document_title: Republicanism in the United Kingdom

question_text: what would the uk be called if it became a republic

root

text: Republicanism in the United Kingdom

text: Context[edit]

text: Within Britain, republican sentiment has largely focused on the abolition of the British monarch, rather than the dissolution of the British Union or independence for its constituent countries.

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text: In Northern Ireland, the term "republican" is usually used in the sense of Irish republicanism. While also against monarchical forms of government, Irish republicans are against the presence of the British state in any form in Ireland and advocate re-creating a united, all-island state, comprising the whole of Ireland. Unionists who support a British republic also exist in Northern Ireland.

text: There are republican members of the Scottish National Party (SNP) in Scotland and Plaid Cymru in Wales who advocate independence for those countries as republics. The SNP's official policy is that the British monarch would remain head of state of an independent Scotland, unless the people of Scotland decided otherwise.[1] Plaid Cymru have a similar view for Wales, although its youth wing, Plaid Cymru Ifanc, has an official policy advocating a Welsh republic.[citation needed] The Scottish Socialist Party and the Scottish Green Party both support an independent Scottish republic.

text: History[edit]

text: Since the 1970s, early modern English republicanism has been extensively studied by historians, to the point where monarchism and absolutism have now become neglected fields. James Harrington (1611–77) is generally considered to be the most representative republican writer of the era.[2]

text: Cromwellian Commonwealth[edit]

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text: The countries that now make up the United Kingdom, together with the present Republic of Ireland, were briefly ruled as a republic in the 17th century, first under the Commonwealth consisting of the Rump Parliament and the Council of State (1649–53) and then under the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell (1653–58). The Commonwealth Parliament represented itself as a Republic on the classical model, with John Milton writing Latin justifications for use as propaganda in Continental Europe.[citation needed] Cromwell's Protectorate was less ideologically republican and was seen by Cromwell as restoring the mixed constitution of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy found in classical literature and English common law discourse.[citation needed]

text: First the Kingdom of England was declared to be the Commonwealth of England and then Scotland and Ireland were briefly forced into union with England by the army. This decision was later reversed when the monarchy was restored in 1660. In 1707 the Act of Union between England and Scotland was signed; the two countries' parliaments became one, and in return Scotland was granted access to the English overseas possessions.

text: Many of Cromwell's actions upon gaining power were decried as "harsh, unwise, and tyrannical".[citation needed] He and General Thomas Fairfax were often ruthless in putting down the mutinies which occurred within their own army towards the end of the civil wars (prompted by Parliament's failure to pay the troops). They showed little sympathy for the Levellers, an egalitarian movement which had contributed greatly[citation needed] to Parliament's cause but sought representation for ordinary citizens. The Leveller point of view had been strongly represented in the Putney Debates, held between the various factions of the Army in 1647, just prior to the King's temporary escape from army custody. Cromwell and the Grandees were not prepared to permit such a radical democracy and used the debates to play for time while the future of the King was being determined. Catholics were persecuted zealously under Cromwell[citation needed]. Although he personally was in favour of religious toleration – "liberty for tender consciences" – not all his compatriots agreed. The war led to much death and chaos in Ireland where Irish Catholics and Protestants who fought for the Royalists were persecuted. There was a ban on many forms of entertainment, as public meetings could be used as a cover for conspirators; horse racing was banned, the maypoles were famously cut down, the theatres were closed, and Christmas celebrations were outlawed for being too ceremonial, Catholic, and "popish". When Charles II eventually regained the throne, in 1660, he was widely celebrated for allowing his subjects to have "fun" again.[citation needed]

text: Much of Cromwell's power was due to the Rump Parliament, a Parliament purged of opposition to grandees in the New Model Army. Whereas Charles I had been in part restrained by a Parliament that would not always do as he wished (the cause of the Civil War), Cromwell was able to wield much more power as only loyalists were allowed to become MPs, turning the chamber into a rubber-stamping organisation. This was ironic given his complaints about Charles I acting without heeding the "wishes" of the people. But even so he found it almost impossible to get his Parliaments to follow all his wishes. His executive decisions were often thwarted – most famously in the ending of the rule of the regional major generals appointed by himself.

text: In 1657 Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament, presenting him with a dilemma since he had played a great role in abolishing the monarchy. After two months of deliberation, he rejected the offer. Instead, he was ceremonially re-installed as "Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland (Wales was a part of England)", with greater powers than he had previously held. It is often suggested that offering Cromwell the Crown was an effort to curb his power: as a King he would be obliged to honour agreements such as Magna Carta, but under the arrangement he had designed he had no such restraints. This allowed him to preserve and enhance his power and the army's while decreasing Parliament's control over him, probably to enable him to maintain a well-funded army which Parliament could not be depended upon to provide.[citation needed]

text: The office of Lord Protector was not formally hereditary, although Cromwell was able to nominate his own successor in his son, Richard Cromwell.

text: Restoration of the monarchy[edit]

text: Although England, Scotland and Ireland became constitutional monarchies, after the reigns of Charles II and his brother James II & VII, and with the ascension of William III and Mary II to the English, Irish and Scottish thrones as a result of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, there have been movements throughout the last few centuries whose aims were to remove the monarchy and establish a republican system. A notable period was the time in the late 18th century and early 19th century when many Radicals such as the minister Joseph Fawcett were openly republican.[3]

text: American and French Revolutions[edit]

text: The American Revolution had a great impact on political thought in the British Isles. According to Christopher Hitchens, the British–American author, philosopher, politician and activist, Thomas Paine was the 'moral author of the American Revolution', who posited in the soon widely read pamphlet Common Sense (January 1776) that the conflict of the Thirteen Colonies with the Hanoverian monarchy in London was best resolved by setting up a separate democratic republic.[5] To him, republicanism was more important than independence. However, the circumstances forced the American revolutionaries to give up any hope of reconciliation with Britain, and reforming its 'corrupt' monarchial government, that so often dragged the American colonies in its European wars, from within.[4] He and other British republican writers saw in the Declaration of Independence (4 July 1776) a legitimate struggle against the Crown, that violated people's freedom and rights, and denied them representation in politics.[6]

text: When the French Revolution broke out in 1789, debates started in the British Isles on how to respond. Soon a pro-Revolutionary republican and anti-Revolutionary monarchist camp had established themselves amongst the intelligentsia, who waged a pamphlet war until 1795. Prominent figures of the republican camp were Mary Wollstonecraft, William Godwin and again Thomas Paine.[7]

text: Paine would also play an important role inside the Revolution in France as an elected member of the National Convention (1792–93), where he lobbied for the invasion of Britain to establish a republic after the example of the United States, France and its Sister Republics, but also famously opposed the execution of Louis XVI, which got him arrested.[5] The First French Republic would indeed stage an Expedition to Ireland in December 1796 to help the Society of United Irishmen set up an Irish republic in order to destabilise the United Kingdom, but this ended in a failure. The subsequent Irish Rebellion of 1798 was utterly crushed by the British Army. Napoleon also planned an invasion of Britain since 1798 and more seriously since 1803, but in 1804 he relinquished republicanism by crowning himself Emperor of the French and converting all Sister Republics into client kingdoms of the French Empire, before calling off the invasion of Britain altogether in 1805.

text: Revolutionary republicanism 1800–1848[edit]

text: From the start of the French Revolution into the early 19th century, the revolutionary blue-white-red tricolour was used throughout England, Wales and Ireland in defiance of the royal establishment. During the 1816 Spa Fields riots, a 'green, white and red' horizontal flag appeared for the first time, soon followed by a red, white and green horizontal version allegedly in use during the 1817 Pentrich rising and the 1819 Peterloo Massacre. The latter is now associated with Hungary but then it became known as the British Republican Flag. It may have been inspired by the French revolutionary tricolour, but this is unclear. It was however often accompanied by slogans consisting of three words such as "Fraternity – Liberty – Humanity" (a clear reference to Liberté, égalité, fraternité), and adopted by the Chartist movement in the 1830s.[8]

text: Besides these skirmishes in Great Britain itself, separatist republican revolutions against the British monarchy during the Canadian rebellions of 1837–38 and the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 failed.

text: Parliament passed the Treason Felony Act in 1848. This act made advocacy of republicanism punishable by transportation to Australia, which was later amended to life imprisonment. The law is still on the statute books; however in a 2003 case, the Law Lords stated that, "It is plain as a pike staff to the respondents and everyone else that no one who advocates the peaceful abolition of the monarchy and its replacement by a republican form of government is at any risk of prosecution."[9]

text: Late 19th century[edit]

text: During the later years of Queen Victoria's reign, there was considerable criticism of her decision to withdraw from public life following the death of her husband, Prince Albert. This resulted in a "significant incarnation" of republicanism.[10] During the 1870s, calls for Britain to become a republic on the American or French model were made by the politicians Charles Dilke[11] and Charles Bradlaugh, as well as journalist George W. M. Reynolds.[10] This republican presence continued in debates and the Labour press, especially in the event of royal weddings, jubilees and births, until well into the Interwar Period.[10]

text: Some members of the Labour Party, such as Keir Hardie (1856–1915), also held republican views.[12]

text: 20th century republicanism[edit]

text: In 1923, at the Labour Party's annual conference, two motions were proposed, supported by Ernest Thurtle and Emrys Hughes. The first was "that the Royal Family is no longer a necessary party of the British constitution", and the second was "that the hereditary principle in the British Constitution be abolished".[13] George Lansbury responded that, although he too was a republican, he regarded the issue of the monarchy as a "distraction" from more important issues. Lansbury added that he believed the "social revolution" would eventually remove the monarchy peacefully in the future. Both of the motions were overwhelmingly defeated.[13][14][15] Following this event, most of the Labour Party moved away from advocating republican views.[13] In 1936, following the abdication of Edward VIII, MP James Maxton proposed a "republican amendment" to the Abdication Bill, which would have established a Republic in Britain. Maxton argued that while the Monarchy had benefited Britain in the past, it had now "outlived its usefulness." Five MPs voted to support the bill, including Alfred Salter. However the bill was defeated by 403 votes.[16][17]

text: In 1991, Labour MP Tony Benn introduced the Commonwealth of Britain Bill, which called for the transformation of the United Kingdom into a "democratic, federal and secular Commonwealth of Britain", with an elected President.[18] The monarchy would be abolished and replaced by a republic with a written constitution. It was read in Parliament a number of times until his retirement at the 2001 election, but never achieved a second reading.[19] Benn presented an account of his proposal in Common Sense: A New Constitution for Britain.[20]

text: 21st century republicanism[edit]

text: MORI Polls in the opening years of the 21st century showed support for retaining the monarchy stable at around 70% of people, but in 2005, at the time of the wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles, support for the monarchy dipped, with one poll showing that 65% of people would support keeping the monarchy if there were a referendum on the issue, with 22% saying they favoured a republic.[21] In 2009 an ICM poll, commissioned by the BBC, found that 76% of those asked wanted the monarchy to continue after the Queen, against 18% of people who said they would favour Britain becoming a republic and 6% who said they did not know.[22]

text: In February 2011, a YouGov poll put support for ending the monarchy after the Queen's death at 13%, if Prince Charles becomes King.[23] However, an ICM poll shortly before the royal wedding suggested that 26% thought Britain would be better off without the monarchy, with only 37% "genuinely interested and excited" by the wedding.[24] In April 2011, in the lead up to the Royal Wedding, an Ipsos MORI poll of 1,000 British adults found that 75% of the public would like Britain to remain a monarchy, with 18% in favour of Britain becoming a republic. In May 2012, in the lead up to the Queen's Diamond Jubilee, a Ipsos MORI poll of 1,006 British adults found that 80% were in favour of the monarchy, with 13% in favour of the United Kingdom becoming a republic. This was thought to be a record high figure in recent years in favour of the monarchy.[21]

text: The main organisation campaigning for a republic in the United Kingdom is the campaign group Republic. Formed in 1983, Republic is frequently cited by much of the UK media on issues involving the royal family.[25][26][not in citation given]

text: In September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn, a Labour MP with republican views, won his party's leadership election and became both Leader of the Opposition and Leader of the Labour Party. In 1991, Corbyn seconded the Commonwealth of Britain Bill.[27] However, Corbyn stated during his 2015 campaign for the leadership that republicanism was "not a battle that I am fighting".[28][29]

text: At the swearing of oaths in the Commons following the 2017 general election, Republic reported that several MPs had prefixed their oath/affirmation of allegiance with broadly republican sentiments.[30]

text: Supporters[edit]

text: Advocates of republicanism in the UK[edit]

text:
Yasmin Alibhai-Brown, Independent columnist.[31]
Martin Amis, novelist[32]
Julian Baggini, philosopher and writer[31]
Norman Baker, former MP (Liberal Democrat)[33]
Jonathan Bartley, theologian[31]
Steve Bell, cartoonist[31]
John Biggs, AM (Labour)[31]
Honor Blackman, actress[34]
Danny Boyle, Academy Award-winning film director[35]
James Dean Bradfield, lead vocalist and guitarist (Manic Street Preachers)[36]
Jo Brand, comedian[31][37]
Russell Brand, comedian, actor, campaigner
Piers Brendon, writer[31]
Pete Broadbent, Anglican Bishop of Willesden[38]
Heather Brooke, journalist, writer and FOI activist[31]
Russell Brown, MP (Labour)[31]
Julie Burchill, writer and columnist[31]
Richard Burgon, MP (Labour)[39]
Ray Burns (Captain Sensible), musician[31]
Beatrix Campbell, journalist and author[31]
Ronnie Campbell, MP (Labour)[40]
Jon Canter, television comedy writer[31]
Louise Christian, human rights lawyer[31]
Nick Cohen, The Observer columnist[41]
John Cole, former BBC political editor[42]
Phillip Collins, former Chief Speechwriter to Tony Blair
Stan Collymore, former footballer[31]
Jeremy Corbyn, MP (Leader of the Labour Party)[43]
David Crausby, MP (Labour)[31]
Roseanna Cunningham, MSP (Scottish National Party)[31]
Ian Davidson, MP (Labour)[44]
Richard Dawkins, evolutionary biologist and writer[45][31]
Emma Dent Coad, MP (Labour)[46]
Edzard Ernst, academic[31]
Bill Etherington, former MP (Labour)[47]
Linda Fabiani, MSP (Scottish National Party)[31]
Simon Fanshawe, writer and broadcaster[31]
Colin Firth, actor[48]
John Oliver, comedian [49]
Paul Flynn, MP (Labour)[31]
George Foulkes, peer, former MP and MSP (Labour)[31]
Jonathan Freedland, journalist[31]
Rob Gibson, MSP (Scottish National Party)[31]
Roger Godsiff, MP (Labour)[31]
Christine Grahame, MSP (Scottish National Party)[31]
Alasdair Gray, Scottish author[50]
Paul Greengrass, film director and screenwriter[31]
Roy Greenslade, journalist and academic[31]
Mark 'Barney' Greenway, musician[31]
Philippa Gregory, novelist[31]
John Griffiths, AC/AM (Labour Co-operative)[31]
Mark Haddon, novelist[31]
Johann Hari, former The Independent columnist[51]
Stephen Haseler, professor, author[31]
Roy Hattersley, former MP (Labour), member of the House of Lords[34]
Paul Heaton, singer[52]
Christopher Hitchens, author and columnist
Anthony Holden, writer, broadcaster and critic[31]
Ted Honderich, philosopher[31]
Kelvin Hopkins, MP (Labour)[31]
Mick Hume, journalist,[53]
Julian Huppert, MP (Liberal Democrat)[31]
Brian Iddon, MP (Labour)[31]
Robin Ince, comedian, actor and writer[31]
Eddie Izzard, comedian, actor and writer[54]
Glenda Jackson, MP (Labour)[31]
Bethan Jenkins, AC/AM (Plaid Cymru)[31]
Mervyn Jones, writer[55]
Patrick Jones, poet, playwright and filmmaker[31]
Mark Kermode, film critic, journalist[56]
Philippe Legrain, economist and writer[31]
Mike Leigh, writer and director of film and theatre[31]
Ken Livingstone, former Mayor of London and Labour MP
Ken Loach, film and television director[31]
Tim Lott, author[31]
Caroline Lucas, MP and co-leader of the Green Party of England and Wales[31]
Kenan Malik, writer, lecturer and broadcaster[31]
Michael Mansfield, QC[34]
Johnny Marr, musician
Kingsley Martin, editor of the New Statesman, 1930–60.[57]
John McDonnell, MP and Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer (Labour)[58]
Natalie McGarry, MP (Independent)[59]
Jim McGovern, MP (Labour)[31]
Ann McKechin, MP (Labour)[31]
Chris McLaughlin, journalist[31]
John Milton, poet[60]
Brian Moore, former rugby union player
Sean Moore, musician (Manic Street Preachers)[36]
Suzanne Moore, journalist[31]
William Morris, writer and artist[61]
Morrissey, musician[62]
Tom Nairn, essayist.[63]
Brendan O'Neill, journalist[31]
Thomas Paine, English-American author and revolutionary[64]
Julia Pascal, playwright and theatre director[31]
Edward Pearce, Former New Statesman contributor[65]
Caryl Phillips, novelist[31]
Stephen Pollard, author and journalist[31]
Stephen Pound, MP (Labour)[31]
Lance Price, writer and journalist[31]
Gwilym Prys-Davies, peer (Labour)[31]
Daniel Radcliffe, actor[66]
Claire Rayner, journalist[67]
Brian Reade, Daily Mirror columnist[68]
Vicky Richardson, journalist[31]
Steven Rose, scientist and writer[31]
Michael Rosen, novelist and poet[31]
Geoffrey Robertson, QC[31]
Alan Rusbridger, editor, The Guardian[69]
Alfred Salter, politician, Labour MP 1925–45.[70]
Arthur Scargill, former trade union leader, leader of the Socialist Labour Party[71]
Anthony Scrivener, QC[31]
Mark Seddon, journalist[31]
Will Self, journalist[72]
Paul Simonon, musician[31]
Dennis Skinner, MP (Labour)[73]
Joan Smith, novelist, journalist and human rights activist[31]
Robert Smith, musician.[74]
Mark Steel, comedian[34]
Peter Tatchell, gay rights campaigner[34]
Dick Taverne, peer (Liberal Democrat)[31]
Mark Thomas, comedian, author and activist[31]
Adam Tomkins, John Millar Professor of Public Law (Glasgow University)[50]
Sue Townsend, author (wrote the best-selling political satire The Queen and I in which Britain becomes a republic)[75]
Polly Toynbee, The Guardian columnist[31]
Jonathan Trigell, author[31]
Tracey Ullman, actor and comedian[76]
Nigel Warburton, academic[31]
Graham Watson, MEP (Liberal Democrat)[31]
H. G. Wells, novelist[77]
Francis Wheen, journalist, writer and broadcaster[31]
Peter Whelan, playwright[31]
Sandra White, MSP (Scottish National Party)[31]
Gwyn A. Williams, historian.[63]
Chris Williamson, MP (Labour)
Bill Wilson, MSP (Scottish National Party)[31]
Nicky Wire, musician (Manic Street Preachers)[36]
Leanne Wood, AC/AM (Leader of Plaid Cymru)[31]
Gary Younge, journalist[31]
Benjamin Zephaniah, poet (publicly refused to accept an OBE in 2003)[78]

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text: Political parties[edit]

text: As of 2017[update] none of the three major nationwide British political parties, the Labour Party, the Conservative Party and the Liberal Democrat Party, had an official policy of republicanism. However, there are a number of individual politicians who favour abolition of the monarchy (see above). Tony Benn of the Labour Party introduced a Commonwealth of Britain Bill in Parliament in 1991.[79] Jeremy Corbyn, who became leader of the Labour Party in 2015, is a republican, but has stated that he will not seek to abolish the monarchy whilst he remains leader.[80] The Green Party of England and Wales, with one MP in the 2015–2017 Parliament, has an official policy of republicanism.[81] The Irish republican party Sinn Féin has seven MPs, but they do not take their seats.[82] The Scottish Green Party, with six MSPs in the 2016-2021 Scottish Parliament, supports having an elected Head of State in an independent Scotland.[83]

text: Lobby groups[edit]

text: The largest lobby group in favour of republicanism in the United Kingdom is the Republic campaign group, founded in 1983. The group has benefited from occasional negative publicity about the Royal Family, and Republic has reported a large rise in membership since the wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker-Bowles. In June 2006 the group handed in a petition of over 3,000 names to 10 Downing Street calling for a serious national debate about the future of the monarchy.[citation needed] Since then Republic has lobbied on changes to the parliamentary oath of allegiance, royal finances and changes to the Freedom of Information Act relating to the monarchy, none of which have produced any change. However, Republic has been invited to Parliament to talk as witnesses on certain issues related to the monarchy such as conduct of the honours system in the United Kingdom.

text: In 2009 Republic made news[84] by reporting Prince Charles's architecture charity to the Charity Commission, claiming that the Prince was effectively using the organisation as a private lobbying firm (the Commission declined to take the matter further). Republic has previously broken stories about royals using the Freedom of Information Act. The organisation is regularly called up to comment and provide quotes for the press, national and local radio and national TV programmes, with much criticism as to the portrayal of the monarchy by the BBC which has been accused of celebrating the monarchy rather than keeping its politically neutral stance on issues related to it.

text: Media[edit]

text: The Guardian, Observer and Independent newspapers have all advocated the abolition of monarchy.[85] In the wake of the 2009 MPs' expenses scandal, a poll of readers of the Guardian and Observer newspapers placed support for abolition of the monarchy at 54%, although only 3% saw it as a top priority.[86]

text: Arguments in favour of a republic[edit]

text: The benefits of a republic[edit]

text: Republicans suggest that republicanism is a constitutional step which answers a number of key issues.

text: The advocacy group Republic argues:

text: The monarchy is not only an unaccountable and expensive institution, unrepresentative of modern Britain, it also gives politicians almost limitless power.

text: It does this is in a variety of ways:

text:
Royal Prerogative: Royal powers that allow the Prime Minister to declare war or sign treaties (amongst other things) without a vote in Parliament.
The Privy Council: A body of advisors to the monarch, now mostly made up of senior politicians, which can enact legislation without a vote in Parliament.
The Crown-in-Parliament: The principle, which came about when Parliament removed much of the monarch's power, by which Parliament can pass any law it likes – meaning our liberties can never be guaranteed.[87]

text: Republicans also want to see a constitution that they claim will inspire aspiration (by allowing anyone to become head of state) and political responsibility (by introducing popular sovereignty, the notion that the people are "in charge"). They also claim that they want what is "best for Britain", which includes the best democracy.[88]

text: Arguments against monarchy[edit]

text: Republicans assert that hereditary monarchy is unfair and elitist. They claim that in a modern and democratic society no one should be expected to defer to another simply because of their birth. Such a system, they assert, does not make for a society which is at ease with itself, and it encourages attitudes which are more suited to a bygone age of imperialism than to a "modern nation". Some claim that maintaining a privileged royal family diminishes a society and encourages a feeling of dependency in many people who should instead have confidence in themselves and their fellow citizens.[88]

text: Further, republicans argue that 'the people', not the members of one family, should be sovereign.[88]

text:
Monarchy contradicts democracy

Monarchy denies the people a basic right – Republicans believe that it should be a fundamental right of the people of any nation to elect their head of state and for every citizen to be eligible to hold that office. It is argued such a head of state is more accountable to the people, and that such accountability to the people creates a better nation.[89]
Monarchy devalues a parliamentary system – Monarchical prerogative powers can be used to circumvent normal democratic process with no accountability, and such processes are more desirable than not for any given nation-state.[87]

A monarchy demands deference

text: It is argued by republicans that the way citizens are expected to address members, however junior, of the royal family is part of an attempt to keep subjects 'in their place'.[90]

text: It is the enemy of merit and aspiration

text: The order of succession in a monarchy specifies a person who will become head of state, regardless of qualifications. The highest titular office in the land is not open to "free and fair competition". Although monarchists argue that the position of Prime Minister, the title with real power, is something anyone can aspire to become, the executive and symbolically powerful position of Head of State is not.

text: It devalues intellect and achievement

text: Republicans argue that members of the royal family bolster their position with unearned symbols of achievement. Examples in the UK include the Queen's many honorary military titles of colonel-in-chief, regardless of her military experience.[91] There is debate over the roles which the members of the monarchy have played in the military; many doubt that members of the Royal Family have served on the front line on the same basis as other members of the Armed Forces. Examples here include Prince Andrew, whose presence during the Falklands War was later criticised by the commander of the British Naval Force who stated that "special measures" had to be taken to ensure that the prince did not lose his life,[92] and Prince Harry, who was moved to a safe room and placed under guard during an attack on the Camp Bastion base in Afghanistan.[93] It is seen to some as more of a PR exercise than military service. Members of the royal family are fast-tracked to higher ranks in the army.[94]

text: It harms the monarchs themselves

text: Republicans argue that a hereditary system condemns each heir to the throne to an abnormal childhood. This was historically the reason why the anarchist William Godwin opposed the monarchy. Johann Hari has written a book God Save the Queen? in which he argues that every member of the royal family has suffered psychologically from the system of monarchy.[95]

text: Monarchs are not impartial, and lack accountability

text: Republicans argue that monarchs are not impartial but harbour their own opinions, motives, and wish to protect their interests. Republicans claim that monarchs are not accountable. As an example, republicans argue that Prince Charles has spoken and acted in ways that have widely been interpreted as taking a political stance, citing his refusal to attend, in protest of China's dealings with Tibet, a state dinner hosted by the Queen for the Chinese head of state; his strong stance on GM food; and the contents of certain memos which were leaked to the press regarding how people achieve their positions.[96][97][98]

text: Republicans see a lack of important democratic accountability and transparency for such institutions.

text: The monarchy is expensive

text: Republicans argue that it costs a lot to have a monarchy. Republicans claim that the total costs to taxpayers including hidden elements (e.g., the Royal Protection security bill and lost rental income from palaces and state-owned land) of the monarchy are £334 million per annum.[99] The Daily Telegraph claims the monarchy costs each adult in Britain around 62p a year.[100] However, this figure does not take into account royal security, nor the money paid by regional councils to fund the costs of visits by members of the Royal Family, and assumes the "official" figure of £34m per annum to be divided between every man, woman and child in the land. Republic also argues that the Royal finances, which are exempt from the Freedom of Information Act, are shrouded in secrecy and should be subject to greater scrutiny. Although monarchists argue that this does not take into account the 'hereditary revenues' which generated £190.8 million for the treasury in 2007–2008, republicans assert that the Crown Estate, from which these revenues are derived, is national and State property, and that the monarch cannot surrender what they have never owned.[101] The monarchy is estimated to cost British taxpayers £202.4m, when costs such as security are included, making it the most expensive monarchy in Europe and 112 times more expensive than the presidency of the Republic of Ireland.[102] The argument that tourism benefits from the continued existence of the British monarchy is refuted by Republic, who suggest that the reverse may actually be true – if the palaces were open throughout the year, tourists would be better able to visit them (as has happened with the Tower of London).[103]

text: The monarchy makes the UK appear 'backward'

text: Republicans argue that the monarchy is to be considered embarrassing: as a concept it is archaic, too reminiscent of medieval feudalism, and while the UK has a hereditary head of state it cannot claim to be a modern nation.[104][105]

text: Arguments in favour of constitutional monarchy[edit]

text: Monarchy can be complementary to rather than a replacement for democracy

text: Some argue that the current system is still democratic as the Government and MPs of Parliament are elected by universal suffrage and as the Crown acts only on the advice of the Parliament, the people still hold power. Monarchy only refers to how the head of state is chosen and not how the Government is chosen. It is only undemocratic if the monarchy holds meaningful power, which it currently does not as government rests with Parliament. However, it was revealed in October 2011 that both the Queen and Prince Charles do have the power to veto government legislation which affects their private interests.[106] The Queen attended a cabinet meeting on 18 December 2012 – the first Monarch to have done so since George III in 1781.[107]

text: Provides a safeguard against government instability

text: Some argue that the Monarch's constitutional position (with the little-used power to dissolve or refuse a government) could safeguard against Britain ever becoming a dictatorship; however, Republic has denied claims that the monarchy has this sort of power. Examples of this argument being used often include the 1981 April Fool's Day Coup in Thailand and the El Tejerazo coup in Spain when King Bhumibol and King Juan Carlos I respectively stepped in to restore democracy in their countries.

text: According to the Democracy Index 2014, seven of the ten most democratic countries in the world are constitutional monarchies.[108]

text: Safeguards the constitutional rights of the individual

text: The British constitutional system sets limits on Parliament and separates the executive from direct control over the police and courts. Constitutionalists argue[109] that this is because contracts with the monarch such as the Magna Carta, the Declaration of Rights, the Act of Settlement and the Acts of Union place obligations on the state and[110] confirm its citizens as sovereign beings. These obligations are re-affirmed at every monarch's coronation. These obligations, whilst at the same time placing limits on the power of the judiciary and the police, also confirm those rights which are intrinsically part of British and especially English culture.[111] Examples are Common Law, the particular status of ancient practices, jury trials, legal precedent, protection against non-judicial seizure and the right to protest.

text: Provides a focal point for unity and tradition

text: Monarchists argue that a constitutional monarch with limited powers and non-partisan nature can provide a focus for national unity, national awards and honours, national institutions, and allegiance, as opposed to a president affiliated to a political party.[112]

text: If there were a republic, the costs may remain the same

text: Some argue that if there were a republic, the costs incurred in regards to the duties of the head of state would remain more or less the same. This includes the upkeep and conservation of the royal palaces and buildings which would still have to be paid for as they belong to the nation as a whole rather than the monarch personally. On top of that, the head of state would require a salary and security, state visits, banquets and ceremonial duties would still go ahead. In 2009, the monarchy claimed to be costing each person an estimated 69 pence a year (not including "a hefty security bill").[113][114][115] However, the figure of 69p per person has been criticised for having been calculated by dividing the overall figure by approximately 60 million people, rather than by the number of British taxpayers.[116]

text: A British Republic has already been tested and failed

text: Even though no modern republicans advocate a republic modelled on Cromwell's Protectorate, some[117] point out that a Republican Commonwealth of England, Ireland and Scotland has already been tried when Oliver Cromwell installed it on 30 January 1649. Yet by February 1657 some people[118] argued that Cromwell should assume the crown as it would stabilise the constitution, limit his powers and restore precedent. Cromwell declined. Within three years of his death the Republic had lost support and the monarchy was restored. Later, during The Glorious Revolution of 1688 caused partially by disillusionment with the absolutist rule of the Scottish James II of England (VII of Scotland), Parliament and others, such as John Locke[119] argued that James had broken "the original contract" with the state. Far from pressing for a republic, which had been experienced within living memory, they instead argued that the best form of government was a constitutional monarchy with explicitly circumscribed powers. (This overlooks a few factors, however – Cromwell's republic was based on the ideals of puritanism and land-based privilege, whilst modern republican advocates have strong links to secularism and expansion of democracy. Cromwell was also not a republican in the strict sense, and opposed groups that were, such as the Levellers).


document_title: List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field

question_text: who is called the father of modern medicine

text: Natural sciences[edit]

text: Biology[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Bacteriology
Robert Koch / Ferdinand Cohn[4] / Louis Pasteur
First to produce precise, correct descriptions of bacteria.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[5]

Biogeography
Alfred Russel Wallace
"...Often described as the Father of Biogeography, Wallace shows the impact of human activity on the natural world."[6]

Biology[n 1]
Aristotle
[7]

Ecology
Carl Linnaeus / Ernst Haeckel / Eugenius Warming[8]
Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called The Economy of Nature (1772), Haeckel coined the term "ecology" (German: Oekologie, Ökologie) (1866), Warming authored the first book on plant ecology. Plantesamfund (1895).

Entomology
Jan Swammerdam
[9]

Johan Christian Fabricius[10]
Fabricius described and published information on over 10,000 insects and refined Linnaeus's system of classification.

William Kirby
[11]

Ethology
Nikolaas Tinbergen
Karl von Frisch
Konrad Lorenz
The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, joint awardees of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[12]

Evolution
Natural selection

Charles Darwin[13][14][15]
On the Origin of Species (1859).

Genetics
Gregor Mendel
For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance.[16]

William Bateson
Proponent of Mendelism.[17]

Ichthyology
Peter Artedi
"Far greater than either of these… was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."[18]

Lichenology
Erik Acharius
"Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology..."[19]

Microbiology
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[20]
The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria.

Molecular biology
Linus Pauling
[21]

Molecular biophysics
Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran[22]
Founded the [world's first?] molecular biophysics unit (1970).

Paleontology
Leonardo da Vinci
George Cuvier
[23]

Parasitology
Francesco Redi
The founder of experimental biology and the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.[24]

Protozoology
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[5]
First to produce precise, correct descriptions of protozoa.

Taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus[25]
Devised the system of naming living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world.

Virology
Dmitry Ivanovsky
Martinus Beijerinck
The first men to discover viruses (1892).

text: Chemistry[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Atomic theory (early)
Democritus[26]
Founder of atomism in cosmology.

Atomic theory (modern)
Father Roger Boscovich[27]
First coherent description of atomic theory.

John Dalton[28]
First scientific description of the atom as a building block for more complex structures.

Chemical thermodynamics (modern)
Gilbert Lewis / Willard Gibbs / Merle Randall / Edward Guggenheim[29]
Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933), which made a major contribution to the use of thermodynamics in chemistry.

Chemistry (early)
Jabir ("Geber") ibn Hayyan (died 815)[30][31][32][33]
Introduced the experimental method to Islamic alchemy.

Chemistry (modern)
Antoine Lavoisier[34]
Elements of Chemistry (1787)

Robert Boyle[34]
The Sceptical Chymist (1661)

Jöns Berzelius[35][36]
Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)

John Dalton[34]
Revival of atomic theory (1803)

Green chemistry
Paul Anastas[37]
Design and manufacture of chemicals that are non-hazardous and environmentally benign.

Nuclear chemistry
Otto Hahn[38]

Applied Radiochemistry (1936)
First person to split an atomic nucleus (nuclear fission, 1938)
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery (1944)

Periodic table
Dmitri Mendeleev[39]
Arranged the sixty-six elements known at the time in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869).

Physical chemistry
Mikhail Lomonosov
The first to read lectures in physical chemistry and coin the term (1752).

Jacobus van 't Hoff
Jacobus van 't Hoff is considered to be one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry. His work helped found the discipline as it is today.[40][41][42]

Svante Arrhenius[43]
Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry. On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876), Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange (1882).

Wilhelm Ostwald
"Wilhelm Ostwald is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry..."[44]

Hermann von Helmholtz
[citation needed]

text: Earth sciences[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Geochemistry (modern)
Victor Goldschmidt
For developing the Goldschmidt classification of elements.

Early Geodesy (mathematical geography)
Eratosthenes[45][46]
Eratosthenes was first to write the word 'Geography' (from Geo- and -graphy, literally "writing about the Earth") [47]

Modern Geodesy
Al-Biruni[48][49]

Geology (modern)

Father Nicholas Steno[50]
James Hutton[51]

For setting down most of the principles of modern geology.
For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory.

Limnology (modern)
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
[52]

Mineralogy
Georgius Agricola
[53]

Meteorology
Naval oceanography (modern)

Matthew Fontaine Maury
[54]

Plate tectonics
Alfred Wegener
[citation needed]

Acoustical oceanography
Leonid Brekhovskikh
[55]

Stratigraphy
Father Nicholas Steno
[50]

Speleology
Édouard-Alfred Martel
Began the first systematic exploration of cave systems and promoted speleology as a field separate from geology.

text: Medicine and physiology[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Anatomy (modern)
Marcello Malpighi

Audiology
Raymond Carhart

"…the Father of Audiology himself, Raymond Carhart at Northwestern University…"[56]
"Carhart notch: A decrease in the bone-conduction hearing at the 2000 Hz region of patients with otosclerosis first reported by and therefore named after the father of audiology, Raymond Carhart."[57]

Biophysics
Hermann von Helmholtz

Biomechanics
Christian Wilhelm Braune
First to describe the methodology of human gait walking.

Bioelectromagnetics
Luigi Galvani
First to discover animal electricity through a series of experiments.

Cognitive therapy
Aaron T. Beck

"In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."[58]
The Prospect of Immortality (1962)

Cryonics
Robert Ettinger
[59]

Dentistry (modern)
Pierre Fauchard
[60]

Electrophysiology
Emil du Bois-Reymond
The discoverer of nerve action potential.

Emergency medicine

Peter Safar[61][62]
Frank Pantridge

Safar pioneered CPR, intensive-care units and developed standards for EMT, ambulance design and equipment.
Pantridge: [63]

Epidemiology (modern)
John Snow

Fitness
Jack LaLanne
[64]

Gynaecology
J. Marion Sims
[65][66]

Histology
Marcello Malpighi

Human anatomy (modern)
Vesalius[67]
De humani corporis fabrica (1543)

Medical genetics
Victor McKusick[68]
Mendelian Inheritance in Man

Medicine (early)

Imhotep[69]
Charaka[70]
Hippocrates[71][72]

None.
Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine.
Prescribed professional practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath.

Medicine (modern)

Sir William Osler

Neurosurgery
Harvey Cushing[73]
Developed techniques that considerably reduced the risks involved with brain surgery in the early 20th Century.[73]

Neuroscience
Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Comprehensive work on structure of the brain.

Nursing (modern)
Florence Nightingale
See Nursing#History.

Nutrition (modern)

Justus von Liebig
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier

"Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of [...]"[74]
"In addition to being known as the Father of Modern Chemistry, Lavoisier is also considered the Father of Modern Nutrition, as the first to discover the metabolism that occurs inside the human body..."[75]

Organ transplantation
Thomas Starzl[76]
Performed the first human liver transplant and established the clinical utility of anti-rejection drugs including ciclosporin. Developed major advances in organ preservation, procurement and transplantation.

Orthopedic surgery (modern)
Hugh Owen Thomas[77]
He stressed the importance of rest in treatment and was responsible for many landmark contributions to orthopaedic surgery. He was especially celebrated for his design and use of splints; the famous Thomas knee splint was still in wide use at the end of World War II.

Pathology (modern)
Rudolf Virchow
Founded modern Pathology and Social Medicine and published Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre which is regarded as the basis of modern medical science.

Psychology (experimental)
Wilhelm Wundt[78]
Founded the first laboratory for psychological research.

Pediatrics
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rhazes")[79]
Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field.

Physiology
Claude Bernard[80]
An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865)

Physical culture
Bernarr Macfadden
"It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."[81]

Plastic surgery

Sushruta[82][83]
Harold Gillies

Wrote the Sushruta Samhita.

Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud
[84]

Psychophysics
Gustav Fechner[85]
Elements of Psychophysics (1860)

Space medicine
Hubertus Strughold
"After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'"[86]

Surgery (early)
Sushruta[82][83]
Wrote the Sushruta Samhita.

Surgery (modern)

Abu al-Qasim ("Abulcasis") al-Zahrawi[87]
Guy de Chauliac[88]
Ambroise Paré
John Hunter
Joseph Lister
William Stewart Halsted
See also Father of modern surgery

Kitab al-Tasrif (1000 AD).
Chirurgia magna
Leader in surgical techniques, especially the treatment of wounds.[89]
Experimental, scientific approach to surgery.[90][91]
Use of carbolic acid as an antiseptic.[92][93]
Introduction of residency system in the United States.[94]

Toxicology
Paracelsus
[95]

text: Physics and astronomy[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Acoustics
Ernst Chladni[96]
For important research in vibrating plates

Atomic bomb
Enrico Fermi
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Leslie Groves
Edward Teller
For their role in the Manhattan Project

Aerodynamics
Nikolai Zhukovsky
George Cayley[97]
Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built

Physical cosmology
Albert Einstein (founder)
Henrietta Leavitt (mother)[98]
Edwin Hubble (father)[98]

Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables, the "Standard Candle" by which Hubble later determined galactic distances. Einstein's general theory of relativity is usually recognized as the theoretic foundation of modern cosmology.

Classical mechanics
Isaac Newton (founder)[99]
Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)

Electricity
William Gilbert[100]
Michael Faraday[101]
Book: De Magnete (1600)
Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)

Electrodynamics
André-Marie Ampère[102]
Book: Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience (1827)

Energetics
Willard Gibbs[103]
Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)

Experimental physics (founder)
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[104][105]
For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics (1021)

Modern astronomy
Nicolaus Copernicus[106]
Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)

Nuclear physics
Ernest Rutherford[107]
Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)

Nuclear science
Marie Curie
Pierre Curie[108]

Optics
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[109]
Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).

Physics (early)
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[110]
Francis Bacon[111]
Alhazen developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures.
Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum (1620).

Physics (modern)
Galileo Galilei[112]
His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope

Plasma physics
Irving Langmuir
Hannes Alfvén[113]
Langmuir first described ionised gas as plasma and observed fundamental plasma vibrations, Langmuir waves.
Alfvén pioneered the theoretical description of plasma by developing magnetohydrodynamics.

Quantum mechanics
Max Planck (founder)[114]
Werner Heisenberg
Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form

Relativity
Albert Einstein (founder)[115]
Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)

Spaceflight (rocketry)
Robert Hutchings Goddard
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Hermann Oberth
Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket.
Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.

Thermodynamics
Sadi Carnot (founder)[116]
Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)

text: Formal sciences[edit]

text: Mathematics[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Algebra
(see also The father of algebra)
Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[117] Brahmagupta[118]
Diophantus[119][120]
Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline.
First use of symbolism (syncopation) in his Arithmetica.

Algebraic topology
Henri Poincaré[121]
Published Analysis Situs in 1895,[122] introducing the concepts of homotopy and homology, which are now considered part of algebraic topology.

Analysis
Augustin-Louis Cauchy[123]
Karl Weierstrass[124]

Analytic geometry
René Descartes
Pierre de Fermat[125] (founders)
For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System

Calculus
Isaac Newton[126]
Gottfried Leibniz
See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.

Classical analysis
Madhava of Sangamagrama[127]
Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions

Computer science
George Boole
Alan Turing
Rózsa Péter[128][129]
Invented Boolean logic, which is the basis of modern digital computer logic
Provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine.
Considered the "founding mother of recursion theory", which provided the mathematical groundwork for computational theory.

Descriptive geometry
Gaspard Monge[130]
(founder)
Developed a graphical protocol that creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane

Fractal geometry
Benoît B. Mandelbrot

Geometry
Euclid[131]
Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.

Graph theory
Leonhard Euler[132]
See Seven Bridges of Königsberg

Italian school of algebraic geometry
Corrado Segre[133]
Publications and students developing algebraic geometry

Modern algebra
Emmy Noether[134]
Provided the first general definitions of a commutative ring, and suggested that topology be studied algebraically.[135] Combined the structure theory of associative algebras and the representation theory of groups into a single arithmetic theory of modules and ideals in rings satisfying ascending chain conditions.[136]

Non-Euclidean geometry
János Bolyai,
Nikolai Lobachevsky[137](founders)
Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true

Number theory
Pythagoras[138]

Probability
Gerolamo Cardano, Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, Christiaan Huygens[139] (founders)
Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book

Projective geometry
Girard Desargues[140](founder)
By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away

Tensor calculus
Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[141]
(founder)
Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus

Trigonometry
Hipparchus[142][143]
Constructed the first trigonometric table.

Vector algebra,
vector calculus
Willard Gibbs[144]
Oliver Heaviside[145]
(founders)
For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

text: Systems theory[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Chaos theory
Henri Poincaré[146]
Mary Cartwright[147][148]
Edward Lorenz[149]
Poincaré's work on the three-body problem was the first discovered example of a chaotic dynamical system. Cartwright made the first mathematical analysis of dynamical systems with chaos. Lorenz introduced strange attractor notation.

Cybernetics
Norbert Wiener[150]
Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948.

Dynamic programming
Richard E. Bellman

Fuzzy logic
Lotfi Asker Zadeh

Information theory
Claude Shannon[151]
Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)

Optimal control
Arthur E. Bryson[152]
Book: Applied Optimal Control[153]

Robust control
George Zames[citation needed]
Small gain theorem and H infinity control.

Stability theory
Alexander Lyapunov[citation needed]
Lyapunov function

System dynamics
Jay Wright Forrester[154]
Book: Industrial dynamics (1961)

text: Social sciences[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Anthropology
Herodotus[155]
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[156][157]

Bibliometrics
Paul Otlet
The term bibliométrie was first used by Paul Otlet in 1934[158] and defined as "the measurement of all aspects related to the publication and reading of books and documents."[159]

Demography
Ibn Khaldun[160]
Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)

Egyptology
Father Athanasius Kircher[161]
Jean-François Champollion[citation needed]

First to identify the phoenetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta stone's discovery.
Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone.

Historiography
Ibn Khaldun
Wrote several essential books

History
Herodotus (who also coined the term)

Indology
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[157]
Wrote the Indica

International law
Alberico Gentili
Francisco de Vitoria
Hugo Grotius
Influential contributions to the theory of international law, war and human rights

Linguistics (early)
Panini
Wrote the first descriptive grammar (of Sanskrit)

Linguistics (modern)
Ferdinand de Saussure
Noam Chomsky

Sociology
Ibn Khaldun[160][162]
Adam Ferguson[163]
Auguste Comte (who also coined the term)[164]
Marquis de Condorcet (founder)[165]
Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena).
"Father of modern sociology"
Introduced the scientific method into sociology.

text: Economics[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Accounting and Bookkeeping
Luca Pacioli[166]
Establisher of accounting and the first person to publish a work on bookkeeping.[166]

Economics (early)
Ibn Khaldun[167]
Chanakya / Kautilya[168]
Publication: Muqaddimah (1370)
Publication: Arthashastra (400 BCE - 200 CE)

Economics (modern)

Richard Cantillon[169]
Anders Chydenius[170]
Adam Smith[171]

First specific treatise on economics.
The National Gain (1765), a pamphlet that included key ideas about free trade.[172]
The Wealth of Nations (1776).

Evolutionary economics
Ecological economics
Thermoeconomics
bioeconomics

Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen[173][174][175][176][177]
The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971)

Macroeconomics
John Maynard Keynes[178]
Author of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money and groundbreaking economist, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking. Prior to Keynes, the general consensus among economists was that the economy was self-fixing. During the Great Depression, when people began to realize that the economy would not fix itself, Keynes proposed that the government needed to intervene to combat excessive boom and bust. This idea was the largest influence in U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal.[179][180]

Mathematical economics
Daniel Bernoulli
Forerunner of the Tableau économique.[181]

Monetary economics

Nicole Oresme (c.1322-1382)[182]
Irving Fisher (1867-1947)
Milton Friedman (1912-2006)

Oresme's De Moneta.
"Irving Fisher [...] spent his career studying questions about money and the economy - how money affects interest rates, how money affects inflation, and the impact of money on overall economic activity. For this work, he is regarded as the father of monetary economics."[183]
"[...] no less an authority than the University of Chicago's Milton Friedman, the father of monetary economics, [...]"[184]

Microcredit
Muhammad Yunus[185]
Founded Grameen Bank

Personnel economics
Edward Lazear
Published the first paper in the field.

text: Schools of thought[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Austrian School
Carl Menger[186]

Communism
Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
David Ricardo[187]

School of Salamanca
Francisco de Vitoria[188]
Highly influential teacher and lecturer on commercial morality

text: Theories[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Expectations theory
Thomas Cardinal Cajetan[189]
Recognised the effect of market expectations on the value of money

Modern portfolio theory
Harry Markowitz[190]

Social choice theory
Kenneth Arrow
Created the field with his 1951 book, Social Choice and Individual Values

text: Other fields[edit]

text:
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale

Science (modern)
Galileo Galilei[191]
[192][193]
For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy

Family and consumer science
Ellen Swallow Richards
Founded the American Association of Home Economics, currently the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences. "Bringing science into the home, Richards hoped to "...attain the best physical, mental, and moral development" for the family, which she believed was the basic unit of civilization."[194]


document_title: List of extreme points of the United States

question_text: where is the northernmost point of the continental united states

text: Northernmost points[edit]

text:
[show]Map this section's coordinates using OSM
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text:
Point Barrow, Alaska 71°23′20″N 156°28′45″W / 71.38889°N 156.47917°W / 71.38889; -156.47917 (Point Barrow) – northernmost point in all U.S. territory
Barrow (Utqiaġvik), Alaska 71°17′44″N 156°45′59″W / 71.29556°N 156.76639°W / 71.29556; -156.76639 (Barrow) – northernmost incorporated place in all U.S. territory, population about 4,000
Fairbanks, Alaska 64°50′22.94″N 147°43′14.63″W / 64.8397056°N 147.7207306°W / 64.8397056; -147.7207306 (Fairbanks City Hall)  – northernmost city of more than 20,000 residents, and northernmost city with public road access
Anchorage, Alaska 61°13′4.17″N 149°53′33.17″W / 61.2178250°N 149.8925472°W / 61.2178250; -149.8925472 (Anchorage City Hall) – northernmost city of more than 250,000 residents
Northwest Angle Inlet in Lake of the Woods, Minnesota 49°23′04.1″N 95°9′12.2″W / 49.384472°N 95.153389°W / 49.384472; -95.153389 (Northwest Angle) – northernmost point in the 48 contiguous states (because of incomplete information at the time of the Treaty of Paris (1783) settling the American Revolutionary War)
Sumas, Washington 49°00′08.6″N 122°15′40″W / 49.002389°N 122.26111°W / 49.002389; -122.26111 (Sumas, WA) – northernmost incorporated place in the 48 contiguous states (because of 19th century survey inaccuracy placing the international border slightly north of the 49th parallel here.[1])
Lynden, Washington 48°56′43″N 122°27′10″W / 48.94528°N 122.45278°W / 48.94528; -122.45278 (Lynden City Hall)  – northernmost city of more than 10,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Bellingham, Washington 48°45′19.12″N 122°28′43.54″W / 48.7553111°N 122.4787611°W / 48.7553111; -122.4787611 (Bellingham City Hall)  – northernmost city of more than 50,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Everett, Washington 47°58′41″N 122°12′27″W / 47.97806°N 122.20750°W / 47.97806; -122.20750 (Everett City Hall)  – northernmost city of more than 100,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Spokane, Washington 47°39′37″N 117°25′25″W / 47.66028°N 117.42361°W / 47.66028; -117.42361 (Spokane City Hall)  – northernmost city of more than 200,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Seattle, Washington 47°36′13.81″N 122°19′48.56″W / 47.6038361°N 122.3301556°W / 47.6038361; -122.3301556 (Seattle City Hall)  – northernmost city of more than 500,000 residents in the United States
Alaska has the northernmost geographic center of all the states. North Dakota has the northernmost geographic center of the 48 contiguous states.

text: Southernmost points[edit]

text:
Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, Antarctica (90°0′0″S 0°0′0″E / 90.00000°S 0.00000°E / -90.00000; 0.00000 (South Pole)) – southernmost point under United States jurisdiction
Rose Atoll, American Samoa (14°34′11″S 168°9′10″W / 14.56972°S 168.15278°W / -14.56972; -168.15278 (Rose Atoll)) – southernmost point in all U.S.-controlled territory
Palmyra Atoll - southernmost point in all U.S. incorporated territory
Ka Lae, Hawaii (18°54′39″N 155°40′52″W / 18.91083°N 155.68111°W / 18.91083; -155.68111 (Ka Lae)) – southernmost point in the 50 states
Nā'ālehu, Hawaii (19°3′57″N 155°35′15″W / 19.06583°N 155.58750°W / 19.06583; -155.58750 (Nā'ālehu, HI)) – southernmost town in the 50 states
Hilo, Hawaii (19°41′58″N 155°4′51″W / 19.69944°N 155.08083°W / 19.69944; -155.08083) - southernmost place with a population over 25,000 in the 50 states
City and County of Honolulu, Hawaii (21°18′19″N 157°51′25″W / 21.30528°N 157.85694°W / 21.30528; -157.85694 (Honolulu City Hall)) – southernmost incorporated place in the 50 states (Hawaii's only incorporated place)
Western Dry Rocks, Florida (24°26.8′N 81°55.6′W / 24.4467°N 81.9267°W / 24.4467; -81.9267 (Western Dry Rocks)) – In the Florida Keys - southernmost point in the 48 contiguous states occasionally above water at low tide
Ballast Key, Florida (24°31′15″N 81°57′49″W / 24.52083°N 81.96361°W / 24.52083; -81.96361 (Ballast Key)) – southernmost point in the 48 contiguous states continuously above water
Key West, Florida (24°32′38.724″N 81°48′17.658″W / 24.54409000°N 81.80490500°W / 24.54409000; -81.80490500 (Key West, FL)) – southernmost incorporated place in the contiguous 48 states
Cape Sable, Florida (25°7′6″N 81°5′11″W / 25.11833°N 81.08639°W / 25.11833; -81.08639 (Cape Sable)) – southernmost point on the U.S. mainland
Florida City, Florida (25°26′54″N 80°28′57″W / 25.44833°N 80.48250°W / 25.44833; -80.48250 (Florida City City Hall)) – Southernmost municipality in continental USA
Miami, Florida (25°43′40″N 80°14′2″W / 25.72778°N 80.23389°W / 25.72778; -80.23389 (Miami City Hall)) – the southernmost major metropolitan city in the 48 contiguous states
Cameron County, Texas (25°50′14.5″N 97°23′39.9″W / 25.837361°N 97.394417°W / 25.837361; -97.394417) – Southernmost point on the Mexico–United States border.
Hawaii has the southernmost geographic center of all the states. Florida has the southernmost geographic center of the 48 contiguous states.

text: Easternmost points[edit]

text:
Point Udall, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 17°45′19″N 64°33′54″W / 17.75528°N 64.56500°W / 17.75528; -64.56500 (Point Udall, St. Croix) – easternmost point in all U.S. territory, by direction of travel
Christiansted, United States Virgin Islands 17°44′54″N 64°43′00″W / 17.7482°N 64.7168°W / 17.7482; -64.7168 (Christainsted) – easternmost town in all US territory, by direction of travel
Sail Rock, Maine 44°48′45.2″N 66°56′49.3″W / 44.812556°N 66.947028°W / 44.812556; -66.947028 (Sail Rock), just offshore of West Quoddy Head, Maine – easternmost point in the 50 states, by direction of travel
West Quoddy Head, Maine 44°48′55.4″N 66°56′59.2″W / 44.815389°N 66.949778°W / 44.815389; -66.949778 (West Quoddy Head) – easternmost point on the U.S. mainland
Lubec, Maine (44°49′03″N 66°57′00″W / 44.817419°N 66.949895°W / 44.817419; -66.949895 (Lubec, ME)) – easternmost incorporated place in the 50 states
Eastport, Maine (44°54′20″N 66°59′24″E / 44.90556°N 66.99000°E / 44.90556; 66.99000 (Eastport City Hall)) – easternmost incorporated city in the 50 states[2]
Calais, Maine (45°11′18″N 67°16′37″E / 45.18833°N 67.27694°E / 45.18833; 67.27694 (Calais City Hall)) – easternmost city of more than 2,500 residents in the 50 states
Houlton, Maine (46°7′37″N 67°50′22″W / 46.12694°N 67.83944°W / 46.12694; -67.83944 (Houlton City Hall) – easternmost city of more than 5,000 residents in the 50 states
Bangor, Maine – easternmost city of more than 20,000 residents in the 50 states
Portland, Maine – easternmost city of more than 50,000 residents in the 50 states
Boston, Massachusetts – easternmost major U.S. city (more than 500,000 residents)
Pochnoi Point, Semisopochnoi Island, Alaska 51°57′42″N 179°46′23″E / 51.96167°N 179.77306°E / 51.96167; 179.77306 (Pochnoi Point, Semisopochnoi Island) – easternmost point in all U.S. territory by longitude—ironically, in the Alaskan Aleutian Islands "west" of the westernmost point in the U.S. by longitude (Amatignak Island) due to interposition of 180° longitude, which conventionally divides "west" from "east" in geographic terms.
Peacock Point, Wake Island 19°16′13.2″N 166°39′26.3″E / 19.270333°N 166.657306°E / 19.270333; 166.657306 (Peacock Point, Wake Island) – first sunrise (at equinox) in all U.S. territory
Northern Islands Municipality, Northern Mariana Islands 16°01′38″N 146°03′52″E / 16.0271°N 146.0645°E / 16.0271; 146.0645 (Farallon de Medinilla) – easternmost municipality in all U.S. territory, by longitude
Maine has the easternmost geographic center of the 50 states.

text: Westernmost points[edit]

text:
Point Udall, Guam (13°26′51″N 144°37′5.5″E / 13.44750°N 144.618194°E / 13.44750; 144.618194 (Point Udall, Guam)) – westernmost point in all U.S. territory, by direction of travel
Peaked Island, offshore from Cape Wrangell, Attu Island, Alaska 52°55′14″N 172°26′16″E / 52.92056°N 172.43778°E / 52.92056; 172.43778 (Peaked Island) – westernmost point in the 50 states by direction of travel, and last sunset (at equinox) in all U.S. territory. West of it passes the International Date Line, after which come Russian territorial islands
Amatignak Island, Alaska 51°16′7″N 179°8′55″W / 51.26861°N 179.14861°W / 51.26861; -179.14861 (Amatignak Island) – technically, westernmost point in all of U.S. territory by longitude, but not the westernmost of the U.S. Aleutian Islands. It possesses the highest longitude west figure (179°8'55"W) before 180° longitude, which passes west of it. After 180°, longitude is termed "east" and declines numerically.
Adak, Alaska 51°49′21″N 176°42′53″W / 51.8224°N 176.7147°W / 51.8224; -176.7147 (Adak, AK) – westernmost incorporated city in the 50 states
Unalaska, Alaska 53°53′20″N 166°31′38″W / 53.888984°N 166.527239°W / 53.888984; -166.527239 (Unalaska, AK) - westernmost city of more than 2,500 residents in the 50 states
Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska 65°38′32″N 168°7′8″W / 65.64222°N 168.11889°W / 65.64222; -168.11889 (Cape Prince of Wales) – westernmost point on the North American continent
Anchor Point, Alaska (59°46′20.8914″N 151°52′2.373″W / 59.772469833°N 151.86732583°W / 59.772469833; -151.86732583 (Anchor Point, AK)) – Westernmost point on the continuous road system of North America[3]
Umatilla Reef, offshore from Cape Alava, Washington (48°11.1′N 124°47.1′W / 48.1850°N 124.7850°W / 48.1850; -124.7850 (Umatilla Reef)) – westernmost point in the 48 contiguous states occasionally above water at low tide
Bodelteh Islands, offshore from Cape Alava, Washington 48°10′42.7″N 124°46′18.1″W / 48.178528°N 124.771694°W / 48.178528; -124.771694 (Bodelteh Islands) – westernmost point in the 48 contiguous states continuously above water
Cape Alava, Washington (48°9′51″N 124°43′59″W / 48.16417°N 124.73306°W / 48.16417; -124.73306 (Cape Alava)) – westernmost point on the U.S. mainland (contiguous)
Ozette, Washington 48°09′17″N 124°40′02″W / 48.154722°N 124.667222°W / 48.154722; -124.667222 (Ozette, WA) – westernmost town in the 48 contiguous states
Port Orford, Oregon 42°45′15″N 124°30′45″W / 42.754065°N 124.512605°W / 42.754065; -124.512605 (Port Orford, OR) – westernmost incorporated place in the 48 contiguous states
Brookings, Oregon – westernmost city of more than 5,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Coos Bay, Oregon – westernmost city of more than 10,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Eureka, California – westernmost city of more than 25,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Corvallis, Oregon – westernmost city of more than 50,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Eugene, Oregon – westernmost city of more than 100,000 residents in the 48 contiguous states
Portland, Oregon – westernmost city of more than 500,000 residents in the United States
Hawaii has the westernmost geographic center of all the states. Oregon has the westernmost geographic center of the 48 contiguous states.

text: Interpretation of easternmost and westernmost[edit]

text: There are three methods for reckoning the eastern and western extremes of the United States.

text: One method is to use the Prime Meridian as the dividing line between east and west. This meridian running through Greenwich, London, is defined as zero degrees longitude and could be called the least eastern and least western place in the world. The 180th meridian, on the opposite side of the globe, is therefore the easternmost and westernmost place in the world.

text: Another method is to use the International Date Line as the easternmost–westernmost extreme. On the equinox, the easternmost place would be where the day first begins, and the westernmost is where the day last ends.[citation needed]

text: Still another method is to first determine the geographic center of the country and from there measure the shortest distance to every other point. All U.S. territory is spread across less than 180° of longitude, so from any spot in the U.S. it is more direct to reach Point Udall, U.S. Virgin Islands, by traveling east than by traveling west. Likewise, there is not a single point in U.S. territory from which heading east is a shorter route to Point Udall, Guam, than heading west would be, even accounting for circumpolar routes. The two Udalls for whom the two Points are named were brothers, Mo Udall in Guam and Stewart Udall in the Virgin Islands.[4]

text: Highest points[edit]

text:
Denali, Alaska, United States 63°4′9″N 151°0′23″W / 63.06917°N 151.00639°W / 63.06917; -151.00639 (Mount McKinley) – highest summit in the United States, all US territories, and North America at 20,310 feet (6,190.5 m)[5]
Mount Whitney,[note 1][6][7][8] California 36°34′43″N 118°17′31″W / 36.57861°N 118.29194°W / 36.57861; -118.29194 (Mount Whitney) – highest point in the 48 contiguous states at 14,505 feet (4,421 m)
Mount Elbert,[note 2][9][10] Colorado  – highest point on the Continental Divide of North America at 14,440 feet (4,400 m)
Mauna Kea,[note 3][11] Hawaiʻi 19°49′14″N 155°28′5″W / 19.82056°N 155.46806°W / 19.82056; -155.46806 (Mauna Kea) – highest island summit in all U.S. territory and the entire Pacific Ocean at 13,796 feet (4,205 m)
Taos Ski Valley, New Mexico 36°35′52″N 105°26′42″W / 36.59778°N 105.44500°W / 36.59778; -105.44500 (Taos Ski Valley, New Mexico) – highest village limits in all U.S. territory at 12,581 feet (3,835 m) (No residents of Taos Ski Valley live above 10,350 feet (3,150 m))[12]
Winter Park, Colorado 39°53′34″N 105°45′43″W / 39.89278°N 105.76194°W / 39.89278; -105.76194 (Winter Park, CO) – highest city limits in all U.S. territory at 12,060 feet (3,680 m) (No residents of Winter Park live above 9,550 feet (2,910 m))
San Juan County, Colorado 37°49′N 107°40′W / 37.817°N 107.667°W / 37.817; -107.667 (San Juan County, Colorado) – highest U.S. county based on a mean elevation (11,240 feet (3,430 m))
Alma, Colorado 39°17′2″N 106°3′46″W / 39.28389°N 106.06278°W / 39.28389; -106.06278 (Alma, Colorado) – highest town in all U.S. territory at 10,355 feet (3,156 m); contiguous residential areas extend to 11,680 feet (3,560 m).
Leadville, Colorado 39°14′50″N 106°17′30″W / 39.24722°N 106.29167°W / 39.24722; -106.29167 (Leadville, Colorado) – highest city in all U.S. territory at 10,152 feet (3,094 m). (No residents of Leadville live above 10,360 feet (3,160 m))
Lake County Airport, Colorado 39°13′13″N 106°19′00″W / 39.22028°N 106.31667°W / 39.22028; -106.31667 (Lake County Airport) – highest airfield in all U.S. territory and North America at 9,927 feet (3,026 m)
New Mexico State Capitol, Santa Fe 35°40′56″N 105°56′23″W / 35.68222°N 105.93972°W / 35.68222; -105.93972 (New Mexico State Capitol) – highest state capitol in the United States at 7,005 feet (2,135 m)
State of Colorado 39°00′N 105°30′W / 39.000°N 105.500°W / 39.000; -105.500 (State of Colorado) – highest U.S. state based on an average elevation of 6,800 feet (2,100 m)
Mount Mitchell, North Carolina 35°45′53″N 82°15′54″W / 35.76472°N 82.26500°W / 35.76472; -82.26500 (Mount Mitchell) – highest point in eastern United States at 6,684 feet (2,037 m)
Mount Washington, New Hampshire 44°16′13″N 71°18′12″W / 44.27028°N 71.30333°W / 44.27028; -71.30333 (Mount Washington) – highest point in northeastern United States at 6,288 feet (1,917 m)
Arikaree River, Yuma County, Colorado at Kansas state line 39°58′42″N 102°3′6″W / 39.97833°N 102.05167°W / 39.97833; -102.05167 (Arikaree River) – highest U.S. state low point at 3,317 feet (1,011 m)
Beech Mountain, North Carolina 36°12′23″N 81°52′59″W / 36.20639°N 81.88306°W / 36.20639; -81.88306 is the highest incorporated community at an elevation of 5,506 feet (1,678 m) east of the Mississippi River.
Boone, North Carolina 36°12′41″N 81°40′7″W / 36.21139°N 81.66861°W / 36.21139; -81.66861 has the highest elevation (3,333 feet, 1015.9 m) of any town of its size (over 10,000 population) east of the Mississippi River.
Eisenhower Tunnel west of Denver, Colorado is the highest point on the Interstate Highway System at 11,158 feet.

text: Lowest points[edit]

text:
Badwater Basin, Death Valley, California 36°14′23″N 116°50′5″W / 36.23972°N 116.83472°W / 36.23972; -116.83472 (Badwater Basin) – lowest surface point in all U.S. territory and North America at −279 feet (−85 m)[13]
Salton Sea, California 33°19′59″N 115°50′3″W / 33.33306°N 115.83417°W / 33.33306; -115.83417 (Salton Sea) – lowest lake in all U.S. territory and North America at −226 feet (−69 m)
Furnace Creek Airport, California 36°27′50″N 116°52′53″W / 36.46389°N 116.88139°W / 36.46389; -116.88139 (Furnace Creek Airport) – lowest airfield in all U.S. territory and Western Hemisphere at −210 feet (−64 m)
Furnace Creek, California[14] 36°27′29″N 116°52′15″W / 36.45806°N 116.87083°W / 36.45806; -116.87083 (Furnace Creek, California) – lowest settlement in all U.S. territory and Western Hemisphere at −190 feet (−58 m)
Calipatria, California 33°07′32″N 115°30′51″W / 33.12556°N 115.51417°W / 33.12556; -115.51417 (Calipatria, California) – lowest city in all U.S. territory and Western Hemisphere at −184 feet (−56 m)
Ninth Ward of New Orleans, Louisiana 30°02′40″N 89°56′47″W / 30.04444°N 89.94639°W / 30.04444; -89.94639 (Ninth Ward of New Orleans, LA) – lowest surface point in eastern United States at −7 feet (−2.1 m)
New Orleans, Louisiana 29°58′N 90°03′W / 29.967°N 90.050°W / 29.967; -90.050 (New Orleans, Louisiana) – lowest city over 250,000 population in all U.S. territory and Western Hemisphere with an average elevation of −1.5 feet (−0.46 m)
State of Delaware 39°0′17″N 75°32′46″W / 39.00472°N 75.54611°W / 39.00472; -75.54611 (State of Delaware) – lowest U.S. state with an average elevation of 60 feet (18 m)
Britton Hill, Florida 30°59′18″N 86°16′55″W / 30.98833°N 86.28194°W / 30.98833; -86.28194 (Britton Hill, FL) – lowest U.S. state high point at 345 feet (105 m)
Lake Superior bottom, Michigan 46°54′31″N 86°35′52″W / 46.90861°N 86.59778°W / 46.90861; -86.59778 (Deepest Point in Lake Superior) – lowest fresh water point in all U.S. territory at −732 feet (−223 m)[15]
Puget Sound bottom, Washington 47°44.9′N 122°25.7′W / 47.7483°N 122.4283°W / 47.7483; -122.4283 (Deepest Point in Puget Sound) – lowest sea water point in the interior of the United States at −956 feet (−291 m)[16]

text: Other points[edit]

text:
Most remote point in the 50 states: Ipnavik River, National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska, 68°45′N 156°41′W / 68.750°N 156.683°W / 68.750; -156.683 (most remote point); 120 miles (190 km) from nearest habitation
Geographic center of the 50 states: approximately 20 miles (32 km) north of Belle Fourche, South Dakota, 44°58′N 103°46′W / 44.967°N 103.767°W / 44.967; -103.767 (geographic center of 50 states)
Geographic center of the 48 contiguous states: approximately 4 miles (6.4 km) west of Lebanon, Kansas, 39°50′N 98°35′W / 39.833°N 98.583°W / 39.833; -98.583 (geographic center of 48 contiguous states)
Closest to the equator: Baker Island is located at 0°11′41″N 176°28′46″W / 0.19472°N 176.47944°W / 0.19472; -176.47944 (Baker Island).[17][18][19]
The geographic center of the North American continent is located at 48°10′N 100°10′W / 48.167°N 100.167°W / 48.167; -100.167 (Geographic center of the North American continent), about 6 miles (10 km) west of Balta in Pierce County, North Dakota.[20]
The North American pole of inaccessibility is located at 43°22′N 101°58′W / 43.367°N 101.967°W / 43.367; -101.967 (North American pole of inaccessibility), about eleven miles (18 km) southeast of the town of Kyle on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in Bennett County, South Dakota, 1,025 miles (1,650 km) from the nearest coastline.
The southwest most point of the contiguous United States is Border Field State Park, California.[21]
The northwest most point of the contiguous United States is Cape Flattery, Washington.[22]

text: Islands[edit]

text:
Island of Hawaiʻi, Hawaiʻi 19°49′15″N 155°28′5″W / 19.82083°N 155.46806°W / 19.82083; -155.46806 (Island of Hawaii) – most extensive island in all U.S. territory at 4,028 square miles (10,430 km2) and tallest island in all U.S. territory and the entire Pacific Ocean at 13,796 feet (4,205 m)
Kodiak Island, Alaska 57°28′N 153°26′W / 57.467°N 153.433°W / 57.467; -153.433 (Kodiak Island) – most extensive Gulf of Alaska island at 3,595.09 square miles (9,311.2 km2)
Island of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico 18°15′N 66°30′W / 18.250°N 66.500°W / 18.250; -66.500 (Island of Puerto Rico) – most extensive island of U.S. Caribbean territory at 3,515.1 square miles (9,104 km2)
Prince of Wales Island, Alaska 55°37′55″N 132°54′27″W / 55.63194°N 132.90750°W / 55.63194; -132.90750 (Prince of Wales Island) – most extensive island of the Alexander Archipelago at 2,577 square miles (6,670 km2)
Saint Lawrence Island, Alaska 63°24′54″N 170°23′58″W / 63.41500°N 170.39944°W / 63.41500; -170.39944 (Saint Lawrence Island) – most extensive Bering Sea island at 1,791.56 square miles (4,640.1 km2)
Unimak Island, Alaska 54°46′6″N 164°11′12″W / 54.76833°N 164.18667°W / 54.76833; -164.18667 (Unimak Island) – most extensive Aleutian island at 1,571.41 square miles (4,069.9 km2)
Long Island, New York 40°52′10″N 73°00′00″W / 40.86944°N 73.00000°W / 40.86944; -73.00000 (Long Island) – most extensive island of the U.S. Atlantic coast at 1,401 square miles (3,630 km2)
Padre Island, Texas 26°50′40″N 97°22′04″W / 26.84444°N 97.36778°W / 26.84444; -97.36778 (Padre Island) – most extensive Gulf of Mexico island at 209 square miles (540 km2) and longest barrier island on Earth at 113 miles (182 km)
Isle Royale in Lake Superior, Michigan 48°0′N 88°55′W / 48.000°N 88.917°W / 48.000; -88.917 (Isle Royale) – most extensive island in a lake in all U.S. territory at 206.73 square miles (535.4 km2)
Whidbey Island, Washington 48°8′11″N 122°34′57″W / 48.13639°N 122.58250°W / 48.13639; -122.58250 (Whidbey Island) – most extensive island of Puget Sound at 168.67 square miles (436.9 km2)
Santa Cruz Island, California 34°0′13″N 119°43′35″W / 34.00361°N 119.72639°W / 34.00361; -119.72639 (Santa Cruz Island) – most extensive of the Channel Islands of California at 97 square miles (250 km2)

text: Lakes[edit]

text:
Lake Michigan-Huron 45°48′N 84°45′W / 45.800°N 84.750°W / 45.800; -84.750 (Lake Michigan-Huron) – largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area, at 45,300 square miles (117,000 km2), of which 31,507 square miles (81,600 km2) is within the United States.
Lake Superior 47°42′N 87°30′W / 47.700°N 87.500°W / 47.700; -87.500 – Located along the Canada–United States border, it is the second largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area, at 31,700 sq mi (82,100 km2), of which 20,600 square miles (53,350 km2) is within the United States.[23] It is also North America's largest by volume, at 2,900 cu mi (12,000 km3). Commonly called the largest lake by surface area when Lake Michigan and Lake Huron are called separate lakes.
Great Salt Lake, Utah 41°10′N 112°35′W / 41.167°N 112.583°W / 41.167; -112.583 (Great Salt Lake) – most extensive endorheic lake at 1,700 square miles (4,400 km2)
Crater Lake, Oregon 42°57′N 122°5′W / 42.950°N 122.083°W / 42.950; -122.083 (Deepest point in Crater Lake) – deepest lake at 1,943 feet (592 m)[24]

text: Rivers[edit]

text:
Mississippi River 29°9′4″N 89°15′12″W / 29.15111°N 89.25333°W / 29.15111; -89.25333 (Mississippi River) – most extensive river basin at 1,151,000 square miles (2,980,000 km2)
Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson Rivers 29°9′4″N 89°15′12″W / 29.15111°N 89.25333°W / 29.15111; -89.25333 (Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson Rivers) – longest river system at 3,902 miles (6,280 km)
Missouri River 38°48′49″N 90°7′11″W / 38.81361°N 90.11972°W / 38.81361; -90.11972 (Missouri River) – longest main stem river at 2,341 miles (3,767 km)
Mississippi River 29°9′4″N 89°15′12″W / 29.15111°N 89.25333°W / 29.15111; -89.25333 (Mississippi River) – longest Gulf of Mexico main stem river at 2,202 miles (3,544 km)
Yukon River 62°35′55″N 164°47′40″W / 62.59861°N 164.79444°W / 62.59861; -164.79444 (Yukon River) – longest Bering Sea main stem river at 1,979 miles (3,185 km)
Colorado River 31°48′57″N 114°48′22″W / 31.81583°N 114.80611°W / 31.81583; -114.80611 (Colorado River) – longest Gulf of California main stem river at 1,450 miles (2,330 km)
Columbia River 46°14′39″N 124°3′29″W / 46.24417°N 124.05806°W / 46.24417; -124.05806 (Columbia River) – longest Pacific Ocean main stem river at 1,243 miles (2,000 km)
Saint Lawrence River 49°40′N 64°30′W / 49.667°N 64.500°W / 49.667; -64.500 (Saint Lawrence River) – longest Atlantic Ocean main stem river at 600 miles (970 km)
Bear River 41°27′30″N 112°17′25″W / 41.45833°N 112.29028°W / 41.45833; -112.29028 (Bear River) – longest endorheic basin main stem river at 491 miles (790 km)

text: Extremes in distance[edit]

text:
Greatest east-west distance in the 48 contiguous states: 2,800 miles (4,500 km)
Greatest north-south distance in the 48 contiguous states: 1,650 miles (2,660 km).[25]
Greatest distance between any two points within U.S. Territory: 9,514 miles (15,311 km) from Point Udall, Guam to Point Udall, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands (formerly known as Orote Point and East Point, respectively).[26]
Greatest distance between any two points within the 50 states: 5,859 miles (9,429 km) from Kure Atoll, Hawaii to Log Point, Elliott Key, Florida.[26]
Greatest distance between any two points within the contiguous 48 states: 2,901 miles (4,669 km) from North Farallon Island, California to Sail Rock, east of West Quoddy Head, Maine.[26]
Greatest distance between any two mainland points within the contiguous 48 states: 2,892 miles (4,654 km) from Point Arena, California to West Quoddy Head, Maine.[26]
Greatest distance between two points on the same latitude: 5,823 miles (9,371 km) from Kure Atoll, Hawaii to Riviera Beach, Florida.[26]