document_title: Temperance "Bones" Brennan

question_text: in what episode do booth and brennan get together

text: Temperance "Bones" Brennan

text: Character history[edit]

text: Temperance "Bones" Brennan is a forensic anthropologist who works in the Medico-Legal lab at the Jeffersonian Institute in Washington, D.C. She received her Ph.D. from Northwestern University, as stated in "The Girl in the Fridge". She has three doctorates, as referred to by Dr. Jack Hodgins in the episode "The Parts of the Sum in the Whole", in anthropology, forensic anthropology and kinesiology; it is implied that most of her work at the lab was related to either long-dead bodies or victims of genocide.[5][6]

text: Her occasional contract work for the FBI shifted the focus of her work.[6] She was paired with FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth, and helped to solve two difficult cases;[5][6] since then, they have worked together almost exclusively on modern-day murder cases.

text: Brennan works with a group of other well-qualified colleagues, including the entomologist Jack Hodgins, her boss and forensic pathologist Camille Saroyan, forensic artist Angela Montenegro, and a host of eager graduate students. Booth refers to her crew of colleagues as "squints", because they come to crime scenes and squint at evidence. He is also responsible for her nickname, "Bones", which she initially detested.[5]

text: In the first-season finale (which aired on May 17, 2006), Brennan stated that she was born in 1976,[7] which would have made her either 29 or 30 (approximately the same age as Deschanel, who was born on October 11, 1976). In the fifth-season episode "The Death of the Queen Bee" (which aired nearly four years later, on April 15, 2010), it is implied that her then-current age was 33 years (based on Brennan's identification of a former high school classmate as the victim and statement that the classmate was 33).

text: First mentioned in season 1, Brennan has a love of dolphins, which she shared with her late mother: in the season one finale, "The Woman in Limbo", Brennan examines a custom-made belt with a dolphin on the buckle, which had belonged to her mother, and which she mentions having once borrowed without asking first. Brennan's love of dolphins is highlighted again in season 2 episodes "The Titan on the Tracks", "The Killer in the Concrete" and "Stargazer in a Puddle", when she mentions the constellation Delphinus, (the Dolphin), her and her mother's favorite. In season 6, "The Doctor in the Photo", she is shown to wear a dolphin ring.

text: In "Mummy in the Maze", Brennan exhibited ophidiophobia when confronted with snakes, but later only shows a moment of fright when confronted with another snake in "The Mastodon in the Room". She takes note of this, voicing her observation that she only seems to lose her head around snakes when Booth is also "there to be jumped upon", and also she mentions that she once had a pet snake during high school. It should also be noted that, in "The Man in the Morgue," Brennan handled a snake without any trace of fear, even while Booth is in the room.

text: In season one, in "A Man on Death Row", Dr. Brennan expresses her stance on the death penalty; "I believe in the death penalty. There are certain people who shouldn't be in this world. The people who hacked hundreds of innocent children to death in Rwanda; beheaded them at their desks at school! The people who did that, they should be executed." In "The Woman at the Airport", Dr. Brennan is shown to have a strong dislike for plastic surgeons, believing them to be no more than "glorified butchers with medical degrees", and this dislike is voiced again in season 4, in "Cinderella in the Cardboard". In "The Woman in the Car", Dr. Brennan reveals that her third doctorate is in kinesiology, a field that would allow her and Angela to unravel how one of the bodies that had been found had been killed.

text: In season two, she expressed the desire to get a pet pig, whom she would have named "Jasper". Brennan's expertise in kinesiology would again prove its worth in "The Truth in the Lye" (she could tell that one of the murder suspects was pregnant just from having observed her gait), in "The Girl with the Curl" (she could tell if one of the young beauty pageant contestants was suffering from scoliosis just by watching them perform on stage), and in "The Woman in the Sand" (while undercover with Booth, she was able to tell Booth exactly how to beat his opponent from just having watched his moves). In "Judas on a Pole", she and her brother are identified as having the same blood type, blood type O. In "Glowing Bones in the Old Stone House", she is shown to be a good cook: Booth's comment on her mac and cheese is that he'd "like to be alone with it".

text: In the season 3 episode, "Mummy in the Maze", it is revealed that Brennan's favorite superhero is Wonder Woman, and that she always goes as Wonder Woman to the Jeffersonian's Halloween party. In "The Baby in the Bough", it is revealed that Brennan is a registered foster parent, at her brother's request, to take in his stepdaughters in case anything should happen to him and his girlfriend. In the season 3 episode, "Intern in the Incinerator", Booth reveals that Brennan's favorite flower is a Daffodil, her second favorite flower is a Daisy, and her favorite planet is Jupiter.

text: In season 5, in "The Death of the Queen Bee", when asked if she'd had a pet rat, Brennan discloses that she, in fact, had a pet mouse, snake and some spiders. During her time at Burtonsville high school, her only friend was the school custodian, Ray Buxley, with whom she would enjoy long, in-depth conversations on life and death, and who would also provide her with dead animals to dissect (Brennan having set out to become a forensic anthropologist,) and who would later be one of her books' biggest fans (she having named the killer in her first book, Bred in the Bone, after him). According to the Burtonsville high school on-line yearbook entry on Brennan, in her senior year, she was a member of the Chemistry club and Math club, her interests were chemistry and mathematics, and she was a National Merit Scholar and an Academic All Star.

text: In the season 6 episode, "The Blackout in the Blizzard", Brennan mentions her pet iguana for the first time. This same episode show that one of the number of scientific publications that Brennan reads is Medicinal Physics Quarterly, with one article on electrostatics and triboluminescence proving useful during the lab's power outage. Further concerning her pet iguana in "The Truth in the Myth", as a part of his rehab from alcohol abuse, Vincent Nigel-Murry made apologies for, among other things, having borrowed her iguana one night, wearing him as a hat for a party. She comments that he must have taken good care of her iguana as she has observed nothing wrong with him and further expresses some surprise that Vincent Nigel-Murry was able to get her iguana to stay perched atop his head, to which he replies that he was good with ribbons.

text: In season 8, "The Tiger in the Tale", Booth mentions to Sweets that Dr. Brennan once took Peyote with Native Americans.

text: In season 11, "The Senator in the Street Sweeper", Dr. Brennan is mentioned to be a member of the Green Party of the United States along with Dr. Hodgins.

text: Family and early life[edit]

text: Although Brennan seemed to have a relatively normal childhood, her parents disappeared when she was 15 years old.[8] Her older brother Russ, himself still an adolescent, was unable to care for her and she was put in the foster care system. By the time she started college she had been to twelve different schools and has specifically said that she hated the lack of consistency.[9]

text: There has been contradictory evidence about her time in the system; in one episode, Brennan stated that her grandfather got her out of the foster system,[10] but in a later episode, she indicates that she never knew her grandparents (possibly the two references are to two separate sets of grandparents, paternal and maternal).[11] However, taking into consideration the fact that Brennan's parents had assumed new identities when she was 3-years-old, the grandfather who had taken her in from her time in the foster system may not have been her biological grandfather.

text: Her time in foster care was quite traumatic and abusive; Brennan indicated that she was once locked in the trunk of a car for two days because she broke a plate,[12] and in the episode "The Finger in the Nest", she reveals to Booth that she walked into her elderly neighbor's house to find the woman dead. In the same episode, she also mentions to Booth that her parents were very concerned about her afterwards, because she started faking her own death. In Season 2, she mentions that during her time in the foster care system, she kept a list of foster homes she had been kicked out of on the bottom of her shoe.

text: In the first season she hands Booth the file on her parents' disappearance and he agrees to look into it as a personal favor.[13] It is later revealed in Season 2 that her parents, who were bank robbers specializing in safety deposit boxes, changed the family's identity after they stole some damaging FBI documents regarding the murder of an FBI agent and the false imprisonment of civil rights activist Marvin Beckett. Brennan's birth name was Joy Keenan.[7] Her mother (real name Ruth Keenan, known under the assumed identity of Christine Brennan) had hoped to someday return to her children and family, but made a tape for Brennan to watch on her 16th birthday in case that never happened. Brennan later discovered that Ruth/Christine was murdered in 1993, two years after she and her husband went on the run.

text: Her father Max Keenan re-entered Brennan's life when she and her brother were being threatened by an old acquaintance, who turned out to be Booth's boss, Deputy Director Kirby.[14] Max evades capture after killing Kirby, and takes Russ into hiding to protect him.[14] Later, Max allows Booth to arrest him in order to improve his relationship with his daughter.[11] At trial, Max is acquitted of murdering Director Kirby (due in large part to a defense Booth indirectly came up with, positing an alternate theory of the crime in which Temperance was the killer instead, creating reasonable doubt), and he begins to rebuild his life.[15]

text: He temporarily works at the Jeffersonian as a guide for children visiting the place and demonstrates his brilliant talent as a former science teacher. However, Brennan is concerned about a convicted felon having access to a lab that investigates crimes.[16] Max also introduces Brennan to her cousin Margaret Whitesell,[17] portrayed by Deschanel's real-life sister Zooey Deschanel.

text: Brennan is best friends with her coworker, Angela, saying in the 6th-season premiere she loves Angela "like a sister" and is going to be an aunt to Hodgins' and Angela's newborn child. It is revealed at the end of the season six finale "The Change in the Game" that Brennan is pregnant and the father is Booth.

text: In Season 7, episode 2 "The Hot Dog in the Competition", Brennan and Booth found out they were having a baby girl. Their daughter, Christine Angela Booth (named for Brennan's mother and her best friend), was born in a stable during the episode "The Prisoner in the Pipe". In the Season 7 finale, "The Past in the Present", key evidence in the death of her friend, Ethan Sawyer, is linked to Brennan. Max convinces her to go on the run along with Christine, saying that if she is arrested, even if she is found innocent, she may never see her daughter again.

text: In Season 8 premiere, it is revealed that while on the run, Brennan was communicating with Angela, via flowers, and eventually used this as a way to communicate with Booth. Despite being on the run, Brennan risks her safety and decides to meet directly with Booth in a hotel room after months of being a single mother. Eventually, they arrest Christopher Pelant, who was the real murderer of Ethan Sawyer, and Brennan is allowed to return to her family. Although Pelant blackmails Booth to prevent him from accepting Brennan's proposal by threatening to kill five innocent people if Booth accepted, also warning Booth not to give a reason for his refusal, this threat is removed when the team manage to kill Pelant, and Booth and Brennan marry in the Season 9 episode 'The Woman in White'.

text: In the Season 10 episode, "The Eye in the Sky", Brennan learns that she is pregnant with her and Booth's second child.

text: Characterization[edit]

text: Throughout the course of the series, Brennan is portrayed as a straightforward, brilliant anthropologist, who lacks social skills. Her social ineptitude is especially apparent when it comes to sarcasm, metaphors which she often interprets literally, and pop culture jokes and is often the source of comedy in the show.[5] An example of this is when she mistakes Colin Farrell for Will Ferrell.[10] In earlier seasons, she was characterized as straightforward and unable to detect social cues – she states that Booth once told her that she "stinks at non-verbal communication"[18] – and was well-known within the FBI for being extremely difficult to work with. She began to acknowledge her lack of sensitivity after Booth bluntly told her outright that she was "bad with people" in "A Boy in a Tree". Her lack of "political savvy" and social skills was also a reason why she was passed over for Dr. Camille Saroyan as head of the Jeffersonian in Season 2. Other characters have described her as "no fun"[19] and "a rigid traditionalist".[9]

text: She had a difficult adolescence, and it is implied, often by Sweets, that her withdrawn social tendencies are a defense mechanism. She also sometimes struggles in identifying and explaining her emotions, and takes comfort in the rationality of her anthropological discipline. Although it has been stated that Brennan was based on a person with Asperger syndrome, this has never been confirmed in the plot of the series.[20] The creator of the series has stated that the character was never labeled as having the syndrome in order to increase the appeal of the show on network television.[21] This influence on her character also helps to explain her extreme rationality in early seasons, as well as some of her social difficulties. Brennan is a self-proclaimed atheist and often points out what she believes to be the irrationality of religious and spiritual beliefs. This has led to more than one argument with Booth, who is a devout Roman Catholic; he becomes particularly irate when she compares less common religions, such as voodoo, to Christianity.[22] During the Sleepy Hollow crossover episode "Dead Men Tell No Tales", Sleepy Hollow protagonist Ichabod Crane notes that Brennan is so sceptical that she would dismiss the demon Moloch — the primary antagonist in the first two seasons of Sleepy Hollow — as nothing more than a tall man with a skin condition, although this does leave him reassured that she will not realise the nature of the secret tomb they have uncovered underneath the White House.

text: Brennan is a bestselling author, who has been on the New York Times Best Seller List for 18 weeks.[23] She is trained in three types of martial arts,[22][24] has hunting licenses in four states,[22] and has a legally registered gun[5] as well as a diving certificate.[25] She promised to consider becoming a vegetarian after seeing how pigs were slaughtered (which was also the way her mother had been killed).[7] However, in "The Tough Man in the Tender Chicken" (season 5, episode 6) Angela cites health reasons for Brennan's vegetarian diet. Brennan is also a trained amateur highwire performer,[26] and speaks at least seven other languages, including Spanish,[27] French,[5] Latin,[28] Chinese,[29] , Pashto[30] Japanese,[31] Norwegian (although she says only "skull" and avers that, as a forensic anthropologist, this is a word she knows "in just about every language"),[12] Farsi, and German.[32] She has also admitted to knowing a bit of Russian.[26] She often says she does not "put much stock in psychology" and makes a point of noting that Dr. Sweets is not a real scientist as he "bases his life on the vagary of psychology and emotions".

text: Brennan's personality undergoes significant changes throughout the course of the series. Her thinking becomes less rigid in later seasons, something which is observed by Dr. Gordon Wyatt, who notes that she is now able to distinguish the difference between accuracy and truth.[33] In season 4, Booth takes her along to his interrogations and helps her learn how to set aside her scientific perspective and relate with the victim's family and suspects on a more interpersonal level. She is also able to put aside her rationality to support her friends in sometimes irrational pursuits, such as Angela's quest to raise money to save a pig from slaughter,[34] and to comfort Booth, even using science or quoting directly from the Bible to rationalize his religious beliefs. Her sensitivity and empathy towards others are also much improved, seen quite strongly when she comforts his grandfather,[35] and when she attends a funeral so that the victim's single mother won't be alone.[17] She also displays more "typical" human emotions when in extreme stress. One example of this is her fear of snakes in "The Mummy in the Maze," when a girl is in the process of being scared to death in a room, the floor teeming with snakes. This goes against her empirical nature, as, when Booth tells her that the snakes aren't venomous, she states that she is aware, but still refuses to step in the room, causing Booth to carry her on his back.

text: Brennan begins to feel both dissatisfaction and discomfort with her work toward the end of the fifth season.[36] She also sees some futility in her work, stating that no matter how many killers they catch, there will always be more.[37] To help her gain new perspective, she later decides to head up an anthropological expedition to Indonesia for a year to identify some ancient proto-human remains, after mulling it over during the episode.[37] However, 7 months later, she and everyone else return to D.C. in order to save Cam's job, and they all decide to stay.

text: As season 6 progresses, Brennan must confront her feelings for Booth, whom she rejected in the 100th episode from the previous season. Having returned from 7 months of introspection, she has come to terms with her romantic affection towards him, even admitting that she regretted not having given them a chance together, midway through the season. However, Booth returns from Afghanistan with a new love interest, war correspondent Hannah Burley, whom Brennan befriends. When Hannah rejects Booth's marriage proposal, Brennan must help him through the emotional fallout.

text: In the second to last episode of season 6 Booth and Brennan had sex, consummating their relationship, and it is revealed in the last few moments of the season finale that as a result, Brennan has become pregnant, with Booth the father. Throughout the episode ("The Change in the Game") Brennan has been seen asking Angela questions and making comments that make her seem excited and apprehensive; when she sees that Booth is happy with the news, she also seems overjoyed. This reflects her earlier desire to become a mother, circa season 4, as well as her desire that Booth be the father of the baby.

text: In the Season 8 episode "The Shot in the Dark", Brennan is shot while working in the lab late at night. While undergoing emergency surgery, she experiences a vision of meeting with her deceased mother, Christine Brennan. Initially dismissing this as a hallucination, Brennan experiences several more visions throughout the episode. During these discussions, it's revealed that Brennan's hyper rationalization originates from the very last piece of advice her mother gave to her (before going on the run) which was to use her brain instead of her heart. While that advice enabled Brennan to survive all these years, the vision of her mother explains, it's now time for Brennan to do more than just survive.

text: Since entering a relationship with and marrying Booth and then having children, the character has undergone development personally and is shown to be a caring wife and protective mother. She would often put aside her own atheistic views and uses her hyper-rationality to justify Booth's religious beliefs, as shown in season 8 where she references the Bible in order to persuade Booth to forgive his mother[38] and in the season finale where she agrees to a church wedding, rationalizing that she could appreciate the "beauty" of the ceremony and its significance to Booth.[39]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Brennan has had a number of relatively short relationships, including an ill-fated date with a man who turned out to be a murderer[40] and the re-kindling of a romance with her former thesis supervisor. She has stated that although she does not always feel the need for a committed emotional relationship, she has engaged in casual relationships to "satisfy biological urges".[41] In one episode, she was spending time with two men, one for his intelligence and the other for his sexual skills.[42] In Season 5, episode "The Plain in the Prodigy", she tells Booth she lost her virginity at the age of 22 and when asked why she waited so long, she said it was because the decision was "important to her". FBI psychologist Lance Sweets postulates in a number of episodes that Brennan's apprehension over having relationships is largely due in part to the abandonment and abuse she experienced as a teenager after her parents disappeared. It is said that she "hides" herself behind a front of hyper-rationalism and she always keeps people at arms' length, except for those closest to her (namely FBI partner Seeley Booth and best friend Angela Montenegro). After much character growth, Temperance Brennan is now married to her principal love interest of the series Seeley Booth, and they have a daughter (Season 7) and a son together.

text: Seeley Booth[edit]

text: FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth is Brennan's husband and partner, and the principal liaison between the Jeffersonian and law enforcement agencies. Prior to their marriage, he is also Brennan's principal love interest throughout the series. Although his working style initially clashed with Brennan's,[5] they have since become full-fledged partners. Their compatibility has become one of the central points of the show, with many new characters mistaking them for a couple and co-workers, especially Angela, constantly speculating that they were "more than partners".[22] Booth and Brennan have repeatedly risked their safety to save each other, including when Booth took a bullet meant for Brennan.[23] After Booth rescues Brennan from the corrupt Agent Kenton, Booth lifts her off the hook she was hung on by putting her tied hands around his neck even though he himself was severely injured.[43] In "Two Bodies in the Lab", in season 1, and in "The Rocker in the Rinse Cycle", in season 5, Brennan and Booth's mutual love for Foreigner's Hot Blooded is mentioned; Booth even refers to it as 'their song' in "The Rocker in the Rinse Cycle". Brennan once commented to Dr. Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) that she "[couldn't] think of anything [she] wouldn't do to help Booth."[44] Brennan's novels are also dedicated to him and the character Special Agent Andy Lister is based on him even though she still denies it.

text: Initially Brennan was mostly dismissive of Booth due to their opposing worldviews and work styles – which is a source of friction and banter between them. Although she refused to admit it at first, Brennan enjoyed working with him from the beginning, even after their falling out when Booth got her drunk and "fired" her, and, in Season 1, she cajoled him into launching an investigation after finding three bone fragments on a golf course so he could work with the Jeffersonian team on the case despite the fact that the FBI technically had no jurisdiction.[13] She often unknowingly offends him on a number of occasions during the first few seasons with her tactlessness, only realizing after being gently admonished by Angela or another member of the team.[45][46][47] She comes to admire his ability to connect with people and read behavioral cues when interrogating suspects after coming to terms with her own lack of social skills. After finding out about his abusive childhood and haunted past in the Army, she also begins to respect him as a person. Booth, who is particularly taciturn in revealing emotions or speaking about his past, begins to open up to and confide in her. Since entering a relationship with (and eventually marrying) Booth, she is shown to be extremely supportive of him,[48][49][50] even at the expense of her friendship with Angela.[19] Additionally, she put aside her own misgivings several times for Booth's benefit; for example, she agrees to have Christine christened into the Catholic church and referenced the Bible when trying to talk Booth into forgiving his mother.

text: Brennan acquired the nickname "Bones" from Booth. She initially disliked it but comes to regard it with affection. Booth and his son Parker are the only characters in the show she permits to use it and the former rarely addresses her by her first name or "Tempe".

text: In Season 2 Brennan shot and killed a person for the first time while working on a string of murders connected to serial killer Howard Epps. She was forced to pull the trigger after Epps' accomplice attacked and injured Booth with a pipe. At the end of the episode she confides in Booth of her conflicted feelings and finds comfort in the fact that Booth understood how she felt.[51]

text: The relationship between Brennan and Booth has often become strained when either partner has a significant other. For example, Booth was quite irritable when Brennan dated Agent Sully,[52] and their relationship was also strained when Booth's brother Jared was showing an interest in Brennan. Brennan constantly needled Booth while he was dating Tessa.

text: When Brennan decided that she wanted to have a baby, she asked Booth if he would be the sperm donor. He agrees to Brennan's request at first, but subsequently struggles with the thought of not being involved in the life of his prospective child. Eventually he tells Brennan he cannot let her have his child if he is not allowed to be a father to it. Soon thereafter, it is discovered that he has a (benign) brain tumour.[53] He has to undergo surgery, and though the surgery is successful, a poor reaction to anesthesia left him in a coma for several days. While in his coma, Brennan reads to him from her new novel, and he has an elaborate dream in which Brennan is his wife and that she is pregnant, and that the staff at the Jeffersonian play the characters in the novel. When he awakens, he initially suffers from amnesia, not recognizing Brennan.[54][55]

text: Although for the majority of the series Booth and Brennan denied that their relationship was anything more than friendly professionalism, they admitted to Dr. Sweets that they kissed and nearly spent the night together after their very first case together. After this discussion, Booth attempted to convince Brennan to give a relationship a try. However, she declined, telling him that she, unlike him, is not a gambler, and isn't able to take that kind of a chance.[6] They have subsequently attempted to date other people,[56] although the fact that Booth once comments that he regards Brennan as his "standard" for other women suggests that he, at least, has not completely moved on. Brennan does admit to her best friend Angela Montenegro that as time has gone on, she is unsure if she wants to keep doing consulting work for the FBI, citing that she is tired of murderers and victims, and is constantly worried that something will happen to Booth and she will be unable to save him. In the climax of Season Five, Brennan and Booth part ways for a year – he goes to Afghanistan while she leaves for the Maluku Islands in Indonesia – but they promise to meet, one year from that day, at the Lincoln Memorial.[37]

text: In the beginning of season six (7 months later), they reunite in the stated place. Booth came back from Afghanistan, along with everyone else from various places, to help save Cam's job. They all decided to stay. Booth has a serious new girlfriend, Hannah, and despite the hints of her colleagues at Brennan's unconscious jealousy of their relationship, she vehemently denies feeling uncomfortable with the new situation. Through subsequent episodes her jealousy and resentfulness began becoming more apparent as Hannah and Booth started becoming more serious. In the episode "The Doctor in the Photo", Brennan realizes she is in love with Booth and confronts him, but she is let down when Booth says that he loves Hannah and she is not a "consolation prize", prompting Brennan to conclude that she has missed her chance, later reflecting that she should move on. In episode 10 of the sixth season "The Body in the Bag", Booth tells his girlfriend about the incident, stating that it (his love for Temperance) was all in the past and whatever he felt, he does not feel it anymore, except for Hannah. However it was clear in the following episode that he still has feelings for Brennan.

text: Despite her apparent resolve to move on, Brennan later showed sorrow when her father noted that he always thought she and Booth would end up together. During a subsequent case involving a polygamist who would spend the night with his first wife on the night he was scheduled to sleep alone, Booth commented that, while you can love several people, there is only ever one person you love the most, prompting Brennan to ask what happens when you push that person away, something Booth answered saying that it never truly leaves, adding further weight to the implication that he still has feelings for Brennan. Following Hannah's departure, the two have begun to reconnect, to the point that, during a case that saw the two trapped in an elevator during a blackout for several hours, Booth and Brennan admitted that they are each interested in a relationship, but require more time to sort out their own feelings before they make such a commitment.

text: In episode 22 of season 6, "The Hole in the Heart", which saw the death of Vincent Nigel-Murray (Brennan's favorite intern) at the hands of renegade sniper Jacob Broadsky, Booth has Brennan stay at his apartment for her safety. Later that night, Brennan, still overcome with shock and grief over Vincent's death, goes into Booth's bedroom and they talk about the events of that day, and then allows Booth to hold her in bed. It is implied in the following day that they had sex. In the last scene of the season 6 finale, "The Change in the Game", after the birth of Angela and Hodgins' son, Brennan tells Booth that she is pregnant and that he is the father.

text: At the start of Season 7, a very pregnant Brennan and Booth are a couple but are going back and forth between apartments. Booth suggests that they should have their own place, whereas Brennan wants Booth to move into her apartment. It causes a minor rift between them, but is resolved when Booth admits why he wants to move into a new house and Brennan having some time to think over it says it's a good idea because she'd need him practically, emotionally and sexually. In episode 6, "The Crack in the Code," they decide to buy a two-story house in the suburbs—which they jokingly called "The Mighty Hut"—that Booth found at a police auction and renovate it, (according to a mailed check sent to Brennan in "The Heiress in the Hill", in season 9, the "Mighty Hut"'s address is "1297 Janus Street, Washington DC, 20002"). In episode 7, "The Prisoner in the Pipe", Brennan goes into labor inside a prison just as she discovers who killed in an inmate there and Booth rushes her out with the intention to take her to the nearest hospital, but they both know she won't make it in time. This leads them to driving to an inn close to the prison. At first, they are rejected and are told to leave, but after some desperate pleading from an agonized Brennan, the two of them are led to a stall where she gives birth to their daughter, Christine Angela Booth (named after Temperance's mother, Christine Brennan, and Temperance's best friend Angela Montenegro). Some time after the delivery, Temperance and Seeley both go back to their home where they celebrate with their friends from the Jeffersonian, who brought dinners that would last a few nights as well as a few baby supplies. In "The Past in the Present", Brennan becomes the prime suspect in the murder of her schizophrenic friend, Ethan Sawyer, after supposedly threatening to kill Christine. Max advises Brennan to get off the grid and go into hiding, but she and Booth do not follow up at this suggestion. However, at the end of the episode, after Christine is christened in a Catholic church, it is revealed Brennan decided to take her father's advice and flee with her daughter until her name is cleared. Just before Brennan flees town with Christine, she tells Booth she loves him and not just because of their daughter. After she is cleared of Sawyer's murder, Brennan, Booth and Christine resume their family life.

text: At the end of Season 8, Brennan finally decides to marry Booth. However, their plans are ruined when a vengeful Christopher Pelant blackmails Booth, threatening to kill five random people if Booth marries Brennan. Booth calls off the wedding, but does not explain the real reason to Brennan. Brennan is devastated but pretends to be fine with this.[57][58] In the season 9 premiere, Brennan fears that since Booth turned down her proposal, she fears that the love from their life is fading. After talking with bartender Aldo Clemens, a former priest and Army chaplain Booth confessed to, she realizes that it was uncharacteristic for Booth to suddenly cancel the wedding as he believed in marriage and that he likely had a legitimate reason to do so. Despite her colleagues' anger at Booth, she decides to stay with him, telling him that she understands that he has his reasons and has faith that he will resolve the issue. In the episode 4, "The Sense in the Sacrifice", after Booth singlehandedly tracks Pelant down through an abandoned building and kills him with a single gunshot, he reveals to her that Pelant had blackmailed him. Pelant had threatened to kill five innocent people if Booth continued with the wedding or went to the police or FBI. At the end of the episode he proposes and she happily accepts; unknown to them, Caroline, Angela and Hodgins witnessed it via the security cameras. In "The Woman in White", Booth and Brennan marry at a small garden ceremony outside the Jeffersonian.

text: Tim "Sully" Sullivan[edit]

text: Brennan had a brief relationship with FBI Agent Tim Sullivan (Eddie McClintock), also known as Sully, whom she met while on a case when Booth was in therapy due to his grief-induced rage over his self-perceived role in the death of serial killer Howard Epps. Sully asked Dr. Brennan out on a date after their case was completed, and they began a relationship.[52] Their relationship ended, however, when Sully decided to sail a boat down to the Caribbean, and Brennan declined to leave the Jeffersonian to go with him despite Angela trying to persuade her to follow him;[29] psychiatrist Doctor Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) speculated that this was due to Brennan being unable to live a life without purpose. Despite Dr. Wyatt's original perception as to why she stayed, there exist strong indications, especially through Angela's observations of the situation, that the real reason she stayed was because of Booth. Sully returns in Season 12.


document_title: Song Cry

question_text: who was jay z talking about in song cry

question_tokens: who was jay z talking about in song cry

root

text: Song Cry

text: Background and content[edit]

text: In an interview with Bill Maher, Jay-Z stated that this song was actually inspired by three different relationships he had in the past, and he wrote about his different experiences all together in different verses.

tag: p

text: The song is a slow and quiet melodic rap ballad in which Jay-Z laments the break-up of an earlier relationship due to his own neglect and infidelity. Admitting that he is too prideful to publicly display his emotions ("I can't see 'em coming down my eyes"), Jay-Z forces the song to "cry" instead.[1] This allows Jay-Z to mourn the break-up free of any damage to his masculine image as a street hustler. This furthers the notion that emotional vulnerability is a sign of weakness, especially within the Black community, as Black men in particular suppress vulnerability "in order to survive."[2]

text: "Song Cry" features female vocalist Jaguar Wright singing a sample of "Sounds Like a Love Song" by Bobby Glenn, though Wright is not identified in the liner notes of the album.

text: Live performances[edit]

text: During his 2006 Water for Life Tour, Jay-Z performed "Song Cry" at the Royal Albert Hall, the venue's first ever hip hop show. American actress Gwyneth Paltrow did the chorus.[3][4][5]

text: Sampled by other artists[edit]

text:
By Ghostface Killah in his song "Back Like That"
By Mila J in her song "Complete"
By LeToya in her song "When I Get Around Him"
By Keyshia Cole in her song "You've Changed"
By Deemi in her song "Wasn't Surprised"
By Rihanna in her song "Good Girl Gone Bad"
By Stat Quo in his song "I Am Hip Hop"
By Gagong Rapper in his song "Mahal Kita"
By Lloyd featuring Lil Wayne in the song "You"
By Sleepy Malo "Even Players Get Played"
By Rey King "Geezy"
By LaTrell C. in his song "Quishea"
By Young Sam- "Fell in love"
By Joey Bada$$ in his song "Pennyroyal"
By D-Pryde in his song "Got a Story to Tell"

tag: ul

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2002)
Peak
position

U.S. Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks
45

tag: table


document_title: The World's Billionaires

question_text: who has the largest net worth in the world 2017

text: The World's Billionaires

text: Methodology

text: Each year, Forbes employs a team of more than fifty reporters from a variety of countries to track the activity of the world's wealthiest individuals.[8] Preliminary surveys are sent to those who may qualify for the list. According to Forbes, they received three types of responses – some people try to inflate their wealth, others cooperate but leave out details, and some refuse to answer any questions.[9] Business deals are then scrutinized and estimates of valuable assets – land, homes, vehicles, artwork, etc. – are made. Interviews are conducted to vet the figures and get a better idea of an individual's holdings. Finally, positions in a publicly traded stock are priced to market on a date roughly a month before publication. Privately held companies are priced by the prevailing price-to-sales or price-to-earnings ratios. Known debt is subtracted from assets to get a final estimate of an individual's estimated worth in United States dollars. Since stock prices fluctuate rapidly, an individual's true wealth and ranking at the time of publication may vary from their situation when the list was compiled.[8]

text: Family fortunes dispersed over a large number of individuals are included only if those individuals' holdings are worth more than a billion dollars. However, when a living individual has dispersed his or her wealth to immediate family members, it is included under a single listing provided that individual is still living.[8] Royalty and dictators are always excluded from the lists.

text: Annual rankings

text: The rankings are published annually in March, so the net worth listed are snapshots taken at that time. These lists only show the top 10 wealthiest billionaires.

text: On the 30th anniversary of the Forbes' list of the world's billionaires, for the fourth year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world.[2] The number of billionaires increased 13% to 2,043 from 1,810 in 2016; this is the biggest change in over 30 years of tracking billionaires globally.[2] This is the first time after 12 years that Carlos Slim was not within the top five. The U.S. continues to have the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 565. China has 319 (this does not include Hong Kong with 67 and Macau with 1), Germany has 114 and India has the fourth most with 101; India has reached over 100 billionaires for its first time.

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$86.0 billion
61
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$75.6 billion
86
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Bezos, JeffJeff Bezos
$72.8 billion
53
 United States
Amazon.com

7000400000000000000♠4
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$71.3 billion
80
 Spain
Inditex, Zara

7000500000000000000♠5
Zuckerberg, MarkMark Zuckerberg
$56.0 billion
32
 United States
Facebook

7000600000000000000♠6
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim
$54.5 billion
77
 Mexico
América Móvil, Grupo Carso

7000700000000000000♠7
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$52.2 billion
72
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000800000000000000♠8
Koch, CharlesCharles Koch
$48.3 billion
81
 United States
Koch Industries

7000800000000000000♠8
Koch, DavidDavid Koch
$48.3 billion
76
 United States
Koch Industries

7001100000000000000♠10
Bloomberg, MichaelMichael Bloomberg
$47.5 billion
75
 United States
Bloomberg L.P.

text: For the third year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes's 2016 list of the world's billionaires.[10] This is the 17th time that the founder of Microsoft has claimed the top spot. Amancio Ortega rose from last year's position of number four to second.[11] Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway came in third for the second consecutive time,[12] while Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim slipped down from last year's second position to fourth. Jeff Bezos of Amazon,[13] Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook[14] and Michael Bloomberg of Bloomberg L.P.,[15] appear for the first time on the Forbes top 10 billionaires list, coming at fifth, sixth and eighth position, respectively. Zuckerberg became the youngest top 10 billionaire this year at the age of 31. Larry Ellison, Charles Koch and David Koch also slipped down from their last year's positions, with Ellison dropping to seventh from fifth and the Kochs falling to ninth position from sixth, respectively.

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$75.0 billion
60
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$67.0 billion
79
 Spain
Inditex

7000300000000000000♠3
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$60.8 billion
85
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000400000000000000♠4
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim
$50.0 billion
76
 Mexico
América Móvil, Grupo Carso

7000500000000000000♠5
Bezos, JeffJeff Bezos
$45.2 billion
52
 United States
Amazon.com

7000600000000000000♠6
Zuckerberg, MarkMark Zuckerberg
$44.6 billion
31
 United States
Facebook

7000700000000000000♠7
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$43.6 billion
71
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000800000000000000♠8
Bloomberg, MichaelMichael Bloomberg
$40.0 billion
74
 United States
Bloomberg L.P.

7000900000000000000♠9
Koch, CharlesCharles Koch
$39.6 billion
80
 United States
Koch Industries

7000900000000000000♠9
Koch, DavidDavid Koch
$39.6 billion
75
 United States
Koch Industries

text: In the 29th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, a record 1,826 billionaires were named with an aggregated net worth of $7.1 trillion compared to $6.4 trillion last year. 46 of the billionaires in this list are under the age of 40. A record number of 290 people joined the list for the first time, of whom 25 percent hail from China, which produced a world-leading 71 newcomers. The United States came in second, with 57, followed by India, with 28, and Germany, with 23.[16] The United States has the largest number of billionaires with 526. Russia went down to 88 from 111 in 2014. Russia was placed behind China, Germany and India by the number of billionaires. Self-made billionaires made up the largest number of people on the list with 1,191 positions (over 65 percent) while just 230 (under 13 percent) have wealth through inheritance. The number of billionaires who inherited a portion but are still working to increase their fortunes is 405.[17]

text: Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes's annual list of the world's billionaires. This was the 16th time that the founder of Microsoft claimed the top spot. Carlos Slim came in second for the second consecutive time. Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway was placed third, while Amancio Ortega of Spain, slipped down a position from last year to number four. Larry Ellison, the founder of Oracle rounded off the top five. Christy Walton was the highest-ranking female at number eight. America's Evan Spiegel, co-founder of photo messaging app Snapchat became the youngest billionaire this year at the age of 24. At age 99, David Rockefeller maintained his position as the oldest billionaire to be included in the list.[18] Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook, rose to number 16 with $33.4 billion. Iceland had a billionaire, Thor Bjorgolfsson, in the list after a gap of five years. Guatemala had a billionaire, Mario Lopez Estrada, for the first time in its history.[19]

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$79.2 billion
59
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim
$77.1 billion
75
 Mexico
América Móvil, Telmex, Grupo Carso

7000300000000000000♠3
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$72.7 billion
84
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000400000000000000♠4
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$64.5 billion
78
 Spain
Inditex

7000500000000000000♠5
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$54.3 billion
70
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000600000000000000♠6
Koch, CharlesCharles Koch
$42.9 billion
79
 United States
Koch Industries

7000600000000000000♠6
Koch, DavidDavid Koch
$42.9 billion
74
 United States
Koch Industries

7000800000000000000♠8
Walton, ChristyChristy Walton
$41.7 billion
60
 United States
Walmart

7000900000000000000♠9
Walton, JimJim Walton
$40.6 billion
66
 United States
Walmart

7001100000000000000♠10
Bettencourt, LilianeLiliane Bettencourt
$40.1 billion
92
 France
L'Oreal

text: Bill Gates added $9 billion to his fortune since 2013 and topped the Forbes 2014 billionaire list. He has topped the list 15 of the previous 20 years, but his last number one ranking in 2009.[20] Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim came in second place after being number one the previous four years. Zara founder Amancio Ortega placed third for the second consecutive year. American investor Warren Buffett was in the top five for the 20th consecutive year, placing fourth.[21] America's Christy Walton was the highest ranking female, placing ninth overall.[1] Aliko Dangote of Nigeria became the first African ever to enter the top 25, with an estimated net worth of $25 billion.[3]

text: A total of 1,645 people made the 2014 billionaire list, representing combined wealth of $6.4 trillion.[21] Of those, a record 268 were newcomers, surpassing 2008's 226 newcomers.[1] One hundred people listed in 2013 failed to make the list.[21] The number of women on the list rose to a record 172 in 2014.[1] Approximately 66 percent of the list was self-made, 13 percent achieved their wealth through inheritance alone, and 21 percent through a mixture of the two.[3]

text: The United States had 492 billionaires on the list, the most of any country.[21] The country also had the most newcomers with 50, and women with 54.[1] China had the second most billionaires with 152, while Russia was third with 111.[21] Algeria, Lithuania, Tanzania, and Uganda were all represented on the list for the first time. Turkey saw the most people drop off the list, 19, due to a period of high inflation in the country.[3]

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$76.0 billion
58
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim & family
$72.0 billion
74
 Mexico
Telmex, América Móvil, Grupo Carso

7000300000000000000♠3
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$64.0 billion
77
 Spain
Inditex

7000400000000000000♠4
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$58.2 billion
83
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000500000000000000♠5
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$48.0 billion
70
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000600000000000000♠6
Koch, CharlesCharles Koch
$40.0 billion
78
 United States
Koch Industries

7000600000000000000♠6
Koch, DavidDavid Koch
$40.0 billion
73
 United States
Koch Industries

7000800000000000000♠8
Adelson, SheldonSheldon Adelson
$38.0 billion
80
 United States
Las Vegas Sands

7000900000000000000♠9
Walton, ChristyChristy Walton & family
$36.7 billion
58–59
 United States
Walmart

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, JimJim Walton
$34.7 billion
65
 United States
Walmart

text: Carlos Slim topped the 2013 billionaire list, marking his fourth consecutive year at the top. Bill Gates remained in second, while Amancio Ortega moved up to third. Ortega's gain of $19.5 billion was the largest of anyone on the list.[22] Warren Buffett failed to make the top three for the first time since 2000, placing fourth. Diesel founder Renzo Rosso was among the top newcomers, debuting with an estimate net worth of $3 billion.[23]

text: A global rise in asset prices, led Forbes editor Randall Lane to declare "It [was] a very good year to be a billionaire". However, it was not a good year to be Eike Batista who fell from seventh to 100th, suffering the largest net loss of anyone on the list.[22] Overall, net gainers outnumbered net losers by 4:1.[23]

text: A record total of 1,426 people made the 2013 list, representing $5.4 trillion of assets.[24] Of those, 442 billionaires hailed from the United States.[22] The Asian-Pacific region had 386 billionaires and Europe 366. The list also featured a record number of newcomers, 210, representing 42 different countries. Sixty people from the 2012 list fell below a billion dollar of assets in 2013 and eight others from the 2012 list died. The Asia-Pacific region had the most drop-offs, with 29, followed by the United States with 16. The 2013 list featured 138 women, of which 50 came from the United States. A majority of the list (961 individuals, 67 percent) was entirely self-made; 184 (13 percent) inherited their wealth, and 281 (20 percent) achieved their fortune through a combination of inheritance and business acumen.[24]

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim & family
$73.0 billion
73
 Mexico
Telmex, América Móvil, Grupo Carso

7000200000000000000♠2
Gates, BillBill Gates
$67.0 billion
57
 United States
Microsoft

7000300000000000000♠3
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$57.0 billion
76
 Spain
Inditex Group

7000400000000000000♠4
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$53.5 billion
82
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000500000000000000♠5
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$43.0 billion
68
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000600000000000000♠6
Koch, CharlesCharles Koch
$34.0 billion
77
 United States
Koch Industries

7000600000000000000♠6
Koch, DavidDavid Koch
$34.0 billion
72
 United States
Koch Industries

7000800000000000000♠8
Ka-shing, LiLi Ka-shing
$31.0 billion
84
 Hong Kong
 Canada
Cheung Kong Holdings

7000900000000000000♠9
Bettencourt, LilianeLiliane Bettencourt & family
$30.0 billion
90
 France
L'Oréal

7001100000000000000♠10
Arnault, BernardBernard Arnault
$29.0 billion
63
 France
LVMH

text: Carlos Slim topped the 2012 list, marking this third consecutive year at the top. Bill Gates placed second, but narrowed the gap from 2011 as Slim's fortune fell $5 billion while Gates' rose $5 billion. Warren Buffett remained in third place. Bernard Arnault of France was the top-ranking European on the list, placing fourth.[25] Ricardo Salinas Pliego was the greatest gainer in terms of dollars, adding $9.2 billion to his fortune and moving up to number 37 overall.[25] Making her debut on the list at age 27, Spanx founder Sara Blakely became the youngest self-made female billionaire ever.[26] Colombia's Alejandro Santo Domingo was the highest-ranked newcomer, inheriting a $9.5 billion stake in Santo Domingo Group from his father.[25] India's Lakshmi Mittal was the largest loser as his fortune dropped from $31.1 billion to $20.7 billion as the price of steel maker ArcelorMittal fell sharply.[25] As a result, he failed to make the top 10 for the first time since 2004 and lost his title of richest Asian to Hong Kong’s Li Ka-shing.[27]

text: A record total of 1,226 people made the 2012 list, representing 58 different countries. Of those, 126 were newcomers to the list and 104 were women. The United States had the greatest number of billionaires with 425. Russia had 96 people on the list, while China had 95.[25] Georgia, Morocco, and Peru were newly represented on the list. Falling stock prices in Asia contributed to 117 former billionaires falling from the list worldwide. Twelve others listed in 2011 died. Overall, net gainers (460) barely outnumbered net losers (441).[27]

text: To coincide with the release of the 2012 list, Forbes announced a new "Billionaire Real-Time Ticker" updating the wealth of the world's top fifty billionaires in real time.[25]

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim & family
$69.0 billion
72
 Mexico
Telmex, América Móvil, Grupo Carso

7000200000000000000♠2
Gates, BillBill Gates
$61.0 billion
56
 United States
Microsoft

7000300000000000000♠3
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$44.0 billion
81
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000400000000000000♠4
Arnault, BernardBernard Arnault
$41.0 billion
63
 France
LVMH Moët Hennessy • Louis Vuitton

7000500000000000000♠5
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$37.5 billion
75
 Spain
Inditex Group

7000600000000000000♠6
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$36.0 billion
67
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000700000000000000♠7
Batista, EikeEike Batista
$30.0 billion
55
 Brazil
EBX Group

7000800000000000000♠8
Stefan Persson
$26.0 billion
64
 Sweden
H&M

7000900000000000000♠9
Ka-shing, LiLi Ka-shing
$25.5 billion
83
 Hong Kong
 Canada
Cheung Kong Holdings

7001100000000000000♠10
Albrecht, KarlKarl Albrecht
$25.4 billion
92
 Germany
Aldi

text: In the 25th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, Carlos Slim added $20.5 billion to his fortune, the most of anyone, and retained his number one ranking with a total fortune of $74 billion. Bill Gates remained in second place with $56 billion, while Warren Buffett was third with $50 billion. The top 10 had a combined wealth of $406 billion, up from $342 billion in 2010.[28] According to Forbes editor Kerry Dolan, "media and technology billionaires definitely benefited from a stronger stock market and a growing enthusiasm for all things social" since the 2010 list.[29] However, Nigerian commodity mogul Aliko Dangote was the greatest gainer on a percentage basis as his fortune increased 557 percent to $13.5 billion. Mark Zuckerberg was one of seven Facebook-related billionaires on the list, as he $9.5 billion to his fortune to move up to 52nd. Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskovitz was the youngest person on the list. Aged 26, eight days younger than Zuckerberg, he debuted at number 420 with an estimated fortune of $2.7 billion. IKEA founder Ingvar Kamprad was the largest loser as he saw his fortune plummet from $23 billion to $6 billion, dropping him from 11th to 162nd overall.[28]

text: A record 1,210 billionaires made the 2011 list, representing a combined wealth of $4.5 trillion, up from $3.6 trillion the previous year.[30] One third of the world's billionaires, 413, came from the United States. China had the second most billionaires with 115, while Russia was third with 101. Asia moved up to 332 billionaires, passing Europe as a region for the first time since the 1990s.[28] The 2011 list included 214 newcomers and the average net worth of those on it increased to $3.7 billion.[29]

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim & family
$74.0 billion
71
 Mexico
Telmex, América Móvil, Grupo Carso

7000200000000000000♠2
Gates, BillBill Gates
$56.0 billion
55
 United States
Microsoft

7000300000000000000♠3
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$50.0 billion
80
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000400000000000000♠4
Arnault, BernardBernard Arnault
$41.0 billion
62
 France
LVMH Moët Hennessy • Louis Vuitton

7000500000000000000♠5
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$39.5 billion
66
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000600000000000000♠6
Mittal, LakshmiLakshmi Mittal
$31.1 billion
60
 India
Arcelor Mittal

7000700000000000000♠7
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$31.0 billion
74
 Spain
Inditex Group

7000800000000000000♠8
Batista, EikeEike Batista
$30.0 billion
53
 Brazil
EBX Group

7000900000000000000♠9
Ambani, MukeshMukesh Ambani
$27.0 billion
57
 India
Reliance Industries

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, ChristyChristy Walton & family
$26.5 billion
55
 United States
Walmart

text: Carlos Slim narrowly eclipsed Bill Gates to top the billionaire list for the first time. Slim saw his estimated worth surge $18.5 billion to $53.5 billion as shares of America Movil rose 35 percent. Gates' estimated wealth rose $13 billion to $53 billion, placing him second. Warren Buffett was third with $47 billion.[31] Christy Walton was the highest-ranking woman, placing 12th overall, with an inherited fortune of $22.5 billion.[32] At age 25, Mark Zuckerberg continued to be the world's youngest self-made billionaire.[9] American Isaac Perlmutter was among the newcomers with an estimated fortune of $4 billion largely acquired in his sale of Marvel Entertainment to Disney.[31]

text: A total of 1,011 people made the 2010 list. The United States accounted for 403 billionaires, followed by China with 89 and Russia with 62.[32] It was the first time China, while including Hong Kong, placed second.[31] A total of 55 countries were represented on the 2010 list, including Finland and Pakistan which claimed their first billionaires.[32] Eighty-nine women made the list, but only 14 of them were self-made.[32] The combined net worth of the list was $3.6 trillion, up 50 percent from 2009's $2.4 trillion, while the average net worth was $3.5 billion.[9]

text: The 2010 list featured 164 re-entries and 97 true newcomers.[9] Asia accounted for more than 100 of the new entrants. Overall, just 12 percent of the list lost wealth since 2009, and 30 people fell off the list. Thirteen others died.[31] Of the 89 women, 12 were newcomers in 2010. Steve Forbes said the growing number of billionaires was clear sign that the world's economy was recovering from 2009's global financial crisis.[9]

text: In June 2010, Warren Buffett and Bill Gates announce The Giving Pledge that is a promise to give the majority of their wealth to philanthropy. As of 2017, the pledge has 158 signers but some of the signers have since died. Most of the signers of the pledge are billionaires, and their pledges total to over $365 billion.[33]

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim & family
$53.5 billion
70
 Mexico
Telmex, América Móvil, Grupo Carso

7000200000000000000♠2
Gates, BillBill Gates
$53.0 billion
54
 United States
Microsoft

7000300000000000000♠3
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$47.0 billion
79
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000400000000000000♠4
Ambani, MukeshMukesh Ambani
$29.0 billion
53
 India
Reliance Industries

7000500000000000000♠5
Mittal, LakshmiLakshmi Mittal
$28.7 billion
60
 India
Arcelor Mittal

7000600000000000000♠6
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$28.0 billion
66
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000700000000000000♠7
Arnault, BernardBernard Arnault
$27.5 billion
61
 France
LVMH Moët Hennessy • Louis Vuitton

7000800000000000000♠8
Batista, EikeEike Batista
$27.0 billion
53
 Brazil
EBX Group

7000900000000000000♠9
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$25.0 billion
74
 Spain
Inditex Group

7001100000000000000♠10
Albrecht, KarlKarl Albrecht
$23.5 billion
90
 Germany
Aldi Süd

text: In the wake of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008, the world's billionaires lose $2 trillion in net worth and the list becomes 30% smaller than the previous year's list.

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$40.0 billion
53
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$37.0 billion
78
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim
$35.0 billion
69
 Mexico
Telmex, América Móvil

7000400000000000000♠4
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$22.5 billion
64
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000500000000000000♠5
Kamprad, IngvarIngvar Kamprad
$22.0 billion
83
 Sweden
IKEA

7000600000000000000♠6
Albrecht, KarlKarl Albrecht
$21.5 billion
89
 Germany
Aldi Süd

7000700000000000000♠7
Ambani, MukeshMukesh Ambani
$19.5 billion
57
 India
Reliance Industries

7000800000000000000♠8
Mittal, LakshmiLakshmi Mittal
$19.3 billion
58
 India
Arcelor Mittal

7000900000000000000♠9
Albrecht, TheoTheo Albrecht
$18.8 billion
87
 Germany
Aldi Nord, Trader Joe's

7001100000000000000♠10
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$18.3 billion
73
 Spain
Inditex Group

text: Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, four years after starting the company, joins the list at 23 to become the youngest self-made billionaire.

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$62.0 billion
77
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000200000000000000♠2
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim
$60.0 billion
68
 Mexico
Telmex, América Móvil

7000300000000000000♠3
Gates, BillBill Gates
$58.0 billion
52
 United States
Microsoft

7000400000000000000♠4
Mittal, LakshmiLakshmi Mittal
$45.0 billion
57
 India
Arcelor Mittal

7000500000000000000♠5
Ambani, MukeshMukesh Ambani
$43.0 billion
50
 India
Reliance Industries

7000600000000000000♠6
Ambani, AnilAnil Ambani
$42.0 billion
48
 India
Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group

7000700000000000000♠7
Kamprad, IngvarIngvar Kamprad
$31.0 billion
81
 Sweden
IKEA

7000800000000000000♠8
Pal Singh, KushalKushal Pal Singh
$30.0 billion
76
 India
DLF Group

7000900000000000000♠9
Deripaska, OlegOleg Deripaska
$28.0 billion
40
 Russia
Rusal

7001100000000000000♠10
Albrecht, Karl Karl Albrecht
$27.0 billion
88
 Germany
Aldi Süd

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$56.0 billion
51
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$52.0 billion
76
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim
$49.0 billion
67
 Mexico
Telmex, América Móvil, Grupo Carso

7000400000000000000♠4
Ingvar Kamprad
$33.0 billion
80
 Sweden
IKEA

7000500000000000000♠5
Mittal, LakshmiLakshmi Mittal
$32.0 billion
56
 India
Arcelor Mittal

7000600000000000000♠6
Adelson, SheldonSheldon Adelson
$26.5 billion
73
 United States
Las Vegas Sands

7000700000000000000♠7
Arnault, BernardBernard Arnault
$26.0 billion
58
 France
LVMH

7000800000000000000♠8
Ortega, AmancioAmancio Ortega
$24.0 billion
71
 Spain
Inditex Group

7000900000000000000♠9
Ka-shing, LiLi Ka-shing
$23.0 billion
78
 Hong Kong
 Canada
Cheung Kong Holdings, Hutchison Whampoa

7001100000000000000♠10
David Thomson
$22.0 billion
49
 Canada
Thomson Corporation

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$52.0 billion
50
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$42.0 billion
75
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim
$30.0 billion
66
 Mexico
Telmex

7000400000000000000♠4
Kamprad, IngvarIngvar Kamprad
$28.0 billion
79
 Sweden
IKEA

7000500000000000000♠5
Mittal, LakshmiLakshmi Mittal
$23.5 billion
55
 India
Mittal Steel Company

7000600000000000000♠6
Allen, PaulPaul Allen
$22.0 billion
53
 United States
Microsoft

7000700000000000000♠7
Arnault, BernardBernard Arnault
$21.5 billion
57
 France
LVMH Moët Hennessy • Louis Vuitton

7000800000000000000♠8
Al-Waleed, PrincePrince Al-Waleed
$20.0 billion
49
 Saudi Arabia
Kingdom Holding Company

7000900000000000000♠9
Thomson, KennethKenneth Thomson
$19.6 billion
82
 Canada
The Thomson Corporation

7001100000000000000♠10
Shing, Li KaLi Ka Shing
$18.8 billion
77
 Hong Kong
 Canada
Cheung Kong Group, Hutchison Whampoa

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$46.5 billion
49
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$44.0 billion
74
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Mittal, LakshmiLakshmi Mittal
$25.0 billion
54
 India
Mittal Steel Company

7000400000000000000♠4
Slim, CarlosCarlos Slim
$23.8 billion
65
 Mexico
Telmex

7000500000000000000♠5
Al-Waleed, PrincePrince Al-Waleed
$23.7 billion
49
 Saudi Arabia
Kingdom Holding Company

7000600000000000000♠6
Kamprad, IngvarIngvar Kamprad
$23.0 billion
79
 Sweden
IKEA

7000700000000000000♠7
Allen, PaulPaul Allen
$21.0 billion
52
 United States
Microsoft

7000800000000000000♠8
Albrecht, KarlKarl Albrecht
$18.5 billion
85
 Germany
Aldi Süd

7000900000000000000♠9
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$18.4 billion
60
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, S. RobsonS. Robson Walton
$18.3 billion
61
 United States
Walmart

text: The founders of Google, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, become billionaires at age 30.

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$46.6 billion
48
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$42.9 billion
73
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Albrecht, KarlKarl Albrecht
$23.0 billion
84
 Germany
Aldi Süd

7000400000000000000♠4
Al-Waleed, PrincePrince Al-Waleed
$21.5 billion
47
 Saudi Arabia
Kingdom Holding Company

7000500000000000000♠5
Allen, PaulPaul Allen
$21.0 billion
51
 United States
Microsoft

7000600000000000000♠6
Walton, AliceAlice Walton*
$20.0 billion
55
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000700000000000000♠7
Walton, HelenHelen Walton*
$20.0 billion
84
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000800000000000000♠8
Walton, JimJim Walton*
$20.0 billion
56
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000900000000000000♠9
Walton, JohnJohn Walton*
$20.0 billion
58
 United States
Wal-Mart

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, S. RobsonS. Robson Walton*
$20.0 billion
60
 United States
Wal-Mart

text: Oprah Winfrey becomes the first female African American billionaire.

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$40.7 billion
47
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$30.5 billion
72
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Karl and Theo Albrecht
$25.6 billion
83
 Germany
Aldi Süd

7000400000000000000♠4
Allen, PaulPaul Allen
$20.1 billion
50
 United States
Microsoft

7000500000000000000♠5
Al-Waleed, PrincePrince Al-Waleed
$17.7 billion
46
 Saudi Arabia
Kingdom Holding Company

7000600000000000000♠6
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$16.6 billion
58
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000700000000000000♠7
Walton, AliceAlice Walton*
$16.5 billion
54
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000800000000000000♠8
Walton, HelenHelen Walton*
$16.5 billion
83
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000900000000000000♠9
Walton, JimJim Walton*
$16.5 billion
55
 United States
Wal-Mart

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, JohnJohn Walton*
$16.5 billion
57
 United States
Wal-Mart

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, S. RobsonS. Robson Walton*
$16.5 billion
59
 United States
Wal-Mart

text: As a result of the market crash caused by the Dot-com bubble, 83 billionaires drop off the list from the previous year.

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$52.8 billion
46
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$35.0 billion
71
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Karl and Theo Albrecht
$26.8 billion
82
 Germany
Aldi Süd

7000400000000000000♠4
Allen, PaulPaul Allen
$25.2 billion
49
 United States
Microsoft

7000500000000000000♠5
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$23.5 billion
57
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000600000000000000♠6
Walton, JimJim Walton*
$20.8 billion
54
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000700000000000000♠7
Walton, JohnJohn Walton*
$20.7 billion
56
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000800000000000000♠8
Walton, AliceAlice Walton*
$20.5 billion
53
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000900000000000000♠9
Walton, S. RobsonS. Robson Walton*
$20.5 billion
58
 United States
Wal-Mart

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, HelenHelen Walton*
$20.4 billion
82
 United States
Wal-Mart

text: In 2001, BET founder Robert L. Johnson became the first ever African-American billionaire.[34]

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$58.7 billion
45
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$32.3 billion
70
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000300000000000000♠3
Allen, PaulPaul Allen
$30.4 billion
48
 United States
Microsoft

7000400000000000000♠4
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$26.0 billion
56
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000500000000000000♠5
Karl and Theo Albrecht
$25.0 billion
81
 Germany
Aldi

7000600000000000000♠6
Al-Waleed, PrincePrince Al-Waleed
$20.0 billion
44
 Saudi Arabia
Kingdom Holding Company

7000700000000000000♠7
Walton, JimJim Walton*
$18.8 billion
53
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000800000000000000♠8
Walton, JohnJohn Walton*
$18.7 billion
55
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000900000000000000♠9
Walton, S. RobsonS. Robson Walton*
$18.6 billion
57
 United States
Wal-Mart

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, AliceAlice Walton*
$18.5 billion
52
 United States
Wal-Mart

7001100000000000000♠10
Walton, HelenHelen Walton*
$18.5 billion
81
 United States
Wal-Mart

text: Each hold an essentially equal share in Wal-Mart. Had he been alive in 2001, Sam Walton would have been the world's wealthiest person.

text: Bill Gates became the first American to take the top spot of the World's Billionaires in 1995 with a net worth of $12.5 billion and he remained there during the Dot-com bubble's height in 1999 when Gates' fortune peaked at $90 billion. After the dot-com bubble started to collapse in 2000, his wealth dropped to $60 billion although he remained at the top of the list.

text:
No.
Name
Net worth (USD)
Age
Nationality
Source(s) of wealth

7000100000000000000♠1
Gates, BillBill Gates
$60.0 billion
44
 United States
Microsoft

7000200000000000000♠2
Ellison, LarryLarry Ellison
$47.0 billion
55
 United States
Oracle Corporation

7000300000000000000♠3
Allen, PaulPaul Allen
$28.0 billion
47
 United States
Microsoft

7000400000000000000♠4
Buffett, WarrenWarren Buffett
$25.6 billion
69
 United States
Berkshire Hathaway

7000500000000000000♠5
Karl and Theo Albrecht
$20.0 billion
80
 Germany
Aldi Süd

7000600000000000000♠6
Al-Waleed, PrincePrince Al-Waleed
$20.0 billion
43
 Saudi Arabia
Kingdom Holding Company

7000700000000000000♠7
Walton, S. RobsonS. Robson Walton
$20.0 billion
57
 United States
Wal-Mart

7000800000000000000♠8
Son, MasayoshiMasayoshi Son
$19.4 billion
43
 Japan
Softbank Capital, SoftBank Mobile

7000900000000000000♠9
Dell, MichaelMichael Dell
$19.1 billion
35
 United States
Dell

7001100000000000000♠10
Thomson, KennethKenneth Thomson
$16.1 billion
77
 Canada
The Thomson Corporation

text: Legend

text:
Icon
Description

Has not changed from the previous ranking.

Has increased from the previous ranking.

Has decreased from the previous ranking.

text: Statistics

text: The dot-com bubble created the most paper wealth for some billionaires. However, once the dotcom bubble burst the new rich saw their fortunes disappear.[35] Billionaires' fortunes were hit even harder by the global financial crisis; 2009 was the first time in five years that the world had a net loss in the number of billionaires.[36] The strong performance of the financial markets and global economic recovery have erased financial assets losses. Most of the richest people in the world have seen their fortunes soar in the early 2010s.[37][38]

text:
Number and combined net worth of billionaires by year[39]

Year
Number of billionaires
Group's combined net worth

2017
2,043
$7.67 trillion

2016
1,810
$6.5 trillion

2015[5]
1,826
$7.1 trillion

2014[40]
1,645
$6.4 trillion

2013[41]
1,426
$5.4 trillion

2012
1,226
$4.6 trillion

2011
1,210
$4.5 trillion

2010
1,011
$3.6 trillion

2009
793
$2.4 trillion

2008
1,125
$4.4 trillion

2007
946
$3.5 trillion

2006
793
$2.6 trillion

2005
691
$2.2 trillion

2004
587
$1.9 trillion

2003
476
$1.4 trillion

2002
497
$1.5 trillion

2001
538
$1.8 trillion

2000
470
$0.9 trillion$898 billion

text: Source: Forbes.[5][40][39][41]


document_title: Homologous chromosome

question_text: when do homologous chromosomes separate from each other

text: Homologous chromosome

text: Overview[edit]

text: Chromosomes are linear arrangements of condensed deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and histone proteins, which form a complex called chromatin.[2] Homologous chromosomes are made up of chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, for genes with the same corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's mother; the other is inherited from the organism's father. After mitosis occurs within the daughter cells, they have the correct number of genes which are a mix of the two parents' genes. In diploid (2n) organisms, the genome is composed of one set of each homologous chromosome pair, as compared to tetraploid organisms which may have two sets of each homologous chromosome pair. The alleles on the homologous chromosomes may be different, resulting in different phenotypes of the same genes. This mixing of maternal and paternal traits is enhanced by crossing over during meiosis, wherein lengths of chromosomal arms and the DNA they contain within a homologous chromosome pair are exchanged with one another.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: Early in the 1900s William Bateson and Reginald Punnett were studying genetic inheritance and they noted that some combinations of alleles appeared more frequently than others. That data and information was further explored by Thomas Morgan. Using test cross experiments, he revealed that, for a single parent, the alleles of genes near to one another along the length of the chromosome move together. Using this logic he concluded that the two genes he was studying were located on homologous chromosomes. Later on during the 1930s Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock were studying meiosis in corn cells and examining gene loci on corn chromosomes.[2] Creighton and McClintock discovered that the new allele combinations present in the offspring and the event of crossing over were directly related.[2] This proved interchromosomal genetic recombination.[2]

text: Structure[edit]

text: Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes which contain the same genes in the same order along their chromosomal arms. There are two main properties of homologous chromosomes: the length of chromosomal arms and the placement of the centromere [4]

text: The actual length of the arm, in accordance with the gene locations, is critically important for proper alignment. Centromere placement can be characterized by four main arrangements, consisting of being either metacentric, submetacentric, telocentric, or acrocentric. Both of these properties are the main factors for creating structural homology between chromosomes. Therefore, when two chromosomes of the exact structure exist, they are able to pair together to form homologous chromosomes.[5]

text: Since homologous chromosomes are not identical and do not originate from the same organism, they are different from sister chromatids. Sister chromatids result after DNA replication has occurred, and thus are identical, side-by-side duplicates of each other.[6]

text: In humans[edit]

text: Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes, but there are only 22 pairs of homologous autosomal chromosomes. The additional 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes, X and Y. If this pair is made up of an X and Y chromosome, then the pair of chromosomes is not homologous because their size and gene content differ greatly. The 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes contain the same genes but code for different traits in their allelic forms since one was inherited from the mother and one from the father.[7] So humans have two homologous chromosome sets in each cell, meaning humans are diploid organisms.[2]

text: Functions[edit]

text: Homologous chromosomes are important in the processes of meiosis and mitosis. They allow for the recombination and random segregation of genetic material from the mother and father into new cells.[8]

text: In meiosis[edit]

text: Meiosis is a round of two cell divisions that results in four haploid daughter cells that each contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.[9] It reduces the chromosome number in a germ cell by half by first separating the homologous chromosomes in meiosis I and then the sister chromatids in meiosis II. The process of meiosis I is generally longer than meiosis II because it takes more time for the chromatin to replicate and for the homologous chromosomes to be properly oriented and segregated by the processes of pairing and synapsis in meiosis I.[6] During meiosis, genetic recombination (by random segregation) and crossing over produces daughter cells that each contain different combinations of maternally and paternally coded genes.[9] This recombination of genes allows for the introduction of new allele pairings and genetic variation.[2] Genetic variation among organisms helps make a population more stable by providing a wider range of genetic traits for natural selection to act on.[2]

text: Prophase I[edit]

text: In prophase I of meiosis I, each chromosome is aligned with its homologous partner and pairs completely. In prophase I, the DNA has already undergone replication so each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids connected by a common centromere.[9] During the zygotene stage of prophase I, the homologous chromosomes pair up with each other.[9] This pairing occurs by a synapsis process where the synaptonemal complex - a protein scaffold - is assembled and joins the homologous chromosomes along their lengths.[6] Cohesin crosslinking occurs between the homologous chromosomes and helps them resist being pulled apart until anaphase.[7] Genetic crossing-over, a type of recombination, occurs during the pachytene stage of prophase I.[9] In addition, another type of recombination referred to as synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA) frequently occurs. SDSA recombination involves information exchange between paired homologous chromatids, but not physical exchange. SDSA recombination does not cause crossing-over.

text: In the process of crossing-over, genes are exchanged by the breaking and union of homologous portions of the chromosomes’ lengths.[6] Structures called chiasmata are the site of the exchange. Chiasmata physically link the homologous chromosomes once crossing over occurs and throughout the process of chromosomal segregation during meiosis.[6] Both the non-crossover and crossover types of recombination function as processes for repairing DNA damage, particularly double-strand breaks. At the diplotene stage of prophase I the synaptonemal complex disassembles before which will allow the homologous chromosomes to separate, while the sister chromatids stay associated by their centromeres.[6]

text: Metaphase I[edit]

text: In metaphase I of meiosis I, the pairs of homologous chromosomes, also known as bivalents or tetrads, line up in a random order along the metaphase plate.[9] The random orientation is another way for cells to introduce genetic variation. Meiotic spindles emanating from opposite spindle poles attach to each of the homologs (each pair of sister chromatids) at the kinetochore.[7]

text: Anaphase I[edit]

text: In anaphase I of meiosis I the homologous chromosomes are pulled apart from each other. The homologs are cleaved by the enzyme separase to release the cohesin that held the homologous chromosome arms together.[7] This allows the chiasmata to release and the homologs to move to opposite poles of the cell.[7] The homologous chromosomes are now randomly segregated into two daughter cells that will undergo meiosis II to produce four haploid daughter germ cells.[2]

text: Meiosis II[edit]

text: After the tetrads of homologous chromosomes are separated in meiosis I, the sister chromatids from each pair are separated. The two haploid(because the chromosome no. has reduced to half. Earlier two sets of chromosomes were present, but now each set exists in two different daughter cells that have arisen from the single diploid parent cell by meiosis I) daughter cells resulting from meiosis I undergo another cell division in meiosis II but without another round of chromosomal replication. The sister chromatids in the two daughter cells are pulled apart during anaphase II by nuclear spindle fibers, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.[2]

text: In mitosis[edit]

text: Homologous chromosomes do not function the same in mitosis as they do in meiosis. Prior to every single mitotic division a cell undergoes, the chromosomes in the parent cell replicate themselves. The homologous chromosomes within the cell will ordinarily not pair up and undergo genetic recombination with each other.[9] Instead, the replicants, or sister chromatids, will line up along the metaphase plate and then separate in the same way as meiosis II - by being pulled apart at their centromeres by nuclear mitotic spindles.[10] If any crossing over does occur between sister chromatids during mitosis, it does not produce any new recombinant genotypes.[2]

text: In somatic cells[edit]

text: Homologous pairing in most contexts will refer to germline cells, however also takes place in somatic cells. For example, in humans, somatic cells have very tightly regulated homologous pairing (separated into chromosomal territories, and pairing at specific loci under control of developmental signalling). Other species however (notably Drosophila) exhibit homologous pairing much more frequently. Various functions of homologous pairing in somatic cells have been elucidated through high-throughput screens in the early 21st century.

text: Problems[edit]

text: There are severe repercussions when chromosomes do not segregate properly. Faulty segregation can lead to fertility problems, embryo death, birth defects, and cancer.[11] Though the mechanisms for pairing and adhering homologous chromosomes vary among organisms, proper functioning of those mechanisms is imperative in order for the final genetic material to be sorted correctly.[11]

text: Nondisjunction[edit]

text: Proper homologous chromosome separation in meiosis I is crucial for sister chromatid separation in meiosis II.[11] A failure to separate properly is known as nondisjunction. There are two main types of nondisjunction that occur: trisomy and monosomy. Trisomy is caused by the presence of one additional chromosomes in the zygote as compared to the normal number, and monosomy is characterized by the presence of one fewer chromosome in the zygote as compared to the normal number. If this uneven division occurs in meiosis I, then none of the daughter cells will have proper chromosomal distribution and severe effects can ensue, including Down’s syndrome.[12] Unequal division can also occur during the second meiotic division. Nondisjunction which occurs at this stage can result in normal daughter cells and deformed cells.[4]

text: Other uses[edit]

text: While the main function of homologous chromosomes is their use in nuclear division, they are also used in repairing double-strand breaks of DNA.[13] These double-stranded breaks may occur in replicating DNA and are most often the result of interaction of DNA with naturally occurring damaging molecules such as reactive oxygen species. Homologous chromosomes can repair this damage by aligning themselves with chromosomes of the same genetic sequence.[13] Once the base pairs have been matched and oriented correctly between the two strands, the homologous chromosomes perform a process that is very similar to recombination, or crossing over as seen in meiosis. Part of the intact DNA sequence overlaps with that of the damaged chromosome's sequence. Replication proteins and complexes are then recruited to the site of damage, allowing for repair and proper replication to occur. Through this functioning, double-strand breaks can be repaired and DNA can function normally.[13]

text: Relevant research[edit]

text: Current and future research on the subject of homologous chromosome is heavily focused on the roles of various proteins during recombination or during DNA repair. In a recently published article by Pezza et al. the protein known as HOP2 is responsible for both homologous chromosome synapsis as well as double-strand break repair via homologous recombination. The deletion of HOP2 in mice has large repercussions in meiosis.[14] Other current studies focus on specific proteins involved in homologous recombination as well.

text: There is ongoing research concerning the ability of homologous chromosomes to repair double-strand DNA breaks. Researchers are investigating the possibility of exploiting this capability for regenerative medicine.[15] This medicine could be very prevalent in relation to cancer, as DNA damage is thought to be contributor to carcinogenesis. Manipulating the repair function of homologous chromosomes might allow for bettering a cell’s damage response system. While research has not yet confirmed the effectiveness of such treatment, it may become a useful therapy for cancer.[16]


document_title: List of Star Wars filming locations

question_text: where were the desert scenes in star wars filmed

text: List of Star Wars filming locations

text: Maps[edit]

text:
Eyjafjallajökull

     Reynisfjara

Mount Etna

Palace of Caserta

Hardangerjøkulen

Seville

Grindelwald

Balbianello

Skellig Michael

Locations in continental Europe

Tozeur

Nefta

Matmata

Ksar Ouled Soltane

Ksar Hadada

Ajim

Locations in Tunisia

Ealing Studios

Leavesden Studios

Shepperton Studios

Whippendell Woods

Studios & locations in the UK

text: Location filming[edit]

text:
Image
Location
Country
Episode
Setting
Notes

Ksar Hadada, Ghoumrassen
Tunisia
I
Tatooine: Mos Espa slave quarters
[1]

Ksar Ouled Soltane
Tunisia
I
Tatooine: Mos Espa slave quarters
30 km south of Tataouine[1]

Onk Jemal, Tozeur 33°59′39″N 7°50′34″E / 33.994030°N 7.842748°E / 33.994030; 7.842748
Tunisia
I
Tatooine: Mos Espa street set
Location of the lightsaber duel between Qui-Gon Jinn & Darth Maul; Mos Espa;[1]

Palace of Caserta
Italy
I, II
Naboo Royal Palace
[2]

Whippendell Woods, Cassiobury Park, Watford
UK
I
Naboo forest scene
First meeting of Qui-Gon Jinn and Obi-Wan Kenobi with Jar Jar Binks.[3][4]

Plaza de España in Seville
Spain
II
Naboo: City of Theed
[5]

Villa del Balbianello
Italy
II
Naboo lakeside
Used for Anakin and Padmé's wedding scene overlooking Lake Como [6]

Matmata
Tunisia
II, IV
Tatooine: Lars Homestead
Used for courtyard shots and Lars dinner scene. The homestead also featured in Attack of the Clones[1][7]

Phang Nga Bay, near Phuket
Thailand
III
Kashyyyk
Aerial footage of limestone karst mountains which was later composited into the film for the approach over the Battle of Kashyyyk [8]

Guilin
China
III
Kashyyyk
Footage of limestone karst mountains which was later composited into the film for the backdrop of Kashyyyk[9]

Mount Etna
Italy
III
Mustafar
The volcano erupted during filming of Episode III and Lucasfilm sent camera crews to shoot several angles of the eruption; footage was later composited into the background of the scenes set on Mustafar including the lightsaber duel of Obi-Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker.[10][11]

Grindelwald
Switzerland
III
Alderaan
Footage of mountain scenery which was later composited into the film for the backdrop of the planet Alderaan[12]

Chott el Djerid, near Nefta 33°50′34″N 7°46′45″E / 33.842850°N 7.779055°E / 33.842850; 7.779055
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine desert and Lars homestead
Area west of Nefta: chott used for the Lars homestead[1]

La Grande Dune, near Nefta
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine desert
Sand dunes west of Nefta used to film the landing area of the escape pod of C-3PO and R2-D2[1][13][14]

Tikal
Guatemala
IV
Yavin IV Rebel Base
Exterior panoramic shots over the Yavin IV jungle towards the Massassi Temple[15][16]

RAF Cardington, Bedfordshire
UK
IV, R1
Yavin IV Rebel Base
Interior of disused WWII airship sheds were used for the Rebel Base hangar scenes inside the Massassi Temple on the Fourth Moon of Yavin IV; Shed 1 was used in Ep.IV and Shed 2 was used for Rogue One.[17][18]

Death Valley National Park
United States
IV
Tatooine desert

Several Tatooine scenes:[15][19]

Mesquite Flat Sand Dunes - scene where R2D2 goes his separate way after he and C3P0 crash their escape pod on Tatooine (spliced with footage shot in Tunisia)
Artists Palette & Golden Canyon - Canyon where R2D2 is abducted by Jawas (spliced with footage shot at Sidi Bouhlel, Tunisia)
Artist's Drive - Where the miniature Sandcrawler was filmed for the shot of R2D2 being carried up to it by Jawas
Desolation Canyon - Canyon where Tusken Raiders mount Bantha before Luke Skywalker is attacked (spliced with Sidi Bouhlel footage)
Dante's View - panoramic establishing shot of Mos Eisley (spliced with Sidi Bouhlel footage of Luke and Obi-Wan standing on rocky outcrop)

Ajim, Island of Djerba
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine: Mos Eisley Spaceport
Scenes shot in the town include the exterior of the Mos Eisley Cantina. An old mosque outside the town (33°44′27″N 10°44′05″E / 33.740855°N 10.734859°E / 33.740855; 10.734859) was used for exterior shots of Obi-Wan Kenobi's house.[1]

Sidi Jemour, Island of Djerba
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine: Tosche Station
Location for the deleted exterior scenes with Luke and Biggs Darklighter; also used as a backdrop in the Special Edition for the scene showing Luke's landspeeder heading towards Mos Eisley[1][20]

Shubiel Gorge, Sidi Bouhlel (or Sidi Bou Helal), near Tozeur 34°02′11″N 8°16′49″E / 34.036255°N 8.280333°E / 34.036255; 8.280333
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine canyon

Several Tatooine scenes:[13][21]

Canyon where R2D2 is abducted by Jawas (spliced with footage shot at Death Valley, USA)
Canyon where Tusken Raiders attack Luke Skywalker (spliced with Death Valley footage)
Scene of wrecked Sandcrawler after attack by Imperial stormtroopers
Also features in The Phantom Menace.[1]

Hardangerjøkulen Glacier
Norway
V
Hoth
Exterior scenes during the battle of Hoth[22]

Twenty-Mule Team Canyon, Death Valley, California
USA
VI
Tatooine: Road to Jabba's Palace
Two Tatooine scenes:

C-3P0 and R2D2 walk up to the Palace of Jabba the Hutt on Tatooine.
"Lost scene" of Luke Skywalker working on a new lightsaber in a cave overlooking the Millennium Falcon and his X-wing, followed by R2D2 and C3PO starting their trek to Jabba's palace.

Buttercup Valley, Yuma Desert
United States
VI
Tatooine exteriors

Location used for the Great Pit of Carkoon scene [23][24]
Additional footage for the special edition of A New Hope of stormtroopers finding evidence of droids was shot here and cut in with original shots from La Grande Dune, Tunisia [25][26]

Del Norte County, CA
USA
VI
Endor
Forest scenes on the moon of Endor

Rub' al Khali
UAE
VII
Jakku
Desert scenes on the planet Jakku[27][28]

Derwentwater, Cumbria
UK
VII
Takodana
Lakeside setting of Maz Kanata's Castle on Takodana; some Lakeland Fells in the background are altered with CGI[29][28]

Thirlmere, Cumbria
UK
VII
Takodana
Low-level X-Wing flight sequences over Takodana; the background was apparently flipped horizontally[29][28]

Puzzlewood, Forest of Dean
UK
VII
Takodana
Forest scenes on the surface of Takodana[30][28]

RAF Greenham Common, Berkshire
UK
VII
D'Qar
Disused missile silos formed the backdrop for the Resistance Base[31][28]

Eyjafjallajökull
Iceland
VII
Starkiller Base
Snow scenes on the surface of Starkiller Base[28]

Skellig Michael
Ireland
VII
Ahch-To: Luke's refuge
Final scenes: Rey meeting Luke Skywalker for the first time[28]

Canary Wharf
UK
R1
Imperial Base
London's Canary Wharf tube station was used as the setting for the Imperial security complex on Scarif. The Norman Foster-designed station's escalators and glass safety doors are particularly noticeable in the film. [32]

Laamu Atoll
Maldives
R1
Planet Scarif
The Laamu Atoll makes up 82 of the 1,192 Maldivian islands. The atoll's Gan, which is one of the Maldives' largest islands, stood in for planet Scarif. [32]

Reynisfjara
Iceland
R1
Planet Eadu
A 20-minute drive from Vík í Mýrdal, Reynisfjara served as the setting for the planet Eadu. [32]

Wadi Rum
Jordan
R1
Planet Jedha
Wadi Rum is a popular desert location, also used in The Martian. This location earned the Royal Film Commission – Jordan the Location Managers Guild Award for best Film Commission in 2017. [33]

Bovingdon Airfield, Hertfordshire
UK
R1
Scarif
Battle scenes on the surface of Scarif[34]

text: Studios[edit]

text:
Image
Location
Country
Episode
Setting
Notes

Ealing Studios
UK
II

Elstree Studios
UK
II, III, R1, IV, V, VI

The largest Stage 6 was built specifically for The Empire Strikes Back in 1979 (since demolished)

Leavesden Studios
UK
I

Pinewood Studios
UK
R1, VII

Shepperton Studios
UK
III, IV
Yavin
Stage H was used for the final awards ceremony at the end of Episode IV

Fox Studios, Sydney
Australia
II, III