document_title: Union Army

question_text: where was the first major battle for african american troops in the union army

text: Union Army

text: Formation[edit]

text: When the American Civil War began in April 1861, there were only 16,367 men in the U.S. Army, including 1,108 commissioned officers. Approximately 20% of these officers, most of them Southerners, resigned (willfully abandoning their legal commitments and responsibilities as officers in the military of the United States, to which each and every one of them had sworn an oath), choosing to tie their lives and fortunes to Army of the Confederacy.[4]

text: In addition, almost 200 West Point graduates who had previously left the Army, including Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, and Braxton Bragg, would return to service at the outbreak of the war. This group's loyalties were far more sharply divided, with 92 donning Confederate gray and 102 putting on the blue of the Union Army. The U.S. Army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, four of artillery, two of cavalry, two of dragoons, and three of mounted infantry. The regiments were scattered widely. Of the 197 companies in the army, 179 occupied 79 isolated posts in the West, and the remaining 18 manned garrisons east of the Mississippi River, mostly along the Canada–United States border and on the Atlantic coast.

text: With the Southern slave states declaring secession from the Union, and with this drastic shortage of men in the army, President Abraham Lincoln called on the states to raise a force of 75,000 men for three months to put down this subversive insurrection. Lincoln's call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. It turned out that the war itself proved to be much longer and far more extensive in scope and scale than anyone on either side, Union North or Confederate South, expected or even imagined at the outset on the date of July 22, 1861. That was the day that Congress initially approved and authorized subsidy to allow and support a volunteer army of up to 500,000 men to the cause.

text: The call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 Germans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincoln's call, and the French were also quick to volunteer. As more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Nevertheless, between April 1861 and April 1865, at least 2,500,000 men served in the Union Army, of whom the majority were volunteers.

text: It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the large percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U.S. Military Academy on the active list; of these, 296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were then civilians, 400 returned to the Union Army and 99 to the Confederate. Therefore, the ratio of Union to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283.[5] (One of the resigning officers was Robert E. Lee, who had initially been offered the assignment as commander of a field army to suppress the rebellion. Lee disapproved of secession, but refused to bear arms against his native state, Virginia, and resigned to accept the position as commander of Virginian C.S. forces. He eventually became the commander of the Confederate army.) The South did have the advantage of other military colleges, such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute, but they produced fewer officers. Though officers were able to resign, enlisted soldiers did not have this right; which meant that they usually had to either desert or wait until their enlistment term was over in order to join the Confederate States Army. While the total number of those is unknown, only 26 enlisted men and non-commissioned officers of the regular army are known to have legally left the army to join the Confederate army when the war began.[6]

text: Major organizations[edit]

text: The Union Army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically.

text:
Army of the Cumberland, the army operating primarily in Tennessee, and later Georgia, commanded by William S. Rosecrans and George Henry Thomas.
Army of Georgia, operated in the March to the Sea and the Carolinas commanded by Henry W. Slocum.
Army of the Gulf, the army operating in the region bordering the Gulf of Mexico, commanded by Benjamin Butler, Nathaniel P. Banks, and Edward Canby.
Army of the James, the army operating on the Virginia Peninsula, 1864–65, commanded by Benjamin Butler and Edward Ord.
Army of the Mississippi, a briefly existing army operating on the Mississippi River, in two incarnations—under John Pope and William S. Rosecrans in 1862; under John A. McClernand in 1863.
Army of the Ohio, the army operating primarily in Kentucky and later Tennessee and Georgia, commanded by Don Carlos Buell, Ambrose E. Burnside, John G. Foster, and John M. Schofield.
Army of the Potomac, the principal army in the Eastern Theater, commanded by George B. McClellan, Ambrose E. Burnside, Joseph Hooker, and George G. Meade.
Army of the Shenandoah, the army operating in the Shenandoah Valley, under David Hunter, Philip Sheridan, and Horatio G. Wright.
Army of the Tennessee, the most famous army in the Western Theater, operating through Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Georgia, and the Carolinas; commanded by Ulysses S. Grant, William T. Sherman, James B. McPherson, and Oliver O. Howard.
Army of Virginia, the army assembled under John Pope for the Northern Virginia Campaign.

text: Each of these armies was usually commanded by a major general. Typically, the Department or District commander also had field command of the army of the same name, but some conflicts within the ranks occurred when this was not true, particularly when an army crossed a geographic boundary.

text: The regular army, the permanent United States Army, was intermixed into various formations of the Union Army, forming a cadre of experienced and skilled troops. They were regarded by many as elite troops and often held in reserve during battles in case of emergencies. This force was quite small compared to the massive state-raised volunteer forces that comprised the bulk of the Union Army.

text:
showFormations of the Union ArmyIndependentDepartments
Department of the East: District of Central New York
District of Massachusetts
District of Western New York
Department of the Pacific: District of Arizona
District of Humboldt
District of Oregon
District of California
District of Southern California
District of Utah
Department of the Potomac
Department of the South: District of Florida
District of Hilton Head
District of North Carolina
District of Savannah
Northern District (Charleston)
Department of Virginia and North Carolina: District of Eastern Virginia
District of North Carolina
Middle MilitaryDivision
Middle Department: Department of Rappahannock
Department of Shenandoah
Mountain Department
District of Baltimore
District of Eastern Shore
Department of Pennsylvania: Department of the Monongahela
Department of the Susquehanna
Department of Washington: District of Alexandria
District of Saint Mary's
District of Washington
District of Annapolis
Department of West Virginia: District of Harper's Ferry
Kanawha District
Military Divisionof theMississippi
Cavalry Corps of the Military Division of the Mississippi
Department of the Cumberland: District of the Etowah
District of Middle Tennessee
District of Northern Alabama
District of West Tennessee
Department of the Ohio: District of East Tennessee
Department of Kentucky
District of Cairo
District of Western Kentucky
Northern Department: District of Indiana
District of Illinois
District of Michigan
Military Divisionof WestMississippi
Department of Arkansas: District of Eastern Arkansas
District of the Frontier
District of Little Rock
Department of the Gulf: District of Baton Rouge and Port Hudson
District of Carrollton
District of Key West and Tortugas
District of La Fourche
District of West Florida and South Alabama
Department of Kansas: District of Colorado
District of Nebraska
District of North Kansas
District of South Kansas
District of Upper Arkansas
Department of Missouri: District of Central Missouri
District of North Missouri
District of Rolla
District of Saint Louis
District of Southwest Missouri
Department of New Mexico: District of Arizona
Department of the Northwest: District of Iowa
District of Minnesota
District of Wisconsin
District of Dakota
Field Armies
Army of Arkansas
Army of the Border
Army of the Cumberland
Army of the Frontier
Army of Georgia
Army of the Gulf
Army of the James
Army of Kentucky
Army of the Mississippi
Army of the Ohio
Army of the Potomac
Army of the Shenandoah
Army of the Southwest
Army of the Tennessee
Army of Virginia
Army of West Mississippi
Army of West Virginia
Army Corps
First Army Corps
Second Army Corps
Third Army Corps
Fourth Army Corps
Fifth Army Corps
Sixth Army Corps
Seventh Army Corps
Eighth Army Corps
Ninth Army Corps
10th Army Corps
11th Army Corps
12th Army Corps
13th Army Corps
14th Army Corps
15th Army Corps
16th Army Corps
17th Army Corps
18th Army Corps
19th Army Corps
20th Army Corps
21st Army Corps
22d Army Corps
23d Army Corps
24th Army Corps
25th Army Corps
Cavalry Corps

text: Personnel organization[edit]

text: Rough unit sizes for Union combat units during the war:[7]

text:
Corps – 12,000 to 14,000
Division – 3,000 to 7,000
Brigade – 800 to 1,700
Regiment – 350 to 400
Company – 34 to 40

text: Soldiers were organized by military specialty. The combat arms included infantry, cavalry, artillery, and other such smaller organizations such as the United States Marine Corps, which, at some times, was detached from its navy counterpart for land based operations. The Signal Corps was created and deployed for the first time, through the leadership of Albert J. Myer.

text: Below major units like armies, soldiers were organized mainly into regiments, the main fighting unit with which a soldier would march and be deployed with, commanded by a colonel, lieutenant colonel, or possibly a major. According to W. J. Hardee's "Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics" (1855), the primary tactics for riflemen and light infantry in use immediately prior and during the Civil War, there would typically be, within each regiment, ten companies, each commanded by a captain, and deployed according to the ranks of captains. Some units only possessed between four and eight companies and were generally known as battalions.[8] Regiments were almost always raised within a single state, and were generally referred by number and state, e.g. 54th Massachusetts, 20th Maine, etc.

text: Regiments were usually grouped into brigades under the command of a brigadier general. However, brigades were changed easily as the situation demanded; the regiment was the main form of permanent grouping. Brigades were usually formed once regiments reached the battlefield, according to where the regiment might be deployed, and alongside which other regiments.

text: Leaders[edit]

text: Several men served as generals-in-chief of the Union Army throughout its existence:

text:
Winfield Scott: July 5, 1841 – November 1, 1861
George B. McClellan: November 1, 1861 – March 11, 1862
Henry W. Halleck: July 23, 1862 – March 9, 1864
Ulysses S. Grant: March 9, 1864 – March 4, 1869

text: The gap from March 11 to July 23, 1862, was filled with direct control of the army by President Lincoln and United States Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, with the help of an unofficial "War Board" that was established on March 17, 1862. The board consisted of Ethan A. Hitchcock, the chairman, with Department of War bureau chiefs Lorenzo Thomas, Montgomery C. Meigs, Joseph G. Totten, James W. Ripley, and Joseph P. Taylor.[9]

text: Scott was an elderly veteran of the War of 1812 and the Mexican–American War and could not perform his duties effectively. His successor, Maj. Gen. McClellan, built and trained the massive Union Army of the Potomac, the primary fighting force in the Eastern Theater. Although he was popular among the soldiers, McClellan was relieved from his position as general-in-chief because of his overcautious strategy and his contentious relationship with his commander-in-chief, President Lincoln. (He remained commander of the Army of the Potomac through the Peninsula Campaign and the Battle of Antietam.) His replacement, Major General Henry W. Halleck, had a successful record in the Western Theater, but was more of an administrator than a strategic planner and commander.

text: Ulysses S. Grant was the final commander of the Union Army. He was famous for his victories in the West when he was appointed lieutenant general and general-in-chief of the Union Army in March 1864. Grant supervised the Army of the Potomac (which was formally led by his subordinate, Maj. Gen. George G. Meade) in delivering the final blows to the Confederacy by engaging Confederate forces in many fierce battles in Virginia, the Overland Campaign, conducting a war of attrition that the larger Union Army was able to survive better than its opponent. Grant laid siege to Lee's army at Petersburg, Virginia, and eventually captured Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy. He developed the strategy of coordinated simultaneous thrusts against wide portions of the Confederacy, most importantly the Georgia and Carolinas Campaigns of William Tecumseh Sherman and the Shenandoah Valley campaign of Philip Sheridan. These campaigns were characterized by another strategic notion of Grant's-better known as total war—denying the enemy access to resources needed to continue the war by widespread destruction of its factories and farms along the paths of the invading Union armies.

text: Grant had critics who complained about the high numbers of casualties that the Union Army suffered while he was in charge, but Lincoln would not replace Grant, because, in Lincoln's words: "I cannot spare this man. He fights."

text: Among memorable field leaders of the army were Nathaniel Lyon (first Union general to be killed in battle during the war), William Rosecrans, George Henry Thomas and William Tecumseh Sherman. Others, of lesser competence, included Benjamin F. Butler.

text: Union victory[edit]

text: The decisive victories by Grant and Sherman resulted in the surrender of the major Confederate armies. The first and most significant was on April 9, 1865, when Robert E. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Grant at Appomattox Court House. Although there were other Confederate armies that surrendered in the following weeks, such as Joseph E. Johnston's in North Carolina, this date was nevertheless symbolic of the end of the bloodiest war in American history, the end of the Confederate States of America, and the beginning of the slow process of Reconstruction.

text: Motivations[edit]

text: Anti-slavery sentiment[edit]

text: In his 1997 book examining the motivations of the American Civil War's soldiers, For Cause and Comrades, historian James M. McPherson states that Union soldiers fought to preserve the United States, as well as to end slavery, stating that:

text: While restoration of the Union was the main goal for which they fought, they became convinced that this goal was unattainable without striking against slavery.

text: McPherson states that witnessing the slave system of the Confederacy first-hand also strengthened the anti-slavery views of Union soldiers,[10] who were appalled by its brutality.[10] He stated that "Experience in the South reinforced the antislavery sentiments of many soldiers."[10] One Pennsylvanian Union soldier spoke to a slave woman whose husband was whipped, and was appalled by what she had to tell him of slavery. He stated that "I thought I had hated slavery as much as possible before I came here, but here, where I can see some of its workings, I am more than ever convinced of the cruelty and inhumanity of the system."[10]

text: Ethnic composition[edit]

text: The Union Army was composed of many different ethnic groups, including large numbers of immigrants. About 25% of the white men who served in the Union Army were foreign-born.[11] This means that about 1,600,000 enlistments were made by men who were born in the United States, including about 200,000 African Americans.  About 200,000 enlistments were by men born in one of the German states (although this is somewhat speculative since anyone serving from a German family tended to be identified as German regardless of where they were actually born).[12] About 200,000 soldiers and sailors were born in Ireland.  Although some soldiers came from as far away as Malta, Italy, India, and Russia, most of the remaining foreign-born soldiers came from England, Scotland and Canada.

text:
Breakdown of the approximately 2.2 million Union Enlistments signed [ethnic origin and nativity have been conflated inconsistently]:

Number

Percent

Origin

1,000,000
45.4
Native-born white Americans.

216,000
9.7
German-born

210,000
9.5
African-American. Half were freedmen who lived in the North, and half were ex-slaves from the South. They served under mainly white officers in more than 160 "colored" regiments and in Federal U.S. regiments organized as the United States Colored Troops (USCT).[14][15][16][17]

200,000
9.1
Irish-born

90,000
4.1
Dutch.

50,000
2.3
Canadian.[18]

50,000
2.3
Born in England.

40,000
1.8
French or French Canadian. About half were born in the United States of America, the other half in Quebec.[18]

20,000
0.9
Nordic (Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish, and Danish).

7,000
0.3
Italian

7,000
0.3
Jewish

6,000
0.2
Mexican

5,000
0.2
Polish (many of whom served in the Polish Legion of Brig. Gen. Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski)

4,000
0.1
Native Americans

295,000
6.4
Several hundred of other various nationalities

text: Many immigrant soldiers formed their own regiments, such as the Irish Brigade (69th New York, 63rd New York, 88th New York, 28th Massachusetts, 116th Pennsylvania); the Swiss Rifles (15th Missouri); the Gardes Lafayette (55th New York); the Garibaldi Guard (39th New York); the Martinez Militia (1st New Mexico); the Polish Legion (58th New York); the German Rangers (52nd New York); the Cameron Highlanders (79th New York Volunteer Infantry); and the Scandinavian Regiment (15th Wisconsin). But for the most part, the foreign-born soldiers were scattered as individuals throughout units.

text: For comparison, the Confederate Army was not very diverse: 91% of Confederate soldiers were native born white men and only 9% were foreign-born white men, Irish being the largest group with others including Germans, French, Mexicans (though most of them simply happened to have been born when the Southwest was still part of Mexico), and British. Some Confederate propaganda condemned foreign-born soldiers in the Union Army, likening them to the hated Hessians of the American Revolution. Also, a relatively small number of Native Americans (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Creek) fought for the Confederacy.

text: Army administration and issues[edit]

text: Various organizational and administrative issues arose during the war, which had a major effect on subsequent military procedures.

text: Blacks in the army[edit]

text: The inclusion of blacks as combat soldiers became a major issue. Eventually, it was realized, especially after the valiant effort of the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry in the Battle of Fort Wagner, that blacks were fully able to serve as competent and reliable soldiers. This was partly due to the efforts of Robert Smalls, who, while still a slave, won fame by defecting from the Confederacy, and bringing a Confederate transport ship which he was piloting. He later met with Edwin Stanton, Secretary of War, to argue for including blacks in combat units. This led to the formation of the first combat unit for black soldiers, the 1st South Carolina Volunteers. Regiments for black soldiers were eventually referred to as United States Colored Troops. Black Soldiers were paid less than white Soldiers until late in the war and were, in general, treated harshly.

text: Unit supplies[edit]

text: Battlefield supplies were a major problem. They were greatly improved by new techniques in preserving food and other perishables, and in transport by railroad. General Montgomery C. Meigs was one of the most important Union Army leaders in this field.

text: Military tactics[edit]

text: The Civil War drove many innovations in military tactics.[19] W. J. Hardee published the first revised infantry tactics for use with modern rifles in 1855. However, even these tactics proved ineffective in combat, as it involved massed volley fire, in which entire units (primarily regiments) would fire simultaneously. These tactics had not been tested before in actual combat, and the commanders of these units would post their soldiers at incredibly close range, compared to the range of the rifled musket, which led to very high mortality rates. In a sense, the weapons had evolved beyond the tactics, which would soon change as the war drew to a close.[20]  Railroads provided the first mass movement of troops. The electric telegraph was used by both sides, which enabled political and senior military leaders to pass orders to and receive reports from commanders in the field.[21]

text: There were many other innovations brought by necessity. Generals were forced to reexamine the offensive minded tactics developed during the Mexican–American War where attackers could mass to within 100 yards of the defensive lines, the maximum effective range of smoothbore muskets.  Attackers would have to endure one volley of inaccurate smoothbore musket fire before they could close with the defenders.  But by the Civil War, the smoothbores had been replaced with rifled muskets, using the quick loadable minié ball, with accurate ranges up to 900 yards.  Defense now dominated the battlefield.  Now attackers, whether advancing in ordered lines or by rushes, were subjected to three or four aimed volleys before they could get among the defenders.  This made offensive tactics that were successful only 20 years before nearly obsolete.[22]

text: Desertions and draft riots[edit]

text: Desertion was a major problem for both sides. The daily hardships of war, forced marches, thirst, suffocating heat, disease, delay in pay, solicitude for family, impatience at the monotony and futility of inactive service, panic on the eve of battle, the sense of war-weariness, the lack of confidence in commanders, and the discouragement of defeat (especially early on for the Union Army), all tended to lower the morale of the Union Army and to increase desertion.[23][24]

text: In 1861 and 1862, the war was going badly for the Union Army and there were, by some counts, 180,000 desertions. In 1863 and 1864, the bitterest two years of the war, the Union Army suffered over 200 desertions every day, for a total of 150,000 desertions during those two years. This puts the total number of desertions from the Union Army during the four years of the war at nearly 350,000. Using these numbers, 15% of Union soldiers deserted during the war. Official numbers put the number of deserters from the Union Army at 200,000 for the entire war, or about 8% of Union Army soldiers. Since desertion is defined as being AWOL for 30 or more days and some soldiers returned within that time period, as well as some deserters being labeled missing-in-action or vice versa, accurate counts are difficult to determine. Many historians estimate the "real" desertion rate in the Union Army as between 9–12%.[25] About 1 out of 3 deserters returned to their regiments, either voluntarily or after being arrested and being sent back. Many of the desertions were by "professional" bounty men, men who would enlist to collect the often large cash bonuses and then desert at the earliest opportunity to do the same elsewhere. If not caught and executed, it could prove a very lucrative criminal enterprise.[26][27]

text: The Irish were the main participants in the famous "New York Draft riots" of 1863.[28] Stirred up by the instigating rhetoric of Democratic politicians,[29] the Irish had shown the strongest support for Southern aims prior to the start of the war and had long opposed abolitionism and the free black population, regarding them as competition for jobs and blaming them for driving down wages. Alleging that the war was merely an upper class abolitionist war to free slaves who might move north and compete for jobs and housing, the poorer classes did not welcome a draft, especially one from which a richer man could buy an exemption.  The poor formed clubs that would buy exemptions for their unlucky members. As a result of the Enrollment Act, rioting began in several Northern cities, the most heavily hit being New York City. A mob reported as consisting principally of Irish immigrants rioted in the summer of 1863, with the worst violence occurring in July during the Battle of Gettysburg. The mob set fire to everything from African American churches and an orphanage for  "colored children" as well as the homes of certain prominent Protestant abolitionists. A mob was reportedly repulsed from the offices of the staunchly pro-Union New York Tribune by workers wielding and firing two Gatling guns. The principal victims of the rioting were African Americans and activists in the anti-slavery movement. Not until victory was achieved at Gettysburg could the Union Army be sent in; some units had to open fire to quell the violence and stop the rioters. By the time the rioting was over, perhaps up to 1,000 people had been killed or wounded.[30]  There were a few small scale draft riots in rural areas of the Midwest and in the coal regions of Pennsylvania.[31][32]


document_title: Criminal procedure

question_text: what are the parties in a criminal case

question_tokens: what are the parties in a criminal case

root

text: Criminal procedure

text: Basic rights[edit]

text: Currently, in many countries with a democratic system and the rule of law, criminal procedure puts the burden of proof on the prosecution – that is, it is up to the prosecution to prove that the defendant is guilty beyond any reasonable doubt, as opposed to having the defense prove that s/he is innocent, and any doubt is resolved in favor of the defendant. This provision, known as the presumption of innocence, is required, for example, in the 46 countries that are members of the Council of Europe, under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, and it is included in other human rights documents. However, in practice it operates somewhat differently in different countries.  Such basic rights also include the right for the defendant to know what offence he or she has been arrested for or is being charged with, and the right to appear before a judicial official within a certain time of being arrested.  Many jurisdictions also allow the defendant the right to legal counsel and provide any defendant who cannot afford their own lawyer with a lawyer paid for at the public expense.

tag: p

text: Difference in criminal and civil procedures[edit]

text: Most countries make a rather clear distinction between civil and criminal procedures. For example, an English criminal court may force a defendant to pay a fine as punishment for his crime, and he may sometimes have to pay the legal costs of the prosecution. But the victim of the crime pursues his claim for compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action.[1] In France, Italy, and many countries besides, the victim of a crime (known as the "injured party") may be awarded damages by a criminal court judge.

text: The standards of proof are higher in a criminal action than in a civil one since the loser risks not only financial penalties but also being sent to prison (or, in some countries, execution). In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a criminal “beyond reasonable doubt”; but the plaintiff in a civil action is required to prove his case “on the balance of probabilities”.[1] "Beyond reasonable doubt" is not defined for the jury which decides the verdict, but it has been said by appeal courts that proving guilt beyond reasonable doubt requires the prosecution to exclude any reasonable hypothesis consistent with innocence: Plomp v. R. In a civil case, however, the court simply weighs the evidence and decides what is most probable.

text: Criminal and civil procedure are different. Although some systems, including the English, allow a private citizen to bring a criminal prosecution against another citizen, criminal actions are nearly always started by the state. Civil actions, on the other hand, are usually started by individuals.

text: In Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is, in most cases, the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a civil action is the plaintiff. In both kinds of action the other party is known as the defendant. A criminal case against a person called Ms. Sanchez would be described as “United States vs. (=versus, or against) Sanchez” in the United States if initiated by the federal government; if initiated by a state, it would typically be called "[Name of the State] vs. Sanchez" or "The People vs. Sanchez."  In England, it would be styled “R. (Regina, that is, the Queen) vs. Sanchez.” But a civil action between Ms. Sanchez and a Mr. Smith would be “Sanchez vs. Smith” if started by Sanchez, and “Smith vs. Sanchez” if started by Mr. Smith.

text: Evidence given at a criminal trial is not necessarily admissible in a civil action about the same matter, just as evidence given in a civil cause is not necessarily admissible on a criminal trial. For example, the victim of a road accident does not directly benefit if the driver who injured him is found guilty of the crime of careless driving. He still has to prove his case in a civil action.[1] In fact he may be able to prove his civil case even when the driver is found not guilty in the criminal trial. If the accused has given evidence on his trial he may be cross-examined on those statements in a subsequent civil action regardless of the criminal verdict.

text: Once the plaintiff has shown that the defendant is liable, the main argument in a civil court is about the amount of money, or damages, which the defendant should pay to the plaintiff.[1]

text: Differences between civil law and common law systems[edit]

text:
The majority of civil law jurisdictions ('civil law' as a type of law system, not as opposed to criminal law) follow an inquisitorial system of adjudication, in which judges undertake an active investigation of the claims by examining the evidence at the trial (while other judges contribute likewise by preparing reports).
In common law systems, the trial judge presides over proceedings grounded in the adversarial system of dispute resolution, where both the prosecution and the defence prepare arguments to be presented before the court. Some civil law systems have adopted adversarial procedures.

tag: ul

text: Proponents of either system tend to consider that their system defends best the rights of the innocent. There is a tendency in common law countries to believe that civil law / inquisitorial systems do not have the so-called "presumption of innocence", and do not provide the defence with adequate rights. Conversely, there is a tendency in countries with an inquisitorial system to believe that accusatorial proceedings unduly favour rich defendants who can afford large legal teams, and are very harsh on poorer defendants.


document_title: All men are created equal

question_text: who said we hold the truths to be self evident

text: All men are created equal

text: Origin of Thomas Jefferson's use of the phrase[edit]

text: Thomas Jefferson, at the age of 33, may have also borrowed the expression from an Italian friend and neighbor, Philip Mazzei,[4] as noted by Joint Resolution 175 of the 103rd Congress as well as by John F. Kennedy in A Nation of Immigrants.[5][6]

text: In 1776 the Second Continental Congress asked Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman to write the Declaration of Independence. This Committee of Five voted to have Thomas Jefferson write the document. After Jefferson finished he gave the document to Franklin to proof. Franklin suggested minor changes, and one of them stands out far more than the others. Jefferson had written, "We hold these truths to be sacred and un-deniable..." Franklin changed it to, "We hold these truths to be self-evident."

text: The second paragraph of the United States Declaration of Independence starts as follows:

text: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed;[7]

text: The Virginia Declaration of Rights, chiefly authored by George Mason and approved by the Virginia Convention on June 12, 1776, contains the wording:

text: all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights of which . . . they cannot deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.[8]

text: George Mason was an elder-planter who had originally stated John Locke's theory of natural rights:

text: All men are born equally free and independent and have certain inherent natural rights of which they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; among which are the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.[9]

text: Mason's draft was accepted by a small committee and then rejected by the Virginia Convention. Thomas Jefferson, a competent Virginia lawyer, saw this as a problem in legal writing and chose words that were more acceptable to the Second Continental Congress.

text: The Massachusetts Constitution, chiefly authored by John Adams in 1780, contains in its Declaration of Rights the wording:

text: Article I. All men are born free and equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable rights; among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties; that of acquiring, possessing, and protecting property; in fine, that of seeking and obtaining their safety and happiness.[10]

text: The plaintiffs in the cases of Brom and Bett v. John Ashley and Commonwealth v. Nathaniel Jennison argued that this provision abolished slavery in Massachusetts.[11] The latter case resulted in a "sweeping declaration . . . that the institution of slavery was incompatible with the principles of liberty and legal equality articulated in the new Massachusetts Constitution".[12]

text: The phrase has since been considered a hallmark statement in democratic constitutions and similar human rights instruments, many of which have adopted the phrase or variants thereof.[13]

text: Slavery and the phrase[edit]

text: The contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal" and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration of Independence was first published. Before final approval, Congress, having made a few alterations to some of the wording, also deleted nearly a fourth of the draft, including a passage critical of the slave trade. At that time many members of Congress, including Jefferson, owned slaves, which clearly factored into their decision to delete the controversial "anti-slavery" passage.[14] In 1776, abolitionist Thomas Day responding to the hypocrisy in the Declaration wrote, though the first draft stated " All free men are created equal":

text: If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves.[14]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: The phrase "all men are created equal" has received criticism from elitists and traditional conservatives: Richard Weaver writing in one of the cornerstone works of traditional conservatism, Ideas Have Consequences (1948), paraphrased a 19th-century writer in writing that "no man was ever created free and no two men [were] ever created equal". He continues:

text: The comity of peoples in groups large or small rests not upon this chemerical notion of equality but upon fraternity, a concept which long antedates it in history because it goes immeasurably deeper in human sentiment. The ancient feeling of brotherhood carries obligations of which equality knows nothing. It calls for respect and protection, for brotherhood is status in family, and family is by nature hierarchical.[15]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The Vietnamese proclamation of independence, written in 1945, uses the phrase "all men are created equal" and mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence in it as well.

text: The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one, however, it omits the phrase "all men are created equal", along with "the consent of the governed".[16][17][18]


document_title: AC motor

question_text: who produced the first motor that run on ac

question_tokens: who produced the first motor that run on ac

text: AC motor

text: Operating principles[edit]

text: The two main types of AC motors are induction motors and synchronous motors. The induction motor (or asynchronous motor) always relies on a small difference in speed between the stator rotating magnetic field and the rotor shaft speed called slip to induce rotor current in the rotor AC winding. As a result, the induction motor cannot produce torque near synchronous speed where induction (or slip) is irrelevant or ceases to exist. In contrast, the synchronous motor does not rely on slip-induction for operation and uses either permanent magnets, salient poles (having projecting magnetic poles), or an independently excited rotor winding. The synchronous motor produces its rated torque at exactly synchronous speed. The brushless wound-rotor doubly fed synchronous motor system has an independently excited rotor winding that does not rely on the principles of slip-induction of current. The brushless wound-rotor doubly fed motor is a synchronous motor that can function exactly at the supply frequency or sub to super multiple of the supply frequency.

text: Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and AC and DC mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage and winding connection.

text: History[edit]

text: Alternating current technology was rooted in Michael Faraday's and Joseph Henry's 1830–31 discovery that a changing magnetic field can induce an electric current in a circuit. Faraday is usually given credit for this discovery since he published his findings first.[1]

text: In 1832, French instrument maker Hippolyte Pixii generated a crude form of alternating current when he designed and built the first alternator. It consisted of a revolving horseshoe magnet passing over two wound wire coils.[2]

text: Because of AC's advantages in long distance high voltage transmission, there were many inventors in the United States and Europe during the late 19th century trying to develop workable AC motors.[3] The first person to conceive of a rotating magnetic field was Walter Baily, who gave a workable demonstration of his battery-operated polyphase motor aided by a commutator on June 28, 1879, to the Physical Society of London.[4] Describing an apparatus nearly identical to Baily's, French electrical engineer Marcel Deprez published a paper in 1880 that identified the rotating magnetic field principle and that of a two-phase AC system of currents to produce it.[5] Never practically demonstrated, the design was flawed, as one of the two currents was “furnished by the machine itself.”[4] In 1886, English engineer Elihu Thomson built an AC motor by expanding upon the induction-repulsion principle and his wattmeter.[6] In 1887, American inventor Charles Schenk Bradley was the first to patent a two-phase AC power transmission with four wires.

text: "Commutatorless" alternating current induction motors seem to have been independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla. Ferraris demonstrated a working model of his single-phase induction motor in 1885, and Tesla built his working two-phase induction motor in 1887 and demonstrated it at the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1888[7][8][9] (although Tesla claimed that he conceived the rotating magnetic field in 1882).[10] In 1888, Ferraris published his research to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin, where he detailed the foundations of motor operation;[11] Tesla, in the same year, was granted a United States patent for his own motor.[12] Working from Ferraris's experiments, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky introduced the first three-phase induction motor in 1890, a much more capable design that became the prototype used in Europe and the U.S.[13][14][15] He also invented the first three-phase generator and transformer and combined them into the first complete AC three-phase system in 1891.[16] The three-phase motor design was also worked on by the Swiss engineer Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown,[13] and other three-phase AC systems were developed by German technician Friedrich August Haselwander and Swedish engineer Jonas Wenström.[17]

text: Induction motor[edit]

text: Slip[edit]

text: If the rotor of a squirrel cage motor were to run at the true synchronous speed, the flux in the rotor at any given place on the rotor would not change, and no current would be created in the squirrel cage. For this reason, ordinary squirrel-cage motors run at some tens of RPM slower than synchronous speed. Because the rotating field (or equivalent pulsating field) effectively rotates faster than the rotor, it could be said to slip past the surface of the rotor. The difference between synchronous speed and actual speed is called slip, and loading the motor increases the amount of slip as the motor slows down slightly. Even with no load, internal mechanical losses prevent the slip from being zero.

text: The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:

text: where

text: Actual RPM for an induction motor will be less than this calculated synchronous speed by an amount known as slip, that increases with the torque produced. With no load, the speed will be very close to synchronous. When loaded, standard motors have between 2–3% slip, special motors may have up to 7% slip, and a class of motors known as torque motors are rated to operate at 100% slip (0 RPM/full stall).

text: The slip of the AC motor is calculated by:

text: where

text:
As an example, a typical four-pole motor running on 60 Hz might have a nameplate rating of 1725 RPM at full load, while its calculated speed is 1800 RPM.
The speed in this type of motor has traditionally been altered by having additional sets of coils or poles in the motor that can be switched on and off to change the speed of magnetic field rotation. However, developments in power electronics mean that the frequency of the power supply can also now be varied to provide a smoother control of the motor speed.

text: This kind of rotor is the basic hardware for induction regulators, which is an exception of the use of rotating magnetic field as pure electrical (not electromechanical) application.

text: Polyphase cage rotor[edit]

text: Most common AC motors use the squirrel-cage rotor, which will be found in virtually all domestic and light industrial alternating current motors. The squirrel-cage refers to the rotating exercise cage for pet animals. The motor takes its name from the shape of its rotor "windings"- a ring at either end of the rotor, with bars connecting the rings running the length of the rotor. It is typically cast aluminum or copper poured between the iron laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings will be visible. The vast majority of the rotor currents will flow through the bars rather than the higher-resistance and usually varnished laminates. Very low voltages at very high currents are typical in the bars and end rings; high efficiency motors will often use cast copper to reduce the resistance in the rotor.

text: In operation, the squirrel-cage motor may be viewed as a transformer with a rotating secondary. When the rotor is not rotating in sync with the magnetic field, large rotor currents are induced; the large rotor currents magnetize the rotor and interact with the stator's magnetic fields to bring the rotor almost into synchronization with the stator's field. An unloaded squirrel-cage motor at rated no-load speed will consume electrical power only to maintain rotor speed against friction and resistance losses. As the mechanical load increases, so will the electrical load – the electrical load is inherently related to the mechanical load. This is similar to a transformer, where the primary's electrical load is related to the secondary's electrical load.

text: This is why a squirrel-cage blower motor may cause household lights to dim upon starting, but does not dim the lights on startup when its fan belt (and therefore mechanical load) is removed. Furthermore, a stalled squirrel-cage motor (overloaded or with a jammed shaft) will consume current limited only by circuit resistance as it attempts to start. Unless something else limits the current (or cuts it off completely) overheating and destruction of the winding insulation is the likely outcome.

text: Virtually every washing machine, dishwasher, standalone fan, record player, etc. uses some variant of a squirrel-cage motor.[citation needed]

text: Polyphase wound rotor[edit]

text: An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to slip rings on the shaft. Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to a controller such as a variable resistor that allows changing the motor's slip rate. In certain high-power variable-speed wound rotor drives, the slip-frequency energy is captured, rectified, and returned to the power supply through an inverter. With bidirectionally controlled power, the wound rotor becomes an active participant in the energy conversion process, with the wound rotor doubly fed configuration showing twice the power density.

text: Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require maintenance of the slip rings and brushes, but they were the standard form for variable speed control before the advent of compact power electronic devices. Transistorized inverters with variable-frequency drive can now be used for speed control, and wound rotor motors are becoming less common.

text: Several methods of starting a polyphase motor are used. Where a large inrush current and high starting torque can be permitted, the motor can be started across the line, by applying full line voltage to the terminals (direct-on-line, DOL). Where it is necessary to limit the starting inrush current (where the motor is large compared with the short-circuit capacity of the supply), the motor is started at reduced voltage using either series inductors, an autotransformer, thyristors, or other devices. A technique sometimes used is star-delta (YΔ) starting, where the motor coils are initially connected in star configuration for acceleration of the load, then switched to delta configuration when the load is up to speed. This technique is more common in Europe than in North America. Transistorized drives can directly vary the applied voltage as required by the starting characteristics of the motor and load.

text: This type of motor is becoming more common in traction applications such as locomotives, where it is known as the asynchronous traction motor[citation needed].

text: Two-phase servo motor[edit]

text: A typical two-phase AC servo-motor has a squirrel cage rotor and a field consisting of two windings:

text:
a constant-voltage (AC) main winding.
a control-voltage (AC) winding in quadrature (i.e., 90 degrees phase shifted) with the main winding so as to produce a rotating magnetic field. Reversing phase makes the motor reverse.

tag: ol

text:
An AC servo amplifier, a linear power amplifier, feeds the control winding.
The electrical resistance of the rotor is made high intentionally so that the speed–torque curve is fairly linear. Two-phase servo motors are inherently high-speed, low-torque devices, heavily geared down to drive the load.

text: Single-phase induction motor[edit]

text: Single-phase motors do not have a unique rotating magnetic field like multi-phase motors. The field alternates (reverses polarity) between pole pairs and can be viewed as two fields rotating in opposite directions. They require a secondary magnetic field that causes the rotor to move in a specific direction. After starting, the alternating stator field is in relative rotation with the rotor. Several methods are commonly used:

text: Shaded-pole motor[edit]

text: A common single-phase motor is the shaded-pole motor and is used in devices requiring low starting torque, such as electric fans, small pumps, or small household appliances. In this motor, small single-turn copper "shading coils" create the moving magnetic field. Part of each pole is encircled by a copper coil or strap; the induced current in the strap opposes the change of flux through the coil. This causes a time lag in the flux passing through the shading coil, so that the maximum field intensity moves higher across the pole face on each cycle. This produces a low level rotating magnetic field which is large enough to turn both the rotor and its attached load. As the rotor picks up speed the torque builds up to its full level as the principal magnetic field is rotating relative to the rotating rotor.

text: A reversible shaded-pole motor was made by Barber-Colman several decades ago. It had a single field coil, and two principal poles, each split halfway to create two pairs of poles. Each of these four "half-poles" carried a coil, and the coils of diagonally opposite half-poles were connected to a pair of terminals. One terminal of each pair was common, so only three terminals were needed in all.

text: The motor would not start with the terminals open; connecting the common to one other made the motor run one way, and connecting common to the other made it run the other way. These motors were used in industrial and scientific devices.

text:
An unusual, adjustable-speed, low-torque shaded-pole motor could be found in traffic-light and advertising-lighting controllers.
The pole faces were parallel and relatively close to each other, with the disc centred between them, something like the disc in a watthour meter. Each pole face was split, and had a shading coil on one part; the shading coils were on the parts that faced each other. Both shading coils were probably closer to the main coil; they could have both been farther away, without affecting the operating principle, just the direction of rotation.

text: Applying AC to the coil created a field that progressed in the gap between the poles. The plane of the stator core was approximately tangential to an imaginary circle on the disc, so the travelling magnetic field dragged the disc and made it rotate.

text: The stator was mounted on a pivot so it could be positioned for the desired speed and then clamped in position. Keeping in mind that the effective speed of the travelling magnetic field in the gap was constant, placing the poles nearer to the centre of the disc made it run relatively faster, and toward the edge, slower.

text: It is possible that these motors are still in use in some older installations.

text: Split-phase motor[edit]

text: Another common single-phase AC motor is the split-phase induction motor,[18] commonly used in major appliances such as air conditioners and clothes dryers. Compared to the shaded pole motor, these motors provide much greater starting torque.

text: A split-phase motor has a secondary startup winding that is 90 electrical degrees to the main winding, always centered directly between the poles of the main winding, and connected to the main winding by a set of electrical contacts. The coils of this winding are wound with fewer turns of smaller wire than the main winding, so it has a lower inductance and higher resistance. The position of the winding creates a small phase shift between the flux of the main winding and the flux of the starting winding, causing the rotor to rotate. When the speed of the motor is sufficient to overcome the inertia of the load, the contacts are opened automatically by a centrifugal switch or electric relay. The direction of rotation is determined by the connection between the main winding and the start circuit. In applications where the motor requires a fixed rotation, one end of the start circuit is permanently connected to the main winding, with the contacts making the connection at the other end.

text: Capacitor start motor[edit]

text: A capacitor start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starting capacitor inserted in series with the startup winding, creating an LC circuit which produces a greater phase shift (and so, a much greater starting torque) than both split-phase and shaded pole motors.

text: Resistance start motor[edit]

text: A resistance start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starter inserted in series with the startup winding, creating reactance. This added starter provides assistance in the starting and initial direction of rotation. The start winding is made mainly of thin wire with less number of turns to make it high resistive and less inductive. The main winding is made with thicker wire with larger number of turns which makes it less resistive and more inductive.

text: Permanent-split capacitor motor[edit]

text: Another variation is the permanent-split capacitor (or PSC) motor.[19] Also known as a capacitor-run motor, this type of motor uses a non-polarized capacitor with a high voltage rating to generate an electrical phase shift between the run and start windings. PSC motors are the dominant type of split-phase motor in Europe and much of the world, but in North America, they are most frequently used in variable torque applications (like blowers, fans, and pumps) and other cases where variable speeds are desired.

text: A capacitor with a relatively low capacitance, and relatively high voltage rating, is connected in series with the start winding and remains in the circuit during the entire run cycle.[19] Like other split-phase motors, the main winding is used with a smaller start winding, and rotation is changed by reversing the connection between the main winding and the start circuit, or by having polarity of main winding switched while start winding is always connected to a capacitor. There are significant differences, however; the use of a speed sensitive centrifugal switch requires that other split-phase motors must operate at, or very close to, full speed. PSC motors may operate within a wide range of speeds, much lower than the motor's electrical speed. Also, for applications like automatic door openers that require the motor to reverse rotation often, the use of a mechanism requires that a motor must slow to a near stop before contact with the start winding is re-established. The 'permanent' connection to the capacitor in a PSC motor means that changing rotation is instantaneous.

text: Three-phase motors can be converted to PSC motors by making common two windings and connecting the third via a capacitor to act as a start winding. However, the power rating needs to be at least 50% larger than for a comparable single-phase motor due to an unused winding.[20]

text: Synchronous motor[edit]

text: Polyphase synchronous motor[edit]

text: If connections to the rotor coils of a three-phase motor are taken out on slip-rings and fed a separate field current to create a continuous magnetic field (or if the rotor consists of a permanent magnet), the result is called a synchronous motor because the rotor will rotate synchronously with the rotating magnetic field produced by the polyphase electrical supply. Another synchronous motor system is the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed synchronous motor system with an independently excited rotor multiphase AC winding set that may experience slip-induction beyond synchronous speeds but like all synchronous motors, does not rely on slip-induction for torque production.

text: The synchronous motor can also be used as an alternator.

text: Contemporary synchronous motors are frequently driven by solid state variable-frequency drives. This greatly eases the problem of starting the massive rotor of a large synchronous motor. They may also be started as induction motors using a squirrel-cage winding that shares the common rotor: once the motor reaches synchronous speed, no current is induced in the squirrel-cage winding so it has little effect on the synchronous operation of the motor, aside from stabilizing the motor speed on load changes.

text: Synchronous motors are occasionally used as traction motors; the TGV may be the best-known example of such use.

text: Huge numbers of three phase synchronous motors are now fitted to electric cars. They have a Nd or other rare-earth permanent magnet.

text: One use for this type of motor is its use in a power factor correction scheme. They are referred to as synchronous condensers. This exploits a feature of the machine where it consumes power at a leading power factor when its rotor is over excited. It thus appears to the supply to be a capacitor, and could thus be used to correct the lagging power factor that is usually presented to the electric supply by inductive loads. The excitation is adjusted until a near unity power factor is obtained (often automatically). Machines used for this purpose are easily identified as they have no shaft extensions. Synchronous motors are valued in any case because their power factor is much better than that of induction motors, making them preferred for very high power applications.

text: Some of the largest AC motors are pumped-storage hydroelectricity generators that are operated as synchronous motors to pump water to a reservoir at a higher elevation for later use to generate electricity using the same machinery. Six 500-megawatt generators are installed in the Bath County Pumped Storage Station in Virginia, USA. When pumping, each unit can produce 642,800 horsepower (479.3 megawatts).[21].

text: Single-phase synchronous motor[edit]

text: Small single-phase AC motors can also be designed with magnetized rotors (or several variations on that idea; see "Hysteresis synchronous motors" below).

text: If a conventional squirrel-cage rotor has flats ground on it to create salient poles and increase reluctance, it will start conventionally, but will run synchronously, although it can provide only a modest torque at synchronous speed. This is known as a reluctance motor.

text: Because inertia makes it difficult to instantly accelerate the rotor from stopped to synchronous speed, these motors normally require some sort of special feature to get started. Some include a squirrel-cage structure to bring the rotor close to synchronous speed. Various other designs use a small induction motor (which may share the same field coils and rotor as the synchronous motor) or a very light rotor with a one-way mechanism (to ensure that the rotor starts in the "forward" direction). In the latter instance, applying AC power creates chaotic (or seemingly chaotic) jumping movement back and forth; such a motor will always start, but lacking the anti-reversal mechanism, the direction it runs is unpredictable. The Hammond organ tone generator used a non-self-starting synchronous motor (until comparatively recently), and had an auxiliary conventional shaded-pole starting motor. A spring-loaded auxiliary manual starting switch connected power to this second motor for a few seconds.

text: Hysteresis synchronous motor[edit]

text: These motors are relatively costly, and are used where exact speed (assuming an exact-frequency AC source) and rotation with low flutter (high-frequency variation in speed) are essential. Applications included tape recorder capstan drives (the motor shaft could be the capstan), and, before the advent of crystal control, motion picture cameras and recorders. Their distinguishing feature is their rotor, which is a smooth cylinder of a magnetic alloy that stays magnetized, but can be demagnetized fairly easily as well as re-magnetized with poles in a new location. Hysteresis refers to how the magnetic flux in the metal lags behind the external magnetizing force; for instance, to demagnetize such a material, one could apply a magnetizing field of opposite polarity to that which originally magnetized the material. These motors have a stator like those of capacitor-run squirrel-cage induction motors. On startup, when slip decreases sufficiently, the rotor becomes magnetized by the stator's field, and the poles stay in place. The motor then runs at synchronous speed as if the rotor were a permanent magnet. When stopped and restarted, the poles are likely to form at different locations. For a given design, torque at synchronous speed is only relatively modest, and the motor can run at below synchronous speed. In simple words, it is lagging magnetic field behind magnetic flux.

text: Other AC motor types[edit]

text: Universal motor and series wound motor[edit]

text: A universal motor is a design that can operate on either AC or DC power. In universal motors the stator and rotor of a brushed DC motor are both wound and supplied from an external source, with the torque being a function of the rotor current times the stator current so reversing the current in both rotor and stator does not reverse the rotation. Universal motors can run on AC as well as DC provided the frequency is not so high that the inductive reactance of the stator winding and eddy current losses become problems. Nearly all universal motors are series-wound because their stators have relatively few turns, minimizing inductance. Universal motors are compact, have high starting torque and can be varied in speed over a wide range with relatively simple controls such as rheostats and PWM choppers. Compared with induction motors, universal motors do have some drawbacks inherent to their brushes and commutators: relatively high levels of electrical and acoustic noise, low reliability and more frequent required maintenance.

text: Universal motors are widely used in small home appliances and hand power tools. Until the 1970s they dominated electric traction (electric, including diesel-electric railway and road vehicles); many traction power networks still use special low frequencies such as 16.7 and 25 Hz to overcome the aforementioned problems with losses and reactance. Still widely used, universal traction motors have been increasingly displaced by polyphase AC induction and permanent magnet motors with variable-frequency drives made possible by modern power semiconductor devices.

text: Repulsion motor[edit]

text: Repulsion motors are wound-rotor single-phase AC motors that are a type of induction motor. In a repulsion motor, the armature brushes are shorted together rather than connected in series with the field, as is done with universal motors. By transformer action, the stator induces currents in the rotor, which create torque by repulsion instead of attraction as in other motors. Several types of repulsion motors have been manufactured, but the repulsion-start induction-run (RS-IR) motor has been used most frequently. The RS-IR motor has a centrifugal switch that shorts all segments of the commutator so that the motor operates as an induction motor once it is close to full speed. Some of these motors also lift the brushes out of contact with source voltage regulation. Repulsion motors were developed before suitable motor starting capacitors were available, and few repulsion motors are sold as of 2005.

text: Exterior rotor[edit]

text: Where speed stability is important, some AC motors (such as some Papst motors) have the stator on the inside and the rotor on the outside to optimize inertia and cooling.

text: Sliding rotor motor[edit]

text: A conical rotor brake motor incorporates the brake as an integral part of the conical sliding rotor. When the motor is at rest, a spring acts on the sliding rotor and forces the brake ring against the brake cap in the motor, holding the rotor stationary. When the motor is energized, its magnetic field generates both an axial and a radial component. The axial component overcomes the spring force, releasing the brake; while the radial component causes the rotor to turn. There is no additional brake control required.

text: The high starting torque and low inertia of the conical rotor brake motor has proven to be ideal for the demands of high cycle dynamic drives in applications since the motor was invented, designed and introduced over 50 years ago. This type of motor configuration was first introduced in the USA in 1963.

text: Single-speed or two speed motors are designed for coupling to gear motor system gearboxes. Conical rotor brake motors are also used to power micro speed drives.

text: Motors of this type can also be found on overhead cranes and hoists. The micro speed unit combines two motors and an intermediate gear reducer. These are used for applications where extreme mechanical positioning accuracy and high cycling capability are needed. The micro speed unit combines a “main” conical rotor brake motor for rapid speed and a “micro” conical rotor brake motor for slow or positioning speed. The intermediate gearbox allows a range of ratios, and motors of different speeds can be combined to produce high ratios between high and low speed.

text: Electronically commutated motor[edit]

text: Electronically commutated (EC) motors are electric motors powered by direct-current (DC) electricity and having electronic commutation systems, rather than mechanical commutators and brushes. The current-to-torque and frequency-to-speed relationships of BLDC motors are linear. While the motor coils are powered by DC, power may be rectified from AC within the casing.

text: Watthour-meter motor[edit]

text: These are two-phase induction motors with permanent magnets to retard the rotor so its speed is accurately proportional to the power passing through the meter. The rotor is an aluminium-alloy disc, and currents induced into it react with the field from the stator.

text: A split-phase watthour meter has a stator with three coils facing the disc. The magnetic circuit is completed by a C-shaped core of permeable iron. The "voltage" coil above the disc is in parallel with the supply; its many turns have a high inductance/resistance ratio (Q) so its current and magnetic field are the time integral of the applied voltage, lagging it by 90 degrees. This magnetic field passes down perpendicularly through the disc, inducing circular eddy currents in the plane of the disc centered on the field. These induced currents are proportional to the time derivative of the magnetic field, leading it by 90 degrees. This puts the eddy currents in phase with the voltage applied to the voltage coil, just as the current induced in the secondary of a transformer with a resistive load is in phase with the voltage applied to its primary.

text: The eddy currents pass directly above the pole pieces of two "current" coils under the disc, each wound with a few turns of heavy-gauge wire whose inductive reactance is small compared to the load impedance. These coils connect the supply to the load, producing a magnetic field in phase with the load current. This field passes from the pole of one current coil up perpendicularly through the disc and back down through the disc to the pole of the other current coil, with a completed magnetic circuit back to the first current coil. As these fields cross the disc, they pass through the eddy currents induced in it by the voltage coil producing a Lorentz force on the disc mutually perpendicular to both. Assuming power is flowing to the load, the flux from the left current coil crosses the disc upwards where the eddy current flows radially toward the center of the disc producing (by the right-hand rule) a torque driving the front of the disc to the right. Similarly, the flux crosses down through the disc to the right current coil where the eddy current flows radially away from the disc center, again producing a torque driving the front of the disc to the right. When the AC polarity reverses, the eddy currents in the disc and the direction of the magnetic flux from the current coils both change, leaving the direction of the torque unchanged.

text: The torque is thus proportional to the instantaneous line voltage times the instantaneous load current, automatically correcting for power factor. The disc is braked by a permanent magnet so that speed is proportional to torque and the disc mechanically integrates real power. The mechanical dial on the meter reads disc rotations and the total net energy delivered to the load. (If the load supplies power to the grid, the disc rotates backwards unless prevented by a ratchet, thus making net metering possible.)

text: In a split-phase watthour meter the voltage coil is connected between the two "hot" (line) terminals (240 V in North America[citation needed]) and two separate current coils are connected between the corresponding line and load terminals. No connection to the system neutral is needed to correctly handle combined line-to-neutral and line-to-line loads. Line-to-line loads draw the same current through both current coils and spin the meter twice as fast as a line-to-neutral load drawing the same current through only a single current coil, correctly registering the power drawn by the line-to-line load as twice that of the line-to-neutral load.

text: Other variations of the same design are used for polyphase (e.g., three-phase) power.

text: Slow-speed synchronous timing motor[edit]

text: Representative are low-torque synchronous motors with a multi-pole hollow cylindrical magnet (internal poles) surrounding the stator structure. An aluminum cup supports the magnet. The stator has one coil, coaxial with the shaft. At each end of the coil are a pair of circular plates with rectangular teeth on their edges, formed so they are parallel with the shaft. They are the stator poles. One of the pair of discs distributes the coil's flux directly, while the other receives flux that has passed through a common shading coil. The poles are rather narrow, and between the poles leading from one end of the coil are an identical set leading from the other end. In all, this creates a repeating sequence of four poles, unshaded alternating with shaded, that creates a circumferential traveling field to which the rotor's magnetic poles rapidly synchronize. Some stepping motors have a similar structure.


document_title: Names of the Philippines

question_text: who gave the name pearl of the orient seas

text: Names of the Philippines

text: Historical names[edit]

text: In addition to the Philippines, the islands have historically had numerous other names.

text: Ma-i. According to the Zhao Rugua's (趙汝适) book Zhu Fan Zhi (诸蕃志) written around the 13th century during the Song Dynasty, there was a group of islands found in southern South China Sea called Ma-i (麻逸, Pinyin: Máyì). The islands groups were later invaded and renamed and identified by the Spanish to be the island of Mindoro.[13] This was further proved by Ferdinand Blumentritt in his 1882 book, Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen (An Attempt to the Study of Ethnography of the Philippines) that Ma-i, which means "country of the Blacks" was the Chinese local name of present-day Mindoro.[14] On the other hand, historians claimed that Ma-i was not an island, but all the south of South Sea islands groups and Manila itself,[15] which was known to be an overseas Chinese settlement which was in constant contact with the Chinese mainland as early as the 9th century AD.[16]

text: Ma-i consists of the Sānzhōu (三洲, "Three islands") group of islands: Kia-ma-yen (卡拉棉, Calamian), Bālāwàng (巴拉望, Palawan) and Pa-ki-nung (布桑加, Busuanga).[17]

text: Aside from Sānzhōu, Ma-i also consists of the islands of Pai-p'u-yen (巴布延, Babuyan), P'u-li-lu (波利略, Polillo), Lim-kia-tung (林加延, Lingayen), Liu-sung (呂宋, Luzon) and Li-ban (盧邦, Lubang).[18] It was said that these islands had contacts with Chinese traders from Canton (Guangdong) as early as 982 AD.[14][15]

text: Lei was the name given by the Chinese to the present-day island of Luzon, originated from the Tagalog word lusong, a wooden mortar that is used to pound rice. When the Spanish produced maps of the Philippines during early 17th century, they called the island Luçonia which was later respelled as Luzonia, then Luzon.[19]

text:
Las islas de San Lázaro (St. Lazarus' Islands). Named by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 when he reached the islands of Homonhon in Samar (now Eastern Samar) on the feast day of Saint Lazarus of Bethany.[13]
Las islas de Poniente (Islands to the West). Another name from Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 when he learned that the Las islas de San Lázaro also included Cebu and Leyte islands.[20] However, various sources claimed that Magellan was not the one who renamed the area, but his chroniclers instead. The name came from the fact that the islands were reached from Spain en route approaching the left part of the globe.[13] Conversely, the Portuguese called the archipelago Ilhas do oriente (Islands to the East) because they approached the islands from the east of Portugal in late 1540s.[21]

text:
The Portuguese referred the whole island of Luzon as ilhas Luções, or Luzones Islands.[21]
Mindanao was formerly called ilhas de Liquíos Celebes because of the existence of Celebes Sea south of Mindanao.[21]

text: Las islas Felipinas (Philippine Islands/Islands belonging to Philip). Named by Ruy López de Villalobos in 1543 to Samar and Leyte, honoring the Prince of Asturias, the then Philip II of Spain.[22][23]

text:
Caesarea Caroli was the name given by Villalobos to the island of Mindanao when he reached the sea near it. This was named after the Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (and I of Spain).[24][25][26]
The southern island of Sarangani was renamed by Villalobos as Antonia, in honor of Antonio de Mendoza y Pacheco, the Viceroy of New Spain who commissioned Villalobos expedition to the Philippines.[23]
Villalobos also named the littoral zone between the islands of Samar and Leyte as Tendaya.[27]

text:
Las islas Filipinas, or simply Filipinas (Philippines). Vernacular corruption of Las islas Felipenas; irrevocably became the archipelago's name.[13]
Pearl of the Orient/Pearl of the Orient Seas (Spanish: Perla de oriente/Perla del mar de oriente) is the sobriquet of the Philippines. The term originated from the idea of Spanish Jesuit missionary Fr. Juan J. Delgado in 1751.[28] In his last poem Mi último adiós, Dr. José Rizal referred the country with this name.[29] In the 1960 revision of Lupang Hinirang, the Philippine national anthem, the Tagalog version of this phrase was included as the translation from the original Spanish.[30]

text:
Mi último adiós, original Spanish (1896, first stanza)[29]

English translation[31]

Adios, Patria adorada, region del sol querida,
Perla del Mar de Oriente, nuestro perdido Eden!
A darte voy alegre la triste mustia vida,
Y fuera más brillante más fresca, más florida,
Tambien por tí la diera, la diera por tu bien.

Farewell, my adored Land, region of the sun caressed,
Pearl of the Orient Sea, our Eden lost,
With gladness I give you my Life, sad and repressed;
And were it more brilliant, more fresh and at its best,
I would still give it to you for your welfare at most.

tag: table

text:
"Lupang Hinirang", official Filipino lyrics(1958, rev. 1960s, first stanza)[30]

Original Spanish lyrics[32]

Bayang magiliw,
Perlas ng Silanganan
Alab ng puso,
Sa Dibdib mo'y buhay.

Tierra adorada,
hija del sol de Oriente,
su fuego ardiente
en ti latiendo está.

text: The Philippine Islands. This was the anglicized form of the original Spanish name, used under direct American rule and the succeeding Commonwealth Era.[33]

text: Disputed[edit]

text:
Maniolas. According to Fr. Francisco Colin in 1663, a Jesuit friar and an early historian of the Philippines, Maniolas was the name used by Claudius Ptolemy to refer to the group of islands south of China (i.e. Luzon).[33][34] Colin quoted Ptolemy's writings speaking about the Maniolas islands, which is probably Manila. This theory was further supported by José Rizal and Pedro A. Paterno. Rizal also said that the country was recorded to Ptolemy's maps when a sailor named Hippalus told him the existence of "beautiful islands" in southeastern Far East.[21][35] However, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera rejected this notion on his 1910 book, Notas para una cartografia de Filipinas (Notes for the Philippine Cartography).[36]
Baroussai. Along with Maniolas is the Baroussai which was also quoted from Ptolemy. Barrousai is believed to be the Visayas with Mindanao, thus, composing majority of the now Philippine archipelago.[37][38]
Ophir (Hebrew: אוֹפִיר) is a region of islands mentioned in the Bible, most famous for its wealth. Accounts mention that King Solomon received the riches of the region every three years. At the emergence of the hydrography of Spanish colonies in Asia in the early 17th century, Dominican Gregorio García wrote that Ophir was indeed located in the Moluccas and the Philippines.[39] In 1609, Juan de Pineda wrote a diverse collection of literature relating Biblical accounts of Solomon, Ophir and the islands.[39] Former Prime Minister Pedro A. Paterno said in one of his works on conjectural anthropology that Ophir is the Philippines because the scented wood Solomon received from Ophir also exists in the Islands.[40] This notion was however, later dismissed by modern historians as merely alluding and comparing the Philippines' position to the Spanish economy with that of Ophir to Solomon's kingdom—the sudden discovery and colonisation of the Islands bringing wealth and prosperity to the realm.[41]
Tawalisi, was an ancient kingdom in Southeast Asia reached by explorer Ibn Battuta. He reached the kingdom when he left Sumatra and headed towards China. According to the historical accounts of the explorer, he met Urduja, a legendary warrior princess from Pangasinan. However, according to William Henry Scott, Tawilisi and its warrior-princess Urduja are "fabulous, fairy-tale, fiction".[42]

text: Proposed names[edit]

text:
Haring Bayang Katagalugan (Sovereign Tagalog Nation). Andrés Bonifacio's suggested name for the Filipino nation, intended to be governed by the 1896–1897 Republika ng Katagalugan (Tagalog Republic), although unrecognized by non-Tagalog Filipinos. This was later used by Macario Sakay for his 1902–1906 government that was suppressed by the Americans.[6][7]
Kapatiran ("Brotherhood"), or its semi-equivalent Katipunan ("Assembly"/"Gathering").[8]
Luzviminda. A portmanteau of the first syllables of the country's three major island groups: Luzon; Visayas; and Mindanao. The term has sometimes been interchanged with Luzvimindas, due to the territorial claim of the country on eastern Sabah in Borneo.
Mahárlika (Sanskrit: mahardhikka, "nobility"). In Pre-Hispanic Philippines, the mahárlika was the "noble warrior" class whose members were essentially the same as common freedmen, distinguished by their duty to serve the ruler in battle. In 1978, then-President Ferdinand Marcos supported a House Bill mandating the country's renaming to Mahárlika. The bill did not pass since the term was seen by numerous ethnic groups as imperial in nature.[8]
Rizalia. Named after national hero José Rizal, in a similar fashion to Bolivia being named after Simón Bolivar.[8]

text: República Rizalina ("Rizaline Republic"). While exiled in Japan, former revolutionary general Artemio Ricarte proposed the name and had already drafted a constitution for this attempt at a revolutionary government. The term has been pushed by many pro-Rizal Filipinos, however, the term itself is criticized by many as Rizal was not in favor of Philippine independence during the Philippine revolution against Spain.[10]

text: Dayaw Republic (Repúblikang Dayaw). The name was coined through the indigenous term, dayaw, which is prevalent in various languages throughout the archipelago. The term means 'praise' in Waray, 'to take pride' in Hiligaynon, 'respect' in Ilokano, and 'bodily adornment' in Tagalog.[11][12] In other languages in the country, the term also means 'to present with pride what is distinctly and essentially inherent to oneself', 'to show one’s best with pride and dignity coupled with excitement', and 'honor'.[12]

text: Provincial names[edit]

text: In other languages[edit]

text: The 1987 constitution provides that Filipino and English be official languages of the Philippines. The constitution does not contain a provision specifically designating an official name for the country; however, "Republic of the Philippines" is used consistently throughout its provisions (in English). Article XIV, section 8 of the constitution also mandates that the constitution be also promulgated in Filipino but no such official Filipino version exists. "Republika ng Pilipinas" is the de facto name of the country used in Filipino. When standing alone in English, the country's name is always preceded by the article the. However, the definite article ang does not precede the name in Filipino contexts.

text: The country has throughout its history been known as Filipinas. In the 1930s, the scholar Lope K. Santos introduced the abakada alphabet for writing Tagalog which no longer used the letter F as this sound was absent and was usually pronounced by speakers of several Philippine languages as "P". The abakada alphabet also subsequently spread to other Philippine languages (which had been using spelling systems based on the Spanish abecedario). Thus, the form Pilipinas propagated and came into general use.[43]

text: The Commission on the Filipino Language and National Artist, Virgilio S. Almario urges the usage of Filipinas as the country's official name to reflect its origin and history,[44] and to be inclusive to all the languages in the country that already have the new 8 letters of the modern Filipino alphabet (officially used since 1987) which includes the letter F.[45]

text: Unlike Ireland which uses the name "Éire/Ireland" to identify itself at international meetings,[citation needed] the English name usually appears to identify the Philippines (e.g., when there are meetings in the United Nations or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations) in this setting. This is also the tradition even if the meeting is held within the Philippines.

text: In many Philippine languages such as Tagalog, Pilipinas is used; while some other languages, including Ilocano and Chavacano, use Filipinas. Though the name Philippines is the official name that is used by the country's government for international and domestic businesses, numerous major languages of the world still use their own translation or transliteration of the name Philippines to refer to it.

text:
Language

Name(Pilipinas)

Transliteration

Official Name(Republika ng Pilipinas)

Transliteration

Afrikaans

Filippyne

Republiek van die Filippyne

Albanian

Filipinet

Republika e Filipineve

Amharic

ፊሊፒንስ

Filipins

ፊሊፒንስ ሪፐብሊክ

Filipins Ripäblik

Arabic

الفلبين

Al Filibīn

جمهورية الفلبين

Jumhūrīyyat Al Filibīn

Armenian

Ֆիլիպիններ

Filipinner

Ֆիլիպիններում Հանրապետություն

Filippinerum Hanrapetut’yun

Azerbaijani

Filippin

Filippin Respublikası

Basque

Filipinetan

Filipinetako Errepublikako

Belarusian

Філіпіны

Filipiny

Рэспубліка Філіпіны

Respublika Filipiny

Bengali

ফিলিপাইন

Filipain

ফিলিপাইন প্রজাতন্ত্র

Filipain Projatôntro

Bulgarian

Филипини

Filipini

Република Филипини

Republika Filipini

Catalan

Filipines

República de les Filipines

Chinese

菲律賓 (Tr.)菲律宾 (Sp.)

Fēilǜbīn

菲律賓共和國 (Tr.)菲律宾共和国 (Sp.)

Fēilǜbīn Gònghéguó

Croatian

Filipini

Republika Filipini

Czech

Filipíny

Filipínská Republika

Danish

Filippinerne

Republikken Filippinerne

Dutch

Filipijnen

Republiek der Filipijnen

English

Philippines

Republic of the Philippines

Estonian

Filipiinid

Filipiini Vabariik

Finnish

Filippiinit

Filippiinien Tasavalta

Fijian

Filipin

Matanitu Tugalala o Filipin

French

Philippines

République des Philippines

Georgian

ფილიპინები

P’ilipinebi

ფილიპინების რესპუბლიკის

P’ilipinebis respublikis

German

Philippinen

Republik der Philippinen

Greek

Φιλιππίνες

Filippínes

Δημοκρατία των Φιλιππίνων

Di̱mokratía to̱n Filippíno̱n

Haryanvi

फ़िलिपीण

Filippínn

फ़िलिपीण गणराज्य

Filippínn Gannrājya

Hebrew

פיליפינים

Filipinim

הרפובליקה של הפיליפינים

Ha'republika Filipinim

Hindi

फ़िलीपीन्स

Filipīns

फ़िलीपींस गणराज्य

Filīpīns Gaṇarājya

Hokkien

菲律賓呂宋

Huili̍ppinLūsòng

菲律賓共和國

Huili̍ppin kiōnghôkok

Hungarian

Fülöp-szigetek

Fülöp-szigeteki Köztársaság

Icelandic

Filippseyjar

Lýðveldið Filippseyjar

Indonesian

 Filipina

Republik Filipina

Irish

Na hOileáin Fhilipíneacha

Phoblacht na hOileáin Fhilipíneacha

Italian

Filippine

Repubblica delle Filippine

Japanese

フィリピン

Firipin

フィリピン共和国

Firipin kyōwakoku

Kazakh

Филиппиндер

Filippinder

Филиппин Республикасы

Filippin Respublikasy

Khmer

ប្រទេសហ្វីលីពីន

Filippin

សាធារណរដ្ឋហ្វីលីពីន

Sathéaranakrâth Filippin

Korean

필리핀

Pillipin

필리핀 공화국

Pillipin Gonghwaguk

Kurdish

Filîpîn

Komara Filîpînan

Lao

ຟີລິບປິນ

Filipin

ສາທາລະນະລັດຟີລິບປິນ

Sāthālanalat Filipin

Latin

Philippinae

Respublica Philippinarum

Latvian

Filipīnas

Filipīnu Republika

Lithuanian

Filipinai

Filipinų Respublika

Macedonian

Филипини

Filipini

Република Филипини

Republika Filipini

Malaysian

Filipina

Republik Filipina

Maltese

Filippini

Repubblika tal-Filippini

Marathi

फिलिपिन्स

Filipins

फिलिपिन्सचे प्रजासत्ताक

Filipinsce prajāsattāk

Norwegian

Filippinene

Republikken Filippinene

Persian

فیلیپین

Filipin

جمهوری فیلیپین

Jomhuri Filipin

Polish

Filipiny

Republika Filipin

Portuguese

Filipinas

República das Filipinas

Romanian

Filipine

Republica Filipine

Russian

Филиппины

Filipiny

Республика Филиппины

Respublika Filipiny

Serbian

Филипини

Filipini

Република Филипини

Republika Filipini

Sinhala

පිලිපීනය

Pilipinaya

පිලිපීනය ජනරජය

Pilipinaya Janarajaya

Slovak

Filipíny

Filipínska Republika

Slovene

Filipini

Republika Filipini

Somali

Filibiin

Jamhuuriyada Filibiin

Spanish

Filipinas

República de las Filipinas

Swahili

Ufilipino

Jamhuri ya Ufilipino

Swedish

Filippinerna

Republiken Filippinerna

Tamil

பிலிப்பைன்ஸ்

Pilippaiṉs

பிலிப்பைன்ஸ் குடியரசு

Pilippaiṉs kuṭiyaracu

Thai

ฟิลิปปินส์

Filippin

สาธารณรัฐฟิลิปปินส์

Sāthāranarat Filippin

Turkish

Filipinler

Filipinler Cumhuriyeti

Turkmen

Filippinler

Filippinler Respublikasy

Ukrainian

Філіпіни

Filippiny

Республіка Філіппіни

Respublika Filippiny

Urdu

فلپائن

Filipāʾin

جمہوریہ فلپائن

Jamhūriya Filipāʾin

Uzbek

Filippin

Filippin Respublikasi

Vietnamese

Phi Luật Tân

Cộng hoà Phi Luật Tân

Welsh

Philipinau

Gweriniaeth Ynysoedd y Philipinau


document_title: List of most-followed Twitter accounts

question_text: who is the second most followed person on twitter

text: List of most-followed Twitter accounts

text: This list contains the top 50 accounts with the most followers on the social media platform Twitter.[1] As of November 6, 2017, the most followed account is Katy Perry, with over 105 million followers. Her account was also the first to exceed 100 million followers.[2]

text: Top accounts[edit]

text: The following table lists the top 50 most followed accounts on Twitter, with each total rounded to the nearest million followers, as well as the profession of each user and country of origin.

text:
Rank
Account name
Owner
Followers
(millions)
Profession
Country

1.
@katyperry[3]
Katy Perry
106
Musician
 United States

2.
@justinbieber[4]
Justin Bieber
103
 Canada

3.
@BarackObama[5]
Barack Obama
96
Former U.S. President
 United States

4.
@taylorswift13[6]
Taylor Swift
86
Musician

5.
@rihanna[7]
Rihanna
81
 Barbados

6.
@TheEllenShow[8]
Ellen DeGeneres
75
Comedian
 United States

7.
@ladygaga[9]
Lady Gaga
73
Musician

8.
@YouTube[10]
YouTube
70
Social media platform

9.
@jtimberlake[11]
Justin Timberlake
63
Musician and actor

10.
@Cristiano[12]
Cristiano Ronaldo
63
Footballer
 Portugal

11.
@twitter[13]
Twitter
62
Social media platform
 United States

12.
@KimKardashian[14]
Kim Kardashian West
57
Reality TV personality

13.
@britneyspears[15]
Britney Spears
56
Musician

14.
@ArianaGrande[16]
Ariana Grande
55

15.
@selenagomez[17]
Selena Gomez
54
Musician and actress

16.
@cnnbrk[18]
CNN Breaking News
53
News

17.
@ddlovato[19]
Demi Lovato
51
Musician and actress

18.
@jimmyfallon[20]
Jimmy Fallon
49
Comedian

19.
@shakira[21]
Shakira
49
Musician
 Colombia

20.
@JLo[22]
Jennifer Lopez
44
Musician and actress
 United States

21.
@realDonaldTrump[23]
Donald Trump
42
U.S. President and Reality TV personality

22.
@BillGates[24]
Bill Gates
40
Businessman

23.
@nytimes[25]
The New York Times
40
Newspaper

24.
@Oprah[26]
Oprah Winfrey
39
Businesswoman

25.
@instagram[27]
Instagram
39
Social media platform

26.
@KingJames[28]
LeBron James
39
Basketball player

27.
@CNN[29]
CNN
38
Television channel

28.
@MileyCyrus[30]
Miley Cyrus
37
Musician and actress

29.
@BrunoMars[31]
Bruno Mars
36
Musician

30.
@Drake[32]
Drake
36
Rapper
 Canada

31.
@narendramodi[33]
Narendra Modi
36
Prime Minister of India
 India

32.
@NiallOfficial[34]
Niall Horan
36
Musician
 Ireland

33.
@BBCBreaking[35]
BBC Breaking News
35
News
 United Kingdom

34.
@SportsCenter[36]
SportsCenter
35
Television channel
 United States

35.
@KevinHart4real[37]
Kevin Hart
35
Comedian

36.
@neymarjr[38]
Neymar
34
Footballer
 Brazil

37.
@espn[39]
ESPN
34
Television channel
 United States

38.
@wizkhalifa[40]
Wiz Khalifa
32
Rapper

39.
@LilTunechi[41]
Lil Wayne
32
Rapper

40.
@onedirection[42]
One Direction
32
Band
 United Kingdom /
 Ireland

41.
@Harry_Styles[43]
Harry Styles
31
Musician
 United Kingdom

42.
@Pink[44]
P!nk
31
 United States

43.
@SrBachchan[45]
Amitabh Bachchan
31
Actor
 India

44.
@iamsrk[46]
Shah Rukh Khan
30

45.
@Louis_Tomlinson[47]
Louis Tomlinson
30
Musician
 United Kingdom

46.
@LiamPayne[48]
Liam Payne
29

47.
@aliciakeys[49]
Alicia Keys
29
 United States

48.
@Adele[50]
Adele
29
 United Kingdom

49.
@KAKA[51]
Kaká
29
Footballer
 Brazil

50.
@ActuallyNPH[52]
Neil Patrick Harris
28
Actor
 United States

As of November 1, 2017