document_title: Internet protocol suite

question_text: who is responsible for developing the concept of a suite of rules for packet network interconnection

question_tokens: who is responsible for developing the concept of a suite of rules for packet network interconnection

text: Internet protocol suite

text: History[edit]

text: Early research[edit]

text: The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s.[3] After initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET.

text: By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between local network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, this function was delegated to the hosts. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, with important influences on this design. The protocol was implemented as the Transmission Control Program, first published in 1974.[4]

text: Initially, the TCP managed both datagram transmissions and routing, but as the protocol grew, other researchers recommended a division of functionality into protocol layers. Advocates included Jonathan Postel of the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute, who edited the Request for Comments (RFCs), the technical and strategic document series that has both documented and catalyzed Internet development.[5] Postel stated, "We are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering."[6] Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the upper layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues. The Transmission Control Program was split into two distinct protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol.

text: The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. This design is known as the end-to-end principle. Using this design, it became possible to connect almost any network to the ARPANET, irrespective of the local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial internetworking problem. One popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, can run over "two tin cans and a string."[citation needed] Years later, as a joke, the IP over Avian Carriers formal protocol specification was created and successfully tested.

text: A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards network packets back and forth between them.[7] Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways.[citation needed]

text: Specification[edit]

text: From 1973 to 1974, Cerf's networking research group at Stanford worked out details of the idea, resulting in the first TCP specification.[8] A significant technical influence was the early networking work at Xerox PARC, which produced the PARC Universal Packet protocol suite, much of which existed around that time.

text: DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed: TCP v1, TCP v2, TCP v3 and IP v3, and TCP/IP v4. The last protocol is still in use today.

text: In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway. Several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983. The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on flag day January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.[9]

text: Adoption[edit]

text: In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking.[10] In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later renamed the Internet Architecture Board) held a three-day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use.

text: In 1985, the first Interop conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting. Interoperability conferences have been held every year since then. Every year from 1985 through 1993, the number of attendees tripled.[citation needed]

text: IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, despite having competing internal protocols (SNA, XNS, DECNET). In IBM, from 1984, Barry Appelman's group did TCP/IP development. (Appelman later moved to AOL to be the head of all its development efforts.) They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including MVS, VM, and OS/2. At the same time, several smaller companies began offering TCP/IP stacks for DOS and MS Windows, such as the company FTP Software, and the Wollongong Group.[11] The first VM/CMS TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.[12]

text: Some of these TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few programmers. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively.[13] In 1984 Donald Gillies at MIT wrote a 'ntcp' multi-connection TCP which ran atop the IP/PacketDriver layer maintained by John Romkey at MIT in 1983-4. Romkey leveraged this TCP in 1986 when FTP Software was founded.[14][15] Phil Karn created KA9Q TCP (a multi-connection TCP for ham radio applications) starting in 1985.[16]

text: The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when AT&T agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for UNIX into the public domain. Various vendors, including IBM, included this code in their own TCP/IP stacks. Many companies sold TCP/IP stacks for Windows until Microsoft released a native TCP/IP stack in Windows 95. This event was a little late in the evolution of the Internet, but it cemented TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols, which began to lose ground. These protocols included IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA), Digital Equipment Corporation's DECnet, Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), and Xerox Network Systems (XNS).

text: Key architectural principles[edit]

text: An early architectural document, RFC 1122, emphasizes architectural principles over layering.[17]

text: The end-to-end principle has evolved over time. Its original expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.[18]

text: The robustness principle states: "In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior. That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still clear)."[19] "The second part of the principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features."[20] Postel famously summarized the principle as, "Be conservative in what you do, be liberal in what you accept from others"—a saying that came to be known as "Postel's Law."

text: Abstraction layers[edit]

text:
Two Internet hosts connected via two routers and the corresponding layers used at each hop. The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe. Every other detail of the communication is hidden from each process. The underlying mechanisms that transmit data between the host computers are located in the lower protocol layers.

Encapsulation of application data descending through the layers described in RFC 1122

text: Encapsulation is used to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers, being further encapsulated at each level.

text: The layers of the protocol suite near the top are logically closer to the user application, while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data. Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of abstraction to isolate upper layer protocols from the details of transmitting bits over, for example, Ethernet and collision detection, while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol.

text: Even when the layers are examined, the assorted architectural documents—there is no single architectural model such as ISO 7498, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model—have fewer and less rigidly defined layers than the OSI model, and thus provide an easier fit for real-world protocols. One frequently referenced document, RFC 1958, does not contain a stack of layers. The lack of emphasis on layering is a major difference between the IETF and OSI approaches. It only refers to the existence of the internetworking layer and generally to upper layers; this document was intended as a 1996 snapshot of the architecture: "The Internet and its architecture have grown in evolutionary fashion from modest beginnings, rather than from a Grand Plan. While this process of evolution is one of the main reasons for the technology's success, it nevertheless seems useful to record a snapshot of the current principles of the Internet architecture."

text: RFC 1122, entitled Host Requirements, is structured in paragraphs referring to layers, but the document refers to many other architectural principles not emphasizing layering. It loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows:

text:
The application layer is the scope within which applications create user data and communicate this data to other applications on another or the same host. The applications, or processes, make use of the services provided by the underlying, lower layers, especially the Transport Layer which provides reliable or unreliable pipes to other processes. The communications partners are characterized by the application architecture, such as the client-server model and peer-to-peer networking. This is the layer in which all higher level protocols, such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, operate. Processes are addressed via ports which essentially represent services.
The transport layer performs host-to-host communications on either the same or different hosts and on either the local network or remote networks separated by routers. It provides a channel for the communication needs of applications. UDP is the basic transport layer protocol, providing an unreliable datagram service. The Transmission Control Protocol provides flow-control, connection establishment, and reliable transmission of data.
The internet layer has the task of exchanging datagrams across network boundaries. It provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. It is therefore also referred to as the layer that establishes internetworking, indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet. This layer defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines IP addresses. Its function in routing is to transport datagrams to the next IP router that has the connectivity to a network closer to the final data destination.
The link layer defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer includes the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces needed to effect transmission of Internet layer datagrams to next-neighbor hosts.

text: The Internet protocol suite and the layered protocol stack design were in use before the OSI model was established. Since then, the TCP/IP model has been compared with the OSI model in books and classrooms, which often results in confusion because the two models use different assumptions and goals, including the relative importance of strict layering.

text: This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers do not provide. While the original OSI model was extended to include connectionless services (OSIRM CL),[21] IP is not designed to be reliable and is a best effort delivery protocol. This means that all transport layer implementations must choose whether or how to provide reliability. UDP provides data integrity via a checksum but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both data integrity and delivery guarantee by retransmitting until the receiver acknowledges the reception of the packet.

text: This model lacks the formalism of the OSI model and associated documents, but the IETF does not use a formal model and does not consider this a limitation, as illustrated in the comment by David D. Clark, "We reject: kings, presidents and voting. We believe in: rough consensus and running code." Criticisms of this model, which have been made with respect to the OSI model, often do not consider ISO's later extensions to that model.

text: For multi-access links with their own addressing systems (e.g. Ethernet) an address mapping protocol is needed. Such protocols can be considered to be below IP but above the existing link system. While the IETF does not use the terminology, this is a subnetwork dependent convergence facility according to an extension to the OSI model, the internal organization of the network layer (IONL).[22]

text: ICMP & IGMP operate on top of IP but do not transport data like UDP or TCP. Again, this functionality exists as layer management extensions to the OSI model, in its Management Framework (OSIRM MF)[23]

text: The SSL/TLS library operates above the transport layer (uses TCP) but below application protocols. Again, there was no intention, on the part of the designers of these protocols, to comply with OSI architecture.

text: The link is treated as a black box. The IETF explicitly does not intend to discuss transmission systems, which is a less academic[citation needed] but practical alternative to the OSI model.

text: The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP networking model starting from the lowest level.

text: Link layer[edit]

text: The link layer has the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in TCP/IP literature. It is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. As a result, TCP/IP may be implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking technology.

text: The link layer is used to move packets between the Internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These perform data link functions such as adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium. The TCP/IP model includes specifications of translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to link layer addresses, such as Media Access Control (MAC) addresses. All other aspects below that level, however, are implicitly assumed to exist in the link layer, but are not explicitly defined.

text: This is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent over a virtual private network or other networking tunnel. In this scenario, the link layer data may be considered application data which traverses another instantiation of the IP stack for transmission or reception over another IP connection. Such a connection, or virtual link, may be established with a transport protocol or even an application scope protocol that serves as a tunnel in the link layer of the protocol stack. Thus, the TCP/IP model does not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence.

text: The TCP/IP model's link layer corresponds to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model physical and data link layers, layers one and two of the OSI model.

text: Internet layer[edit]

text: The internet layer has the responsibility of sending packets across potentially multiple networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing.

text: The Internet Protocol performs two basic functions:

text:
Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical IP addressing system.
Packet routing: This is the basic task of sending packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by forwarding them to the next network router closer to the final destination.

text: The internet layer is not only agnostic of data structures at the transport layer, but it also does not distinguish between operation of the various transport layer protocols. IP carries data for a variety of different upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.

text: Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP which is used to transmit diagnostic information, and IGMP which is used to manage IP Multicast data, are layered on top of IP but perform internetworking functions. This illustrates the differences in the architecture of the TCP/IP stack of the Internet and the OSI model. The TCP/IP model's internet layer corresponds to layer three of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, where it is referred to as the network layer.

text: The internet layer provides an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding the transport layer datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further relaying to its destination. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet. The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts' computers, and to locate them on the network. The original address system of the ARPANET and its successor, the Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). It uses a 32-bit IP address and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts. This limitation was eliminated in 1998 by the standardization of Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) which uses 128-bit addresses. IPv6 production implementations emerged in approximately 2006.

text: Transport layer[edit]

text: The transport layer establishes basic data channels that applications use for task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes process-to-process connectivity, meaning it provides end-to-end services that are independent of the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information for any particular specific purpose. Its responsibility includes end-to-end message transfer independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End-to-end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented in TCP, or connectionless, implemented in UDP.

text: For the purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels for applications, the layer establishes the concept of the port. This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs. For many types of services, these port numbers have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without the involvement of service announcements or directory services.

text: Because IP provides only a best effort delivery, some transport layer protocols offer reliability. However, IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC).

text: For example, the TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a reliable byte stream:

text:
data arrives in-order
data has minimal error (i.e., correctness)
duplicate data is discarded
lost or discarded packets are resent
includes traffic congestion control

text: The newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is message-stream-oriented—not byte-stream-oriented like TCP—and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP), but can also be used for other applications.

text: The User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless datagram protocol. Like IP, it is a best effort, "unreliable" protocol. Reliability is addressed through error detection using a weak checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNS lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such as streaming audio and video.

text: The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention certain well known ports are associated with specific applications.

text: The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds to the fourth layer in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, also called the transport layer.

text: Application layer[edit]

text: The application layer includes the protocols used by most applications for providing user services or exchanging application data over the network connections established by the lower level protocols. This may include some basic network support services such as protocols for routing and host configuration. Examples of application layer protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).[24] Data coded according to application layer protocols are encapsulated into transport layer protocol units (such as TCP or UDP messages), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer.

text: The TCP/IP model does not consider the specifics of formatting and presenting data, and does not define additional layers between the application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers). Such functions are the realm of libraries and application programming interfaces.

text: Application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as black boxes which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. Application layer protocols are often associated with particular client-server applications, and common services have well-known port numbers reserved by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). For example, the HyperText Transfer Protocol uses server port 80 and Telnet uses server port 23. Clients connecting to a service usually use ephemeral ports, i.e., port numbers assigned only for the duration of the transaction at random or from a specific range configured in the application.

text: The transport layer and lower-level layers are unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and switches do not typically examine the encapsulated traffic, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications must interpret application data. An example is the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). It is also sometimes necessary for network address translator (NAT) traversal to consider the application payload.

text: The application layer in the TCP/IP model is often compared as equivalent to a combination of the fifth (Session), sixth (Presentation), and the seventh (Application) layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

text: Furthermore, the TCP/IP reference model distinguishes between user protocols and support protocols.[25] Support protocols provide services to a system. User protocols are used for actual user applications. For example, FTP is a user protocol and DNS is a support protocol.

text: Layer names and number of layers in the literature[edit]

text: The following table shows various networking models. The number of layers varies between three and seven.

text:
RFC 1122, Internet STD 3 (1989)
Cisco Academy[26]
Kurose,[27] Forouzan[28]
Comer,[29] Kozierok[30]
Stallings[31]
Tanenbaum[32]
Arpanet Reference Model (RFC 871)
OSI model

Four layers
Four layers
Five layers
Four+one layers
Five layers
Five layers
Three layers
Seven layers

"Internet model"
"Internet model"
"Five-layer Internet model" or "TCP/IP protocol suite"
"TCP/IP 5-layer reference model"
"TCP/IP model"
"TCP/IP 5-layer reference model"
"Arpanet reference model"
OSI model

Application
Application
Application
Application
Application
Application
Application/Process
Application

Presentation

Session

Transport
Transport
Transport
Transport
Host-to-host or transport
Transport
Host-to-host
Transport

Internet
Internetwork
Network
Internet
Internet
Internet
Network

Link
Network interface
Data link
Data link (Network interface)
Network access
Data link
Network interface
Data link

Physical
(Hardware)
Physical
Physical

Physical

text: Some of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may conflict with the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources.[33]

text: Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering[edit]

text: The three top layers in the OSI model, i.e. the application layer, the presentation layer and the session layer, are not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model which only has an application layer above the transport layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture above the transport layer. For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the eXternal Data Representation (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called Remote Procedure Call (RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can safely use the best-effort UDP transport.

text: Different authors have interpreted the TCP/IP model differently, and disagree whether the link layer, or the entire TCP/IP model, covers OSI layer 1 (physical layer) issues, or whether a hardware layer is assumed below the link layer.

text: Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model, since these are commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by IEEE and ITU). This often results in a model with five layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2.

text: The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering. Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has repeatedly stated[citation needed] that Internet protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful".[33]

text: For example, the session and presentation layers of the OSI suite are considered to be included to the application layer of the TCP/IP suite. The functionality of the session layer can be found in protocols like HTTP and SMTP and is more evident in protocols like Telnet and the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). Session layer functionality is also realized with the port numbering of the TCP and UDP protocols, which cover the transport layer in the TCP/IP suite. Functions of the presentation layer are realized in the TCP/IP applications with the MIME standard in data exchange.

text: Conflicts are apparent also in the original OSI model, ISO 7498, when not considering the annexes to this model, e.g., the ISO 7498/4 Management Framework, or the ISO 8648 Internal Organization of the Network layer (IONL). When the IONL and Management Framework documents are considered, the ICMP and IGMP are defined as layer management protocols for the network layer. In like manner, the IONL provides a structure for "subnetwork dependent convergence facilities" such as ARP and RARP.

text: IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunneling protocols such as Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE). GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunneling at the network layer.

text: Implementations[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Internet protocol suite does not presume any specific hardware or software environment. It only requires that hardware and a software layer exists that is capable of sending and receiving packets on a computer network. As a result, the suite has been implemented on essentially every computing platform. A minimal implementation of TCP/IP includes the following: Internet Protocol (IP), Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP). In addition to IP, ICMP, TCP, UDP, Internet Protocol version 6 requires Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP), ICMPv6, and IGMPv6 and is often accompanied by an integrated IPSec security layer.

text: Application programmers are typically concerned only with interfaces in the application layer and often also in the transport layer, while the layers below are services provided by the TCP/IP stack in the operating system. Most IP implementations are accessible to programmers through sockets and APIs.

text: Unique implementations include Lightweight TCP/IP, an open source stack designed for embedded systems, and KA9Q NOS, a stack and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and personal computers connected via serial lines.

text: Microcontroller firmware in the network adapter typically handles link issues, supported by driver software in the operating system. Non-programmable analog and digital electronics are normally in charge of the physical components below the link layer, typically using an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chipset for each network interface or other physical standard. High-performance routers are to a large extent based on fast non-programmable digital electronics, carrying out link level switching.


document_title: List of Major League Baseball single-season records

question_text: who has the record for best batting average in a season

root

text: Batting records[edit]

text: Home runs[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Home runs
Season

Barry Bonds
San Francisco Giants
73
2001

Mark McGwire
St. Louis Cardinals
70
1998

Sammy Sosa
Chicago Cubs
66
1998

Mark McGwire
St. Louis Cardinals
65
1999

Sammy Sosa
Chicago Cubs
64
2001

Sammy Sosa
Chicago Cubs
63
1999

Roger Maris
New York Yankees
61
1961

Babe Ruth
New York Yankees
60
1927

tag: table

text: Hits[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Hits
Season

Ichiro Suzuki
Seattle Mariners
262
2004

George Sisler
St. Louis Browns
257
1920

Bill Terry
New York Giants
254
1930

Lefty O'Doul
Philadelphia Phillies
254
1929

text: Batting average[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Average
Season

Nap Lajoie
Philadelphia Athletics
.426
1901

Rogers Hornsby
St. Louis Cardinals
.424
1924

George Sisler
St. Louis Browns
.420
1922

Ty Cobb
Detroit Tigers
.420
1911

text: Runs batted in[edit]

text:
Player
Team
RBIs
Season

Hack Wilson
Chicago Cubs
191
1930

Lou Gehrig
New York Yankees
184
1931

Hank Greenberg
Detroit Tigers
183
1937

Jimmie Foxx
Boston Red Sox
175
1938

Lou Gehrig
New York Yankees
175
1927

text: Hitting streak[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Streak
Season

Joe DiMaggio
New York Yankees
56
1941

Pete Rose
Cincinnati Reds
44
1978

Bill Dahlen
Chicago Colts
42
1894

George Sisler
St. Louis Browns
41
1922

Ty Cobb
Detroit Tigers
40
1911

text: Runs scored[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Runs
Season

Babe Ruth
New York Yankees
179
1921

Lou Gehrig
New York Yankees
167
1936

Lou Gehrig
New York Yankees
163
1931

Babe Ruth
New York Yankees
163
1928

Chuck Klein
Philadelphia Phillies
158
1930

text: Doubles[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Doubles
Season

Earl Webb
Boston Red Sox
67
1931

George Burns
Cleveland Indians
64
1926

Joe Medwick
St. Louis Cardinals
64
1936

Hank Greenberg
Detroit Tigers
63
1934

Paul Waner
Pittsburgh Pirates
62
1932

text: Triples[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Triples
Season

Chief Wilson
Pittsburgh Pirates
36
1912

Sam Crawford
Detroit Tigers
26
1914

Kiki Cuyler
Pittsburgh Pirates
26
1925

Joe Jackson
Cleveland Naps
26
1912

text: At bats[edit]

text:
Player
Team
At bats
Season

Jimmy Rollins
Philadelphia Phillies
716
2007

Willie Wilson
Kansas City Royals
705
1980

Ichiro Suzuki
Seattle Mariners
704
2004

Juan Samuel
Philadelphia Phillies
701
1984

Dave Cash
Philadelphia Phillies
699
1975

Juan Pierre
Chicago Cubs
699
2006

text: Stolen bases[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Stolen bases
Season

Rickey Henderson
Oakland Athletics
130
1982

Lou Brock
St. Louis Cardinals
118
1974

Vince Coleman
St. Louis Cardinals
110
1985

Vince Coleman
St. Louis Cardinals
109
1987

Rickey Henderson
Oakland Athletics
108
1983

text: Pitching records[edit]

text: Wins[edit]

text: All-time[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Wins
Season

Jack Chesbro
New York Yankees
41
1904

Ed Walsh
Chicago White Sox
40
1908

Christy Mathewson
New York Giants
37
1908

Walter Johnson
Washington Senators
36
1913

Joe McGinnity
New York Giants
35
1904

text: Live-ball era (post-1920)[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Wins
Season

Lefty Grove
Philadelphia Athletics
31
1931

Denny McLain
Detroit Tigers
31
1968

Dizzy Dean
St. Louis Cardinals
30
1934

Hal Newhouser
Detroit Tigers
29
1944

Dazzy Vance
Brooklyn Dodgers
28
1924

Lefty Grove
Philadelphia Athletics
28
1930

Dizzy Dean
St. Louis Cardinals
28
1935

Robin Roberts
Philadelphia Phillies
28
1952

text: Earned run average[edit]

text:
Player
Team
ERA
Season

Dutch Leonard
Boston Red Sox
0.96
1914

Mordecai Brown
Chicago Cubs
1.04
1906

Bob Gibson
St. Louis Cardinals
1.12
1968

text: Strikeouts[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Strikeouts
Season

Nolan Ryan
California Angels
383
1973

Sandy Koufax
Los Angeles Dodgers
382
1965

Randy Johnson
Arizona Diamondbacks
372
2001

Nolan Ryan
California Angels
367
1974

Randy Johnson
Arizona Diamondbacks
364
1999

text: Shutouts[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Shutouts
Season

Jack Coombs
Philadelphia Athletics
13
1910

Bob Gibson
St. Louis Cardinals
13
1968

Pete Alexander
Philadelphia Phillies
12
1915

text: Saves[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Saves
Season

Francisco Rodríguez
Los Angeles Angels
62
2008

Bobby Thigpen
Chicago White Sox
57
1990

John Smoltz
Atlanta Braves
55
2002

Éric Gagné
Los Angeles Dodgers
55
2003

text: Balks[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Balks
Season

Dave Stewart
Oakland Athletics
16
1988

John Dopson
Boston Red Sox
15
1989

Bob Welch
Oakland Athletics
13
1988

John Candelaria
New York Yankees
12
1988

Juan Guzmán
Texas Rangers
12
1988

text: Wild pitches[edit]

text:
Player
Team
Wild pitches
Season

Red Ames
New York Giants
30
1905

Tony Cloninger
Atlanta Braves
27
1966

Larry Cheney
Chicago Cubs
26
1914

Juan Guzmán
Toronto Blue Jays
26
1993

text: Team records[edit]

text: Hits[edit]

text:
Team
Hits
Season

Philadelphia Phillies
1,783
1930

text: Home runs[edit]

text:
Team
Home runs
Season

Seattle Mariners
264
1997

Texas Rangers
260
2005

Toronto Blue Jays
257
2010

Baltimore Orioles
257
1996

text: Runs batted in[edit]

text:
Team
Runs Batted In
Season

New York Yankees
997
1936

text: Runs scored[edit]

text:
Team
Runs Scored
Season

New York Yankees
1,067
1931


document_title: Rundown

question_text: where does the baseball term pickle come from

text: Rundown

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: A rundown, informally known as a pickle or the hotbox, is a situation in the game of baseball that occurs when the baserunner is stranded between two bases and is in jeopardy of being tagged out. When the base runner attempts to advance to the next base, he is cut off by the defensive player who has a live ball and attempts to return to his previous base before being tagged out. As he is doing this, the defenseman throws the ball past the base runner to the previous base, forcing him to reverse directions again. This is repeated until the runner is put out or reaches a base safely.

tag: p

text: A rundown can be escaped if a fielder makes an error, the runner gets around the fielder with the ball without running out of the baseline, a fielder throws the ball elsewhere (e.g., toward home plate if another runner is trying to score), or the runner manages to get by the fielder without the ball while there is no other fielder to cover the runner's destination base.

text: The word rundown in sports broadcasting has overtaken the word pickle throughout the years. Pickle is more so used to describe the children's yard game where two fielders must tag the runner before the runner reaches a base or objective, which, although a fundamental part of baseball, is a game in and of itself. The use of the term "pickle" originated with the phrase "in a pickle", which means to be in a pickling (difficult or troubling) situation.

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Baseball concepts

Outline, Glossary

Rules

Rules of baseball
Ground rules
Infield fly rule
Interference

Field

Backstop
Baseball diamond
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Pitching

Balk
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(positioning)

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unassisted

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Miscellaneous

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 Category
 Portal
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text: Baseball playsBaseball rulesBaseball terminology

tag: ul

text: Articles lacking sources from June 2009All articles lacking sources


document_title: Rose Parade floats

question_text: where do the flowers go after the rose parade

text: Rose Parade floats

text: Modern-day process[edit]

text: After the parade, floats are stripped to their chassis. Structural steel elements are reused where possible; organic materials and sculptural steel are recycled.

text: Shortly after each year's parade is over, and the next year's parade theme is announced, the parade sponsors and participating communities start to plan their floats for the following year. A "theme draft" meeting is held in mid-February where builders select their float theme. The Tournament assures that there are not too many similar floats.

text: Characters and other objects on the float are created as separate elements to add later, consisting of a framework of steel and chicken wire. The chassis has beams and steel rod welded to it to support a mesh cover. The float is then "cocooned" in the next process; it is sprayed with a polyvinyl material which acts as a base for inserting decoration. This base is painted with the colors of the flowers to be applied to the float.

text: Every square inch of the exposed surface of a float entered in the parade must be covered with flowers or other natural materials. These other decorative applicants include bark, seed and leaves. Decorating with the non-perishable materials is performed first. In the days following Christmas, the live additions to the float are applied by volunteers or hired workers. Delicate flowers are placed in individual vials of water and set into the float one-by-one. The Tournament of Roses is the largest consumer of flowers in the world, and flowers arrive from all over the world.

text: Many floats, along with their drive train, include computer-controlled robotic mechanisms to animate the floats. Most float drivers can only see the ground below them. An observer communicates by intercom to the driver. Most observers are hidden within the float and have limited visibility. Each float has a Tournament Member (Float Liaison) assigned to it who shepherds the float from the float barn to the formation area and down the parade route. Most ride on motor scooters although some walk. The Float Liaisons communicate with the float's observer by hand signals. At the two corners other Tournament Members direct the floats in addition to the Float Liaisons.

text: It is estimated that it takes 60 volunteers working 10 hours a day for 10 days to decorate one float.[2]

text:
20 daisies, 30 roses or 36 marigolds will cover one square foot of a float area
Over 500,000 roses (in vials) used in the parade
15 tons of steel along with 10,000 feet (3,000 m) of chicken wire for the framework of a float
600 tons of steel, 5,000 gallons of glue and 18 million flowers are used to make the floats each year
935 “white-suiters” spent 80,000 hours to manpower and plan the parade
Floats must collapse to no more than 16.5 ft (5.0 m). high, to pass under a freeway overpass
Natural materials, such as bark, seeds, leaves and flowers, shall cover the floats
Twenty-four awards for some 50 float entries
Length of parade is 5.5 miles (8.9 km), about 2.25 hours long at 2.5 miles (4.0 km) per hour pace[3]

text: Viewing float decorating[edit]

text: After Christmas one can view many of the floats being decorated with flowery mantles, in the various "float barns" that dot the Pasadena area and communities to the east.

text: Admission is charged for viewing the floats at the various sites. The flower float decorating places are Rose Palace, Rosemont Pavilion, Brookside Pavilion, and the Rose Float Plaza South, in the City of Irwindale, California.

text: Approximately 120,000 visitors attended the three-day event in 2009.

text: Quantity of flowers[edit]

text: While many distinct changes have taken place with the Festival's floats, including computer-aided movement and professional float building, the floats have kept true to the event's title and heritage, by using real, fresh flowers. The cost of flowers is included in the total cost of the float and paid for by the float sponsor.

text: In the old days, some of the flowers used on the floats were home grown in the former Fanny Morrison Horticultural Center, now the Kidspace Children's Museum in the Arroyo Seco Natural Park.[4]

text: Post-parade: A Showcase of Floats[edit]

text: Presented by Miracle-Gro, the Showcase is a paid admission area where the floats are displayed after the parade, for close-up viewing. The floats are parked along Sierra Madre and Washington Boulevards in Pasadena, near Pasadena High School and Victory Park, for three hours after the parade. On the day after the parade (occasionally two days when January 3 falls on Saturday or Sunday), the first two early morning hours (7-9) are reserved for seniors and the disabled, and the rest of day's worth of viewing for the general public.

text: A fair-like environment with food and souvenir vending stands is created for public enjoyment. Handicap access and assistance is provided. Some of the animated floats are put on display with their animation running.

text: Judging[edit]

text: Three civic and floral industry leaders evaluate the floats and hand out prizes to the participating floats in 24 categories. The top prize for the parade is the Sweepstakes Trophy, the most beautiful entry, which in 2008 was won by Rain Bird International's entry of "Preservation Celebration", built by Fiesta Parade Floats.[5] Recent year judges:

text:
2009: Richard Koshalek, recent president of Art Center College of Design; Sharon Loving, horticulture department head, Longwood Gardens of Kennett Square, Pennsylvania; and Beverly White, reporter and anchor, local NBC4 TV station.
2010: Christine Knoke, a curator at the Pasadena Norton Simon Museum; Ann Daly, DreamWorks Animation chief operating officer; and Jim Coiner, owner and founder of Coiner Nursery.

text:
2011: Debbie Turner, actress (The Sound of Music) and floral designer; Nancy Clarke, former White House Chief Floral Designer, floral designer and author; Kirk Hendrix, President and CEO of the Indianapolis’ 500 Festival.
2012: Lois B. Fowkes, American Rose Society judge; Paula Pryke, British florist; Bryan Wittman, Vice President of Global Special Events for Disney Parks.
2013: Shane Connolly, British florist; Amy Kule, executive director of Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade; Brian Sullivan, director of horticulture & garden operations at Descanso Gardens.
2014: Cheryl Cecchetto, founder/president of event planning company Sequoia Productions; James Folsom, botanical garden director at Huntington Library; and floral designer René van Rems.[6]
2015: Els Hazenberg, Dutch floral designer; Steven Wood Schmader, president of International Festivals and Events Association; and Eddie Zaratsian, Los Angeles-based floral designer.
2016: Tom Bowling, Director of Education, Syndicate Sales; Timothy Lindsay, Virginia Robinson Gardens, Beverly Hills; and Jodie Petersen, landscape architect, the National Park Service (NPS).
2017: Phil Rulloda, floral designer; Ronnie Siegel, landscape architect with Swire Siegel; and Carol Togneri, chief curator, Norton Simon Museum.[7]
2018: María Eugenia Carrion; Bradley Kaye, Disney Parks Live Entertainment; and Jim Suttonto, Longwood Gardens

text: Judging occurs on the two days before the parade. In the first day's judging, the float is viewed "at rest", without any animation, sound, or riders. The float builder is allowed to explain the float to the judges before the judges begin their examination. In the second judging, the float is judged as it will be presented in the parade, with all animation, riders, outwalkers, and effects. Each judging session lasts five minutes.

text: Floats are judged in 14 categories, with varying weights; the most important categories are those relating to floral usage. Winners are announced at 6 AM on parade day.

text: Top prize for the 2017 Rose Parade went to Dole Packaged Foods' "Spirit of Hawaii" float, which was constructed by float builder Fiesta.[8]

text: Sweepstakes Trophy[edit]

text: Recent Sweepstakes Trophy winners for the "most beautiful entry with outstanding floral presentation and design":

text:
Year
Sponsor
Float Title
Builder

2018
Singpoli American BD
Rising Above
Paradiso Parade Floats

2017
Dole Packaged Foods
Spirit of Hawaii
Fiesta Parade Floats

2016
Singpoli Group
Marco Polo: East Meets West
Paradiso Parade Floats

2015
Dole Packaged Foods
Rhythm of Hawai'i
Fiesta Parade Floats

2014
Dole Packaged Foods
Sunrise at the Oasis
Fiesta Parade Floats

2013
Dole Food Company
Dreaming of Paradise
Fiesta Parade Floats

2012
Dole Food Company
Preserving Paradise
Fiesta Parade Floats

2011
Dole Food Company
Living Well in Paradise
Fiesta Parade Floats

2010
Rain Bird Corporation
Mountaintop Majesty
Fiesta Parade Floats

2009
Rain Bird Corporation
Entertaining Expedition
Fiesta Parade Floats

2008
Rain Bird Corporation
Preservation Celebration
Fiesta Parade Floats

2007
FTD
Jewels of Nature
Fiesta Parade Floats

2006
FTD
Your Wish is My Command
Fiesta Parade Floats

2005
Rain Bird Corporation
Playful Pandamonium
Fiesta Parade Floats

2004
FTD
Love Songs
Fiesta Parade Floats

2003
Rain Bird Corporation
Water Wonderland
Fiesta Parade Floats

2002
Rain Bird Corporation
Animal Ambassadors
Fiesta Parade Floats

2001
Rain Bird Corporation
Enchanted Expedition
Fiesta Parade Floats

text: Notable recent floats[edit]

text:
a Bollywood wedding scene featuring a bride riding in a palanquin carried by twelve men, a groom atop a giant animated elephant and an ensemble of Bollywood dancers (Sierra Madre, 2009).[9]
working roller coasters (2003 and 2009 Cal Poly Universities; 2000 and 2017, Downey)[10]
a 50-foot (15 m) replica of the Statue of Liberty (2006) by Honda advertising their slogan "The Power of Dreams". Honda's other recent floats have included a car transforming into a spaceship (2008) and ASIMO (2009).
In 1985, the Chrysler float carried the actual torch from the Statue of Liberty,[11] while the statue was being renovated. It was one of the very few times in Tournament history when an object was allowed in the parade without floral covering.
British Petroleum (BP) (2008 or 2009) presented a group of dinosaurs with a 10-foot flame being ejected from a 20-foot erupting volcano.
a working water slide (1993 La-Z-Boy "School's Out!"; 2012, Downey "Enchanted Paradise"[12])
a nearly 100-foot-tall (30 m) Twilight Zone Tower of Terror, 2004
Anaheim city's float that included the Stanley Cup that the NHL's Anaheim Ducks had won last season, hoisted by player Brad May. (As the regulations state that the outside of the float must exclusively use organic material, ABC commentators speculated that the city got an exception to display the Cup.)[13] (2008)
In 2010 Anaheim, California and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim commemorated a float to the 2010 All-Star Game at Angel Stadium
The 2010 Dick Van Patten's Natural Balance float, featuring snowboarding bulldogs, measured over 113 feet (34 m) long, setting a Guinness world record for longest single chassis float.
The 2011 theme float was decorated with the help from participants of the CBS television show Amazing Race, broadcast on Sunday, December 12, 2010. The final "roadblock" had one team member of the three finalists decorate one of three sections of the float with chrysanthemums and roses, and then covering a sculpted rose with natural material. During the parade, "Up with People" rode and performed atop of the float. For the second year in a row, the 2010 Dick Van Patten's Natural Balance float, featuring skim-boarding bulldogs was Certified by Guinness World Records as the "World's Heaviest Float," it featured over 4,000 gallons of water and was heavier than a 747 airplane.
The 2012 Dick Van Patten's Natural Balance float, featuring surfing bulldogs, was deemed the World's Heaviest and Longest Rose Parade float.
The 2014 Public Storage "Adventures in Space" float featured 3 satellite alien spacecrafts rolling down the front ramp and driving around to "discover life on planet Earth" before rolling back up the rear ramp into the spaceship. Public Storage's first ever entry in the parade was awarded the Grand Marshal's trophy for excellence in creative concept and design.[14]
In keeping with the 2014 parade's "Dreams Come True" theme, Aubrey Loots and Danny Leclair exchanged vows and were married atop a giant wedding cake float. It became the first same-sex marriage in the Rose Parade's 125-year history.[15]


document_title: List of United States Senators from Illinois

question_text: who is one of illinois us senators now

question_tokens: who is one of illinois us senators now

text: List of Senators[edit]

text:
Class 2
Class 2 U.S. Senators belong to the electoral cycle that were elected for three U.S. Congresses in the first elections of 1818, and then the seat was contested every three Congresses (six years) thereafter. The seat in recent years have been contested in 1996, 2002, 2008, and 2014. The next election will be in 2020.

C
o
n
g
r
e
s
s

Class 3
Class 3 U.S. Senators belong to the electoral cycle that were elected for one United States Congress in the first elections of 1818, and then the seat was contested every three Congresses (six years) thereafter. The seat in recent years have been contested in 1998, 2004, 2010, and 2016. The next election will be in 2022.

#
Senator
Party
Years in office
Electoral history
T
e
r
m
T
e
r
m
Electoral history
Years in office
Party
Senator
#

1

Jesse B. Thomas
Democratic-
Republican
December 3, 1818 –
March 3, 1829
Elected in 1818.
1
15th Congress
1
Elected in 1818.
December 3, 1818 –
March 3, 1824
Democratic-
Republican

Ninian Edwards
1

16th Congress
2
Re-elected in 1819.

Resigned.

17th Congress

Crawford
Democratic-
Republican
Re-elected in 1823.

Retired.
2
18th Congress
Adams-Clay
Democratic-
Republican

March 4, 1824 –
November 24, 1824
Vacant

Elected to finish Edwards's term.

Retired.
November 24, 1824 –
March 3, 1825
Crawford
Democratic-
Republican

John McLean
2

Anti-
Jacksonian
19th Congress
3
Elected in 1825.
March 4, 1825 –
December 12, 1835
Jacksonian

Elias Kane
3

Adams
20th Congress

2

John McLean
Jacksonian
March 4, 1829 –
October 14, 1830
Elected in 1829.

Died.
3
21st Congress

Vacant
October 14, 1830 –
November 12, 1830

3

David J. Baker
Jacksonian
November 12, 1830 –
December 11, 1830
Appointed to continue McLean's term.

Retired.

4

John M. Robinson
Jacksonian
December 11, 1830 –
March 3, 1841
Elected to finish McLean's term.

22nd Congress
4
Re-elected in 1831.

Died.

23rd Congress

Re-elected in 1835.

Retired.
4
24th Congress

December 12, 1835 –
December 30, 1835
Vacant

Appointed to finish Kane's term.

Lost election to full term.
December 30, 1835 –
March 3, 1837
Jacksonian

William Lee D. Ewing
4

Democratic
25th Congress
5
Elected in 1837.

Retired.
March 4, 1837 –
March 3, 1843
Democratic

Richard M. Young
5

26th Congress

5

Samuel McRoberts
Democratic
March 4, 1841 –
March 27, 1843
Elected in 1841.

Died.
5
27th Congress

28th Congress
6
Elected in 1843.

Lost renomination.
March 4, 1843 –
March 3, 1849
Democratic

Sidney Breese
6

Vacant
March 27, 1843 –
August 16, 1843

6

James Semple
Democratic
August 16, 1843 –
March 3, 1847
Appointed to continue McRoberts's term.

Elected December 11, 1844 to finish McRoberts's term.[1]

Retired.

29th Congress

7

Stephen A. Douglas
Democratic
March 4, 1847 –
June 3, 1861
Elected in 1846.
6
30th Congress

31st Congress
7
Elected in 1848 or 1849.

Election voided.[2]
March 4, 1849 –
March 15, 1849
Democratic

James Shields
7

March 15, 1849 –
October 27, 1849
Vacant

Elected to finish his own term.

Lost re-election.
October 27, 1849 –
March 3, 1855
Democratic

James Shields

32nd Congress

Re-elected in 1852.
7
33rd Congress

34th Congress
8
Elected in 1854 or 1855.
March 4, 1855 –
March 3, 1873
Democratic

Lyman Trumbull
8

35th Congress
Republican

Re-elected in 1858.

Died.
8
36th Congress

37th Congress
9
Re-elected in 1861.

Vacant
June 3, 1861 –
June 26, 1861

8

Orville Browning
Republican
June 26, 1861 –
January 12, 1863
Appointed to continue Douglas's term.

Lost election to finish Douglas's term.

9

William A. Richardson
Democratic
January 12, 1863 –
March 3, 1865
Elected to finish Douglas's term.

Retired.

38th Congress

10

Richard Yates
Republican
March 4, 1865 –
March 3, 1871
Elected in 1864 or 1865.

Retired.
9
39th Congress

40th Congress
10
Re-elected in 1867.

[Data unknown/missing. You can help!]

41st Congress

11

John A. Logan
Republican
March 4, 1871 –
March 3, 1877
Elected in 1870 or 1871.

Lost re-election.
10
42nd Congress
Liberal
Republican

43rd Congress
11
Elected in 1872 or 1873.

Retired.
March 4, 1873 –
March 3, 1879
Republican

Richard J. Oglesby
9

44th Congress

12

David Davis
Independent
March 4, 1877 –
March 3, 1883
Election year unknown.

Retired.
11
45th Congress

46th Congress
12
Elected in 1879.
March 4, 1879 –
March 3, 1885
Republican

John A. Logan
10

47th Congress

13

Shelby Moore Cullom
Republican
March 4, 1883 –
March 3, 1913
Elected in 1882.
12
48th Congress

49th Congress
13
Legislature failed to elect.

Re-elected late in 1885.

Died.
May 19, 1885 –
December 26, 1886
Republican

John A. Logan

December 26, 1886 –
January 19, 1887
Vacant

Elected to finish Logan's term.

Retired.
January 19, 1887 –
March 3, 1891
Republican

Charles B. Farwell
11

50th Congress

Re-elected in 1888.
13
51st Congress

52nd Congress
14
Elected in 1890.

Retired.
March 4, 1891 –
March 3, 1897
Democratic

John M. Palmer
12

53rd Congress

Re-elected in 1894.
14
54th Congress

55th Congress
15
Elected January 20, 1897.[3]

Retired.
March 4, 1897 –
March 3, 1903
Republican

William E. Mason
13

56th Congress

Re-elected January 22, 1901.
15
57th Congress

58th Congress
16
Elected January 20, 1903.

Lost re-election.
March 4, 1903 –
March 3, 1909
Republican

Albert J. Hopkins
14

59th Congress

Re-elected January 22, 1907.[4]

Lost renomination.
16
60th Congress

61st Congress
17

March 4, 1909 –
June 18, 1909
Vacant

Elected May 26, 1909, but ineligible until resignation from U.S. House.

Election voided.
June 18, 1909 –
July 13, 1912
Republican

William Lorimer
15

62nd Congress

July 13, 1912 –
March 26, 1913
Vacant

Vacant
March 4, 1913 –
March 26, 1913
Legislature failed to elect.
17
63rd Congress

14

J. Hamilton Lewis
Democratic
March 26, 1913 –
March 3, 1919
Elected March 26, 1913 to finish the vacant term.

Lost re-election.
Elected March 26, 1913 to finish Lorimer's term.
March 26, 1913 –
March 3, 1921
Republican

Lawrence Y. Sherman
16

64th Congress
18
Re-elected in 1914.

Retired.

65th Congress

15

Joseph M. McCormick
Republican
March 4, 1919 –
February 25, 1925
Elected in 1918.

Lost renomination and died just before the end of the term.
18
66th Congress

67th Congress
19
Elected in 1920.

Lost renomination and died just before the end of the term.
March 4, 1921 –
December 7, 1926
Republican

William B. McKinley
17

68th Congress

16

Charles S. Deneen
Republican
February 26, 1925 –
March 3, 1931
Appointed to finish McCormick's term, having already been elected to the next term.

Elected in 1924.

Lost renomination.
19
69th Congress

Appointed to continue McKinley's term.

Not seated/resigned.[5]
December 7, 1926
Republican

Frank L. Smith
18

December 7, 1926 –
December 3, 1928
Vacant

70th Congress
20

Elected to finish the term.

Lost re-election.
December 3, 1928 –
March 3, 1933
Republican

Otis F. Glenn
19

71st Congress

17

J. Hamilton Lewis
Democratic
March 4, 1931 –
April 9, 1939
Elected in 1930.
20
72nd Congress

73rd Congress
21
Elected in 1932.

Retired.
March 4, 1933 –
January 3, 1939
Democratic

William H. Dieterich
20

74th Congress

Re-elected in 1936.

Died.
21
75th Congress

76th Congress
22
Elected in 1938.
January 3, 1939 –
January 3, 1951
Democratic

Scott W. Lucas
21

Vacant
April 9, 1939 –
April 14, 1939

18

James M. Slattery
Democratic
April 14, 1939 –
November 21, 1940
Appointed to continue Lewis's term.

Lost election to finish Lewis's term.

19

Charles W. Brooks
Republican
November 22, 1940 –
January 3, 1949
Elected to finish Lewis's term.

77th Congress

Re-elected in 1942.

Lost re-election.
22
78th Congress

79th Congress
23
Re-elected in 1944.

Lost re-election.

80th Congress

20

Paul Douglas
Democratic
January 3, 1949 –
January 3, 1967
Elected in 1948.
23
81st Congress

82nd Congress
24
Elected in 1950.
January 3, 1951 –
September 7, 1969
Republican

Everett Dirksen
22

83rd Congress

Re-elected in 1954.
24
84th Congress

85th Congress
25
Re-elected in 1956.

86th Congress

Re-elected in 1960.

Lost re-election.
25
87th Congress

88th Congress
26
Re-elected in 1962.

89th Congress

21

Charles H. Percy
Republican
January 3, 1967 –
January 3, 1985
Elected in 1966.
26
90th Congress

91st Congress
27
Re-elected in 1968.

Died.

September 7, 1969 –
September 17, 1969
Vacant

Appointed to continue Dirksen's term.

Lost election to finish Dirksen's term.
September 17, 1969 –
November 3, 1970
Republican

Ralph Tyler Smith
23

November 3, 1970 –
November 17, 1970
Vacant

Elected to finish Dirksen's term.
November 17, 1970 –
January 3, 1981
Democratic

Adlai Stevenson III
24

92nd Congress

Re-elected in 1972.
27
93rd Congress

94th Congress
28
Re-elected in 1974.

Retired.

95th Congress

Re-elected in 1978.

Lost re-election.
28
96th Congress

97th Congress
29
Elected in 1980.
January 3, 1981 –
January 3, 1993
Democratic

Alan J. Dixon
25

98th Congress

22

Paul Simon
Democratic
January 3, 1985 –
January 3, 1997
Elected in 1984.
29
99th Congress

100th Congress
30
Re-elected in 1986.

Lost renomination.

101st Congress

Re-elected in 1990.

Retired.
30
102nd Congress

103rd Congress
31
Elected in 1992.

Lost re-election.
January 3, 1993 –
January 3, 1999
Democratic

Carol Moseley Braun
26

104th Congress

23

Dick Durbin
Democratic
January 3, 1997 –
Present
Elected in 1996.
31
105th Congress

106th Congress
32
Elected in 1998.

Retired.
January 3, 1999 –
January 3, 2005
Republican

Peter Fitzgerald
27

107th Congress

Re-elected in 2002.
32
108th Congress

109th Congress
33
Elected in 2004.

Resigned to become U.S. President.
January 3, 2005 –
November 16, 2008
Democratic

Barack Obama
28

110th Congress

November 16, 2008 –
January 12, 2009
Vacant

Re-elected in 2008.
33
111th Congress

Appointed to continue Obama's term.[6]

Retired when successor qualified.
January 12, 2009 –
November 29, 2010
Democratic

Roland Burris
29

Elected to finish Obama's term.[7]
November 29, 2010 –
January 3, 2017
Republican

Mark Kirk
30

112th Congress
34
Elected to full term in 2010.[7]

Lost re-election.

113th Congress

Re-elected in 2014.
34
114th Congress

115th Congress
35
Elected in 2016.
January 3, 2017 –
Present
Democratic

Tammy Duckworth
31

116th Congress

To be determined in the 2020 election.
35
117th Congress

118th Congress
36
To be determined in the 2022 election.

#
Senator
Party
Years in office
Electoral history
T
e
r
m

T
e
r
m
Electoral history
Years in office
Party
Senator
#

Class 2
Class 3

text: Living former Senators[edit]

text: As of January 2017[update], there are six former U.S. Senators from Illinois who are living, all from Class 3. The most recent senator to die was Alan J. Dixon of Class 3 (1981-1993) on July 6, 2014. The most recent Class 2 senator to die was Charles H. Percy (1967-1985) on September 17, 2011. The most recently serving Class 2 senator to die was Paul Simon (1985-1997) on December 9, 2003.

text:
Senator
Term of office
Class
Date of birth (and age)

Adlai Stevenson III
1970–1981
3
(1930-10-10) October 10, 1930 (age 87)

Carol Moseley Braun
1993–1999
3
(1947-08-16) August 16, 1947 (age 70)

Peter Fitzgerald
1999–2005
3
(1960-10-20) October 20, 1960 (age 57)

Barack Obama
2005–2008
3
(1961-08-04) August 4, 1961 (age 56)

Roland Burris
2008–2010
3
(1937-08-03) August 3, 1937 (age 80)

Mark Kirk
2010-2017
3
(1959-09-15) September 15, 1959 (age 58)

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Byrd, p. 101.
Jump up ^ Shields was not seated because he had not been a citizen for the required nine years. He reached that mark on October 21, 1949, so his subsequent election was accepted by the Senate.
Jump up ^ "Mason in Illinois". The New York Times. January 21, 1897. p. 2.
Jump up ^ "NO CHOICE IN RHODE ISLAND". The New York Times. January 23, 1907. p. 1.
Jump up ^ When Smith presented his credentials to serve the remainder of McKinely's term, the Senate refused to seat him based on what it saw as an election rife with fraud and corruption When Smith returned with his credentials for the term he was elected to, the Senate again refused to seat him for the same reasons. Smith and the Governor considered him to be the rightful senator, but he resigned in February 1928. The Senate does not consider him to have been a senator.
Jump up ^ Burris was appointed on December 30, 2008, but was certified late because his appointment was disputed.
^ Jump up to: a b Kirk was elected to fill the remainder of Barack Obama's term in a special election held the same day as the general election for the next term, which he also won.

tag: ol


document_title: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

question_text: who votes for the rock and roll hall of fame

text: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

text: Foundation and museum[edit]

text: Founder Ahmet Ertegun assembled a team that included attorney Suzan Evans, Rolling Stone magazine editor and publisher Jann S. Wenner, attorney Allen Grubman, and record executives Seymour Stein, Bob Krasnow, and Noreen Woods. The Foundation began inducting artists in 1986, but the Hall of Fame still had no home. The search committee considered several cities, including Philadelphia (home of Bill Haley and American Bandstand), Memphis (home of Sun Studios and Stax Records), Detroit (home of Motown Records), Cincinnati (home of King Records), New York City, and Cleveland.[citation needed]

text: Cleveland lobbied for the museum, citing that WJW disc jockey Alan Freed both coined the term "rock and roll" and heavily promoted the new genre—and that Cleveland was the location of Freed's Moondog Coronation Ball, the first major rock and roll concert. In addition, Cleveland cited radio station WMMS, which played a key role in breaking several major acts in the U.S. during the 1970s and 80s, including artist David Bowie, who began his first U.S. tour in the city, Bruce Springsteen, Roxy Music, and Rush among many others.[2] Cleveland was also one of the premier tour stops for most rock bands.

text: Civic leaders in Cleveland pledged $65 million in public money to fund the construction. A petition drive was signed by 600,000 fans favoring Cleveland over Memphis, and Cleveland ranked first in a 1986 USA Today poll asking where the Hall of Fame should be located. On May 5, 1986, the Hall of Fame Foundation chose Cleveland as the permanent home of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum.  Sam Phillips of Sun Studios fame and many others were stunned and disappointed that it ended up in Cleveland.  "The hall of fame should've been in Memphis, certainly," wrote Peter Guralnick, author of an acclaimed two-volume Elvis Presley biography.[3]

text: Cleveland may also have been chosen as the organization's site because the city offered the best financial package. As The Plain Dealer music critic Michael Norman noted, "It was $65 million... Cleveland wanted it here and put up the money." Co-founder Jann Wenner later said, "One of the small sad things is we didn't do it in New York in the first place," but then added, "I am absolutely delighted that the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum is in Cleveland."

text: During early discussions on where to build the Hall of Fame and Museum, the Foundation's board considered the Cuyahoga River. Ultimately, the chosen location was along East Ninth Street in downtown Cleveland by Lake Erie, east of Cleveland Stadium.

text: At one point in the planning phase, when a financing gap existed, planners proposed locating the Rock Hall in the then-vacant May Company Building, but finally decided to commission architect I. M. Pei to design a new building. Initial CEO Dr. Larry R. Thompson facilitated I. M. Pei in designs for the site. Pei came up with the idea of a tower with a glass pyramid protruding from it. The museum tower was initially planned to stand 200 ft (61 m) high, but had to be cut down to 162 ft (49 m) due to its proximity to Burke Lakefront Airport. The building's base is approximately 150,000 square feet (14,000 m2). The groundbreaking ceremony took place on June 7, 1993. Pete Townshend, Chuck Berry, Billy Joel, Sam Phillips, Ruth Brown, Sam Moore of Sam and Dave, Carl Gardner of the Coasters and Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum all appeared at the groundbreaking.

text: The museum was dedicated on September 1, 1995, with the ribbon being cut by an ensemble that included Yoko Ono and Little Richard, among others, before a crowd of more than 10,000 people. The following night an all-star concert was held at the stadium. It featured Chuck Berry, Bob Dylan, Al Green, Jerry Lee Lewis, Aretha Franklin, Bruce Springsteen, Iggy Pop, John Fogerty, John Mellencamp, and many others.

text: In addition to the Hall of Fame inductees, the museum documents the entire history of rock and roll, regardless of induction status. Hall of Fame inductees are honored in a special exhibit located in a wing that juts out over Lake Erie.[4]

text: Economic impact[edit]

text: Since 1986, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has selected new inductees. The formal induction ceremony has been held in New York City 26 times (1986–92, 1994–96, 1998–2008, 2010–11, 2014, 2016 and 2017); twice in Los Angeles (1993 and 2013); and four times in the Hall of Fame's home in Cleveland (1997, 2009, 2012 and 2015).  Beginning in 2018, the induction ceremonies will alternate each year between Cleveland and New York.[5]

text: The 2009 and 2012 induction weeks were made possible by a public–private partnership between the City of Cleveland, the State of Ohio, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and local foundations, corporations, civic organizations and individuals. Collectively these entities invested $5.8 million in 2009 and $7.9 million in 2012 to produce a week of events, including free concerts, a gospel celebration, exhibition openings, free admission to the museum, and induction  ceremonies filled with both fans and VIPs at Public Hall.[6]

text: Millions viewed the television broadcast of the Cleveland inductions; tens of thousands traveled to Ohio during induction week to participate in Induction-related events. The economic impact of the 2009 induction week activities was more than $13 million, and it provided an additional $20 million in media exposure for the region. The 2012 induction week yielded similar results.[7]

text: Layout[edit]

text: There are seven levels in the building. On the lower level is the Ahmet M. Ertegun Exhibition Hall, the museum's main gallery. It includes exhibits on the roots of rock and roll (gospel, blues, rhythm & blues and folk, country and bluegrass). It also features exhibits on cities that have had a major impact on rock and roll: Memphis, Detroit, London and Liverpool, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York and Seattle. There are exhibits about soul music, the Fifties, Sun Records, Atlantic Records, hip hop music, Cleveland's rock and roll legacy, the music of the Midwest, rock and roll radio and dee-jays, and the many protests against rock and roll. This gallery also has exhibits that focus on individual artists, including the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Jimi Hendrix and others. Finally, the Ahmet M. Ertegun Exhibition Hall includes two theaters, one of which features a film about the roots of rock and roll and one that features films on various subjects.[8]

text: The first floor of the museum is the entrance level. It includes a cafe, a stage that the museum uses for various special performances and events throughout the year, and a section called "Backstage Stories." The second floor includes several interactive kiosks that feature programs on one-hit wonders and the Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll. This level also includes a gallery with artifact-filled exhibits about Les Paul, Alan Freed, Sam Phillips and the evolution of audio technology.[9]

text: Visitors enter the Hall of Fame section of the museum on the third floor. This section includes "The Power of Rock Experience," which includes one of Jonathan Demme's final works, a film shown in the Connor Theater. The film includes musical highlights from some of the Hall's induction ceremonies.[10] Visitors exit the Hall of Fame section on the fourth floor. That level features the Foster Theater, a state-of-the-art 3-D theater that is used for special events and programs.[11][12]

text: Finally, the top two levels of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame feature large, temporary exhibits. Over the years, numerous exhibits have been installed on these two levels, including exhibits about Elvis Presley, hip-hop, the Supremes, the Who, U2, John Lennon, the Clash, Bruce Springsteen, Women Who Rock, and the Rolling Stones.

text: Architecture[edit]

text: Designed by I. M. Pei and structurally engineered by Leslie E. Robertson Associates, the building rises above the shores of Lake Erie. It is a combination of geometric forms and cantilevered spaces that are anchored by a 162-foot tower. The tower supports a dual-triangular-shaped glass "tent" that extends (at its base) onto a 65,000-square-foot plaza that provides a main entry facade.

text: The building houses more than 55,000 square feet of exhibition space, as well as administrative offices, a store, and a café.

text: "In designing this building," Pei said, "it was my intention to echo the energy of rock and roll. I have consciously used an architectural vocabulary that is bold and new, and I hope the building will become a dramatic landmark for the city of Cleveland and for fans of rock and roll around the world." [13]

text: Exhibit history[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Since 1997, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has featured numerous temporary exhibits that range in size from major exhibits that fill the top two floors of the museum to smaller exhibits that are often installed in the main exhibition hall on the lower level.

text: The museum's first major exhibit opened on May 10, 1997. It was called I Want to Take You Higher: The Psychedelic Era, 1965 – 1969. It included artifacts from numerous artists, including John Lennon, Eric Clapton, John Sebastian, the Jefferson Airplane, and Janis Joplin, as well as artifacts related to the Monterey International Pop Festival and Woodstock.

text: That exhibit was followed by Elvis is in the Building, an exhibit about the "King of Rock and Roll", which ran from August 8, 1998, to September 5, 1999.  This year-long tribute was the first ever special exhibit devoted to a single artist, Elvis Presley, the first inductee into the RRHOF in 1986.  Graceland supplied a significant selection of representative artifacts for this special tribute spanning Elvis' life and legendary career.[14]  Next, the museum curated Roots, Rhymes and Rage: The Hip-Hop Story. That was the first major museum exhibit to focus on hip-hop. It ran from November 11, 1999, to August 6, 2000. It was followed by Rock Style, an exhibit that focused on rock and roll and fashion. It featured clothing from Buddy Holly to Alice Cooper, from Ray Charles to David Bowie and from Smokey Robinson to Sly Stone. After it closed in Cleveland, Rock Style traveled to other museums in the U.S.

text: Other temporary exhibits have included Lennon: His Life and Work, which ran from October 20, 2000, to January 1, 2003. It was followed by In the Name of Love: Two Decades of U2 and then Reflections: The Mary Wilson Supreme Legacy Collection. A major exhibition on display during the Republican National Convention in Cleveland in 2016 was Louder than Words: Rock, Power, Politics.[15]

text: Other large temporary exhibits have focused on the Clash (Revolution Rock: The Story of the Clash), the Doors (Break on Through: The Lasting Legacy of the Doors), the Who's Tommy (Tommy: The Amazing Journey), and Bruce Springsteen (From Asbury Park to the Promised Land: The Life and Music of Bruce Springsteen). Another thematic temporary exhibit focused on the role of women in rock and roll (Women Who Rock: Vision, Passion, Power). Many of these exhibits travel to other museums after closing in Cleveland. The museum's current major temporary exhibit is about the history of the magazine Rolling Stone.[16]

text: The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame also curates many smaller temporary exhibits. Over the years, these exhibits have focused on such topics as the Vans Warped Tour, the Concert for Bangladesh, Woodstock's 40th anniversary, Austin City Limits, the Monterey International Pop Festival, Roy Orbison, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Marty Stuart, Paul Simon, Graham Nash, and John Mellencamp.

text: The museum also devotes exhibits to photography and artwork related to rock and roll. Among the photographers whose work has been featured at the Hall of Fame are George Kalinsky, Alfred Wertheimer, Tommy Edwards, Kevin Mazur, Janet Macoska, Lynn Goldsmith, Mike McCartney, Robert Alford,[17] and George Shuba. The museum also featured the artwork of Philip Burke in one of its temporary exhibits, and a later exhibit featured Herb Ritts.[18][19]

text: Public programs[edit]

text:
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum produces numerous public programs, including concerts, interviews, lectures, film screenings, and other events that help tell the story of rock and roll.
Every February, the museum celebrates Black History Month[20] by hosting concerts, film screenings and lectures that illustrate the important role African-Americans have played in the history of rock and roll. Since the program began in 1996, such artists as Robert Lockwood, Jr., the Temptations, Charles Brown, Ruth Brown, the Ohio Players, Lloyd Price, Little Anthony and the Imperials, and Al Green have appeared at the museum during Black History Month.

text: Another program is the Hall of Fame Series. This series began in April 1996 and features interviews with Hall of Fame inductees in a rare and intimate settings, most often in the Museum's Foster Theater. The interviews are usually followed by a question-and-answer session with the audience and, often, a performance by the inductee. Among the inductees who have taken part in this series are Darryl "DMC" McDaniels of Run-D.M.C., Lloyd Price, Marky Ramone, Seymour Stein, Ray Manzarek of the Doors, Ronnie Spector, Bootsy Collins, Ann and Nancy Wilson of Heart, and Jorma Kaukonen of the Jefferson Airplane.

text: A similar program is the Legends Series. The only real difference between this program and the Hall of Fame Series is that it features artists who have not yet been inducted into the Hall of Fame. Peter Hook of Joy Division, Spinderella of Salt n Pepa, Tommy James, and the Chi-Lites are among the artists who have participated in the Legends Series.

text: The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum's most acclaimed program is the annual American Music Masters series. Each year the museum celebrates one of the Hall's inductees with a week-long series of programs that include interviews, film screenings, and, often, a special exhibit. The celebration ends with an all-star concert held at a Cleveland theater. The concerts include a diverse mix of artists, from Hall of Fame inductees to contemporary musicians.

text: The American Music Masters series began in 1996 with Hard Travelin': The Life and Legacy of Pete Seeger. Since then, the programs have honored the following inductees: Jimmie Rodgers (1997), Robert Johnson (1998), Louis Jordan (1999), Muddy Waters (2000), Bessie Smith (2001), Hank Williams (2002), Buddy Holly (2003), Lead Belly (2004), Sam Cooke (2005), Roy Orbison (2006), Jerry Lee Lewis (2007), Les Paul (2008),[21] Janis Joplin (2009),[22] Fats Domino and Dave Bartholomew (2010), Aretha Franklin (2011),[23] and Chuck Berry (2012).[24]

text: Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll[edit]

text: Hall of Fame museum curator James Henke, along with "the museum's curatorial staff and numerous rock critics and music experts", created an unordered list of  "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll".[25][26] The list is part of a permanent exhibit at the museum, and was envisioned as part of the museum from its opening in 1995.[27] It contains songs recorded from the 1920s through the 1990s. The Beatles with seven songs was the most represented on the 500-song list. The oldest song on the list is "Wabash Cannonball", written circa 1882 and credited to J. A. Roff. Since then, however, an additional 160 songs have been added, and the list is now simply referred to as "The Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll". The most recent songs on the list are Gnarls Barkley's "Crazy" and My Chemical Romance's "Welcome to the Black Parade", both released in 2006.[28] The Beatles and the Rolling Stones are the most represented on the 660-song list, with eight songs each.

text: Artists with four or more songs[edit]

text:
8 The Beatles
8 The Rolling Stones
7 Elvis Presley
5 The Beach Boys
5 Chuck Berry
5 Bob Dylan
5 Led Zeppelin
5 Bruce Springsteen
4 Stevie Wonder
4 David Bowie
4 James Brown
4 Ray Charles
4 The Drifters
4 Aretha Franklin
4 Jimi Hendrix
4 Robert Johnson
4 The Kinks
4 Bob Marley
4 The Miracles
4 Prince
4 Muddy Waters

text: 25th anniversary concert[edit]

text: The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame celebrated its 25th anniversary with a concert series over two days on October 29 and 30, 2009 at Madison Square Garden in New York. The celebration included performances by Jerry Lee Lewis, U2, Patti Smith, Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band, Simon & Garfunkel, Dion DiMucci, Metallica, James Taylor, Bonnie Raitt, Fergie, Mick Jagger, Lou Reed, Ray Davies, Ozzy Osbourne, Paul Simon, Jeff Beck, Buddy Guy, Aretha Franklin, Stevie Wonder, Sting, Little Anthony & the Imperials, and Crosby, Stills and Nash. The first night ran almost six hours with Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band closing the concert with special guests John Fogerty, Darlene Love, Tom Morello, Sam Moore, Jackson Browne, Peter Wolf, and Billy Joel.[29][30][31]

text: Inductees[edit]

text:
Artists are inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at an annual induction ceremony. Over the years, the majority of the ceremonies have been held at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City. However, on January 12, 1993, the ceremony was held in Los Angeles, and was held there again in 2013. On May 6, 1997, about a year and a half after the opening of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, the ceremony was held in Cleveland. It returned to Cleveland in 2009 and again in 2012. Current plans call for the ceremony to be in Cleveland every three years.
Generally, the number of inductees ranges from about a half-dozen to a dozen. Virtually all living inductees have attended the ceremonies, and they are presented with their Hall of Fame award by an artist who was influenced by that inductee's music. Both the presenter and the inductee speak at the ceremonies, which also include numerous musical performances, by both the inductees and the presenters.
The first group of inductees, inducted on January 23, 1986, included Elvis Presley, James Brown, Little Richard, Fats Domino, Ray Charles, Chuck Berry, Sam Cooke, the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly, and Jerry Lee Lewis. Robert Johnson, Jimmie Rodgers, and Jimmy Yancey were inducted as Early Influences, John Hammond received the Lifetime Achievement Award and Alan Freed and Sam Phillips were inducted as Non-Performers.

text: Performers[edit]

text: A nominating committee composed of rock and roll historians selects names for the "Performers" category (singers, vocal groups, bands, and instrumentalists of all kinds), which are then voted on by roughly five hundred experts across the world. Those selected to vote include academics, journalists, producers, and others with music industry experience. Artists become eligible for induction 25 years after the release of their first record. Criteria include the influence and significance of the artists' contributions to the development and perpetuation of rock and roll. To be selected for induction, performers must receive the highest number of votes, and also greater than 50% of the votes. Around five to seven performers are inducted each year.[32]

text: In 2012, six additional groups, the Miracles, the Famous Flames, the Comets, the Blue Caps, the Midnighters, and the Crickets, were inducted as performers by a special committee due to the controversial exclusions when their lead singer was inducted. "There was a lot of discussion about this," said Terry Stewart, a member of the nominating committee. "There had always been conversations about why the groups weren't included when the lead singers were inducted. Very honestly, nobody could really answer that question – it was so long ago... We decided we'd sit down as an organization and look at that. This is the result."[33]

text: Early Influences[edit]

text: Early Influences includes artists from earlier eras, primarily country, folk, jazz, and blues, whose music inspired and influenced rock and roll artists. Other notable artists that have been inducted as Early Influences include Bill Kenny & The Ink Spots, country musicians Jimmie Rodgers and Hank Williams, blues musicians Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters, and jazz musicians Jelly Roll Morton and Louis Armstrong. After Nat King Cole and Billie Holiday in 2000, no one was inducted in this category until 2009, when rockabilly singer Wanda Jackson was selected. Unlike earlier inductees in this category, Jackson's career almost entirely took place after the traditional 1955 start of the "rock era".

text: Ahmet Ertegun Award for Lifetime Achievement[edit]

text: Formerly the "Non-Performers" award, this category encompasses those who primarily work behind the scenes in the music industry, including record label executives, songwriters, record producers, disc jockeys, concert promoters and music journalists. This category has had at least one inductee every year except 2007 and 2009. Following the death of the Hall of Fame's co-founder Ahmet Ertegun, this award was renamed in his honor in 2008.[34]

text: Award for Musical Excellence[edit]

text: Formerly the "Sidemen" award, this category was introduced in 2000 and honors veteran session and concert players who are selected by a committee composed primarily of producers. The category was dormant from 2004 through 2007 and re-activated in 2008. This honor was renamed the "Award for Musical Excellence" in 2010. According to Joel Peresman, the president of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation, "This award gives us flexibility to dive into some things and recognize some people who might not ordinarily get recognized."[35]

text: Library and archives[edit]

text: The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum's Library and Archives is the world's most comprehensive repository of materials related to the history of rock and roll. The Library and Archives is located in a new building on the Metro Campus of Cuyahoga Community College in Cleveland's Campus District.

text: The Library and Archives' mission is to collect, preserve and provide access to these materials. The Library and Archives operates on two levels: people may come into the library and read the books and magazines, listen to music and other recordings, and watch videos and films. More serious scholars, historians and journalists may also make an appointment for access to the archival collections under the supervision of the staff archivists.

text: The library is composed of books, academic dissertations, and other references. It also includes popular magazines, scholarly journals and trade publications; commercial audio and video recordings, and research databases.

text: The archival collections include music-business records from record executives, artist managers, labels, historic venues, recording studios, specialists in stage design and lighting, and long-running concert tours. The collections also contain important individual items, such as personal letters penned by Aretha Franklin and Madonna, handwritten working lyrics by Jimi Hendrix and LL Cool J, papers from music journalists such as Sue Cassidy Clark, and rare concert recordings from CBGB in the 1970s.[36][37][38]

text: Criticism[edit]

text:
The most frequent criticism of the Hall of Fame is that the nomination process is controlled by a few individuals who are not themselves musicians, such as founder Jann Wenner (co-founder and editor-in-chief of Rolling Stone magazine), former foundation director Suzan Evans, and writer Dave Marsh, reflecting their personal tastes rather than the views of the rock world as a whole. A former member of the nominations board once commented that "At one point Suzan Evans lamented the choices being made because there weren't enough big names that would sell tickets to the dinner. That was quickly remedied by dropping one of the doo-wop groups being considered in favor of a 'name' artist ... I saw how certain pioneering artists of the '50s and early '60s were shunned because there needed to be more name power on the list, resulting in '70s superstars getting in before the people who made it possible for them. Some of those pioneers still aren't in today."[39]
Sister Rosetta Tharpe is often considered "The Godmother/Grandmother of Rock & Roll",[40][41] but was not chosen for induction until 2017. Also, the influential soul/funk group Tower of Power has not yet been honored. Velvet Underground drummer Maureen Tucker has dismissed the Hall of Fame as the "Hall of Lame".[42]

text: There is also controversy in the lack of transparency in the selection process. Janet Morrissey of The New York Times wrote:

text: "With fame and money at stake, it's no surprise that a lot of backstage lobbying goes on. Why any particular act is chosen in any particular year is a mystery to performers as well as outsiders – and committee members say they want to keep it that way."[43]

text: Jon Landau, the chairman of the nominating committee, says they prefer it that way. "We've done a good job of keeping the proceedings nontransparent. It all dies in the room."[43]

text: According to Fox News, petitions with tens of thousands of signatures were also being ignored, and some groups that were signed with certain labels or companies or were affiliated with various committee members have even been put up for nomination with no discussion at all.[39] The committee has also been accused of largely ignoring certain genres.[44] According to author Brett Milano, "entire genres get passed over, particularly progressive rock, '60s Top 40, New Orleans funk and a whole lot of black music."[45] In contrast, since the mid-2000s (decade), numerous hip hop artists have been inducted, including Tupac Shakur (class of 2017), N.W.A (class of 2016) and Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five (class of 2007).[46]

text: Another criticism is that too many artists are inducted. In fifteen years, 97 different artists were inducted.[47] A minimum of 50% of the vote is needed to be inducted; although, the final percentages are not announced and a certain number of inductees (five in 2011) is set before the ballots are shipped.[47] The committee usually nominates a small number of artists (12 in 2010) from an increasing number of different genres. Several voters, including Joel Selvin, himself a former member of the nominating committee, did not submit their ballots in 2007 because they did not feel that any of the candidates were truly worthy.[48]

text: Members of the British punk rock band The Sex Pistols, inducted in 2006, refused to attend the ceremony, calling the museum "a piss stain" and "urine in wine".[49]

text: In BBC Radio 6 Music's Annual John Peel Lecture in 2013, the singer Charlotte Church accused the museum of gender bias, stating, "Out of 295 acts and artists in the Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame, 259 are entirely male, meaning that Tina Weymouth's part in Talking Heads makes them one of the 36 female acts."[50][51] In fact, the actual percentage of woman inductees is 8.5%.[52] Combining all the categories, there have been 719 inductees, out of which only 61 have been women, none of whom has been inducted more than once or awarded the Lifetime Achievement.[53]

text: 2016 inductee Steve Miller voiced a litany of criticisms directed at the hall, both during his induction speech and, especially, in interviews after it. His complaints included a lack of female inductees, not  enough support by the hall for music education, and treatment of inductees at the award ceremony.[54]

text: 2007 vote controversy[edit]

text: On March 14, 2007, two days after that year's induction ceremony, Roger Friedman of Fox News published an article claiming that the Dave Clark Five should have been the fifth inductee, as they had more votes than inductee Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. The article went on to say "Jann Wenner used a technicality about the day votes were due in. In reality, The Dave Clark Five got six more votes than Grandmaster Flash. But he felt we couldn't go another year without a rap act."[46]

text: The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation would later deny fixing the vote, although they did not deny that late votes were received, saying, "No. There is a format and rules and procedure. There is a specific time when the votes have to be in, and then they are counted. The bands with the top five votes got in."[55] The Dave Clark Five was subsequently nominated again and then inducted the following year.[56]

text: The Monkees controversy[edit]

text: In June 2007, Monkee Peter Tork complained to the New York Post that Wenner had blackballed the Monkees, commenting:

text: [Wenner] doesn't care what the rules are and just operates how he sees fit. It is an abuse of power. I don't know whether the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame, but it's pretty clear that we're not in there because of a personal whim. Jann seems to have taken it harder than everyone else, and now, 40 years later, everybody says, 'What's the big deal? Everybody else does it.' [Uses studio artists or backing bands.] Nobody cares now except him. He feels his moral judgment in 1967 and 1968 is supposed to serve in 2007.

text: In a Facebook post, fellow Monkee Michael Nesmith stated that he does not know if the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame because he can only see the impact of the Monkees from the inside, and further stated: "I can see the HOF (Hall of Fame) is a private enterprise. It seems to operate as a business, and the inductees are there by some action of the owners of the Enterprise. The inductees appear to be chosen at the owner's pleasure. This seems proper to me. It is their business in any case. It does not seem to me that the HOF carries a public mandate, nor should it be compelled to conform to one."[57]

text: Various magazines and news outlets, such as Time,[58] NPR radio,[59] The Christian Science Monitor,[60] Goldmine magazine,[61][62] Yahoo Music[63] and MSNBC [64] have argued that the Monkees belong in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


document_title: Average daily rate

question_text: what is the meaning of adr in hotel industry

text: Average daily rate

text: Average Daily Rate (commonly referred to as ADR) is a statistical unit that is often used in the lodging industry. The number represents the average rental income per paid occupied room in a given time period. ADR along with the property's occupancy are the foundations for the property's financial performance.[1]

text: ADR is one of the commonly used financial indicators in hotel industry used to measure how well a hotel performs compared to its competitors and itself (year over year). It is common in the hotel industry for the ADR to gradually increase year over year bringing in more revenue. However, ADR itself is not enough to measure the performance of the hotel. One should combine ADR, occupancy and RevPAR (revenue per available room) to make a sound judgment on hotel performance.

text: Formula[edit]

text: ADR is calculated by dividing the rooms revenue earned by the number of rooms sold, with house use rooms and complimentary rooms excluded from the denominators.

text: Jump up ^ Reid, Robert (2009). Hospitality Marketing Management, 5th Edition. Wiley and Sons. pp. 305–306.

text: Business economicsBusiness termsHospitality management