document_title: List of The Following characters

question_text: who plays jacob's mom in the following

question_tokens: who plays jacob 's mom in the following

text: List of The Following characters

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Actor
Character
Seasons

1
2
3

Kevin Bacon
Ryan Hardy
Main

James Purefoy
Joe Carroll
Main

Shawn Ashmore
Mike Weston
Main

Valorie Curry
Emma Hill
Main
N/A

Natalie Zea
Claire Matthews
Main
N/A

Annie Parisse
Debra Parker
Main
N/A

Nico Tortorella
Jacob Wells
Main
N/A

Adan Canto
Paul Torres
Main
N/A

Kyle Catlett
Joey Matthews
Main
N/A

Jessica Stroup
Max Hardy
N/A
Main

Connie Nielsen
Lily Gray
N/A
Main
N/A

Tiffany Boone
Mandy Lang
N/A
Main
N/A

Sam Underwood
Luke Gray
N/A
Main
N/A

Mark Gray
N/A
Main

Gregg Henry
Dr. Arthur Strauss
N/A
Recurring
Main

Zuleikha Robinson
Gwen
N/A
Main

Michael Ealy
Theo Noble
N/A
Main

John Lafayette
Marshal Scott Turner
Recurring
Guest

Warren Kole
Roderick
Recurring
N/A

Annika Boras
Louise Sinclair
Recurring
N/A

Billy Brown
Troy Riley
Recurring
N/A

Mike Colter
Nick Donovan
Recurring
N/A
Recurring

Michael Drayer
Rick Kester
Recurring
N/A

Jennifer Ferrin
Molly
Recurring
N/A

Renée Elise Goldsberry
Olivia Warren
Recurring
N/A

Li Jun Li
Megan Leeds
Recurring
N/A

Tom Lipinski
Charlie Mead
Recurring
N/A

Steve Monroe
Jordy Raines
Recurring
N/A

Chinasa Ogbuagu
Deidre Mitchell
Recurring
N/A

Valerie Cruz
Agent Gina Mendez
N/A
Recurring

Carrie Preston
Judy
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Camille De Pazzis
Gisele
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Kyle Barisich
Hopkins
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Montego Glover
Agent Lawrence
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Bambadjan Bamba
Sami
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Rita Markova
Radmilla
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Shane McRae
Robert
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Jake Weber
Micah
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Jacinda Barrett
Julia
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Sprague Grayden
Carrie Cooke
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Mackenzie Marsh
Tilda
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Felix Solis
Agent Clarke
N/A
Recurring
Guest

Tom Cavanagh
Kingston Tanner
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Josh Salatin
Lucas
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Liza de Weerd
Angela
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Carter Jenkins
Preston Tanner
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Leslie Bibb
Jana Murphy
N/A
Recurring
N/A

Michael Irby
Andrew Sharp
N/A
Recurring

Gbenga Akinnagbe
Tom Reyes
N/A
Recurring

Ruth Kearney
Daisy Locke
N/A
Recurring

Monique Gabriela Curnen
Erin Sloan
N/A
Recurring

Hunter Parrish
Kyle Locke
N/A
Recurring

Anna Wood
Juliana Barnes
N/A
Recurring

Annet Mahendru
Eliza
N/A
Recurring

text: Major characters[edit]

text: Ryan Hardy[edit]

text: Portrayed by Kevin Bacon, Hardy is a former FBI agent who, in 2003, led the FBI team that captured serial killer Joe Carroll. He was placed on disability and removed from active duty after being stabbed in the heart by Carroll. His injuries require him to use a pacemaker. Hardy is recalled to service as a consultant after Carroll escapes from prison. At the beginning of the series, he is withdrawn from the world, bordering on alcoholism, tormented by guilt as he failed to identify Carroll as a suspect after their first meeting, and Carroll claimed five more victims before he was caught; however, later in the series, Hardy begins to open up to his colleagues and, later, Claire Matthews. Hardy wrote a true-crime book based on the Joe Carroll case, entitled The Poetry of a Killer. In the season 1 finale, Ryan fights Joe in a boat house to save Claire, and Joe is left inside, presumably to die. After DNA records confirm Joe's death, Ryan and Claire resume their relationship at his apartment, only for his neighbor Molly, one of Joe's followers, to stab them both. Ryan overpowers Molly and kills her. While he survives, Ryan is told that Claire died, which devastates him.

text: By season 2, after Claire's death, Ryan has started having a more active life, being healthy and sober, becoming a professor at the Hudson University, and opening up more, specifically to his niece, Max Hardy. However, his obsessive belief that Joe is alive is strong. His fears are proven true in "Fly Away" as he sees Joe drive away from Lily Gray's home, along with Emma and Mandy. He is called in to track Lily and her twin sons Luke and Mark, followers of Joe and murderer of Mike Weston's father. Discovering Joe's revival and finding a new cult, Ryan resolves to end Joe for good. After discovering that Claire faked her death, Ryan attempts to restore his relationship with her. In the season 2 finale, Luke and Mark kidnap Claire and force Ryan to work with Joe to save her, which they do. Luke is killed while Mark escapes. Ryan subdues Joe, resists the urge to kill him, and has him arrested. He and Claire go their separate ways as Claire believes her past will bring them down.

text: In season 3, Ryan has found love with a doctor, called Gwen. At an FBI agent's wedding, one of the waiters throws blood over Ryan and the two brides, for Ryan killing his daughter, who was a Korbin member. When Ryan goes to the house of the girl to apologise to the parents, he discovers that the man wasn't her father, and later finds that he is instead working for Mark Gray, who is attempting to avenge the deaths of his mother, twin and sister.

text: After Arthur Strauss walks from court after being charged with the attempted murder of Ryan and Ryan's former lover, Ryan and the FBI look to find out who made a fake email which helped release Strauss. They later discover that it was a man named Theo Noble, one of Strauss' former students. They discover that Theo has many different aliases and is a genius in computing and hacking, and had hacked the FBI's server on more than one occasion to remain a step ahead. However, when Theo realises that they have pulled his wife's records, he realises that his double life has been exposed and kills his wife and attempts to kill his kids, who were all part of his cover family. The kids survived. Theo blames Ryan for forcing his hand and making him kill his wife. Ryan then finds out that there is one person that Theo genuinely cares about, his sister, Penny, who, like Theo, was abused as a child and had gone from foster family to foster family.

text: On the day of Joe's execution, Joe kills two guards and takes 3 people hostage, and reveals that he will kill them unless Ryan comes and visits him. Ryan had previously rejected an invitation from Joe to watch him die. Ryan heads over to the prison, and manages to get Joe to release the hostages by admitting to having dreams in which he and Joe are good friends and Joe even helps teach Ryan to kill. However, Theo's sister, Penny, who was watching Ryan and Joe on computer monitors, releases the other prisoners, in an attempt to have Ryan killed so that Theo would stop pursuing Ryan. This fails however as Ryan and Joe work together and kill the attacking prisoners. Joe's execution then goes ahead as planned and Ryan watches as his long-term foe dies.

text: After the execution, Ryan goes to a bar, and repeatedly orders two shots of whiskey, as he imagines that he is drinking with Joe. Ryan then sleeps with the bartender, however he tells Gwen the next day as he feels guilty, Gwen leaves him.

text: Ryan starts drinking again, having been 18 months sober, and even drinks at work. When Ryan and Max keep look out for Penny, they spot her, but she seemingly escapes. However, Ryan has actually caught her and takes her to his apartment to torture her. Ryan waterboards Penny as Penny has a fear of water and drowning. However, after Theo learns that Ryan has his sister, Theo kidnaps Mike, and offers a fair trade, Penny for Mike. The trade goes according to plan, until Theo and Ryan begin shooting at one another, and Ryan shoots Penny, who was between him and Theo. Theo leaves but swears revenge on Ryan for killing the only person he cares about.

text: After using Ryan's former colleague, Gina Mendez, and her family, as bait, Ryan goes to a safehouse where Mendez was staying, but brings a small team of agents that he trusts to bring Theo down; however, Theo runs away and wounds an FBI agent in the process. Theo ambushes Ryan as he tries to call an ambulance for the wounded agent, and Theo takes the two agents hostage.

text: After killing the other agent, Theo prepares to murder Ryan, but is stopped in the nick of time by guards of a rich financer, Eliza, who falsely believes that Ryan knew her dark secrets and wanted Theo to bring Ryan to her so she could find out what he knows. While Theo is being tortured, Ryan frees his hands which were tied behind his back, and escapes. However, Theo also escapes and tells Ryan that he is going to get to Gwen, and kill her once Ryan's baby is born. He also says that he will ensure that the baby will be exactly like Theo, abused and neglected.

text: After Theo kidnaps Gwen, Ryan chases them down and shoots Theo, seemingly killing him. However, as Ryan and Gwen embrace, Theo tackles Ryan and they both fall off a bridge. Theo falls into the water, while Ryan holds on to the side of the bridge, but lets go after telling Gwen that he loves her. Neither Ryan's nor Theo's body was recovered.

text: In the last scene of the show, the camera follows a limping man moving through the hospital where Gwen, Mike and Max are. The man goes to Agent Campbell's room, where she is recovering from a gunshot wound. The man is then found to be Ryan, who tells Campbell that he knows that she was a double agent and was responsible for Gwen's kidnapping. Ryan tells her that those he loves are not safe with him around, and says that he will pick apart those who pose a threat to his loved ones while the world thinks he's dead. It is then implied that he kills Campbell. Ryan then walks through the halls, stopping to look at Gwen, Mike and Max, before leaving the hospital to begin his new life as a vigilante.

text: Joe Carroll[edit]

text: Portrayed by James Purefoy. He is a former professor of English literature at Winslow University. Little is known of his early life, other than that he was born in England and has a half-brother. Carroll's teaching emphasized the romantic period. He believes, like Edgar Allan Poe whom he admires intensely, in the "insanity of art", i.e. that it has to be "felt". Carroll began making "art" by eviscerating female students. He killed fourteen of them before he was caught by Ryan Hardy. While serving out his sentence at the Virginia Central Penitentiary in Waverly, Virginia, Carroll gathers a cult-like collection of followers who are willing to murder, kidnap, and sacrifice themselves for Carroll to execute his plan of revenge against Hardy. In the season finale, Carroll is apparently killed in a massive explosion outside his lighthouse after a brutal showdown with Hardy.

text: In Season 2, it's confirmed he survived and has been hiding. When Joe attempts to return to his old ways, he meets Lily Gray, a follower of him and a brief love interest, as they spend the night at the end of "Reflection", but he leaves her after she drugs him and Joe expresses his contempt for her. He then travels to a cult called Korban and, after manipulating (and later killing) the leader Micah and his wife Julia, becomes the new leader of Korban with the intent of raining havoc on New York. As Joe explains to Ryan, he has moved on from Poe (he has also given up all dreams of becoming a writer) to the Bible (which is ironic as Joe doesn't believe in God). He starts a "Holy War" with Kingston Tanner, a televangelist who views Joe as the anti-Christ. Joe kidnaps Tanner's son and forces him to kill someone, then has his father get on his knees to admit there is no God. He tries to force them to kill one another, but Kingston kills himself while Joe kills Preston later. In the season 2 finale, Ryan is forced to work with Joe to save Claire from Luke and Mark. Joe is then captured again by Ryan and sent to prison despite his efforts to goad Ryan into killing him.

text: After being absent for a few episodes, Joe is eventually seen again when Ryan comes to him looking for information regarding Joe's escaped former mentor, Arthur Stauss. Joe agrees to help Ryan should he visit him every day until Joe's impending execution. When Strauss's favourite student, Theo Noble, convinces a former member of the military to pose as a guard in Joe's prison, Noble and Joe speak via a microphone on the guards person, and Theo can see Joe through a pair of sunglasses in the man's pocket. When the facility is made aware of the man's presence, Joe strangles and kills him, taking the glasses to make a weapon out of.

text: On the day of his execution, Joe kills two guards and keeps three people hostage, and demands that Ryan Hardy attend the execution, otherwise he will kill the hostages. When Ryan arrives, he has to handcuff his hands behind his back before entering the room. Ryan is then attacked by Joe using a stun gun. After coming around, Ryan gets Joe to release one hostage. Joe then gets Ryan to admit that the relationship between him and Joe is the most important in his life, after speaking of how Ryan killed the man who murdered Ryan's father.

text: After the remaining hostages are released, all the gates to the cells are opened by Penny, Theo's sister, who was trying to get Ryan killed. One inmate, who Joe had told earlier wasn't worthy of his soon to be empty cell, took Joe into the cell. After killing or incapacitating the inmates, Ryan saves Joe and they kill the remaining inmate. Joe is then executed as planned, as Ryan watches.

text: Ryan goes to a bar and drinks that night, ordering two shots every turn, as he imagines that he is drinking with Joe. Ryan's illusions of Joe continue, particularly as he over-steps the lines and tortures Penny.

text: Carroll's only published novel, The Gothic Sea, was inspired by Poe's The Light-House, but was a commercial and critical failure.

text: Claire Matthews[edit]

text: Portrayed by Natalie Zea. She is Joe Carroll's ex-wife, Joey's mother, and Ryan Hardy's former lover. Claire is a professor at the university where Joe worked before he went to prison. In 2002, she told Joe that she was pregnant with their son Joey. Claire told Ryan to speak to Joe when Ryan had a question about a murder case, not knowing Joe was the killer. Once Claire learned that Joe was a murderer, she divorced him and got custody of Joey. Claire made the first move when it came to her and Ryan. Claire meets Ryan's sister Jenny, who tells him that she likes her. Ryan later ends their relationship because he wants a better life for her and Joey.

text: After Carroll, whom Claire calls a madman, kidnaps their son, he sends men to kidnap her too. She is placed under protection, then Ryan takes her into hiding. She tells Ryan that Joe wrote her a letter. When the FBI informs Claire of Joe's second escape, she wants to talk only to Ryan. In the season 1 finale, Claire is injured by Molly, one of Joe's followers. In the beginning of Season 2, Mike states that she died of her injuries. However, in "Unmasked", it's revealed that she survived and has been in protective custody since then, to make sure Joe and his followers can't find her. After hearing of Joe's return, Claire wishes to help the authorities, leaving witness protection so she can see Ryan again. She reunites with Ryan and attempts to help him find and kill Joe. She escapes her custody to meet Joe after delivering a message to him but runs into Emma again. They engage in a struggle with Claire killing her, but she is captured by Luke and Mark. She is saved by Ryan and Joe, while Luke is killed and Mark gets away. After Joe is sent to jail, Claire breaks up with Ryan, believing she's the one who drags down their relationship.

text: Mike Weston[edit]

text: Portrayed by Shawn Ashmore. He is a young FBI agent. Weston wrote his thesis on Joe Carroll while in training and sees Ryan Hardy as a hero. He is considered the team's expert on Joe Carroll and displays a proficiency with computers. He is portrayed as Ryan's partner throughout most of season 1 and later in season 2 alongside Ryan's niece, Max Hardy, as the two develop feelings for one another. After Lily Gray kills his father, he swears revenge on her. Eventually he kills her, causing concern in Ryan and Max. In the season 2 finale, Mike goes to save Ryan from the twins Luke and Mark. Mike saves them as Max kills Luke. Afterwards, he and Max kiss, beginning their relationship.

text: At the beginning of season 3, it is discovered that Max and Mike are no longer together, and that Max is now dating fellow FBI employee, Tom Reyes. It is revealed in a flashback that they broke up when Mike went with other FBI agesnts to hunt down Mark Gray, the man who killed his father.

text: Mike and Max have sex behind Tom's back, but feeling guilty, Max immediately regrets it and tells Mike to leave. However, Max and Mike were both unaware that Daisy and Kyle Locke had set up cameras in Max's apartment. These cameras are what tip Mark off that the FBI have found his safehouse, and he flees. During the raid of the house, Tom finds the laptop and sees the incriminating footage. He then takes the laptop without reporting it.

text: When Mike and Ryan realise that Kyle and Daisy are targeting the daughter of the judge overseeing Arthur Strauss' trial, they go to save her, but during the process, Mike is knocked off the roof and hangs onto a rail. Tom finds Mike, and after a moment of hesitation, helps him out.

text: When Max, Mike and Ryan track down Daisy and Strauss, they are all ambushed by Mark. Max and Mike succeed in apprehending Strauss, but when Mike sees Mark running onto a boat, he leaves Strauss to Max and goes after Mark. Daisy then assaults Max and frees Strauss. Meanwhile, Mike corners Mark, and prepares to kill him, but Ryan stops him. As Mike and Ryan talk, Mark escapes. They then learn of Max's injuries.

text: Tom destroys the laptop after overhearing Max and Mike discussing how they've found out that the possessor is in the building. Tom then goes to his apartment, where the body of an FBI agesnt, who he inadvertently killed during a struggle over the laptop. However, he is ambushed by Daisy and Mark, who request that he bring Mike to them.

text: Tom lures Mike out with him by pretending to have a lead on the murdered agent. Here, Mike realises that Tom is handing him over the Mark. After he hands Mike over, he has acid thrown on his face and is shot and killed. However, before Mark can do anything to Mike, he is stopped by Theo Noble, who needs Mark as bait to get Ryan Hardy to trade his kidnapped sister, Penny for Mike. During the trade, Penny is killed and Mike is recovered safely.

text: After the separate questioning of Ryan, Max and Mike, Mike and Max embrace and decide to give their romance another go, however, Mark shows up and stabs Mike, but before he can harm Max, Mike shoots and kills him.

text: Mike recovers from his injuries around the time that Ryan and Theo scuffled and fell off a bridge, leading to both being presumed dead. Mike and Max then discover that Ryan's former girlfriend, Gwen, is pregnant with Ryan's child. They insist that Gwen won't be alone in bringing the child up. Unbeknownst to all three, Ryan was watching them from a safe distance, alive and well, ready to protect them while pretending to be dead.

text: Emma Hill[edit]

text: Portrayed by Valorie Curry. A follower of the cult, she first met Carroll at a book reading in 2003 and became one of his first and most devoted followers. At his direction, she assumes the name "Denise Harris" and gets a job as nanny for Carroll's son Joey. She assumes de facto leadership of the small cell tasked with abducting Joey and has no qualms about using violence to accomplish her goals. She is the girlfriend of Jacob Wells until she sees that Jacob wishes to leave Joe's cult; Emma then kills Jacob.

text: In the year following Joe's supposed death at the lighthouse, Emma lives with a handful of surviving followers. All but Emma are killed or taken in by the FBI while Emma is out meeting Mark. Emma goes with Mark and Luke to Lily Gray's home, where she reunites with Joe. The two remain together as they and Mandy leave Lily to go to the Korban cult compound. After they leave Korban, Joe receives a message that Claire is alive and asks Emma and Robert to find out if it is true. Eventually, Emma and Claire come face to face, resulting in Claire stabbing Emma and throwing her out of a second-story window. Emma makes one last attempt on Claire's life but fails and apparently dies from her stab wound.

text: Jennifer Mason[edit]

text: Portrayed by Jeananne Goossen. Agent Jennifer Mason is an FBI agent working with Ryan Hardy, Mike Weston and Troy Riley on the case of Joe Carroll's escape. She is no-nonsense, but has a clear love for her job. Mason only appeared in the Pilot. After Ryan Hardy broke three of Joe Carroll's fingers, she was sent back to Quantico. She was replaced by Debra Parker.

text: Debra Parker[edit]

text: Portrayed by Annie Parisse. She is an FBI specialist on cult behavior and head of the Bureau's Alternative Religion Unit. Her expertise leads to her being called in to head the investigation of Carroll and his cult. She grew up in a cult, fleeing, without the approval of her parents, when she was sexually abused by the cult's leader. Parker dies in the season finale after being buried alive by a couple of Carroll's cult members, who are subsequently killed by Hardy.

text: Paul Torres[edit]

text: Portrayed by Adan Canto. He first appears as "Billy Thomas". Torres, as Billy Thomas, lives next door to Sarah Fuller with Jacob Wells, Emma's lover. Their homosexual relationship is initially a cover to fool Sarah, but Paul develops genuine feelings for Jacob. He has to share Jacob with Emma and is unhappy with the relationship, often referred to as a "third wheel". After being severely injured, Paul asks Jacob to kill him when it appears that they might be arrested; Jacob obliges.

text: Jacob Wells[edit]

text: Portrayed by Nico Tortorella. He first appears as "Will Wilson". Jacob is Emma's lover and a Carroll follower. As "Will Wilson", he and Billy Thomas live next door to Sarah Fuller, the only woman who escaped Carroll. Will and Billy pose as a gay couple as part of their cult activities, using the ruse because they believe Sarah will not feel threatened by a gay couple. While Jacob is loyal to Joe, he later reveals that he never killed anyone, which causes friction with Emma and Paul. After Emma abandons him and Paul, Jacob begins to take after the other followers. However, after Jacob reveals to Emma that he doesn't want to die for Joe's cause, Emma kills him

text: Jacob was born to a successful doctor in Lake Whitehurst, Jacob didn't want to become one himself. He dropped out of medical school, and was persuaded to join Joe's cult. It was suggested in The Curse that he has a difficult relationship with his father.

text: Jacob is one of Joe's most long-term Followers, though unlike many of the others, he hadn't killed anyone when joining them. During meetings with the other Followers, he claimed to have killed a girl while he was in high school and dumped her body in the ocean. He told Joe the truth early, but Joe was okay with it and agreed to keep it secret, saying he would commit his first kill when he was ready. He met Emma when she visited Joe in prison and was set up on a blind date with him. He later witnessed her killing her mother and helped her get rid of the body.

text: Over time, he formed a bond with Paul, a recent new follower who eventually discovered of Jacob's inability to kill. He promised Jacob he wouldn't tell anyone on the condition he return the favor someday. They later were assigned to keep track on Sarah Fuller, Joe's last victim, and act gay for her to gain her trust. Unknowingly, Jacob was torn for his feelings with Emma and his friendship with Paul due to Paul seemingly gaining real feelings for him.

text: Living under the alias of Will Wilson and pretending to be the gay partner of "Billy Thomas," Jacob and Paul surveilled Sarah Fuller for over 3 years. Gaining her trust, they waited for Carroll's escape and delivered Fuller to him, so he could finish his "work." It has been suggested various times that due to the act that Jacob and Paul put on Jacob became bi-sexual since he has feelings for both Emma and Paul although he refuses to admit it.

text: Afterwards, Paul, Jacob and Emma kidnapped Carroll's son, Joey, under Carroll's commands. ("Pilot") At the house in the country where they are keeping Joey, he and his girlfriend, Emma show affection towards one another, much to the dismay and jealousy of Paul. The two share a room in the country house, and Paul walks in on them making love. ("Chapter Two")

text: Despite all of this Jacob tried to be the mediator between Emma and Paul since at first they did not get along. Jacob continues to try to control the problem when in a fit of rage and tired of being considered the third wheel Paul brings home a kidnapped girl known as Megan Leeds from a convenience store in The Poet's Fire

text: In (Mad Love) Paul eventually tells Jacob's secret which is the fact that Jacob lied about being a murderer to Emma Hill, only telling Joe Carroll and Paul about it. Emma responds by teaming up with Paul and trying to get Jacob to kill Megan Leeds as his first but he was unable to do so even when she was tied up. Later he lets her go only to have her be recaptured by Paul and Emma. Jacob later confronts Emma and Paul in the shower and tells him that he is sorry. They tell him they aren't giving up on him and hug him in the shower.

text: At the beginning of The Siege he wakes up in bed with Paul and Emma as a result of the shower scene from the previous episode. When he goes downstairs he catches Joey using the phone and pulls him away. He freaks out and later helps the search for Joey with Emma and Paul. Once they find him they meet Hank Flynn and begin to pack up the car; when they find Hank gone they split up and search for him.

text: Jacob is seen in the next episode The Fall which immediately follows the events of The Siege. Once he realizes they have Ryan Hardy, Joey Matthews and Megan Leeds trapped with the F.B.I. surrounding the place they begin to freak out whether they show it or not. Emma escapes the house with Joey leaving Jacob and Paul behind and in the confusion Ryan breaks free and stabs Paul. He rushes out of the house leaving Jacob and Paul for the F.B.I. Paul tells Jacob to escape but he refuses to leave Paul's side. Luckily for them Roderick who is the reason Emma escaped, sent two men disguised as SWAT into the house and got them both out safely. Jacob stopped a man's car; beat him up and threw him out and he then helps Paul into the car stating they will get him help. Paul thanks him for not leaving him to die and Jacob swears he will save him. As Emma parks the car for a moment she answers a call from Jacob who is crying; demanding to know why she left them; she tearfully hangs up the phone without a word.

text: Jacob and Paul are mentioned by Joey in the beginning of Let Me Go but not seen and at this time they are MIA. It is stated in Welcome Home that they are still missing but Joe thinks them to be safe as Emma has not seen anything on the news about their capture or deaths. This however was a lie, as Roderick pointed out Emma's phone is filled with messages from Jacob, but she has yet to listen to even one.

text: Jacob reappears at his parents' lake house near Arrowhead Lake, Pennsylvania and meets his mother, who shows fear towards her own son about the recent events he's done. She tries to reason with him that he's done a lot of bad things and wants to help him, but begs him to open to her. After she looks over Paul's condition, she mentions Paul will die unless he gets him to a hospital. After finding Joe's location, Jacob tries to get Paul to go with him, but Paul knows he has little time and begs Jacob to kill him so he can fulfill his promise to him. Despite Jacob's hesitance over killing his best friend, Paul believes in him and declares his love for Jacob as a tearful Jacob smothers Paul with a pillow as his first kill because Paul wanted his death to mean something. After Paul dies, Jacob lightly kisses him on the head and later reunites with Emma seeming to have a whole new outlook on things in Love Hurts.

text: His reunion with her becomes very sour, after reuniting with Joey and Joe he gives Emma the cold shoulder. Joe asks of him to give Emma a chance despite that what she did caused Paul to die, but reluctantly agrees. As they talk, she tries to tell him Roderick left her no choice and believes Jacob would have done the same, but he states he'd never do such a thing. Later that night, Emma tries to reason with him that she loves him, which leads them to almost have sex till Jacob keeps seeing images of Paul over him telling him to kill Emma and that she can't be trusted. After "killing" Paul, Jacob, now completely different from before, holds Emma in his arms telling her about what she did caused Paul to die and that he had to kill his best friend because of her. He grabs her neck and threatens her stating she should watch her back from now on. Currently, Jacob has no idea that Emma willingly slept with Joe.

text: In the episode "Whips & Regret," Jacob tells Emma that the Jacob she loves is dead and that he is a brand new man. Since then Jacob now acts much more aggressive and serious, going as far as to throw Claire to the ground stating that he's been ordered to put her in her place for Joe less she refuse. She says if she wants to see Joey, she'll have to "make an effort". She does so as she has dinner with Joe that night.

text: After the bunker is found, Joe takes Jacob and Vincent to Daniel Monroe's home and Jacob kills Brian Fowler and takes Debra Parker hostage. As she tries to talk with him about his life and why he's doing this, he refuses to listen even after how he has a golden life. Jacob uses her as leverage to force Ryan to let Joe go in the basement. Later at night, Jacob watches the news as he's on the TV about his choices in life leading him to call his father. His father begs him to tell him where he is, but Jacob hangs up and starts crying instead.

text: The next morning, he informs Joe about Ryan on the news about the deal he'll give one of Joe's followers if they turn themselves in. Joe tries to persuade them that they aren't in trouble and Ryan is desperate, but Jacob sees more to that. After Roderick kidnaps Joey, Jacob offers to find him with two others and stay outside Ryan's work place. They follow them to Roderick's base and kill him. After Ethan and Michael are killed, Jacob finds Joey and tells him to be quiet and tries to take him back to Joe. As they run, Joey begs him to stop stating his mom says he's one of the bad guys, but he says that's crazy. Ryan keeps him behind a shed and Jacob yells he has to take him back to Joe, but Ryan tells him Joe doesn't care about him or if he dies, causing Jacob to question everything he's doing. Ryan continues to persuade him to let Joey go which, with tears in his eyes, and Joey tearfully begging also, Jacob finally does the right thing and lets Joey go, but escapes in the process. At home, he is greeted by Emma, to which he begins to realize they are all going to die soon.

text: Jacob dies by his throat being slashed by Emma.

text: Sarah Fuller[edit]

text: Portrayed by Maggie Grace. Dr. Sarah Fuller was the last victim of Joe Carroll before his capture. Working as a doctor, Sarah lived a normal life, the only thing to remind her of her past being the scars that remained. Her next door neighbors were a gay couple, their respective names being Billy Thomas and Will Wilson, or so they claimed. They were actually two of Carroll's followers, Paul and Jacob, and the time they spent as her neighbors was merely a ploy to gain her trust. When Carroll escaped from prison, they kidnapped her and brought her over to a property they owned, the Lighthouse Bed and Breakfast, so that he could finish his work.

text: Joey Matthews[edit]

text: Portrayed by Kyle Catlett. Joey is Carroll's son by his ex-wife, Claire Matthews. Emma tries to manipulate him by telling him that his father isn't really a bad person. He is abducted by Emma, Paul, and Jacob and taken to a farm house where he is told he's on an "adventure" and can't call his mother. Eventually, he realizes he's not on an adventure and attempts to call his mother but is stopped by Paul. Ryan Hardy finds his location, but Emma, through Roderick's orders, takes Joey away. He later meets his father for the first time and gives him the silent treatment, knowing what kind of person he is. After being reunited with his mother, Joey is taken hostage by Roderick but is saved by Ryan and Mike.

text: In season 2, Joey and his mother and grandmother have been put in witness protection so that Joe and his followers can't find them.

text: Max Hardy[edit]

text: Portrayed by Jessica Stroup. She is an NYPD detective and Ryan's niece, who helps her uncle with the investigation into Joe Carroll's supposed death. She is fiercely loyal to her uncle, which allows her to overlook some of his more violent policies. Early on, she provides technical support for Ryan and Mike. In season two, she is kidnapped by the "Huntsman", hired by Lily, in revenge for Mike beating Luke Gray nearly to death. She manages to escape, and she is saved by Mike and Ryan. In the beginning, she is very worried about Ryan Mike's aggressive behavior. She clashes initially with Mike, but the two slowly develop an attraction. By the end of season two, she has become more desensitized to Ryan and Mike's violence, and even helps cover up for Mike's murder of Lily. She kills Luke when he tries to kill Mike in the final showdown of season two. After Ryan has Joe arrested, she and Mike kiss.

text: In the season three opener, she has joined the FBI, and has dissolved whatever relationship she and Mike had. This is primarily due to Mike's obsession and inability to move on from Mark Gray, who is the only one left alive after being responsible for the death of Mike's father. She, along with Ryan and Mike, are targeted by Mark for the death of his family. Even though, she keeps the secret of Lily's murder within the inner circle, she is obviously bothered by the secrecy. She sontinues to be the conscious voice of reason between the three of them. This is exhibited when she stops the guys from torturing information out of a suspect. Any leweigh she had previously afforded them in their violent tendencies has gone, and she is no longer willing to cover up the darkness. Max is hit especially hard when Mark and his friends kill the crew members of her deceased fathers fire company. The intense feelings lead her to temporarily reconnect with Mike, as she now understands his feelings about Lily better. She is beaten and critically injured by Daisy after being abandoned by Mike when they arrested Strauss. She later discusses details of the cover up with him, unaware of the fact that Tom is still watching her on the cameras set up by Kyle and Daisy. While recovering from her injuries, she ends up alone with Strauss' best student while investegating the infiltration into the FBI's servers. The police show up just as she is about to be stabbed by Sam (a.k.a. Theo/a.k.a. Terrance Jackson). She becomes extremely worried when Ryan suffers from PTSD and starts drinking again after his altercation with Carroll. She finds out that Tom has betrayed the bureau, but only after he kidnaps Mike and hands him over to Mark, Daisy, and Theo. She punches Ryan when she finds out that he knew that Mike was taken, but he loops her in. She and Ryan save Mike. After their debriefing, Mike declares his love for her,and she and Mike kiss in the parking garage. She invites him over, but just as she is about to leave, Mark comes up behind Mike and stabs him multiple times. She tries to get out of the car to stop him, but he pulls her out and attempts to stab her as well. Mike shoots him just in time. Max is able to kill Daisy when they rescue Gina from Theo. Max returns the declaration of love to Mike while he is recovering in the hospital. Max saves Ryan from Theo and Eliza. When Ryan's body can't be found, she tells Mike, then breaks down as the two cry together. Max and Mike promise to help Gwen raise her baby, and Max's cousin.

text: Lily Gray[edit]

text: Portrayed by Connie Nielsen. A wealthy socialite, she is initially successful at pretending to be the sole surviving victim of the subway attack and begins developing a close friendship with Ryan Hardy. Hardy eventually realizes that Gray is a Carroll follower. She escapes to the countryside with her sons, identical twins Luke and Mark, whom she unofficially adopted under mysterious circumstances. She attempts to have Joe as a part of her life and in a relationship, but he betrays her and expresses her contempt for her. After believing Luke to have died, Lily swears revenge on Ryan and Mike, kidnapping Max and attempting to kill her and murder Mike's father. After discovering Luke's survival, Lily hires assassins to save him and kill anyone in their way, and her son reunites with her and Mark. After they find Joe's location, Lily hires assassins to kill the Korban members and to bring Joe to her so she can kill him. She is found by Mike Weston, who shoots and kills her, avenging his father's death despite Ryan and Max's efforts to persuade him not to.

text: Mandy Lang[edit]

text: Portrayed by Tiffany Boone. She lives with Carroll for a year when he stays with her mother Judy, a groupie who communicated with Carroll in prison. Mandy regards Carroll as the father figure she never had and stabs her mother, who has become suspicious of Carroll, to death, in order to flee with Carroll. However, like Jacob, Mandy is hesitant to murder in Joe's name. After listening to Joe and Emma talk about how they view Mandy as weak and a lost cause, Mandy leaves Joe's cult. She later goes to Lily and her sons' location, intent on living with them. However, Lily has her sons torture Mandy for Joe's location. They kill her after she refuses to reveal this information.

text: Luke and Mark Gray[edit]

text: Both portrayed by Sam Underwood. Identical twins, they are the unofficially adopted sons of wealthy deviant Lily Gray. They are the most prominent members of Lily's cult and those whom she seems to care for most. Along with Gisele and Carlos, they carry out the subway murders which occur a year after Carroll's supposed death. Luke is later apprehended by the FBI, while Mark is left to roam along with his mother, both of whom believe Luke to be dead. However, they discover his location and free him. After their mother is killed, they swear vengeance, capturing Claire Matthews. In the season 2 finale, Luke and Mark capture Ryan and Joe and attempt to kill Claire, but Mike and Max save them. When the twins find out that Mike killed their mother, Luke attempts to kill him but is shot to death by Max. Mark escapes with his brother's dead body to an unknown location.

text: Luke, the elder twin, is more outgoing than Mark, the younger. Luke is the leader, obsessed with death, revenge, and hints at being necrophiliac. He is also more psychotic than Mark. Mark is quieter and more practical but can be just as ruthless. He has a form of Haphephobia, which is revealed when Emma attempts to touch him before he allows her to. Luke is attracted to Gisele. Despite their differences, the twins deeply care for one another.

text: In season 3, Mark enlists the help of a young married couple, Kyle and Daisy Locke, to take part in a series of murders, manipulating the crime scenes to shadow the deaths of his mother, twin and sister. Mark swears revenge on the FBI, particularly Ryan Hardy, Max Hardy and Mike Weston for the killings of his sister, twin and mother. He shows signs of schizophrenia, having conversations to himself as Luke and himself. He kills FBI agent Jeff Clarke, who he had recorded on video admitting to allowing a black ops mission to take down Arthur Strauss, among others.

text: After going off the radar, Mark followed Max and Mike to a garage, where he stabbed Mike but was killed by Mike before he could harm Max. Mike recovered from his wounds.

text: Recurring characters[edit]

text: Marshal Scott Turner: Portrayed by John Lafayette. He is an FBI agent assisting in finding Carroll and his cult. In season 2, he is assigned to watch over Claire Matthews and her family in witness protection.

text:
Troy Riley: Portrayed by Billy Brown. He is an agent with the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Riley was one of the FBI agents working the Joe Carroll case with Ryan Hardy. Maggie Kester stabs Riley to death after she is revealed to be another follower of the cult.
Jordy Raines: Portrayed by Steve Monroe. He is a security guard revealed to be a member of Carroll's cult. Once captured, he reveals more information than he intended and commits suicide in shame.
Deirdre Mitchell: Portrayed by Chinasa Ogbuagu. She is an FBI agent working with Hardy, Parker and Weston, mainly tracking and uncovering information about the cult on the computer.
Rick Kester: Portrayed by Michael Drayer. He is Maggie Kester's husband and one of Joe Carroll's followers. He is first seen attacking Ryan in Emma's old house. He later sets Stan Fellows, a literary critic who negatively reviewed Carroll's book, on fire by pouring gasoline on him. He helps Maggie trick the FBI into protecting her although her cover is blown when Jordy Raines gives her up by mistake. Rick helps her escape after she kills Troy Riley, but he is shot twice, fatally, by Ryan.
Molly: Portrayed by Jennifer Ferrin. Ryan's old girlfriend, she is revealed to be a follower of Carroll. She stabs Ryan and Claire at Ryan's apartment, but Ryan kills her.
Olivia Warren: Portrayed by Renée Elise Goldsberry. She reluctantly serves as Carroll's lawyer, and is forced to send messages out at Carroll's request. He kills her after she helps him escape from federal custody.

text:
Roderick: Portrayed by Warren Kole. Carroll's second-in-command, he helps gather the cult followers together. After running away with Joey, he is killed by another cult member.
Megan Leeds: Portrayed by Li Jun Li. She works at a convenience store near where Paul, Emma, and Jacob are holding Joey. Paul starts chatting her up looking for wine. After her shift, as they are making out, she tells Paul she doesn't want to have sex. But Paul does and keeps trying. She tries to get him to take her home, but he beats her against the car, knocking her out. He brings her back to the farmhouse, where Emma demands that Megan be killed. Eventually Megan convinces Jacob to let her go and runs out of the house but is caught and stabbed by Emma. Paul and Emma tie her up and lock her in the basement. Ryan finds Megan, and she begs to be let go. She is used as a bargaining chip to keep the FBI and Ryan under control once they invade the house Joey Matthews is being kept at. Megan is later set free.
Charlie Mead: Portrayed by Tom Lipinski. He is a follower of Carroll put in charge of keeping tabs on Carroll's ex-wife and Ryan's former lover, Claire. After failing Joe twice, Charlie allows Joe to kill him in penance.
Louise Sinclair: Portrayed by Annika Boras. One of Joe Carroll's followers. She helps him in his second escape from police custody by killing a bystander. She assists Roderick in kidnapping Mike Weston to get Claire's location. She assists Amanda Porter's murderous campaign of killing women named Claire Matthews. As the final Claire Matthews is in police custody, Sinclair shoots a police officer from behind to let Porter kill the last Claire Matthews. Ryan Hardy arrives and shoots Sinclair dead. He rescues the hostage and takes Porter into custody.
Nick Donovan: Portrayed by Mike Colter. He is an FBI agent in charge of the investigation of Joe Carroll and his cult following his second escape. Donovan appears in a press conference berating the current task force for letting Joe escape for a second time. He expresses disdain towards Ryan and calls him a "wild card". Later, a cult follower comes forward to take advantage of Ryan's offer to release any followers in exchange for information. However, as they turn their backs, Melissa takes out her hair needles and stabs Donovan in his right eye, attacking him from behind.

text:
Agent Gina Mendez: Portrayed by Valerie Cruz. She is put in charge of the FBI investigation that begins after the subway murders on the new/remaining cult members. She was in a past relationship with Jana Murphy, one of Joe's followers who used her relationship to help Joe. After Mendez discovered this, Jana stabs her but kills herself after Ryan and Mike catch her. Mendez survives and apologizes to Ryan. Mendez decides to leave the FBI after finding Theo Noble's wife dead, and children in a critical condition, stating that more people are being hurt than saved. In an attempt to lure Ryan out, Noble kidnaps Mendez, her wife and kids with Daisy Locke's help. Mendez's wife is non-fatally stabbed and her family escape.
Judy: Portrayed by Carrie Preston. A nonviolent groupie who wrote to Carroll while he was in prison. She lodges him after he goes into hiding after being "confirmed" dead. She believs she can "fix" him. However, a year after taking him in, she becomes increasingly suspicious and wary of Carroll, who no longer needs her help. Judy's daughter, Mandy, who has found in Carroll the father she never had, stabs her mother to death and flees with her newfound father figure.
Gisele: Portrayed by Camille De Pazzis. She is a follower of Lily Gray who, along with Luke and Mark, are responsible for the subway murders a year after Carroll's supposed death. She is Luke's girlfriend and is killed by Ryan after lying about killing Max.
Hopkins: Portrayed by Kyle Barisich. He is an FBI information and computer specialist and works with Agent Menedez, Mike Weston, and Agent Lawrence at the FBI's main headquarters for the Lily Gray case.
Agent Lawrence: Portrayed by Montego Glover. She is an FBI information and computer specialist and works with Agent Mendez, Mike Weston, and Hopkins at the FBI's main headquarters for the Lily Gray case.
Sami: Portrayed by Bambadjan Bamba. He and his twin Jamel are a part of Lily Gray's illegitimate family. He is killed by Ryan.
Radmilla: Portrayed by Rita Markova. She is Lily Gray's illegitimate daughter. She is killed by Joe.
Robert: Portrayed by Shane McRae. A Korban cult member initially involved with Micah and Julia. He assists Joe taking over Korban after killing Micah and Julia. After finding Claire, Robert is betrayed by Emma and killed.
Micah: Portrayed by Jake Weber. Is the leader of the Korban cult. After Joe manipulates him in killing his wife, Micah is poisoned by Joe after watching Joe's broadcast to the world.
Julia: Portrayed by Jacinda Barrett. Micah's wife and second-in-command of Korban. She is killed by Joe after she becomes unfaithful to her husband.

text:
Daisy Locke Portrayed by Ruth Kearney. A female serial killer student of Strauss and Kyle's wife. She is shot and killed by Max after working with Theo to kill Gina Mendez and her family.
Tom Reyes Portrayed by Gbenga Akinnagbe. An FBI Agent and Max's boyfriend. He keeps a bugged laptop to spy on Max and after being blackmailed is shot and killed by Theo Noble.
Erin Sloan Portrayed by Monique Gabriela Curnen. An FBI Agent tech analyst. Erin is close friends with Mike and Max. She is accidentally killed by Tom when she attempts to arrest him, thinking he was a mole.
Penny Tyler Portrayed by Megalyn Echikunwoke. The younger sister of Theo Noble. Like her brother, she is a sadistic serial killer. She is killed by Ryan, who shoots her when she attempts to escape.
Kyle Locke Portrayed by Hunter Parrish. The serial killer husband of Daisy. He is killed by Ryan and Mike.
Cindy Noble Portrayed by Susan Kelechi Watson. Theo's devoted wife who knows nothing of his serial killer lifestyle or of his sister's existence. Theo kills her and drugs their children to protect himself.
Eliza Portrayed by Annet Mahendru. Another one of Strauss's students. Eliza works for an unknown organization with humongous power.
Lisa Campbell Portrayed by Diane Neal. An FBI agent being blackmailed by Eliza to work as her mole. Ryan kills her for her betrayal.

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Aimee portrayed by Meredith Hagner
Sharon Cooper portrayed by Kate Hodge
Chief Burke portrayed by Albert Jones
Officer Marsden portrayed by Lisa Joyce
Maggie Kester portrayed by Virginia Kull
Jenny Hardy portrayed by Susan Misner
David Hicks portrayed by Arian Moayed: one of Carroll's followers who is shot in the leg and tortured by Ryan Hardy after helping Carroll escape. He commits suicide in an Interrogation Cell with a suicide pill concealed under the skin of his hand.
Brock Wickford portrayed by Tom Pelphrey
Vicky Gray portrayed by Joanna Rhinehart
Bo portrayed by Jacinto Riddick: responsible for kidnapping the daughter of the warden of the jail where Joe was being held. After meeting with Emma and Charlie, he is killed by Charlie.
Detective Warren portrayed by Michael Roark
Hank Flynn portrayed by Josh Segarra
Betty Vincent portrayed by Mandy Seigfried
Alex portrayed by Charlie Semine
Mrs. Welles portrayed by Jayne Atkinson: the mother of Jacob Welles.
Amanda Porter portrayed by Marin Ireland: One of Joe Carroll's followers, she and another follower, Louise Sinclair, begin killing women named Claire Matthews (the same name as Joe's ex-wife) to draw Ryan Hardy out. When Porter takes the last Claire Matthews hostage in a face-off with Ryan, she tells him that he needs a lesson for sleeping with Joe's wife. When Porter moves to shoot Hardy, he tackles her and frees the hostage. Porter is taken into custody.
Kate portrayed by Afton Williamson
Tyson portrayed by David Zayas
Phil Gray, portrayed by Kelly AuCoin
Daniel Monroe portrayed by Robert Bogue
Marshall Ferguson portrayed by Tom Degnan
Vincent McKinley portrayed by Christopher Denham
Dan Montero portrayed by Audrey Esparza

text:
Agent Phillips portrayed by James McDaniel
Barry portrayed by Keith Carradine
Carlos portrayed by J. D. Williams
Hannah portrayed by Susan Heyward
Reverend Glenn portrayed by C. J. Wilson
David portrayed by James McCaffrey
Jana portrayed by Leslie Bibb
Jamel portrayed by Hugues Faustin
Bella portrayed by Wendy Hoopes
Wendy Porter portrayed by Lexie Tompkins
Kurt Bowlin portrayed by Lee Tergesen
Lance portrayed by David Call
Mallory portrayed by Emily Kinney
Patrick portrayed by Theo Stockman
Carla portrayed by Kristina Klebe
(Young) Joe Carroll portrayed by Pico Alexander
Decklan portrayed by Tom Patrick Stephens
Serena portrayed by Florence Faivre
Jason portrayed by Connor Fox
Courtney portrayed by Kaija Matiss
Roman portrayed by Ezra Knight


document_title: Federal Emergency Management Agency

question_text: who does the director of fema report to

question_tokens: who does the director of fema report to

root

text: Federal Emergency Management Agency

text: History[edit]

text: Federal emergency management in the U.S. has existed in one form or another for over 200 years.[6]

tag: p

text: Prior to 1930s[edit]

text: A series of devastating fires struck the port city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, early in the 19th century. The 7th U.S. Congress passed a measure in 1803 that provided relief for Portsmouth merchants by extending the time they had for remitting tariffs on imported goods. This is widely considered the first piece of legislation passed by the federal government that provided relief after a disaster.[7]

text: Between 1803 and 1930, ad hoc legislation was passed more than 100 times for relief or compensation after a disaster. Examples include the waiving of duties and tariffs to the merchants of New York City after the Great Fire of New York (1835). After the collapse of the John T. Ford's Theater in June 1893, the 54th Congress passed legislation compensating those who were injured in the building.[8]

text: Piecemeal approach (1930s–1960s)[edit]

text: After the start of the Great Depression in 1929, President Herbert Hoover had commissioned the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932.[9] The purpose of the RFC was to lend money to banks and institutions to stimulate economic activity. RFC was also responsible for dispensing federal dollars in the wake of a disaster. RFC can be considered the first organized federal disaster response agency.

text: The Bureau of Public Roads in 1934 was given authority to finance the reconstruction of highways and roads after a disaster. The Flood Control Act of 1944 also gave the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers authority over flood control and irrigation projects and thus played a major role in disaster recovery from flooding.[citation needed]

text: Department of Housing and Urban Development (1973–1979)[edit]

text: Federal disaster relief and recovery was brought under the umbrella of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), in 1973 by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1973,[10] and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration was created as an organizational unit within the department. This agency would oversee disasters until its incorporation into FEMA in 1978.[10]

text: Prior to implementation of Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 by E.O. 12127 and E.O. 12148, many government agencies were still involved in disaster relief; in some cases, more than 100 separate agencies might be jockeying for control and jurisdiction of a disaster.[11]

text: Over the years, Congress increasingly extended the range of covered categories for assistance, and several presidential executive orders did the same. By enacting these various forms of legislative direction, Congress established a category for annual budgetary amounts of assistance to victims of various types of hazards or disasters, it specified the qualifications, and then it established or delegated the responsibilities to various federal and non-federal agencies.[12]

text: In time, this expanded array of agencies themselves underwent reorganization. One of the first such federal agencies was the Federal Civil Defense Administration, which operated within the Executive Office of the President. Functions to administer disaster relief were then given to the President himself, who delegated to the Housing and Home Finance Administration. Subsequently, a new office of the Office of Defense Mobilization was created. Then, the new Office of Defense and Civilian Mobilization, managed by the EOP; after that, the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization, which renamed the former agency; then, the Office of Civil Defense, under the Department of Defense (DoD); the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW); the Department of Agriculture; the Office of Emergency Planning (OEmP); the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (replacing the OCD in the DoD); the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the General Services Administration (GSA) (upon termination of the OEmP).[12]

text: These actions demonstrated that, during those years, the nation's domestic preparedness was addressed by several disparate legislative actions, motivated by policy and budgetary earmarking, and not by a single, unifying, comprehensive strategy to meet the nation's needs over time.[13] Then, in 1978 an effort was made to consolidate the several singular functions; FEMA was created to house civil defense and disaster preparedness under one roof. This was a very controversial decision.[12]

text: FEMA as an independent agency (1979–2003)[edit]

text: FEMA was established under the 1978 Reorganization Plan No. 3, and activated April 1, 1979, by President Jimmy Carter in an Executive Order.

text: In July, Carter signed Executive Order 12148 shifting disaster relief efforts to the new federal-level agency. FEMA absorbed the Federal Insurance Administration, the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, the National Weather Service Community Preparedness Program, the Federal Preparedness Agency of the General Services Administration and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration activities from HUD. FEMA was also given the responsibility for overseeing the nation's Civil Defense, a function which had previously been performed by the Department of Defense's Defense Civil Preparedness Agency.

text: One of the disasters FEMA responded to was the dumping of toxic waste into Love Canal in Niagara Falls, New York, in the late 1970s. FEMA also responded to the Three Mile Island nuclear accident where the nuclear-generating station suffered a partial core meltdown. These disasters, while showing the agency could function properly, also uncovered some inefficiencies.[citation needed]

text: In 1993, President Bill Clinton appointed James Lee Witt as FEMA Director. In 1996, the agency was elevated to cabinet rank.[14] This was not continued by President George W. Bush.[15] Witt initiated reforms that would help to streamline the disaster recovery and mitigation process. The end of the Cold War also allowed the agency's resources to be turned away from civil defense to natural disaster preparedness.[11]

text: After FEMA's creation through reorganization and executive orders, Congress continued to expand FEMA's authority by assigning responsibilities to it. Those responsibilities include dam safety under the National Dam Safety Program Act; disaster assistance under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act; earthquake hazards reduction under the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 and further expanded by Executive Order 12699, regarding safety requirements for federal buildings and Executive Order 12941, concerning the need for cost estimates to seismically retrofit federal buildings; emergency food and shelter under the Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act of 1987; hazardous materials, under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986;

text: In addition, FEMA received authority for counterterrorism through the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici amendment under the Weapons of Mass Destruction Act of 1996, which was a response to the recognized vulnerabilities of the U.S. after the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in 1995.[13]

text: Congress funded FEMA through a combination of regular appropriations and emergency funding in response to events.[16]

text: FEMA under Department of Homeland Security (2003–present)[edit]

text: Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Congress passed the Homeland Security Act of 2002, which created the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to better coordinate among the different federal agencies that deal with law enforcement, disaster preparedness and recovery, border protection and civil defense. FEMA was absorbed into DHS effective March 1, 2003. As a result, FEMA became part of the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate of Department of Homeland Security, employing more than 2,600 full-time employees. It became the Federal Emergency Management Agency again on March 31, 2007, but remained in DHS.

text: President Bush appointed Michael D. Brown as FEMA's director in January 2003. Brown warned in September 2003 that FEMA's absorption into DHS would make a mockery of FEMA's new motto, "A Nation Prepared", and would "fundamentally sever FEMA from its core functions", "shatter agency morale" and "break longstanding, effective and tested relationships with states and first responder stakeholders". The inevitable result of the reorganization of 2003, warned Brown, would be "an ineffective and uncoordinated response" to a terrorist attack or a natural disaster.[17]

text: Hurricane Katrina in 2005 demonstrated that the vision of further unification of functions and another reorganization could not address the problems FEMA had previously faced. The "Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina", released February 15, 2006, by the U.S. Government Printing Office, revealed that federal funding to states for "all hazards" disaster preparedness needs was not awarded unless the local agencies made the purposes for the funding a "just terrorism" function.[18] Emergency management professionals testified that funds for preparedness for natural hazards were given less priority than preparations for counter-terrorism measures. Testimony also expressed the opinion that the mission to mitigate vulnerability and prepare for natural hazard disasters before they occurred had been separated from disaster preparedness functions, making the nation more vulnerable to known hazards, like hurricanes.[19]

text: In fall 2008, FEMA took over coordination of the Ready Campaign, the national public service advertising (PSA) campaign in collaboration with the Ad Council to educate and empower Americans to prepare for and respond to emergencies including natural and man-made disasters. The Ready Campaign and its Spanish language version Listo asks individuals to do three things: build an emergency supply kit,[20] make a family emergency plan[21] and be informed about the different types of emergencies that can occur and how to respond.[22] The campaign messages have been promoted through television, radio, print, outdoor and web PSAs,[23] as well as brochures, toll-free phone lines and the English and Spanish language websites.

text: Organization[edit]

text: During the debate of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, some called for FEMA to remain as an independent agency. Later, following the failed response to Hurricane Katrina, critics called for FEMA to be removed from the Department of Homeland Security.[24] Today FEMA exists as a major agency of the Department of Homeland Security. The Administrator for Federal Emergency Management reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security. In March 2003, FEMA joined 22 other federal agencies, programs and offices in becoming the Department of Homeland Security. The new department, headed by Secretary Tom Ridge, brought a coordinated approach to national security from emergencies and disasters – both natural and man-made.

text: FEMA manages the National Flood Insurance Program. Other programs FEMA previously administered have since been internalized or shifted under direct DHS control.

text: FEMA is also home to the National Continuity Programs Directorate (formerly the Office of National Security Coordination). ONSC was responsible for developing, exercising, and validating agency-wide continuity of operations and continuity of government plans as well as overseeing and maintaining continuity readiness including the Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center. ONSC also coordinated the continuing efforts of other Federal Executive Agencies.

text: FEMA began administering the Center for Domestic Preparedness in 2007.

text: Budget[edit]

text: FEMA has an annual budget of $13 billion[2] that is used and distributed in different states according to the emergencies that occur in each one. An annual list of the use of these funds is disclosed at the end of the year on FEMA's website.[25][26][27][28]

text: Regions[edit]

text:
Regional map[29]

Region I, Boston, MA – Serving CT, MA, ME, NH, RI, VT
Region II, New York, NY Serving NJ, NY, PR, USVI
Region III, Philadelphia, PA Serving DC, DE, MD, PA, VA, WV
Region IV, Atlanta, GA Serving AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN
Region V, Chicago, IL Serving IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI
Region VI, Denton, TX Serving AR, LA, NM, OK, TX
Region VII, Kansas City, MO Serving IA, KS, MO, NE
Region VIII, Denver, CO Serving CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY
Region IX, Oakland, CA Serving AZ, CA, HI, NV, GU, AS, CNMI, RMI, FM
Region IX, PAO Serving AS, CNMI, GU, HI
Region X, Bothell, WA Serving AK, ID, OR, WA

tag: ul

text: Pre-disaster mitigation programs[edit]

text: FEMA's Mitigation Directorate[30] is responsible for programs that take action before a disaster, in order to identify risks and reduce injuries, loss of property, and recovery time.[31] The agency has major analysis programs for floods, hurricanes and tropical storms, dams, and earthquakes.[31][32]

text: FEMA works to ensure affordable flood insurance is available to homeowners in flood plains, through the National Flood Insurance Program, and also works to enforce no-build zones in known flood plains and relocate or elevate some at-risk structures.[33]

text: Pre-Disaster Mitigation grants are available to acquire property for conversion to open space, retrofit existing buildings, construct tornado and storm shelters, manage vegetation for erosion and fire control, and small flood control projects.[34]

text: The safe room construction plans and specifications from FEMA P-320, Taking Shelter From the Storm, are available in pdf and .dwg format.[35]

text: Response capabilities[edit]

text: FEMA's emergency response is based on small, decentralized teams trained in such areas as the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS), Urban Search and Rescue (USAR), Disaster Mortuary Operations Response Team (DMORT), Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT), and Mobile Emergency Response Support (MERS).

text: National Response Coordination Center (NRCC)[edit]

text: FEMA's National Response Coordination Center (NRCC) is a multiagency center located at FEMA HQ that coordinates the overall Federal support for major disasters and emergencies, including catastrophic incidents in support of operations at the regional level. The FEMA Administrator,[36] or his or her delegate, activates the NRCC in anticipation of, or in response to, an incident by activating the NRCC staff, which includes FEMA personnel, the appropriate Emergency Support Functions, and other appropriate personnel (including nongovernmental organization and private sector representatives). During the initial stages of a response, FEMA will, as part of the whole community, focus on projected, potential, or escalating critical incident activities. The NRCC coordinates with the affected region(s) and provides needed resources and policy guidance in support of incident-level operations. The NRCC staff specifically provides emergency management coordination, planning, resource deployment, and collects and disseminates incident information as it builds and maintains situational awareness—all at the national-level.[37] FEMA maintains the NRCC as a functional component of the NOC for incident support operations.[38][39]

text: An example of NRCC activity is the coordination of emergency management activities that took place in connection with the 2013 Colorado floods.[40]

text: National Disaster Medical System (NDMS)[edit]

text: This section may stray from the topic of the article. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page.

tag: table

text: The National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) was transferred from the Department of Homeland Security to the Department of Health and Human Services, under the Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act, signed by President George W. Bush, on December 18, 2006.

text: NDMS is made of teams that provide medical and allied care to disaster victims. These teams include doctors, nurses, pharmacists, etc., and are typically sponsored by hospitals, public safety agencies or private organizations. Also, Rapid Deployment Force (RDF) teams, composed of officers of the Commissioned Corps of the United States Public Health Service, were developed to assist with the NDMS.

text: Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMAT) provide medical care at disasters and are typically made up of doctors and paramedics. There are also National Nursing Response Teams (NNRT), National Pharmacy Response Teams (NPRT) and Veterinary Medical Assistance Teams (VMAT). Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams (DMORT) provide mortuary and forensic services. National Medical Response Teams (NMRT) are equipped to decontaminate victims of chemical and biological agents.

text: Urban Search and Rescue (US&R)[edit]

text: The Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces perform rescue of victims from structural collapses, confined spaces, and other disasters, for example, mine collapses and earthquakes.

text: Mobile Emergency Response Support (MERS)[edit]

text: These teams provide communications support to local public safety. For instance, they may operate a truck with satellite uplink, computers, telephone, and power generation at a staging area near a disaster so that the responders can communicate with the outside world. There are also Mobile Air Transportable Telecommunications System (MATTS) assets which can be airlifted in. Also, portable cell phone towers can be erected to allow local responders to access telephone systems.

text: Preparedness for nuclear incidents[edit]

text: On August 1, 2008, FEMA had released "Planning Guidance for Protection and Recovery Following Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) incidents"[41] which indicate action guide in case of radioactive contamination. This Notice is specified as action guide for Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) involving high levels of radiation. According to the Federation of American Scientists, during the Cold War FEMA prepared assessments of the likely consequences of a full-scale Soviet nuclear attack on the United States for use in planning mitigation and recovery efforts.[42]

text: Training[edit]

text: FEMA offers a large number of training classes, either at its own centers, through programs at the state level, in cooperation with colleges and universities, or online. The latter are free classes available to anyone, although only those with U.S. residency or work eligibility can take the final examinations. More information is available on the FEMA website under the "Emergency Personnel" and "Training" subheadings. Other emergency response information for citizens is also available at its website.

text: FEMA runs the Incident Workforce Academy, a two-week emergency preparedness training program for FEMA employees. The first class of the academy graduated in early 2014.[43]

text: The Training and Education Division within FEMA's National Integration Center directly funds training for responders and provides guidance on training-related expenditures under FEMA's grant programs. Information on designing effective training for first responders is available from the Training and Education Division. Emergency managers and other interested members of the public can take independent study courses for certification at FEMA's online Emergency Management Institute.

text: Emergency Management Institute training and certifications[edit]

text: EMI offers credentials and training opportunities for United States Citizens. Note that students do not have to be employed by FEMA or be a federal employee for some of the programs.[44]

text: EMI maintains a strategic partnerships with Frederick Community College. FCC has contracted with the Emergency Management Institute to provide college credit for the Independent Study Program (ISP). FCC offers eight specialized Letters of Recognition, an Undergraduate Certificate, and an Associate of Applied Science degree in Emergency Management.[45]

text: FEMA Corps[edit]

text: FEMA Corps, who range in age from 18 to 24 years old, is a cadre dedicated to disaster response and recovery. It is a new partnership between The Corporation for National and Community Service's AmeriCorps NCCC and FEMA.[46] The Corps described as a "dedicated, trained, and reliable disaster workforce" works full-time for 10 months on federal disaster response and recovery efforts. Over 150 members of the inaugural FEMA Corps class graduated in June 2013, at the AmeriCorps NCCC campus in Vicksburg, Mississippi. The Corps work on teams of 8 to 12 people and follow the traditional NCCC model of living together and traveling together. In addition to working with FEMA, corps members must perform AmeriCorps responsibilities such as Physical Training three times a week, National Days of Service, and Individual Service Projects in communities throughout the United States. The Corps receives $4.75 a day for food and a living stipend of approximately $4,000 over 10 months. An education award is distributed to corps members who successfully serve 10 months of service, completing 1,700 total hours.[47]

text: Donations management[edit]

text: FEMA has led a Public-Private Partnership in creating a National Donations Management Program making it easier for corporations or individuals not previously engaged to make offers of free assistance to States and the Federal Government in times of disaster. The program is a partnership among FEMA, relief agencies, corporations/corporate associations and participating state governments. The technical backbone of the program is an online technology solution called The Aidmatrix Network which is managed by the independent nonprofit organization, Aidmatrix.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Hurricane Andrew – 1992[edit]

text: In August 1992, Hurricane Andrew struck the Florida and Louisiana coasts with 165 mph (265 km/h) sustained winds. FEMA was widely criticized for its response to Andrew, summed up by the famous exclamation, "Where in the hell is the cavalry on this one?" by Kate Hale, emergency management director for Dade County, Florida. FEMA and the federal government at large were accused of not responding fast enough to house, feed and sustain the approximately 250,000 people left homeless in the affected areas. Within five days the federal government and neighboring states had dispatched 20,000 National Guard and active duty troops to South Dade County to set up temporary housing. This event and FEMA's performance was reviewed by the National Academy of Public Administration in its February 1993 report "Coping With Catastrophe" which identified several basic paradigms in Emergency Management and FEMA administration that were causes of the failed response.

text: FEMA had previously been criticized for its response to Hurricane Hugo, which hit South Carolina in September 1989, and many of the same issues that plagued the agency during Hurricane Andrew were also evident during the response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005.

text: Additionally, upon incorporation into DHS, FEMA was legally dissolved and a new Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate was established in DHS to replace it. Following enactment of the Post Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 FEMA was reestablished as an entity within DHS, on March 31, 2007.

text: Southern Florida Hurricanes – 2004[edit]

text: South Florida newspaper Sun-Sentinel has an extensive list of documented criticisms of FEMA during the four hurricanes that hit the region in 2004.[48] Some of the criticisms include:

text: When Hurricane Frances hit South Florida on Labor Day weekend (over 100 miles north of Miami-Dade County), 9,800 Miami-Dade applicants were approved by FEMA for $21 million in storm claims for new furniture; clothes; thousands of new televisions, microwaves and refrigerators; cars; dental bills; and a funeral even though the Medical Examiner recorded no deaths from Frances. A U.S. Senate committee and the inspector general of the Department of Homeland Security found that FEMA inappropriately declared Miami-Dade county a disaster area and then awarded millions, often without verifying storm damage or a need for assistance.[49][50]

text: FEMA used hurricane aid money to pay funeral expenses for at least 203 Floridians whose deaths were not caused by the 2004 hurricanes, the state's coroners have concluded. Ten of the people whose funerals were paid for were not in Florida at the time of their deaths.[51]

text: Hurricane Katrina – 2005[edit]

text: FEMA received intense criticism for its response to the Hurricane Katrina disaster in August 2005. FEMA had pre-positioned response personnel in the Gulf Coast region. However, many could not render direct assistance and were only able to report on the dire situation along the Gulf Coast, especially from New Orleans. Within three days, a large contingent of National Guard and active duty troops were deployed to the region.

text: The enormous number of evacuees simply overwhelmed rescue personnel. The situation was compounded by flood waters in the city that hampered transportation and poor communication among the federal government, state, and local entities. FEMA was widely criticized for what is seen as a slow initial response to the disaster and an inability to effectively manage, care for, and move those who were trying to leave the city.

text: Then-FEMA Director Michael D. Brown was criticized personally for a slow response and an apparent disconnection with the situation. Michael Brown would eventually be relieved of command of the Katrina disaster and soon thereafter resigned.

text: Katrina was seen as the first major test of the nation's new disaster response plan under DHS. It is widely held[by whom?] that many things did not function as planned.

text: According to the U.S. House of Representatives Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina:[52]

text:
"The Secretary Department of Homeland Security should have designated the Principal Federal Official on Saturday, two days prior to landfall, from the roster of PFOs who had successfully completed the required training, unlike then FEMA Director Michael Brown. Considerable confusion was caused by the Secretary's PFO decisions."
"DHS and FEMA lacked adequate trained and experienced staff for the Katrina response."
"The readiness of FEMA's national emergency response teams was inadequate and reduced the effectiveness of the federal response."
"Long-standing weaknesses and the magnitude of the disaster overwhelmed FEMA's ability to provide emergency shelter and temporary housing."
"FEMA logistics and contracting systems did not support a targeted, massive, and sustained provision of commodities."
"Before Katrina, FEMA suffered from a lack of sufficiently trained procurement professionals."

text: Other failings were also noted. The Committee devoted an entire section of the report to listing the actions of FEMA.[53] Their conclusion was:

text: For years emergency management professionals have been warning that FEMA's preparedness has eroded. Many believe this erosion is a result of the separation of the preparedness function from FEMA, the drain of long-term professional staff along with their institutional knowledge and expertise, and the inadequate readiness of FEMA's national emergency response teams. The combination of these staffing, training, and organizational structures made FEMA's inadequate performance in the face of a disaster the size of Katrina all but inevitable.[53]

text: Pursuant to a temporary restraining order issued by Hon. Stanwood R. Duval, United States District Court Judge, Eastern District of Louisiana as a result of the McWaters v. FEMA class-action, February 7, 2006 was set as the deadline for the official end of any further coverage of temporary housing costs for Katrina victims.[54][55]

text: After the February 7 deadline, Katrina victims were left to their own devices either to find permanent housing for the long term or to continue in social welfare programs set up by other organizations. There were many Katrina evacuees living in temporary shelters or trailer parks set up by FEMA and other relief organizations in the first months after the disaster hit, but much more were still unable to find housing.

text: In July 2007, ice that had been ordered for Katrina victims but had never been used and kept in storage facilities, at a cost of $12.5 million, was melted down.[56]

text: In June 2008, a CNN investigation found that FEMA gave away about $85 million in household goods meant for Hurricane Katrina victims to 16 other states.[57]

text: Buffalo snowstorm – 2006[edit]

text: FEMA came under attack for their response to the October Surprise Storm on October 13, 2006, in Buffalo, New York. As FEMA legally cannot interfere with state business unless asked, FEMA responded that as per procedure, the Governor of the state of New York had not asked for FEMA's assistance. FEMA Headquarters had been in constant contact with State congressional offices providing them with the latest information available. Claims state that FEMA officials did not arrive until October 16, three days after the storm hit. The snowstorm damage by this time included downed power wires, downed trees, and structural damage to homes and businesses.[58]

text: Dumas, Arkansas, tornadoes –  2007[edit]

text: Many people of Dumas, Arkansas, especially victims of February 24, 2007 tornadoes, criticized FEMA's response in not supplying the number of new trailers they needed, and only sending a set of used trailers, lower than the needed quantity. Following the storm, U.S Senator Mark Pryor had criticized FEMA's response to the recovery and cleanup efforts.[59]

text: California wildfires –  2007[edit]

text: FEMA came under intense criticism when it was revealed that a press conference on the October 2007 California wildfires was staged. Deputy Administrator Harvey E. Johnson was answering questions from FEMA employees who were posing as reporters. Many of these questions were "softball" questions (i.e., "Are you happy with FEMA's response so far?"), intentionally asked in a way that would evoke a positive response giving the impression that FEMA was doing everything right. In this way, any scrutiny from real reporters (many of whom were only given a 15-minute notice) would have been avoided. Fox News, MSNBC, and other media outlets aired the staged press briefing live.[60] Real reporters were notified only 15 minutes in advance and were only able to call into a conference line, which was set to "listen-only" mode. The only people there were primarily FEMA public affairs employees.[61]

text: Hurricane Maria – 2017[edit]

text: In September 2017, Hurricane Maria struck Dominica and Puerto Rico with 175 mph (280 km/h) sustained winds. Maria was the fifth-strongest storm to ever strike the United States with stronger winds than those brought by Irma and similar rain brought to Huston by Hurricane Harvey.[62] Despite FEMA's preemptive efforts in Puerto Rico, the island was still devastated beyond expectation. The agency had prepared some provisions for displaced residents before the storm stuck, including: roughly 124 FEMA staff members being positioned on the island, food, water, and bedding.[62] However, people reported the FEMA food packages were unhealthy snacks such as the confectionery Skittles.[63] FEMA was widely criticized for its response to Maria, as the island quickly fell into a humanitarian crisis.[64][65]

text: The island also experienced a massive loss of power as a result of flood and wind damage sustained during Maria. In the beginning of October 2017, Lieutenant General Todd Semonite, chief and commanding general of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, explained the extent of and necessity of aid for this power crisis. Semonite described some specifics of the outage to reporters, explaining that the island requires "2,700 megawatts of electricity to operate and at last count had 376 megawatts available." This translates to about 14 percent of the grid being functional.[66]

text: FEMA Administrator William "Brock" Long told reporters in a briefing following the storm that Puerto Rico politics had hindered the ability of the federal government to send aid. He explained that political divisions had prevented unity for leaders in this time of crisis, describing that their issue was "even worse" than the mainland United States' issue between Democrats and Republicans. Residents, in some cases, were required to fill out paperwork in English rather than Spanish with little to no hope of receiving the aid they had requested. [66]

text: Brigadier General Jose Reyes of the Puerto Rico National Guard discussed a strategy to quicken the arrival of resources via the Port of Ponce, located on the southern coast of Puerto Rico.[67] Reyes also attributed the delay in these services to the unprecedented series of storms that demanded attention from the agency within a short period of time. Regarding this, General Reyes told reporters " We were not even getting back on our feet after Irma, then suddenly we got hit by Maria." He also addressed the disparities between aid sent to mainland disaster stricken areas and Puerto Rico, explaining that in areas such as Florida and Texas, who had recently struck with similar damages, transportation of resources is relatively simpler. This is because they are able to utilize infrastructure to transport aid. Transporting similar resources to Puerto Rico has proved to be more difficult, as they must travel across the ocean, either in aircraft or in ships. [66] Long also mentioned that Puerto Rico's international airport was not able to operate at full capacity, which posed an additional obstacle for federal aid imports.

text: Hurricane Harvey – 2017[edit]

text: Hurricane Harvey made landfall in late August 2017, as a Category 4 Hurricane. The Hurricane predominantly affected southeast Texas; however, its affects were felt as far as Arkansas, Kentucky, and Tennessee in the form of flash flooding.[68] Harvey slowly progressed around southeast Texas, where it produced heavy precipitation over the region. This caused heavy flooding in residential areas such as Colorado City, Liberty, and Montgomery, Texas.[68] [69]

text: Harvey was the first of a series of hurricanes and tropical storms to affect the United States between August and September 2017. The effects of these storms included extreme flooding, damage from high speed winds, structural damage, and humanitarian concerns regarding the availability of basic necessities such as food, water, and shelter. [70] [71] The proximity in which these storms took place created an issue for FEMA representatives as they were flooded with claims to address. The representatives who have been addressing these claims have been struggling to do so in a timely manner. FEMA struggled with the inspection of damaged property in the affected areas, consequently delaying residents' process of rebuilding and repairing their homes and businesses.[citation needed]

text: Some recipients were forced to wait up to two months before receiving aid from FEMA, as technical complications held up both their application for it and the processing of said applications. Some residents were denied Federal Aid and have to dispute their denial in efforts to rebuild and repair properties without taking a considerably large financial loss.[72]

text: Federalism and FEMA[edit]

text: The costs of a disaster to states and localities can pile up quickly. Federal assistance becomes fully available with the approval of the President and at the request of the governor. Public help for governments to repair facilities is 75% federally funded with local governments responsible for covering the rest (unless the state grants aid or loans). FEMA does not compensate for buildings that have been improperly maintained by the state or local government nor does it pay to upgrade or improve facilities. FEMA coordinates but does not fund disaster assistance provided by the Small Business Administration or the Farmers Home Administration. FEMA grant-in aid funds come from revenue sharing, the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Department of Transportation. Grants for disaster preparedness can be used by flood control districts.[73]

text: Many states have disaster relief agencies of their own. In the event of a disaster outside of a state's operating capacity, the director of said agency will advise the Governor whether or not to proclaim a state of emergency. Declaring a state of emergency, upon Presidential approval, entitles a state to federal assistance. It is important to note that proclaiming a state of emergency does not guarantee federal assistance. States also rely on mutual aid agreements, such as the Civil Defense and Disaster Compact. A mutual aid agreement can be between neighboring states, cities, counties and cities, states and cities or an entire region. These agreements allow agencies to share resources so they are better prepared for emergencies.[74]

text: Local governments have the most immediate responsibility. Four factors shape local disaster response: 1) the extent of tax base depletion 2) the scope of lost sales tax revene 3) access to other forms of revenue 4) amount of city debt Having a mostly intact tax base allows local governments to maintain steady revenue stream. Business unharmed by a disaster will be able to continue to generate sales tax revenue. Cities with access to large revenue reserves and strong mutual aid agreements will have greater response capacity. While cities with large municipal debt that would be unable to pay back state or federal loans would be in a difficult situation. [75]

text: USA v. Parish of Jefferson et al[edit]

text: This case gave FEMA the right to sue in order to recover funds paid out in flood insurance claims for flood damage as a result of poor decisions by local officials and developers. The case also gave FEMA the power to sue localities who fail to meet flood plain management requirements. [75]

text: List of FEMA heads[edit]

text:
Agency Director
From
To

James S. Hafer
May-1975
Apr-1979

text:
Agency Director
From
To

Gordon Vickery (Acting)
Apr-1979
Jul-1979

Thomas Casey (Acting)
Jul-1979
Aug-1979

John Macy
Aug-1979
Jan-1981

Bernard Gallagher (Acting)
Jan-1981
Apr-1981

John W. McConnell (Acting)
Apr-1981
May-1981

Louis O. Giuffrida
May-1981
Sep-1985

Robert H. Morris (Acting)
Sep-1985
Nov-1985

Julius W. Becton, Jr.
Nov-1985
Jun-1989

Robert H. Morris (Acting)
Jun-1989
May-1990

Jerry D. Jennings (Acting)
May-1990
Aug-1990

Wallace E. Stickney
Aug-1990
Jan-1993

William C. Tidball (Acting)
Jan-1993
Apr-1993

James Lee Witt
Apr-1993
Jan-2001

John Magaw (Acting)
Jan-2001
Feb-2001

Joe M. Allbaugh
Feb-2001
Mar-2003

text:
Agency Undersecretary
From
To

Michael D. Brown
Mar-2003
Sep-2005

R. David Paulison (Acting)
Sep-2005
June-2006

text:
Agency Undersecretary
From
To

R. David Paulison
June-2006
Mar-2007

text:
Agency Administrator
From
To

R. David Paulison
Mar-2007
Jan-2009

Nancy L. Ward (Acting)
Jan-2009
May-2009

Craig Fugate
May-2009
Jan-2017

Robert Fenton (Acting)
Jan-2017
Jun-2017

Brock Long
Jun-2017
present