20]:238,504 The Spanish reported the island as largely uncultivated, whose seashore was lined with stone statues.

text: Four years later, in 1774, British explorer James Cook visited Easter Island; he reported that some statues had been toppled. Through the interpretation of Hitihiti, Cook learned the statues commemorated their former high chiefs, including their names and ranks.[20]:296-297 The British ship HMS Blossom arrived in 1825 and reported seeing no standing statues. Easter Island was approached many times during the 19th century, but by then the islanders had become openly hostile to any attempt to land, and very little new information was reported before the 1860s.

text: 19th century[edit]

text: A series of devastating events killed or removed most of the population in the 1860s. In December 1862, Peruvian slave raiders struck. Violent abductions continued for several months, eventually capturing around 1,500 men and women, half of the island's population.[31] Among those captured were the island's paramount chief, his heir, and those who knew how to read and write the rongorongo script, the only Polynesian script to have been found to date. (Although serious debate exists about whether this is proto-writing or true writing.)

text: When the slave raiders were forced to repatriate the people they had kidnapped, carriers of smallpox disembarked together with a few survivors on each of the islands.[32] This created devastating epidemics from Easter Island to the Marquesas islands.[citation needed] Easter Island's population was reduced to the point where some of the dead were not even buried.[citation needed]

text: Tuberculosis, introduced by whalers in the mid-19th century, had already killed several islanders when the first Christian missionary, Eugène Eyraud, died from this disease in 1867. About a quarter of the island's population succumbed along with him. In the following years, the managers of the sheep ranch and the missionaries started buying the newly available lands of the deceased, and this led to great confrontations between natives and settlers.

text: Jean-Baptiste Dutrou-Bornier bought up all of the island apart from the missionaries' area around Hanga Roa and moved a few hundred Rapanui to Tahiti to work for his backers. In 1871 the missionaries, having fallen out with Dutrou-Bornier, evacuated all but 171 Rapanui to the Gambier islands.[33] Those who remained were mostly older men. Six years later, only 111 people lived on Easter Island, and only 36 of them had any offspring.[34] From that point on the island's population slowly recovered. But with over 97% of the population dead or gone in less than a decade, much of the island's cultural knowledge had been lost.

text: Alexander Salmon, Jr., a son of an English Jewish merchant and a Pōmare Dynasty princess, eventually worked to repatriate workers from his inherited copra plantation. He eventually bought up all lands on the island with the exception of the mission, and was its sole employer. He worked to develop tourism on the island, and was the principal informant for the British and German archaeological expeditions for the island. He sent several pieces of genuine Rongorongo to his niece's husband, the German consul in Valparaíso, Chile. Salmon sold the Brander Easter Island holdings to the Chilean government in 1888 January 2 and signed as a witness to the cession of the island. He returned to Tahiti in December of that year. He effectively ruled the island from 1878 until his cession to Chile in 1888.

text: Easter Island was annexed by Chile on 9 September 1888 by Policarpo Toro by means of the "Treaty of Annexation of the Island" (Tratado de Anexión de la isla). Toro, then representing the government of Chile, signed with Atamu Tekena, designated "King" by the Roman Catholic missionaries after the paramount chief and his heir had died. The validity of this treaty is still contested by some Rapanui. Officially, Chile purchased the nearly all encompassing Mason-Brander sheep ranch, comprised from lands purchased from the descendants of Rapanui who died during the epidemics, and then claimed sovereignty over the island.

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Until the 1960s the surviving Rapanui were confined to Hanga Roa. The rest of the island was rented to the Williamson-Balfour Company as a sheep farm until 1953.[35] The island was then managed by the Chilean Navy until 1966, at which point the island was reopened in its entirety. In 1966 the Rapanui were given Chilean citizenship.[36]

text: Following the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that brought Augusto Pinochet to power, Easter Island was placed under martial law. Tourism slowed down and private property was restored. During his time in power, Pinochet visited Easter Island on three occasions. The military built a number of new military facilities and a new city hall.[37]

text: After an agreement in 1985 between Chile and United States, the runway at Mataveri International Airport was enlarged and was inaugurated in 1987. The runway was expanded 423 metres (1,388 ft) reaching 3,353 metres (11,001 ft). Pinochet is reported to have refused to attend the inauguration in protest of pressures from the United States to attend human rights cases.[38]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: Fishers of Rapa Nui have shown their concern of illegal fishing on the island. “Since the year 2000 we started to lose tuna, which is the basis of the fishing on the island, so then we began to take the fish from the shore to feed our families, but in less than two years we depleted all of it,” Pakarati said.[39] On 30 July 2007, a constitutional reform gave Easter Island and the Juan Fernández Islands (also known as Robinson Crusoe Island) the status of "special territories" of Chile. Pending the enactment of a special charter, the island continued to be governed as a province of the V Region of Valparaíso.[40]

text: A total solar eclipse visible from Easter Island occurred for the first time in over 1,300 years on 11 July 2010, at 18:15:15.[41]

text: Species of fish were collected in Easter Island for one month in different habitats including shallow lava pools, depths of 43 meters, and deep waters. Within these habitats, two holotypes and paratypes, Antennarius randalli and Antennarius moai, were discovered. These are considered frog-fish because of their characteristics: "12 dorsal rays, last two or three branched; bony part of first dorsal spine slightly shorter than second dorsal spine; body without bold zebra-like markings; caudal peduncle short, but distinct; last pelvic ray divided; pectoral rays 11 or 12".[42]

text: Indigenous rights movement[edit]

text: Starting in August 2010, members of the indigenous Hitorangi clan occupied the Hangaroa Eco Village and Spa.[43][44] The occupiers allege that the hotel was bought from the Pinochet government, in violation of a Chilean agreement with the indigenous Rapa Nui, in the 1990s.[45] The occupiers say their ancestors had been cheated into giving up the land.[46] According to a BBC report, on 3 December 2010, at least 25 people were injured when Chilean police using pellet guns attempted to evict from these buildings a group of Rapa Nui who had claimed that the land the buildings stood on had been illegally taken from their ancestors.[47]

text: In January 2011, the UN's Special Rapporteur on Indigenous People, James Anaya, expressed concern about the treatment of the indigenous Rapa Nui by the Chilean government, urging Chile to "make every effort to conduct a dialogue in good faith with representatives of the Rapa Nui people to solve, as soon as possible the real underlying problems that explain the current situation".[43]

text: The incident ended in February 2011, when up to 50 armed police broke into the hotel to remove the final five occupiers. They were arrested by the government and no injuries were reported.[43]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Easter Island is one of the world's most isolated inhabited islands. Its closest inhabited neighbour is Pitcairn Island, 2,075 km (1,289 mi) to the west, with fewer than 100 inhabitants. The nearest continental point lies in central Chile near Concepción, at 3,512 kilometres (2,182 mi). Easter Island's latitude is similar to that of Caldera, Chile, and it lies 3,510 km (2,180 mi) west of continental Chile at its nearest point (between Lota and Lebu in the Biobío Region). Isla Salas y Gómez, 415 km (258 mi) to the east, is closer but is uninhabited. Archipelago Tristan da Cunha in the southern Atlantic competes for the title of the most remote island, lying 2,430 kilometres (1,510 mi) from Saint Helena island and 2,816 kilometres (1,750 mi) from the South African coast.

text: The island is about 24.6 km (15.3 mi) long by 12.3 km (7.6 mi) at its widest point; its overall shape is triangular. It has an area of 163.6 square kilometres (63.2 sq mi), and a maximum altitude of 507 metres (1,663 ft). There are three Rano (freshwater crater lakes), at Rano Kau, Rano Raraku and Rano Aroi, near the summit of Terevaka, but no permanent streams or rivers.

text: Geology[edit]

text: Easter Island is a volcanic high island, consisting mainly of three extinct coalesced volcanoes: Terevaka (altitude 507 metres) forms the bulk of the island, while two other volcanoes, Poike and Rano Kau, form the eastern and southern headlands and give the island its roughly triangular shape. Lesser cones and other volcanic features include the crater Rano Raraku, the cinder cone Puna Pau and many volcanic caves including lava tubes.[48] Poike used to be a separate island until volcanic material from Terevaka united it to the larger whole. The island is dominated by hawaiite and basalt flows which are rich in iron and show affinity with igneous rocks found in the Galápagos Islands.[49]

text: Easter Island and surrounding islets, such as Motu Nui and Motu Iti, form the summit of a large volcanic mountain rising over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) from the sea bed. The mountain is part of the Sala y Gómez Ridge, a (mostly submarine) mountain range with dozens of seamounts, formed by the Easter hotspot. The range begins with Pukao and next Moai, two seamounts to the west of Easter Island, and extends 2,700 km (1,700 mi) east to the Nazca Ridge. The ridge was formed by the Nazca Plate moving over the Easter hotspot.[50]

text: Located about 350 km east of the East Pacific Rise, Easter Island lies within the Nazca Plate, bordering the Easter Microplate. The Nazca-Pacific relative plate movement due to the seafloor spreading, amounts to about 150 mm per year. This movement over the Easter hotspot has resulted in the Easter Seamount Chain, which merges into the Nazca Ridge further to the east. Easter Island and Sala y Gómez are surface representations of that chain. The chain has progressively younger ages to the west. The current hotspot location is speculated to be west of Easter Island, amidst the Ahu, Umu and Tupa submarine volcanic fields and the Pukao and Moai seamounts.[51]

text: Easter Island lies atop the Rano Kau Ridge, and consists of three shield volcanoes with parallel geologic histories. Poike and Rano Kau exist on the east and south slopes of Terevaka, respectively. Rano Kau developed between 0.78 and 0.46 Ma from tholeiitic to alkalic basalts. This volcano possesses a clearly defined summit caldera. Benmoreitic lavas extruded about the rim from 0.35 to 0.34 Ma. Finally, between 0.24 and 0.11 Ma, a 6.5 km fissure developed along a NE-SW trend, forming monogenetic vents and rhyolitic intrusions. These include the cryptodome islets of Motu Nui and Motu Iti, the islet of Motu Kao Kao, the sheet intrusion of Te Kari Kari, the perlitic obsidian Te Manavai dome and the Maunga Orito dome.[51]

text: Poike formed from tholeiitic to alkali basalts from 0.78 to 0.41 Ma. Its summit collapsed into a caldera which was subsequently filled by the Puakatiki lava cone pahoehoe flows at 0.36 Ma. Finally, the trachytic lava domes of Maunga Vai a Heva, Maunga Tea Tea, and Maunga Parehe formed along a NE-SW trending fissure.[51]

text: Terevaka formed around 0.77 Ma of tholeiitic to alkali basalts, followed by the collapse of its summit into a caldera. Then at about 0.3Ma, cinder cones formed along a NNE-SSW trend on the western rim, while porphyritic benmoreitic lava filled the caldera, and pahoehoe flowed towards the northern coast, forming lava tubes, and to the southeast. Lava domes and a vent complex formed in the Maunga Puka area, while breccias formed along the vents on the western portion of Rano Aroi crater. This volcano's southern and southeastern flanks are composed of younger flows consisting of basalt, alkali basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, and benmoreite from eruptive fissures starting at 0.24 Ma. The youngest lava flow, Roiho, is dated at 0.11 Ma. The Hanga O Teo embayment is interpreted to be a 200 m high landslide scarp.[51]

text: Rano Raraku and Maunga Toa Toa are isolated tuff cones of about 0.21 Ma. The crater of Rano Raraku contains a freshwater lake. The stratified tuff is composed of sideromelane, slightly altered to palagonite, and somewhat lithified. The tuff contains lithic fragments of older lava flows. The northwest sector of Rano Raraku contains reddish ash.[51] According to Bandy, "...all of the great images of Easter Island are carved from" the light and porous tuff from Rano Raraku. A carving was abandoned when a large, dense and hard lithic fragment was encountered. However, these lithics became the basis for stone hammers and chisels. The Puna Pau crater contains an extremely porous pumice, from which was carved the Pukao "hats". The Maunga Orito obsidian was used to make the "mataa" spearheads.[52]

text: In the first half of the 20th century, steam reportedly came out of the Rano Kau crater wall. This was photographed by the island's manager, Mr. Edmunds.[53]

text: Climate[edit]

text: Under the Köppen climate classification, the climate of Easter Island is classified as a tropical rainforest climate (Af) that borders on a humid subtropical climate. The lowest temperatures are recorded in July and August (minimum 15 °C or 59 °F) and the highest in February (maximum temperature 28 °C or 82 °F[54]), the summer season in the southern hemisphere. Winters are relatively mild. The rainiest month is May, though the island experiences year-round rainfall.[55] Easter Island's isolated location exposes it to winds which help to keep the temperature fairly cool. Precipitation averages 1,118 millimetres or 44 inches per year. Occasionally, heavy rainfall and rainstorms strike the island. These occur mostly in the winter months (June–August). Since it is close to the South Pacific High and outside the range of the intertropical convergence zone, cyclones and hurricanes do not occur around Easter island.[56] There is significant temperature moderation due to its isolated position in the middle of the ocean.

text:
[hide]Climate data for Easter Island (1961–1990, extremes 1912–1990)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
32.0
(89.6)
31.0
(87.8)
32.0
(89.6)
31.0
(87.8)
30.0
(86)
29.0
(84.2)
31.0
(87.8)
28.3
(82.9)
30.0
(86)
29.0
(84.2)
33.0
(91.4)
34.0
(93.2)
34.0
(93.2)

Average high °C (°F)
27.0
(80.6)
27.3
(81.1)
26.9
(80.4)
25.4
(77.7)
23.4
(74.1)
22.0
(71.6)
21.3
(70.3)
21.2
(70.2)
21.7
(71.1)
22.5
(72.5)
23.9
(75)
25.4
(77.7)
24.0
(75.2)

Daily mean °C (°F)
23.3
(73.9)
23.6
(74.5)
23.1
(73.6)
21.8
(71.2)
20.2
(68.4)
18.8
(65.8)
18.2
(64.8)
18.0
(64.4)
18.3
(64.9)
19.1
(66.4)
20.4
(68.7)
21.8
(71.2)
20.6
(69.1)

Average low °C (°F)
19.8
(67.6)
20.2
(68.4)
19.9
(67.8)
18.9
(66)
17.7
(63.9)
16.5
(61.7)
15.7
(60.3)
15.4
(59.7)
15.5
(59.9)
16.0
(60.8)
17.3
(63.1)
18.4
(65.1)
17.6
(63.7)

Record low °C (°F)
12.0
(53.6)
14.0
(57.2)
11.0
(51.8)
12.7
(54.9)
10.0
(50)
7.0
(44.6)
9.4
(48.9)
7.0
(44.6)
8.0
(46.4)
8.0
(46.4)
8.0
(46.4)
12.0
(53.6)
7.0
(44.6)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
72.8
(2.866)
84.8
(3.339)
95.6
(3.764)
120.7
(4.752)
152.9
(6.02)
106.3
(4.185)
105.1
(4.138)
93.8
(3.693)
86.8
(3.417)
68.0
(2.677)
74.0
(2.913)
86.4
(3.402)
1,147.2
(45.165)

Average relative humidity (%)
77
79
79
81
81
81
80
80
79
77
77
78
79

Mean monthly sunshine hours
291.4
245.8
238.7
195.0
176.7
155.0
151.9
173.6
183.0
220.1
219.0
263.5
2,513.7

Mean daily sunshine hours
9.4
8.7
7.7
6.5
5.7
5.0
4.9
5.6
6.1
7.1
7.3
8.5
6.88

Source #1: Universidad de Chile (normals and sunshine hours)[57][58]

Source #2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes and humidity)[59]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Easter Island, together with its closest neighbour, the tiny island of Isla Sala y Gómez 415 kilometres (258 mi) farther east, is recognized by ecologists as a distinct ecoregion, the Rapa Nui subtropical broadleaf forests. The original subtropical moist broadleaf forests are now gone, but paleobotanical studies of fossil pollen, tree moulds left by lava flows, and root casts found in local soils indicate that the island was formerly forested, with a range of trees, shrubs, ferns, and grasses. A large extinct palm, Paschalococos disperta, related to the Chilean wine palm (Jubaea chilensis), was one of the dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence. Like its Chilean counterpart it probably took close to 100 years to reach adult height. The Polynesian rat, which the original settlers brought with them, played a very important role in the disappearance of the Rapanui palm. Although some may believe that rats played a major role in the degradation of the forest, less than 10% of palm nuts show teeth marks from rats. The remains of palm stumps in different places indicate that humans caused the trees to fall because in large areas, the stumps were cut efficiently.[60]

text: The clearance of the palms to make the settlements led to their extinction almost 350 years ago.[61] The toromiro tree (Sophora toromiro) was prehistorically present on Easter Island, but is now extinct in the wild. However the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Göteborg Botanical Garden are jointly leading a scientific program to reintroduce the toromiro to Easter Island. With the palm and the toromiro virtually gone, there was considerably less rainfall as a result of less condensation. After the island was used to feed thousands of sheep for almost a century, by the mid-1900s the island was mostly covered in grassland with nga'atu or bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus tatora) in the crater lakes of Rano Raraku and Rano Kau. The presence of these reeds, which are called totora in the Andes, was used to support the argument of a South American origin of the statue builders, but pollen analysis of lake sediments shows these reeds have grown on the island for over 30,000 years.[citation needed] Before the arrival of humans, Easter Island had vast seabird colonies containing probably over 30 resident species, perhaps the world's richest.[62] Such colonies are no longer found on the main island. Fossil evidence indicates five species of landbirds (two rails, two parrots and a heron), all of which have become extinct.[63] Five introduced species of landbird are known to have breeding populations (see List of birds of Easter Island).

text: Lacks of studies resulting in poor understandings of oceanic fauna of Easter Island and waters in vicinity, however possibilities of undiscovered breeding grounds for humpback, southern blue and pygmy blue whales including Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez have been considered.[64] Potential breeding area for fin whales have been detected off northeast of the island as well.[65]

text:
Vegetation on the island

View of Easter Island from space, 2001. The Poike peninsula is on the right.

Digital recreation of its ancient landscape, with tropical forest and palm trees

View toward the interior of the island

View of Rano Kau and Pacific Ocean

tag: ul

text: The immunosuppressant drug sirolimus was first discovered in the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus in a soil sample from Easter Island. The drug is also known as rapamycin, after Rapa Nui.[66] It is now being studied for extending longevity in mice.[67]

text: Trees are sparse, rarely forming natural groves, and it has been argued whether native Easter Islanders deforested the island in the process of erecting their statues,[68] and in providing sustenance for an overpopulated island.[citation needed] Experimental archaeology demonstrated that some statues certainly could have been placed on "Y" shaped wooden frames called miro manga erua and then pulled to their final destinations on ceremonial sites.[68] Other theories involve the use of "ladders" (parallel wooden rails) over which the statues could have been dragged.[69] Rapanui traditions metaphorically refer to spiritual power (mana) as the means by which the moai were "walked" from the quarry. Recent experimental recreations have proven that it is fully possible that the moai were literally walked from their quarries to their final positions by use of ropes, casting doubt on the role that their existence plays in the environmental collapse of the island.[70]

text: Given the island's southern latitude, the climatic effects of the Little Ice Age (about 1650 to 1850) may have exacerbated deforestation, although this remains speculative.[68] Many researchers[71] point to the climatic downtrend caused by the Little Ice Age as a contributing factor to resource stress and to the palm tree's disappearance. Experts, however, do not agree on when exactly the island's palms became extinct.

text: Jared Diamond dismisses past climate change as a dominant cause of the island's deforestation in his book Collapse which assesses the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders.[72] Influenced by Heyerdahl's romantic interpretation of Easter's history (as he acknowledges in chapter 2 of Collapse), Diamond insists that the disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th centuries. He notes that they stopped making statues at that time and started destroying the ahu. But the link is weakened because the Bird Man cult continued to thrive and survived the great impact caused by the arrival of explorers, whalers, sandalwood traders, and slave raiders.

text: Midden contents show that the main source of protein was tuna and dolphin. With the loss of the trees, there was a sudden drop in the quantities of fish bones found in middens as the islanders lost the means to construct fishing vessels, coinciding with a large increase in bird bones. This was followed by a decrease in the number of bird bones as birds lost their nesting sites or became extinct. A new style of art from this period shows people with exposed ribs and distended bellies, indicative of malnutrition, and it is around this time that many islanders moved to living in fortified caves and the first signs of warfare and cannibalism appear.

text: Soil erosion because of lack of trees is apparent in some places. Sediment samples document that up to half of the native plants had become extinct and that the vegetation of the island drastically altered. Polynesians were primarily farmers, not fishermen, and their diet consisted mainly of cultivated staples such as taro root, sweet potato, yams, cassava, and bananas. With no trees to protect them, sea spray led to crop failures exacerbated by a sudden reduction in fresh water flows. There is evidence that the islanders took to planting crops in caves beneath collapsed ceilings and covered the soil with rocks to reduce evaporation. Cannibalism occurred on many Polynesian islands, sometimes in times of plenty as well as famine. Its presence on Easter Island (based on human remains associated with cooking sites, especially in caves) is supported by oral histories.[citation needed]

text: Benny Peiser[5] noted evidence of self-sufficiency when Europeans first arrived. The island still had smaller trees, mainly toromiro, which became extinct in the wild in the 20th century probably because of slow growth and changes in the island's ecosystem. Cornelis Bouman, Jakob Roggeveen's captain, stated in his logbook, "... of yams, bananas and small coconut palms we saw little and no other trees or crops." According to Carl Friedrich Behrens, Roggeveen's officer, "The natives presented palm branches as peace offerings." According to ethnographer Alfred Mètraux, the most common type of house was called "hare paenga" (and is known today as "boat house") because the roof resembled an overturned boat. The foundations of the houses were made of buried basalt slabs with holes for wooden beams to connect with each other throughout the width of the house. These were then covered with a layer of totora reed, followed by a layer of woven sugarcane leaves, and lastly a layer of woven grass. There were reports by European visitors who said they had seen "boles of large palm trees".[citation needed]

text: Peiser claims that these reports indicate that large trees existed at that time, which is perhaps contradicted by the Bouman quote above. Plantations were often located farther inland, next to foothills, inside open-ceiling lava tubes, and in other places protected from the strong salt winds and salt spray affecting areas closer to the coast. It is possible many of the Europeans did not venture inland. The statue quarry, only one kilometre (0.62 miles) from the coast with an impressive cliff 100 m (330 ft) high, was not explored by Europeans until well into the 19th century.

text: Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, perhaps aggravated by agriculture and massive deforestation. This process seems to have been gradual and may have been aggravated by sheep farming throughout most of the 20th century. Jakob Roggeveen reported that Easter Island was exceptionally fertile. "Fowls are the only animals they keep. They cultivate bananas, sugar cane, and above all sweet potatoes." In 1786 Jean-François de La Pérouse visited Easter Island and his gardener declared that "three days' work a year" would be enough to support the population.

text: Rollin, a major in the Pérouse expedition, wrote, "Instead of meeting with men exhausted by famine... I found, on the contrary, a considerable population, with more beauty and grace than I afterwards met in any other island; and a soil, which, with very little labor, furnished excellent provisions, and in an abundance more than sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants."[74]

text: According to Diamond, the oral traditions (the veracity of which has been questioned by Routledge, Lavachery, Mètraux, Peiser and others) of the current islanders seem obsessed with cannibalism, which he offers as evidence supporting a rapid collapse. For example, he states, to severely insult an enemy one would say, "The flesh of your mother sticks between my teeth." This, Diamond asserts, means the food supply of the people ultimately ran out.[75] Cannibalism, however, was widespread across Polynesian cultures.[76] Human bones have not been found in earth ovens other than those behind the religious platforms, indicating that cannibalism in Easter Island was a ritualistic practice. Contemporary ethnographic research has proven there is scarcely any tangible evidence for widespread cannibalism anywhere and at any time on the Island.[77] The first scientific exploration of Easter Island (1914) recorded that the indigenous population strongly rejected allegations that they or their ancestors had been cannibals.[29]

text: Culture[edit]

text: Mythology[edit]

text: The most important myths are:

text:
Tangata manu, the Birdman cult which was practised until the 1860s.
Makemake, an important god.
Aku-aku, the guardians of the sacred family caves.
Moai-kava-kava a ghost man of the Hanau epe (long-ears.)
Hekai ite umu pare haonga takapu Hanau epe kai noruego, the sacred chant to appease the aku-aku before entering a family cave.

text: Stone work[edit]

text: The Rapa Nui people had a Stone Age culture and made extensive use of local stone:

text:
Basalt, a hard, dense stone used for toki and at least one of the moai.
Obsidian, a volcanic glass with sharp edges used for sharp-edged implements such as Mataa and for the black pupils of the eyes of the moai.
Red scoria from Puna Pau, a very light red stone used for the pukao and a few moai.
Tuff from Rano Raraku, a much more easily worked rock than basalt that was used for most of the moai.

text: Statues[edit]

text: The large stone statues, or moai, for which Easter Island is famous, were carved in the period 1100–1680 CE (rectified radio-carbon dates).[16] A total of 887 monolithic stone statues have been inventoried on the island and in museum collections.[78] Although often identified as "Easter Island heads", the statues have torsos, most of them ending at the top of the thighs, although a small number are complete figures that kneel on bent knees with their hands over their stomachs.[79][80] Some upright moai have become buried up to their necks by shifting soils.

text: Almost all (95%)[citation needed] moai were carved from compressed, easily worked solidified volcanic ash or tuff found at a single site on the side of the extinct volcano Rano Raraku. The native islanders who carved them used only stone hand chisels, mainly basalt toki, which lie in place all over the quarry. The stone chisels were sharpened by chipping off a new edge when dulled. While sculpting was going on, the volcanic stone was splashed with water to soften it. While many teams worked on different statues at the same time, a single moai took a team of five or six men approximately a year to complete. Each statue represented the deceased head of a lineage.

text: Only a quarter of the statues were installed. Nearly half remained in the quarry at Rano Raraku, and the rest sat elsewhere, presumably on their way to intended locations. The largest moai raised on a platform is known as "Paro". It weighs 82 tonnes (90.4 short tons), and is 9.89 m (32.4 ft) long.[81][82] Several other statues of similar weight were transported to ahu on the north and south coasts.

text: Possible means by which the statues were moved include employment of a miro manga erua, a Y-shaped sledge with cross pieces, pulled with ropes made from the tough bark of the hau tree[83] and tied around the statue's neck. Anywhere from 180 to 250 men were required for pulling, depending on the size of the moai. Some 50 of the statues were re-erected in modern times. One of the first was on Ahu Ature Huke in Anakena beach in 1956.[84] It was raised using traditional methods during a Heyerdahl expedition.

text: Another method that might have been used would be to attach ropes to the statue and rock it, tugging it forward as it rocked. This would fit the legend of the Mo'ai 'walking' to their final locations.[85][86][87] This might have been managed by as few as 15 people, supported by the following evidence:

text:
The heads of the moai in the quarry are sloped forward whereas the ones moved to final locations are not. This would serve to provide a better centre of gravity for transport.
The statues found along the transport roads have wider bases than statues installed on ahu; this would facilitate more stable transport. Studies have shown fractures along the bases of the statues in transport; these could have arisen from rocking the statue back and forth and placing great pressures on the edges. The statues found mounted on ahu do not have wide bases and stone chips found at the sites suggest they were further modified on placement.
The abandoned and fallen statues near the old roads are found (more often than would be expected from chance) face down on ascending grades and on their backs when headed uphill. Some were documented standing upright along the old roads, e.g., by a party from Captain Cook's voyage that rested in the shade of a standing statue. This would be consistent with upright transport.

text: There is debate around the moai regarding the effects of the monument creation process on the environment. Some believe that the process of creating the moai caused widespread deforestation and ultimately a civil war over scarce resources.[88]

text: In 2011, a large moai statue was excavated from the ground.[89] During the same excavation program, some larger moai were found to have complex dorsal petroglyphs, revealed by deep excavation of the torso.[90]

text:
Moais

Tukuturi, an unusual bearded kneeling moai

All fifteen standing moai at Ahu Tongariki, excavated and restored in the 1990s

Ahu Akivi, one of the few inland ahu, with the only moai facing the ocean

text: Stone platforms[edit]

text: Ahu are stone platforms. Varying greatly in layout, many were reworked during or after the huri mo'ai or statue-toppling era; many became ossuaries; one was dynamited open; and Ahu Tongariki was swept inland by a tsunami. Of the 313 known ahu, 125 carried moai—usually just one, probably because of the shortness of the moai period and transportation difficulties. Ahu Tongariki, one kilometre (0.62 miles) from Rano Raraku, had the most and tallest moai, 15 in total.[91] Other notable ahu with moai are Ahu Akivi, restored in 1960 by William Mulloy, Nau Nau at Anakena and Tahai. Some moai may have been made from wood and were lost.

text: The classic elements of ahu design are:

text:
A retaining rear wall several feet high, usually facing the sea
A front wall made of rectangular basalt slabs called paenga
A fascia made of red scoria that went over the front wall (platforms built after 1300)
A sloping ramp in the inland part of the platform, extending outward like wings
A pavement of even-sized, round water-worn stones called poro
An alignment of stones before the ramp
A paved plaza before the ahu. This was called marae
Inside the ahu was a fill of rubble.

text: On top of many ahu would have been:

text:
Moai on squareish "pedestals" looking inland, the ramp with the poro before them.
Pukao or Hau Hiti Rau on the moai heads (platforms built after 1300).
When a ceremony took place, "eyes" were placed on the statues. The whites of the eyes were made of coral, the iris was made of obsidian or red scoria.

text: Ahu evolved from the traditional Polynesian marae. In this context ahu referred to a small structure sometimes covered with a thatched roof where sacred objects, including statues, were stored. The ahu were usually adjacent to the marae or main central court where ceremonies took place, though on Easter Island ahu and moai evolved to much greater size. There the marae is the unpaved plaza before the ahu. The biggest ahu is 220 metres (720 ft) and holds 15 statues, some of which are 9 metres (30 ft) high. The filling of an ahu was sourced locally (apart from broken, old moai, fragments of which have been used in the fill).[73] Individual stones are mostly far smaller than the moai, so less work was needed to transport the raw material, but artificially levelling the terrain for the plaza and filling the ahu was laborious.

text: Ahu are found mostly on the coast, where they are distributed fairly evenly except on the western slopes of Mount Terevaka and the Rano Kau and Poike[92] headlands. These are the three areas with the least low-lying coastal land, and apart from Poike the furthest areas from Rano Raraku. One ahu with several moai was recorded on the cliffs at Rano Kau in the 1880s but had fallen to the beach before the Routledge expedition.[29]

text: Stone walls[edit]

text: One of the highest-quality examples of Easter Island stone masonry is the rear wall of the ahu at Vinapu. Made without mortar by shaping hard basalt rocks of up to 7 tonnes to match each other exactly, it has a superficial similarity to some Inca stone walls in South America.[93]

text: Stone houses[edit]

text: Two types of houses are known from the past: hare paenga, a house with an elliptical foundation, made with basalt slabs and covered with a thatched roof that resembled an overturned boat, and hare oka, a round stone structure. Related stone structures called Tupa look very similar to the hare oka, except that the Tupa were inhabited by astronomer-priests and located near the coast, where the movements of the stars could be easily observed. Settlements also contain hare moa ("chicken house"), oblong stone structures that housed chickens. The houses at the ceremonial village of Orongo are unique in that they are shaped like hare paenga but are made entirely of flat basalt slabs found inside Rano Kao crater. The entrances to all the houses are very low, and entry requires crawling.

text: In early times the people of Rapa Nui reportedly sent the dead out to sea in small funerary canoes, as did their Polynesian counterparts on other islands. They later started burying people in secret caves to save the bones from desecration by enemies. During the turmoil of the late 18th century, the islanders seem to have started to bury their dead in the space between the belly of a fallen moai and the front wall of the structure. During the time of the epidemics they made mass graves that were semi-pyramidal stone structures.

text: Petroglyphs[edit]

text: Petroglyphs are pictures carved into rock, and Easter Island has one of the richest collections in all Polynesia. Around 1,000 sites with more than 4,000 petroglyphs are catalogued. Designs and images were carved out of rock for a variety of reasons: to create totems, to mark territory, or to memorialize a person or event. There are distinct variations around the island in the frequency of themes among petroglyphs, with a concentration of Birdmen at Orongo. Other subjects include sea turtles, Komari (vulvas) and Makemake, the chief god of the Tangata manu or Birdman cult.[94]

text:
Petroglyphs

Makemake with two birdmen, carved from red scoria

Fish petroglyph found near Ahu Tongariki

text: Caves[edit]

text: The island and neighbouring Motu Nui are riddled with caves, many of which show signs of past human use for planting and as fortifications, including narrowed entrances and crawl spaces with ambush points. Many caves feature in the myths and legends of the Rapa Nui.

text: Rongorongo[edit]

text: Easter Island once had an apparent script called rongorongo. Glyphs include pictographic and geometric shapes; the texts were incised in wood in reverse boustrophedon direction. It was first reported by a French missionary, Eugène Eyraud, in 1864. At that time, several islanders said they could understand the writing, but according to tradition, only ruling families and priests were ever literate, and none survived the slave raids and subsequent epidemics. Despite numerous attempts, the surviving texts have not been deciphered, and without decipherment it is not certain that they are actually writing. Part of the problem is the small amount that has survived: only two dozen texts, none of which remain on the island. There are also only a couple of similarities with the petroglyphs on the island.[95]

text: Wood carving[edit]

text:
Skeletal statuette
Atypical tubby statuette

text: Wood was scarce on Easter Island during the 18th and 19th centuries, but a number of highly detailed and distinctive carvings have found their way to the world's museums. Particular forms include:[96]

text:
Reimiro, a gorget or breast ornament of crescent shape with a head at one or both tips.[97] The same design appears on the flag of Rapa Nui. Two Rei Miru at the British Museum are inscribed with Rongorongo.
Moko Miro, a man with a lizard head. The Moko Miro was used as a club because of the legs, which formed a handle shape. If it wasn't held by hand, dancers wore it around their necks during feasts. The Moko Miro would also be placed at the doorway to protect the household from harm. It would be hanging from the roof or set in the ground. The original form had eyes made from white shells, and the pupils were made of obsidian.[98]
Moai kavakava are male carvings and the Moai Paepae are female carvings.[99] These grotesque and highly detailed human figures carved from Toromiro pine, represent ancestors. Sometimes these statues were used for fertility rites. Usually, they are used for harvest celebrations; "the first picking of fruits was heaped around them as offerings". When the statues were not used, they would be wrapped in bark cloth and kept at home. There were a few times that are reported when the islanders would pick up the figures like dolls and dance with them.[99] The earlier figures are rare and generally depict a male figure with an emaciated body and a goatee. The figures' ribs and vertebrae are exposed and many examples show carved glyphs on various parts of the body but more specifically, on the top of the head. The female figures, rarer than the males, depict the body as flat and often with the female's hand lying across the body. The figures, although some were quite large, were worn as ornamental pieces around a tribesman's neck. The more figures worn, the more important the man. The figures have a shiny patina developed from constant handling and contact with human skin.[citation needed]
Ao, a large dancing paddle

text: 21st-century culture[edit]

text: The Rapanui sponsor an annual festival, the Tapati, held since 1975 around the beginning of February to celebrate Rapanui culture. The islanders also maintain a national football team and three discos in the town of Hanga Roa. Other cultural activities include a musical tradition that combines South American and Polynesian influences and woodcarving.

text: Sports[edit]

text: The Chilean leg of the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series takes place on the Island of Rapa Nui.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: 2012 census[edit]

text: Population at the 2012 census was 5,761 (increased from 3,791 in 2002).[100] In 2002, 60% were persons of indigenous Rapa Nui origin, 39% were mainland Chileans (or their Easter Island-born descendants) of European or mestizo (mixed European and indigenous Chilean Amerindian) origin, and the remaining 1% were indigenous mainland Chilean Amerindians (or their Easter Island-born descendants).[101] Population density on Easter Island in 2012 is only 35 inhabitants per square kilometre (91/sq mi).

text:
Real life in Rapa Nui

Polynesian dancing with feather costumes is on the tourist itinerary.

Hanga Roa town hall

Fishing boats

Front view of the Catholic Church, Hanga Roa

Catholic Church, Hanga Roa

Interior view of the Catholic Church in Hanga Roa

text: Demographic history[edit]

text: The 1982 population was 1,936. The increase in population in the last census was partly caused by the arrival of people of European or mixed European and Native American descent from the Chilean mainland. However, most married a Rapanui spouse. Around 70% of the population were natives. Estimates of the pre-European population range from 7–17,000. Easter Island's all-time low of 111 inhabitants was reported in 1877. Out of these 111 Rapanui, only 36 had descendants, but all of today's Rapanui claim descent from those 36.

text: Administration and legal status[edit]

text: Easter Island shares with Juan Fernández Islands the constitutional status of "special territory" of Chile, granted in 2007. As of 2011[update] a special charter for the island was under discussion in the Chilean Congress.

text: Administratively, the island is a province of the Valparaíso Region and contains a single commune (comuna). Both the province and the commune are called Isla de Pascua and encompass the whole island and its surrounding islets and rocks, plus Isla Salas y Gómez, some 380 km (236 mi) to the east. The provincial governor is appointed by the President of the Republic.[102] The municipal administration is located in Hanga Roa, led by a mayor and a six-member municipal council, all directly elected for a four-year mandate.

text: Notable people[edit]

text:
Kings of Easter Island
Hotu Matuʻa – island founder
Nga'ara – one of the last ‘ariki
Atamu Tekena – missionary installed king
Riro Kāinga – last person to hold title of king
Angata – native catechist and prophetess who led a 1914 rebellion
Juan Tepano – indigenous leader and cultural informant
Thor Heyerdahl – ethnographer
Eugène Eyraud – missionary
Hippolyte Roussel – missionary
Sebastian Englert—missionary and ethnologist
Katherine Routledge – archaeologist and anthropologist
William Mulloy – archaeologist
Pedro Pablo Edmunds Paoa – Mayor and former Governor
Melania Carolina Hotu Hey – Governor (2006–2010 and incumbent since 2015)
Juan Edmunds Rapahango – former Mayor

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Easter Island is served by Mataveri International Airport, with jet service (currently Boeing 767s and Boeing 787s) from LAN Airlines and, seasonally, subsidiaries such as LAN Peru.


document_title: Batman: The Enemy Within

question_text: when does episode 4 of telltale batman come out

text: Batman: The Enemy Within

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: Like most Telltale games, the game features a similar episodic format found in other titles (such as The Walking Dead, The Wolf Among Us and Tales from the Borderlands). The player controls Batman and his alter-ego Bruce Wayne, with the game evenly split for both characters. The game features a branching narrative, similar to past Telltale games, giving the player options in approaching a situation and having that choice affect later events in the game. If the player had played the previous game, choices made, such as saving certain characters or stopping a criminal, may also be imported, though the game can be played as a standalone title. The game includes action sequences that are resolved similar to Telltale's other games, using quick time events. The series also includes investigation sequences, allowing the player to use Batman's detective skills to investigate areas. Sections of the game also present situations to the player where they may choose to approach as Bruce Wayne or as Batman. Crowd Play, a feature implemented in the predecessor, also returns for The Enemy Within, allowing streamers to let their audience interact with their session with the game.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Setting[edit]

text: The Enemy Within is set in the same Batman continuity introduced in Telltale's Batman series, which took place a number of years into Batman's career. Like the previous installment, the game is set during the mid-to-late 2010s in Gotham City, primarily the Batcave, Wayne Enterprises and Gotham City Police Headquarters. The game also follows the events of the previous game, taking place between a couple of months to a year after these events.

text: Characters[edit]

text: The player once again assumes control of Bruce Wayne/Batman (voiced by Troy Baker), a billionaire who secretly fights crime to reduce crime in Gotham. His butler and former-guardian Alfred Pennyworth (Enn Reitel), Police Commissioner James Gordon (Murphy Guyer), Wayne Enterprises Chief of Technology Lucius Fox (Dave Fennoy), and Detective Renee Montoya (Sumalee Montano) also return to assist Batman in the field. The game introduces "The Agency", a mysterious government organization with its own agenda led by Amanda Waller (Debra Wilson). Other members of the organization include Special Agents Iman Avesta (Emily O'Brien) and Vernon Blake (Christian Lanz). The series also introduces Tiffany Fox (Valarie Rae Miller), the daughter of Lucius and an employee at Wayne Enterprises and Harvey Bullock (Keith Szarabajka), a police detective who distrusts both Wayne and Batman.

text: Selina Kyle/Catwoman (Laura Bailey) and the mysterious "John Doe" (Anthony Ingruber) also return, now members of a group of criminals called "the Pact". Other members of this organization include Bane (J. B. Blanc), Riddler (Robin Atkin Downes), Dr. Victor Fries/Mr. Freeze (Matthew Mercer) and Harleen Quinzel/Harley Quinn (Laura Post). Accociates of the Pact include Rumi Mori (Keone Young), an international arms dealer and Eli Knable (Alex Hernandez), the Riddler's second-in-command. Reporter Jack Ryder (Robert Clotworthy) and Wayne Enterprises Chairwoman Regina Zellerbach (Lorri Holt) return as small roles within the series.

text: Plot[edit]

text: Approximately one year after the defeat of the Children of Arkham, Batman continues to patrol Gotham whilst slowly regaining his reputation, following the unveiling of his parents as criminals. Whilst targeting arms dealer Rumi Mori, he witnesses the return of the Riddler, one of Gotham's first costumed criminals. Leaving the building whilst he and his men take Mori and patrons hostage, Wayne suits up as Batman and confronts Riddler with help from Gordon and the GCPD. Riddler escapes, leaving a puzzle box for Batman to solve, whilst the Agency and their operatives arrive to help clean up. During their clean up, Batman meets Amanda Waller, the director of the Agency, as well as special agents Iman Avesta and Vernon Blake, who take over the investigation and offer to assist him in tracking Riddler. After returning to the Batcave, Bruce solves the puzzle, though is fazed when discovering a signal emitter. When Lucius Fox, the chief of technology at Wayne Enterprises investigates, he is mysteriously killed in an explosion.

text: At Lucius' funeral, Bruce reunites with former Arkham patient "John Doe", who has been released for good behavior. John, having made a number of "friends" after his release, asks Bruce to meet and joined his group, which he refers to as "the Pact". When finding out that Bruce is searching for Riddler, John claiming to be an enemy, gives him a lead to investigate in Gotham's East End. With Gordon, Batman follows the lead to discover Riddler's lair, where he discovers clues to Riddler's plans and a death trap to solve. He also finds a radio wave guided homing missile and deduces that the signal was actually a homing guide, was responsible for Fox's death. Using evidence he finds, Batman deduces that Riddler plans to target the Agency, having hacked the agent's phones and making them send the targeting signal to call missiles to their locations. Determined to find Riddler, Bruce decides to either go after Mori, who supplied the homing missiles to Riddler, or Eli Knable, his second-in-command who was captured during the fight at the casino.

text: Using his chosen source, Batman discovers Riddler's hideout on a freight ship and that he has taken several agents hostage, including Avesta and Blake. He infiltrates the hideout, but is captured by Riddler whilst trying to save them. The criminal tries to force Batman into an unfair game, forcing him to solve riddles to save the agents, but at the cost of Avesta's hearing. Regardless how the player performs, Batman escapes, redirects the missiles and defeats Riddler. As he is interrogated by the vigilante, Riddler is shot with a poisoned dart and dies, revealing that he is also a member of the Pact. As the Agency and GCPD arrive, Waller takes over law enforcement in Gotham and, whilst talking to Batman, reveals her knowledge of his true identity. Waller suggests he infiltrate the Pact as his alter-ego and gives him an ultimatum: work with the Agency to help arrest the Pact or risk having his identity exposed. Several moments later, a series of explosions go off throughout the city. Responding to an attack at the police arsenal, Batman battles another member of the Pact, Bane, who easily overpowers him with help from a steroid called Venom. Surviving thanks to help from either Gordon or Waller, Batman decides to follow the latter's advice and meets with John to accept his offer.

text: The two meet at a bar, where he is introduced to John's former psychiatrist Harleen Quinzel, now the criminal Harley Quinn. Suspicious of Bruce, Harley gives him a chance to prove himself by stealing a prototype electrical skeleton key from Wayne Enterprises, with them joining him during the heist. Despite problems, including an unexpected encounter with Lucius' grieving daughter Tiffany, he is able to get the device to them and an EMP generator. After this show of compliance, Bruce is called to meet the rest of the Pact and convince them to vote him into the group. Successful, he joins them on their latest heist: a mysterious package guarded by an Agency convoy. With Waller refusing to help, Bruce is forced to assist the Pact and escapes with them. Upon returning to the group's hideout, the target is revealed to have been the Riddler's body, with the Pact needing it to acquire something. Bruce also discovers that his former ally Catwoman is also a member of the Pact, having helped retrieve a device for their operations.

text: After copying Riddler's eyes, Harley reveals one of Riddler's laptops, which he had left in their possession, and Bruce, John and Catwoman head to his hideout to find the location of their mark. After solving another death trap hidden in the lair, Bruce and Catwoman discover a supercomputer linked to an organization called SANCTUS. When they fail to complete a retinal scan, the computer self-destructs and Catwoman escapes with a decrypting drive, hoping to steal another laptop in Harley's possession. The Pact also begin to suspect a mole, due to the time it took for the job to escalate, and suspicions fall on Bruce. After retrieving the laptop through help from either Selina or John, Bruce finds that SANCTUS was one of the Agency's former divisions in charge of experimentation. The laptop contains evidence of a biological weaponry and the lab's location. Waller also relieves Gordon from duty after he tries to arrest Bruce, having suspected he was involved with criminal activities.

text: Whilst on a reconnaissance mission at the location of the lab hidden beneath a spa, Bruce is captured by Bane and is interrogated by Harley and John, forcing him to either give himself or Catwoman up. Not willing to let their betrayal go unpunished, the Pact attempt to kill the chosen person whilst they break into the lab which will either show Bruce placed in a refrigerated box or Catwoman placed in one of Riddler's death traps.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: The game is separated into five episodes, released in approximately monthly intervals.

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

1
"The Enigma"
Kent Mudle
James Windeler, Patrick Kevin Day and Shanon Ingles
August 8, 2017 (2017-08-08)

2
"The Pact"
Matthew Leach
Luke McMullen, Chris Hockabout, Shanon Ingles and Patrick Kevin Day
October 3, 2017 (2017-10-03)

3
"Fractured Mask"
Sean Manning
Ross Beeley, Shanon Ingles, Lauren R. Mee and Josh R. Trujillo
November 21, 2017 (2017-11-21)

4
"What Ails You?"
TBA
TBA
December, 2017 (December, 2017)

5
"Same Stitch"
TBA
TBA
TBA, 2018 (TBA, 2018)

text: Reception[edit]

text: Batman: The Enemy Within received generally positive reviews from critics earning praise for its story, choices, action sequences, and portrayal of the Batman mythos.[2][3][4][5]