document_title: List of NCAA Division I men's basketball career scoring leaders

question_text: who has the most points in ncaa basketball history

text: In basketball, points are the sum of the score accumulated through free throw or field goal.[1] In National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I basketball, where a player's career is at most four seasons long, it is considered a notable achievement to reach the 1,000-points scored threshold. In even rarer instances, players have reached the 2,000- and 3,000-point plateaus (no player has ever scored 4,000 or more points at the Division I level). The top 25 highest scorers in NCAA Division I men's basketball history are listed below. The NCAA did not split into its current divisions format until August 1973.[2] From 1906 to 1955, there were no classifications to the NCAA nor its predecessor, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS).[2] Then, from 1956 to spring 1973, colleges were classified as either "NCAA University Division (Major College)" or "NCAA College Division (Small College)".[2][3]

text: Some of the top 25 scorers in Division I history played before the three-point line was officially instituted in 1986–87. All of the players with a dash through the three-point field goals made column were affected by this rule. Hank Gathers of Loyola Marymount is the only three-point shot era player on this list who did not make a single three-point shot. From the 1986–87 season through the 2007–08 season, the three-point perimeter was marked at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) for both men's and women's college basketball.[4] On May 3, 2007, the NCAA men's basketball rules committee passed a measure to extend the distance of the men's three-point line back to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m); the women's line would remain at the original distance until it was moved to match the men's distance effective in 2011–12.[4]

text: Additionally, several of the players on this list played during an era when college freshmen were ineligible to compete at the varsity level and were forced to participate on either freshman or junior varsity teams. Since freshman and junior varsity points do not count toward official NCAA records, three players—Pete Maravich, Oscar Robertson and Elvin Hayes—only had three seasons to compile their totals. Larry Bird redshirted (sat out) his freshman year, and therefore, like Maravich, Robertson, and Hayes, his totals also cover only three seasons (though in Bird's case, unlike the others, it was his own choice not to play a fourth season at the college level). With the added benefits of a three-point line and a full extra year of varsity eligibility, their already-historical statistics would have been much higher. Maravich, a guard from LSU, not only owns the three highest single season averages in Division I history, but also the highest career total. Remarkably, he scored 3,667 points (over 400 more than the next closest player) in a mere 83 games. His record is considered nearly unbreakable; the only player who could have potentially overtaken him as the top scorer in Division I history is Stephen Curry of Davidson, who had scored 2,635 points through his first three seasons of college basketball. However, Curry opted to forgo his final year of NCAA eligibility and moved on to the National Basketball Association (NBA) following his junior season in 2008–09.

text: Five players on this list are enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame: Pete Maravich,[5] Oscar Robertson,[6] Elvin Hayes,[7] Larry Bird[8] and David Robinson.[9]

text: Key[edit]

text:
Pos.
G
F
C
Ref.

Position
Guard
Forward
Center
References

*
Elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Team (X)
Denotes the number of times a player from that team appears on the list

text: Career scoring leaders[edit]

text:
Player
Pos.
Team
Career
start
Career
end
Games
played
Field goals
made
3-point
field
goals made
Free
throws made
Points
PPG
Ref.

Maravich, PetePete Maravich*
G
LSU
1967
1970
83
1,387

—

893
3,667
44.2
[10]

Williams, FreemanFreeman Williams
F/G
Portland State
1974
1978
106
1,369

—

511
3,249
30.7
[11]

Simmons, LionelLionel Simmons
F
La Salle
1986
1990
131
1,244
56
673
3,217
24.6
[12]

Ford, AlphonsoAlphonso Ford
G
Mississippi Valley State
1989
1993
109
1,121
333
590
3,165
29.0
[13]

McDermott, DougDoug McDermott
F
Creighton
2010
2014
145
1,141
274
594
3,150
21.7
[14]

Kelly, HarryHarry Kelly
F
Texas Southern
1979
1983
110
1,234

—

598
3,066
27.9
[15]

Clark, KeydrenKeydren Clark
G
Saint Peter's
2002
2006
118
967
435
689
3,058
25.9
[16]

Hawkins, HerseyHersey Hawkins
G
Bradley
1984
1988
125
1,100
118
690
3,008
25.5
[17]

Robertson, OscarOscar Robertson*
G
Cincinnati
1957
1960
88
1,052

—

869
2,973
33.8
[18]

Manning, DannyDanny Manning
F
Kansas
1984
1988
147
1,216
10
509
2,951
20.1
[19]

Hughes, AlfredrickAlfredrick Hughes
G
Loyola (IL)
1981
1985
120
1,226

—

462
2,914
24.3
[20]

Hayes, ElvinElvin Hayes*
C/F
Houston
1965
1968
93
1,215

—

454
2,884
31.0
[21]

Hansbrough, TylerTyler Hansbrough
F
North Carolina
2005
2009
142
939
12
982
2,872
20.2
[22]

Bird, LarryLarry Bird*
F
Indiana State
1976
1979
94
1,154

—

542
2,850
30.3
[23]

Birdsong, OtisOtis Birdsong
G
Houston (2)
1973
1977
116
1,176

—

480
2,832
24.4
[24]

Bradshaw, KevinKevin Bradshaw
G
Bethune-Cookman /
U.S. International
1987
1991
111
1,027
132
618
2,804
25.3
[3]

Houston, AllanAllan Houston
G/F
Tennessee
1989
1993
128
902
346
651
2,801
21.9
[25]

Redick, J. J.J. J. Redick
G
Duke
2002
2006
139
825
457
662
2,769
19.9
[26]

Gathers, HankHank Gathers
F/C
Southern California /
Loyola Marymount
1985
1990
117
1,127
0
469
2,723
23.3
[27]

Haws, TylerTyler Haws
G
BYU
2009
2015[n 1]
139
917
162
724
2,720
19.6
[28]

Lewis, ReggieReggie Lewis
F
Northeastern
1983
1987
122
1,043
30
592
2,709
22.2
[29]

Queenan, DarenDaren Queenan
G/F
Lehigh
1984
1988
118
1,024
29
626
2,703
22.9
[30]

Larkin, ByronByron Larkin
G
Xavier
1984
1988
121
1,022
51
601
2,696
22.3
[31]

McCalebb, BoBo McCalebb
G
New Orleans
2003
2008
128
977
115
610
2,679
20.9
[32]

Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson*
C
Navy
1983
1987
127
1,032
1
604
2,669
21.0
[33]

text: All-time conference scoring leaders[edit]

text: The following list contains current and defunct Division I conferences' all-time scoring leaders. The "conference founded" column indicates when each respective conference first began intercollegiate athletic competition, not necessarily when they began basketball. For example, the Great West Conference was established as a football-only conference in 2004 but became an all-sports conference in 2008 (with basketball actually beginning in 2009–10).[34] Also note that some of the schools on this list are no longer in the conference in which they are identified. Utah, for instance, is currently a member of the Pac-12 Conference, but when Keith Van Horn set the scoring record they were still a member of the Western Athletic Conference. Similarly, BYU is currently in the West Coast Conference, but their final four seasons in the Mountain West Conference were the years in which Jimmer Fredette played at the school and set that conference's scoring record.

text:
Conference
Conference
founded
Conference
disbanded
Player
School
Career
start
Career
end
Points
Ref.

America East
1979
—
Lewis, ReggieReggie Lewis
Northeastern
1983
1987
2,709
[35]

American Athletic
2013[n 2]
—
Gray, RobRob Gray
Houston
2015
2018
1,710
[38]

American South
1987
1991
Brooks, KevinKevin Brooks
Southwestern Louisiana
1987
1991
2,294

Atlantic 10
1976
—
Macon, MarkMark Macon
Temple
1987
1991
2,609
[39]

ACC
1953
—
Hansbrough, TylerTyler Hansbrough
North Carolina
2005
2009
2,872
[40]

Atlantic Sun
1978
—
Jackson, WillieWillie Jackson
Centenary
1980
1984
2,535
[41]

Big 12
1996
—
Hield, BuddyBuddy Hield
Oklahoma
2012
2016
2,291
[42]

Big East
1979[n 2]
—
Bell, TroyTroy Bell[n 3]
Boston College
1999
2003
2,632
[44]

Big Eight
1907
1996
Manning, DannyDanny Manning
Kansas
1984
1988
2,951
[45]

Big Sky
1963
—
Bliznyuk, BogdanBogdan Bliznyuk
Eastern Washington
2014
2018
2,169
[46]

Big South
1983
—
Williams, ReggieReggie Williams
VMI
2004
2008
2,556
[47]

Big Ten
1896
—
Cheaney, CalbertCalbert Cheaney
Indiana
1990
1993
2,613
[48]

Big West
1969
—
Harris, LuciousLucious Harris
Long Beach State
1989
1993
2,312
[49]

CAA
1982
—
Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson*
Navy
1983
1987
2,669
[50]

C-USA
1995
—
Jackson, StefonStefon Jackson
UTEP
2005
2009
2,456
[51]

East Coast
1958
1994
Queenan, DarenDaren Queenan
Lehigh
1984
1988
2,703

Great Midwest
1990
1995
Claggett, ErwinErwin Claggett
Saint Louis
1991
1995
1,910
[52]

Great West
2004
2013
Flores, ChrisChris Flores
NJIT
2009
2013
1,726

Horizon
1979
—
Hughes, AlfredrickAlfredrick Hughes
Loyola (IL)
1981
1985
2,914
[53]

Ivy
1901
—
Bradley, BillBill Bradley*
Princeton
1962
1965
2,503
[54]

MAAC
1980
—
Simmons, LionelLionel Simmons
La Salle
1986
1990
3,217
[55]

Metro
1975
1995
Coles, BimboBimbo Coles
Virginia Tech
1986
1990
2,484
[56]

MAC
1946
—
Wells, BonziBonzi Wells
Ball State
1994
1998
2,485
[57]

MEAC
1970
—
Davis, TomTom Davis
Delaware State
1987
1991
2,275
[58]

Missouri Valley
1907
—
Hawkins, HerseyHersey Hawkins
Bradley
1984
1988
3,008
[59]

Mountain West
1999
—
Fredette, JimmerJimmer Fredette
BYU
2007
2011
2,599
[60]

NEC
1981
—
Bailey, TerranceTerrance Bailey
Wagner
1983
1987
2,591
[61]

OVC
1948
—
Domercant, HenryHenry Domercant
Eastern Illinois
1999
2003
2,602
[62]

Pac-12
1959
—
MacLean, DonDon MacLean
UCLA
1988
1992
2,608
[63]

Patriot
1986
—
McCollum, C. J.C. J. McCollum
Lehigh
2009
2013
2,361
[64]

SEC
1933
—
Maravich, PetePete Maravich*
LSU
1967
1970
3,667
[65]

Southern
1921
—
Curry, StephenStephen Curry
Davidson
2006
2009
2,635
[66]

Southland
1963
—
Dumars, JoeJoe Dumars*[n 4]
McNeese State
1981
1985
2,607
[68]

Summit
1982
—
Green, CalebCaleb Green
Oral Roberts
2003
2007
2,504
[69]

Sun Belt
1976
—
McCalebb, BoBo McCalebb
New Orleans
2003
2008
2,679
[70]

Southwest
1914
1996
Rencher, TerrenceTerrence Rencher
Texas
1991
1995
2,306
[71]

SWAC
1920
—
Ford, AlphonsoAlphonso Ford
Mississippi Valley State
1989
1993
3,165

West Coast
1952
—
Gathers, HankHank Gathers
Loyola Marymount
1987
1990
2,490[n 5]
[72]

WAC
1962
—
Van Horn, KeithKeith Van Horn
Utah
1993
1997
2,542
[73]

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ After playing as a freshman in 2009–10, Haws spent two years on a Mormon mission and did not play his sophomore season until 2012–13.
^ Jump up to: a b The original Big East Conference, founded in 1979 with basketball competition starting at that time, split along football lines in July 2013. The seven schools that did not sponsor Division I FBS football reorganized as a new Big East Conference, while the FBS football schools that had not left for other conferences, plus several new members, began operating as the American Athletic Conference. The American now considers its basketball history to have begun with the 2013 split,[36] while the current Big East maintains the basketball history of the original Big East.[37]
Jump up ^ The Big East Conference recognizes Lawrence Moten, who played at Syracuse between 1991 and 1995, as its all-time conference scoring leader, using the criterion of points scored in regular-season conference games only. Moten scored 1,405 points in games that counted toward the record.[43] Troy Bell, who is technically second on the list with 1,388 points, scored more career points than Moten when all games are taken into account. The above conference scoring leaders list uses overall career totals, not conference-career totals, as its criterion.
Jump up ^ The Southland Conference recognizes Dwight "Bo" Lamar, who played at Southwestern Louisiana (now Louisiana) between 1968 and 1972, as their all-time conference scoring leader, using the criterion of points scored against conference opponents only.[67] He scored 1,054 points in conference games.[67] Additionally, Southwestern Louisiana did not join the Southland Conference until 1971, so all of Lamar's points prior to then do not count toward Southland Conference scoring. Joe Dumars, who is technically second on the list with 819 points, actually scored more career points than Lamar since McNeese State was a member of the Southland Conference for the duration of Dumars' career. The above conference scoring leaders list uses overall career totals, not conference-career totals, as its criterion.
Jump up ^ Hank Gathers' scoring total in this table includes only games played for WCC member Loyola Marymount; he played his freshman season of 1985–86 at USC in what was then known as the Pacific-10 Conference. He transferred from USC after that season; after sitting out the 1986–87 season due to NCAA transfer rules, he played at Loyola Marymount until his death during his senior season in 1990.


document_title: Shakespeare's Globe

question_text: how many seats are there in the globe theatre

root

text: Shakespeare's Globe

text: Planning and construction[edit]

text: In 1970, American actor and director Sam Wanamaker founded the Shakespeare Globe Trust and the International Shakespeare Globe Centre, with the objective of building a faithful recreation of Shakespeare's Globe close to its original location at Bankside, Southwark. This inspired the founding of a number of Shakespeare's Globe Centres around the world, an activity in which Wanamaker also participated.

tag: p

text: Multiple maintained that a faithful Globe reconstruction was impossible to achieve due to the complications in the 16th century design and modern fire safety requirements; however, Wanamaker persevered in his vision for over twenty years, and a new Globe theatre was eventually built according to a design based on the research of historical adviser John Orrell.[3]

text: It was Wanamaker's wish that the new building recreate the Globe as it existed during most of Shakespeare's time there; that is, the 1599 building rather than its 1614 replacement.[4] A study was made of what was known of the construction of The Theatre, the building from which the 1599 Globe obtained much of its timber, as a starting point for the modern building's design. To this were added: examinations of other surviving London buildings from the latter part of the 16th century; comparisons with other theatres of the period (particularly the Fortune Playhouse, for which the building contract survives); and contemporary drawings and descriptions of the first Globe.[5] For practical reasons, some features of the 1614 rebuilding were incorporated into the modern design, such as the external staircases.[6] The design team consisted of architect Theo Crosby of Pentagram, structural and services engineer Buro Happold, and quantity surveyors from Boyden & Co. The construction, building research and historic design details were undertaken by McCurdy & Co.[7]

text: The theatre opened in 1997[8] under the name "Shakespeare's Globe Theatre", and has staged plays every summer. Mark Rylance became the first artistic director in 1995 and was succeeded by Dominic Dromgoole in 2006.[9] In January 2016, Emma Rice began her term as the Globe's third Artistic Director,[10] but in October 2016 announced her decision to resign from the position in April 2018.[11][12] On 24 July 2017 her successor was announced to be the actor and writer Michelle Terry.[13]

text: The theatre is located on Bankside, about 230 metres (750 ft) from the original site—measured from centre to centre.[14] The Thames was much wider in Shakespeare's time and the original Globe was on the riverbank, though that site is now far from the river, and the river-side site for the reconstructed Globe was chosen to recreate the atmosphere of the original theatre. In addition, listed Georgian townhouses now occupy part of the original site and could not be considered for removal. Like the original Globe, the modern theatre has a thrust stage that projects into a large circular yard surrounded by three tiers of raked seating. The only covered parts of the amphitheatre are the stage and the seating areas. Plays are staged during the summer, usually between May and the first week of October; in the winter, the theatre is used for educational purposes. Tours are available all year round. Some productions are filmed and released to cinemas as Globe on Screen productions (usually in the year following the live production), and on DVD.

text: The reconstruction was carefully researched so that the new building would be as faithful a replica of the original as possible. This was aided by the discovery of the remains of the original Rose Theatre, a nearby neighbour to the Globe, as final plans were being made for the site and structure.

text: The building itself is constructed entirely of English oak, with mortise and tenon joints[15] and is, in this sense, an "authentic" 16th century timber-framed building, as no structural steel was used. The seats are simple benches (though cushions can be hired for performances) and the Globe has the first and only thatched roof permitted in London since the Great Fire of 1666.[15] The modern thatch is well protected by fire retardants, and sprinklers on the roof ensure further protection against fire. The pit has a concrete surface,[15] as opposed to earthen-ground covered with strewn rush from the original theatre. The theatre has extensive backstage support areas for actors and musicians, and is attached to a modern lobby, restaurant, gift shop and visitor centre. Seating capacity is 857[16] with an additional 700 "Groundlings" standing in the yard,[17] making up an audience about half the size of a typical audience in Shakespeare's time.

text: For its first eighteen seasons, performances were engineered to duplicate the original environment of Shakespeare's Globe; there were no spotlights, and plays were staged during daylight hours and in the evenings (with the help of interior floodlights), there were no microphones, speakers or amplification. All music was performed live, most often on period instruments; and the actors and the audience could see and interact easily with each other, adding to the feeling of a shared experience and of a community event.

text: Typically, performances have been created in the spirit of experimentation to explore the original playing conditions of the 1599 Globe. Modern, conventional theatre technology such as spotlights and microphones were not used during this period. Beginning in the 2016 season, the new Artistic Director, Emma Rice, began experimenting with the theatre space by installing a temporary lighting and sound rig.

text: The Globe operates without any public subsidy and generates £21 million in revenue per year.[18]

text: Sam Wanamaker Playhouse[edit]

text: Adjacent to the Globe is the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, an indoor theatre modelled after a Jacobean-era theatre and used for performances during the winter months when the main theatre cannot be used.

text: Read Not Dead[edit]

text: Read Not Dead is a series of play readings, or staged “performances with scripts” that have been presented as part of the educational program of Shakespeare’s Globe since 1995. The plays selected are those that were written between 1576 and 1642 by Shakespeare’s contemporaries or near contemporaries. These readings are performed at Shakespeare’s Globe Sackler Studios as well as other theatres, halls, festivals and fields nationwide.[19]

text: In 2013 there were Read Not Dead performances at the Wilderness Festival and at Glastonbury Festival.[20] In 2014, the final production in Read not Dead’s first season was performed at the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, which is the indoor Jacobean style theatre. The play selected for that occasion was Robert Daborne’s A Christian Turn'd Turk.[21]

text: Globe on Screen[edit]

text: The Globe's productions are often screened in cinemas and released on DVD. In 2015, the venue launched Globe Player, a video-on-demand service enabling viewers to watch the plays on laptops and mobile devices.

text: Other replicas[edit]

text: Replicas and free interpretations of the Globe have been built around the world:

text: Argentina: Teatro Shakespeare.[22]

tag: ul

text:
Neuss am Rhein: Globe Neuss[23]
Rust, Baden, Germany: in the Europa-Park
Schwäbisch Hall, Baden-Württemberg: houses a replica of the interior of the Globe Theatre.

text: Rome: Globe Theatre[24]

text:
Tokyo: Panasonic Globe Theatre
Tokyo: Meisei University's Shakespeare Hall, at its Hino campus[25]

text: Auckland: Pop-up Globe

text:
Ashland, Oregon: Allen Elizabethan Theatre[26]
Cedar City, Utah: Adams Shakespearean Theatre
Dallas, Texas: Old Globe Theatre[27]
Odessa, Texas: Globe of the Great Southwest
San Diego, California: Old Globe Theatre[28]
Williamsburg, Virginia: Globe Theatre, in Busch Gardens Williamsburg[29]
Twin Lake, Michigan: Blue Lake Fine Arts Camp, The Rose Playhouse.[30]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Mulryne, J. R. Shewing, Margaret. Gurr, Andrew. Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge University Press (1997) ISBN 9780521599887 page 21
Jump up ^ Steves, Rick. Openshaw, Gene. Rick Steves London 2015. Avalon Travel (2014) ISBN 978-1612389769
Jump up ^ Martin, Douglas (28 September 2003). "John Orrell, 68, Historian on New Globe Theater, Dies". New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
Jump up ^ Gurr, Andrew (1997). "Shakespeare's Globe: a history of reconstruction". In Mulryne, J. R.; Shewring, Margaret. Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-521-59988-1.
Jump up ^ Greenfield, Jon (1997). "Timber framing, the two bays and after". In Mulryne, J. R.; Shewring, Margaret. Shakespeare's Globe Rebuilt. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–3. ISBN 0-521-59988-1.
Jump up ^ Bowsher, Julian; Miller, Pat (2010). "The New Globe". The Rose and the Globe – playhouses of Shakespeare's Bankside, Southwark. Museum of London. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-901992-85-4.
Jump up ^ McCurdy & Co website Archived 18 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Phelan, Peggy (2006). Hodgdon, Barbara; Worthen, William B, eds. A Companion to Shakespeare And Performance. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 1-4051-1104-6.
Jump up ^ "Dominic Dromgoole appointed Artistic Director". The Shakespeare Globe Trust. Archived from the original on 20 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
Jump up ^ BBC Radio 4, New Globe director on changes to Shakespeare, "Best of Today", 5 January May 2016.
Jump up ^ https://www.thestage.co.uk/news/2016/emma-rice-the-industry-reacts-to/
Jump up ^ https://www.standard.co.uk/goingout/theatre/emma-rice-to-stand-down-from-the-globe-a3378056.html
Jump up ^ http://blog.shakespearesglobe.com/post/163360048328/michelle-terry-is-the-new-artistic-director-of
Jump up ^ Measured using Google Earth.
^ Jump up to: a b c McCurdy, Peter. "The Reconstruction of the Globe Theatre". Reading, England: McCurdy and Company. Archived from the original on 20 March 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2009.
Jump up ^ This number can be derived by counting all seats on the detailed seating plans that are shown after selecting an event and start the booking procedure at "Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London". online. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London. 2009. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2009.  and adding another 20 for the "Gentlemen's Rooms" ("Shakespeare's Globe". Gentlemen's Rooms. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre, London. 2009. Retrieved 29 November 2009. )
Jump up ^ "Shakespeare's Globe :: Seating Plan and Ticket Prices". Shakespeare's Globe. 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Shakespeare's Globe appoints Emma Rice of Kneehigh as new artistic director". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Read Not Dead. Shakespeare's Globe. Archived 23 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Read Not Dead On The Road. Shakespeare's Globe. Archived 30 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Bardathon Review of Christian Turn'd Turk". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Teatro Shakespeare
Jump up ^ Globe Theatre Neuss
Jump up ^ Italy gets Globe Theatre replica.
Jump up ^ http://www.meisei-u.ac.jp/english/facilities/sha.html
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ The Globe Theatre, 1936 Texas Centennial Exposition at State Fair Dallas
Jump up ^ The Old Globe, San Diego.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 14 April 2008. Retrieved 8 April 2008.
Jump up ^ [2]

tag: ol


document_title: Dead Sea Scrolls

question_text: what was all found in the dead sea scrolls

question_tokens: what was all found in the dead sea scrolls

text: Dead Sea Scrolls

text: Overview[edit]

text: Many thousands of written fragments have been discovered in the Dead Sea area. They represent the remnants of larger manuscripts damaged by natural causes or through human interference, with the vast majority only holding small scraps of text. However, a small number of well-preserved, almost intact manuscripts have survived – fewer than a dozen among those from the Qumran Caves.[2] Researchers have assembled a collection of some 981 different manuscripts – discovered in 1946/47 and in 1956 – from 11 caves.[3] The 11 Qumran Caves lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic-period Jewish settlement at Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert, in the West Bank.[4] The caves are located about one mile (1.6 kilometres) west of the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, whence they derive their name.[5] Scholarly consensus dates the Qumran Caves Scrolls from the last three centuries BCE and from the first century CE.[2] Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus (in office 135–104 BCE) and continuing until the period of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), supporting the radiocarbon and paleographic dating of the scrolls.[6]

text: In the larger sense, the Dead Sea Scrolls include manuscripts from additional Judaean Desert sites, dated as early as the 8th century BCE and as late as the 11th century CE.[1]

text: The texts have great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the second-oldest known surviving manuscripts of works later included in the Hebrew Bible canon, along with deuterocanonical and extra-biblical manuscripts which preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. (Biblical texts older than the Dead Sea Scrolls have been discovered only in two silver scroll-shaped amulets containing portions of the Priestly Blessing from the Book of Numbers, excavated in Jerusalem at Ketef Hinnom and dated c. 600 BCE. The third-oldest surviving known piece of the Torah (the En-Gedi Scroll) consists of a portion of Leviticus found in the Ein Gedi synagogue, burnt in the 6th century CE and analyzed in 2015. Research has dated it palaeographically to the 1st or 2nd century CE, and using the C14 method to sometime between the 2nd and 4th centuries CE.[7])

text: Most of the texts use Hebrew, with some written in Aramaic (for example the Son of God text; in different regional dialects, including Nabataean), and a few in Greek.[8] Discoveries from the Judaean Desert add Latin (from Masada) and Arabic (from Khirbet al-Mird) texts.[9] Most of the texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper.[10]

text: Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect called the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem, or Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.[11][12] Robert Eisenman vigorously posits his theory that the later, non-biblical "sectarian" scrolls must be viewed in the context of a wider first-century CE “Opposition Movement,” including Essenes, Zealots, Sicarii, and/or Nazoreans, and particularly the early Judeo-Christian community of Jerusalem, the Ebionites, whose leader, James, the brother of Jesus, was acknowledged by the entire “Opposition Movement,” and who is no other than the Scrolls' Teacher of Righteousness. He thus creates a strong link between the Scrolls and the pre-Pauline Jewish Christian community.

text: Owing to the poor condition of some of the scrolls, scholars have not identified all of their texts. The identified texts fall into three general groups:

text:
Some 40% are copies of texts from the Hebrew Scriptures.
Approximately another 30% are texts from the Second Temple Period which ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, like the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, Psalms 152–155, etc.
The remainder (roughly 30%) are sectarian manuscripts of previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular group (sect) or groups within greater Judaism, like the Community Rule, the War Scroll, the Pesher on Habakkuk, and The Rule of the Blessing.[13][need quotation to verify]

text: Discovery[edit]

text: The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in a series of twelve caves around the site known as Wadi Qumran near the Dead Sea in the West Bank (of the Jordan River) between 1946 and 1956 by Bedouin shepherds and a team of archeologists.[14] The practice of storing worn-out sacred manuscripts in earthenware vessels buried in the earth or within caves is related to the ancient Jewish custom of Genizah.

text: Initial discovery (1946–1947)[edit]

text: The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947.[15][16] The shepherds discovered seven scrolls (See Scrolls and fragments) housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site. John C. Trever reconstructed the story of the scrolls from several interviews with the Bedouin. Edh-Dhib's cousin noticed the caves, but edh-Dhib himself was the first to actually fall into one (the cave now called Cave 1). He retrieved a handful of scrolls, which Trever identifies as the Isaiah Scroll, Habakkuk Commentary, and the Community Rule, and took them back to the camp to show to his family. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process, despite popular rumor.[17] The Bedouin kept the scrolls hanging on a tent pole while they figured out what to do with them, periodically taking them out to show to their people. At some point during this time, the Community Rule was split in two. The Bedouin first took the scrolls to a dealer named Ibrahim 'Ijha in Bethlehem. 'Ijha returned them, saying they were worthless, after being warned that they might have been stolen from a synagogue. Undaunted, the Bedouin went to a nearby market, where a Syrian Christian offered to buy them. A sheikh joined their conversation and suggested they take the scrolls to Khalil Eskander Shahin, "Kando", a cobbler and part-time antiques dealer. The Bedouin and the dealers returned to the site, leaving one scroll with Kando and selling three others to a dealer for 7 Jordanian pounds (approximately $28, or $307 in 2017 dollars).[17][18]:5 The original scrolls continued to change hands after the Bedouin left them in the possession of a third party until a sale could be arranged. (See Ownership.)

text: In 1947 the original seven scrolls caught the attention of Dr. John C. Trever, of the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR), who compared the script in the scrolls to that of The Nash Papyrus, the oldest biblical manuscript then known, and found similarities between them. In March the 1948 Arab–Israeli War prompted the move of some of the scrolls to Beirut, Lebanon, for safekeeping. On 11 April 1948, Millar Burrows, head of the ASOR, announced the discovery of the scrolls in a general press release.

text: Search for the Qumran caves (1948–1949)[edit]

text: Early in September 1948, Metropolitan bishop Mar Samuel brought some additional scroll fragments that he had acquired to Professor Ovid R. Sellers, the new Director of ASOR. By the end of 1948, nearly two years after their discovery, scholars had yet to locate the original cave where the fragments had been found. With unrest in the country at that time, no large-scale search could be undertaken safely. Sellers tried to get the Syrians to assist in the search for the cave, but he was unable to pay their price. In early 1948, the government of Jordan gave permission to the Arab Legion to search the area where the original Qumran cave was thought to be. Consequently, Cave 1 was rediscovered on 28 January 1949, by Belgian United Nations observer Captain Phillipe Lippens and Arab Legion Captain Akkash el-Zebn.[19]

text: Qumran caves rediscovery and new scroll discoveries (1949–1951)[edit]

text: The rediscovery of what became known as "Cave 1" at Qumran prompted the initial excavation of the site from 15 February to 5 March 1949 by the Jordanian Department of Antiquities led by Gerald Lankester Harding and Roland de Vaux.[20] The Cave 1 site yielded discoveries of additional Dead Sea Scroll fragments, linen cloth, jars, and other artifacts.[21]

text: Excavations of Qumran and new cave discoveries (1951–1956, 2017)[edit]

text: In November 1951, Roland de Vaux and his team from the ASOR began a full excavation of Qumran.[22] By February 1952, the Bedouin had discovered 30 fragments in what was to be designated Cave 2.[23] The discovery of a second cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew.[21][22] The following month, on 14 March 1952, the ASOR team discovered a third cave with fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll.[23] Between September and December 1952 the fragments and scrolls of Caves 4, 5, and 6 were subsequently discovered by the ASOR teams.[22]

text: With the monetary value of the scrolls rising as their historical significance was made more public, the Bedouins and the ASOR archaeologists accelerated their search for the scrolls separately in the same general area of Qumran, which was over 1 kilometer in length. Between 1953 and 1956, Roland de Vaux led four more archaeological expeditions in the area to uncover scrolls and artifacts.[21] Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded the last fragments to be found in the vicinity of Qumran.[24]

text: Caves 4–10 are clustered in an area lying in relative proximity 160 yards (ca. 150 metres) from Khirbet Qumran, while caves 1, 2, 3 and 11 are located 1 mile (1–2 kilometres) North, with Cave 3 being the most remote.[25] [26]

text: In February 2017, Hebrew University archaeologists announced the discovery of a new, 12th cave.[27] There was one blank parchment found in a jar; however, broken and empty scroll jars and pickaxes suggest that the cave was looted in the 1950s.[28]

text: Scrolls and fragments[edit]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2012)

tag: table

text: The 972 manuscripts found at Qumran were found primarily in two separate formats: as scrolls and as fragments of previous scrolls and texts. In the fourth cave the fragments were torn into up to 15,000 pieces. These small fragments created somewhat of a problem for scholars. G.L. Harding, director of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, began working on piecing the fragments together but did not finish.[29] He died in 1979.

text: The original seven scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), a second copy of Isaiah (1QIsab), the Community Rule Scroll (1QS), the Pesher on Habakkuk (1QpHab), the War Scroll (1QM), the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH), and the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen).[30]

text: Caves 4a and 4b[edit]

text: Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated from 22–29 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding, Roland de Vaux, and Józef Milik.[23] [31] Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since the fragments were mixed, they are labeled as 4Q. Cave 4 is the most famous of Qumran caves both because of its visibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity. It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumran settlement. It is by far the most productive of all Qumran caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot.

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

4QGen-Exoda

Genesis and the Exodus
= 4Q1

4QGenb

Genesis
= 4Q2

4QGenc

Genesis
= 4Q3

4QGend

Genesis 1:18–27
= 4Q4

4QGene

Genesis
= 4Q5

4QGenf

Genesis 48:1–11
= 4Q6

4QGeng

Genesis 48:1–11
= 4Q7

4QGenh1

Genesis 1:8–10
= 4Q8

4QGenh2

Genesis 2:17–18
= 4Q8a

4QGenh-para

A paraphrase of Genesis 12:4–5
= 4Q8b

4QGenh-title
The title of a Genesis manuscript

= 4Q8c

4QGenj

Genesis
= 4Q9

4QGenk

Genesis
= 4Q10

4QpaleoGen-Exodl

Genesis and the Exodus
Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q11

4QpaleoGenm

Genesis
Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q12

4QExodb

Exodus
= 4Q13

4QExodc

Exodus
= 4Q14

4QExodd

Exodus
= 4Q15

4QExode

Exodus 13:3–5
= 4Q16

4QExodf

Exodus and Leviticus
= 4Q17

4QExodg

Exodus 14:21–27
= 4Q18

4QExodh

Exodus 6:3–6
= 4Q19

4QExodj

Exodus
= 4Q20

4QExodk

Exodus 36:9–10
= 4Q21

4QExodm

Exodus
Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q22

4QLev-Numa

Leviticus and Numbers
= 4Q23

4QLev-Numb

Leviticus
= 4Q24

4QLev-Numc

Leviticus
= 4Q25

4QLev-Numd

Leviticus
= 4Q26

4QLev-Nume

Leviticus
= 4Q26a

4QLev-Numg

Leviticus
= 4Q26b

4QNumb

Numbers
= 4Q27

4QDeutn
"All Souls Deuteronomy"
Deuteronomy 8:5–10, 5:1–6:1
= 4Q41

4QCanta
Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on the Song of Songs
Song of Songs
Written in Hebrew = 4Q107

4QCantb
Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on the Song of Songs
Song of Songs
Written in Hebrew = 4Q107

4QCantc
Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on the Song of Songs
Song of Songs
= 4Q108

4Q112

Daniel

4Q120

Leviticus 1:11-5:25
97 fragments. Contains ΙΑΩ for the tetragrammaton

4Q123
"Rewritten Joshua"

4Q127
"Rewritten Exodus"

4Q128-148
Various tefillin

4Q156
Targum of Leviticus

4QtgJob
Targum of Job

= 4Q157

4QRPa
Rewritten Pentateuch

= 4Q158

4Q161-164
Pesher on Isaiah

4QpHos
The Hosea Commentary Scroll,[32] a Pesher on Hosea

= 4Q166

4Q167
Pesher on Hosea

4Q169
Pesher on Nahum or Nahum Commentary

4Q174
Florilegium or Midrash on the Last Days

4Q175
Messianic Anthology or Testimonia
Contains Deuteronomy 5:28–29, 18:18–19, 33:8–11; Joshua 6:26
Written in Hasmonean script.

4Q179
Lamentations

cf. 4Q501

4Q196-200
Tobit

cf. 4Q501

4Q201a
The Enoch Scroll[32]

4Q213-214
Aramaic Levi

4Q4Q215
Testament of Naphtali

4QCanta
Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on the Song of Songs

= 4Q240

4Q246
Aramaic Apocalypse or The Son of God Text

4Q252
Pesher on Genesis

4Q258
Serekh ha-Yahad or Community Rule

cf. 1QSd

4Q265-273
The Damascus Document

cf. 4QDa/g = 4Q266/272, 4QDa/e = 4Q266/270, 5Q12, 6Q15, 4Q265-73

4Q285
Rule of War

cf. 11Q14

4QRPb
Rewritten Pentateuch

= 4Q364

4QRPc
Rewritten Pentateuch

= 4Q365

4QRPc
Rewritten Pentateuch

= 4Q365a (=4QTemple?)

4QRPd
Rewritten Pentateuch

= 4Q366

4QRPe
Rewritten Pentateuch

= 4Q367

4QInstruction
Sapiential Work A

= 4Q415-418

4QParaphrase
Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus

4Q415-418

4Q434
Barkhi Nafshi – Apocryphal Psalms

15 fragments: likely hymns of thanksgiving praising God for his power and expressing thanks

4QMMT
Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah or Some Precepts of the Law or the Halakhic Letter

cf. 4Q394-399

4Q400-407
Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice or the Angelic Liturgy

cf. 11Q5-6

4Q448
Hymn to King Jonathan or The Prayer For King Jonathan Scroll
Psalms 154
In addition to parts of Psalms 154 it contains a prayer mentioning King Jonathan.

4Q510-511
Songs of the Sage

4Q521
Messianic Apocalypse

Made up of two fragments

4Q523
MeKleine Fragmente, z.T. gesetzlichen Inhalts

Fragment is legal in content. PAM number, 41.944.[33]

4Q539
Testament of Joseph

4Q541
Testament of Levid

Aramaic frag. also called "4QApocryphon of Levib ar"

4Q542
Testament of Qahat

4Q554-5
New Jerusalem

cf. 1Q32, 2Q24, 5Q15, 11Q18

Unnumbered

Nine unopened fragments recently rediscovered in storage[34]

text: Cave 5[edit]

text: Cave 5 was discovered alongside Cave 6 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 5 produced approximately 25 manuscripts.[23]

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

5QDeut

Deuteronomy
= 5Q1

5QKgs

1 Kings = 5Q2Joshua
= 5Q9

5Q10
Apocryphon of Malachi

5Q11
Rule of the Community

5Q12
Damascus Document

5Q13
Rule

5Q14
Curses

5Q15
New Jerusalem

5Q16-25
Unclassified

5QX1
Leather fragment

text: Cave 6[edit]

text: Cave 6 was discovered alongside Cave 5 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 6 contained fragments of about 31 manuscripts.[23]

text: List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 6:[35][36]

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

6QpaleoGen

Genesis 6:13–21
Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 6Q1

6QpaleoLev

Leviticus 8:12–13
Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 6Q2

6Q3

A few letters of Deuteronomy 26:19

6QKings

1 Kings 3:12–14; 2 Kings 7:8–10; 1 Kings 12:28–31; 2 Kings 7:20–8:5; 1 Kings 22:28–31; 2 Kings 9:1–2; 2 Kings 5:26; 2 Kings 10:19–21; 2 Kings 6:32
Made up of 94 Fragments. = 6Q4

6Q5

Possibly Psalms 78:36–37

6QCant

Song of Songs 1:1–7
Written in Hebrew = 6Q6

6QDaniel

Daniel 11:38; 10:8–16; 11:33–36
13 Fragments. =6Q7

6QGiants ar
Book of Giants from Enoch

= 6Q8

6QApocryphon on Samuel-Kings
Apocryphon on Samuel-Kings

Written on papyrus. = 6Q9

6QProphecy
Unidentified prophetic fragment

Written in Hebrew papyrus. = 6Q10

6QAllegory of the Vine
Allegory of the Vine

= 6Q11

6QapocProph
An apocryphal prophecy

= 6Q12

6QPriestProph
Priestly Prophecy

= 6Q13

6QD
Damascus Document

= 6Q15

6QBenediction
Benediction

= 6Q16

6QCalendrical Document
Calendrical Document

= 6Q17

6QHymn
Hymn

= 6Q18

6Q19

Possibly from Genesis

6Q20

Possibly from Deuteronomy

6Q21
Possibly prophetic text

Fragment containing 5 words.

6Q22
Unclassified fragments

6Q23
Unclassified fragments

6Q24-25
Unclassified fragments

6Q26
Accounts or contracts

6Q27-28
Unclassified fragments

6QpapProv

Parts of Proverbs 11:4b-7a; 10b
Single six-line fragment. = 6Q30

6Q31
Unclassified fragments

text: Cave 7[edit]

text: Cave 7 yielded fewer than 20 fragments of Greek documents, including 7Q2 (the "Letter of Jeremiah" = Baruch 6), 7Q5 (which became the subject of much speculation in later decades), and a Greek copy of a scroll of Enoch.[37][38][39] Cave 7 also produced several inscribed potsherds and jars.[40]

text: Lists of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 7:[35][36]

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

7QLXXExod gr

Exodus 28:4–7
= 7Q1

7QLXXEpJer

Jeremiah 43–44
= 7Q2

7Q3-4
Unknown biblical text

7Q5
Unknown biblical text

7Q6-18
Unidentified fragments

Very tiny fragments written on papyrus.

7Q19
Unidentified papyrus imprint

Very tiny fragments written on papyrus.

text: Cave 8[edit]

text: Cave 8, along with caves 7 and 9, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, cave 8 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957.

text: Cave 8 produced five fragments: Genesis (8QGen), Psalms (8QPs), a tefillin fragment (8QPhyl), a mezuzah (8QMez), and a hymn (8QHymn).[41] Cave 8 also produced several tefillin cases, a box of leather objects, tons of lamps, jars, and the sole of a leather shoe.[40]

text: List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 8:[35][36]

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

8QGen

Genesis 17:12–19; 18:20–25
= 8Q1

8QPs

Psalms 17:5–9; 17:14; 18:6–9; 18:10–13
= 8Q2

8QPhyl
Fragments from a "Phylactery"
Exodus 12:43–51 13:1–16; 20:11; Deuteronomy 5:1–14; 6:1–9; 11:13; 10:12–22; 11:1–12
= 8Q3

8QMez

Deuteronomy 10:12–11:21 from a Mezuzah
= 8Q4

8QHymn
Unidentified hymn

= 8Q5

text: Cave 9[edit]

text: Cave 9, along with caves 7 and 8, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, Cave 9 was excavated by archaeologists in 1957.

text: There was only one fragment found in Cave 9:

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

9Qpap
Unidentified fragment

=9Q1 Written on papyrus.

text: Cave 10[edit]

text: In Cave 10 archaeologists found two ostraca with some writing on them, along with an unknown symbol on a grey stone slab:

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

10QOstracon
Ostracon

=10Q1 Two letters written on a piece of pottery.[16]

text: Cave 11[edit]

text: Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts, some of which were quite lengthy. The Temple Scroll, so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11, and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7 feet (8.15 m) long. Its original length may have been over 28 feet (8.75 m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes". On the other hand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and friend of Yadin, believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such, but was a document without exceptional significance. Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any known Essene writing.[42]

text: Also in Cave 11, an eschatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek (11Q13) was found. Cave 11 also produced a copy of Jubilees.

text: According to former chief editor of the DSS editorial team John Strugnell, there are at least four privately owned scrolls from Cave 11, that have not yet been made available for scholars. Among them is a complete Aramaic manuscript of the Book of Enoch.[43]

text: List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 11:

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

11QpaleoLeva

Leviticus 4:24–26; 10:4–7; 11:27–32; 13:3–9; 13:39–43; 14:16–21; 14:52-!5:5; 16:2–4; 16:34–17:5; 18:27–19:4; 20:1–6; 21:6–11; 22:21–27; 23:22–29; 24:9–14; 25:28–36; 26:17–26; 27:11–19
Written in palaeo-Hebrew script. = 11Q1

11QpaleoLevb

Leviticus
Written in palaeo-Hebrew script. = 11Q2

11QDeut

Deuteronomy
= 11Q3

11QEz

Ezekiel
= 11Q4

11QPsa

Psalms
= 11Q5

11QPsb

Psalms 77:18–21; 78:1; 109:3–4; 118:1; 118:15–16; 119:163–165; 133:1–3; 141:10; 144:1–2
= 11Q6

11QPsc

Psalms 2:1–8; 9:3–7; 12:5–9; 13:1–6; 14:1–6; 17:9–15; 18:1–12; 19:4–8; 25:2–7
= 11Q7

11QPsd

Psalms 6:2–4; 9:3–6; 18:26–29; 18:39–42; 36:13; 37:1–4; 39:13–14; 40:1; 43:1–3; 45:6–8; 59:5–8; 68:1–5; 68:14–18; 78:5–12; 81:4–9; 86:11–14; 115:16–18; 116:1
= 11Q8

11QPse

Psalms 50:3–7
= 11Q9

11QtgJob

Targum of Job
= 11Q10

11QapocrPs

Apocryphal paraphrase of Psalms 91
= 11Q11

11QJub
Ethiopic text of Jubilees 4:6–11; 4:13–14; 4:16–17; 4:29–31; 5:1–2; 12:15–17; 12:28–29

= 11Q12

11QMelch
"Heavenly Prince Melchizedek"

= 11Q13

11QSM
"The Book of War"

= 11Q14

11QHymnsa

= 11Q15

11QHymnsb

= 11Q16

11QShirShabb
Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice

= 11Q17

11QNJ ar
"New Jerusalem"

Written in Aramaic = 11Q18

11QTa
"Temple Scroll"

= 11Q19

11QTb
"Temple Scroll"

= 11Q20

11QTc
"Temple Scroll"

= 11Q21

11Q22-28
Unidentified fragments

11Q29

Serekh ha-Yahad related

11Q30
Unidentified fragments

11Q31
Unidentified wads

text: Cave 12[edit]

text: Cave 12 was discovered in February 2017 on cliffs west of Qumran, near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea.[27] Archaeological examination found pickaxes and empty broken scroll jars, indicating that the cave had been discovered and looted in the 1950s. One of the joint Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Liberty University of Virginia project’s lead researchers, Dr. Oren Gutfeld, stated, "Although at the end of the day no scroll was found, and instead we 'only' found a piece of parchment rolled up in a jug that was being processed for writing, the findings indicate beyond any doubt that the cave contained scrolls that were stolen."[28]

text: Fragments with unknown provenance[edit]

text: Some fragments of scrolls have neither significant archaeological provenance nor records that reveal in which designated Qumran cave area they were found. They are believed to have come from Wadi Qumran caves, but are just as likely to have come from other archaeological sites in the Judaean Desert area.[44] These fragments have therefore been designated to the temporary "X" series.

text:
[show]Fragment/Scroll #
Fragment/Scroll Name
KJV Bible Association
Description

XQ1-3
"Tefillin from Qumran"
Deuteronomy 5:1 – 6:3; 10:12 – 11:12.[44]
First published in 1969; Phylacteries

XQ4
"Tefillin from Qumran"

Phylacteries

XQ5a
Jubilees 7:4–5

XQ5b
Hymn

XQ6
Offering

Small fragment with only one word in Aramaic.

XQ7
Unidentified fragment

Strong possibility that it is part of 4QInstruction.

XQpapEn
Book of Enoch 9:1

One small fragment written in Hebrew. = XQ8

text: Origin[edit]

text: There has been much debate about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The dominant theory remains that the scrolls were the product of a sect of Jews living at nearby Qumran called the Essenes, but this theory has come to be challenged by several modern scholars.

text: Qumran–Essene theory[edit]

text: The view among scholars, almost universally held until the 1990s, is the "Qumran–Essene" hypothesis originally posited by Roland Guérin de Vaux[45] and Józef Tadeusz Milik,[46] though independently both Eliezer Sukenik and Butrus Sowmy of St Mark's Monastery connected scrolls with the Essenes well before any excavations at Qumran.[47] The Qumran–Essene theory holds that the scrolls were written by the Essenes, or by another Jewish sectarian group, residing at Khirbet Qumran. They composed the scrolls and ultimately hid them in the nearby caves during the Jewish Revolt sometime between 66 and 68 CE. The site of Qumran was destroyed and the scrolls never recovered. A number of arguments are used to support this theory.

text:
There are striking similarities between the description of an initiation ceremony of new members in the Community Rule and descriptions of the Essene initiation ceremony mentioned in the works of Flavius Josephus – a Jewish–Roman historian of the Second Temple Period.
Josephus mentions the Essenes as sharing property among the members of the community, as does the Community Rule.
During the excavation of Khirbet Qumran, two inkwells and plastered elements thought to be tables were found, offering evidence that some form of writing was done there. More inkwells were discovered nearby. De Vaux called this area the "scriptorium" based upon this discovery.
Several Jewish ritual baths (Hebrew: miqvah = מקוה) were discovered at Qumran, offering evidence of an observant Jewish presence at the site.
Pliny the Elder (a geographer writing after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE) describes a group of Essenes living in a desert community on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea near the ruined town of 'Ein Gedi.

text: Qumran–Sectarian theory[edit]

text: Qumran–Sectarian theories are variations on the Qumran–Essene theory. The main point of departure from the Qumran–Essene theory is hesitation to link the Dead Sea Scrolls specifically with the Essenes. Most proponents of the Qumran–Sectarian theory understand a group of Jews living in or near Qumran to be responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls, but do not necessarily conclude that the sectarians are Essenes.

text: Qumran–Sadducean theory[edit]

text: A specific variation on the Qumran–Sectarian theory that has gained much recent popularity is the work of Lawrence H. Schiffman, who proposes that the community was led by a group of Zadokite priests (Sadducees).[48] The most important document in support of this view is the "Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah" (4QMMT), which cites purity laws (such as the transfer of impurities) identical to those attributed in rabbinic writings to the Sadducees. 4QMMT also reproduces a festival calendar that follows Sadducee principles for the dating of certain festival days.

text: Christian origin theory[edit]

text: Spanish Jesuit José O'Callaghan Martínez argued in the 1960s that one fragment (7Q5) preserves a portion of text from the New Testament Gospel of Mark 6:52–53.[49] This theory was falsified in the year 2000 by paleographic analysis of the particular fragment.[50]

text: Robert Eisenman has advanced the theory that some scrolls describe the early Christian community. Eisenman also argued that the careers of James the Just and Paul the Apostle correspond to events recorded in some of these documents.[51]

text: Jerusalem origin theory[edit]

text: Some scholars have argued that the scrolls were the product of Jews living in Jerusalem, who hid the scrolls in the caves near Qumran while fleeing from the Romans during the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE.[52] Karl Heinrich Rengstorf first proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls originated at the library of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.[53] Later, Norman Golb suggested that the scrolls were the product of multiple libraries in Jerusalem, and not necessarily the Jerusalem Temple library.[54] [55] Proponents of the Jerusalem Origin theory point to the diversity of thought and handwriting among the scrolls as evidence against a Qumran origin of the scrolls. Several archaeologists have also accepted an origin of the scrolls other than Qumran, including Yizhar Hirschfeld[56] and most recently Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg,[57] who all understand the remains of Qumran to be those of a Hasmonean fort that was reused during later periods.

text: Physical characteristics[edit]

text: Age[edit]

text: Radiocarbon dating[edit]

text: Parchment from a number of the Dead Sea Scrolls has been carbon dated. The initial test performed in 1950 was on a piece of linen from one of the caves. This test gave an indicative dating of 33 CE plus or minus 200 years, eliminating early hypotheses relating the scrolls to the medieval period.[58] Since then two large series of tests have been performed on the scrolls themselves. The results were summarized by VanderKam and Flint, who said the tests give "strong reason for thinking that most of the Qumran manuscripts belong to the last two centuries BCE and the first century CE."[18]:32

text: Paleographic dating[edit]

text: Analysis of letter forms, or palaeography, was applied to the texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls by a variety of scholars in the field. Major linguistic analysis by Cross and Avigad dates fragments from 225 BCE to 50 CE.[59] These dates were determined by examining the size, variability, and style of the text.[60] The same fragments were later analyzed using radiocarbon dating and were dated to an estimated range of 385 BCE to 82 CE with a 68% accuracy rate.[59]

text: Ink and parchment[edit]

text: The scrolls were analyzed using a cyclotron at the University of California, Davis, where it was found that all black ink was carbon black.[61] The red ink on the scrolls was found to be made with cinnabar (HgS, mercury sulfide).[62] There are only four uses of this red ink in the entire collection of Dead Sea Scroll fragments.[62] The black inks found on the scrolls that are made up of carbon soot were found to be from olive oil lamps.[63] Honey, oil, vinegar, and water were often added to the mixture to thin the ink to a proper consistency for writing.[63] In order to apply the ink to the scrolls, its writers used reed pens.[64]

text: The Dead Sea scrolls were written on parchment made of processed animal hide known as vellum (approximately 85.5 – 90.5% of the scrolls), papyrus (estimated at 8.0 – 13.0% of the scrolls), and sheets of bronze composed of about 99.0% copper and 1.0% tin (approximately 1.5% of the scrolls).[64][65] For those scrolls written on animal hides, scholars with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, by use of DNA testing for assembly purposes, believe that there may be a hierarchy in the religious importance of the texts based on which type of animal was used to create the hide. Scrolls written on goat and calf hides are considered by scholars to be more significant in nature, while those written on gazelle or ibex are considered to be less religiously significant in nature.[66]

text: In addition, tests by the National Institute of Nuclear Physics in Sicily, Italy, have suggested that the origin of parchment of select Dead Sea Scroll fragments is from the Qumran area itself, by using X-ray and Particle Induced X-ray emission testing of the water used to make the parchment that were compared with the water from the area around the Qumran site.[67]

text: Deterioration, storage, and preservation[edit]

text: The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea.[68] In addition, the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation.[69] Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them from deterioration. The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment, they began a process of more rapid deterioration than they had experienced at Qumran.[70] During the first few years in the late 1940s and early 1950s, adhesive tape used to join fragments and seal cracks caused significant damage to the documents.[70] The Government of Jordan had recognized the urgency of protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of the deterioration among the scrolls.[71] However, the government did not have adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection and agreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have them held at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be "adequately studied".[71]

text: In early 1953, they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum (commonly called the Rockefeller Museum)[72] in East Jerusalem and through their transportation suffered more deterioration and damage.[18]:63–65 The museum was underfunded and had limited resources with which to examine the scrolls, and, as a result, conditions of the "scrollery" and storage area were left relatively uncontrolled by modern standards.[18] The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between window glass, trapping the moisture in with them, causing an acceleration in the deterioration process. During a portion of the conflict during the 1956 war waged by Israel, Britain and France against Egypt, the scrolls collection of the Palestine Archaeological Museum was stored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman, Jordan.[73] Damp conditions from temporary storage of the scrolls in the Ottoman Bank vault from 1956 to the Spring of 1957 led to a more rapid rate of deterioration of the scrolls. The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments, and some of the fragments were partially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored while in the vault.[73] By 1958 it was noted that up to 5% of some of the scrolls had completely deteriorated.[71] Many of the texts had become illegible and many of the parchments had darkened considerably.[70][18]

text: Until the 1970s, the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements, exposure to different adhesives, and being trapped in moist environments.[70] Fragments written on parchment (rather than papyrus or bronze) in the hands of private collectors and scholars suffered an even worse fate than those in the hands of the museum, with large portions of fragments being reported to have disappeared by 1966.[74] In the late 1960s, the deterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike. Scholars John Allegro and Sir Francis Frank were some of the first to strongly advocate for better preservation techniques.[18] Early attempts made by both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array of chemicals, including "British Leather Dressing," and darkening some of them significantly.[18] In the 1970s and 1980s, other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them with cardboard and removing pressure against the plates that held the scrolls in storage; however, the fragments and scrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time.[70]

text: In 1991, the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature-controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls. The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on the removal of tape, oils, metals, salt, and other contaminants.[70] The fragments and scrolls are preserved using acid-free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate-controlled storage area.[70]

text: Nine tiny phylactery slips were rediscovered by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) in 2014, after they had been stored unopened for six decades following their excavation in 1952. The IAA is preparing to unroll the phylacteries or tefillin once a safe procedure has been decided upon.[75][76]

text: Photography and assembly[edit]

text: Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different parties during and after the excavation process, they were not all photographed by the same organization.

text: First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research (1948)[edit]

text: The first individual person to photograph a portion of the collection was John C. Trever (1916–2006), a Biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was a resident for the American Schools of Oriental Research.[18]:68 He photographed three of the scrolls discovered in Cave 1 on 21 February 1948, both on black-and-white and standard color film.[18]:26[77][78] Although an amateur photographer, the quality of his photographs often exceeded the visibility of the scrolls themselves as, over the years, the ink of the texts quickly deteriorated after they were removed from their linen wrappings.

text: Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestine Archaeological Museum (1952–1967)[edit]

text: A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archaeological Museum. The Museum had the scrolls photographed by Najib Albina, a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of the American Colony in Jerusalem,[79] Between 1952 and 1967, Albina documented the five-stage process of the sorting and assembly of the scrolls, done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, using infrared photography. Using a process known today as broadband fluorescence infrared photography, or NIR photography, Najib and the team at the Museum produced over 1,750 photographic plates of the scrolls and fragments.[80][81][82][18]:68 The photographs were taken with the scrolls laid out on animal skin, using large format film, which caused the text to stand out, making the plates especially useful for assembling fragments.[18]:68 These are the earliest photographs of the museum's collection, which was the most complete in the world at the time, and they recorded the fragments and scrolls before their further decay in storage, so they are often considered the best recorded copies of the scrolls.[83]

text: Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging (1993–2012)[edit]

text: Beginning in 1993, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration used digital infrared imaging technology to produce photographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments.[84] In partnership with the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand on the use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancient manuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images are photographed.[85] NASA used this multi-spectral imaging technique, adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes, in order to reveal previously illegible text on fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[85] The process uses a liquid crystal tunable filter in order to photograph the scrolls at specific wavelengths of light and, as a result, image distortion is significantly diminished.[84] This method was used with select fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls to reveal text and details that cameras that take photographs using a larger light spectrum could not reveal.[84] The camera and digital imaging assembly was developed specifically for the purpose of photographing illegible ancient texts.[86]

text: On December–18-2012[87] the first output of this project was launched together with Google on the dedicated site Deadseascrolls.org.il.[88] The site contains both digitizations of old images taken in the 1950s and about 1000 new images taken with the new NASA technology.[89]

text: Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly (2006–2012)[edit]

text: Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments were written, in concert with infrared digital photography, to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls. For scrolls written on parchment made from animal hide and papyrus, scientists with the museum are using DNA code to associate fragments with different scrolls and to help scholars determine which scrolls may hold greater significance based on the type of material that was used.[66]

text: Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project (2011–2016)[edit]

text: In partnership with Google, the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make them available to the public digitally, although not placing the images in the public domain.[90] The lead photographer of the project, Ardon Bar-Hama, and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a Leaf Aptus-II back in order to produce ultra-high resolution digital images of the scrolls and fragments.[91] With photos taken at 1,200 megapixels, the results are digital images that can be used to distinguish details that are invisible to the naked eye. In order to minimize damage to the scrolls and fragments, photographers are using a 1/4000th of a second exposure time and UV-protected flash tubes.[90] The digital photography project was estimated in 2011 to cost approximately 3.5 million U.S. dollars.[91]

text: Scholarly examination[edit]

text: Early study by scholars[edit]

text: After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in 1953, scholars began to assemble them and log them for translation and study in a room that became known as the "Scrollery".[92]

text: Language and script[edit]

text: The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written in four different languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean.

text:
Language
Script
Percentage of Documents
Centuries of Known Use

Hebrew
Assyrian block script[93]
Estimated 76.0–79.0%
3rd century BCE to present

Hebrew
Cryptic scripts "A" "B" and "C"[94][95][96]
Estimated 0.9%–1.0%[97]
Unknown

Biblical Hebrew
Paleo-Hebrew script[98]
Estimated 1.0–1.5%[96]
10th century BCE to the 2nd century CE

Biblical Hebrew
Paleo-Hebrew scribal script[98]

Aramaic
Aramaic square script
Estimated 16.0–17.0%[99]
8th century BCE to present

Greek
Greek uncial script[98]
Estimated 3.0%[96]
3rd century CE to 8th centuries CE

Nabataean
Nabataean script[100]
Estimated 0.2%[100]
2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE

text: Publication[edit]

text: Physical publication and controversy[edit]

text: Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early. Most of the longer, more complete scrolls were published soon after their discovery. All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950 and 1956; those from eight other caves were released in 1963; and 1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11. Their translations into English soon followed.

text: Controversy[edit]

text: Publication of the scrolls has taken many decades, and delays have been a source of academic controversy. The scrolls were controlled by a small group of scholars headed by John Strugnell, while a majority of scholars had access neither to the scrolls nor even to photographs of the text. Scholars such as Hershel Shanks, Norman Golb, and many others argued for decades for publishing the texts, so that they become available to researchers. This controversy only ended in 1991, when the Biblical Archaeology Society was able to publish the "Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls", after an intervention of the Israeli government and the Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA).[101] In 1991 Emanuel Tov was appointed as the chairman of the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation, and publication of the scrolls followed in the same year.

text: Physical description[edit]

text: The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny, brittle fragments, which were published at a pace considered by many to be excessively slow. During early assembly and translation work by scholars through the Rockefeller Museum from the 1950s through the 1960s, access to the unpublished documents was limited to the editorial committee.

text: Discoveries in the Judaean Desert (1955–2009)[edit]

text: The content of the scrolls was published in a 40 volume series by Oxford University Press published between 1955 and 2009 known as Discoveries in the Judaean Desert.[102] In 1952 the Jordanian Department of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to begin examining, assembling, and translating the scrolls with the intent of publishing them.[103] The initial publication, assembled by Dominique Barthélemy and Józef Milik, was published as Qumran Cave 1 in 1955.[102] After a series of other publications in the late 1980s and early 1990s and with the appointment of the respected Dutch-Israeli textual scholar Emanuel Tov as Editor-in-Chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project in 1990 publication of the scrolls accelerated. Tov's team had published five volumes covering the Cave 4 documents by 1995. Between 1990 and 2009, Tov helped the team produce 32 volumes. The final volume, Volume XL, was published in 2009.

text: A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)[edit]

text: In 1991, researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg, announced the creation of a computer program that used previously published scrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts.[104] Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, led by Head Librarian William Andrew Moffett, announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to the library's complete set of photographs of the scrolls. In the fall of that year, Wacholder published 17 documents that had been reconstructed in 1988 from a concordance and had come into the hands of scholars outside of the International Team; in the same month, there occurred the discovery and publication of a complete set of facsimiles of the Cave 4 materials at the Huntington Library. Thereafter, the officials of the Israel Antiquities Authority agreed to lift their long-standing restrictions on the use of the scrolls.[105]

text: A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)[edit]

text: After further delays, attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an "undisclosed client", who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs, and contracted for their publication. Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991.[106] Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition, Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks, Eisenman, Robinson and the Biblical Archaeology Society for copyright infringement for publishing, without authorization or attribution, his decipherment of one of the scrolls, MMT. The District Court of Jerusalem found in favor of Qimron in September 1993.[107] The Court issued a restraining order, which prohibited the publication of the deciphered text, and ordered defendants to pay Qimron NIS 100,000 for infringing his copyright and the right of attribution. Defendants appealed the Supreme Court of Israel, which approved the District Court's decision, in August 2000. The Supreme Court further ordered that the defendants hand over to Qimron all the infringing copies.[108] The decision met Israeli and international criticism from copyright law scholars.[109][110][111][112][113]

text: The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd, London, England (2007–2008)[edit]

text: In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher, Facsimile Editions Limited, to produce a facsimile edition of The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), The Order of the Community (1QS), and The Pesher to Habakkuk (1QpHab).[114][115] The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs, and so more faithfully represents the condition of the Isaiah scroll at the time of its discovery than does the current condition of the real Isaiah scroll.[114]

text: Of the first three facsimile sets, one was exhibited at the Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition in Seoul, South Korea, and a second set was purchased by the British Library in London. A further 46 sets including facsimiles of three fragments from Cave 4 (now in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum in Amman, Jordan) Testimonia (4Q175), Pesher Isaiahb (4Q162) and Qohelet (4Q109) were announced in May 2009. The edition is strictly limited to 49 numbered sets of these reproductions on either specially prepared parchment paper or real parchment. The complete facsimile set (three scrolls including the Isaiah scroll and the three Jordanian fragments) can be purchased for $60,000.[114]

text: The facsimiles have since been exhibited in Qumrân. Le secret des manuscrits de la mer Morte at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France (2010)[116] and Verbum Domini at the Vatican, Rome, Italy (2012).[117]

text: Digital publication[edit]

text: Olive Tree Bible Software (2000–2011)[edit]

text: The text of nearly all of the non-biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Dr. Martin Abegg, Jr., the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies at Trinity Western University located in Langley, British Columbia, Canada.[118] It is available on handheld devices through Olive Tree Bible Software - BibleReader, on Macs and Windows via emulator through Accordance with a comprehensive set of cross references, and on Windows through Logos Bible Software and BibleWorks.

text: The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader (2005)[edit]

text: The text of almost all of the non-Biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD-ROM by publisher E.J. Brill in 2005.[119] The 2400 page, 6 volume series, was assembled by an editorial team led by Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov.[120] Unlike the text translations in the physical publication, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, the texts are sorted by genres that include religious law, parabiblical texts, calendrical and sapiental texts, and poetic and liturgical works.[119]

text: Israel Antiquities Authority and Google digitization project (2010–2016)[edit]

text: High-resolution images, including infrared photographs, of some of the Dead Sea scrolls are now available online on two dedicated websites.

text: On 19 October 2010, it was announced[121] that Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA) would scan the documents using multi-spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high-resolution images of the texts, and then, through a partnership with Google, make them available online free of charge,[122] on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools. The project is scheduled for completion within five years.

text: On 25 September 2011 the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls site went online.[123][124] It gives users access to searchable, high-resolution images of the scrolls, as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the texts and their history. As of May 2012, five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the project and are now accessible online: the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Community Rule Scroll, the Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll.

text: Biblical significance[edit]

text: Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Hebrew-language manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretic texts dating to the 10th century CE, such as the Aleppo Codex.[125] Today, the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century. The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls push that date back a full thousand years, to the 2nd century BCE.[126] This was a significant discovery for Old Testament scholars who anticipated that the Dead Sea Scrolls would either affirm or repudiate the reliability of textual transmission from the original texts to the oldest Masoretic texts at hand. The discovery demonstrated the unusual accuracy of transmission over a thousand-year period, rendering it reasonable to believe that current Old Testament texts are reliable copies of the original works.

text: According to The Dead Sea Scrolls by Hebrew scholar Millar Burrows,

text: Of the 166 words in Isaiah 53, there are only seventeen letters in question. Ten of these letters are simply a matter of spelling, which does not affect the sense. Four more letters are minor stylistic changes, such as conjunctions. The remaining three letters comprise the word "light," which is added in verse 11, and does not affect the meaning greatly.[127]

text: It is important to note that some differences were found among fragments of texts. According to The Oxford Companion to Archaeology:

text: While some of the Qumran biblical manuscripts are nearly identical to the Masoretic, or traditional, Hebrew text of the Old Testament, some manuscripts of the books of Exodus and Samuel found in Cave Four exhibit dramatic differences in both language and content. In their astonishing range of textual variants, the Qumran biblical discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider the once-accepted theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three manuscript families: of the Masoretic text, of the Hebrew original of the Septuagint, and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is now becoming increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture was extremely fluid until its canonization around A.D. 100.[128]

text: The conclusion, then, is that the Dead Sea scrolls have taken Biblical scholarship to a new era where much of what was previously believed can now be confirmed, and some of what was accepted as fact should now be reexamined so Biblical texts can correspond precisely with what was originally written. To quote Gleason Archer's A Survey of Old Testament Introduction:

text: In conclusion, we should accord to the Masoretes the highest praise for their meticulous care in preserving so sedulously the consonantal text of the Sopherim which had been entrusted to them. They, together with the Sopherim themselves, gave the most diligent attention to the accurate preservation of the Hebrew Scriptures that has ever been devoted to any ancient literature, secular or religious, in the history of human civilization...

text: Because of their faithfulness, we have today a form of the Hebrew text which in all essentials duplicates the recension which was considered authoritative in the days of Christ and the apostles, if not a century earlier. And this in turn, judging from Qumran evidence, goes back to an authoritative revision of the Old Testament text which was drawn up on the basis of the most reliable manuscripts available for collation from previous centuries. These bring us very close in all essentials to the original autographs themselves, and furnish us with an authentic record of God's revelation. As W. F. Albright has said, "We may rest assured that the consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible, though not infallible has been preserved with an accuracy perhaps unparalleled in any other Near Eastern literature."[129]

text: Biblical books found[edit]

text: There are 225 Biblical texts included in the Dead Sea Scroll documents, or around 22% of the total, and with deuterocanonical books the number increases to 235.[130][131] The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all but one of the books of the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament protocanon. They also include four of the deuterocanonical books included in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles: Tobit, Ben Sirach, Baruch 6 (also known as the Letter or Epistle of Jeremiah), and Psalm 151.[130] The Book of Esther has not yet been found and scholars believe Esther is missing because, as a Jew, her marriage to a Persian king may have been looked down upon by the inhabitants of Qumran,[132] or because the book has the Purim festival which is not included in the Qumran calendar.[18]:180 Listed below are the most represented books, along with the deuterocanonicals, of the Bible found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including the number of translatable Dead Sea texts that represent a copy of scripture from each Biblical book:[133][134]

text:
[hide]Book
Number found

Psalms
39

Deuteronomy
33

1 Enoch
25

Genesis
24

Isaiah
22

Jubilees
21

Exodus
18

Leviticus
17

Numbers
11

Minor Prophets
10[notes 1]

Daniel
8

Jeremiah
6

Ezekiel
6

Job
6

Tobit
5[136]

1 & 2 Kings
4

1 & 2 Samuel
4

Judges
4[137]

Song of Songs (Canticles)
4

Ruth
4

Lamentations
4

Sirach
3

Ecclesiastes
2

Joshua
2

text: Non-biblical books[edit]

text: The majority of the texts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are non-biblical in nature and were thought to be insignificant for understanding the composition or canonization of the Biblical books, but a different consensus has emerged which sees many of these works as being collected by the Essene community instead of being composed by them.[138] Scholars now recognize that some of these works were composed earlier than the Essene period, when some of the Biblical books were still being written or redacted into their final form.[138]

text: Museum exhibitions and displays[edit]

text: Temporary public exhibitions[edit]

text: Small portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museums and public venues around the world. The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States and the United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world. Many of the exhibitions were co-sponsored by either the Jordanian government (pre-1967) or the Israeli government (post-1967). Exhibitions were discontinued after 1965 due to the Six-days War conflicts and have slowed down in post-2011 as the Israeli Antiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage.

text: A list of major temporary public exhibitions can be found on antiquities.org[139]

text:
[show]Exhibition Place
Exhibition City
Exhibition Name
Exhibition Dates
Description
Picture

The National Museum of Natural History
Washington, D.C., United States
"The Torch"
27 February 1965 – 21 March 1965
The exhibition took place in the Foyer Gallery of the Natural History Building. The exhibit, sponsored by the Government of Jordan, drew 209,643 visitors.[140]

The University of Pennsylvania Museum
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States

3 April 1965 – 25 April 1965
Part of a Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service exhibit.[140]

The British Museum
London, England, United Kingdom
"The Dead Sea Scrolls of Jordan"
December 1965
The exhibition aroused great public interest and attracted large attendances. The exhibition involved cooperation between the Palestine Archaeological Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Government of the Heshemite Kingdom of Jordan[141]

The Library of Congress
Washington, D.C., United States
"Scrolls from the Dead Sea: The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Scholarship"
29 April 1993 – June 1993
The exhibition featured 12 scrolls and 88 artifacts displayed in the library's Madison Gallery.[142]

The New York Public Library
New York, New York, United States
"The Dead Sea Scrolls: Ancient Civilization-Modern Scholarship"
October 1993 – January 1994
This exhibition featured 12 fragments of the Israel Antiquities Authority Collection and 200 pieces in all.[143]

The Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco
San Francisco, California, United States
"Highlights from the Israel Antiquities Authority: The Dead Sea Scrolls and 5,000 Years of Treasures"
26 February 1994 – 29 May 1994
Among others, the exhibition included the Book of Psalms and included 50 total artifacts on display.[144]

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana
Vatican City

4 July 1994 – 16 October 1994

Israel Museum Jerusalem
Jerusalem, Israel

February 1995 – May 1995

Kelvingrove[145]
Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom

1 May 1998 – 30 August 1998

Romisch-Germanisches Museum
Koln, Germany

12 November 1998 – 18 April 1999

Austellungssaal des Regeirungsgebaudes
St. Gallen, Switzerland

7 May 1999 – 8 August 1999

Field Museum of Chicago
Chicago, Illinois, United States

4 February 2000 – 18 June 2000
This exhibit included the Psalms Scroll.[146]

The Art Gallery of New South Wales
Sydney, Australia
"Dead Sea Scrolls"
14 July 2000 – 15 October 2000
The exhibition featured parts of the War Scroll and other fragments along with related artifacts.[147]

The Public Museum of Grand Rapids
Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States

15 February 2003 – 31 May 2003

Museu Historic Nacional
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

1 August 2004 – 10 October 2004

Houston Museum of Natural Science
Houston, Texas, United States

1 October 2004 – 2 January 2005

Museu Brasileiro da Escultura Marilisa Rathsman
São Paulo, Brazil

27 October 2004 – 15 February 2005

Discovery Place
Charlotte, North Carolina, United States

17 February 2006 – 29 May 2006

Pacific Science Center
Seattle, Washington, United States

23 September 2006 – 7 January 2007

Union Station
Kansas City, Missouri, United States

8 February 2007 – 13 May 2007
Not exclusively a museum exhibition.

San Diego Natural History Museum
San Diego, California, United States
"Dead Sea Scrolls"
29 June 2007 – 6 January 2008
The museum claimed that the exhibition "was the largest and most comprehensive exhibition of Dead Sea Scrolls ever assembled." The exhibition displayed 24 sets of fragments, including some from the Copper Scroll.[148]

Museum of Natural Sciences
Raleigh, North Carolina, United States
"The Dead Sea Scrolls"
28 June 2008 – 28 December 2008
The exhibition featured 12 sets of scroll fragments on loan from the IAA.[149]

Jewish Museum New York
New York, New York, United States
"The Dead Sea Scrolls: Mysteries of the Ancient World"
21 September 2008 – 4 January 2009
The exhibition featured six sets of scroll fragments.[150]

Royal Ontario Museum
Toronto, Canada
"Words that Changed the World"
27 June 2009 – 3 January 2010
On 24 September 2008 it was announced that the Royal Ontario Museum would be hosting an exhibition of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[151] From 27 June 2009, to 3 January 2010, a collection of over 200 manuscripts of the Dead Sea Scrolls were displayed at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada.[151] The exhibition was a joint venture between the Israel Antiquities Authority and the Royal Ontario Museum.[151]

Science Museum of Minnesota
St. Paul, Minnesota, United States
"Words that Changed the World"
12 March 2010 – 24 October 2010
The exhibition featured three sets of five fragments from scrolls.[152]

The Franklin Institute
Philadelphia, PA
"Dead Sea Scrolls: Life and Faith in Ancient Times"
12 May 2012 – 14 October 2012
The exhibition features a total of twenty scrolls, displayed ten at a time, including the oldest known copies of the Hebrew Bible and four never-before-seen scrolls. With more than 600 items on display, visitors will experience firsthand the traditions, beliefs and iconic objects from everyday life, more than 2000 years ago.[153]

Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
Fort Worth, Texas, United States
"Dead Sea Scrolls and the Bible"
2 July 2012 – 13 January 2013
A landmark endeavor, Southwestern Seminary's exhibit marks the first time a private institution has hosted a display of the Dead Sea Scrolls. With over 21 scroll pieces, the exhibition includes a never-before-seen Genesis fragment on loan from the Kando family (the largest piece held in any private collection) and one of only five existing laser-facsimiles of the Great Isaiah Scroll. The exhibit focuses on the unique relationship between the 1947 discovery and its implications for biblical textual criticism and historicity.[154]

Museum of Science
Boston, Massachusetts, United States
"Dead Sea Scrolls: Life in Ancient Times"
19 May 2013 – 20 October 2013

California Science Center
Los Angeles, California, United States
"Dead Sea Scrolls: The Exhibition"
10 March – 7 September 2015
A rebranding of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Life and Faith in Ancient Times seen in other US Cities.[155]

text: Long-term museum exhibitions[edit]

text: Display at the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem[edit]

text: The majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection was moved to Jerusalem's Shrine of the Book (a part of the Israel Museum) after the building's completion in April 1965.[156] The museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of the Israeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surrounded by reproductions of other famous fragments that include Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[157][158]

text: Display at The Jordan Museum, Amman, Jordan[edit]

text: Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 was stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities. In 2013 parts of this collection have been put on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman, to which they were moved from the Jordan Archaeological Museum.[159] Among the display items are artifacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.[160]

text: Ownership[edit]

text: Past ownership[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2012)

text: Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a third party until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated. That third party, George Isha'ya, was a member of the Syriac Orthodox Church, who soon contacted St Mark's Monastery in the hope of getting an appraisal of the nature of the texts. News of the find then reached Metropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel, better known as Mar Samuel. After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity, Mar Samuel expressed an interest in purchasing them. Four scrolls found their way into his hands: the now famous Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), the Community Rule, the Habakkuk Pesher (a commentary on the book of Habakkuk), and the Genesis Apocryphon. More scrolls soon surfaced in the antiquities market, and Professor Eleazer Sukenik and Professor Benjamin Mazar, Israeli archaeologists at Hebrew University, soon found themselves in possession of three, The War Scroll, Thanksgiving Hymns, and another, more fragmented, Isaiah scroll (1QIsab).

text: Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls eventually went up for sale in an advertisement in the 1 June 1954, Wall Street Journal.[161] On 1 July 1954, the scrolls, after delicate negotiations and accompanied by three people including the Metropolitan, arrived at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York. They were purchased by Professor Mazar and the son of Professor Sukenik, Yigael Yadin, for $250,000, approximately 2.14 million in 2012-equivalent dollars, and brought to Jerusalem.[162] Recently, forgeries of alleged Dead Sea Scrolls have appeared on black markets.[163]

text: Current ownership[edit]

text: Almost all of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection is currently under the ownership of the Government of the state of Israel, and housed in the Shrine of the Book on the grounds of the Israel Museum. This ownership is contested by both Jordan and by the Palestinian Authority.

text: A list of known ownership of Dead Sea Scroll fragments:

text:
Claimed Owner
Year Acquired
Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned

Azusa Pacific University[164]
2009
5

Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago[165]
1956
1

Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary[166]
2009; 2010; 2012
8

Rockefeller Museum – Government of Israel[167][168]
1967
> 15,000

The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen[169]
1980; 1994; 1995
115[170]

The Jordan Museum – Government of Jordan[159]
1947–1956
> 25

Museum of the Bible aka Green Collection – Green Family[171]
2009–2014[170]
>13

Syrian Orthodox Church's eastern U.S. archdiocese[172]

1

Ashland Theological Seminary[172]

1

Lanier Theological Library[172]

1

Pasadena Private Collection[172]

1

text: Ownership disputes[edit]

text: The official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Israel, and the Palestinian Authority. The debate over the Dead Sea Scrolls stems from a more general Israeli–Palestinian conflict over land and state recognition.

text:
Parties Involved
Party Role
Explanation of Role

 Jordan
Disputant; Minority Owner
Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestine Archaeological Museum (now the Rockefeller Museum) operated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six-Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of the Museum, and that therefore they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.[173] Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third-party countries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel, claiming they have legal documents that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls.[174]

 Israel
Disputant; Current Majority Owner
After the Six-Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum. Israel disputes Jordan's claim and states that Jordan never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was an unlawful occupier of the museum and region.[175][176][177]

 Palestinian Authority
Disputant
The Palestinian Authority also holds a claim to the scrolls.[178]

 Canada
Neutral Exhibition Host
In 2009, a part of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Israeli Antiquities Authority was moved and displayed at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada. Both the Palestinian Authority and Jordan petitioned the international community, including the United Nations,[179] for the scrolls to be seized under disputed international law. Ottawa dismissed the demands and the exhibit continued, with the scrolls returning to Israel upon its conclusion.[180]
A planned exhibition in Germany was cancelled, as the German government could not guarantee a return of the scrolls to Israel [1]

text: Copyright disputes[edit]

text: This section needs attention from an expert in Law. The specific problem is: Complexity of copyright law surrounding historical documents in the United States and other nations. WikiProject Law may be able to help recruit an expert. (June 2012)

text: There are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be considered ambiguous; the documents themselves, images taken of the documents, and reproductions of the documents. This ambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of such law.

text: Copyright of the original scrolls and translations, Qimron v. Shanks (1992)[edit]

text: In 1992 a copyright case Qimron v. Shanks was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimron against Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regarding his publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls which were included without his permission. Qimron's suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society was done on the grounds that the research they had published was his intellectual property as he had reconstructed about 40% of the published text. In 1993, the district court Judge Dalia Dorner ruled for the plaintiff, Elisha Qimron, in context of both United States and Israeli copyright law and granted the highest compensation allowed by law for aggravation in compensation against Hershel Shanks and others.[181] In an appeal in 2000 in front of Judge Aharon Barak, the verdict was upheld in Israeli Supreme Court in Qimron's favor.[182] The court case established the two main principles from which facsimiles are examined under copyright law of the United States and Israel: authorship and originality.

text: The courts ruling not only affirms that the "deciphered text" of the scrolls can fall under copyright of individuals or groups, but makes it clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves do not fall under this copyright law and scholars have a degree of, in the words of U.S. copyright law professor David Nimmer, "freedom" in access. Nimmer has shown how this freedom was in the theory of law applicable, but how it did not exist in reality as the Israeli Antiquities Authority tightly controlled access to the scrolls and photographs of the scrolls.[181]