document_title: Legal status of tattooing in the United States

question_text: how old do you have to be to get a tattoo in the state of illinois

root

text: In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years of age or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor cannot enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).

tag: p

text: In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and/or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.

text:
Legal Restrictions on Tattooing & Body Modification by State

State
Minimum Age (with parent/guardian consent)
Form of Parent/Guardian Consent
Notes & Exceptions
Intoxicated/Impaired Individuals
Area of Law/Type of Penalty
Licensing & Regulation
Relevant Statute(s) and Rules

Alabama
none specified[1]
informed written consent, signed in presence of the artist/service provider or their agent[1][2]
Ear piercing exempt from Alabama body art laws & rules.[2][3]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or pierced[1][2]
Violations of Alabama Tattoo & Body Piercing laws are a class c misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of up to $100 and/or up to 90 days imprisonment for each violation.[4]
Alabama's Department of Public Health licenses Tattoo, body piercing, & body art facilities, and sets standards for their operation.[5]
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.[2]

Ala. Code § 22-1-17A[3][6]
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.[2]

Arizona
none specified[7]
parent/guardian must be physically present[7]
Minors can have their ears pierced with the written or verbal consent of a parent/guardian, can have procedures prescribed by a health care provider.[7]
no restriction[7]
Violations are a class 6 felony.[7]
There are no health regulations for tattoo shops in Arizona. [8]
Tattoos. Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 13-3721[7]

Arkansas
16[9]
parent/guardian must both give written consent and be physically present[10]
none specified[10]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or pierced.[10]

Ark. Stat. Ann. §§ 20-27-1501 et seq.[10]

Alaska
18 (piercing excepted)[11]
parent/guardian must both give written consent and be present during the procedure[11]
Minors may be pierced with parental consent [11]
no restriction[12]

Alaska Stat. § 08.13.217[11]

California
18 (piercing excepted)[13][14]
parent/guardian must be present during procedure
Minors may have their ears pierced with parental consent.[15] They may be pierced elsewhere with parental consent, but not on their genitals or nipples. Permanent cosmetics are permitted on nipples, when done by a cosmetic technician and with parental consent.[14]
no restriction

Body Art. Cal. Health & Safety Code § 119300 to 119328[6][15]
Cal. Penal Code 653[13]

Colorado
18 Express written consent of parent or guardian[16]
parent/guardian must be present during procedure
Persons who are "noticeably impaired" cannot have body art procedures[16]

Body Artists. Colo. Rev. Stat. § 25-4-2101 to 2103[6]

Connecticut
none specified
permission of parent or guardian[17][18]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent[17]
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.[18]

no restrictions

Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-92a,[6][18]
Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-92g[6][17]

District of Columbia
18 (ear piercing excepted)[19]
written consent (for ear piercing)[19]
minors may have their ears pierced with written parental consent[19]
no restrictions[19]

Body Artists. DC Code § 47-2853.76d[6][19]

Delaware
18[20]
notarized written consent to the specific procedure[20]
none specified[20]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or body pierced[20]

Del. Code Ann. Title 11, Ch 5 §1114(a)[6][20]
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 §122(3)(w)[6]

Florida
16[21]
Must be accompanied by parent or guardian who can show proof of guardianship, both parent and minor must present photo ID, and a consent form must be notarized.[21]
for medical or dental purposes by a licensed physician or dentist[21]
no restriction

Fla. Stat. § 381.00787[6]
Fla. Stat. §381.0775 et seq.[6] Fla. Stat. §381.075[6]

Georgia
18 (body piercing excepted)[22]
For body piercing: prior written consent of parent/guardian[23]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent[23]
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent[23]
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes."[22]
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.[24]

no restrictions

Ga. Code § 31-40-1 to 31-40-10[6]
Ga. Code § 16-12-5[6]
Ga. Code § 16-5-71.1[6]

Hawaii
none specified[25]
written consent of parent/guardian[25]

Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321-13[6]
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321-379[6]

Idaho
14[26]
Written informed consent of parent/guardian, executed in the presence of the person performing the procedure, or their agent/employee.[26]
Minors can have their ears pierced without parental consent.[6]
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.[6]

no restrictions

Idaho Code § 18-1523 (2004)[6]

Illinois
18 (body piercings excepted)[27]
Written consent of parent/guardian (for body piercings)[27]
Minors cannot be present in places where tattooing or body piercing is done except in the presence of a parent/guardian.[27]
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent/guardian consent.[27]

no restrictions

Ill. Stat. 720 §5/12-10.1[6]
Ill. Stat. 410 §54/1 t0 54/999[6]

Indiana
none specified[28]
Parent/guardian must both be present during the procedure and provide written permission.[28]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent.[28]
no restrictions

Ind. Code Ann. §35-42-2-7[6][28]
Ind. Code Ann. §16-19-3-4.1[6][29]

Iowa
18[30]
n/a - minors cannot be tattooed[30]
Body piercing is not regulated by state law in Iowa, however county or city laws may regulate it.[31]
no restrictions

Iowa Code §135.37[6]
Iowa Code §135.37[6]

Kansas
16[32]
Parent/guardian must give written consent, written consent must be notarized, and the parent/guardian must be present during the procedure.[32]
Minors may have their ears pierced[33]
no restrictions

Kan. Stat. Ann. §65-1953[6]
Kan. Stat. Ann. §65-1940 to 65-1954[6]

Kentucky
Not specified
Parent/guardian must give written, notarized consent.[34]
none (ear piercing also requires written, notarized consent).[35]
no restrictions

Ky. Rev. Stat. §211.760[6]
Ky. Rev. Stat. §194A.050; 211.760[6]

Louisiana
16
Parent or guardian must consent, and their presence during the procedure is required for tattoos, but not for body piercings.[36]

no restrictions

La. Rev. Stat. Ann. §14:93.2[6]
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40:2831 et seq.[6]

Maine
18 (piercings excepted)[37]
For body piercings: prior legal consent of parent/guardian.[38]
Maine law does not require parent/guardian consent for ear piercing[39]
no restrictions

Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. Title 32 § 4201-4329[6]

Maryland
none specified[40]
written consent, which must be retained for 3 years.
Piercing of the ear lobe is exempt[41]
no restriction
Health Department Regulations
A license is not required, but any person performing tattooing or piercing must comply with all the relevant health code regulations[40]
COMAR 10.06.01.02 and 10.06.01.06

Massachusetts
18 (except body piercing other than genitalia)[42]
Minors cannot receive tattoo, branding, or scarification at all. For piercing of areas other than the genitalia, a parent may provide identification and sign the consent document.[42]
Physicians performing for treatment reasons and ear piercing are exempt from regulation.[42]
no restriction
County Health Department regulates body art, but all follow a model regulation set by the state.
Artists must have a permit, and establishments are subject to following specific health department regulations[42]
Model Regulations for Body Art Establishments[42]

Michigan
none specified[43]
Written, informed consent of parent/guardian. Must be executed (signed) in the presences of the person performing the procedure, or their employee.[43]

cannot be tattooed, branded, or body pierced.[43]

Mich. Comp. Laws § 333.13101 to 333.13112[44]

Minnesota
18 (piercings excepted)[45]
For piercings: presence of parent/guardian and a consent form are both required.[45]
Minors cannot be tattooed. They can be body pierced, but not in the nipples or genitals. Branding, scarification, suspension, subdermal implantation, microdermal, and tongue bifurcation are also prohibited for minors.[45]
cannot have any body art procedures.[45]

Minnesota Statutes 146B.07[45]

Mississippi
18
n/a - minors cannot be tattooed
piercing also prohibited except for the outer perimeter or lobe of the ear.
no restriction

Miss.Code Ann. §73-61

Missouri
none specified[46]
For both piercings and tattoos, parent/guardian must sign written consent in the presence of the person performing the procedure, or their employee.[46]

cannot be tattooed, branded or body pierced.[46]
violations are a misdemeanor, punishable with a fine of up to $500 (more for repeat offenses)[46]
The state director of the division of professional registration licenses all body artists, and sets rules & regulations for the operation of body art establishments.[47]
Mo. Rev. Stat. §324.520[46]

Montana
none specified[48]
Parent or guardian must give "explicit, in-person" consent.[48] Montana administrative rules also require that the parent/guardian be present throughout the procedure.[49]

cannot be tattooed or body pierced.[49]
A person who tattoos or body pierces a minor without parent/guardian consent is guilty of Unlawful transactions with children, punishable by a fine of up to $500 or six months in county jail, or both.[48]
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50–100 for a first offense to $300 and/or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.[50]

Montana's Department of Health and Safety licenses and regulates body art establishments.[51] Local health boards may establish their own licensing and regulatory schemes in lieu of the state department's.[52]
Mont. Code Ann. §45-5-623[48]
Mont. Code Ann. §50-48-101 to 110[53]
Mont. Code Ann. §50-48-201 to 209[54]

Nebraska
none specified[55]
written consent, must be present during procedure
Piercing does not include the external parts of the ear[56]
No restrictions

Nebraska Revised Statute 38-1008, 38-1009, 38-1010, 38-1011, 38-1060, 38-10,165

Nevada
n/a[6]
n/a[6]
Nevada state law does not regulate tattoos, piercings, or other body art. Regional health districts may regulate the practice. The southern Nevada Health District, for example, does not allow minors below the age of 14 to be tattooed, and requires a parent or guardian to provide written consent and be present during the procedure for 14- to 18-year-olds. The southern Nevada district also bans tattoos on those who are under the influence of drugs or alcohol.[57]
n/a[6]

n/a[6]

New Hampshire
18 (piercings excepted)[58]
For piercings: parent/guardian must both sign written consent and be present during the procedure.
Minors cannot be tattooed or branded. They may be pierced with parent/guardian consent.[58] Minors may have their ears pierced without parent/guardian consent.[59]
no restrictions

N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 314[6]

New Jersey
none specified[60]
written permission of parent/guardian is required for tattooing and body piercing.[60]
Parent/guardian must be present and sign written consent for ear piercings as well as for body piercing. Minors cannot have genital piercings even with parent/guardian consent.[61]
no restrictions
no restrictions
no restrictions
N.J. Stat. Ann. §2C:40-21
N.J.A.C. 8:27-1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. §26-1A-7[6]

New Mexico
none specified[62]
Written consent and presence during the procedure.
Medical procedures by physicians and ear piercing are exempt[63]
no restrictions
Administrative Regulations set by the Board of Barbers and Cosmetologists
All body artists are required to be licensed through the state, and are subject to regulations from the Board
Body Art Safe Practices Act. N.M. Stat. Ann. § 61-17B et seq.,[63] N.M. Administrative Code 16.36 et seq.[62]

New York
18 (piercings excepted) [64]
Minors cannot be tattooed with parent/guardian consent. For piercings: parent/guardian must give written consent, signed in presence of the body artist or body art establishment owner.[65]
Written parental consent is not required for ear piercings.[66]
no restrictions

New York Public Health Law, Article 4-A[6][65]
N.Y. Public Health Law §460-466[6]
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21[6]

North Carolina
18 (piercings excepted)[67]
Minors cannot be tattooed, even with parent/guardian consent. "Prior consent" of parent/guardian is required for body piercings.[67]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent.[67]
no restrictions

N.C. Gen. Stat. § 130A-283[68]
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14-400[69]

North Dakota
none specified[70]
Parent/guardian must be present during the procedure and give written consent.[70]

cannot get tattoos or other body art[71]

N.D. Code §23-01-35[72]
N.D. Code §12.1-31-13[6][70]

Ohio
none specified[73]
Parent/guardian must both sign a consent form and "appear in person at the business at the time the procedure is performed."[73]
none - parent/guardian consent and presence is also required for ear piercings.[73]
no restrictions

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §3730.01 to 3730.99[6][73]

Oklahoma
18 (piercings excepted)[74]
Minors cannot be tattooed, even with parent/guardian consent. For piercings: parent/guardian must both give written consent and be present during the procedure.[74]
Ear piercing is not governed/restricted by Oklahoma law.[74]
Scleral tattooing is illegal.[74]

cannot be tattooed.[74]

Okla. Stat. Title 21 §842.1, 842.2, 842.3[6]

Oregon
18 (piercings excepted)[75]
For piercings: parent/guardian must give written consent and present proof of identity.[76][77]
Minors can only be tattooed with the authorization of a physician.[75]
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited[78]
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders cannot be tattooed or pierced.[75][77]
Minors cannot be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent/guardian consent.[76]
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.[77]

cannot be tattooed or pierced.[75][77]
Violations of Oregon body art laws are a misdemeanor.[79]
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).[80]

Both body artists and body art establishments are licensed by the Oregon Health Licensing Office.[81] With the assistance of a Board of Body Art practitioners, the Health Licensing Office also sets detailed rules and regulations for body art.[82]
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.350 et seq
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500[6]
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920[82]

Pennsylvania
none specified[83]
parent/guardian must both give consent and be present during the procedure.[83]

no restrictions

Pa. Cons. Stat. Title 18 § 6311[6][83]

Rhode Island
18 (piercings excepted)[84][85]
Minors cannot be tattooed.[84] For piercings: parent/guardian must both give consent and be present for the procedure.[85]

no restrictions
Tattooing a minor is a criminal offense (misdemeanor), maximum fine $300[84]
Tattooing and body art are regulated by the department of health, artists must be registered.[85]
RI Gen L § 23-1-39[85]
RI Gen L § 11-9-15[84]

South Carolina
18 (piercings excepted)[86][87]
Minors cannot be tattooed.[86] For piercings: parent/guardian must either give written, notarized consent or be present during the procedure.[87]
Head, face, and neck tattoos are illegal.[86]
cannot be tattooed or body pierced[86][88]
Under the Health Code, persons violating restrictions on tattooing and body piercing are guilty of a misdemeanor. Upon conviction, they may be fined up to $2500 or imprisoned for a year, or both.[86][87]
Tattoo and body piercing facilities are regulated by the Department of Health and Environmental Control. Tattoo facilities are licensed, body piercing facilities require a permit, and artists must be registered[89][90]
S.C. Code § 44-32-10 to 44-32-120[88]
S.C. Code § 44-34-10 to 44-34-110[91]

South Dakota
none specified[92]
Parent/guardian must sign a consent form.[92]

cannot be tattooed or pierced[93][94]
Tattooing a minor is a class 2 misdemeanor.[95]
Tattooing and Body Piercing are governed by Department of Health rules.[96] Municipalities may set stricter regulations, and have the authority to license body artists.[95]
S.D. Codified Laws Ann. §26-10-19[92]
S.D. Laws § 9-34-17[95]

Tennessee
18 (piercings excepted)[97][98]
For tattoos that cover an existing tattoo (see Notes & Exceptions): Parent/Guardian must be present during the procedure.[97]
For piercings: Parent/Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.[98]

Minors over the age of sixteen may be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo, with parent/guardian consent.[97]

Minors who lie about their age to be tattooed are guilty of a "delinquent act," are required to pay a fine of $50–$250 and serve at least 20 hours of community service.[97]
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor,[97] breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.[99]

Tattoo artists and body piercers are licensed by the state department of health, tattoo shops require a certificate from the local health department.[100][101]
Tenn. Code §§ 62-38-201-310[102]

Texas
18 (piercings excepted)[103][104]
For body piercings and for covering existing tattoos (see Notes & Exceptions): Parent/guardian must be present during procedure, sign an affidavit[103][104]
Ear piercing is exempt from body piercing statutes[105]
Minors may, with parent/guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang-related, or drug-related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover"[103]
Tongue splitting prohibited.[106]

Cannot be tattooed or pierced.[103][107]
Misrepresenting one's age to get a tattoo, or to get a piercing without parental consent, is a class B misdemeanor[103][104]
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.[108]
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation[109]

Tattoo artists and body piercers must be registered with the Texas Department of Health[110] Tattoo and body piercing shops must be licensed[111]
Texas Health and Safety Code Ann. §146[112]

Utah
none specified[113]
Parent/guardian must be present during the procedure, give written permission, and provide proof of identity.[113]
Parental consent not required by law for ear piercing[113]

Tattooing or body piercing a minor is a class b misdemeanor, shops can be fined up to $1000 for each violation.[113]

Utah Code Ann. §76-10-2201[6]

Vermont
none specified[114]

Tattooists and body piercers must be registered.[114]
Vt. Stat. Ann. Title 26 §4101 to 4109[6][115]

Virginia
none specified[116]
Parent/Guardian must be present during the procedure.[116]
Virginia law does not limit minors' ability to have their ears pierced.[116]

Tattooing or body piercing a minor is a class 1 misdemeanor[116]
Tattoo artists and body piercers, as well as the operators of tattoo and body piercing establishments, are licensed by the state.[117][118]
Civic/local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.[119]

Va. Code §54.1-700 et seq.
Va. Code §15.2-912
Va. Code § 18.2-371.3.[6]

Washington
18 (piercings excepted)[120]

cannot have tattoos, body piercings, or other body art.[121]

Wash. Code §26.28.085[120]
Wash. Code § 18.300[122]
Wash. Code § 246-145-001 to 060[123]
Wash. Code §70.54[124]

West Virginia
none specified[125]
parent/guardian must give written consent[125]

All persons receiving a tattoo must attest they are not under the influence of drugs or alcohol.[125]

Tattoo shop owners and body piercing studios must register with local board of health, and must be registered as a business with the state[126][127][128]
W. Va. Code §16-37
W. Va. Code §16-38[129]

Wisconsin
18[130]
n/a (tattooing not permitted under 18)
Physicians in the course of professional practice are exempt
no restriction
Tattooing a minor or even offering to do so is subject to a fine of up to $200
Artists must be satisfy training requirements and obtain a license from the health department. Establishments are subject to inspection and licensing[131]
Wisconsin Statutes & Annotations 948.70 and 252.235

Wyoming
none specified[132]
Verbal consent, presence during procedure.[132]
Procedures performed under the supervision of a licensed physician, and piercing of the ear, do not count as body art for this law.
no restriction[132]
Misdemeanor criminal offense, punishable by fine and prison time[132]

Wyoming Statute §14-3-107[132]

tag: table


document_title: The Nightmare Before Christmas

question_text: the nightmare before christmas a halloween or christmas movie

text: The Nightmare Before Christmas

text: Plot[edit]

text: Halloween Town is a fantasy world filled with citizens such as deformed monsters, ghosts, ghouls, goblins, zombies, mummies, vampires, werewolves and witches. Jack Skellington, the "Pumpkin King" and leader of the town, leads them in organizing the annual Halloween celebrations. However, privately Jack has grown weary of the same routine year after year, and wants something new. Wandering in the woods the morning after Halloween, he stumbles across seven trees containing doors leading to towns representing various holidays, and opens a portal to Christmas Town. Awed by the unfamiliar holiday, Jack returns to Halloween Town to show the residents his findings, but they fail to grasp the idea of Christmas and compare everything to their ideas of Halloween. Jack sequesters himself in his tower to study Christmas and find a way to rationally explain it, but cannot. He ultimately decides that it's unfair for Christmas Town alone to enjoy the holiday and announces that he and the citizens of Halloween Town will take over Christmas this year.

text: Jack assigns the citizens of Halloween Town Christmas-themed jobs, including singing carols, making presents, and building a sleigh to be pulled by skeletal reindeer. Sally, a beautiful rag doll woman that is secretly in love with Jack, feels that their efforts will end in disaster, but Jack dismisses her and assigns her the task of sewing him a red coat to wear. He also tasks Lock, Shock and Barrel, a trio of mischievous trick-or-treating children, to abduct Santa Claus and bring him back to Halloween Town. Jack tells Santa he will be bringing Christmas to the world in his place this year. Jack orders the trio to keep Santa safe, but the trio instead deliver Santa to Oogie Boogie, a gambling-addict bogeyman, who plots to play a game with Santa's life at stake. Sally attempts to rescue Santa so he can stop Jack, but Oogie captures her as well.

text: Jack departs to deliver presents to the world, but the Halloween-styled gifts terrify and attack the populace. As concerns over "Santa's" behavior grows, the military takes action and shoot down Jack, causing him to crash in the cemetery. As Jack bemoans the disaster he has made of Christmas, he finds he enjoyed the experience nonetheless, reigniting his love of Halloween. Jack returns to Halloween Town and finds Oogie's lair. Oogie tries to kill Jack, and Jack pulls apart the thread holding Oogie's cloth form together, revealing a massive pile of bugs that fall into Oogie's cauldron and are killed. Jack apologizes to Santa for his actions, and Santa assures Jack that he can fix things and returns to Christmas Town. As Santa replaces the Halloween-style presents with genuine ones, the townspeople of Halloween Town celebrate Jack's return. Santa then visits Halloween Town and brings them a snowfall for the residents to play with. In the graveyard, Jack and Sally declare their love for each other.

text: Voice Cast[edit]

text:
Chris Sarandon (speaking voice) and Danny Elfman (singing voice) as Jack Skellington, a skeleton known as the "Pumpkin King" of Halloween Town. He owns a ghost dog named Zero, who has a small, glowing jack-o'-lantern nose. Danny Elfman also voices Barrel, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. Elfman was initially cast as Jack's singing voice and, after the songs were recorded, Sarandon was cast to match Elfman's voice style.[6][7]
Catherine O'Hara as Sally, a rag doll-like creation of Finklestein, and the growing love interest of Jack. She is an amateur toxicologist that uses various types of poison to liberate herself from the captivity of Finklestein. O'Hara also voices Shock, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. She had previously co-starred in Burton's Beetlejuice (1988).
William Hickey as Doctor Finklestein, a mad scientist, and the "father" of Sally. He is listed in the credits only as "Evil Scientist" and is only mentioned by name once in the film.
Glenn Shadix as Mayor of Halloween Town, an enthusiastic leader who conducts town meetings. His wild mood swings from happy to distraught cause his head to spin between a "happy" and "sad" face; where some career politicians are figuratively two-faced, the Mayor is literally so. Burton and Shadix previously worked on Beetlejuice.
Ken Page as Oogie Boogie, a villainous bogeyman in Halloween Town, who has a passion for gambling.
Ed Ivory as Santa Claus, the leader of Christmas Town. Santa Claus is responsible for the annual celebration of Christmas, at which time he delivers presents to children around the world. Ivory also does the brief narration at the start of the film.
Paul Reubens as Lock, one of the trick-or-treaters working for Oogie Boogie. Reubens and Burton previously worked on Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985) and Batman Returns (1992).

tag: ul

text: The cast also features Kerry Katz, Carmen Twillie, Randy Crenshaw, Debi Durst, Glenn Walters, Sherwood Ball, and Greg Proops voicing various characters. Patrick Stewart recorded narration for a prologue and epilogue. While not used in the final film, the narration is included on the soundtrack album.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: As writer Tim Burton's upbringing in Burbank, California was associated with the feeling of solitude, the filmmaker was largely fascinated by holidays during his childhood. "Anytime there was Christmas or Halloween, [...] it was great. It gave you some sort of texture all of a sudden that wasn't there before", Burton would later recall.[8] After completing his short film Vincent in 1982,[8] Burton, who was then-employed at Walt Disney Feature Animation, wrote a three-page poem titled The Nightmare Before Christmas, drawing inspiration from television specials of Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, How the Grinch Stole Christmas! and the poem A Visit from St. Nicholas.[9] Burton intended to adapt the poem into a television special with the narration spoken by his favorite actor, Vincent Price,[10] but also considered other options such as a children's book.[11] He created concept art and storyboards for the project in collaboration with Rick Heinrichs, who also sculpted character models;[12][13] Burton later showed his and Heinrichs' works-in-progress to Henry Selick, also a Disney animator at the time.[14] After the success of Vincent in 1982, Disney started to consider developing The Nightmare Before Christmas as either a short film or 30-minute holiday television special.[12] However, the project's development eventually stalled, as its tone seemed "too weird" to the company.[15] As Disney was unable to "offer his nocturnal loners enough scope", Burton was fired from the studio in 1984,[10] and went on to direct the commercially successful films Beetlejuice and Batman.[15]

text: Over the years, Burton regularly thought about the project. In 1990, Burton found out that Disney still owned the film rights.[16] He and Selick committed to produce a full-length film with the latter as director.[14] Disney was looking forward to Nightmare "to show capabilities of technical and storytelling achievements that were present in Who Framed Roger Rabbit."[17] Nightmare marked Burton's third film in a row to have a Christmas setting. Burton could not direct because of his commitment to Batman Returns and he did not want to be involved with "the painstakingly slow process of stop motion".[14] To adapt his poem into a screenplay, Burton approached Michael McDowell, his collaborator on Beetlejuice. McDowell and Burton experienced creative differences, which convinced Burton to make the film as a musical with lyrics and compositions by frequent collaborator Danny Elfman. Elfman and Burton created a rough storyline and two-thirds of the film's songs.[2] Elfman found writing Nightmare's eleven songs as "one of the easiest jobs I've ever had. I had a lot in common with Jack Skellington."[12] Caroline Thompson still had yet to be hired to write the screenplay.[2] With Thompson's screenplay, Selick stated, "there are very few lines of dialogue that are Caroline's. She became busy on other films and we were constantly rewriting, re-configuring and developing the film visually."[18]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Selick and his team of animators began production in July 1991 in San Francisco, California with a crew of over 120 workers, utilizing 20 sound stages for filming.[14][19] Joe Ranft was hired from Disney as a storyboard supervisor, while Eric Leighton was hired to supervise animation.[20] At the peak of production, 20 individual stages were simultaneously being used for filming.[21] In total, there were 109,440 frames taken for the film. The work of Ray Harryhausen, Ladislas Starevich, Edward Gorey, Charles Addams, Jan Lenica, Francis Bacon and Wassily Kandinsky influenced the filmmakers. Selick described the production design as akin to a pop-up book.[12][18] In addition, Selick stated, "When we reach Halloween Town, it's entirely German Expressionism. When Jack enters Christmas Town, it's an outrageous Dr. Seuss-esque setpiece. Finally, when Jack is delivering presents in the 'Real World', everything is plain, simple and perfectly aligned."[22] Vincent Price, Don Ameche, and James Earl Jones were considered to provide the narration for the film's prologue; however, all proved difficult to cast, and the producers instead hired local voice artist, Ed Ivory.[6]

text: On the direction of the film, Selick reflected, "It's as though he [Burton] laid the egg, and I sat on it and hatched it. He wasn't involved in a hands-on way, but his hand is in it. It was my job to make it look like 'a Tim Burton film', which is not so different from my own films."[18] When asked on Burton's involvement, Selick claimed, "I don't want to take away from Tim, but he was not in San Francisco when we made it. He came up five times over two years, and spent no more than eight or ten days in total."[18] Walt Disney Feature Animation contributed with some use of second-layering traditional animation.[14] Burton found production somewhat difficult because he was directing Batman Returns and in pre-production of Ed Wood.[2]

text: The filmmakers constructed 227 puppets to represent the characters in the movie, with Jack Skellington having "around four hundred heads", allowing the expression of every possible emotion.[23] Sally's mouth movements "were animated through the replacement method. During the animation process, [...] only Sally's face 'mask' was removed in order to preserve the order of her long, red hair. Sally had ten types of faces, each made with a series of eleven expressions (e.g. eyes open and closed, and various facial poses) and synchronized mouth movements."[24] The stop motion figurine of Jack was reused in James and the Giant Peach (also directed by Selick) as Captain Jack.

text: Soundtracks[edit]

text: The film's soundtrack album was released in 1993 on Walt Disney Records. For the film's 2006 re-release in Disney Digital 3-D, a special edition of the soundtrack was released, featuring a bonus disc which contained covers of five of the film's songs by Fall Out Boy, Panic! at the Disco, Marilyn Manson, Fiona Apple, and She Wants Revenge. Four original demo tracks by Elfman were also included.[25] On September 30, 2008, Disney released the cover album Nightmare Revisited, featuring artists such as Amy Lee, Flyleaf, Korn, Rise Against, Plain White T's, The All-American Rejects, and many more.

text: American gothic rock band London After Midnight featured a cover of "Sally's Song" on their 1998 album Oddities.

text: LiLi Roquelin did a French cover of "Sally's Song" which was released on her album Will you hate the rest of the world or will you renew your life? in 2010.

text: Another soundtrack released in 2003 was the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday CD. Although most were not original songs from the movie, one song provided on the CD is a medley of "Making Christmas", "What's This?", and "Kidnap the Sandy Claws". Other songs included are original holiday songs changed to incorporate the theme of the movie. The last song on the list, however, is the soundtrack for the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday ride.

text: Release[edit]

text: Disney decided to release the film under their Touchstone Pictures banner because they thought the film would be "too dark and scary for kids", Selick remembered. "Their biggest fear, and why it was kind of a stepchild project, [was] they were afraid of their core audience hating the film and not coming."[26] To convey Burton's' involvement and attract a wider audience, Disney marketed the film as Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas. Burton explained that,"...it turned more into more of a brand-name thing, it turned into something else, which I'm not quite sure about."[2] The film premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 9,[27] and was given a limited release on October 15, 1993, before its wide theatrical release on October 29.

text: The Nightmare Before Christmas was reissued by Disney under the Walt Disney Pictures banner and re-released on October 20, 2006, with conversion to Disney Digital 3-D.[4] Industrial Light & Magic assisted in the process.[20] The film subsequently received annually releases in October 2007 and 2008.[28] The El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California has been showing the film in 4-D screenings annually in October, ending on Halloween, since 2010.[29] The reissues have led to a reemergence of 3-D films and advances in RealD Cinema.[30][31]

text: Home media[edit]

text: With years of successful home video sales, Nightmare subsequently achieved the ranks of a cult film.[20] Touchstone Home Video first released the film on VHS on September 30, 1994, and on DVD on December 2, 1997. The DVD release contained no special features.[32] Nightmare was released a second time on October 3, 2000 as a special edition. The release included an audio commentary by Selick and cinematographer Pete Kozachik, a 28-minute making-of documentary, a gallery of concept art, storyboards, test footage and deleted scenes. Burton's Vincent and Frankenweenie were also included.[33] Both DVDs were non-anamorphic widescreen releases.

text: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on DVD again (this time with an anamorphic transfer) and on Blu-ray Disc (for the first time) on August 26, 2008 as a two-disc digitally remastered "collector's edition", but still containing the same special features.[34][35]

text: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released The Nightmare Before Christmas on Blu-ray 3D on August 30, 2011. The release included a Blu-ray 3D disc, Blu-ray Disc and a DVD that includes both a DVD and digital copy of the film.[36]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Disney has undertaken an extensive marketing campaign of these characters across many media. Since 2001, Disneyland has held a seasonal Nightmare Before Christmas theme for its Haunted Mansion Holiday attraction. The attraction, an overlay of the park's Haunted Mansion, features characters, decorations and music from the film. In addition to Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party and Mickey's Halloween Party featuring the film's characters,[37] Jack Skellington, Sally, Pajama Jack, and the Mayor have been made into Bendies figures,[38] while Jack and Sally even appear in fine art.[39] Moreover, Sally has been made into an action figure and a Halloween costume.[40] A Jack Skellington figurine is available for the Disney Infinity video game, allowing the character to be playable in the game's "Toy Box Mode".[41] Jack is also the titular character in the short story "Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas: Jack's Story".[42] Nightmare has inspired video game spin-offs, including Oogie's Revenge and The Pumpkin King, and is among the many Disney-owned franchises that contribute to the mythology of the Kingdom Hearts series. A trading card game is also available.

text: Jim Edwards contends that "Tim Burton's animated movie The Nightmare Before Christmas is really a movie about the marketing business. The movie's lead character, Jack Skellington, the chief marketing officer (CMO) for a successful company, decides that his success is boring and he wants the company to have a different business plan."[43]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Around the release of the film, Disney executive David Hoberman was quoted, "I hope Nightmare goes out and makes a fortune. If it does, great. If it doesn't, that doesn't negate the validity of the process. The budget was less than any Disney blockbuster so it doesn't have to earn Aladdin-sized grosses to satisfy us."[12] The film earned $50 million in the United States on its first theatrical run.[28]

text: The Nightmare Before Christmas made a further $8.7 million in box office gross in its 2006 reissue.[44] The 2007 and 2008 reissues earned $14.5 million and $1.1 million, respectively, increasing the film's total box office gross to $75 million.[28]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film initially received positive reviews from critics; it has since gone on to receive widespread critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 94%, based on 88 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The site's consensus reads, "The Nightmare Before Christmas is a stunningly original and visually delightful work of stop-motion animation."[45] On Metacritic the film has a score of 77 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[46]

text: Roger Ebert gave a highly positive review for Nightmare. Ebert believed the film's visual effects were as revolutionary as Star Wars, taking into account that Nightmare was "filled with imagination that carries us into a new world".[47]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it a restoration of "originality and daring to the Halloween genre. This dazzling mix of fun and fright also explodes the notion that animation is kid stuff. ... It's 74 minutes of timeless movie magic."[48] James Berardinelli stated "The Nightmare Before Christmas has something to offer just about everyone. For the kids, it's a fantasy celebrating two holidays. For the adults, it's an opportunity to experience some light entertainment while marveling at how adept Hollywood has become at these techniques. There are songs, laughs, and a little romance. In short, The Nightmare Before Christmas does what it intends to: entertain."[49] Desson Thomson of The Washington Post enjoyed stylistic features in common with Oscar Wilde, German Expressionism, the Brothers Grimm and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.[50]

text: Michael A. Morrison discusses the influence of Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas! on the film, writing that Jack parallels the Grinch and Zero parallels Max, the Grinch's dog.[51] Philip Nel writes that the film "challenges the wisdom of adults through its trickster characters", contrasting Jack as a "good trickster" with Oogie Boogie, whom he also compares with Dr. Seuss' Dr. Terwilliker as a bad trickster.[52] Entertainment Weekly reports that fan reception of these characters borders on obsession, profiling Laurie and Myk Rudnick, a couple whose "degree of obsession with [the] film is so great that ... they named their son after the real-life person that a character in the film is based on."[53] This enthusiasm for the characters has also been profiled as having spread beyond North America to Japan.[54] Yvonne Tasker notes "the complex characterization seen in The Nightmare Before Christmas".[55]

text: Danny Elfman was worried the characterization of Oogie Boogie would be considered racist by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).[56] Elfman's predictions came true; however, director Henry Selick stated the character was inspired by the Betty Boop cartoon The Old Man of the Mountain. "Cab Calloway would dance his inimitable jazz dance and sing 'Minnie the Moocher' or 'Old Man of the Mountain', and they would rotoscope him, trace him, turn him into a cartoon character, often transforming him into an animal, like a walrus," Selick continued. "I think those are some of the most inventive moments in cartoon history, in no way racist, even though he was sometimes a villain. We went with Ken Page, who is a black singer, and he had no problem with it".[18]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film was nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.[5][57] Nightmare won the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, while Elfman won Best Music. Selick and the animators were also nominated for their work.[58] Elfman was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score.[59] Most recently, the film ranked #1 on Rotten Tomatoes' "Top 25 Best Christmas Movies" list.[60]

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:

Nominated Animation Film[61]

text: Possible sequel[edit]

text: In 2001, Disney began to consider producing a sequel, but rather than using stop motion, Disney wanted to use computer animation.[62] Burton convinced Disney to drop the idea. "I was always very protective of Nightmare not to do sequels or things of that kind," Burton explained. "You know, 'Jack visits Thanksgiving world' or other kinds of things just because I felt the movie had a purity to it and the people that like it... Because it's a mass-market kind of thing, it was important to kind of keep that purity of it."[31] The 2004 video game The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge did continue the story of the film, with Capcom's crew of developers going after Burton for advice,[63] and having the collaboration of the film's art director, Deane Taylor.[64] In 2009, Selick said he would do a film sequel if he and Burton could create a good story for it.[65]

text: Related media[edit]

text: A collectible card game based on the film called The Nightmare Before Christmas TCG was released in 2005 by NECA. The game was designed by Quixotic Games founder Andrew Parks[66] and Kez Shlasnger. It consists of a Premiere set and 4 Starter Decks based on four characters, Jack Skellington, the Mayor, Oogie Boogie, and Doctor Finklestein. Each Starter Deck contains a rule book, a Pumpkin King card, a Pumpkin Points card, and a 48-card deck. The game has four card types: Characters, Locales, Creations, and Surprises. The Cards' rarities are separated into four categories: Common, Uncommon, Rare, Ultra Rare.

text: Quixotic Games also developed The Nightmare Before Christmas Party Game that was released in 2007 by NECA.[67]

text: A collector's edition The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed Jenga game was issued with orange, purple and black blocks with Jack Skellington heads on them. The set comes in a coffin-shaped box instead of the normal rectangular box.[68]

text: A 168-card Munchkin Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas-themed Munchkin was developed by USAopoly featuring the citizens of Halloween Town such as Jack Skellington, Oogie Boogie, Doctor Finklestein, and Lock, Shock and Barrel. The game comes with a custom die similar to the ones used by Oogie Boogie in the film.[69][70]


document_title: Arkansas River

question_text: where does the arkansas river join the mississippi river

text: Arkansas River

text: Pronunciations[edit]

text: Name pronunciation varies by region.  Many people in western states, including Kansas and parts of Colorado, pronounce it /ɑːrˈkænzəs/ ar-KAN-zəs,[9] People in Oklahoma, Arkansas, parts of Colorado, and the majority of the remaining United States typically pronounce it /ˈɑːrkənsɔː/ AR-kən-saw, which is how the Arkansas state is always pronounced according to a state law passed in 1881.[10]

text: Physical geography[edit]

text: Course changes[edit]

text: The path of the Arkansas River has changed over time. Sediments from the river found in a palaeochannel next to Nolan, a site in the Tensas Basin, show that part of the river's meander belt flowed through up to 5200 BP. Whilst it was previously thought that this relict channel was active at the same time as another relict of Mississippi River's meander belt, it has been shown that this channel of the Arkansas was inactive approximately 400 years before the Mississippi channel was active.[11]

text: Hydrography[edit]

text: The Arkansas has three distinct sections in its long path through central North America. At its headwaters beginning near Leadville, Colorado, the Arkansas runs as a steep fast-flowing mountain river through the Rockies in its narrow valley, dropping 4,600 feet (1.4 km) in 120 miles (193 km).[12] This section supports extensive whitewater rafting, including The Numbers (near Granite, Colorado), Brown's Canyon, and the Royal Gorge.

text: At Cañon City, Colorado, the Arkansas River valley widens and flattens markedly. Just west of Pueblo, Colorado, the river enters the Great Plains. Through the rest of Colorado, Kansas, and much of Oklahoma, it is a typical Great Plains riverway, with wide, shallow banks subject to seasonal flooding and periods of dwindling flow. Tributaries include the Cimarron River and the Salt Fork Arkansas River.

text: In eastern Oklahoma the river begins to widen further into a more contained consistent channel. To maintain more reliable flow rates, a series of large reservoir lakes have been built on the Arkansas and its intersecting tributaries including the Canadian, Verdigris, Neosho (Grand), Illinois, and Poteau rivers.[13]  These locks and dams allow the river to be navigable by barges and large river craft downriver of Muskogee, Oklahoma, where the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System joins in with the Verdigris River.

text: Into western Arkansas, the river path works between the encroaching Boston and Ouachita Mountains, including many isolated, flat-topped mesas, buttes, or monadnocks such as Mount Nebo, Petit Jean Mountain, and Mount Magazine, the highest point in the state. The river valley then expands as it encounters much flatter land beginning just west of Little Rock, Arkansas. It continues eastward across the plains and forests of eastern Arkansas until it flows into the Mississippi River.

text: Water flow in the Arkansas River (as measured in central Kansas) has dropped from approximately 248 cubic feet per second (7 m³/s) average from 1944-1963 to 53 cubic feet  per second (1.5 m³/s) average from 1984–2003, largely because of the pumping of groundwater for irrigation in eastern Colorado and western Kansas.

text: Important cities along the Arkansas River include Pueblo, Colorado; Garden City, Kansas; Dodge City, Kansas; Wichita, Kansas; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Fort Smith, Arkansas; and Little Rock, Arkansas.

text: The I-40 bridge disaster of May 2002 took place on I-40's crossing of Kerr Reservoir on the Arkansas River near Webbers Falls, Oklahoma.

text: Allocation problems[edit]

text: Since 1902, Kansas has claimed Colorado takes too much of the river's water, resulting in a number of lawsuits before the U.S. Supreme Court that continue to this day,[14] generally under the name of Kansas v. Colorado.  The problems over the possession and use of Arkansas River water by Colorado and Kansas led to the creation of an interstate compact or agreement between the two states.[14]  While Congress approved the Arkansas River Compact in 1949,[14] the compact did not stop further disputes by the two states over water rights to the river.

text: The Kansas-Oklahoma Arkansas River Basin Compact was created in 1965 to promote mutual consideration and equity over water use in the basin shared by those states. It led to the Kansas-Oklahoma Arkansas River Commission, which was charged with administering the compact and reducing pollution. The compact was approved and implemented by both states in 1970, and has been in force since then.[13]

text: Riverway commerce[edit]

text: The McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System begins at the Tulsa Port of Catoosa on the Verdigris River, enters the Arkansas River near Muskogee, and runs via an extensive lock and dam system to the Mississippi River. Through Oklahoma and Arkansas, dams which artificially deepen and widen the river to sustain commercial barge traffic and recreational use give the river the appearance of a series of reservoirs.[citation needed]

text: The McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System diverts from the Arkansas River 2.5 mi (4.0 km) upstream of the Wilbur D. Mills Dam to avoid the long winding route which the lower Arkansas River follows. This circuitous portion of the Arkansas River between the Wilbur D. Mills Dam and the Mississippi River was historically bypassed by river vessels; early steamboats instead following a network of rivers—known as the Arkansas Post Canal—which flowed north of the lower Arkansas River and followed a shorter and more direct route to the Mississippi River. When the McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System was constructed between 1963 and 1970, the Arkansas Post Canal was significantly improved, while the lower Arkansas River continued to be bypassed by commercial vessels.[15]

text: The river in history[edit]

text: Many nations of Native Americans lived near, or along, the 1,450-mile (2,334-km) stretch of the Arkansas River for thousands of years. The first Europeans to see the river were members of the Spanish Coronado expedition on June 29, 1541.  Also in the 1540s, Hernando de Soto discovered the junction of the Arkansas with the Mississippi. The Spanish originally called the river Napeste.[13] "The name "Arkansas" was first applied by Father Jacques Marquette, who called the river Akansa in his journal of 1673. The Joliet-Marquette expedition travelled the Mississippi River from Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin towards the Gulf of Mexico, but turned back at the mouth of the Arkansas River. By that time, they had encountered Native Americans carrying European trinkets, and feared confrontation with Spanish conquistadors.

text: Jean-Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe, a French trader, explorer and nobleman had led an expedition into what is now Oklahoma in 1718–19. His original objective was to establish a trading post near the present city of Texarkana, Arkansas, but he then extended his trip overland as far north as the Arkansas River (which he designated as the Alcansas). The explorer wrote he and 9 other men, including three Caddo guides and 22 horses loaded with trade goods had come to a native settlement overlooking the river, where there were about 6,000 natives, who gave the strangers a warm welcome. La Harpe's party were honored with the calumet ceremony and spent ten days at this location. In 1988, evidence of a native village was discovered along the Arkansas River 13 miles (21 km) south of present-day Tulsa, Oklahoma. By then, the site was known as the Lasley Vore Site.[16][a]

text: French traders and trappers who had opened up trade with Indian tribes in Canada and the areas around the Great Lakes began exploring the Mississippi and some of its northern tributaries. They soon learned that the birch-bark canoes, which had served them so well on the northern waterways, were too light for use on the southern rivers, such as the Arkansas. They turned to making and using dugout canoes, which they called pirogues, made by hollowing out the trunks of cottonwood trees.[b] Cottonwoods are plentiful along the streams of the southwest and grow to large sizes. The wood is soft and easily worked with the crude tools carried by both the French and Indians. The pirogues were sturdier and could be more for navigating the sandbars and snags of the Southern waterways.[17]

text: In 1819, the Adams–Onís Treaty set the Arkansas as part of the frontier between the United States and Spanish Mexico. This continued until the United States annexed Texas after the Mexican–American War, in 1846. The treaty was made shortly after "Old Settler" Cherokees moved to near what became known as Webbers Falls on the Arkansas River. That area, then part of Arkansas Territory would become Indian Territory and later Oklahoma, was traditional territory of the Osage, leading to conflict and a treaty in 1828 but still unresolved by the time thousands of additional Cherokee refugees moved to the area during the Trail of Tears.[18][19]

text: By the time Fort Smith was established in 1817, larger capacity watercraft became available to transport goods up and down the Arkansas. These included flatboats (bateaus) and keelboats. Along with the pirogues, they transported piles of deer, bear, otter, beaver and buffalo skins up and down the river. Agricultural products such as corn, rice, dried peaches, beans, peanuts, snake root, sarsaparilla, ginseng had grown in economic importance.[17]

text: On March 31, 1820, the Comet became the first steamboat to successfully navigate part of the Arkansas River, reaching a place called Arkansas Post,[c] about 60 miles (97 km) above the confluence of the Arkansas and the Mississippi Rivers.[20] In mid-April, 1822, the Robert Thompson, towing a keelboat, was the first steamboat to navigate the Arkansas as far as Fort Smith. For five years, Fort Smith was known as the head of navigation for steamboats on the river. It lost the title to Fort Gibson in April, 1832, when three steamboats, Velocipede, Scioto and Catawba, all arrived at Fort Gibson later that month.[17][d]

text: Later, the Santa Fe Trail followed the Arkansas through much of Kansas, picking it up near Great Bend and continuing through to La Junta, Colorado, unless users elected to take the challenging Cimarron Cutoff in Cimarron, Kansas.[21]

text: American Civil War[edit]

text: During the American Civil War, each side tried to prevent the other from using the Arkansas and its tributaries as a route for moving reinforcements. Initially, the Union Army abandoned its forts in the Indian Territory, including Fort Gibson and Fort Smith, in order to maximize its strength for campaigns elsewhere, while the Confederate Army sent troops from Texas to support its Native American allies. Union Troops returned later in the war, after defeating the Confederates at the Battle of Pea Ridge and the Battle of Fort Smith, and began recovering the position it had previously abandoned, most notably Fort Gibson, reopening the Arkansas River as a supply route. In September 1864, a body of Confederate irregulars led by General Stand Watie successfully ambushed a Union supply ship bound for Fort Gibson. The vessel was destroyed, and a part of its cargo was looted by the Confederates.

text: Post Civil War[edit]

text: In the 1880s, Charles "Buffalo" Jones, one of the cofounders of Garden City, Kansas, organized four irrigation companies to take water one hundred miles from the Arkansas River to cultivate 75,000 acres (300 km2) of land.[22] By 1890, water from the Arkansas was being used to irrigate more than 20,000 acres (8,100 ha) of farmland in Kansas. By 1910, irrigation projects in Colorado had caused the river to stop flowing in July and August.[23]

text: Flooding in 1927 severely damaged or destroyed nearly every levee downstream  of Fort Smith, and led to the development of the Arkansas River Flood Control Association.[23] It also led to the Federal Government assigning responsibility of flood control and navigation on the Arkansas to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE).

text: Angling[edit]

text: The headwaters of the Arkansas River in central Colorado have been known for exceptional trout fishing, particularly fly fishing, since the 19th century, when greenback cutthroat trout dominated the river.[24] Today, brown trout dominate the river, which also contains rainbow trout. Trout Unlimited considers the Arkansas one of the top 100 trout streams in America,[25] a reputation the river has had since the 1950s.[26] From Leadville to Pueblo, the Arkansas River is serviced by numerous fly shops and guides operating in Buena Vista, Salida, Cañon City and Pueblo. The Colorado Division of Wildlife provides regular online fishing reports for the river.[27][28]

text: A fish kill occurred on December 29, 2010, in which an estimated 100,000 freshwater drum lined the Arkansas River bank.[29][30] An investigation, conducted by the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, found the dead fish "... cover 17 miles of river from the Ozark Lock and Dam downstream to River Mile 240, directly south of Hartman, Arkansas."[30] Tests later indicated the likely cause of the kill was gas bubble trauma caused by opening the spillways on the Ozark Dam.[31]

text: Image gallery[edit]

text:
Arkansas River in downtown Pueblo, Colorado

Downtown Wichita, Kansas, skyline at night from The Keeper of the Plains at the Arkansas River

Arkansas River, looking across to North Little Rock

John Martin Dam and Reservoir on the Arkansas River in Bent County, Colorado

The Arkansas River in Tulsa, Oklahoma

Royal Gorge

Arkansas River in Salida, Colorado

The Arkansas River in Natural Steps, Arkansas

Arkansas River between Van Buren and Fort Smith, Arkansas

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ A team led by Dr. George H. Odell, an anthropology professor from the University of Tulsa, uncovered artifacts that showed the natives were members of the Wichita people, and that the European artifacts also found there were of the same time period. Dr. Odell concluded this was most likely place that la Harpe met the natives he described.[16]

Jump up ^ Pirogues are still used in the swamps and marshes of South Louisiana by descendants of the "Cajuns," who were exiled from Canada by the British.[17]

Jump up ^ Arkansas Post is said to have been the first European settlement in the Mississippi Valley,[17]

Jump up ^ Fort Gibson had been built in 1824 on the bank of the Verdigris River in what had been called the "Three Forks" area of Indian Territory.

tag: ol


document_title: Education economics

question_text: the birth of economics of education was announced by whom

text: Education economics

text: Education as an investment[edit]

text: Economics distinguishes in addition to physical capital another form of capital that is no less critical as a means of production – human capital. With investments in human capital, such as education, three major economic effects can be expected:[1]

text:
increased expenses as the accumulation of human capital requires investments just as physical capital does,
increased productivity as people gain characteristics that enable them to produce more output and hence
return on investment in the form of higher incomes.

text: Investment costs[edit]

text:
Investments in human capital entail an investment cost, just as any investment does. Typically in European countries most education expenditure takes the form of government consumption, although some costs are also borne by individuals. These investments can be rather costly. EU governments spent between 3% and 8% of GDP on education in 2005, the average being 5%.[2] However, measuring the spending this way alone greatly underestimates the costs because a more subtle form of costs is completely overlooked: the opportunity cost of forgone wages as students cannot work while they study. It has been estimated that the total costs, including opportunity costs, of education are as much as double the direct costs.[3]
Including opportunity costs investments in education can be estimated to have been around 10% of GDP in the EU countries in 2005. In comparison investments in physical capital were 20% of GDP.[4] Thus the two are of similar magnitude.

text: Returns on investment[edit]

text:
Human capital in the form of education shares many characteristics with physical capital. Both require an investment to create and, once created, both have economic value. Physical capital earns a return because people are willing to pay to use a piece of physical capital in work as it allows them to produce more output. To measure the productive value of physical capital, we can simply measure how much of a return it commands in the market. In the case of human capital calculating returns is more complicated – after all, we cannot separate education from the person to see how much it rents for.
To get around this problem, the returns to human capital are generally inferred from differences in wages among people with different levels of education. Hall and Jones have calculated from international data that on average that the returns on education are 13.4% per year for first four years of schooling (grades 1–4), 10.1% per year for the next four years (grades 5–8) and 6.8% for each year beyond eight years.[5] Thus someone with 12 years of schooling can be expected to earn, on average, 1.1344 × 1.1014 × 1.0684 = 3.161 times as much as someone with no schooling at all.

text: Effects on productivity[edit]

text: Economy-wide, the effect of human capital on incomes has been estimated to be rather significant: 65% of wages paid in developed countries is payments to human capital and only 35% to raw labor.[1] The higher productivity of well-educated workers is one of the factors that explain higher GDPs and, therefore, higher incomes in developed countries. A strong correlation between GDP and education is clearly visible among the countries of the world, as is shown by the upper left figure. It is less clear, however, how much of a high GDP is explained by education. After all, it is also possible that rich countries can simply afford more education.

text: To distinguish the part of GDP explained with education from other causes, Weil[1] has calculated how much one would expect each country’s GDP to be higher based on the data on average schooling. This was based on the above-mentioned calculations of Hall and Jones on the returns on education. GDPs predicted by Weil’s calculations can be plotted against actual GDPs, as is done in the figure on the left, demonstrating that the variation in education explains some, but not all, of the variation in GDP.

text:
Finally, the matter of externalities should be considered. Usually when speaking of externalities one thinks of the negative effects of economic activities that are not included in market prices, such as pollution. These are negative externalities. However, there are also positive externalities – that is, positive effects of which someone can benefit without having to pay for it.
Education bears with it major positive externalities: giving one person more education raises not only his or her output but also the output of those around him or her. Educated workers can bring new technologies, methods and information to the consideration of others. They can teach things to others and act as an example. The positive externalities of education include the effects of personal networks and the roles educated workers play in them.[6]

text: Positive externalities from human capital are one explanation for why governments are involved in education. If people were left on their own, they would not take into account the full social benefit of education – in other words the rise in the output and wages of others – so the amount they would choose to obtain would be lower than the social optimum.[1]

text: Demand for education[edit]

text: Demand for vs. supply of education[edit]

text:
A 2013 study assesses demand- and supply-side factors that affect educational access and attainment in development countries, and it shows that addressing demand-side factors, such as geographic gaps between rural and urban areas, higher levels of population growth (which place constant pressure on new enrolments) and child labour, can often have greater impact on increasing levels of education in developing countries than supply-side factors, such as constructing additional
school facilities, hiring more teachers etc.[7]

text: Liberal approaches[edit]

text: The dominant model of the demand for education is based on human capital theory. The central idea is that undertaking education is investment in the acquisition of skills and knowledge which will increase earnings, or provide long-term benefits such as an appreciation of literature (sometimes referred to as cultural capital).[8] An increase in human capital can follow technological progress as knowledgeable employees are in demand due to the need for their skills, whether it be in understanding the production process or in operating machines. Studies from 1958 attempted to calculate the returns from additional schooling (the percent increase in income acquired through an additional year of schooling). Later results attempted to allow for different returns across persons or by level of education.[9]

text: Statistics have shown that countries with high enrollment/graduation rates have grown faster than countries without.  The United States has been the world leader in educational advances, beginning with the high school movement (1910–1950). There also seems to be a correlation between gender differences in education with the level of growth; more development is observed in countries which have an equal distribution of the percentage of women versus men who graduated from high school. When looking at correlations in the data, education seems to generate economic growth; however, it could be that we have this causality relationship backwards. For example, if education is seen as a luxury good, it may be that richer households are seeking out educational attainment as a symbol of status, rather than the relationship of education leading to wealth.

text: Educational advance is not the only variable for economic growth, though, as it only explains about 14% of the average annual increase in labor productivity over the period 1915-2005.  From lack of a more significant correlation between formal educational achievement and productivity growth, some economists see reason to believe that in today’s world many skills and capabilities come by way of learning outside of traditional education, or outside of schooling altogether.[10]

text: An alternative model of the demand for education, commonly referred to as screening, is based on the economic theory of signalling. The central idea is that the successful completion of education is a signal of ability.[11]

text: Marxist critique[edit]

text: Although Marx and Engels did not write widely about the social functions of education, their concepts and methods are theorized and criticized by the influence of Marx as education being used in reproduction of capitalist societies. Marx and Engels approached scholarship as "revolutionary scholarship" where education should serve as a propaganda for the struggle of the working class.[12] The classical Marxian paradigm sees education as serving the interest of capital and is seeking alternative modes of education that would prepare students and citizens for more progressive socialist mode of social organizations. Marx and Engels understood education and free time as essential to developing free individuals and creating many-sided human beings, thus for them education should become a more essential part of the life of people unlike capitalist society which is organized mainly around work and the production of commodities.[12]

text: Financing and provision[edit]

text: In most countries school education is predominantly financed and provided by governments. Public funding and provision also plays a major role in higher education. Although there is wide agreement on the principle that education, at least at school level, should be financed mainly by governments, there is considerable debate over the desirable extent of public provision of education. Supporters of public education argue that universal public provision promotes equality of opportunity and social cohesion. Opponents of public provision advocate alternatives such as vouchers.[13][14][15]

text: Pre-primary education financing[edit]

text: Compared to other areas of basic education, globally comparable data on pre-primary education financing remain scarce. While much of existing non-formal and private programmes may not be fully accounted for, it can be deduced from the level of provision that pre-primary  financing remains inadequate, especially when considered against expected benefits. Globally, pre-primary education accounts for the lowest proportion of the total public expenditure on education, in spite of the much-documented positive impact of quality early childhood care and education on later learning and other social outcomes.[16]

text: Education production function[edit]

text: An education production function is an application of the economic concept of a production function to the field of education. It relates various inputs affecting a student’s learning (schools, families, peers, neighborhoods, etc.) to measured outputs including subsequent labor market success, college attendance, graduation rates, and, most frequently, standardized test scores. The original study that eventually prompted interest in the idea of education production functions was by a sociologist, James S. Coleman.  The Coleman Report, published in 1966, concluded that the marginal effect of various school inputs on student achievement was small compared to the impact of families and friends.[17]  Later work, by Eric A. Hanushek, Richard Murnane, and other economists introduced the structure of "production" to the consideration of student learning outcomes.  Hanushek at al. (2008, 2015) reported a very high correlation between "adjusted growth rate" and "adjusted test scores".[18]

text: A large number of successive studies, increasingly involving economists, produced inconsistent results about the impact of school resources on student performance, leading to considerable controversy in policy discussions.[19][20]  The interpretation of the various studies has been very controversial, in part because the findings have directly influenced policy debates.  Two separate lines of study have been particularly widely debated.  The overall question of whether added funds to schools are likely to produce higher achievement (the “money doesn’t matter” debate) has entered into legislative debates and court consideration of school finance systems.[21][22][23]  Additionally, policy discussions about class size reduction heightened academic study of the relationship of class size and achievement.[24][25][26]

text: Notable education economists[edit]

text:
Eric Hanushek
Lawrence F. Katz
Stephen Machin
Douglas Staiger
Ludger Wößmann
Costas Meghir
Thomas Kane
Caroline Hoxby
Bruce Sacerdote
Victor Lavy
Philip Oreopoulos

Paul Glewwe
Jere Behrman
Bridget Terry Long
Parag Pathak
Jesse Rothstein
Joshua Angrist
Charles Clotfelter
David Card
Claudia Goldin
Richard Murnane
James Heckman