document_title: Hot air balloon

question_text: where was the first hot air balloon invented

text: Hot air balloon

text: History[edit]

text: Premodern and unmanned balloons[edit]

text: Early unmanned hot air balloons were used in China. Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms era (220–280 AD), used airborne lanterns for military signaling. These lanterns are known Chinese lanterns (simplified Chinese: 孔明灯; traditional Chinese: 孔明燈).[4]

text: First manned flight[edit]

text: The French brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier developed a hot air balloon in Annonay, Ardeche, France, and demonstrated it publicly on September 19, 1783, making an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes. After experimenting with unmanned balloons and flights with animals, the first balloon flight with humans aboard, a tethered flight, performed on or around October 15, 1783, by Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier who made at least one tethered flight from the yard of the Reveillon workshop in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine. Later that same day, Pilatre de Rozier became the second human to ascend into the air, reaching an altitude of 26 m (85 ft), the length of the tether.[5][6] The first free flight with human passengers was made a few weeks later, on November 21, 1783.[7] King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but de Rozier, along with Marquis François d'Arlandes, petitioned successfully for the honor.[8][9][10] The first military use of a hot air balloon happened in 1794 during the battle of Fleurus, when the French used the balloon l'Entreprenant for observation.[11]

text: Today[edit]

text: Modern hot air balloons, with an onboard heat source, were developed by Ed Yost, beginning during the 1950s; his work resulted in his first successful flight, on October 22, 1960.[12] The first modern hot air balloon to be made in the United Kingdom (UK) was the Bristol Belle, built in 1967. Presently, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation. Hot air balloons are able to fly to extremely high altitudes. On November 26, 2005 Vijaypat Singhania set the world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching 21,027 m (68,986 ft). He took off from downtown Mumbai, India, and landed 240 km (150 mi) south in Panchale.[13] The previous record of 19,811 m (64,997 ft) had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6, 1988, in Plano, Texas.

text: On January 15, 1991, the 'Virgin Pacific Flyer' balloon completed the longest flight in a hot air balloon when Per Lindstrand (born in Sweden, but resident in the UK) and Richard Branson of the UK flew 7,671.91 km (4,767.10 mi) from Japan to Northern Canada. With a volume of 74 thousand cubic meters (2.6 million cubic feet), the balloon envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the trans-oceanic jet streams, the Pacific Flyer recorded the fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at 245 mph (394 km/h). The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard, Auguste Piccard's grandson; and Briton Brian Jones, flying in the Breitling Orbiter 3. It was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-d'Oex, Switzerland, on March 1, 1999, and landed at 1:02 a.m. on March 21 in the Egyptian desert 300 miles (480 km) south of Cairo. The two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days, 21 hours, and 55 minutes. Steve Fossett, flying solo, exceeded the record for briefest time traveling around the world on 3 July 2002 on his sixth attempt,[14] in 320 h 33 min.[15] Fedor Konyukhov flew solo round the world on his first attempt in a hybrid hot-air/helium balloon from 11 to 23 July 2016[16] for a round-the world time of 272h 11m, as of 17 September 2016[update] awaiting official confirmation as the new record.[15]

text: Construction[edit]

text: A hot air balloon for manned flight uses a single-layered, fabric gas bag (lifting "envelope"), with an opening at the bottom called the mouth or throat. Attached to the envelope is a basket, or gondola, for carrying the passengers. Mounted above the basket and centered in the mouth is the "burner", which injects a flame into the envelope, heating the air within. The heater or burner is fueled by propane, a liquefied gas stored in pressure vessels, similar to high pressure forklift cylinders.[17][dead link][18]

text: Envelope[edit]

text: Modern hot air balloons are usually made of materials such as ripstop nylon or dacron (a polyester).[19]

text: During the manufacturing process, the material is cut into panels and sewn together, along with structural load tapes that carry the weight of the gondola or basket. The individual sections, which extend from the throat to the crown (top) of the envelope, are known as gores or gore sections. Envelopes can have as few as 4 gores or as many as 24 or more.[20]

text: Envelopes often have a crown ring at their very top. This is a hoop of smooth metal, usually aluminium, and approximately 1 ft (0.30 m) in diameter. Vertical load tapes from the envelope are attached to the crown ring.

text: At the bottom of the envelope the vertical load tapes are sewn into loops that are connected to cables (one cable per load tape). These cables, often referred to as flying wires, are connected to the basket by carabiners.

text: Seams[edit]

text: The most common technique for sewing panels together is called the French felled, French fell, or double lap seam.[21][22][23][24] The two pieces of fabric are folded over on each other at their common edge, possibly with a load tape as well, and sewn together with two rows of parallel stitching. Other methods include a flat lap seam, in which the two pieces of fabric are held together simply with two rows of parallel stitching, and a zigzag, where parallel zigzag stitching holds a double lap of fabric.[23]

text: Coatings[edit]

text: The fabric (or at least part of it, the top 1/3 for example) may be coated with a sealer, such as silicone or polyurethane, to make it impermeable to air.[25] It is often the degradation of this coating and the corresponding loss of impermeability that ends the effective life of an envelope, not weakening of the fabric itself. Heat, moisture, and mechanical wear-and-tear during set-up and pack-up are the primary causes of degradation. Once an envelope becomes too porous to fly, it may be retired and discarded or perhaps used as a 'rag bag': cold inflated and opened for children to run through. Products for recoating the fabric are becoming available commercially.[26]

text: Sizes and capacity[edit]

text: A range of envelope sizes is available. The smallest, one-person, basket-less balloons (called "Hoppers" or "Cloudhoppers") have as little as 600 m3 (21,000 cu ft) of envelope volume;[27] for a perfect sphere the radius would be around 5 m (16 ft). At the other end of the scale, balloons used by commercial sightseeing operations may be able to carry well over two dozen people, with envelope volumes of up to 17,000 m3 (600,000 cu ft).[27] The most-used size is about 2,800 m3 (99,000 cu ft), and can carry 3 to 5 people.

text: Vents[edit]

text: The top of the balloon usually has a vent of some sort, enabling the pilot to release hot air to slow an ascent, start a descent, or increase the rate of descent, usually for landing. Some hot air balloons have turning vents, which are side vents that, when opened, cause the balloon to rotate. Such vents are particularly useful for balloons with rectangular baskets, to facilitate aligning the wider side of the basket for landing.[28]

text: The most common type of top vent is a disk-shaped flap of fabric called a parachute vent, invented by Tracy Barnes.[29] The fabric is connected around its edge to a set of "vent lines" that converge in the center. (The arrangement of fabric and lines roughly resembles a parachute—thus the name.) These "vent lines" are themselves connected to a control line that runs to the basket. A parachute vent is opened by pulling on the control line. Once the control line is released, the pressure of the remaining hot air pushes the vent fabric back into place. A parachute vent can be opened briefly while in flight to initiate a rapid descent. (Slower descents are initiated by allowing the air in the balloon to cool naturally.) The vent is pulled open completely to collapse the balloon after landing.

text: An older, and presently less commonly used, style of top vent is called a "Velcro-style" vent. This too is a disk of fabric at the top of the balloon. However, rather than having a set of "vent lines" that can repeatedly open and close the vent, the vent is secured by "hook and loop" fasteners (such as Velcro) and is only opened at the end of the flight. Balloons equipped with a Velcro-style vent typically have a second "maneuvering vent" built into the side (as opposed to the top) of the balloon. Another common type of top design is the "Smart Vent," which, rather than lowering a fabric disc into the envelope as in the "parachute" type, gathers the fabric together in the center of the opening. This system can theoretically be used for in-flight maneuvering, but is more commonly used only as a rapid-deflation device for use after landing, of particular value in high winds. Other designs, such as the "pop top" and "MultiVent" systems, have also attempted to address the need for rapid deflation on landing, but the parachute top remains popular as an all-around maneuvering and deflation system.

text: Shape[edit]

text: Besides special shapes, possibly for marketing purposes, there are several variations on the traditional "inverted tear drop" shape. The simplest, often used by home builders, is a hemisphere on top of a truncated cone. More-sophisticated designs attempt to minimize the circumferential stress on the fabric, with different degrees of success depending on whether they take fabric weight and varying air density into account. This shape may be referred to as "natural".[30] Finally, some specialized balloons are designed to minimize aerodynamic drag (in the vertical direction) to improve flight performance in competitions.[31]

text: Basket[edit]

text: Baskets are commonly made of woven wicker or rattan. These materials have proven to be sufficiently light, strong, and durable for balloon flight. Such baskets are usually rectangular or triangular in shape. They vary in size from just big enough for two people to large enough to carry thirty.[32] Larger baskets often have internal partitions for structural bracing and to compartmentalize the passengers. Small holes may be woven into the side of the basket to act as foot holds for passengers climbing in or out.[33]

text: Baskets may also be made of aluminium, especially a collapsible aluminium frame with a fabric skin, to reduce weight or increase portability.[34] These may be used by pilots without a ground crew or who are attempting to set altitude, duration, or distance records. Other specialty baskets include the fully enclosed gondolas used for around-the-world attempts,[35] and baskets that consist of little more than a seat for the pilot and perhaps one passenger.

text: Burner[edit]

text: The burner unit gasifies liquid propane,[36] mixes it with air, ignites the mixture, and directs the flame and exhaust into the mouth of the envelope. Burners vary in power output; each will generally produce 2 to 3 MW of heat (7 to 10 million BTUs per hour), with double, triple, or quadruple burner configurations installed where more power is needed.[37][38] The pilot actuates a burner by opening a propane valve, known as a blast valve. The valve may be spring-loaded so that it closes automatically, or it may stay open until closed by the pilot. The burner has a pilot light to ignite the propane and air mixture. The pilot light may be lit by the pilot with an external device, such as a flint striker or a lighter, or with a built-in piezo electric spark.[39]

text: Where more than one burner is present, the pilot can use one or more at a time depending on the desired heat output. Each burner is characterized by a metal coil of propane tubing the flame shoots through to preheat the incoming liquid propane. The burner unit may be suspended from the mouth of the envelope, or supported rigidly over the basket. The burner unit may be mounted on a gimbal to enable the pilot to aim the flame and avoid overheating the envelope fabric. A burner may have a secondary propane valve that releases propane more slowly and thereby generates a different sound. This is called a whisper burner and is used for flight over livestock to lessen the chance of spooking them. It also generates a more yellow flame and is used for night glows because it lights up the inside of the envelope better than the primary valve.

text: Fuel tanks[edit]

text: Propane fuel tanks are usually cylindrical pressure vessels made from aluminium, stainless steel, or titanium with a valve at one end to feed the burner and to refuel. They may have a fuel gauge and a pressure gauge. Common tank sizes are 10 (38), 15 (57), and 20 (76) US gallons (liters).[25] They may be intended for upright or horizontal use, and may be mounted inside or outside the basket.

text: The pressure necessary to force the fuel through the line to the burner may be supplied by the vapor pressure of the propane itself, if warm enough, or by the introduction of an inert gas such as nitrogen.[39] Tanks may be preheated with electrical heat tapes to produce sufficient vapor pressure for cold weather flying.[40] Warmed tanks will usually also be wrapped in an insulating blanket to preserve heat during the setup and flight.

text: Instrumentation[edit]

text: A balloon may be outfitted with a variety of instruments to aid the pilot. These commonly include an altimeter, a rate of climb (vertical speed) indicator known as a variometer, envelope (air) temperature, and ambient (air) temperature.[41] A GPS receiver can be useful to indicate ground speed (traditional aircraft air speed indicators would be useless) and direction.

text: Combined mass[edit]

text: The combined mass of an average system can be calculated as follows:[25]

text:
component
pounds
kilograms
mass fraction

100,000 cu ft (2,800 m3) envelope
250
113.4

3.3%

5-passenger basket
140
63.5

1.9%

double burner
50
22.7

0.7%

3 20-gallon (75.7-liter) fuel tanks full of propane
3 × 135 = 405
183.7

5.4%

5 passengers
5 × 150 = 750
340.2

10.0%

sub total
1595
723.5

21.2%

100,000 cu ft (2,800 m3) of heated air
5922
2686.2

78.8%

total
(3.76 tons) 7517
3409.7

100.0%

text: using a density of 0.9486 kg/m³ for dry air heated to 210 °F (99 °C).

text: Theory of operation[edit]

text: Generating lift[edit]

text: Increasing the air temperature inside the envelope makes it less dense than the surrounding (ambient) air. The balloon floats because of the buoyant force exerted on it. This force is the same force that acts on objects when they are in water and is described by Archimedes' principle. The amount of lift (or buoyancy) provided by a hot air balloon depends primarily upon the difference between the temperature of the air inside the envelope and the temperature of the air outside the envelope. For most envelopes made of nylon fabric, the maximum internal temperature is limited to approximately 120 °C (250 °F).[42]

text: It should be noted that the melting point of nylon is significantly greater than this maximum operating temperature — about 230 °C (450 °F) — but higher temperatures cause the strength of the nylon fabric to degrade more quickly over time. With a maximum operating temperature of 120 °C (250 °F), balloon envelopes can generally be flown for between 400 and 500 hours before the fabric needs to be replaced. Many balloon pilots operate their envelopes at temperatures significantly less than the maximum to extend envelope fabric life.

text: The lift generated by 100,000 ft³ (2831.7 m³) of dry air heated to various temperatures may be calculated as follows:

text:
air temperature
air density
air mass
lift generated

68 °F, 20 °C
1.2041 kg/m³
7517 lb, 3409.7 kg
0 lb, 0 kg

210 °F, 99 °C
0.9486 kg/m³
5922 lb, 2686.2 kg
1595 lb, 723.5 kg

250 °F, 120 °C
0.8978 kg/m³
5606 lb, 2542.4 kg
1912 lb, 867.3 kg

text: The density of air at 20 °C, 68 °F is about 1.2 kg/m³. The total lift for a balloon of 100,000 ft³ heated to (99 °C, 210 °F) would be 1595 lb, 723.5 kg. This is just enough to generate neutral buoyancy for the total system mass (not including the heated air trapped in the envelope, of course) stated in the previous section. Liftoff would require a slightly greater temperature, depending on the desired rate of climb. In reality, the air contained in the envelope is not all the same temperature, as the accompanying thermal image shows, and so these calculations are based on averages.

text: For typical atmospheric conditions (20 °C, 68 °F), a hot air balloon heated to (99 °C, 210 °F) requires about 3.91 m³ of envelope volume to lift 1 kilogram (62.5 ft³/lb). The precise amount of lift provided depends not only upon the internal temperature mentioned above, but the external temperature, altitude above sea level, and humidity of the air surrounding. On a warm day, a balloon cannot lift as much as on a cool day, because the temperature required for launch will exceed the maximum sustainable for nylon envelope fabric. Also, in the lower atmosphere, the lift provided by a hot air balloon decreases about 3% for each 1,000 meters (1% per 1,000 ft) of altitude gained.[43]

text: Montgolfier[edit]

text: Standard hot air balloons are known as Montgolfier balloons and rely solely on the buoyancy of hot air provided by the burner and contained by the envelope.[44] This style of balloon was developed by the Montgolfier brothers, and had its first public demonstration on 4 June 1783 with an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes, followed later that year with manned flights.[45]

text: Hybrid[edit]

text: The 1785 Rozière balloon, a type of hybrid balloon, named after its creator, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, has a separate cell for a lighter than air gas (typically helium,) as well as a cone below for hot air (as is used in a hot air balloon) to heat the helium at night. Hydrogen gas was used in the very early stages of development but was quickly abandoned due to the obvious danger of introducing an open flame near the gas. All modern Roziere balloons now use helium as a lifting gas.[46]

text: Solar[edit]

text: Solar balloons are hot air balloons that use just solar energy captured by a dark envelope to heat the air inside.[47]

text: Safety equipment[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: To help ensure the safety of pilot and passengers, a hot air balloon may carry several pieces of safety equipment.

text: In the basket[edit]

text: To relight the burner if the pilot light goes out and the optional piezo ignition fails, the pilot should have ready access to a means of backup ignition, such as a flint spark lighter. Many systems, especially those that carry passengers, have completely duplicate fuel and burner systems: two fuel tanks, connected to two separate hoses, which feed two distinct burners. This enables a safe landing in the case of a blockage somewhere in one system or if a system must be disabled because of a fuel leak.

text: A fire extinguisher suitable for extinguishing propane fires is useful. Most balloons carry a 1 or 2  kg AB:E type fire extinguisher.

text: A handling or drop line is mandatory safety equipment in many countries. This is a rope or webbing of 20–30 meters in length attached to the balloon basket with a quick release connection at one end. In very calm winds the balloon pilot can throw the handling line from the balloon so that the ground crew can guide the balloon safely away from obstructions on the ground.

text: For commercial passenger balloons, a pilot restraint harness is mandatory in some countries. This consists of a hip belt and a webbing line that together allow for some movement while preventing the pilot from being ejected from the basket during a hard landing.

text: Further safety equipment may include a first-aid kit, a fire blanket and a strong rescue knife.

text: On the occupants[edit]

text: At a minimum, the pilot should wear leather or flame-retardant fiber (such as nomex) gloves, so that they may shut off a gas valve in the case of a leak, even if there is a flame present; quick action in this regard can turn a potential catastrophe into a mere inconvenience. The pilot should additionally wear flame-resistant clothing covering their arms and legs; either natural fiber, such as cotton, linen, hemp, or wool, or engineered flame-retardant fiber, such as nomex, is acceptable in this capacity. Most engineered fibers (with the exception of rayon, which is also safe to wear) are thermoplastic; many are also hydrocarbons. This makes such fabrics very much unsuitable to wear near high temperatures, since non-flame-retardant thermoplastics will melt onto the wearer, and most hydrocarbons, whether fibrous or not, are suitable to use as fuels. Natural fiber will singe rather than melt or burn readily, and flame-retardant fiber generally has a very high melting point and is intrinsically non-flammable. Many pilots also advise their passengers to wear similar protective clothing that covers their arms and legs, as well as strong shoes or boots that offer good ankle support. Finally, some balloon systems, especially those that hang the burner from the envelope instead of supporting it rigidly from the basket, require the use of helmets by the pilot and passengers.

text: On the ground crew[edit]

text: The ground crew should wear gloves whenever there is a possibility of handling ropes or lines. The mass and exposed surface to air movement of a medium-sized balloon is sufficient to cause rope friction burns to the hands of anyone trying to stop or prevent movement. The ground crew should also wear sturdy shoes and at least long pants in case of the need to access a landing or landed balloon in rough or overgrown terrain.

text: Maintenance and repair[edit]

text: As with aircraft, hot air balloons require regular maintenance to remain airworthy. As aircraft made of fabric and that lack direct horizontal control, hot air balloons may occasionally require repairs to rips or snags. While some operations, such as cleaning and drying, may be performed by the owner or pilot, other operations, such as sewing, must be performed by a qualified repair technician and recorded in the balloon's maintenance log book.

text: Maintenance[edit]

text: To ensure long life and safe operation, the envelope should be kept clean and dry. This prevents mold and mildew from forming on the fabric and abrasion from occurring during packing, transport, and unpacking due to contact with foreign particles. In the event of a landing in a wet (because of precipitation or early morning or late evening dew) or muddy location (farmer's field), the envelope should be cleaned and laid out or hung to dry.

text: The burner and fuel system must also be kept clean to ensure safe operation on demand. Damaged fuel hoses need to be replaced. Stuck or leaky valves must be repaired or replaced. The wicker basket may require occasional refinishing or repair. The skids on its bottom may require occasional replacement.

text: Balloons in most parts of the world are maintained in accordance with a fixed manufacturer's maintenance schedule that includes regular (100 flight hours or 12 month) inspections, in addition to maintenance work to correct any damage. In Australia, balloons used for carrying commercial passengers must be inspected and maintained by approved workshops.[48]

text: Repair[edit]

text: In the case of a snag, burn, or rip in the envelope fabric, a patch may be applied or the affected panel completely replaced. Patches may be held in place with glue, tape, stitching, or a combination of these techniques. Replacing an entire panel requires the stitching around the old panel to be removed, and a new panel to be sewn in with the appropriate technique, thread, and stitch pattern.

text: Licensing[edit]

text: Depending on the size of the balloon, location, and intended use, hot air balloons and their pilots need to comply with a variety of regulations.

text: Balloons[edit]

text: As with other aircraft in the USA, balloons must be registered (have an N-number), have an airworthiness certificate, and pass annual inspections. Balloons below a certain size (empty weight of less than 155 pounds or 70 kg including envelope, basket, burners and empty fuel tanks) can be used as an ultralight aircraft.

text: Pilots[edit]

text: In Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, private balloon pilots are managed by the Australian Ballooning Federation[49] and typically become members of regional hot air ballooning clubs. Commercial operations carrying fare paying passengers or charging for promotional flights must operate under an Air Operators Certificate from the Australian Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) with a nominated Chief Pilot. Pilots must have different degrees of experience before they are allowed to progress to larger balloons. Hot air balloons must be registered aircraft with CASA and are subject to regular airworthiness checks by authorised personnel.[50]

text: In the UK[edit]

text: In the UK, the person in command must hold a valid Private Pilot's Licence issued by the Civil Aviation Authority specifically for ballooning; this is known as the PPL(B). There are two types of commercial balloon licences: CPL(B) Restricted and CPL(B) (Full). The CPL(B) Restricted is required if the pilot is undertaking work for a sponsor or being paid by an external agent to operate a balloon. The pilot can fly a sponsored balloon with everything paid for with a PPL unless asked to attend any event. Then a CPL(B) Restricted is required. The CPL(B) is required if the pilot is flying passengers for money. The balloon then needs a transport category C of A (certificate of air worthiness). If the pilot is only flying sponsor's guests, and not charging money for flying other passengers, then the pilot is exempted from holding an AOC (air operator's certificate) though a copy of it is required.[clarification needed] For passenger flying the balloon also requires a maintenance log.

text: In the United States[edit]

text: In the United States, a pilot of a hot air balloon must have a pilot certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and it must carry the rating of "Lighter-than-air free balloon", and unless the pilot is also qualified to fly gas balloons, will also carry this limitation: "Limited to hot air balloons with airborne heater". A pilot does not need a license to fly an ultralight aircraft, but training is highly advised, and some hot air balloons meet the criteria.

text: To carry paying passengers for hire (and attend some balloon festivals), a pilot must have a commercial pilot certificate. Commercial hot air balloon pilots may also act as hot air balloon flight instructors. While most balloon pilots fly for the pure joy of floating through the air, many are able to make a living as a professional balloon pilot. Some professional pilots fly commercial passenger sightseeing flights, while others fly corporate advertising balloons.[51]

text: Accidents and incidents[edit]

text:
1989 Alice Springs hot air balloon crash: On 4 13 August 1989, two hot air balloons collided at Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia, causing one to fall, killing all 13 people on board.
2011 Somerset hot air balloon crash: On 1 January 2011, a hot air balloon attempting a high-altitude flight crashed at Pratten's Bowls Club in Westfield, Somerset, near Bath, England, killing both people on board.
2012 Carterton hot air balloon crash: On 7 January 2012, a hot air balloon collided with a power line, caught fire and crashed at Carterton, North Island, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board.
2012 Ljubljana Marshes hot air balloon crash: On 23 August 2012, a storm blew a hot air balloon to the ground, causing it to catch fire on impact near Ljubljana, Slovenia. The crash killed 6 of the 32 people on board, and injured the other 26.
2013 Luxor hot air balloon crash: On 26 February 2013, a hot air balloon carrying foreign tourists ignited and crashed near the ancient city of Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 of the 21 people on board, making it the deadliest balloon accident in history.[52]
2016 Lockhart hot air balloon crash: On 30 July 2016, a hot air balloon carrying 16 people caught fire and crashed near Lockhart, Texas. There were no survivors.

tag: ul

text: Manufacturers[edit]

text: The largest manufacturer of hot air balloons in the world is Cameron Balloons company of Bristol, England, which also owns Lindstrand Balloons of Oswestry, England. Cameron Balloons, Lindstrand Balloons and another English balloon manufacturing company, Thunder and Colt (since acquired by Cameron), have been innovators and developers of special shaped balloons. These hot air balloons use the same principle of lift as conventional inverted teardrop shaped balloons but often sections of the special balloon envelope shape do not contribute to the balloon's ability to stay aloft.

text: The second largest manufacturer of hot air balloons in the world is Ultramagic company, based in Spain, which produces from 80 to 120 balloons per year. Ultramagic can produce very large balloons, such as the N-500 that accommodates as many as 27 persons in the basket, and has also produced many balloons with special shapes, as well as cold-air inflatables.

text: In the USA Aerostar International, Inc. of Sioux Falls, South Dakota was North America's largest balloon manufacturer and a close second in world manufacturing before ceasing to build balloons in January 2007. The oldest U.S. certified manufacture is now Adams Balloons out of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Firefly Balloons, formerly The Balloon Works, is a manufacturer of hot-air balloons in Statesville, North Carolina. Another manufacturer is Head Balloons, Inc. of Helen, Georgia.

text: The major manufacturers in Canada are Sundance Balloons and Fantasy Sky Promotions. Other manufacturers include Kavanagh Balloons of Australia, Schroeder Fire Balloons of Germany, and Kubicek Balloons of the Czech Republic.


document_title: One Night with the King

question_text: who played haman in one night with the king

root

text: One Night with the King

text: Plot[edit]

text: The movie is set in Susa, Persia (now Iran). King Xerxes holds a great feast for all the people to attend. Hadassah (the main protagonist) longs to go to Jerusalem to see the Holy Land and prepares to leave with the caravan along with her friend, Jesse. They stop by the King's feast before he goes marching to war to avenge his father’s death. Hadassah and Jesse witness the King summoning Queen Vashti. Queen Vashti was opposed to the war, desiring King Xerxes to enhance his kingdom instead. She holds her own feast in protest to the war. When the king summons her to his own feast, she refuses to come stating, "I am queen, and I will not lower my dignity. Or shame my crown by wearing it before your drunk, and thinly veiled war council". Because of this, King Xerxes is advised to banish her and select a more worthy queen.

tag: p

text: All beautiful virgin women in the stronghold of Susa are brought in so Xerxes could leave behind a queen to keep the kingdom unified. Under the command of her foster-father, "Uncle Mordecai" (who was one of the king’s scribes and worked in the palace), Hadassah does not reveal her nationality or family and changes her name to "Esther" (after the Babylonian goddess Ishtar). She is taken in with the rest of the selected women and given cosmetics, perfumes, and treatments under the care of Hegai, the king’s royal eunuch. Through her quick wit, intelligence, and integrity, she becomes Hegai's favorite contestant.

text: On their night with the king, each contestant is allowed to bring along whatever she wishes from the harem. She goes in the evening and returns in the morning to a second harem to another royal eunuch who is custodian to the concubines. She will not be able to return to the king unless she pleases him and he summons her by name. During their preparation, Hegai discovers Esther can read and listens to her reading to the other contestants. He admires her bravery. Late into the night, he brings her to King Xerxes to read to him. She starts reading from the assigned scroll and then begins telling the love story of Jacob and Rachel (from the Old Testament). He is amused and intrigued and dismisses her, saying she would read to him again. From this interaction, Esther falls in love with the King. When it is Esther's turn for her 'one night with the king', she only wears what Hegai advises. She wins the king's favor by revealing her heart to him. He chooses her and crowns her queen.

text: Simultaneously, Haman the Agagite is promoted to the highest-ranking official. He has all the king’s servants at the royal gate to kneel before him. Mordecai refuses, declaring he will only kneel before God and the king. He announces himself before Haman to be a son of Abraham, a Jew. Haman, filled with vengeance and hatred, seeks to destroy Mordecai and all his people because centuries earlier, Jews persecuted his forefathers.

text: Esther discovers the plot and breaks protocol by going before the king unsummoned, risking her life to plead for her people. The king lowers his scepter to her and spares her life out of his love for her. She invites the king and Haman to a banquet and there reveals her nationality and Haman’s plot to kill the Jews. The king, overwhelmed by her revelation, leaves the banquet. Haman then assaults Esther. The king saves her and, in his fury, commands Haman be hanged on the gallows he had erected to hang Mordecai for revenge. After Haman is taken away, the king goes to Esther's side. Esther asks, "What made you come back"? And the king responds with, "I saw the stars". Then King Xerxes kisses Esther, with the camera pulling away from the small temple.

text: The ending shows Mordecai being made a Prince of Persia, and issuing a royal decree in his own name, with flashbacks of Esther being made Queen, and the crowd of Jews cheering in the streets. The last scenes show the small temple and Mordecai saying, "Thus dictated, I order this decree sent out under the great seal of Mordecai, Prince of Persia, a Jew".

text: Modification[edit]

text: The film generally adheres to the main plot of the Biblical version. However, the film adds stylistic elements not present in the Biblical story, as well as depicting several non-Biblical minor characters. The story presents many facets that could have happened rather than strictly sticking to Biblical texts. For example, the build-up to the Biblical story's climax focuses mainly on Haman and his plot to destroy the Jews, whereas Esther is hardly featured until chapter 6. In the film, Esther is featured prominently throughout, and it is Haman who receives very little screen-time until the last third of the film, although his presence is felt throughout.[citation needed]

text: Production and sales[edit]

text: The movie’s Premiere Night took place at Mann Bruins Theater in Los Angeles, California. The movie, filmed entirely in the state of Rajasthan, India, was released in theaters on October 13, 2006. During its opening weekend, it earned $4,120,497 in theaters. By the end of its theatrical run, the film had earned $13,395,961 domestically,[2] and $13,728,450 worldwide.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Tiffany Dupont as Hadassah/Esther, the main protagonist.
Luke Goss as King Xerxes I of Persia, Esther's love interest and insecure in his new position as king and therefore almost submits to the influence of the Princes of the Face.
John Rhys-Davies as Mordecai, Esther's uncle and father figure.
Omar Sharif as Prince Memucan, one of the few truly loyal Princes of the Face.
Tommy Lister, Jr. as Hegai, the Royal Eunuch, the harem's bodyguard.
Jonah Lotan as Jesse, Esther's close friend who becomes a Eunuch in the Persian palace.
John Noble as Prince Admatha, a scheming Prince of the Face who plots to become king himself.
James Callis as Haman, the Agagite, the film's main antagonist, Haman plans to use his position of power to kill the Jewish inhabitants of Persia. Scenes including Haman and his henchmen in the film make use of imagery associated with Nazism, including swastika-like symbols and torchlit nighttime rallies.
Peter O'Toole as Prophet Samuel
Denzil Smith as Prince Carshena
Jyoti Dogra as Queen of Persia Vashti
Tom Alter as King Saul of Israel
Aditya Bal as Amalekite King Agag
Dilshad Patel as Hannah
Nimrat Kaur as Sarah

text: Production[edit]

text: The movie was filmed entirely in the state of Rajasthan, India.[3]

text: Jeannie Tenney wrote and sang "One Night with the King", which can be heard during the final credits. She was a co-author with her husband, Tommy Tenney (also a producer of the film), of the book upon which the film is based.

text: Promotion[edit]

text: The Genius Club[4] from writer/director Tim Chey[5] was also released theatrically in 2006. The film's trailers showed before One Night With The King.[verification needed]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: One Night with the King was released to theaters on October 13, 2006. During its opening weekend, it earned $4,120,497 in theaters. By the end of its theatrical run, the film had received $13,395,961 domestically, with $13,728,450 worldwide.[6] Subsequent DVD sales were strong at $20,688,299, more than making up for production costs.[7] The success of this film encouraged Fox studio executives to approve production of the even more ambitious Exodus: Gods And Kings project.[8]

text: Reviews[edit]

text: One Night with the King received a generally negative reception, garnering a 19% positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 26 reviews, with a composite average of 4.4 out of 10, with one reviewer, V.A. Musetto of the New York Post, noting that, "The cinematography and sets look great, but the script is a bummer. It's overlong, overwrought and overblown."[9] The film was awarded four Doves by The Dove Foundation and received the Dove Family-Approved Seal.[10] MovieGuide has also reviewed the film fairly favourably, giving it 3 out of 4 stars, saying that "despite some minor flaws, [it] brings back the biblical epic in an entertaining, inspiring way."[11] The movie has also been endorsed by the American Bible Society.[12]

text: Classification[edit]

text: The British Board of Film Classification granted this motion picture a PG certificate, noting that it contained "images of moderate battle violence".[13]

text: In the US, One Night With The King is also rated PG by the MPAA for violence, some sensuality and thematic elements.[citation needed]


document_title: List of High School Musical characters

question_text: who plays the teacher in high school musical

text: List of High School Musical characters

text: Main cast

text: Troy Bolton

text:
Troy Bolton

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Zac Efron

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Caddy/Waiter
Assistant Golf Instructor

[show]Family

Parents
Jack Bolton (father)
Lucille Bolton (mother)

tag: table

text: Troy Bolton is the main protagonist of the first three films. Depicted as one of East High's most popular students, Troy is also the captain of the school's varsity basketball team, a position he earned in his junior year after joining the team as a sophomore.[1] The majority of the student body, especially Troy's best friend, Chad Danforth, expects Troy to lead East High to victory. Troy is the only child of Jack and Lucille Bolton; Jack is also the coach of the East High basketball team and puts additional pressure on Troy to excel. Troy is also involved with the school's golf team. In the first film, Troy meets Gabriella Montez at a ski lodge karaoke party on New Year's Eve. When the school year resumes, Troy finds that Gabriella is a new student at East High. For fear of what his father, friends, and classmates would think, Troy asks Gabriella not to mention his singing performance to anybody else. However, the secret eventually gets out when Troy and Gabriella unintentionally audition for the winter musical after singing in the auditorium. The news throws East High's social order out of balance. Troy finds himself having to choose between Gabriella and the musical callbacks or his team and the championship game. Although his friends initially try to thwart Troy's chances of being cast as the musical's lead, they help him make both the game and the callbacks, which had been scheduled on the same afternoon. Troy and Gabriella earn the lead roles, somewhat angering the drama department's president, Sharpay Evans. In High School Musical 2, Sharpay has her mind set on capturing Troy's affections and coming between him and Gabriella. Troy, Gabriella, and their friends are hired at a local country club, Lava Springs, but are weary of their new-found employment when they learn the club is owned by Sharpay's parents. Sharpay uses her wealth, power, and influence over Troy, tempting him with college opportunities in exchange for him singing with her at the club's Midsummer Night Talent Show. Troy gives into Sharpay's plot, causing Gabriella, Chad, and their friends to see Troy as a whole new person. Although Troy is being offered a college scholarship, he soon realizes he must not compromise his character while on the quest for his future, and returns to his old self. In the franchise's third film, Troy once again feels uncertain about his future as high school graduation draws near. While Troy is set to attend the University of Albuquerque, he begins to have second thoughts about other schools he and his father talked about. Coach Bolton and Chad are both insistent on Troy attending the university, but he decides to attend University of California, Berkeley in order to pursue both basketball and theater and to be closer to Gabriella, who enrolls at Stanford University.

text: In the first three films, Troy is portrayed by Zac Efron, with Drew Seeley providing his singing voice in the first film. The reason for this dubbing is still somewhat unclear, although Efron has told Rolling Stone that the songs for the first film were written prior to casting and out of his vocal range.[2] Casting for the role was a multi-audition process, and candidates for the role included Hunter Parrish[3] and Sterling Knight.[4] Efron had previously audition for a Disney Channel pilot that was not picked up by the network a few years prior to casting for High School Musical.[5] Although the franchise will continue with a fourth film, Efron and his character will not be returning.[6]

text: In other media

text: Efron reprised the role in the short film High School Musical 4 on Saturday Night Live.[7]

text: In Life with Archie: Archie Love Veronica: Lodge—A Complaint!, when Betty Cooper is talking about how all the men she has dated have all been nothing but "clone[s] of Archie", she lists Troy Bolton as one of those she has dated.

text: Gabriella Montez

text:
Gabriella Montez

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Vanessa Hudgens

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Other names
Gabby

Occupation
Student
Lifeguard

[show]Family

Parents
Ms. Montez (mother)

text: When the two settle in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Gabriella's mother promises they will not relocate until she graduates high school. Gabriella begins attending East High mid-year in the first film. Hoping to escape the "freaky genius girl" reputation she had earned at her previous schools,[8] she does not join any extracurricular activities. Her first friend at East High is Troy Bolton, whom she had met at a ski lodge karaoke party on New Year's Eve, however she quickly makes friends with Taylor McKessie, who finds out about Gabriella's various academic accomplishments and urges her to join the school's nation decathlon team. Gabriella is hesitant, but eventually agrees. Having unearthed a passion for performing at the karaoke party, Gabriella decides to audition for the school musical, but is too late. It is only when the musical's director, Ms. Darbus, overhears Gabriella singing with Troy that she gives them both a callback. Gabriella is uncertain about perusing the lead role, especially when Taylor and the other members of the decathlon team tell her that the musical will take her focus off the upcoming decathlon event. Taylor and her friends stage an intervention, which portrays Troy as not caring about Gabriella or the musical. Heartbroken, Gabriella drops out of the running for the lead role. However, Taylor eventually confesses what she did and helps Gabriella make the decathlon and the musical auditions. Gabriella and Troy earn the lead roles, beating out Sharpay Evans, who had previously tried to thwart her chances of making the callbacks. In the second film, Gabriella has maintained her romance with Troy, and the couple, along with their friends, get jobs at the Lava Springs country club. Seeking revenge, Sharpay lures Troy away from Gabriella and his friends, showering him with various luxuries, including promising college opportunities. After Troy repeatedly breaks his promises and backs out of his commitments, Gabriella breaks up with him, only for the couple to reunite. In High School Musical 3: Senior Year, a Stanford-bound Gabriella is uneasy about the fast pace her life has taken. Before graduation, Gabriella briefly considers taking classes at the local university for a year and going to Stanford when she is ready, much to the dismay of Taylor and Ms. Montez. Troy urges Gabriella to accept an early orientation. Gabriella goes to Stanford but must drop out of the school musical (allowing Sharpay to fill the lead role) and miss prom. Wanting his last dance at East High to be with Gabriella, Troy drives to Stanford and the two share an intimate prom of their own. He convinces Gabriella to return to East High for opening night of the musical and for graduation. Gabriella will attend Stanford and study law. She was referenced by Sharpay in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure.

text: Gabriella, who was named for the daughter of High School Musical writer Peter Barsocchini but modeled after a girl Barsocchini met before his teenage years,[9] is portrayed by Vanessa Hudgens in the first three films of the franchise. Hudgens had previously auditioned for other Disney Channel projects.[5] During auditions, Hudgens was paired with Zac Efron, who landed the role of Troy, at each callback,[10] with director Kenny Ortega saying "We tried to separate them and try them with other partners but it didn’t work. The magic was already there between them."[11] Following Hudgens' 2007 nude photo scandal, reports claimed that Adrienne Bailon and other actresses would replace Hudgens in the third film of the franchise.[12] However, Disney had denied the reports[13] and Hudgens returned for High School Musical 3. Hudgens will not, however, reprise her role for High School Musical 4.[14]

text: Sharpay Evans

text:
Sharpay Evans

High School Musical film series, Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure (spinoff) character

Portrayed by
Ashley Tisdale

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Star on Broadway

[show]Family

Parents
Vance Evans (father)
Darby Evans (mother)

Siblings
Ryan Evans (twin brother)

text: Sharpay Evans is the main antagonist of the films and the co-president of the East High drama department alongside her twin brother, Ryan, with whom she has starred in 17 school productions.[15][16] Sharpay appears to have the most power in the drama department, leaving Ryan as her right-hand man. However, the sibling loyalty is not always mutual. Classmate Taylor McKessie suspects that if Sharpay "could figure out how to play both Romeo and Juliet, her own brother would be aced out of a job."[17] Sharpay's family is very affluent; their wealth stems from the country club, Lava Springs, her parents own. In High School Musical, Sharpay is shown as being somewhat popular. Students on campus seem to fear her, as they scour to make room for her in the hallways or cafeteria. Fear also appears to be the reason why other students, such as Kelsi Nielsen, remain a part of Sharpay's posse. Sharpay is sometimes the victim of playful jokes and light teasing from the East High basketball team, despite the fact that one of their star players, Zeke Baylor, has a crush on Sharpay. Sharpay's talents are challenged for the first time when Gabriella Montez and Troy Bolton are called back for the lead roles in the musical. To ensure that she and Ryan remain in the spotlight, Sharpay convinces Ms. Darbus, the musical's director, to switch the date of the callbacks to the same day as Troy's district championship basketball game and Gabriella's national decathlon. However, Troy and Gabriella still manage to make the callbacks and are cast in the lead roles of Arnold and Minnie. In the second film, Sharpay seems to have gained more popularity, with adoring fans wanting her signature in their yearbooks at the end of the school year. Sharpay plans to steal Troy away from Gabriella during summer vacation. She has the manager of Lava Springs, Mr. Fulton, hire Troy to work at the country club, ordering him to do so, whatever it takes. The cost of Troy's employment is the employment of Gabriella and their friends. Realizing that she must now try to win Troy's affections with extreme measures, Sharpay brings Troy into the high class world of her family, which eventually leads to his promotion and college opportunities. Sharpay also convinces Troy to sing with her in the Midsummer Night Talent Show, abandoning plans to enter the show with Ryan. Ryan begins to step out of Sharpay's shadow and Troy eventually begins to free himself from Sharpay's grip. Sharpay is unable to perform at the talent show, but does join Troy and Gabriella's duet in the background, along with their other friends. Despite having little involvement in the show, the fixed competition's prize, the Star Dazzle Award, was going to be given to her, but she selflessly awards the prize to her brother, who arranged Troy and Gabriella's duet. By the third film, Sharpay's popularity seems to be limited among admiring boys. In her senior year, Sharpay meets Tiara Gold, a British transfer student eager to learn the ropes at East High by becoming Sharpay's student. Tiara's dedication is impressive, but it turns out to be a facade. On opening night of the spring musical, Tiara attempts to upstage Sharpay, but fails. Sharpay does not received a scholariship to the Juilliard School like she had hoped and will study the dramatic arts at the University of Albuquerque, but has agreed to return to East High to assist Ms. Darbus with the drama department and to continue her reign over Tiara.

text: Sharpay becomes the main protagonist in her independent film, Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure, where she believes she is offered a role on Broadway and travels to New York with her dog, Boi. Her father agrees to give her a one-month limit to prove that she can stand on her own: if she fails, then she will work for him at the Lava Springs Country Club. While in New York, she meets Peyton Leverette, the son of her mom's college friend, who takes her to a new apartment after she got thrown out of a penthouse for refusing to throw her dog out. After finding out that the agents really want her dog, not her, she befriends the star, Amber Lee Adams, who manipulates her into doing chores, being her manager in exchange for her dog's role, until she sees Amber Lee's true face. Roger, whose dog is on competition with Sharpay's, helps expose Amber Lee to the world, almost causing the show to be cancelled. Peyton shows a video of Sharpay's secret performance to convince the agents that she can save the show by replacing Amber Lee Adams. Sharpay's performance turns her into a star on Broadway and she starts dating Peyton.

text: Sharpay is portrayed by Ashley Tisdale in the four films of the series. Tisdale, who was previously known for her starring role on the Disney Channel series "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody", insists that she was not offered the role of Sharpay and had to audition, also claiming that she almost didn't get the role because the Disney executives did not think she could play the "mean girl" role based on her performance in "The Suite Life".[18] Tisdale said that she went into the auditions at the last minute,[10] but felt very comfortable in front of the Disney executives, as she already knew them.[18] To ensure that viewers loved to hate her character, Tisdale looked to Rachel McAdams' performance in Mean Girls.[18]

text: Ryan Evans

text:
Ryan Evans

High School Musical film series, Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure' character

Portrayed by
Lucas Grabeel

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Star

[show]Family

Parents
Vance Evans (father)
Darby Evans (mother)

Siblings
Sharpay Evans (twin sister)

text: Ryan Evans is the twin brother of Sharpay Evans. Like his sister, Ryan is very much involved with musical theater and performing. However, his interests do not end at theater, as he also enjoys playing baseball and won the junior league world series sometime before the film series. Ryan is well known for wearing different styles of hats. In the first film, Ryan is depicted as being dim-witted and completely submissive to Sharpay, though this could be because he likes Troy and Gabriella. When Troy Bolton and Gabriella Montez threaten Ryan and Sharpay's chances of being cast as the leads at East High's winter musical, Ryan assists Sharpay in making sure Troy and Gabriella's scheduled conflict with the callback dates. The plan falls through and Troy is cast in the lead role. In High School Musical 2, Ryan plans on enjoying the summer at his family's country club, Lava Springs, and entering the Midsummer Night Talent Show with Sharpay. However, he begins to step out of his sister's shadow when she decides to enter the talent show with Troy. Ryan decides to help Gabriella and her friends, who have felt abandoned by Troy, stage an act for the talent show. This causes a rift in his relationship with Sharpay, who still expects him to be at her side. In the end, Ryan is awarded the Star Dazzle Award at the talent show for his directional work. In the third film of the franchise, with more independence by himself and being less controlled by his sister, Ryan is a candidate for a scholarship to the Juilliard School for dance. He is competing for one scholarship with Sharpay, Troy, and shy composer Kelsi Nielsen. The school's scouts will attend opening night of the East High spring musical to determine who will be the recipient. Ryan is the choreographer of the show while Kelsi is the composer. Through their work together, Ryan attend prom together with Kelsi, but only as friends. He receive a scholarship to Juilliard.

text: At the end of Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure, Ryan is on a break from his musical tour around the country and pays a visit to his sister Sharpay after she became a star on Broadway to congratulate her. While Sharpay goes to chase Boi, Ryan enjoys her bed until it folds back into the closet, taking Ryan with it.

text: Ryan is played by Lucas Grabeel in the first three installments of the franchise. Corbin Bleu, who was later cast as Chad Danforth, auditioned for the role of Ryan.[10] Grabeel had previously appeared in Disney Channel's Halloweentown High.

text: Only after the end of the franchise, David Simpatico, one of the writers, revealed Ryan's homosexuality, described he as a "coded gay" – characters without revealed sexuality by the rules of the studios, a controversial topic when talking to children and teenagers.[19] Ortega based the character on his own adolescence: "I see a lot of myself in Ryan. Yeah, I knew I was gay in high school, but I didn't tell anybody".[20]

text: Chad Danforth

text:
Chad Danforth

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Corbin Bleu

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Caddy/Waiter

[show]Family

Parents
Charlie Danforth (father)
Mrs. Danforth (mother)

text: Chad Danforth is Troy Bolton's best friend and teammate. Chad is known for wearing shirts with eccentric phrases and messages on them. In the third film, those messages are all environment-friendly. In High School Musical, Chad is gearing up for the district championship basketball game and assumes Troy, also the team captain, is doing the same. However, news soon spreads around school that Troy and Gabriella Montez, a new student, have auditioned for the school musical and have been called back for the lead roles. Hoping to keep Troy's head in the game, Chad and his teammates stage an intervention while Taylor McKessie and her friends, who want Gabriella to stay focused on the national decathlon team, do the same with Gabriella. The plan is successful, but Chad and Taylor soon realize that they hurt their close friends. After admitting their guilt, they help Troy and Gabriella make the callbacks, as well as the game and decathlon. At the end of the film, Chad asks Taylor on a date. In the second film, Chad and Taylor seem to have maintained a relationship. Hoping to save up for a car, Chad takes a job at the Lava Springs country club for the summer, alongside Troy, Gabriella, Taylor, and their friends. Chad reluctantly agrees to participate with the other employees in the Midsummer Night Talent Show at the club. His friendship with Troy also hits a wall when Troy compromises himself for luxuries at the country club. The two, however, make up. In High School Musical 3: Senior Year, Chad is looking forward to playing basketball with Troy at the University of Albuquerque following high school graduation. He is initially upset when Troy decides to attend the University of California, Berkeley instead, but accepts the fact that he and Troy cannot stay together forever. Chad also struggles with asking Taylor to prom, but finally succeeds after several tries.

text: Corbin Bleu portrays Chad Danforth in the first three films of the franchise. Bleu originally auditioned for the role of Ryan Evans, but was suggested for the role of Chad instead.[10] Bleu had auditioned for Disney Channel projects in the past.[5]

text: Taylor McKessie

text:
Taylor McKessie

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Monique Coleman

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Event/Activities Coordinator

[show]Family

Siblings
Unnamed older sister

text: Taylor McKessie is the president of the science club at East High and a member of the school's national decathlon team. Taylor is a feminist and admires many important women in history. She is also shown to have a wide range of knowledge, including anything from computers to the daily lunch special in the school cafeteria. In the first film, she is shown as finding the school's athlete as tribal. She is also impressed at the intellect of new student Gabriella Montez. Articles of Gabriella's academic achievements at her old schools are placed in Taylor's locker. Although Gabriella did not slip the articles in the locker, she agrees to join the decathlon team at Taylor's suggestion. However, when Gabriella's interest begins to turn to the school musical and Troy Bolton, Taylor teams up with Troy's best friend, Chad, to make sure they can keep their friends away from one another and focused on the prize. While Chad and his basketball teammates explain to Troy that they will not win the district championship game if he is involved with the musical, they film him saying that the musical and Gabriella are not important. Taylor show Gabriella the footage and she is left heartbroken. Realizing the magnitude of what they have done, Taylor and Chad work together again to make sure Troy and Gabriella make the musical callbacks. Taylor's role in the plan is to set off a chemical reaction that would result in the evacuation of the national decathlon. At the end of the film, Taylor is asked out by Chad. In High School Musical 2, Taylor, Gabriella, Chad, Troy, and their friends are hired at the Lava Springs country club, owned by the parents of Sharpay Evans, the school drama queen. Taylor is the first to notice that Troy is changing and being pulled into Sharpay's world. She tries to convince Gabriella that Troy is no longer the nice guy she fell for. In High School Musical 3: Senior Year, Taylor is editor of the school yearbook. While she will attend Yale University and study political science (with the goal of becoming President of the United States), she pushes Gabriella to accept an early orientation at Stanford University while joining the others for a last spring musicale.

text: Taylor is portrayed by Monique Coleman in the first three films of the series. Coleman had previously auditioned for Disney Channel.[5]

text: Other East High students

text: Kelsi Nielsen

text:
Kelsi Nielsen

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Olesya Rulin

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Pianist

text: Kelsi Nielsen is a songwriter and composer and student at East High. She is very introverted and is very intimidated by Sharpay Evans, the president of the school's drama department. In High School Musical, Ms. Darbus, the director of the school's winter musical, allows Kelsi to compose the music. During the auditions, Sharpay and her brother, Ryan, perform one of Kelsi's original songs, "What I've Been Looking For", but with an upbeat arrangement. When Kelsi tells Sharpay that she imagined the song to be much slower, Sharpay belittles her and Kelsi retreats. After auditions, Kelsi is approached by Troy and Gabriella, who tell her she does not have to be intimidated by Sharpay. She offers to show them how the song they sang is supposed to sound. Troy and Gabriella sing the duet ballad and Ms. Darbus, who had re-entered the auditorium, gives them a callback. Kelsi works with Troy and Gabriella to ensure that they beat out Sharpay and Ryan for the lead roles. The second film shows Kelsi, Troy, Gabriella, and their friends working at the Lava Springs country club, which is owned by Sharpay's family. Kelsi's job is playing the piano in the dining room. She is also the rehearsal pianist for Sharpay. She has a mutual love interest in Jason Cross, but never been shown a relationship. Although, in the third film he attends prom with Ryan when he invites her to work together, but only as friends. Kelsi receive scholarships for the Juilliard School, where she will study music.

text: Kelsi is portrayed by Olesya Rulin in the first three films of the series. Rulin, who had previously starred in Disney Channel's Halloweentown High alongside Lucas Grabeel, was cast in her High School Musical role immediately after her own high school graduation.[21]

text: Zeke Baylor

text:
Zeke Baylor

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Chris Warren, Jr.

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Chef

text: Zeke Baylor is one of East High's most talented basketball players. He appears to be very close to Jason Cross, Troy Bolton, and Chad Danforth. He also is attracted to Sharpay Evans. In High School Musical, he is one of several students to reveal a secret passion following Troy Bolton's audition for the school musical. Zeke's passion is baking, which impresses Sharpay at the end of the film. In High School Musical 2, Zeke is one of many East High students to be hired to work at Sharpay's family's country club, Lava Springs. He assists Chef Michael in the kitchen. His crush on Sharpay still remains, but the two are not seen together until the end of the film. In High School Musical 3: Senior Year, Sharpay asks Zeke to prom and he joins his friends in a final musical, but also has to work hard to pass his Family Science Class.

text: Chris Warren, Jr. portrays Zeke in the first three High School Musical films. Although his character graduates in the third film, Warren stated after High School Musical 2 that he planned to appear in two more sequels, indicating possible involvement in High School Musical 4: East Meets West.[22]

text: Jason Cross

text:
Jason Cross

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Ryne Sanborn

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Dishwasher

text: Jason Cross is a member of the East High School boys' varsity basketball team and one of Troy Bolton, Chad Danforth, and Zeke Baylor's good friends. He tends to ask questions or make statements that make him come off as a kiss-up or unintelligent. In High School Musical, he works as a bus boy at Lava Springs country club. He has a mutual love interest in Kelsi Nielsen, but never been shown a relationship. In the third film he attends prom with Martha Cox, but only as good friends, when Kelsi goes with Ryan. While he joins his friends on a final musical before graduation, he also has to spend time to study for his finals. At the end of the movie, he finally earns enough scores to graduate.

text: Jason is portrayed by Ryne Sanborn in the first three films of the series.

text: Martha Cox

text:
Martha Cox

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Kaycee Stroh

First appearance
High School Musical

Last appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Culinary Assistant

text: Martha Cox is an East High School student and member of the national decathlon team. In wake of Troy's audition for the winter musical in High School Musical, Martha confesses that she enjoys hip-hop dancing. In High School Musical 2, Martha works at the Lava Springs country club as part of the kitchen staff. She becomes a cheerleader in the third film and participates in a final musical with her friends.

text: Martha is portrayed by Kaycee Stroh in the first three films in the franchise. Stroh took some of her dance students to audition for High School Musical as background dancers . Director Kenny Ortega pulled her aside and asked her to audition for the role of Martha, choosing her.[23]

text: Tiara Gold

text:
Tiara Gold

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Jemma McKenzie-Brown

First appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student
Personal Assistant

text: Tiara Gold is a British transfer student who takes a job as Sharpay Evans' assistant to learn the ropes at East High. She shows some initial interest in musical theater, but is careful not to upstage Sharpay. Due to her dedicated presence during rehearsals for the spring musical, Ms. Darbus casts Tiara as an understudy. Tiara later overhears Gabriella Montez talking to Taylor McKessie about an early orientation at Stanford University, which would make Gabriella unable to perform as the lead in the musical. Tiara informs Sharpay, who is impressed by her dedication. Gabriella leaves for the orientation, allowing Sharpay to take over her part. Tiara, in turn, takes over Sharpay's former role. During opening night, Sharpay is embarrassed after having to perform with Jimmie Zara, Troy Bolton's understudy. When she goes back to her dressing room, she finds Tiara in her costume. Tiara tells Sharpay that she is the new queen of the drama department and that it is time for Sharpay to move aside. Sharpay, in retaliation, upstages Tiara onstage. Later, Tiara learns that Sharpay will be returning occasionally to East High after graduation to help Ms. Darbus with the drama department and, undoubtedly, continue to upstage Tiara.

text: Tiara is portrayed by Jemma McKenzie-Brown in High School Musical 3: Senior Year. Disney star Selena Gomez has admitted to turning down the role,[24] while Ali Lohan reportedly auditioned for the role.[25] Although Brown was originally set to star in High School Musical 4: East Meets West,[26] it has since been confirmed that she will not reprise her role.[27]

text: Jimmie Zara

text:
Jimmie Zara

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Matt Prokop

First appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Other names
"Rocketman", "The Rocket"

Occupation
Student

text: Jimmie Zara, also known as "the Rocket" or "Rocketman", is a member on the East High School boys' varsity basketball team. In the final game of High School Musical 3: Senior Year, he is used as somewhat of a secret weapon and scores the winning basket. He looks up to Troy Bolton and has a small crush on Sharpay Evans. He is Troy's understudy for the spring musical and is able to perform with Sharpay on opening night.

text: Matt Prokop portrays Jimmie in the third film of the series. Disney star Tony Oller auditioned for this role.[28] Prokop has stated that he signed on for three potential films, including High School Musical 3.[29] However, Prokop has since confirmed that he will not be in the fourth film, as Disney wanted to go in a new direction.[30]

text: Donny Dion

text:
Donny Dion

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Justin Martin

First appearance
High School Musical 3: Senior Year

Created by
Peter Barsocchini

Profile

Occupation
Student

text: Donny Dion is a member of the East High School boys' varsity basketball team. It is unclear whether or not he is a player or an equipment manager or towel boy. Nevertheless, he looks up to Chad Danforth and evens asks to have Chad's gym locker after he graduates. His best friend is Jimmie Zara. Donny is portrayed by Justin Martin in High School Musical 3: Senior Year. Martin almost gave up on auditioning for the roll because the casting directors told him he was too little.[31]

text: Susan

text: Susan is a girl who auditions for the winter musical but did not get the role even though Ms. Darbus was impressed with some hand gestures she made. She is portrayed by Anne Kathryn Parma.

text: Alan

text: Alan is a boy who auditions for the winter musical but did not get the role. He is portrayed by Nick Whitaker.

text: Cyndra

text: Cyndra is a girl who auditions for the winter musical and is not happy when she does not get the role. She is portrayed by Falcon Grace.

text: Other characters

text: Peyton Leverett

text:
Peyton Leverett

High School Musical film series character

Portrayed by
Austin Butler

First appearance
Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure

Profile

Occupation
Student of New York University

[show]Family

Parents
Unnamed mother

text: Peyton Leverett is the male protagonist and love interest of Sharpay Evans in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure. He is a film student at New York University who is assigned by his mother to keep an eye on Sharpay while she's in town, and immediately finds her interesting and decides to make her his filming subject of "A special story in New York".

text: He is the one who helps Sharpay locate a studio apartment, encourages her to pursue her dreams, adapt to her surroundings and reminds her of who she really is when she is about to lose herself. When Sharpay becomes Amber Lee Adam's secretary, she loses time to spend with Peyton. Peyton becomes frustrated with her ignorance to Amber Lee's ambitions, Boi and Countess's newfound relationship and lack of time to spend with him. The two have an argument and Peyton drops her from his project until she apologizes to him the next day.

text: After Amber Lee quit the show, Peyton shows the agents and producers a video of Sharpay's secret rehearsal to prove that she can save the show. The producers are so impressed by her performance that they re-hire Sharpay as the lead of "A Girl's Best Friend". Sharpay expresses her worries and anxiety, but Peyton manages to help her maintain confidence and then kisses her. He is last seen greeting Sharpay's parents seconds before the show starts.

text: Peyton is portrayed by Austin Butler, who had also starred with Ashley Tisdale in Aliens in the Attic, where they played each other's paternal cousins.

text: Roger Elliston

text: Roger Elliston is a young, wealthy boy who shares most of Sharpay's personality and appears in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure, where he and Sharpay compete each other to win a role for their dogs. He continuously attempts to win the role for his dog, Countess, by cheating. Eventually, he and Sharpay find out that Amber Lee Adams has forced to producers to remove the dogs from the show, and both are forced to come together to reveal Amber Lee Adams' true image to the world.

text: Although they manage to expose Amber Lee's true self to the world, this results in Amber Lee quitting the show, Sharpay getting fired and almost causing the show to be cancelled. When the producers re-hire Sharpay, she demands that Boi and Countess share the role of Shelby equally, much to Roger's pleasure.

text: Roger is portrayed by Bradley Steven Perry.

text: Amber Lee Adams

text: Amber Lee Adams is a support character who appears in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure. She is a famous film star who is about to hired as the main character on Broadway in a show called "A Girl's Best Friend". She is always sweet and kind to those around her, but that is only for her image. In truth, she is self-absorbed, demanding, mean, and manipulative, much like Sharpay in the previous films.

text: She fires her secretary for being late and then hires Sharpay to do her chores and keep check of her schedules, and manipulates her to do her bidding by acting kind in front of her. In the end, she gets tired of the dogs, Boi and Countess, and demands the producers remove the dogs from the show. Sharpay hears this and works with Roger to expose Amber Lee's true face to the world.

text: Amber Lee Adams is played by Cameron Goodman.

text: Parents and adults

text:
Jack Bolton is Troy Bolton's father and the coach of the East High boys' varsity basketball team. He is angry when he finds out that Troy auditioned for the school musical weeks before the district championship game in. He voices his disapproval but changes his mind when he sees how talented Troy is. When Troy begins working at the Lava Springs country club, Jack advises Troy to keep his eye on college. Jack is once again angry with Troy when he learns Troy is considering other schools besides the University of Albuquerque; however, he comes to terms with Troy's decision to enroll at the University of California, Berkeley. Coach Bolton is played by Bart Johnson in the first three films of the series.
Ms. Darbus is the overly-dramatic musical director at East High. Her classroom serves as homeroom for Troy Bolton, Gabriella Montez, Sharpay Evans, Ryan Evans, Chad Danforth, Taylor McKessie, Kelsi Nielsen, and other students. She has an intense dislike of cell phones, particularly when they ring in the theater. She and coworked Coach Jack Bolton do not always see eye-to-eye. In the first film, Ms. Darbus is convinced that Troy and Gabriella only auditioned for the musical to mock it. In the end, she casts them as the leads. In High School Musical 3: Senior Year, Ms. Darbus submits Troy's name for a scholarship to the Juilliard School without his knowledge. Ms. Darbus is portrayed by Alyson Reed in the films.
Ms. Montez is the single mother of Gabriella Montez. Gabriella has stated that she and her mother relocated several times. They move to Albuquerque halfway through Gabriella's junior year, and she promises Gabriella that it is a permanent arrangement until she graduates. Ms. Montez is very proud of Gabriella for being accepted to Stanford University and does not agree with her daughter when she suggests taking a year off after high school. As Gabriella's graduation approaches, Ms. Montez puts the house up for sale. It is unclear what happened to Ms. Montez's husband. He has only been mentioned once, by Gabriella as she recollects her childhood, and is presumably dead. Ms. Montez is portrayed by Socorro Herrera in the first and third films.
Vance Evans is the wealthy father of Sharpay and Ryan Evans and the owner of the Lava Springs country club. He holds the highest record on the club's golf course, which he built himself. His alma mater is the University of Albuquerque. He is very impressed by Troy Bolton and offers him opportunities through his connections with the university. Vance is portrayed by Robert Curtis Brown in the second and third films.
Darby Evans is the wealthy mother of Sharpay and Ryan Evans and the wife of Vance Evans. She approves the hiring of several East High students to the Lava Springs country club, much to the dismay of Sharpay, who only wanted Troy Bolton to work there. She is very interested in yoga, has a unique relationship with both students, and is unskilled at golf. She is portrayed by Jessica Tuck in the second and third films.
Thomas Fulton is the manager of the Lava Springs country club. He is obligated to take Sharpay Evans' orders. In doing so, he hires Troy Bolton to work at the club. He is uptight and prefers structure and discipline. He is portrayed by Mark L. Taylor in High School Musical 2.
Dave Matsui is the principal of East High. He is first seen welcoming Gabriella Montez to East High. He also seems to have to deal with the quarrels between Coach Jack Bolton and Ms. Darbus. He insists that they need to learn to work together, although he seems to have more interest in Coach Bolton's side of the argument. Principal Matsui is portrayed by Joey Miyashima in High School Musical and High School Musical 3: Senior Year.
Lucille Bolton is Troy Bolton's mother and Jack Bolton's wife. She is depicted as being somewhat annoyed with Troy and Jack's extreme dedication to basketball. Lucille is portrayed by Leslie Wing in the first three installments of the series.
Charlie Danforth is the father of Chad Danforth and friend of Jack Bolton. He is portrayed by Corbin Bleu's real-life father, David Reivers in the third film. His unnamed wife is portrayed by Yolanda Wood in the third film.
An unnamed chemistry teacher at East High. She is portrayed by Irene Santiago-Baron.
Ms. Falstaff is a librarian at East High. In the first film, she constantly reminds Chad to keep quiet in the library. She is portrayed by Joyce Cohen.

text: Others

text:
Jackie, Lea, and Emma are Sharpay Evans' friends, sometimes called the "Sharpettes". The girls are sometimes collectively known as the Sharpettes, as they often act as back-up singers and dancers for Sharpay, but are never referred to as such in the film series. It is apparent that they do not attend East High School and spend the majority of their time with Sharpay during the summer at her family's country club, Lava Springs. They seem to be equally as pampered as Sharpay, but always follow her every order. Jackie, Lea, and Emma are only portrayed in High School Musical 2, by Tanya Chisholm, Kelli Baker, and McCall Clark, respectively. Baker had a role as a cheerleader and dancer in the first film.
Boi is Sharpay's dog who appears in High School Musical 2, High School Musical 3: Senior Year and Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure, Boi is taken to New York with Sharpay. He is given an opportunity to participate in a play called "A Girl's Best Friend" on Broadway, which Sharpay initially believed was her opportunity until the casting agent clarified her mistake. Boi meets another dog called Countess and they fall in love with each other, but their owners initially fail to see their affections. He is portrayed by director Kenny Ortega's dog, Manly "Little Pickles" Ortega.
Countess is Roger Elliston's well-trained dog who appears in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure. Countess meets another dog called Boi and they fall in love with each other, but their owners initially fail to see their affections.
Lupe, Tiffany and Dena are Sharpay's friends in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure who help her to show her father that she's determined to take an offer for Broadway. They are portrayed by Alessandra Cannito, Lauren Collins and Shadia Ali, respectively.
Jerry Taylor is a famous Broadway producer who offers Sharpay's dog, Boi, the chance to star in his latest show. He is portrayed by Pat Mastroianni in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure.
Gill Samms is a producer of Jerry's show. He is portrayed by Alec Mapa in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure.
Neal Roberts is another producer of Jerry's show. He is portrayed by Jack Plotnick in Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure.


document_title: Eternity ring

question_text: when do you give an eternity ring to your wife

text: Eternity ring

text: An eternity ring, also known as an infinity ring, is a lady's ring, worn on the hand, comprising a band of precious metal (usually gold) set with a continuous line of identically cut gemstones (usually diamonds)[1] to symbolize never-ending love, usually given by a husband to his wife on the occasion of a significant anniversary, typically after 1 or more years of marriage date[citation needed] Because the presence of stones all the way round the eternity ring can make it cumbersome to wear, the alternative is to have the stones across the face of the ring only. This is sometimes referred to as a "half-eternity" ring rather than a "full" eternity ring.

text: Eternity rings featuring paste gems, white topaz or a mix of stones appeared in the 18th century.[2]

text: History[edit]

text: The concept of the diamond eternity ring was created in the 1960s by diamond merchant De Beers.[3][4] American investigative journalist Edward Jay Epstein stated that at the time the company had a secret agreement with the Soviet Union which, in return for the creation of a "single channel" controlling the world's supply of diamonds, 'required' the purchase of 90-95% of the uncut gem diamonds produced by Russia.[4] The prevailing fashion at the time, particularly for engagement rings, was for them to be set with a single, large diamond. The Soviet gems, however, were small, often less than 0.25 Carats.[3] To avoid stockpiling, De Beers embarked on a campaign of promotion of jewelry containing a number of small diamonds culminating in the eternity ring, which was aimed at older, married women.[3] One campaign slogan, aimed at husbands, was "She married you for richer or poorer. Let her know how it’s going."[5] The idea proved popular with the public, and sales continue to be significant.


document_title: Ventral nerve cord

question_text: where is the nerve cord located in an insect

text: Ventral nerve cord

text: The ventral nerve cord (VNC) makes up a part of the central nervous system of some phyla of the bilaterians, particularly within the nematodes, annelids and the arthropods. It usually consists of cerebral ganglia anteriorly with the nerve cords running down the ventral ("belly", as opposed to back) plane of the organism.

text: Ventral nerve cords from anterior to posterior (the thoracic and abdominal tagma in the arthropods) are made up of segmented ganglia that are connected by a tract of nerve fibers passing from one side to the other of the nerve cord called commissures [1]. The complete system bears some likeness to a rope ladder. In some animals the bilateral ganglia are fused into a single large ganglion per segment.

text: Developmental

text: Engrailed is a transcription factor that helps regulate the gene frazzled in order to separate neuroblast during embryonic development. The segregation of neuroblast is essential for the formation and development of the ventral nerve cord.[1]


document_title: Eye injuries during general anaesthesia

question_text: why do they tape your eyes in surgery

question_tokens: why do they tape your eyes in surgery

text: Eye injuries during general anaesthesia

text: Incidence of eye injuries[edit]

text: The incidence of eye injuries during general anaesthesia has been studied, and different methods of eye protection have been compared.

text: If tape is used to hold the eyes closed, ocular injury occurs during 0.1- 0.5% of general anaesthetics, and is usually corneal in nature. [1] [2]

text: When eyes are untaped during general anaesthesia, the incidence of ocular injury has been reported to be as high as 44%. [3] [4]

text: Intraoperative eye injuries account for 2% of medico-legal claims against anaesthetists in Australia and United Kingdom [1] [3] and 3% in the USA. [5]

text: Effect of general anaesthesia on eyes[edit]

text: General anaesthesia reduces the tonic contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle, causing lagophthalmos i.e. the eyelids do not close fully in 59% of patients. [1]

text: In addition, general anaesthesia reduces tear production and tear-film stability, resulting in corneal epithelial drying and reduced lysosomal protection. The protection afforded by Bell's phenomenon (in which the eyeball turns upwards during sleep, protecting the cornea) is also lost during general anaesthesia. [6]

text: Mechanism of Injury[edit]

text: Corneal abrasions are the most common injury; they are caused by direct trauma, exposure keratopathy/keratitis [3] [7] [8] or chemical injury. [7] [9]

text: An open eye increases the vulnerability of the cornea to direct trauma from objects such as face masks, laryngoscopes, identification badges, stethoscopes, surgical instruments, anaesthetic circuits, and drapes. [6]

text: Exposure keratopathy/keratitis refers to the drying of the cornea with subsequent epithelial breakdown. [10] When the cornea dries out it may stick to the eyelid and cause an abrasion when the eye reopens. [11]

text: Chemical injury can occur if cleaning solutions such as povidone-iodine (Betadine), chlorhexidine or alcohol are inadvertently spilt into the eye, for example when the face, neck or shoulder is being prepped for surgery. [2] [3]

text: Therefore, the anaesthetist ensures that the eyes are fully closed and remain closed throughout the procedure. Seemingly trivial contact can result in corneal abrasions and the risk of this occurring is markedly increased if exposure keratopathy is already present. [3] Corneal abrasions can be excruciatingly painful in the postoperative period, may hamper postoperative rehabilitation and may require ongoing ophthalmological review and after care. In extreme cases there may be partial or complete visual loss.

text: Iatrogenic injury of the eyelids is also common. Bruising (frequently) and tearing (rarely) of the eyelid can occur when the adhesive dressing used to hold the eye closed is removed. Removal of eyelashes can also occur.

text: Methods available for eye injury prevention[edit]

text: Methods to prevent intraoperative corneal injuries include

text:
simple manual closure of the eyelids
holding the eyelids shut with tape or a general purpose adhesive dressing
use of a specially designed eyelid occlusion dressing
use of eye ointment (although this is controversial, see below)
bio-occlusive dressings
suture tarsorrhaphy

text: However, none of the protective strategies are completely effective; vigilance is always required i.e. the eyes need to be inspected regularly throughout surgery to check they are closed.[1]

text: Discussion of methods[edit]

text: The most commonly employed method is to use tape or a general purpose adhesive dressing. Unfortunately the adhesive used on the tape or dressing will generally be inappropriate for this use. The adhesive strength may change when reaching body temperature, or over time.[12]

text: As the operation progresses this can cause the adhesive to stop working and become gooey, allowing the eyelids to move apart, and leaving behind a sticky residue. This leaves the cornea exposed to epithelial drying and/or abrasions, sometimes caused by the tape that was originally applied to protect the cornea. Alternatively, the adhesive strength may increase, which upon removal can result in eyelid bruising, tears, or eyelash removal.

text: Rolls of tapes are often “laying around” the operating theatre or kept in health care workers' pockets.

text: Therefore, they can be a source of hospital-acquired infections (HAI's) such as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) & Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), with a 2010 study showing that 50% of partially used tape rolls tested positive for MRSA, VRE or both.[13]

text: Most tapes and dressings are non-transparent and so it is not possible to see if the patient’s eyes are opened or closed throughout the case. It is not uncommon for the eyelids to move open as the case progresses, even with adhesive tapes stuck onto them. In a practical sense, these medical tapes/dressings may be difficult to remove from a patient because their ends can become stuck flush with the skin. The possibility of tape removal causing trauma is also significantly increased in older people, people with sensitive skin, dermatitis, dehydration or side effects of medications.[14]

text: As noted above, there have been several studies looking at the efficacy and safety of eye ointments/lubricants as adjuncts with tape or as a stand-alone management for intra-operative eye closure. Unfortunately many in common use have problems. Petroleum gel is flammable and is best avoided when electrocautery and open oxygen are to be used around the face. Preservative-free eye ointment is preferred, as preservative can cause corneal epithelial sloughing and conjunctival hyperemia.[9] They have been implicated in blurred vision in up to 75% of patients and they do not protect from direct trauma.[6][15]

text: Specially made eyelid occlusion dressings are available commercially, such as EyeGardTM (manufactured in the USA by KMI Surgical and marketed by Sharn Anesthesia), EyeProTM (Innovgas Pty Ltd, Australia) and Anesthesia-Aid (Sperian Protection). These dressings overcome most of the problems associated with tape or general purpose dressings.

text: Adverse outcomes associated with intra-operative eye injuries[edit]

text: Some of the adverse outcomes associated with intra-operative injuries include:

text:
Increased length of stay. This is due to ophthalmology consults required, associated infections and treatment.[15]
Increased costs. This is due to increased length of stay, cost of treating the complications.[16]
Pain and discomfort for the patient. Corneal abrasions are extremely painful for the patient and the treatment consists of drops and ointments applied in the eye which may cause further discomfort for the patient.[15][16]