document_title: Home run

question_text: longest home runs in major league baseball history

question_tokens: longest home runs in major league baseball history

text: Home run

text: Types of home runs[edit]

text: Out of the park[edit]

text: In modern times a home run is most often scored when the ball is hit over the outfield wall between the foul poles (in fair territory) before it touches the ground (in flight), and without being caught or deflected back onto the field by a fielder. A batted ball is also a home run if it touches either foul pole or its attached screen before touching the ground, as the foul poles are by definition in fair territory. Additionally, many major-league ballparks have ground rules stating that a batted ball in flight that strikes a specified location or fixed object is a home run; this usually applies to objects that are beyond the outfield wall but are located such that it may be difficult for an umpire to judge.

text: A batted ball that goes over the outfield wall after touching the ground is not a home run, but an automatic double for the batter (often colloquially called a "ground rule double").

text: A fielder is allowed to reach over the wall to attempt to catch the ball as long as his feet are on or over the field during the attempt, and if the fielder successfully catches the ball while it is in flight the batter is out, even if the ball had already passed the vertical plane of the wall. However, since the fielder is not part of the field, a ball that bounces off a fielder (including his glove) and over the wall without touching the ground is still a home run. A fielder may not deliberately throw his glove, cap, or any other equipment or apparel to stop or deflect a fair ball, and an umpire may award a home run to the batter if a fielder does so on a ball that, in the umpire's judgment, would have otherwise been a home run (this is rare in modern professional baseball).[3]

text: A home run accomplished in any of the above manners is an automatic home run. The ball is dead, even if it rebounds back onto the field (e.g., from striking a foul pole), and the batter and any preceding runners cannot be put out at any time while running the bases. However, if one or more runners fail to touch a base or one runner passes another before reaching home plate, that runner or runners can be called out on appeal, though in the case of not touching a base a runner can go back and touch it if doing so won't cause them to be passed by another preceding runner and they have not yet touched the next base (or home plate in the case of missing third base). This stipulation is in Approved Ruling (2) of Rule 7.10(b).[3]

text: Inside-the-park home run[edit]

text: An inside-the-park home run occurs when a batter hits the ball into play and is able to circle the bases before the fielders can put him out. Unlike with an outside-the-park home run, the batter-runner and all preceding runners are liable to be put out by the defensive team at any time while running the bases. This can only happen if the ball does not leave the ballfield.

text: In the early days of baseball, outfields were relatively much more spacious, reducing the likelihood of an over-the-fence home run, while increasing the likelihood of an inside-the-park home run, as a ball getting past an outfielder had more distance that it could roll before a fielder could track it down.

text: With outfields much less spacious and more uniformly designed than in the game's early days, inside-the-park home runs are now a rarity. They are usually the result of a ball being hit by a very fast runner, coupled with an outfielder either misjudging the flight of the ball (e.g., diving and missing) or the ball taking an unexpected bounce. Either way, this sends the ball into open space in the outfield and thereby allows the batter-runner to circle the bases before the defensive team can put him out. The speed of the runner is crucial as even triples are relatively rare in most modern ballparks.

text: If any defensive play on an inside-the-park home run is labeled an error by the official scorer, a home run is not scored; instead, it is scored as a single, double, or triple, and the batter-runner and any applicable preceding runners are said to have taken all additional bases on error. All runs scored on such a play, however, still count.

text: An example of an unexpected bounce occurred during the 2007 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at AT&T Park in San Francisco on July 10, 2007. Ichiro Suzuki of the American League team hit a fly ball off the right-center field wall, which caromed in the opposite direction from where National League right fielder Ken Griffey, Jr. was expecting it to go. By the time the ball was relayed, Ichiro had already crossed the plate standing up. This was the first inside-the-park home run in All-Star Game history, and led to Suzuki being named the game's Most Valuable Player.

text: Number of runs batted in[edit]

text: Home runs are often characterized by the number of runners on base at the time. A home run hit with the bases empty is seldom called a "one-run homer", but rather a solo home run, solo homer, or "solo shot". With one runner on base, two runs are scored (the baserunner and the batter) and thus the home run is often called a two-run homer or two-run shot. Similarly, a home runs with two runners on base is a three-run homer or three-run shot.

text: The term "four-run homer" is seldom used; instead, it is nearly always called a "grand slam". Hitting a grand slam is the best possible result for the batter's turn at bat and the worst possible result for the pitcher and his team.

text: Grand slam[edit]

text: A grand slam occurs when the bases are "loaded" (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run. According to The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, the term originated in the card game of contract bridge. An inside-the-park grand slam is a grand slam that is also an inside-the-park home run, a home run without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare, due to the relative rarity of loading the bases along with the significant rarity (nowadays) of inside-the-park home runs.

text: On July 25, 1956, Roberto Clemente became the only MLB player to have ever scored a walk-off inside-the-park grand slam in a 9–8 Pittsburgh Pirates win over the Chicago Cubs, at Forbes Field.

text: On April 23, 1999, Fernando Tatís made history by hitting two grand slams in one inning, both against Chan Ho Park of the Los Angeles Dodgers. With this feat, Tatís also set a Major League record with 8 RBI in one inning.

text: On July 29, 2003 against the Texas Rangers, Bill Mueller of the Boston Red Sox became the only player in major league history to hit two grand slams in one game from opposite sides of the plate. In fact, he hit three home runs in that game, and his two grand slams were in consecutive at-bats.

text: On August 25, 2011 the New York Yankees became the first team to hit three grand slams in one game vs the Oakland A's. The Yankees eventually went on to win the game 22–9, after trailing 7–1.

text: Specific situation home runs[edit]

text: These types of home runs are characterized by the specific game situation in which they occur, and can theoretically occur on either an outside-the-park or inside-the-park home run.

text: Walk-off home run[edit]

text: A walk-off home run is a home run hit by the home team in the bottom of the ninth inning, any extra inning, or other scheduled final inning, which gives the home team the lead and thereby ends the game. The term is attributed to Hall of Fame relief pitcher Dennis Eckersley,[4] so named because after the run is scored, the losing team has to "walk off" the field.

text: Two World Series have ended via the "walk-off" home run. The first was the 1960 World Series when Bill Mazeroski of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a 9th inning solo home run in the 7th game of the series off New York Yankees pitcher Ralph Terry to give the Pirates the World Championship. The second time was the 1993 World Series when Joe Carter of the Toronto Blue Jays hit a 9th inning 3-run home run off Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Mitch Williams in Game 6 of the series, to help the Toronto Blue Jays capture their second World Series Championship in a row.

text: Such a home run can also be called a "sudden death" or "sudden victory" home run. That usage has lessened as "walk-off home run" has gained favor. Along with Mazeroski's 1960 shot, the most famous walk-off or sudden-death homer would probably be the "Shot Heard 'Round the World" hit by Bobby Thomson to win the 1951 National League pennant for the New York Giants.

text: A walk-off home run over the fence is an exception to baseball's one-run rule. Normally if the home team is tied or behind in the ninth or extra innings the game ends as soon as the home team scores enough runs to achieve a lead. If the home team has two outs in the inning, and the game is tied, the game will officially end either the moment the batter successfully reaches 1st base or the moment the runner touches home plate—whichever happens last. However, this is superseded by the "ground rule", which provides automatic doubles (when a ball-in-play hits the ground first then leaves the playing field) and home runs (when a ball-in-play leaves the playing field without ever touching the ground). In the latter case, all base runners including the batter are allowed to cross the plate.

text: Lead-off home run[edit]

text: A lead-off home run is a home run hit by the first batter of a team, the leadoff hitter of the first inning of the game. In MLB, Rickey Henderson holds the record with 81 lead-off home runs.[5] Craig Biggio holds the National League record with 53, second overall to Henderson.[6]

text: In 1996, Brady Anderson set a Major League record by hitting a lead-off home run in four consecutive games.

text: Back-to-back[edit]

text:
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text: When two consecutive batters each hit a home run, this is described as back-to-back home runs. It is still considered back-to-back even if both batters hit their home runs off different pitchers. A third batter hitting a home run is commonly referred to as back-to-back-to-back.

text: Four home runs in a row by consecutive batters has only occurred nine times in the history of Major League Baseball. Following convention, this is called back-to-back-to-back-to-back. The most recent occurrence was on July 27, 2017, when the Washington Nationals hit four in a row against the Milwaukee Brewers in Nationals Park as Brian Goodwin (baseball), Wilmer Difo, Bryce Harper and Ryan Zimmerman homered off pitcher Michael Blazek. Blazek became the fourth pitcher to surrender back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs, following Paul Foytack on July 31, 1963, Chase Wright on April 22, 2007, and Dave Bush.

text: On August 14, 2008, the Chicago White Sox defeated the Kansas City Royals 9-2. In this game, Jim Thome, Paul Konerko, Alexei Ramírez, and Juan Uribe hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs in that order. Thome, Konerko, and Ramirez blasted their homers off of Joel Peralta, while Uribe did it off of Rob Tejeda. The next batter, veteran backstop Toby Hall, tried aimlessly to hit the ball as far as possible, but his effort resulted in a strike out.

text: On April 22, 2007 the Boston Red Sox were trailing the New York Yankees 3–0 when Manny Ramirez, J. D. Drew, Mike Lowell and Jason Varitek hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs to put them up 4–3. They eventually went on to win the game 7–6 after a three-run home run by Mike Lowell in the bottom of the 7th inning. On September 18, 2006 trailing 9–5 to the San Diego Padres in the 9th inning, Jeff Kent, J. D. Drew, Russell Martin, and Marlon Anderson of the Los Angeles Dodgers hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs to tie the game. After giving up a run in the top of the 10th, the Dodgers won the game in the bottom of the 10th, on a walk-off two run home run by Nomar Garciaparra. J. D. Drew has been part of two different sets of back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs. In both occurrences, his homer was the second of the four.

text: On September 30, 1997, in the sixth inning of Game One of the American League Division Series between the New York Yankees and Cleveland Indians, Tim Raines, Derek Jeter and Paul O'Neill hit back-to-back-to-back home runs for the Yankees. Raines' home run tied the game. New York went on to win 8–6. This was the first occurrence of three home runs in a row ever in postseason play. The Boston Red Sox repeated the feat in Game Four of the 2007 American League Championship Series, also against the Indians.

text: Twice in MLB history have two brothers hit back-to-back home runs. On April 23, 2013, brothers Melvin Upton, Jr. (formerly B.J. Upton) and Justin Upton hit back-to-back home runs.[7] The first time was on September 15, 1938, when Lloyd Waner and Paul Waner performed the feat.[8]

text: Simple back-to-back home runs are a relatively frequent occurrence. If a pitcher gives up a homer, he might have his concentration broken and might alter his normal approach in an attempt to "make up for it" by striking out the next batter with some fastballs. Sometimes the next batter will be expecting that and will capitalize on it. A notable back-to-back home run of that type in World Series play involved "Babe Ruth's called shot" in 1932, which was accompanied by various Ruthian theatrics, yet the pitcher, Charlie Root, was allowed to stay in the game. He delivered just one more pitch, which Lou Gehrig drilled out of the park for a back-to-back shot, after which Root was removed from the game.

text: In Game 3 of the 1976 NLCS, George Foster and Johnny Bench hit back-to-back homers in the last of the ninth off Ron Reed to tie the game. The Series-winning run was scored later in the inning.

text: Another notable pair of back-to-back home runs occurred on September 14, 1990, when Ken Griffey, Sr. and Ken Griffey, Jr. hit back-to-back home runs, off Kirk McCaskill, the only father-and-son duo to do so in Major League history.

text: On May 2, 2002, Bret Boone and Mike Cameron of the Seattle Mariners hit back-to-back home runs off of starter Jon Rauch in the first inning of a game against the Chicago White Sox. The Mariners batted around in the inning, and Boone and Cameron came up to bat against reliever Jim Parque with two outs, again hitting back-to-back home runs and becoming the only pair of teammates to hit back-to-back home runs twice in the same inning.[9]

text: On June 19, 2012, José Bautista and Colby Rasmus hit back-to-back home runs and back-to-back-to-back home runs with Edwin Encarnación for a lead change in each instance.[clarification needed]

text: On July 23, 2017 Whit Merrifield, Jorge Bonifacio, and Eric Hosmer of the Kansas City Royals hit back to back to back home runs in the fourth inning against the Chicago White Sox. The Royals went on to win the game 5-4.

text: Consecutive home runs by one batter[edit]

text: The occurrence of individuals hitting home runs in consecutive at-bats is not unusual, but three or more is rare. If a player hits three home runs in a game, it is termed a hat-trick (which is also used for a player getting three strikeouts in a game). The record for consecutive home runs by a batter under any circumstances is 4. Of the sixteen players (through 2012) who have hit 4 in one game, six have hit them consecutively. Twenty-eight other batters have hit four consecutive across two games.

text: Bases on balls do not count as at-bats, and Ted Williams holds the record for consecutive home runs across the most games, 4 in four games played, during September 17–22, 1957, for the Red Sox.[10] Williams hit a pinch-hit homer on the 17th; walked as a pinch-hitter on the 18th; there was no game on the 19th; hit another pinch-homer on the 20th; homered and then was lifted for a pinch-runner after at least one walk, on the 21st; and homered after at least one walk on the 22nd. All in all, he had 4 walks interspersed among his 4 homers.

text: In World Series play, Reggie Jackson hit a record three in one Series game, the final game (Game 6) in 1977. But those three were a part of a much more impressive feat. He walked on four pitches in the second inning of game 6. Then he hit his three home runs on the first pitch of his next three at bats, off of three different pitchers (4th inning- Hooten, 5th inning- Sosa, 8th inning- Hough). He had also hit one in his last at bat of the previous game, giving him four home runs on four consecutive swings. (His home run in game 5 was also hit on the first pitch, although this did not add to any significant streak.) The four in a row set the record for consecutive homers across two Series games.

text: In Game 3 of the World Series in 2011, Albert Pujols hit three home runs to tie the record with Babe Ruth and Reggie Jackson. The St. Louis Cardinals went on to win the World Series in Game 7 at Busch Stadium. In Game 1 of the World Series in 2012, Pablo Sandoval of the San Francisco Giants hit three home runs on his first three at-bats of the Series, also tying the record with Pujols, Jackson, and Ruth.

text: Nomar Garciaparra holds the record for consecutive home runs in the shortest time in terms of innings: 3 homers in 2 innings, on July 23, 2002, for the Boston Red Sox.

text: Home run cycle[edit]

text: An offshoot of hitting for the cycle, a "home run cycle" is where a player hits a solo, 2-run, 3-run, and grand slam all in one game. This is an extremely rare feat, as it requires the batter to not only hit four home runs in a game (which itself has only occurred 18 times in the Major Leagues[11]), but also to hit those home runs with the specific number of runners already on base. Although it is a rare accomplishment, it is largely dependent on circumstances outside the player's control, such as his preceding teammates' ability to get on base, as well as the order in which he comes to bat in any particular inning.

text: Another variant of the home run cycle would be the "natural home run cycle", which would require a batter to hit a solo, 2-run, 3-run, and grand slam in that order.

text: Though multiple home run cycles have been recorded in collegiate baseball,[12][13] the only home run cycle in a professional baseball game belongs to Tyrone Horne, who stroked four long balls for the minor league, Double-A Arkansas Travelers in a game against the San Antonio Missions on July 27, 1998.[14]

text: A major league player has come close to hitting for the home run cycle several times. Recent examples include:

text:
April 2, 1997, Tino Martinez of the New York Yankees, was a grand slam away from accomplishing this feat against his former team, the Seattle Mariners. He hit a 3-run home run in the first inning, a 2-run home run in the third inning and a solo shot in the fifth inning; all off starting pitcher Scott Sanders.[15]
April 26, 2005 Alex Rodriguez of the New York Yankees hit 3 home runs off Los Angeles Angels pitcher Bartolo Colón. Rodriguez hit a 3-run home run, 2-run home run, and a grand slam in the first, third, and fourth innings, respectively.[16]
May 16, 2008 Jayson Werth of the Philadelphia Phillies hit 3 home runs off Toronto Blue Jays pitchers David Purcey and Jesse Litsch. Werth hit a 3-run home run, a grand slam, and a solo home run in the second, third, and fifth innings, respectively.[17]
June 26, 2009, Andre Ethier of Los Angeles Dodgers hit a three-run home run off Jason Vargas in the second, a two-run home run off Roy Corcoran in the sixth, and a solo home run off Miguel Batista in the eighth inning in a game against Seattle Mariners.[18]
July 7, 2009, Paul Konerko of the Chicago White Sox hit a solo home run in the second inning off Cleveland Indians pitcher Jeremy Sowers, a grand slam in the sixth inning off reliever Chris Perez, and a two-run home run in the seventh inning off reliever Winston Abreu.[19]
August 1, 2009, Andrew McCutchen of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a solo home run in the first inning, a two run home run in the fourth inning, and a three run home run in the sixth inning of a game against the Washington Nationals.[20]
September 17, 2010, Shin-Soo Choo of the Cleveland Indians, hit three home runs against the Kansas City Royals. Choo hit a 2-run homer in the fourth inning, a Grand Slam in the sixth inning and a solo home run in the eighth inning.[21]
June 21, 2015, J.D. Martinez of the Detroit Tigers, hit three home runs against the New York Yankees. Martinez hit a 2-run homer in the first inning, a solo home run in the fifth inning and a 3-run homer in the sixth inning[22]
August 21, 2015, Yoenis Céspedes of the New York Mets, hit three home runs against the Colorado Rockies: a grand slam in the second inning, a solo home run in the fourth inning, and a two-run home run in the sixth inning.[23]
August 29, 2015, Edwin Encarnación of the Toronto Blue Jays hit three home runs against the Detroit Tigers: a 3-run home run in the first inning, a 2-run home run in the sixth inning, and a grand slam in the seventh inning.[24]
September 26, 2015, Jarrett Parker of the San Francisco Giants hit three home runs against the Oakland Athletics: a solo home run in the second inning, a 2-run home run in the seventh inning, and a grand slam in the eighth inning.[25]
June 6, 2017, Scooter Gennett of the Cincinnati Reds hit four home runs against the St. Louis Cardinals: a grand slam in the third inning, a 2-run home run in the fourth inning, a solo home run in the sixth inning, and a 2-run home run in the eighth inning. He had an opportunity for a 3-run home run in the 1st inning, which resulted in a RBI single.[26]

text: History[edit]

text: In the early days of the game, when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside-the-park variety. The first home run ever hit in the National League was by Ross Barnes of the Chicago White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs), in 1876. The home "run" was literally descriptive. Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close. Hitters were discouraged from trying to hit home runs, with the conventional wisdom being that if they tried to do so they would simply fly out. This was a serious concern in the 19th century, because in baseball's early days a ball caught after one bounce was still an out. The emphasis was on place-hitting and what is now called "manufacturing runs" or "small ball".

text: The home run's place in baseball changed dramatically when the live-ball era began after World War I. First, the materials and manufacturing processes improved significantly, making the now-mass-produced, cork-centered ball somewhat more lively. Batters such as Babe Ruth and Rogers Hornsby took full advantage of rules changes that were instituted during the 1920s, particularly prohibition of the spitball, and the requirement that balls be replaced when worn or dirty. These changes resulted in the baseball being easier to see and hit, and easier to hit out of the park. Meanwhile, as the game's popularity boomed, more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield and increasing the chances of a long fly ball resulting in a home run. The teams with the sluggers, typified by the New York Yankees, became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the "inside game" to the "power game" in order to keep up.

text: Before 1931, a ball that bounced over an outfield fence during a major league game was considered a home run. The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence on the fly, and balls that reached the seats on a bounce became ground rule doubles in most parks. A carryover of the old rule is that if a player deflects a ball over the outfield fence without it touching the ground, it is a home run.

text: Also, until approximately that time, the ball had to not only go over the fence in fair territory, but to land in the bleachers in fair territory or to still be visibly fair when disappearing behind a wall. The rule stipulated "fair when last seen" by the umpires. Photos from that era in ballparks, such as the Polo Grounds and Yankee Stadium, show ropes strung from the foul poles to the back of the bleachers, or a second "foul pole" at the back of the bleachers, in a straight line with the foul line, as a visual aid for the umpire. Ballparks still use a visual aid much like the ropes; a net or screen attached to the foul poles on the fair side has replaced ropes. As with American football, where a touchdown once required a literal "touch down" of the ball in the end zone but now only requires the "breaking of the [vertical] plane" of the goal line, in baseball the ball need only "break the plane" of the fence in fair territory (unless the ball is caught by a player who is in play, in which case the batter is called out).

text: Babe Ruth's 60th home run in 1927 was somewhat controversial, because it landed barely in fair territory in the stands down the right field line. Ruth lost a number of home runs in his career due to the when-last-seen rule. Bill Jenkinson, in The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs, estimates that Ruth lost at least 50 and as many as 78 in his career due to this rule.

text: Further, the rules once stipulated that an over-the-fence home run in a sudden-victory situation would only count for as many bases as was necessary to "force" the winning run home. For example, if a team trailed by two runs with the bases loaded, and the batter hit a fair ball over the fence, it only counted as a triple, because the runner immediately ahead of him had technically already scored the game-winning run. That rule was changed in the 1920s as home runs became increasingly frequent and popular. Babe Ruth's career total of 714 would have been one higher had that rule not been in effect in the early part of his career.

text: Records[edit]

text: Major League Baseball keeps running totals of all-time home runs by team, including teams no longer active (prior to 1900) as well as by individual players. Gary Sheffield hit the 250,000th home run in MLB history with a grand slam on September 8, 2008.[27] Sheffield had hit MLB's 249,999th home run against Gio González in his previous at-bat.

text: The all-time, verified professional baseball record for career home runs for one player, excluding the U. S. Negro Leagues during the era of segregation, is held by Sadaharu Oh. Oh spent his entire career playing for the Yomiuri Giants in Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball, later managing the Giants, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks and the 2006 World Baseball Classic Japanese team. Oh holds the all-time home run world record, having hit 868 home runs in his career.

text: In Major League Baseball, the career record is 762, held by Barry Bonds, who broke Hank Aaron's record on August 7, 2007, when he hit his 756th home run at AT&T Park off pitcher Mike Bacsik.[28] Only eight other major league players have hit as many as 600: Hank Aaron (755), Babe Ruth (714),[28] Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Ken Griffey, Jr. (630),[28] Jim Thome (612), Sammy Sosa (609).[28] and Albert Pujols (600).

text: The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in 2001.[28] Other notable single season records were achieved by Babe Ruth who hit 60 in 1927, Roger Maris, with 61 home runs in 1961, and Mark McGwire, who hit 70 in 1998.[28]

text: Negro League slugger Josh Gibson's Baseball Hall of Fame plaque says he hit "almost 800" home runs in his career. The Guinness Book of World Records lists Gibson's lifetime home run total at 800. Ken Burns' award-winning series, Baseball, states that his actual total may have been as high as 950. Gibson's true total is not known, in part due to inconsistent record keeping in the Negro Leagues. The 1993 edition of the MacMillan Baseball Encyclopedia attempted to compile a set of Negro League records, and subsequent work has expanded on that effort. Those records demonstrate that Gibson and Ruth were of comparable power. The 1993 book had Gibson hitting 146 home runs in the 501 "official" Negro League games they were able to account for in his 17-year career, about 1 homer every 3.4 games. Babe Ruth, in 22 seasons (several of them in the dead-ball era), hit 714 in 2503 games, or 1 homer every 3.5 games. The large gap in the numbers for Gibson reflect the fact that Negro League clubs played relatively far fewer league games and many more "barnstorming" or exhibition games during the course of a season, than did the major league clubs of that era.

text: Other legendary home run hitters include Jimmie Foxx, Mel Ott, Ted Williams, Mickey Mantle (who on September 10, 1960, mythically hit "the longest home run ever" at an estimated distance of 643 feet (196 m), although this was measured after the ball stopped rolling[29]), Reggie Jackson, Harmon Killebrew, Ernie Banks, Mike Schmidt, Dave Kingman, Sammy Sosa[28] (who hit 60 or more home runs in a season 3 times), Ken Griffey, Jr. and Eddie Mathews. In 1987, Joey Meyer of the Denver Zephyrs hit the longest verifiable home run in professional baseball history.[30][31] The home run was measured at a distance of 582 feet (177 m) and was hit inside Denver's Mile High Stadium.[30][31] Major League Baseball's longest verifiable home run distance is about 575 feet (175 m), by Babe Ruth, to straightaway center field at Tiger Stadium (then called Navin Field and before the double-deck), which landed nearly across the intersection of Trumbull and Cherry.[citation needed]

text: The location of where Hank Aaron's record 755th home run landed has been monumented in Milwaukee.[32] The hallowed spot sits outside Miller Park, where the Milwaukee Brewers currently play. Similarly, the point where Aaron's 715th homer landed, upon breaking Ruth's career record in 1974, is marked in the Turner Field parking lot. A red-painted seat in Fenway Park marks the landing place of the 502-ft home run Ted Williams hit in 1946, the longest measured homer in Fenway's history; a red stadium seat mounted on the wall of the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, marks the landing spot of Harmon Killebrew's record 520-foot shot in old Metropolitan Stadium.

text: Instant replay[edit]

text: Replays "to get the call right" have been used extremely sporadically in the past, but the use of instant replay to determine "boundary calls"—home runs and foul balls—was not officially allowed until 2008.

text: In a game on May 31, 1999, involving the St. Louis Cardinals and Florida Marlins, a hit by Cliff Floyd of the Marlins was initially ruled a double, then a home run, then was changed back to a double when umpire Frank Pulli decided to review video of the play. The Marlins protested that video replay was not allowed, but while the National League office agreed that replay was not to be used in future games, it declined the protest on the grounds it was a judgment call, and the play stood.[33][34]

text: In November 2007, the general managers of Major League Baseball voted in favor of implementing instant replay reviews on boundary home run calls.[35] The proposal limited the use of instant replay to determining whether a boundary/home run call is:

text:
A fair (home run) or foul ball
A live ball (ball hit fence and rebounded onto the field), ground rule double (ball hit fence before leaving the field), or home run (ball hit some object beyond the fence while in flight)
Spectator interference or home run (spectator touched ball after it broke the plane of the fence).

text: On August 28, 2008, instant replay review became available in MLB for reviewing calls in accordance with the above proposal. It was first utilized on September 3, 2008 in a game between the New York Yankees and the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field.[36] Alex Rodriguez of the Yankees hit what appeared to be a home run, but the ball hit a catwalk behind the foul pole. It was at first called a home run, until Tampa Bay manager Joe Maddon argued the call, and the umpires decided to review the play. After 2 minutes and 15 seconds, the umpires came back and ruled it a home run.

text: About two weeks later, on September 19, also at Tropicana Field, a boundary call was overturned for the first time. In this case, Carlos Peña of the Rays was given a ground rule double in a game against the Minnesota Twins after an umpire believed a fan reached into the field of play to catch a fly ball in right field. The umpires reviewed the play, determined the fan did not reach over the fence, and reversed the call, awarding Peña a home run.

text: Aside from the two aforementioned reviews at Tampa Bay, replay was used four more times in the 2008 MLB regular season: twice at Houston, once at Seattle, and once at San Francisco. The San Francisco incident is perhaps the most unusual. Bengie Molina, the Giants' catcher, hit what was first called a single. Molina then was replaced in the game by Emmanuel Burriss, a pinch-runner, before the umpires re-evaluated the call and ruled it a home run. In this instance though, Molina was not allowed to return to the game to complete the run, as he had already been replaced. Molina was credited with the home run, and two RBIs, but not for the run scored which went to Burriss instead.

text: On October 31, 2009, in the fourth inning of Game 3 of the World Series, Alex Rodriguez hit a long fly ball that appeared to hit a camera protruding over the wall and into the field of play in deep left field. The ball ricocheted off the camera and re-entered the field, initially ruled a double. However, after the umpires consulted with each other after watching the instant replay, the hit was ruled a home run, marking the first time an instant replay home run was hit in a playoff game.[37]


document_title: Doctor Foster (TV series)

question_text: how many episodes in season 2 of dr foster

root

text: Doctor Foster (TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Series one

tag: p

text:
Suranne Jones as Gemma Foster, a 37-year-old GP in the town of Parminster, who begins to suspect her husband, Simon, is having an affair.
Bertie Carvel as Simon Foster, a 40-year-old property developer and Gemma's husband.
Clare-Hope Ashitey as Carly Williams, a patient of Gemma's, who helps support Gemma, due to her suspicions of Simon. [6]
Cheryl Campbell as Helen Foster (episodes 1-3)
Jodie Comer as Kate Parks, a 23-year-old University graduate who has been secretly having a two-year affair with Simon Foster. [7]
Navin Chowdhry as Anwar (episodes 2-3, 5)
Victoria Hamilton as Anna Baker (episodes 1-3, 5)
Tom Taylor as Tom Foster, Gemma and Simon's 11-year-old son.
Martha Howe-Douglas as Becky Hughes
Adam James as Neil Baker (episodes 1-3, 5)
Thusitha Jayasundera as Ros Mahendra. [8]
Sara Stewart as Susie Parks (episodes 1-2, 4-5)
Neil Stuke as Chris Parks (episodes 1-2, 4-5)
Robert Pugh as Jack Reynolds (episodes 1-2, 4)
Ricky Nixon[9] as Daniel Spencer (episodes 1,4)
Daniel Cerqueira as Gordon Ward, a Hypochondriac who regularly visits Gemma at the medical practice.
Megan Roberts as Isobel, a friend of Tom's

tag: ul

text: Series two

text:
Suranne Jones as Gemma Foster
Bertie Carvel as Simon Foster
Tom Taylor as Tom Foster
Jodie Comer as Kate Parks (episodes 1-4)
Victoria Hamilton as Anna Baker (episodes 1-4)
Adam James as Neil Baker (episodes 1-3)
Prasanna Puwanarajah as James, Gemma's new love interest (episodes 1-3, 5)
Sian Brooke as Siân Lambert, a new Doctor at Gemma's surgery with mysterious links to Simon (episodes 1-2, 4-5)
Hope Lloyd as Isobel (episodes 1, 3)
Frank Kauer as Max, Tom's best friend (episodes 1-3)
Thusitha Jayasundera as Ros Mahendra (episodes 1-3, 5)
Joanie Kent as Amelie Foster, Simon and Kate's daughter (episodes 1-4)
Daniel Cerqueira as Gordon Ward (episodes 1-2)
Helena Lymbery as Mrs Walters, Tom's headteacher (episodes 2-3)
Martha Howe-Douglas as Becky Hughes (episode 1)
Sara Stewart as Susie Parks (episodes 1, 4)
Neil Stuke as Chris Parks (episodes 1, 4)
Clare-Hope Ashitey as Carly Williams (episode 4)
Philip Wright as Connor, Ros' fiancee and then husband (episodes 1, 3, 5)

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Series

Episodes

Originallyaired

Averageviewership,1

Series premiere

Series finale

1

5

9 September 2015 (2015-09-09)

7 October 2015 (2015-10-07)

9.51 million

2

5

5 September 2017 (2017-09-05)

3 October 2017 (2017-10-03)

10.20 million

tag: table

text: Series 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Director

Writer

Original airdate

Viewers(millions)[10][11],1
1"Episode 1"Tom VaughanMike Bartlett9 September 2015 (2015-09-09)9.19
Gemma Foster, a doctor at the Parminster Medical Centre, is happily married to property developer Simon, with whom she has a young son, Tom. One day, she finds a blonde hair on Simon's scarf and suspects him of infidelity, possibly with his assistant Becky. Rather than confront him, she confides in her colleague Ros.  At work, she forces elderly doctor Jack Reynolds, who has become an alcoholic, to retire. She does a deal with a young patient, Carly, to give her sleeping pills and get rid of her abusive partner by threatening him and demanding he move out - in return for the patient following Simon.
2"Episode 2"Tom VaughanMike Bartlett16 September 2015 (2015-09-16)9.19
Gemma has discovered that Simon's mistress is Kate Parks, the daughter of one of her patients and that Ros knew of the affair but was bound by patient confidentiality rules.  She also establishes that Kate is now pregnant. At a bar, Gemma meets another patient, Anwar, a married lawyer who is keeping the fact that he might have a brain tumour from his family. Encouraged by Jack Reynolds, whom she has reconciled with and talked out of suicide, Gemma confronts Simon but he denies having an affair. But his ailing mother Helen, whose own husband cheated on her, tells Gemma the affair has been going on for two years, and not three months as he had told Ros. Gemma makes an appointment with Anwar, who specialises in divorce.
3"Episode 3"Tom VaughanMike Bartlett23 September 2015 (2015-09-23)9.26
On Anwar's advice, Gemma acts towards Simon as if everything is normal, while investigating his love life and financial affairs through other people.  She gets Carly to befriend Kate, and sleeps with then blackmails Simon's accountant Neil.  Neil reveals that Simon's big project, the re-development of a school, is a financial black hole and that their joint savings and home would be gone if it were not for a mysterious investor bailing him out. Simon's mother, who had been terminally ill and in pain, ends her life. Gemma decides against divorce because of Simon's distress and vulnerability.
4"Episode 4"Bruce GoodisonMike Bartlett30 September 2015 (2015-09-30)9.35
To Ros's surprise, Gemma stays with Simon, believing his affair is over after Kate had an abortion.  However, her work life crumbles after negative comments about her get posted on the Internet, and the police suspect her of involvement in her mother-in-law's death.  Carly's boyfriend has also filed a complaint about her for threatening him earlier.  Gemma has a breakdown after discovering that Simon is seeing Kate again. She attempts suicide by drowning before finding new strength.
5"Episode 5"Bruce GoodisonMike Bartlett7 October 2015 (2015-10-07)10.57
Gemma contrives to embarrass Kate at an awkward dinner party with the woman's family - where she exposes Simon's infidelity and his financial chicanery.  She also reveals that Kate's father, who knew nothing of the affair, is the mysterious investor in Simon's project despite a conflict of interest which makes his involvement unethical. She identifies the accountant Neil's wife as her mysterious online persecutor.  When Simon refuses to leave their house and son, Gemma loses control, abducts the child, and returns alone and distressed.

text: Series 2 (2017)[edit]

text: This section's plot summaries may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve them by removing unnecessary details and making them more concise. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
No.

Title

Director

Writer

Original airdate

Viewers(millions)[10]
1"Episode 1"Jeremy LoveringMike Bartlett5 September 2017 (2017-09-05)10.40
Two years after the events of series one, Tom receives a note from Simon and Kate which doubles up as both an announcement of their imminent return to Parminster and also an invitation to their wedding reception and housewarming party. Simon catches Gemma breaking into their new house, and attempts to reassure her that he was able to buy it because he had a change of circumstances rather than because he hid money from her during the divorce proceedings, but she storms out. Abandoning an awkward date with a patient to turn up at the party uninvited, Gemma is greeted with dismay by Simon, and later Tom who identifies Gemma's date James as one of his school teachers. It is revealed that Ros was lying about declining her own invite, and Kate dedicates a frosty speech to Gemma, which results in Gemma walking off to explore the house. After discovering that Tom has been given a room, Gemma is caught snooping around the master bedroom by Simon, and they almost kiss when he confesses that he's still attracted to her, but Gemma stops herself and tells him she'd rather slit her throat. Gemma attempts to leave but takes a while to find Tom, who eventually turns up, seemingly distressed and no longer accompanied by his friend Isobel. Upon arrival at work the next morning, Gemma assumes that flowers waiting for her are from her date, but upon opening the attached card it becomes clear they are from Simon. Angry, Gemma leaves work to confront Simon at his house, but upon arrival only finds Kate, who ridicules the idea that Simon would have confessed to still being attracted to Gemma before slamming the door in her face. Gemma goes home to find Simon has returned the favour and broken in, and they have another argument, which is only broken off when Tom returns from school and announces he's packing a bag. Despite Gemma's desperate attempts to stop him getting into Simon's car, Tom leaves to go and live with Simon and Kate, and they have dinner as a family while Gemma dissolves her old wedding ring in acid.
2"Episode 2"Jeremy LoveringMike Bartlett12 September 2017 (2017-09-12)10.27
Spying on Tom because he won't return her calls, Gemma discovers he has made an appointment with Siân, the mysteriously frosty new doctor at the surgery. Keen to glean any information she can, Gemma visits Siân for dinner and, after initial awkwardness, they bond over a cigarette, when Siân reveals Tom is experiencing anxieties over his family situation. After abruptly sneaking out through the back gate before dessert, Gemma goes on a tour of Parminster: visiting Tom's best friend Max, manipulating him into confessing everything he knows about her son; to Simon's house, watching through the window as Tom rejects her call and then as Kate kisses a mysterious man; and finally to a rave with James, where they confess their feelings for each other, before he leaves when she tries to have sex with him in public on the stairs. Meanwhile, at Gemma's instigation Neil meets up for a drink with Simon to attempt to learn how he funded his new home but, guessing Neil is working for Gemma, Simon just says it was due to overseas investments, and then gets revenge for Neil and Gemma's night together by setting Neil up to cheat on Anna, knowing Anna will leave him for it. Bumping into Gemma on their respective journeys home, Simon takes a photo of her in her inebriated state, and attempts to use it for blackmail, but she falls asleep on the sofa without replying. The next morning, recharged after having made love with James over breakfast, Gemma confronts Siân about her secretive links to Simon noting that they were both students at the University of Warwick. Simon studied economics there and Siân (presumably) studied medicine. In two shots during this confrontation a University of Warwick mug can be seen briefly on Siân's desk. Siân duly reveals that Simon recommended the job to her on the basis Gemma would leave within a month of her arrival, but then convinces Gemma she's taking her side in the dispute. Finally, Gemma confronts Simon at his work, but the conversation is interrupted when Gemma is called to a meeting at Tom's school. After they race each other there, Simon and Gemma are told Tom has been excluded for beating up Max.
3"Episode 3"Jeremy LoveringMike Bartlett19 September 2017 (2017-09-19)9.80
Simon escalates his plan to push Gemma out of town, suggesting to Tom that he might like to get over his exclusion by moving schools to one in Simon's neighbourhood, but Tom reacts badly and storms over to Gemma's house. Simon invites himself over and ends up staying for dinner. Gemma suddenly starts removing her clothes, and they have sex - proceeding even after Gemma's initial plan to blackmail him is foiled when Simon spots her phone filming them. Cornered by Gemma, Isobel reveals that Tom almost raped her at Simon and Kate's housewarming, and that it was Max finding out about this which had triggered his fight with Tom. After informing James about his parents having sex, Tom attempts to move back to his Dad's house, only to find out Kate has banned him from there because she now perceives him as a potential threat to their child. With Anna moving to Edinburgh to live with her sister, and Ros beginning married life, Tom and Gemma agree that there is no reason for them to remain in Parminster, so they put their house up for sale and leave town.
4"Episode 4"Jeremy LoveringMike Bartlett26 September 2017 (2017-09-26)10.06
Gemma plots her revenge. Kate opens a mysterious parcel to find a tie of Simon's, along with a note from Gemma stating he left it at her house. Snooping around Simon's office for possible further clues, Kate finds the picture of the inebriated Gemma on Simon's mobile phone. Kate books an estate agent viewing as a way of snooping around Gemma's house, and finds the address of Gemma and Tom's hotel written on a post-it, but Anna corners her, and recites her account of Simon and Gemma having sex. Kate tells Anna that she doesn't believe her, and leaves to visit Gemma in their hotel, but is surprised to find both her parents and her daughter waiting for her. Having been convinced of the story by Gemma, Kate's parents (Susie and Chris) attempt to convince her that Simon did cheat on Kate, and she later manipulates him into confessing. Kate forces Simon to sleep in the spare room, telling him she'll be able to forgive him given time, but secretly meets up with Gemma, who then details the numerous ways in which Simon has styled his entire second marriage to be a carbon copy of his first. The next morning, Simon discovers that his bank accounts are empty, and makes fruitless attempts to find out why. Kate asks Simon to come home immediately, and there he finds a removal van, which Chris is just finishing loading. Chris reveals that he never trusted Simon and was very careful to ensure that in the event of him making Kate unhappy Simon would be left without a claim to either his house or his business venture. Kate confronts Simon about their entire marriage being an imitation of his marriage to Gemma, and leaves for France with Amelie. Gemma arrives at Kate's now-empty house to find Simon sitting on the doorstep, having been locked out, and he attacks her car. She drives away without speaking to him but, after a phone call which Tom quickly returns, she goes back and offers Simon the use of their hotel room while he makes arrangements to leave Parminster. Simon, however, grabs Gemma's phone to obtain the address of the hotel where Tom is, and they race each other there.
5"Episode 5"Jeremy LoveringMike Bartlett3 October 2017 (2017-10-03)10.49
Winning the race to the hotel, Gemma and Tom quickly pack their belongings and head home, leaving just as Simon pulls up in a taxi. Tom is dismayed to find that their house has been stripped of all its furnishings but nevertheless, when Simon turns up on the doorstep, makes it unequivocally clear that he doesn't want anything to do with his father. Later, in a confrontation in a restaurant car park, Simon begs Gemma to take him back, but she declines. Back at the house, James presents Gemma with earrings, and they agree to resume their relationship, but she panics into breaking up with him again when she later awakes in the middle of the night to find Tom having left in a taxi with Simon. Discovering Simon by the side of a motorway, Gemma has to pull him back when he tries to run in front of a car, and persuades him back inside. Tom has watched distraught as his parents struggle. Over breakfast, Gemma confirms that she worked out what Simon had told Tom to convince him to move in with him and Kate: namely that Gemma suffered post-natal depression after Tom's birth, and at one point expressed a wish that Tom would die. After bidding their goodbyes, Gemma and Tom leave Simon to take his own life in his hotel room with drugs that Gemma has provided, but before he can go through with it Gemma turns the car around and talks him out of it. When she leaves Simon to begin his new life, there are three voicemails waiting for her. The first of these is that Tom's appeal against his exclusion from school has been upheld, but when she arrives at the car to tell him, he has gone, leaving his phone behind. The third voicemail is an announcement from Tom that he has decided to leave and begin his own life without the support of his parents, and the series ends with Gemma looking at the pictures of Tom on 'Missing Person' announcements.

text: Production[edit]

text:
The series was commissioned by Charlotte Moore and Ben Stephenson.[12] The executive producers are Roanna Benn, Greg Brenman, Jude Liknaitzky, and Matthew Read.[13][14] Filming took place in Green Lane, Croxley Green, Hertfordshire, Copse Wood Way, Northwood, London, Enfield and the Market Square in Hitchin in Hertfordshire. The surgery location shoot was at the Chess Medical Centre, in Chesham in Bucks, renamed Parminster Medical Centre for the show. The railway station featured in the show was Enfield Chase station.
The scene that features Tom playing football was filmed at the Southgate Hockey Centre, Enfield.

text: It was announced at the end of Series 1 that the show would return for a second series, with both Suranne Jones and Bertie Carvel.[15] At the 21st National Television Awards Jones announced that the new series began filming in September 2016.

text: The second series started on 5 September 2017 and concluded on 3 October 2017. The BBC is yet to confirm whether the show will return for a third series although writer Mike Bartlett does not dismiss the possibility.[16]

text: Reception[edit]

text: In general, the show has received acclaim.[17] The opening episode received generally positive reviews from critics, with Lucy Mangan from The Guardian calling it a "gripping portrait of a marriage slowly being poisoned," although Mangan expressed fears of the show descending into "melodrama in the not too distant future ".[18] In a review for The Telegraph, Michael Hogan gave the drama four stars out of five, describing it as "an edgy nail-biter", that was "sparkily written by Olivier Award-winner Mike Bartlett", despite a soundtrack that was "overbearing".[19] Victoria Segal of the Sunday Times wrote of the fourth episode that it 'clattered unsteadily to its denouement ...this episode is as desperately uneven as the rest of the series, thrashing about between high melodrama and muted misery." Catherine Blythe of the Daily Telegraph bemoaned its "absurd plot" and the lack of "emotional logic" in a series of "melodramatic contortions that required a character who was supposed to be brainy to act like an utter fool."

text:
Year
Association
Category
Nominated work
Result

2016
National Television Awards
New Drama
Doctor Foster
Won[20]

2016
National Television Awards
Drama Performance
Suranne Jones
Won[20]

2016
Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Best Drama
Doctor Foster
Nominated[21]

2016
Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Best Actress
Suranne Jones
Won[22]

2016
Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Best Writer
Mike Bartlett
Nominated[21]

2016
Royal Television Society Awards
Best Actress
Suranne Jones
Won[23]

2016
British Academy Television Awards
Best Mini-series
Doctor Foster
Nominated[24]

2016
British Academy Television Awards
Best Actress
Suranne Jones
Won[24]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Internationally, the series premiered in Australia on 17 November 2015 on BBC First,[25] in New Zealand on 17 January 2016 on TV One,[citation needed] in France on 15 June 2016 on C8, in Poland on 3 August 2016 on Ale Kino+, in Sweden on 15 August 2016 on SVT1, and in Finland on 28. February 2018 on Yle TV1.[citation needed] The series aired in the US on Lifetime in April 2016 as Doctor Foster: A Woman Scorned[26] and began streaming on Netflix in October 2016.[27]


document_title: Navajo

question_text: when did the navajo arrive in the southwest

text: Navajo

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: The Navajos are speakers of a Na-Dené Southern Athabaskan language known within the language as Diné bizaad (lit. 'People's language'). The language comprises two geographic, mutually intelligible dialects. It is closely related to the Apache language; the Navajos and Apaches are believed to have migrated from northwestern Canada and eastern Alaska, where the majority of Athabaskan speakers reside.[4] Speakers of various other Athabaskan languages located in Canada may still comprehend the Navajo language despite the geographic and linguistic deviation of the languages.[5] Additionally, some Navajos speak Navajo Sign Language, which is either a dialect or daughter of Plains Sign Talk, as well as some being speakers of Plains Sign Talk itself.[6]

text: Archaeological and historical evidence suggests the Athabaskan ancestors of the Navajos and Apaches entered the Southwest around 1400 CE.[7][8] The Navajo oral tradition is said to retain references of this migration.[citation needed]

text: Until contact with Pueblos and the Spanish, the Navajos were largely hunters and gatherers. The tribe adopted crop-farming techniques from the Pueblo peoples, growing mainly corn, beans, and squash. When the Spanish arrived, the Navajos began herding sheep and goats as a main source of trade and food, with meat becoming an essential component of the Navajo diet. Sheep also became a form of currency and status symbols among the Navajos based on the overall quantity of herds a family maintained.[9][10] In addition, the practice of spinning and weaving wool into blankets and clothing became common and eventually developed into a form of highly valued artistic expression.

text: Oral history also indicates a long relationship with Pueblo people[11] and a willingness to adapt Puebloan ideas and linguistic variance into their culture, as well as long-established trading practices between the groups. Spanish records from the mid-16th century speak of the Pueblos exchanging maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, hides, and stone from Athabaskans traveling to the pueblos or living in the vicinity of them. In the 18th century, the Spanish reported the Navajos' maintaining large herds of livestock and cultivating large crop areas.[citation needed]

text: Western historians believe that the Spanish before 1600 referred to the Navajo as Apaches (from the Zuni word for enemy) or Quechos. [12]:2–4 Fray Geronimo de Zarate-Salmeron, who was in Jemez in 1622, used Apachu de Nabajo in the 1620s to refer to the people in the Chama Valley region, east of the San Juan River and northwest of present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico. "Navahu" comes from the Tewa, meaning large area of cultivated lands.[12]:7–8 By the 1640s, the Spanish began using the term "Navajo" to refer to the Diné. During the 1670s, the Spanish wrote that the Diné lived in a region known as Dinétah, about 60 miles (100 km) west of the Rio Chama valley region. In the 1770s, the Spanish sent military expeditions against the Navajos in the Mount Taylor and Chuska Mountain regions of New Mexico.[12]:43–50 The Spanish, Navajo and Hopi continued to trade with each other and formed a loose alliance to fight Apache and Commanche bands for the next 20 years. During this time there were relatively minor raids by Navajo bands and Spanish citizens against each other.

text: In 1800 Governor Chacon led 500 men in an expedition to Tunicha Mountains against the Navajos. 20 Navajo Chiefs asked for peace. In 1804 and 1805 there were major expeditions by Navajos and Spanish against each other's settlements. In May 1805 another peace was established. Similar patterns of peace making, raiding and trading between Navajo, Spanish, Apaches, Comanches and Hopi continued until the arrival of the Americans in 1846.[12]

text: Territory of New Mexico 1846-1863[edit]

text: The Navajos came into contact with the United States Army in 1846, when General Stephen W. Kearny invaded Santa Fe with 1,600 men during the Mexican–American War. On November 21, 1846, following an invitation from a small party of American soldiers under the command of Captain John Reid, who journeyed deep into Navajo country and contacted him, Narbona and other Navajos negotiated a treaty of peace with Colonel Alexander Doniphan at Bear Springs, Ojo del Oso (later the site of Fort Wingate). This agreement was not honored by some Navajo and also by some New Mexicans. Navajos stole New Mexican livestock and New Mexicans took women, children and livestock from the Navajo.[13]

text: In 1849, the military governor of New Mexico, Colonel John MacRae Washington—accompanied by John S. Calhoun, an Indian agent—led a force of 400 soldiers into Navajo country, penetrating Canyon de Chelly, and signed a treaty with two Navajo leaders Mariano Martinez as Head Chief and Chapitone as Second Chief. The treaty acknowledged the transfer of jurisdiction from the United Mexican States to the United States. The treaty allowed forts and trading posts to be built on Navajo land. The United States, on its part, promised "such donations [and] such other liberal and humane measures, as [it] may deem meet and proper."[14] While en route to this treaty signing, Narbona, a prominent Navajo peace leader, was killed, resulting in hostility between the treaty parties.[15]

text: During the next 10 years, the U.S. established forts on traditional Navajo territory. Military records cite this development as a precautionary measure to protect citizens and the Navajos from each other. However, Spanish/Mexican-Navajo pattern of raids and expeditions continued. Over 400 New Mexican militia conducted a campaign against the Navajo, against the wishes of the Territorial Governor, in 1860-61. They killed Navajos, captured women and children for slaves and destroyed crops and dwellings. The Navajo call this period Naahondzood, "the fearing time."

text: In 1861, Brigadier-General James H. Carleton, Commander of the Federal District of New Mexico, initiated a series of military actions against the Navajos and Apaches. Colonel Kit Carson was at the new Fort Wingate with Army troops and volunteer New Mexico militia. Carleton ordered Carson to kill Mescalero Apache men and destroy any Mewscalero property he could find. Carleton believed these harsh tactics would bring any Indian Tribe under control The Mescalero surrendered and were sent to the new reservation called Bosque Redondo. In the summer of 1863, Carleton ordered Carson to use the same tactics on the Navajo. Carson and his force swept through Navajo land, killing Navajos and destroying crops and dwellings, fouling wells, and capturing livestock. Facing starvation and death, Navajo groups came to Fort Defiance. On July 20, 1863, the first of many groups started off to join the Mescalero at Bosque Redondo. Other groups continue to come in though 1864.[16]

text: However, not all Navajos came in or were found. Some lived near the San Juan River, some beyond the Hopi villages and others lived with Apache bands.[17]

text: The Long Walk[edit]

text: Beginning in the spring of 1864, around 9,000 Navajo men, women, and children were forced to walk over 300 miles (480 km) to Fort Sumner, New Mexico, for internment at Bosque Redondo. The internment at Bosque Redondo was disastrous for the Navajo as the government failed to provide an adequate supply of water, wood, provisions, and livestock for 4,000–5,000 people. Large-scale crop failure and disease were also endemic during this time, as well as raids by other tribes and civilians. In addition, a small group of Mescalero Apaches, longtime enemies of the Navajos, had been relocated to the area, resulting in conflicts. In 1868, a treaty was negotiated between Navajo leaders and the federal government allowing the surviving Navajos to return to a reservation on a portion of their former homeland. The Navajos were not provided with much protection, and many Navajo women and children were kidnapped and enslaved by enemies of the Navajo. While at Bosque Redondo, the government did not provide the Navajos with food or shelter, and some Navajos froze during the winter because of poor shelters that they had to make with few materials and resources. This period is known among the Navajo as "The Fearing Time"[18].

text: Reservation era[edit]

text: The United States military continued to maintain forts on the Navajo reservation in the years following the Long Walk. Between 1873 and 1895, the military employed Navajos as “Indian Scouts” at Fort Wingate to assist their regular units.[19] During this period, Chief Manuelito founded the Navajo Tribal Police, which operated between 1872 and 1875 as an anti-raid task force working to maintain the peaceful terms of the 1868 Navajo treaty.

text: By treaty, the Navajos were allowed to leave the reservation for trade with permission from the military or local Indian agent. Eventually, the arrangement led to a gradual end in Navajo raids as the tribe was able to increase the size of livestock and crops. In addition, the tribe was able to increase the size of the Navajo reservation from 3.5 million acres (14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi)) to the 16 million acres (65,000 km2 (25,000 sq mi)) as it stands today; however, economic conflicts with non-Navajos continued for many years as civilians and companies exploited resources assigned to the Navajos. The US government made leases for livestock grazing, took land for railroad development, and permitted mining on Navajo land without consultation with the tribe.

text: In 1883, Lt. Parker, accompanied by 10 enlisted men and two scouts, went up the San Juan River to separate Navajos and citizens who had encroached on Navajo land.[20] In the same year, Lt. Lockett, with the aid of 42 enlisted soldiers, was joined by Lt. Holomon at Navajo Springs. Evidently, citizens of the surnames Houck and/or Owens had murdered a Navajo chief's son, and 100 armed Navajos were looking for them.

text: In 1887, citizens Palmer, Lockhart, and King fabricated a charge of horse stealing and randomly attacked a home on the reservation. Two Navajo men and all three whites died, but a woman and a child survived. Capt. Kerr (with two Navajo scouts) examined the ground and then met with several hundred Navajos at Houcks Tank. Rancher Bennett, whose horse was allegedly stolen, pointed out to Kerr that his horses were stolen by the three whites to catch a horse thief.[21] In the same year, Lt. Scott went to the San Juan River with two scouts and 21 enlisted men. The Navajos believed Lt. Scott was there to drive off the whites who had settled on the reservation and had fenced off the river from the Navajos. Scott found evidence of many non-Navajo ranches. Only three were active, and the owners wanted payment for their improvements before leaving. Scott ejected them.[22]

text: In 1890, a local rancher refused to pay the Navajos a fine of livestock. The Navajos tried to collect it, and whites in southern Colorado and Utah claimed that 9,000 of the Navajos were on a warpath. A small military detachment out of Fort Wingate restored white citizens to order.[citation needed]

text: In 1913, an Indian agent ordered a Navajo and his three wives to come in, and then arrested them for having a plural marriage. A small group of Navajos used force to free the women and retreated to Beautiful Mountain with 30 or 40 sympathizers. They refused to surrender to the agent, and local law enforcement and military refused the agent's request for an armed engagement. General Scott arrived, and with the help of Henry Chee Dodge, defused the situation.

text: Boarding schools and education[edit]

text: During the time on the reservation, the Navajo tribe was forced to acclimatise to white society. Navajo children were sent to boarding schools within the reservation and off the reservation. The first Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school opened at Fort Defiance in 1870[23] and led the way for eight others to be established.[24] Many older Navajos were against this education and would hide their children to keep them from being taken. Many children, on the other hand, wanted to attend these schools and would go willingly with the Siláo.

text: Once the children arrived at the boarding school, their lifestyles changed dramatically. European Americans taught the classes under an English-only curriculum and punished any student caught speaking Navajo.[24] The children were under militaristic discipline, run by the Siláo. Through multiple interviews, the interviewees recalled being captured and disciplined by the Siláo if they tried to run away. Other conditions included inadequate food, overcrowding, manual labor in kitchens, fields, and boiler rooms, and military-style uniforms and haircuts.[25]

text: Change did not occur in these boarding schools until the Meriam Report was published in 1929 by the Secretary of Interior, Hubert Work. This report discussed Indian boarding schools as being inadequate in terms of diet, medical services, dormitory overcrowding, undereducated teachers, restrictive discipline, and manual labor by the students to keep the school running.[26] This report was the precursor to education reforms initiated under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, under which two new schools were built on the Navajo reservation. Rough Rock Day School was run in the same militaristic style as Fort Defiance and did not implement the educational reforms. The Evangelical Missionary School was opened next to Rough Rock Day School. Navajo accounts of this school portray it as a family-like atmosphere with home-cooked meals, new or gently used clothing, humane treatment, and a Navajo-based curriculum. Educators found the Evangelical Missionary School curriculum to be much more beneficial to the Navajo children.[27]

text: In 1937, Mary Cabot Wheelright and Hastiin Klah, an esteemed and influential Navajo singer, or medicine man, founded the Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian in Santa Fe. It is a repository for sound recordings, manuscripts, paintings, and sandpainting tapestries of the Navajos. It also featured exhibits to express the beauty, dignity, and logic of Navajo religion. When Klah met Cabot in 1921, he had witnessed decades of efforts by the US government and missionaries to assimilate the Navajos into mainstream society. Children were sent away to Indian boarding schools, where they were forced to learn English and practice Christianity. They were prohibited from using their own languages and religion. The museum was founded to preserve the religion and traditions of the Navajos, which Klah was sure would soon be lost forever.

text: Livestock Reduction 1930s-1950s[edit]

text: The Navajo Livestock Reduction was imposed upon the Navajo Nation by the federal government starting in the 1933.[28] Under various forms it continued into the 1950s, The government decided that the land of the Navajo Nation could only support a fixed number of sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. The Federal government believed the land erosion was worsening and the only solution was to reduce the livestock. In 1933, John Collier was appointed commissioner of the BIA.

text: The capacity was set in "sheep units". The Navajo grazed 1,100,000 mature sheep units in 1930.[29] These sheep provided half the cash income for the individual Navajo.[30] Collier's solution was to first launch a voluntary program which soon became mandatory in 1935. These programs may have paid for part of the value of each animal, but it did nothing to address the loss of future yearly income. In the matrilineal and matrilocal world of the Navajo, women were especially hurt, as many lost their only source of income.[31]

text: The Navajo did not understand why their centuries-old practices of raising livestock should change.[29] They were united in opposition but they were unable to stop it.[32] Historian Brian Dippie notes that the Indian Rights Association denounced Collier as a 'dictator' and accused him of a "near reign of terror" on the Navajo reservation. Dippie adds that, "He became an object of 'burning hatred' among the very people whose problems so preoccupied him."[33] The long-term result was strong Navajo opposition to Collier's Indian New Deal.[34]

text: World War II[edit]

text: Many Navajo young people moved to work in urban factories in World War II. Many Navajo men volunteered for military service in keeping with their warrior culture, where they served in integrated units. The War Department in 1940 rejected a proposal by the BIA that segregated units be created for the Indians. They gained firsthand experience with how they could assimilate into the modern world and many did not return to the overcrowded reservation with few jobs.[35]

text: Four hundred Navajo Code Talkers played a famous role during World War II by relaying radio messages using their own language, which the Japanese were unable to understand.[36]

text: In the 1940s, large quantities of uranium were discovered in Navajo land. From then into the early 21st century, the U.S. allowed mining without sufficient environmental protection for workers, waterways, and land. The Navajos have claimed high rates of death and illness from lung disease and cancer resulting from environmental contamination. Since the 1970s, legislation has helped to regulate the industry and reduce the toll, but the government has not yet offered holistic and comprehensive compensation.[37]

text: After 1945[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2016)

text: Culture[edit]

text: The name “Navajo” comes from the late 18th century via the Spanish (Apaches de) Navajó "(Apaches of) Navajó", which was derived from the Tewa navahū "fields adjoining a ravine". The Navajos call themselves Diné.[38]

text: Like other Apacheans, the Navajos were semi-nomadic from the 16th through the 20th centuries. Their extended kinship groups had seasonal dwelling areas to accommodate livestock, agriculture, and gathering practices. As part of their traditional economy, Navajo groups may have formed trading or raiding parties, traveling relatively long distances.

text: There is a system of clans which defines relationships between individuals and families. The clan system is exogamous: people can only marry (and date) partners outside their own clans, which for this purpose include the clans of their four grandparents. While clans are associated with a geographical area, the area is not for the exclusive use of any one clan. Members of a clan may live hundreds of miles apart but still have a clan bond.[17]:xix-xxi

text: Historically, the structure of the Navajo society is largely a matrilineal system, in which the family of the women owned livestock, dwellings, planting areas and livestock grazing areas. Once married, a Navajo man would move to live with his bride in her dwelling and near her mother's family. Daughters (or, if necessary, other female relatives) were traditionally the ones who received the generational property inheritance. Children are "born to" and belong to the mother's clan, and are "born for" the father's clan. The mother's eldest brother has a strong role in her children's lives. As adults, men represent their mother's clan in tribal politics.[38]

text: Ethnobotany[edit]

text: See Navajo ethnobotany.

text: Traditional dwellings[edit]

text: A hogan, the traditional Navajo home, is built as a shelter for either a man or for a woman. Since they live in the arid Four Corners area, the houses are made of dried mud. Male hogans are square or conical with a distinct rectangular entrance, while a female hogan[citation needed] is an eight-sided house. Both are made of wood and covered in mud, with the door always facing east to welcome the sun each morning. The Navajos construct hogans out of poles and brush covered with earth.[39] Navajos also have several types of hogans for lodging and ceremonial use. Ceremonies, such as healing ceremonies or the kinaaldá, take place inside a hogan.[40] According to Kehoe, this style of housing is distinctive to the Navajos. She writes, "even today, a solidly constructed, log-walled Hogan is preferred by many Navajo families." Most Navajo members today live in apartments and houses in urban areas.[41]

text: Those who practice the Navajo religion regard the hogan as sacred. The religious song "The Blessingway" (hózhǫ́ǫ́jí) describes the first hogan as being built by Coyote with help from Beavers to be a house for First Man, First Woman, and Talking God. The Beaver People gave Coyote logs and instructions on how to build the first hogan. Navajos made their hogans in the traditional fashion until the 1900s, when they started to make them in hexagonal and octagonal shapes. Hogans continue to be used as dwellings, especially by older Navajos, although they tend to be made with modern construction materials and techniques. Some are maintained specifically for ceremonial purposes.

text: Spiritual and religious beliefs[edit]

text: Navajo spiritual practice is about restoring balance and harmony to a person's life to produce health and is based on the ideas of Hózhóójí. The Diné believed in two classes of people: Earth People and Holy People. The Navajo people believe they passed through three worlds before arriving in this world, the Fourth World or the Glittering World. As Earth People, the Diné must do everything within their power to maintain the balance between Mother Earth and man.[42] The Diné also had the expectation of keeping a positive relationship between them and the Diyin Diné. In the Diné Bahane' (Navajo beliefs about creation), the First, or Dark World is where the four Diyin Diné lived and where First Woman and First Man came into existence. Because the world was so dark, life could not thrive there and they had to move on. The Second, or Blue World, was inhabited by a few of the mammals Earth People know today as well as the Swallow Chief, or Táshchózhii. The First World beings had offended him and were asked to leave. From there, they headed south and arrived in the Third World, or Yellow World. The four sacred mountains were found here, but due to a great flood, First Woman, First Man, and the Holy People were forced to find another world to live in. This time, when they arrived, they stayed in the Fourth World. In the Glittering World, true death came into existence, as well as the creations of the seasons, the moon, stars, and the sun.[43]

text: The Holy People, or Diyin Diné, had instructed the Earth People to view the four sacred mountains as the boundaries of the homeland (Dinétah) they should never leave: Blanca Peak (Sisnaajiní — Dawn or White Shell Mountain) in Colorado; Mount Taylor (Tsoodził — Blue Bead or Turquoise Mountain) in New Mexico; the San Francisco Peaks (Dookʼoʼoosłííd — Abalone Shell Mountain) in Arizona; and Hesperus Mountain (Dibé Nitsaa — Big Mountain Sheep) in Colorado.[44] Times of day, as well as colors, are used to represent the four sacred mountains. Throughout religions, the importance of a specific number is emphasized and in the Navajo religion, the number four appears to be sacred to their practices. For example, there were four original clans of Diné, four colors and times of day, four Diyin Diné, and for the most part, four songs sung for a ritual.[44]

text: Navajo have many different ceremonies. For the most part, their ceremonies are to prevent or cure diseases.[45] Corn pollen is used as a blessing and as an offering during prayer.[42] One half of major Navajo song ceremonial complex is the Blessing Way (Hózhǫ́ǫ́jí) and other half is the Enemy Way (Anaʼí Ndááʼ). The Blessing Way ceremonies are based on establishing "peace, harmony, and good things exclusively" within the Dine. The Enemy Way, or Evil Way ceremonies are concerned with counteracting influences that come from outside the Dine.[45] Spiritual healing ceremonies are rooted in Navajo traditional stories. One of them, the Night Chant ceremony, is conducted over several days and involves up to 24 dancers. The ceremony requires the dancers to wear buckskin masks, as do many of the other Navajo ceremonies, and they all represent specific gods.[45] The purpose of the Night Chant is to purify the patients and heal them through prayers to the spirit-beings. Each day of the ceremony entails the performance of certain rites and the creation of detailed sand paintings. One of the songs describes the home of the thunderbirds:

text: The ceremonial leader proceeds by asking the Holy People to be present in the beginning of the ceremony, then identifying the patient with the power of the spirit-being, and describing the patient's transformation to renewed health with lines such as, "Happily I recover."[47]

text: Ceremonies are used to correct curses that cause of some illnesses or misfortunes. People may complain of witches who do harm to the minds, bodies, and families of innocent people.,[48] though these matters are rarely discussed in detail with those outside of the community.[49]

text: Music[edit]

text: Visual arts[edit]

text: Silverwork[edit]

text: Silversmithing is an important art form among Navajos. Atsidi Sani (c. 1830–c. 1918) is considered to be the first Navajo silversmith. He learned silversmithing from a Mexican man called Nakai Tsosi ("Thin Mexican") around 1878 and began teaching other Navajos how to work with silver.[50] By 1880, Navajo silversmiths were creating handmade jewelry including bracelets, tobacco flasks, necklaces and bracers. Later, they added silver earrings, buckles, bolos, hair ornaments, pins and squash blossom necklaces for tribal use, and to sell to tourists as a way to supplement their income.[51]

text: The Navajos' hallmark jewelry piece called the "squash blossom" necklace first appeared in the 1880s. The term "squash blossom" was apparently attached to the name of the Navajo necklace at an early date, although its bud-shaped beads are thought to derive from Spanish-Mexican pomegranate designs.[52] The Navajo silversmiths also borrowed the "naja" (najahe in Navajo)[53] symbol to shape the silver pendant that hangs from the "squash blossom" necklace.

text: Turquoise has been part of jewelry for centuries, but Navajo artists did not use inlay techniques to insert turquoise into silver designs until the late 19th century.

text: Weaving[edit]

text: Navajos came to the southwest with their own weaving traditions; however, they learned to weave cotton on upright looms from Pueblo peoples. The first Spaniards to visit the region wrote about seeing Navajo blankets. By the 18th century the Navajos had begun to import Bayeta red yarn to supplement local black, grey, and white wool, as well as wool dyed with indigo. Using an upright loom, the Navajos made extremely fine utilitarian blankets that were collected by Ute and Plains Indians. These Chief's Blankets, so called because only chiefs or very wealthy individuals could afford them, were characterized by horizontal stripes and minimal patterning in red. First Phase Chief's Blankets have only horizontal stripes, Second Phase feature red rectangular designs, and Third Phase feature red diamonds and partial diamond patterns.

text: The completion of the railroads dramatically changed Navajo weaving. Cheap blankets were imported, so Navajo weavers shifted their focus to weaving rugs for an increasingly non-Native audience. Rail service also brought in Germantown wool from Philadelphia, commercially dyed wool which greatly expanded the weavers' color palettes.

text: Some early European-American settlers moved in and set up trading posts, often buying Navajo rugs by the pound and selling them back east by the bale. The traders encouraged the locals to weave blankets and rugs into distinct styles. These included "Two Gray Hills" (predominantly black and white, with traditional patterns); Teec Nos Pos (colorful, with very extensive patterns); "Ganado" (founded by Don Lorenzo Hubbell[54]), red-dominated patterns with black and white; "Crystal" (founded by J. B. Moore); oriental and Persian styles (almost always with natural dyes); "Wide Ruins", "Chinlee", banded geometric patterns; "Klagetoh", diamond-type patterns; "Red Mesa" and bold diamond patterns.[55] Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetry, which is thought to embody traditional ideas about harmony or hózhǫ́.

text: In the media[edit]

text: In 2000 the documentary The Return of Navajo Boy was shown at the Sundance Film Festival. It was written in response to an earlier film, The Navajo Boy which was somewhat exploitative of those Navajos involved. The Return of Navajo Boy allowed the Navajo to be more involved in the depictions of themselves.[56]

text: In the final episode of the third season of the FX reality TV show 30 Days, the show's producer Morgan Spurlock spends thirty days living with a Navajo family on their reservation in New Mexico. The July 2008 show called "Life on an Indian Reservation", depicts the dire conditions that many Native Americans experience living on reservations in the United States.

text: Tony Hillerman wrote a series of detective novels whose detective characters were members of the Navajo Tribal Police. The novels are noted for incorporating details about Navajo culture, and in some cases expand focus to include nearby Hopi and Zuni characters and cultures, as well. Four of the novels have been adapted for film/TV. His daughter has continued the novel series after his death.

text: Notable people with Navajo ancestry[edit]

text:
Chester Nez, was the last original Navajo code talker who served in the United States Marine Corps during World War II.
Dr. Fred Begay, nuclear physicist and a Korean War veteran
Notah Begay III (Navajo-Isleta-San Felipe Pueblo), American professional golfer
Klee Benally, musician and documentary filmmaker[57]
Jacoby Ellsbury, New York Yankees outfielder (enrolled Colorado River Indian Tribes)
Rickie Fowler, American professional golfer
Joe Kieyoomia, captured by the Imperial Japanese Army after the fall of the Philippines in 1942
Cory Witherill, first full-blooded Native American in NASCAR
Nicco Montaño, current women's UFC flyweight champion

text: Artists[edit]

text:
Atsidi Sani (c. 1828–1918), first known Navajo silversmith
Harrison Begay (1914–2012), Studio painter
Raven Chacon (born 1977), conceptual artist
Lorenzo Clayton (born 1940), artist
R. C. Gorman (1932–2005), painter and printmaker
Hastiin Klah, weaver and co-founder of the Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian
David Johns (born 1948), painter
Yazzie Johnson, contemporary silversmith
Bob Lansing potter, clay artist
Klah Tso (mid-19th century — early 20th century), pioneering easel painter
Gerald Nailor, Sr. (1917–1952), studio painter
Clara Nezbah Sherman, weaver
Ryan Singer, painter, illustrator, screen printer
Tommy Singer, silversmith and jeweler
Quincy Tahoma (1920–1956), studio painter
Emmi Whitehorse, contemporary painter
Melanie Yazzie, contemporary print maker and educator

text: Performers[edit]

text:
James and Ernie, comedy duo
Blackfire, punk/alternative rock band
Raven Chacon, composer
Radmilla Cody, traditional singer
R. Carlos Nakai, musician
Jock Soto, ballet dancer
Jeremiah Bitsui, actor

text: Politicians[edit]

text:
Henry Chee Dodge, first Navajo Chairman and modern Navajo leader, (1922–1928, 1942–1946).
Lilakai Julian Neil, first woman elected to Navajo Tribal Council (1946–1951)
Mark Maryboy (Aneth/Red Mesa/Mexican Water), former Navajo Nation Council Delegate, working in Utah Navajo Investments
Annie Dodge Wauneka, former Navajo Tribal Councilwoman
Peter MacDonald, former Navajo Tribal Chairman
Kenneth Maryboy (Aneth/Red Mesa/Mexican Water), helped initiate the Navajo Santa Program for poverty stricken Navajo families
Joe Shirley, Jr., former President of the Navajo Nation
Ben Shelly, former Navajo Nation President
Chris Deschene - veteran, an attorney, an engineer, and a community leader. One of few Native Americans to be accepted into the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis. Upon graduation, he was commissioned as a 2nd Lt. in the U.S. Marine Corps. He made an unsuccessful attempt to run for Navajo Nation President.
Peterson Zah - the first Navajo President and the last Chairman of the Navajo Nation.[58]

text: Writers[edit]

text:
Luci Tapahonso, poet and lecturer
Elizabeth Woody, author, educator, and environmentalist
Sherwin Bitsui, author and poet


document_title: Golden rice

question_text: golden rice was developed to help with blindness caused by a deficiency of which vitamin

text: Golden rice

text: History[edit]

text: The search for a golden rice started off as a Rockefeller Foundation initiative in 1982.[14]

text: Peter Bramley discovered in the 1990s that a single phytoene desaturase gene (bacterial CrtI) can be used to produce lycopene from phytoene in GM tomato, rather than having to introduce multiple carotene desaturases that are normally used by higher plants.[15] Lycopene is then cyclized to beta-carotene by the endogenous cyclase in Golden Rice.[16]

text: The scientific details of the rice were first published in Science in 2000,[1] the product of an eight-year project by Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg. At the time of publication, golden rice was considered a significant breakthrough in biotechnology, as the researchers had engineered an entire biosynthetic pathway.

text: The first field trials of golden rice cultivars were conducted by Louisiana State University Agricultural Center in 2004.[17] Additional trials have been conducted in the Philippines and Taiwan, and in Bangladesh (2015).[18] Field testing provides an accurate measurement of nutritional value and enables feeding tests to be performed. Preliminary results from field tests have shown field-grown golden rice produces 4 to 5 times more beta-carotene than golden rice grown under greenhouse conditions.[19]

text: Crossbreeding[edit]

text: In several countries, Golden rice has been bred with local rice cultivars.[20] or crossbred with the American rice cultivar 'Cocodrie'.[17] As of March 2016, golden rice has not yet been grown commercially, and backcrossing is still ongoing in current varieties to reduce yield drag.[13][21]

text: Golden Rice 2[edit]

text: In 2005, a team of researchers at Syngenta produced Golden Rice 2. They combined the phytoene synthase gene from maize with crt1 from the original golden rice. Golden rice 2 produces 23 times more carotenoids than golden rice (up to 37 µg/g), and preferentially accumulates beta-carotene (up to 31 µg/g of the 37 µg/g of carotenoids).[7]

text: Genetics[edit]

text: Golden rice was created by transforming rice with two beta-carotene biosynthesis genes:

text:
psy (phytoene synthase) from daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus)
crtI (carotene desaturase) from the soil bacterium Erwinia uredovora

tag: ol

text: (The insertion of a lcy (lycopene cyclase) gene was thought to be needed, but further research showed it is already produced in wild-type rice endosperm.)

text: The psy and crtI genes were transferred into the rice nuclear genome and placed under the control of an endosperm-specific promoter, so that they are only expressed in the endosperm. The exogenous lcy gene has a transit peptide sequence attached, so it is targeted to the plastid, where geranylgeranyl diphosphate is formed. The bacterial crtI gene was an important inclusion to complete the pathway, since it can catalyze multiple steps in the synthesis of carotenoids up to lycopene, while these steps require more than one enzyme in plants.[22] The end product of the engineered pathway is lycopene, but if the plant accumulated lycopene, the rice would be red. Recent analysis has shown the plant's endogenous enzymes process the lycopene to beta-carotene in the endosperm, giving the rice the distinctive yellow color for which it is named.[23] The original golden rice was called SGR1, and under greenhouse conditions it produced 1.6 µg/g of carotenoids.

text: Vitamin A deficiency[edit]

text: The research that led to golden rice was conducted with the goal of helping children who suffer from vitamin A deficiency (VAD). In 2005, 190 million children and 19 million pregnant women, in 122 countries, were estimated to be affected by VAD.[24] VAD is responsible for 1–2 million deaths, 500,000 cases of irreversible blindness and millions of cases of xerophthalmia annually.[25] Children and pregnant women are at highest risk. Vitamin A is supplemented orally and by injection in areas where the diet is deficient in vitamin A.

text: As of 1999[update], 43 countries had vitamin A supplementation programs for children under 5; in 10 of these countries, two high dose supplements are available per year, which, according to UNICEF, could effectively eliminate VAD.[26] However, UNICEF and a number of NGOs involved in supplementation note more frequent low-dose supplementation is preferable.[27]

text: Because many children in VAD-affected countries rely on rice as a staple food, genetic modification to make rice produce the vitamin A precursor beta-carotene was seen as a simple and less expensive alternative to ongoing vitamin supplements or an increase in the consumption of green vegetables or animal products. Initial analyses of the potential nutritional benefits of golden rice suggested consumption of golden rice would not eliminate the problems of vitamin A deficiency, but could complement other supplementation.[28][29] Golden Rice 2 contains sufficient provitamin A to provide the entire dietary requirement via daily consumption of some 75g per day.[7]

text: Since carotenes are hydrophobic, sufficient fat must be present in the diet for golden rice (or most other vitamin A supplements) to alleviate vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A deficiency is usually coupled to an unbalanced diet (see also Vandana Shiva's arguments below). Moreover, this claim referred to an early cultivar of golden rice; one bowl of the latest version provides 60% of RDA for healthy children.[30] The RDA levels advocated in developed countries are far in excess of the amounts needed to prevent blindness.[7]

text: Research[edit]

text: Dr. José L. Domingo of the Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, at Rovira i Virgili University in Spain said, "According to the information reported by the WHO, genetically modified products that are currently on the international market have all passed risk assessments conducted by national authorities." These assessments found no risk to human health. Domingo advocates continued research in the areas of GM rice and its effects on humans.[31]

text: Clinical trials/food safety and nutrition research[edit]

text: In 2009, results of a clinical trial of golden rice with adult volunteers from the US were published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. The trial concluded that "beta carotene derived from golden rice is effectively converted to vitamin A in humans".[32] A summary for the American Society for Nutrition suggested that "Golden Rice could probably supply 50% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of vitamin A from a very modest amount — perhaps a cup — of rice, if consumed daily. This amount is well within the consumption habits of most young children and their mothers".[33]

text: It is well known that beta carotene is found and consumed in many nutritious foods eaten around the world, including fruits and vegetables. Beta carotene in food is a safe source of vitamin A.[34] In August 2012, Tufts University and others published research on golden rice in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition showing that the beta carotene produced by golden rice is as effective as beta carotene in oil at providing vitamin A to children.[35] The study stated that "recruitment processes and protocol were approved".[35][36] In 2015 the journal retracted the study, claiming that the researchers had acted unethically when providing Chinese children golden rice without their parents' consent.[37][38]

text: The Food Allergy Resource and Research Program of the University of Nebraska undertook research in 2006 that showed the proteins from the new genes in golden rice showed no allergenic properties.[39]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: Critics of genetically engineered crops have raised various concerns. An early issue was that golden rice originally did not have sufficient vitamin A. This problem was solved by the development of new strains of rice.[7] The speed at which vitamin A degrades once the rice is harvested, and how much remains after cooking are contested.[40] However, a 2009 study concluded that golden rice is effectively converted into vitamin A in humans[8] and a 2012 study that fed 68 children ages 6 to 8 concluded that golden rice was as good as vitamin A supplements and better than the natural beta-carotene in spinach.[10]

text: Greenpeace opposes the use of any patented genetically modified organisms in agriculture and opposes the cultivation of golden rice, claiming it will open the door to more widespread use of GMOs.[41][42] The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has emphasised the non-commercial nature of their project, stating that "None of the companies listed ... are involved in carrying out the research and development activities of IRRI or its partners in Golden Rice, and none of them will receive any royalty or payment from the marketing or selling of golden rice varieties developed by IRRI."[43]

text: Vandana Shiva, an Indian anti-GMO activist, argued the problem was not the plant per se, but potential problems with poverty and loss of biodiversity. Shiva claimed these problems could be amplified by the corporate control of agriculture. By focusing on a narrow problem (vitamin A deficiency), Shiva argued, golden rice proponents were obscuring the limited availability of diverse and nutritionally adequate food.[44] Other groups argued that a varied diet containing foods rich in beta carotene such as sweet potato, leaf vegetables and fruit would provide children with sufficient vitamin A.[45] Keith West of Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health has stated that foodstuffs containing vitamin A are often unavailable, only available at certain seasons, or too expensive for poor families in underdeveloped countries.[10]

text: In 2008, WHO malnutrition expert Francesco Branca cited the lack of real-world studies and uncertainty about how many people will use golden rice, concluding "giving out supplements, fortifying existing foods with vitamin A, and teaching people to grow carrots or certain leafy vegetables are, for now, more promising ways to fight the problem".[46] In 2013, author Michael Pollan, who had critiqued the product in 2001, unimpressed by the benefits, expressed support for the continuation of the research.[47]

text: Support[edit]

text: The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation supports the use of genetically modified organisms in agricultural development and supports the International Rice Research Institute in developing Golden Rice.[48] In June 2016, 107 Nobel laureates signed a letter urging Greenpeace and its supporters to abandon their campaign against GMOs, and against Golden Rice in particular.[49][50]

text: Protests[edit]

text: On August 8, 2013 an experimental plot of golden rice being developed at IRRI in the Philippines was uprooted by protesters.[30][47][51] British author Mark Lynas reported in Slate that the vandalism was carried out by a group of activists led by the extreme left-inclined Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas (KMP) (unofficial translation: Farmers' Movement of the Philippines), to the dismay of other protesters.[47][52] No local farmers participated in the uprooting; only the small number of activists damaged the golden rice crops because the farmers believe local customs which imply that killing a living rice plant is unlucky.[53]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Potrykus has enabled golden rice to be distributed free to subsistence farmers.[54] Free licenses for developing countries were granted quickly due to the positive publicity that golden rice received, particularly in Time magazine in July 2000.[55] Monsanto Company was one of the companies to grant free licences.[56]

text: The cutoff between humanitarian and commercial use was set at US$10,000. Therefore, as long as a farmer or subsequent user of golden rice genetics does not make more than $10,000 per year, no royalties need to be paid. In addition, farmers are permitted to keep and replant seed.[57]