document_title: U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state

question_text: how many states have a legal drinking age of 21

text: The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time.  This history is given in the table below.  Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18", not "21").  In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.

text:
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the
repeal of Prohibition in 1933.  Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s.  From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. Many states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973.[1][2][3] Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.

text: From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities.[citation needed] In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10% of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age,[4] while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.[5]

text:
State
Pre-Prohibition(prior to 1919)
Post-Prohibition(after 1933)
1970s / 26th Amendment(adopted in 1971)
1980s / Drinking Age Act of 1984
21st century

Alabama

Pre 1881:None1881:21 (none with consent of parent)[6]
21
1975:Lowered to 19[7]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21  (no one underage is allowed consumption Section 28-1)

Alaska

?
21[7]
1970:Lowered to 19[9]
1984:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause (if born before January 1, 1965)[10][11]
21

Arizona

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 19[12][13]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Arkansas

Pre 1925:None[7]1925:21[7]
21
21[14]
21[8]
21

California

Pre 1891:Regulated by municipality/county (common age was 16)[15][16][17]1891:18 (statewide)[18]
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21 (except small amounts for religious ceremonies)

Colorado

None[11]
1945:18: for beer21: for wine and liquor[7]
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1987[8]
21

Connecticut

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 18[20]
1982:Raised to 191983:Raised to 201985:Raised to 21[21]
21 (exemptions: (1) a person over age eighteen who is an employee or permit holder under section 30-90a and who possesses alcoholic liquor in the course of such person's employment or business, (2) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor on the order of a practicing physician, or (3) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor while accompanied by a parent, guardian or spouse of the minor, who has attained the age of twenty-one. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to burden a person's exercise of religion under section 3 of article first of the Constitution of the state in violation of subsection (a) of section 52-571b.[22]

Delaware

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 20[13]
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

District of Columbia

?
18: for beer and wine[11]21: for liquor[23][24]
18: for beer and wine[13][24]21: for liquor
1986:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause.[25][26]
21

Florida

?
18[7]
1980:19[27]
1985:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[27]
21[28]

Georgia

?
21[11]
1972: Lowered to 18[12]
1984:Raised to 19[14]1985:Raised to 20[14]1986:Raised to 21[14]
21

Hawaii

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18[13]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Idaho

?
20: for beer[29][30]21: for wine and liquor[11][31]
1972:Lowered to 19 (all)[13][32]
1987:Raised to 21 in 1987 (Apr 11) with grandfather clause[8][33]
21

Illinois

1872:Age of majority (none with written consent of parent)[34]
pre 1961: Age of majority      1961:  Raised to 21[35]
1973:Lowered to 19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[36]
1980:Raised to 21[37]
21

Indiana

?
Post-1934:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Iowa

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 19 in 1972 (Jul 1)1973:Lowered to 18 in 1973 (Jul 1)1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Jul 1)[38]
1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Jul 1) with grandfather clause.[14][38]
21

Kansas

?
1949:18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV[14]21: for beer and wine with 4% ABV or more[14]21: for liquor[14][19]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21 (However, anyone under 21 may consume cereal malt beverages with parental supervision on their own property)

Kentucky

?
1938:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Louisiana

?
As of 1948:18[13]
18[19]
1987:Raised to 21 de jure in 1987,[8]but de facto age was still 18 until 1995 due to a sale loophole.1995:De facto age raised to 21 in 1995 when loophole was closed.[39]1996:In 1996, briefly lowered by Louisiana Supreme Court to 18 until it reversed its decision, raising to 21 three months later.[40]Other exceptions still remain.[41]
21 (Exceptions to state law include:[42]
For an established religious purpose;When a person under twenty-one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty-one years of age or older;For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution;In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling;The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty-one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)

Maine

?
21[7]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 18[12]1977:Raised to 20[8][43]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Maryland

?
21[7]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[44][45]
1982:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[8][46]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)

Massachusetts

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 181979:Raised to 20 in 1979 (Apr 16)[47][48][49]
Raised to 21 in 1985[8]
21

Michigan

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18 in 1972 (Jan 1)[50]
1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Dec 3)[51][52]1978:Raised to 21 in 1978 (Dec 21), 18 days later.[8]First state to raise age to 21 since it was lowered
21

Minnesota

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18 (June 1)1976:Raised to 19 (Sept 1)[53]First state to raise age after lowering.

1986:Raised to 21[54]
21

Mississippi

?
1966:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7](alcohol not legalized until 1966)
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1986[8]
21

Missouri

?
1945:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Montana

?
21[11]
1971:Lowered to 19[55]1973:Lowered to 18[56][57]1979:Raised to 19
1987:Raised to 21[8][58]
21

Nebraska

?
21[59]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 19[59]
1980:Raised to 20[14]1985:Raised to 21[14]
21

Nevada

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

New Hampshire

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18[60]1979:Raised to 20
1985:Raised to 21[8][21]
21

New Jersey

Before 1880:NonePost-1880:18 (penalties only against businesses)[61][62][63]
21[citation needed]
1973:Lowered to 18[12]
1980:Raised to 191983:Raised to 21[8][64]
21

New Mexico

?
1934:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

New York

21
18[65]
18
1982:Raised to 19 in 1982 (Dec)1985:Raised to 21 in 1985 (Dec)[21][66][67]
21

North Carolina

?
18[11]
18: for beer and wine[19] 21: for liquor
1983:19: for beer and wine 21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

North Dakota

?
1936:21[7]
21[14]
21[68]
21

Ohio

?
1935:18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[69]
18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor
1982 (Aug. 19 to Oct. 1):19: for 3.2% ABW beer[14]21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[14]1982 (From Oct. 1):19: beer21: wine and liquor[70]1988:21[14]
21 (However, anyone can drink with parents or legal-age spouse)

Oklahoma

?
Men:21Women:18: 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[71]
1976:Lowered to 18 (for 3.2% ABW beer) for both sexes in 1976 (Dec)[72]Last state to lower the drinking age.
1983:Raised to 21[11][73]
21

Oregon

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Pennsylvania

?
1935:21[7]
21
21[8][52]
21

Rhode Island

?
21[11]
1970:Lowered to 18[12][74]
1980:Raised to 191981:Raised to 201984:Raised to 21[21]
21

South Carolina

21[75]
1935:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine[19]21: for liquor
1984:19: for beer and wine[7]21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

South Dakota

?
1934:21 (all)1939:Lowered to 18: for 3.2% beerRaised to 19: for 3.2% beer[76]
1972:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[13]
1984:19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[8]1988:Raised to 21[58]
21

Tennessee

Pre 1881:None1881:21[77]
21[7]1964:Lowered to 18[7]
1979:Raised to 19
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

Texas

Pre 1909:21None (with written permission of parent or guardian)Post 1909:21[78][79]
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 18[80]
1981:Raised to 19[81]1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

Utah

?
1935:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Vermont

?
21[7]
1971:Lowered to 18[82][83]
1986:Raised to 21[21][83]
21

Virginia

?
21[84]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine(21: for liquor remained)[84]
1981:Raised to 19 for off-premises consumption1983:Raised to 19 (all beer)1985:Raised to 21[84]
21

Washington

"Age of majority"since 1877[85]
21[citation needed]
21
21[8]
21

West Virginia

?
18: for beer and wine 21: for liquor[11]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all)[86]
1983:Raised to 19(& 21 for non-residents)[8][43]1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Wisconsin

1839–1866:18: for wine and liquorNone: for beerPost-1866:21 (all)[87]
18: for beer21: for wine and spirits1957:21: for residents of bordering states with age limit 21.[88]1963:Raised to 21 (off-premises beer sales, remained 18 for on-premises).[88]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all) in 1972 (Mar)[88]1977:Border state restriction lifted.[88]
1984:Raised to 191986:Raised to 21 (September 1, 1986)[88]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)[citation needed]

Wyoming

?
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 19[13]
1988:Raised to 21 in 1988 (Jul 1)[89][90]Last state to raise de jure drinking age to 21
21

American Samoa

?
?
?
21?
21[91]

Northern Mariana Islands

–
–
?
21?
21[92]

Puerto Rico

?
18
18
Kept at 18despite 10% highway fundingpenalty under Drinking Age Act.
18[93]

Virgin Islands

?
?
?
18
18[94]

Guam

?
21?
18
18
Raised to 21 in 2010[5]

text: Additional notes[edit]

text:
Contrary to popular belief, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, not all states specifically prohibit minors' and young adults' consumption of alcohol in private settings.  That is because the federal law is concerned only with purchase and public possession, not private consumption, and contains several exceptions. As of January 1, 2007, 14 states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, 19 states do not specifically ban underage consumption outright, and 17 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious, medical, employment and private club possession exceptions; as of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws.[41]
In the 1960s the age for buying or drinking beer and wine in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) was 18; the age for hard liquor was 21.[23][24] Residents from Virginia and Maryland would often drive to D.C. to obtain alcohol. In Louisiana, the 1987 law raising the age from 18 to 21 was deliberately written solely to comply with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 to avoid losing highway funding, while still allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to drink as before.  Not only did it still allow 18- to 20-year-olds to consume in private, it contained a major loophole allowing bars and stores to sell alcohol to 18- to 20-year-olds without penalty (despite purchase being technically illegal) which meant that the de facto age was still 18.[39] In other words, the drinking age was 21 only on paper. This loophole was closed in 1995, but in 1996 the Louisiana Supreme Court declared a drinking age of 21 unconstitutional.[39]  That briefly lowered the de jure purchase age to 18, causing an uproar which prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to reverse its decision, raising the age to 21 three months later.[40] Other exceptions still remain to this day, including drinking in a private residence,[41] and Louisiana still has some of the most liberal general alcohol laws of any state.
Some states were "dry" well before national Prohibition was enacted in 1919, in some cases since achieving statehood.  Also, some states did not become fully "wet" until several years after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 (e.g. Mississippi in 1966).  Since 1966, all states and territories of the USA have been "wet", but dry counties and towns still exist in some states.


document_title: Solar eclipse

question_text: what is the ring of light around the sun during an eclipse called

root

text: Solar eclipse

text: Types

text: There are four types of solar eclipses:

tag: p

text:
A total eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the intensely bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible. During any one eclipse, totality occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface of Earth.[6] This narrow track is called the path of totality.[7]
An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line with the Earth, but the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.[8]
A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At certain points on the surface of Earth, it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare.[8]
A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line with the Earth and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can only be seen as a partial eclipse, because the umbra passes above the Earth's polar regions and never intersects the Earth's surface.[8] Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable in terms of the sun's brightness, as it takes well over 90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. Even at 99%, it would be no darker than civil twilight.[9] Of course, partial eclipses (and partial stages of other eclipses) can be observed if one is viewing the sun through a darkening filter (which should always be used for safety).

tag: ul

text: The Sun's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, and the Sun's diameter is about 400 times the Moon's diameter. Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same size: about 0.5 degree of arc in angular measure.[8]

text: A separate category of solar eclipses is that of the Sun being occluded by a body other than the Earth's moon, as can be observed at points in space away from the Earth's surface. Two examples are when the crew of Apollo 12 observed the Earth eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the Cassini probe observed Saturn eclipsing the Sun in 2006.

text: The Moon's orbit around the Earth is slightly elliptical, as is the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon therefore vary.[10] The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its closest distance to Earth (i.e., near its perigee) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large enough to completely cover the Sun's bright disk or photosphere; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than or equal to 1.000. Conversely, an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance from Earth (i.e., near its apogee) can only be an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1. Slightly more solar eclipses are annular than total because, on average, the Moon lies too far from Earth to cover the Sun completely.

text: A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater than one, so the eclipse appears to be total at locations nearer the midpoint, and annular at other locations nearer the beginning and end, since the sides of the Earth are slightly further away from the Moon.  These eclipses are extremely narrow in their path width and extremely short in their duration at any point, at most just a few seconds at any location within just a few kilometres of the centerline of the path.  Like a focal point, the width and duration of totality and annularity are near zero at the points where the changes between the two occur.[11]

text: Because the Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, the Earth's distance from the Sun similarly varies throughout the year. This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way, but not as much as does the Moon's varying distance from Earth.[8] When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in early July, a total eclipse is somewhat more likely, whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in early January.[12]

text: Terminology for central eclipse

text: Central eclipse is often used as a generic term for a total, annular, or hybrid eclipse.[13] This is, however, not completely correct: the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra touches the Earth's surface. It is possible, though extremely rare, that part of the umbra intersects with the Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not its central line. This is then called a non-central total or annular eclipse.[13] The last (umbral yet) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29, 2014. This was an annular eclipse. The next non-central total solar eclipse will be on April 9, 2043.[14]

text: The phases observed during a total eclipse are called:[15]

text:
First contact—when the Moon's limb (edge) is exactly tangential to the Sun's limb.
Second contact—starting with Baily's Beads (caused by light shining through valleys on the Moon's surface) and the diamond ring effect. Almost the entire disk is covered.
Totality—the Moon obscures the entire disk of the Sun and only the solar corona is visible.
Third contact—when the first bright light becomes visible and the Moon's shadow is moving away from the observer. Again a diamond ring may be observed.
Fourth contact—when the trailing edge of the Moon ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the eclipse ends.

text: Predictions

text: Geometry

text: The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse. The dark gray region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra, where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The small area where the umbra touches Earth's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen. The larger light gray area is the penumbra, in which a partial eclipse can be seen. An observer in the antumbra, the area of shadow beyond the umbra, will see an annular eclipse.[16]

text: The Moon's orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when new moon occurs close to one of the points (known as nodes) where the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic.[17]

text: As noted above, the Moon's orbit is also elliptical. The Moon's distance from the Earth can vary by about 6% from its average value. Therefore, the Moon's apparent size varies with its distance from the Earth, and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of the Earth from the Sun also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect. On average, the Moon appears to be slightly smaller than the Sun as seen from the Earth, so the majority (about 60%) of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon is closer to the Earth than average (near its perigee) that a total eclipse occurs.[18][19]

text:
Moon

Sun

At perigee(nearest)

At apogee(farthest)

At perihelion(nearest)

At aphelion(farthest)

Mean radius

1,737.10 km(1,079.38 mi)

696,000 km(432,000 mi)

Distance

363,104 km(225,622 mi)

405,696 km(252,088 mi)

147,098,070 km(91,402,500 mi)

152,097,700 km(94,509,100 mi)

Angulardiameter[20]

33' 30"(0.5583°)

29' 26"(0.4905°)

32' 42"(0.5450°)

31' 36"(0.5267°)

Apparent sizeto scale

Order bydecreasingapparent size

1st

4th

2nd

3rd

tag: table

text: The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known as the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month, Earth has revolved part way around the Sun, making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month: it is approximately 29.5 days. This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month.[17]

text: The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending node.[17] However, the nodes of the Moon's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the action of the Sun's gravity on the Moon's motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic month.[21]

text: Finally, the Moon's perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit and makes a complete circuit in 8.85 years. The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and known as the anomalistic month.[22]

text: The Moon's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the new moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months (173.3 days) apart, known as eclipse seasons, and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods. Sometimes the new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions in two partial eclipses. This means that, in any given year, there will always be at least two solar eclipses, and there can be as many as five.[23]

text: Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node, (10 to 12 degrees for central eclipses). This is referred to as an eclipse limit. In the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node (draconic month), the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees, relative to the nodes.[2] Since the eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees (24 degrees for central eclipses), it is possible for partial eclipses (or rarely a partial and a central eclipse) to occur in consecutive months.[24][25]

text: Path

text: During a central eclipse, the Moon's umbra (or antumbra, in the case of an annular eclipse) moves rapidly from west to east across the Earth. The Earth is also rotating from west to east, at about 28 km/min at the Equator, but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as the Earth's spin at about 61 km/min, the umbra almost always appears to move in a roughly west-east direction across a map of the Earth at the speed of the Moon's orbital velocity minus the Earth's rotational velocity.[27]

text: The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the track can be up to 267 km (166 mi) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes.[28] Outside of the central track, a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of the Earth. Typically, the umbra is 100–160 km wide, while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km.[29]

text: Duration

text: The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse (in order of decreasing importance):[30][31]

text:
The moon being almost exactly at perigee (making its angular diameter as large as possible).
The earth being very near aphelion (furthest away from the sun in its elliptical orbit, making its angular diameter nearly as small as possible).
The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to the earth's equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest.
The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the eclipse aligning with the vector of the earth's rotation (i.e. not diagonal but due east).
The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar point (the part of the earth closest to the sun).

tag: ol

text: The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16, 2186 (with a maximum duration of 7 minutes 4 seconds over northern Guyana).

text: Occurrence and cycles

text: Total solar eclipses are rare events. Although they occur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average,[33] it is estimated that they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years, on average.[34] The total eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location, because the Moon's umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km/h.[35] Totality currently can never last more than 7 min 32 s. This value changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing. By the 8th millennium, the longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s.[30] The last time an eclipse longer than 7 minutes occurred was June 30, 1973 (7 min 3 sec). Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon's umbra.[36] The next total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not occur until June 25, 2150. The longest total solar eclipse during the 11,000 year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will last 7 min 29 s.[30][37] For comparison, the longest total eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20, 1955, and there are no total solar eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century.[38]

text: If the date and time of any solar eclipse are known, it is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles. The saros is probably the best known and one of the most accurate. A saros lasts 6,585.3 days (a little over 18 years), which means that, after this period, a practically identical eclipse will occur. The most notable difference will be a westward shift of about 120° in longitude (due to the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude (north-south for odd-numbered cycles, the reverse for even-numbered ones). A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one of Earth's polar regions, then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses, and ends with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region. A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87 eclipses, with about 40 to 60 of them being central.[39]

text: Frequency per year

text: Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year, with at least one per eclipse season. Since the Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582, years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693, 1758, 1805, 1823, 1870, and 1935. The next occurrence will be 2206.[40] On average, there are about 240 solar eclipses each century.[41]

text:
The 5 solar eclipses of 1935

January 5

February 3

June 30

July 30

December 25

Partial(south)

Partial(north)

Partial(north)

Partial(south)

Annular(south)

Saros 111

Saros 149

Saros 116

Saros 154

Saros 121

text: Final totality

text: Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances. Even on Earth, the diversity of eclipses familiar to people today is a temporary (on a geological time scale) phenomenon. Hundreds of millions of years in the past, the Moon was closer to the Earth and therefore apparently larger, so every solar eclipse was total or partial, and there were no annular eclipses. Due to tidal acceleration, the orbit of the Moon around the Earth becomes approximately 3.8 cm more distant each year. Millions of years in the future, the Moon will be too far away to fully occlude the Sun, and no total eclipses will occur. In the same timeframe, the Sun may become brighter, making it appear larger in size.[42] Estimates of the when the moon will be unable to occlude the entire sun when viewed from the Earth range between 1.4 billion[42] and 650 million years in the future.[43]

text: Historical eclipses

text: Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians, in that they allow a few historical events to be dated precisely, from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced[44]. A solar eclipse of June 15, 763 BC mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the chronology of the ancient Near East.[45] There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses. The Book of Joshua 10:13 describes an annular solar eclipse that occurred on 30 October 1207 BC.[46][47] The King Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers, Hsi and Ho, who failed to predict an eclipse 4,000 years ago.[48] Perhaps the earliest still-unproven claim is that of archaeologist Bruce Masse, who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10, 2807 BC with a possible meteor impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar eclipse.[49]

text: Eclipses have been interpreted as omens, or portents.[50] The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the Lydians. Both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse.[51] The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain, although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities. One likely candidate took place on May 28, 585 BC, probably near the Halys river in Asia Minor.[52] An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before Xerxes departed for his expedition against Greece,[53] which is traditionally dated to 480 BC, was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17, 478 BC.[54] Alternatively, a partial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2, 480 BC.[55] Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second Persian invasion of Greece.[56] The date of the eclipse (August 1, 477 BC) does not match exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians.[57]

text: Chinese records of eclipses begin at around 720 BC.[58] The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun.[59] The "radiating influence" theory (i.e., the Moon's light was reflection from the Sun) was existent in Chinese thought from about the sixth century BC (in the Zhi Ran of Zhi Ni Zi),[60] though it was opposed by the 1st century AD philosopher Wang Chong, who made clear in his writing that this theory was nothing new.[59] Ancient Greeks, such as Parmenides and Aristotle, also supported the theory of the Moon shining because of reflected light.[60]

text: Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described at Jesus's crucifixion was a solar eclipse. This research has not yielded conclusive results,[61][62] and Good Friday is recorded as being at Passover, which is held at the time of a full moon. Further, the darkness lasted from the sixth hour to the ninth, or three hours, which is much, much longer than the eight-minute upper limit for any solar eclipse's totality. In the Western hemisphere, there are few reliable records of eclipses before 800 AD, until the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period.[58] The first recorded observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in 968 AD.[55][58]

text: The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706.[58] Nine years later, English astronomer Edmund Halley accurately predicted and observed the solar eclipse of May 3, 1715.[55][58] By the mid-19th century, scientific understanding of the Sun was improving through observations of the Sun's corona during solar eclipses. The corona was identified as part of the Sun's atmosphere in 1842, and the first photograph (or daguerreotype) of a total eclipse was taken of the solar eclipse of July 28, 1851.[55] Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, which helped to determine the chemical composition of the Sun.[55]

text: John Fiske summed up myths about the solar eclipse like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers,

text: the myth of Hercules and Cacus, the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber who steals the light. Now whether the robber carries off the light in the evening when Indra has gone to sleep, or boldly rears his black form against the sky during the daytime, causing darkness to spread over the earth, would make little difference to the framers of the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the same thing as nightfall, and he goes to roost accordingly. Why, then, should the primitive thinker have made a distinction between the darkening of the sky caused by black clouds and that caused by the rotation of the earth? He had no more conception of the scientific explanation of these phenomena than the chicken has of the scientific explanation of an eclipse. For him it was enough to know that the solar radiance was stolen, in the one case as in the other, and to suspect that the same demon was to blame for both robberies.[63]

text: Viewing

text: Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun (the bright disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few seconds, can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye, because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the photosphere emits. This damage can result in impairment of vision, up to and including blindness. The retina has no sensitivity to pain, and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours, so there is no warning that injury is occurring.[64][65]

text: Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly. However, during an eclipse, with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more tempting to stare at it. Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse, except during the brief period of totality, when the Sun's disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Sun's disk through any kind of optical aid (binoculars, a telescope, or even an optical camera viewfinder) is extremely hazardous and can cause irreversible eye damage within a fraction of a second.[66][67]

text: Partial and annular eclipses

text: Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality) requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing methods if eye damage is to be avoided. The Sun's disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun's radiation. Sunglasses do not make viewing the Sun safe. Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the Sun's disk.[68] Especially, self-made filters using common objects such as a floppy disk removed from its case, a Compact Disc, a black colour slide film, smoked glass, etc. must be avoided.[69][70]

text: The safest way to view the Sun's disk is by indirect projection.[71] This can be done by projecting an image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses covered), a telescope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it (about 1 mm diameter), often called a pinhole camera. The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; this technique can be used to observe sunspots, as well as eclipses. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that no one looks through the projector (telescope, pinhole, etc.) directly.[72] Viewing the Sun's disk on a video display screen (provided by a video camera or digital camera) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun. The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe. Securely mounting #14 welder's glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing possible.[70] Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching mountings will have. In the partial eclipse path, one will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete darkening of the sky. However, depending on how much of the Sun's disk is obscured, some darkening may be noticeable. If three-quarters or more of the sun is obscured, then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim, as if the sky were overcast, yet objects still cast sharp shadows.[73]

text: Totality

text: When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere becomes very small, Baily's beads will occur. These are caused by the sunlight still being able to reach the Earth through lunar valleys. Totality then begins with the diamond ring effect, the last bright flash of sunlight.[74]

text: It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun's photosphere is completely covered by the Moon, and not before or after totality.[71] During this period, the Sun is too dim to be seen through filters. The Sun's faint corona will be visible, and the chromosphere, solar prominences, and possibly even a solar flare may be seen. At the end of totality, the same effects will occur in reverse order, and on the opposite side of the Moon.[74]

text: Photography

text: Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so care is recommended.[75] Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used. Using a camera's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun's rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter.[76]

text: Eclipse chasing

text: A dedicated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur around the Earth.[77] A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover.[78] Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the sun including solar viewing glasses, also known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes.[79][80]

text: Other observations

text: A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona (the outer layer of the Sun's atmosphere). Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona. According to the point reached in the solar cycle, the corona may appear small and symmetric, or large and fuzzy. It is very hard to predict this in advance.[81]

text: As the light filters through leaves of trees during a partial eclipse, the overlapping leaves create natural pinholes, displaying mini eclipses on the ground.[82]

text: Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands (also known as flying shadows), which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They only occur just prior to and after totality, when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source.[83]

text: 1919 observations

text: The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, helped to confirm Einstein's theory of general relativity. By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus, with and without the Sun between them, Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about gravitational lenses were confirmed.[84] The observation with the Sun between the stars was only possible during totality since the stars are then visible. Though Eddington's observations were near the experimental limits of accuracy at the time, work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his results.[85][86]

text: Gravity anomalies

text: There is a long history of observations of gravity-related phenomena during solar eclipses, especially during the period of totality. In 1954, and again in 1959, Maurice Allais reported observations of strange and unexplained movement during solar eclipses.[87] The reality of this phenomenon, named the Allais effect, has remained controversial. Similarly, in 1970, Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum; this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect.[88]

text: A recent published observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational shielding effect,[89] which generated debate. Later in 2002, Yang and Wang published detailed data analysis, which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained.[90]

text: Eclipses and transits

text: In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations. The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5, 6757, and a Solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is expected on April 5, 15232.[91]

text: More common, but still infrequent, is a conjunction of a planet (especially, but not only, Mercury or Venus) at the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun, when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun's glare. At one time, some scientists hypothesized that there may be a planet (often given the name Vulcan) even closer to the Sun than Mercury; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total solar eclipse. No such planet was ever found, and general relativity has since explained the observations that led astronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist.[92]

text: Earthshine

text: During a total solar eclipse, the Moon's shadow covers only a small fraction of the Earth. The Earth continues to receive at least 92 percent of the amount of sunlight it receives without an eclipse – more if the penumbra of the Moon's shadow partly misses the Earth. Seen from the Moon, the Earth during a total solar eclipse is mostly brilliantly illuminated, with only a small dark patch showing the Moon's shadow. The brilliantly-lit Earth reflects a lot of light to the Moon. If the corona of the eclipsed Sun were not present, the Moon, illuminated by earthlight, would be easily visible from Earth. This would be essentially the same as the earthshine which can frequently be seen when the Moon's phase is a narrow crescent. In reality, the corona, though much less brilliant than the Sun's photosphere, is much brighter than the Moon illuminated by earthlight. Therefore, by contrast, the Moon during a total solar eclipse appears to be black, with the corona surrounding it.

text: Artificial satellites

text: Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from the Earth, but none is large enough to cause an eclipse. At the altitude of the International Space Station, for example, an object would need to be about 3.35 km (2.08 mi) across to blot the Sun out entirely. These transits are difficult to watch because the zone of visibility is very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second, typically. As with a transit of a planet, it will not get dark.[93]. The International Space Station transit across the Sun from any location can last from around 1 up to 8 seconds only taking into account, that the spacecraft is moving centrally alongside the diameter of the Sun. The longest International Space Station transits may occur just after the sunrise or just before the sunset when the way from observer to the object is the longest (see the Parallax phenomenon)[94].

text: Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above the Earth's atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions. The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966.[95] The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir.[96]

text: During the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project conducted in July 1975, the Apollo spacecraft was positioned to create an artificial solar eclipse giving the Soyuz crew an opportunity to photograph the solar corona.

text: Impact

text: The solar eclipse of March 20, 2015, was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a significant impact on the power system, with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact. The continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90 gigawatts of solar power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear sky day.[97][98] The temperature may decrease by 3 °C, and wind power potentially decreases as winds are reduced by 0.7 m/s.[99]

text: In addition to the drop in light level and air temperature, animals change their behavior during totality. For example, birds and squirrels return to their nests and crickets chirp.[100]

text: Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses

text: Eclipses only occur in the eclipse season, when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending node of the Moon. Each eclipse is separated by one, five or six lunations (synodic months), and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173.3 days, which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next. The period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly regress. Because 223 synodic months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic months, eclipses with similar geometry recur 223 synodic months (about 6,585.3 days) apart. This period (18 years 11.3 days) is a saros. Because 223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or 242 draconic months, saros cycles do not endlessly repeat. Each cycle begins with the Moon's shadow crossing the earth near the north or south pole, and subsequent events progress toward the other pole until the Moon's shadow misses the earth and the series ends.[24] Saros cycles are numbered; currently, cycles 117 to 156 are active. The next solar eclipse will occur on August 11, 2018. It will be a partial solar eclipse visible from Northern Europe and Northeastern Asia.[101]

text:
Solar eclipses

1997–2000
2000–2003
2004–2007
2008–2011
2011–2014
2015–2018
2018–2021
2022–2025
2026–2029


document_title: El Clásico

question_text: who has the most goals in el classico

question_tokens: who has the most goals in el classico

text: El Clásico

text: Rivalry

text: History

text: The conflict between Real Madrid and Barcelona has long surpassed the sporting dimension,[13][14] so that elections to the clubs' presidencies are strongly politicized.[15]

text: As early as the 1930s, Barcelona "had developed a reputation as a symbol of Catalan identity, opposed to the centralising tendencies of Madrid".[16][17] In 1936, when Francisco Franco started the Coup d'état against the democratic Second Spanish Republic, the president of Barcelona, Josep Sunyol, member of the Republican Left of Catalonia and Deputy to The Cortes, was arrested and executed without trial by Franco's troops[15] (Sunyol was exercising his political activities, visiting Republican troops north of Madrid).[16]

text: Barcelona was on top of the list of organizations to be purged by the National faction, just after communists, anarchists, and independentists.[15][18] During the Franco dictatorship, most citizens of Barcelona were in strong opposition to the fascist-like régime. Phil Ball, the author of Morbo: The Story of Spanish Football, says about the match; "they hate each other with an intensity that can truly shock the outsider".[19]

text: During the dictatorships of Miguel Primo de Rivera and of Francisco Franco, all regional languages and identities in Spain were frowned upon and restrained. In this period, Barcelona gained their motto Més que un club (English: More than a club) because of its alleged connection to Catalan nationalist as well as to progressive beliefs.[20] During Franco's regime, however, Barcelona was granted profit due to its good relationship with the dictator at management level, even giving two awards to him.[21] The links between senior Real Madrid representatives and the Francoist regime were undeniable;[15] for most of the Catalans, Real Madrid was regarded as "the establishment club", despite the fact that presidents of both clubs like Josep Sunyol and Rafael Sánchez Guerra, suffered at the hands of Franco's supporters in the Spanish Civil War.[16][22][23]

text: The image for both clubs was further affected by the creation of Ultras groups, some of which became hooligans. In 1980, Ultras Sur was founded as a far-right-leaning Real Madrid ultras group, followed in 1981 by the foundation of the initially left-leaning and later on far-right, Barcelona ultras group Boixos Nois. Both groups became known for their violent acts,[15][24][25] and one of the most conflictive factions of Barcelona supporters, the Casuals, became a full-fledged criminal organisation.[26]

text: For many people, Barcelona is still considered as "the rebellious club", or the alternative pole to "Real Madrid's conservatism".[27][28] According to polls released by CIS (Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas), Real Madrid is the favorite team of most of the Spanish residents, while Barcelona stands in the second position. In Catalonia, forces of all the political spectrum are overwhelmingly in favour of Barcelona. Nevertheless, the support of the blaugrana club goes far beyond from that region, earning its best results among young people, sustainers of a federal structure of Spain and citizens with left-wing ideology, in contrast with Real Madrid fans which politically tend to adopt right-wing views.[29][30]

text: 1943 Copa del Generalísimo semi-finals

text: On 13 June 1943, Real Madrid beat Barcelona 11–1 at home in the second leg of a semi-final of the Copa del Generalísimo, the Copa del Rey having been renamed in honour of General Franco.[31] The first leg, played at Barcelona's Les Corts stadium in Catalonia, had ended with Barcelona winning 3–0. Madrid complained about all the three goals that referee Fombona Fernández had allowed for Barcelona,[32] with the home supporters also whistling Madrid throughout, whom they accused of employing roughhouse tactics, and Fombona for allowing them to. A campaign began in Madrid. Barcelona player Josep Valle recalled: "The press officer at the DND and ABC newspaper wrote all sorts of scurrilous lies, really terrible things, winding up the Madrid fans like never before". While former Real Madrid goalkeeper Eduardo Teus, who admitted that Madrid had "above all played hard", wrote in a newspaper: "the ground itself made Madrid concede two of the three goals, goals that were totally unfair".[33]

text: Barcelona fans were banned from traveling to Madrid. Real Madrid released a statement after the match which former club president (1985–1995) Ramón Mendoza explained, "The message got through that those fans who wanted to could go to El Club bar on Calle de la Victoria where Madrid's social center was. There, they were given a whistle. Others had whistles handed to them with their tickets." The day of the second leg, the Barcelona team were insulted and stones were thrown at their bus as soon as they left their hotel. Barcelona's striker Mariano Gonzalvo said of the incident, "Five minutes before the game had started, our penalty area was already full of coins." Barcelona goalkeeper Lluis Miró rarely approached his line—when he did, he was armed with stones. As Francisco Calvet told the story, "They were shouting: Reds! Separatists!... a bottle just missed Sospedra that would have killed him if it had hit him. It was all set up."[34]

text: Real Madrid went 2–0 up within half an hour. The third goal brought with it a sending off for Barcelona's Benito García after he made what Calvet claimed was a "completely normal tackle". Madrid's José Llopis Corona recalled, "At which point, they got a bit demoralized," while Mur countered, "at which point, we thought: 'go on then, score as many as you want'." Madrid scored in minutes 31', 33', 35', 39', 43' and 44', as well as two goals ruled out for offside, made it 8–0. Basilo de la Morena had been caught out by the speed of the goals. In that atmosphere and with a referee who wanted to avoid any complications, it was humanly impossible to play... If the azulgranas had played badly, really badly, the scoreboard would still not have reached that astronomical figure. The point is that they did not play at all." Both clubs were fined 2,500 pesetas by the Royal Spanish Football Federation and, although Barcelona appealed, it made no difference. Piñeyro resigned in protest, complaining of "a campaign that the press has run against Barcelona for a week and which culminated in the shameful day at Chamartín".[35][36]

text: The match report in the newspaper La Prensa described Barcelona's only goal as a "reminder that there was a team there who knew how to play football and that if they did not do so that afternoon, it was not exactly their fault".[37] Another newspaper called the scoreline "as absurd as it was abnormal".[32] According to football writer Sid Lowe, "There have been relatively few mentions of the game [since] and it is not a result that has been particularly celebrated in Madrid. Indeed, the 11–1 occupies a far more prominent place in Barcelona's history. This was the game that first formed the identification of Madrid as the team of the dictatorship and Barcelona as its victims."[32] Fernando Argila, Barcelona's reserve goalkeeper from the game, said, "There was no rivalry. Not, at least, until that game."[38]

text: Di Stéfano transfer

text: The rivalry was intensified during the 1950s when the clubs disputed the signing of Alfredo Di Stéfano. Di Stéfano had impressed both Barcelona and Real Madrid while playing for Los Millionarios in Bogotá, Colombia, during a players' strike in his native Argentina.[39] Both Real Madrid and Barcelona attempted to sign him and, due to confusion that emerged from Di Stéfano moving to Millonarios from River Plate following the strike, both clubs claimed to own his registration.[39] After intervention from FIFA representative Muñoz Calero, it was decided that both Barcelona and Real Madrid had to share the player in alternate seasons. Barcelona's humiliated president was forced to resign by the Barcelona board, with the interim board cancelling Di Stéfano's contract.[39] This ended the long struggle for Di Stéfano, as he moved definitively to Real Madrid.[39]

text: Di Stéfano became integral in the subsequent success achieved by Real Madrid, scoring twice in his first game against Barcelona. With him, Real Madrid won the initial five European Champions Cup competitions. The 1960s saw the rivalry reach the European stage when they met twice at the European Cup, Real Madrid winning in 1960 and Barcelona winning in 1961.

text: Luís Figo Transfer

text: In 2000, Real Madrid's then-presidential candidate, Florentino Pérez, offered Barcelona's vice-captain Luís Figo $2.4 million just to sign an agreement binding him to Madrid if he won the elections. If the player broke the deal, he would have to pay Pérez $30 million in compensation. When his agent confirmed the deal, Figo denied everything, insisting, "I'll stay at Barcelona whether Pérez wins or loses." He accused the presidential candidate of "lying" and "fantasizing". He told Barcelona teammates Luis Enrique and Pep Guardiola he was not leaving and they conveyed the message to the Barcelona squad.[40]

text: On 9 July, Sport ran an interview in which he said, "I want to send a message of calm to Barcelona's fans, for whom I always have and always will feel great affection. I want to assure them that Luís Figo will, with absolute certainty, be at the Camp Nou on the 24th to start the new season... I’ve not signed a pre-contract with a presidential candidate at Real Madrid. No. I'm not so mad as to do a thing like that."[40]

text: The only way Barcelona could prevent Figo's transfer to Real Madrid was to pay the penalty clause, $30 million. That would have effectively meant paying the fifth highest transfer fee in history to sign their own player. Barcelona's new president, Joan Gaspart, called the media and told them, "Today, Figo gave me the impression that he wanted to do two things: get richer and stay at Barça." Only one of them happened. The following day, 24 July, Figo was presented in Madrid and handed his new shirt by Alfredo Di Stéfano. His buyout clause was set at $180 million. Gaspart later admitted, "Figo's move destroyed us."[41]

text: On his return to Barcelona in a Real Madrid shirt, banners with "Judas", "Scum" and "Mercenary" were hung around the stadium. Thousands of fake 10,000 peseta notes had been printed and emblazoned with his image, were among the missiles of oranges, bottles, cigarette lighters, even a couple of mobile phones were thrown at him.[42] In his third season with Real Madrid, the 2002 Clásico at Camp Nou produced one of the defining images of the rivalry. Figo was mercilessly taunted throughout; missiles of coins, a knife, a whisky bottle, were raining down from the stands, mostly from areas populated by the Boixos Nois where he had been taking a corner. Among the debris was a pig's head.[43][44]

text: Recent issues

text: During the last three decades, the rivalry has been augmented by the modern Spanish tradition of the Pasillo, where one team is given the guard of honor by the other team, once the former clinches the La Liga trophy before El Clásico takes place. This has happened in three occasions. First, during El Clásico that took place on 30 April 1988, where Real Madrid won the championship on the previous round. Then, three years later, when Barcelona won the championship two rounds before El Clásico on 8 June 1991.[45] The last pasillo, and most recent, took place on 7 May 2008, and this time Real Madrid had won the championship.[46]

text: The two teams met again in the UEFA Champions League semi-final in 2002, with Real Madrid winning 2–0 in Barcelona and a 1–1 draw in Madrid. The match was dubbed by Spanish media as the "Match of the Century".[47]

text: While El Clásico is regarded as one of the fiercest rivalries in world football, there have been rare moments when fans have shown praise for a player on the opposing team. In 1980, Laurie Cunningham was the first Real Madrid player to receive applause from Barcelona fans at Camp Nou; after excelling during the match, and with Madrid winning 2–0, Cunningham left the field to a standing ovation from the locals.[48][49] On 26 June 1983, during the second leg of the Copa de la Liga final at the Santiago Bernabéu in Madrid, having dribbled past the Real Madrid goalkeeper, Barcelona star Diego Maradona ran towards an empty goal before stopping just as the Madrid defender came sliding in an attempt to block the shot and crashed into the post, before Maradona slotted the ball into the net.[48] The manner of Maradona's goal led to many Madrid fans inside the stadium start applauding.[48][50] In November 2005, Ronaldinho became the second Barcelona player to receive a standing ovation from Madrid fans at the Santiago Bernabéu.[48] After dribbling through the Madrid defence twice to score two goals in a 3–0 win, Madrid fans paid homage to his performance with applause.[51][52] On 21 November 2015, Andrés Iniesta became the third Barcelona player to receive applause from Real Madrid fans while he was substituted during a 4–0 away win, with Iniesta scoring Barça's third.[53]

text: A 2007 survey by the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas showed that 32% of the Spanish population supported Real Madrid, while 25% supported Barcelona. In third place came Valencia, with 5%.[54] According to a poll performed by Ikerfel in 2011, Barcelona is the most popular team in Spain with 44% of preferences, while Real Madrid is second with 37%. Atlético Madrid, Valencia and Athletic Bilbao complete the top five.[55] Both clubs have a global fanbase and are the world's two most followed sports teams on social media—on Facebook, as of March 2016, Barcelona has 91 million fans, Real Madrid has 87 million fans.[11][56]

text: The rivalry intensified in 2011 where, due to the final of the Copa Del Rey and the meeting of the two in the UEFA Champions League, Barcelona and Real Madrid were scheduled to meet each other four times in 18 days. Several accusations of unsportsmanlike behaviour from both teams and a war of words erupted throughout the fixtures which included four red cards. Spain national team coach Vicente del Bosque stated that he was "concerned" that due to the rising hatred between the two clubs, that this could cause friction in the Spain team.[57]

text: In recent years, the rivalry has been "encapsulated" by the rivalry between Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi.[58] Following the star signings of Neymar and Luis Suárez to Barcelona, and Gareth Bale and Karim Benzema to Madrid, the rivalry has been expanded to a battle of the clubs attacking trios, "BBC" (Bale, Benzema, Cristiano) against "MSN" (Messi, Suárez, Neymar).[59]

text: Results

text:
Matches
Wins
Draws
Goals
Home Wins
Home Draws
Away Wins

M
B
M
B
M
B
M
B
M
B

La Liga
175
72
70
33
284
280
52
49
15
18
20
21

Copa del Rey
33
12
14
7
64
63
5
7
5
2
3
5

Copa de la Liga
6
0
2
4
8
13
0
1
2
2
0
1

Supercopa de España
14
8
4
2
30
18
6
4
1
1
2
0

Champions League
8
3
2
3
13
10
1
1
2
1
2
1

All competitions
236
95
92
49
399
384
64
61
25
24
27
28

Friendly / Other
34
4
20
10
44
86
3
11
4
6
1
8

All matches
270
99
112
59
443
470
67
72
29
30
28
36

text: Records

text: Biggest wins (5+ goals)

text:
10
Real Madrid 11–1 Barcelona
19 June 1943
Copa del Rey

6
Real Madrid 8–2 Barcelona
3 February 1935
La Liga

5
Barcelona 7–2 Real Madrid
24 September 1950
La Liga

Barcelona 6–1 Real Madrid
19 May 1957
Copa del Rey

Real Madrid 6–1 Barcelona
18 September 1949
La Liga

Barcelona 5–0 Real Madrid
21 April 1935

Barcelona 5–0 Real Madrid
25 March 1945

Real Madrid 5–0 Barcelona
5 October 1953

Real Madrid 0–5 Barcelona
17 February 1974

Barcelona 5–0 Real Madrid
8 January 1994

Real Madrid 5–0 Barcelona
7 January 1995

Barcelona 5–0 Real Madrid
29 November 2010

text: Longest runs

text: Most consecutive wins

text:
Games
Club
Period

6
Barcelona
25 January 1948 – 15 January 1949

6
Real Madrid
30 September 1962 – 28 February 1965

5
Real Madrid
5 March 1933 – 3 February 1935

5
Barcelona
13 December 2008 – 29 November 2010

text: Most consecutive draws

text:
Games
Period

3
11 September 1991 – 7 March 1992

3
1 May 2002 – 20 April 2003

text: Most consecutive matches without a draw

text:
Games
Period

18
25 January 1948 – 21 November 1954

17
23 November 1960 – 19 March 1967

14
4 December 1977 – 4 June 1983

12
19 May 1957 – 27 April 1960

10
5 March 1933 – 28 January 1940

text: Longest undefeated runs

text:
Games
Club
Period

14
Real Madrid
31 January 1931 – 3 February 1935

13
Barcelona
1 November 1917 – 3 June 1928

text: Longest undefeated runs in the league

text:
Games
Club
Period

7 (5 Wins)
Real Madrid
31 January 1932 – 3 February 1935

7 (5 Wins)
Barcelona
13 December 2008 – 10 December 2011

6 (6 Wins)
Real Madrid
30 September 1962 – 28 February 1965

6 (4 Wins)
Barcelona
11 May 1997 – 13 October 1999

6 (3 Wins)
Barcelona
28 November 1971 – 17 February 1974

5 (4 Wins)
Barcelona
30 March 1947 – 15 January 1949

5 (3 Wins)
Barcelona
11 May 1975 – 30 January 1977

text: Most consecutive matches without conceding a goal

text:
Games
Club
Period

5
Barcelona
3 April 1972 – 17 February 1974

3
Barcelona
10 January 1914 – 7 March 1916

3
Real Madrid
29 June 1974 – 11 May 1975

3
Barcelona
29 November 2009 – 29 November 2010

text: Most consecutive games scoring

text:
Games
Club
Period

23
Barcelona
27 April 2011 – 13 August 2017

18
Real Madrid
3 May 2011 – 22 March 2015

17
Barcelona
27 November 1982 – 31 January 1987

14
Real Madrid
15 February 1959 – 21 January 1962

14
Real Madrid
5 December 1990 – 16 December 1993

13
Real Madrid
1 December 1946 – 23 November 1952

13
Real Madrid
22 April 1962 – 9 April 1968

12
Barcelona
26 March 1916 – 26 April 1926

11
Barcelona
11 September 1991 – 7 May 1994

10
Barcelona
30 January 1997 – 13 October 1999

text: Goalscoring

text: Top goalscorers

text: Players in bold players are still active

text:
Player
Club
La Liga
Copa
Super Cup
League Cup
Europe
Total

 Lionel Messi
Barcelona
17
—
6
—
2
25[note 1]

  Alfredo Di Stéfano
Real Madrid
14
2
2
—
—
18

 Cristiano Ronaldo
Real Madrid
8
5
4
—
—
17

 Raúl
Real Madrid
11
—
3
—
1
15

 César
Barcelona
12
2
—
—
—
14

 Francisco Gento
Real Madrid
10
2
—
—
2
14

  Ferenc Puskás
Real Madrid
9
2
—
—
3
14

 Santillana
Real Madrid
9
2
—
1
—
12

 Hugo Sánchez
Real Madrid
8
—
2
—
—
10

 Juanito
Real Madrid
8
—
—
2
—
10

 Josep Samitier
Barca / Real
4
6
—
—
—
10

 Estanislao Basora
Barcelona
8
1
—
—
—
9

 Jaime Lazcano
Real Madrid
8
—
—
—
—
8

 Karim Benzema
Real Madrid
6
1
1
—
—
8

 Iván Zamorano
Real Madrid
4
2
2
—
—
8

 Eulogio Martínez
Barcelona
2
5
—
—
1
8

 Luis Suárez
Barcelona
2
4
—
—
2
8

 Santiago Bernabéu
Real Madrid
—
8
—
—
—
8

text: Consecutive goalscoring

text:
Player
Club
Consecutive matches
Total goals in the run
Start
End

 Cristiano Ronaldo
Real Madrid
6
7
2011–12 Copa del Rey (1st leg)
2012–13 La Liga (7th round)

 Iván Zamorano
Real Madrid
5
5
1992–93 La Liga (20th Round)
1993 Supercopa de España (2nd leg)

 Simón Lecue
Real Madrid
4
5
1935–36 La Liga (7th Round)
1939–40 La Liga (9th Round)

 Ronaldinho
Barcelona
4
5
2004–05 La Liga (12th Round)
2005–06 La Liga (31st Round)

 Giovanni
Barcelona
4
4
1997 Supercopa de España (1st leg)
1997–98 La Liga (28th Round)

text: Most hat-tricks

text: Five players have been able to score more than one hat trick: Jaime Lazcano, Santiago Bernabéu, Paulino Alcántara, Lionel Messi and Ferenc Puskás have all scored two hat-tricks in El Clásico history (2).

text: Most assists

text: Lionel Messi has delivered the most assists in El Clásico history (14).[61]

text: Most appearances

text: Players in bold are still active

text:
Appearances
Player
Club

43
Manuel Sanchís
Real Madrid

42
Francisco Gento
Real Madrid

42
Xavi
Barcelona

37
Fernando Hierro
Real Madrid

37
Raúl
Real Madrid

37
Iker Casillas
Real Madrid

37
Sergio Ramos
Real Madrid

37
Andrés Iniesta
Barcelona

37
Lionel Messi
Barcelona

text: Players who played for both clubs

text:
1902:  Alfonso Albéniz
1906:  José Quirante
1911:  Alfonso Albéniz
1911:  Arsenio Comamala
1913:  Walter Rozitsky
1930:  Ricardo Zamora (via Espanyol)
1932:  Josep Samitier
1950:  Alfonso Navarro
1961:  Justo Tejada
1962:  Evaristo
1965:  Fernand Goyvaerts
1988:  Bernd Schuster
1990:  Luis Milla
1992:  Nando
1994:  Michael Laudrup
1995:  Miquel Soler (via Sevilla)
2000:  Luís Figo
2000:  Albert Celades (via Celta Vigo)
2002:  Ronaldo (via Inter Milan)
2007:  Javier Saviola

text:
1905:  Luciano Lizarraga
1939:  Hilario (via Valencia)
1961:  Jesús María Pereda (via Real Valladolid, then Sevilla)
1965:  Lucien Muller
1980:  Lorenzo Amador (via Hércules)
1994:  Gheorghe Hagi (via Brescia)
1994:  Julen Lopetegui (via Logroñés)
1995:  Robert Prosinečki (via Real Oviedo)
1996:  Luis Enrique
1999:  Dani García (via Mallorca)
2000:  Alfonso Pérez (via Real Betis)
2004:  Samuel Eto'o (via Mallorca)

text:
From Barcelona to Madrid
17

From Barcelona to another club before Madrid
4

Total
21

From Madrid to Barcelona
3

From Madrid to another club before Barcelona
9

Total
12

Total Switches
33

text: Honours

text: The rivalry reflected in El Clásico matches comes about as Real Madrid and Barcelona are the most successful football clubs in Spain. As seen below, Barcelona leads Real Madrid 90–88 in terms of official overall trophies.[62] While the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is recognised as the predecessor to the UEFA Cup, it was not organised by UEFA. Consequently, UEFA does not consider clubs' records in the Fairs Cup to be part of their European record.[63] However, FIFA does view the competition as a major honour.[64]

text:
Real Madrid
Competition
Barcelona

Domestic

33
La Liga (Primera División)
24

19
Copa del Rey
29

10
Supercopa de España
12

1
Copa Eva Duarte (defunct)
3

1
Copa de la Liga (defunct)
2

64
Aggregate
70

European and Worldwide

12
UEFA Champions League/European Cup
5

—
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup (defunct)
4

2
UEFA Europa League/UEFA Cup
—

4
UEFA Super Cup
5

—
*Inter-Cities Fairs Cup (defunct)
3

3
*UEFA / CONMEBOL Intercontinental Cup (defunct)
—

3
FIFA Club World Cup
3

24
Aggregate
20

88
Total Aggregate
90

text: Note: FIFA recognized the winner of the Intercontinental Cup as a World Champion.

text: Note: The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is not recognized in the UEFA Record and Statistics


document_title: Restriction map

question_text: when constructing an dna molecule what is important when determining the orientation of each strand

text: Restriction map

text: Method[edit]

text: The experimental procedure first requires an aliquot of purified plasmid DNA (see appendix) for each digest to be run. Digestion is then performed with each enzyme(s) chosen. The resulting samples are subsequently run on an electrophoresis gel, typically on agarose gel.

text: The first step following the completion of electrophoresis is to add up the sizes of the fragments in each lane. The sum of the individual fragments should equal the size of the original fragment, and each digest's fragments should also sum up to be the same size as each other. If fragment sizes do not properly add up, there are two likely problems. In one case, some of the smaller fragments may have run off the end of the gel. This frequently occurs if the gel is run too long. A second possible source of error is that the gel was not dense enough and therefore was unable to resolve fragments close in size. This leads to a lack of separation of fragments which were close in size. If all of the digests produce fragments that add up one may infer the position of the REN (restriction endonuclease) sites by placing them in spots on the original DNA fragment that would satisfy the fragment sizes produced by all three digests.

text: See also restriction enzymes for more detail about the enzymes exploited in this technique.

text: Example[edit]

text: For example the most common application of restriction mapping is presented: Determining the orientation of a cloned insert. This method requires that restriction maps of the cloning vector and the insert are already available.

text: If you know of a restriction site placed towards one end of the insert you can determine the orientation by observing the size of the fragments in the gel. Often the orientation of inserts is important and this technique is used to screen for the correct orientation.

text: In this example the orientation of an insert cloned with EcoRI will be found.

text: Digests

text:
1: EcoRI
2: HindIII
3: EcoRI + HindIII (optional and not discussed)

text: Resultant Fragments: approximate sizes

text:
1: 3 kb, 5 kb
2: 2 kb, 6 kb
3: 2 kb, 1 kb, 5 kb,

text: Hypothetical Multiple Cloning Site of Vector

text: Discussion

text: The EcoRI digest excises the insert yielding fragments of 3 kb and 5 kb. These are the sizes of the insert and vector backbone respectively. This is expected since the size of both the insert and vector are known beforehand. The presence of the insert is confirmed.

text: There is a known HindIII site off-center in the 3 kb insert. It is 2 kb away from one end (end A), and 1 kb away from the other end (end B). The HindIII digest of your clone yields fragments of 2 kb and 6 kb. The 2 kb fragment is exclusively the insert sequence and the 6 kb fragment is 1 kb of insert sequence attached to 5 kb of vector sequence. This means that the insert was cloned in an A to B orientation as opposed to B to A which would yield fragments of 7 kb and 1kb.

text: resultant map

text: Appendix: Related Methods[edit]

text: Rapid Denaturation and Renaturation of a crude DNA preparation by alkaline lysis of the cells and subsequent neutralization

text: In this technique the cells are lysed in alkaline conditions. The DNA in the mixture is denatured (strands separated) by disrupting the hydrogen bonds between the two strands. The large genomic DNA is subject to tangling and staying denatured when the pH is lowered during the neutralization. In other words, the strands come back together in a disordered fashion, basepairing randomly. The circular supercoiled plasmids' strands will stay relatively closely aligned and will renature correctly. Therefore, the genomic DNA will form an insoluble aggregate and the supercoiled plasmids will be left in solution. This can be followed by phenol extraction to remove proteins and other molecules. Then the DNA can be subjected to ethanol precipitation to concentrate the sample.


document_title: List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean

question_text: the highest area of land in the caribbean

text: List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean

text: Highest major summits[edit]

text:
Map this section's coordinates using: OpenStreetMap · Google Maps

Download coordinates as: KML · GPX

text: Of the 20 highest major summits of the Caribbean, only Pico Duarte exceeds 3000 meters (9843 feet) elevation, six peaks exceed 2000 meters (6562 feet), and 15 peaks exceed 1000 meters (3281 feet) elevation.

text: Of these 20 peaks, three are located in the Dominican Republic, three in Cuba, two in Haiti, two in Saint Kitts and Nevis, one each in Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, Puerto Rico, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Montserrat, and Venezuela.

text:
The 20 highest summits of the Caribbean with at least 500 meters of topographic prominence

Rank
Mountain peak
Country
Island
Elevation
Prominence
Isolation
Location

1
Pico Duarte[5][6]
 Dominican Republic
Island of Hispaniola
7003309800000000000♠3098 m
10,164 ft
7003309800000000000♠3098 m
10,164 ft
7005940530000000000♠941 km
584 mi
19°01′23″N 70°59′52″W / 19.0231°N 70.9977°W / 19.0231; -70.9977 (Pico Duarte)

2
Loma Alto de la Bandera[7][8]
 Dominican Republic
Island of Hispaniola
7003284200000000000♠2842 m
9,324 ft
7003151200000000000♠1512 m
4,961 ft
7004434000000000000♠43.4 km
27.0 mi
18°48′45″N 70°37′36″W / 18.8126°N 70.6268°W / 18.8126; -70.6268 (Loma Alto de la Bandera)

3
Pic la Selle[9][10][11]
 Haiti
Island of Hispaniola
7003267400000000000♠2674 m
8,773 ft
7003264400000000000♠2644 m
8,675 ft
7005126600000000000♠126.6 km
78.7 mi
18°21′37″N 71°58′36″W / 18.3602°N 71.9767°W / 18.3602; -71.9767 (Pic la Selle)

4
Pic Macaya[12][13]
 Haiti
Island of Hispaniola
7003234700000000000♠2347 m
7,700 ft
7003208700000000000♠2087 m
6,847 ft
7005216400000000000♠216 km
134.5 mi
18°22′56″N 74°01′27″W / 18.3822°N 74.0243°W / 18.3822; -74.0243 (Pic Macaya)

5
Loma Gajo en Medio[14]
 Dominican Republic
Island of Hispaniola
7003227900000000000♠2279 m
7,477 ft
7003177900000000000♠1779 m
5,837 ft
7004575100000000000♠57.5 km
35.7 mi
18°37′45″N 71°30′39″W / 18.6292°N 71.5108°W / 18.6292; -71.5108 (Loma Gajo en Medio)

6
Blue Mountain Peak[15][16][17]
 Jamaica
Island of Jamaica
7003225600000000000♠2256 m
7,402 ft
7003225600000000000♠2256 m
7,402 ft
7005272750000000000♠273 km
169.5 mi
18°02′47″N 76°34′44″W / 18.0465°N 76.5788°W / 18.0465; -76.5788 (Blue Mountain Peak)

7
Pico Turquino[18][19][20]
 Cuba
Island of Cuba
7003197400000000000♠1974 m
6,476 ft
7003197400000000000♠1974 m
6,476 ft
7005216810000000000♠217 km
134.7 mi
19°59′23″N 76°50′10″W / 19.9898°N 76.8360°W / 19.9898; -76.8360 (Pico Turquino)

8
La Grande Soufrière[21][22][23]
 Guadeloupe
île de Basse-Terre
7003146700000000000♠1467 m
4,813 ft
7003146700000000000♠1467 m
4,813 ft
7005698700000000000♠699 km
434 mi
16°02′42″N 61°39′50″W / 16.0449°N 61.6638°W / 16.0449; -61.6638 (La Grande Soufrière)

9
Morne Diablotins[24][25][26]
 Dominica
Island of Dominica
7003144700000000000♠1447 m
4,747 ft
7003144700000000000♠1447 m
4,747 ft
7004662800000000000♠66.3 km
41.2 mi
15°30′14″N 61°23′53″W / 15.5040°N 61.3981°W / 15.5040; -61.3981 (Morne Diablotins)

10
Montagne Pelée[27][28][29]
 Martinique
Island of Martinique
7003139500000000000♠1395 m
4,577 ft
7003139500000000000♠1395 m
4,577 ft
7004808400000000000♠80.8 km
50.2 mi
14°48′33″N 61°09′55″W / 14.8092°N 61.1654°W / 14.8092; -61.1654 (Montagne Pelée)

11
Cerro de Punta[30][31][32][33]
 Puerto Rico
Island of Puerto Rico
7003133780000000000♠1337.8 m
4,389 ft
7003133780000000000♠1338 m
4,389 ft
7005431970000000000♠432 km
268 mi
18°10′20″N 66°35′30″W / 18.1722°N 66.5917°W / 18.1722; -66.5917 (Cerro de Punta)

12
Gran Piedra[34][35]
 Cuba
Island of Cuba
7003124900000000000♠1249 m
4,098 ft
7002500000000000000♠>500 m
>1,640 ft
7005100650000000000♠100.7 km
62.5 mi
20°00′41″N 75°37′37″W / 20.0115°N 75.6270°W / 20.0115; -75.6270 (Gran Piedra)

13
La Soufrière[36][37][38]
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Island of Saint Vincent
7003123400000000000♠1234 m
4,049 ft
7003123400000000000♠1234 m
4,049 ft
7005161700000000000♠161.7 km
100.5 mi
13°20′52″N 61°10′34″W / 13.3477°N 61.1761°W / 13.3477; -61.1761 (La Soufrière)

14
Mount Liamuiga[39][40]
(Mount Misery)
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Christopher Island
(Island of Saint Kitts)
7003115600000000000♠1156 m
3,793 ft
7003115600000000000♠1156 m
3,793 ft
7005190290000000000♠190.3 km
118.2 mi
17°22′07″N 62°48′10″W / 17.3685°N 62.8029°W / 17.3685; -62.8029 (Mount Liamuiga)

15
Pico San Juan[41][42]
 Cuba
Island of Cuba
7003114000000000000♠1140 m
3,740 ft
7002500000000000000♠>500 m
>1,640 ft
7005407800000000000♠408 km
253 mi
21°59′07″N 80°07′58″W / 21.9853°N 80.1327°W / 21.9853; -80.1327 (Pico San Juan)

16
Nevis Peak[43][44]
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Island of Nevis
7002985000000000000♠985 m
3,232 ft
7002985000000000000♠985 m
3,232 ft
7004208800000000000♠20.9 km
12.97 mi
17°09′00″N 62°35′00″W / 17.1501°N 62.5834°W / 17.1501; -62.5834 (Nevis Peak)

17
Mount Gimie[45][46][47]
 Saint Lucia
Island of Saint Lucia
7002950000000000000♠950 m
3,117 ft
7002950000000000000♠950 m
3,117 ft
7004597900000000000♠59.8 km
37.2 mi
13°51′49″N 61°00′42″W / 13.8637°N 61.0117°W / 13.8637; -61.0117 (Mount Gimie)

18
Aripo Peak[48][49][50]
 Trinidad and Tobago
Island of Trinidad
7002940000000000000♠940 m
3,084 ft
7002940000000000000♠940 m
3,084 ft
7005151630000000000♠151.6 km
94.2 mi
10°43′23″N 61°15′00″W / 10.7231°N 61.2499°W / 10.7231; -61.2499 (Aripo Peak)

19
Soufrière Hills Volcano[51][52]
 Montserrat,  United Kingdom
Island of Montserrat
7002914000000000000♠914 m
2,999 ft
7002914000000000000♠914 m
2,999 ft
7004650700000000000♠65.1 km
40.4 mi
16°42′44″N 62°10′32″W / 16.7123°N 62.1756°W / 16.7123; -62.1756 (Soufrière Hills Volcano)

20
Cerro El Copey[53][54]
 Venezuela
Isla de Margarita
7002900000000000000♠900 m
2,953 ft
7002900000000000000♠900 m
2,953 ft
7004562900000000000♠56.3 km
35.0 mi
10°59′51″N 63°54′45″W / 10.9975°N 63.9126°W / 10.9975; -63.9126 (Cerro El Copey)

text: Most prominent summits[edit]

text: Of the 20 most prominent summits of the Caribbean, only Pico Duarte exceeds 3000 meters (9843 feet) of topographic prominence. Four peaks exceed 2000 meters (6562 feet), seven peaks are ultra-prominent summits with at least 1500 meters (4921 feet), and 13 peaks exceed 1000 meters (3281 feet) of topographic prominence.

text: Of these 20 peaks, three are located in the Dominican Republic, two in Haiti, two in Saint Kitts and Nevis, and one each in Jamaica, Cuba, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Montserrat, Venezuela, Saba, and Grenada.

text:
The 20 most topographically prominent summits of the Caribbean

Rank
Mountain peak
Country
Island
Elevation
Prominence
Isolation
Location

1
Pico Duarte[5][6]
 Dominican Republic
Island of Hispaniola
7003309800000000000♠3098 m
10,164 ft
7003309800000000000♠3098 m
10,164 ft
7005940530000000000♠941 km
584 mi
19°01′23″N 70°59′52″W / 19.0231°N 70.9977°W / 19.0231; -70.9977 (Pico Duarte)

2
Pic la Selle[9][10][11]
 Haiti
Island of Hispaniola
7003267400000000000♠2674 m
8,773 ft
7003264400000000000♠2644 m
8,675 ft
7005126600000000000♠126.6 km
78.7 mi
18°21′37″N 71°58′36″W / 18.3602°N 71.9767°W / 18.3602; -71.9767 (Pic la Selle)

3
Blue Mountain Peak[15][16][17]
 Jamaica
Island of Jamaica
7003225600000000000♠2256 m
7,402 ft
7003225600000000000♠2256 m
7,402 ft
7005272750000000000♠273 km
169.5 mi
18°02′47″N 76°34′44″W / 18.0465°N 76.5788°W / 18.0465; -76.5788 (Blue Mountain Peak)

4
Pic Macaya[12][13]
 Haiti
Island of Hispaniola
7003234700000000000♠2347 m
7,700 ft
7003208700000000000♠2087 m
6,847 ft
7005216400000000000♠216 km
134.5 mi
18°22′56″N 74°01′27″W / 18.3822°N 74.0243°W / 18.3822; -74.0243 (Pic Macaya)

5
Pico Turquino[18][19][20]
 Cuba
Island of Cuba
7003197400000000000♠1974 m
6,476 ft
7003197400000000000♠1974 m
6,476 ft
7005216810000000000♠217 km
134.7 mi
19°59′23″N 76°50′10″W / 19.9898°N 76.8360°W / 19.9898; -76.8360 (Pico Turquino)

6
Loma Gajo en Medio[14]
 Dominican Republic
Island of Hispaniola
7003227900000000000♠2279 m
7,477 ft
7003177900000000000♠1779 m
5,837 ft
7004575100000000000♠57.5 km
35.7 mi
18°37′45″N 71°30′39″W / 18.6292°N 71.5108°W / 18.6292; -71.5108 (Loma Gajo en Medio)

7
Loma Alto de la Bandera[7][8]
 Dominican Republic
Island of Hispaniola
7003284200000000000♠2842 m
9,324 ft
7003151200000000000♠1512 m
4,961 ft
7004434000000000000♠43.4 km
27.0 mi
18°48′45″N 70°37′36″W / 18.8126°N 70.6268°W / 18.8126; -70.6268 (Loma Alto de la Bandera)

8
La Grande Soufrière[21][22][23]
 Guadeloupe
île de Basse-Terre
7003146700000000000♠1467 m
4,813 ft
7003146700000000000♠1467 m
4,813 ft
7005698700000000000♠699 km
434 mi
16°02′42″N 61°39′50″W / 16.0449°N 61.6638°W / 16.0449; -61.6638 (La Grande Soufrière)

9
Morne Diablotins[24][25][26]
 Dominica
Island of Dominica
7003144700000000000♠1447 m
4,747 ft
7003144700000000000♠1447 m
4,747 ft
7004662800000000000♠66.3 km
41.2 mi
15°30′14″N 61°23′53″W / 15.5040°N 61.3981°W / 15.5040; -61.3981 (Morne Diablotins)

10
Montagne Pelée[27][28][29]
 Martinique
Island of Martinique
7003139500000000000♠1395 m
4,577 ft
7003139500000000000♠1395 m
4,577 ft
7004808400000000000♠80.8 km
50.2 mi
14°48′33″N 61°09′55″W / 14.8092°N 61.1654°W / 14.8092; -61.1654 (Montagne Pelée)

11
Cerro de Punta[30][31][32][33]
 Puerto Rico
Island of Puerto Rico
7003133780000000000♠1337.8 m
4,389 ft
7003133780000000000♠1338 m
4,389 ft
7005431970000000000♠432 km
268 mi
18°10′20″N 66°35′30″W / 18.1722°N 66.5917°W / 18.1722; -66.5917 (Cerro de Punta)

12
La Soufrière[36][37][38]
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Island of Saint Vincent
7003123400000000000♠1234 m
4,049 ft
7003123400000000000♠1234 m
4,049 ft
7005161700000000000♠161.7 km
100.5 mi
13°20′52″N 61°10′34″W / 13.3477°N 61.1761°W / 13.3477; -61.1761 (La Soufrière)

13
Mount Liamuiga[39][40]
(Mount Misery)
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Christopher Island
(Island of Saint Kitts)
7003115600000000000♠1156 m
3,793 ft
7003115600000000000♠1156 m
3,793 ft
7005190290000000000♠190.3 km
118.2 mi
17°22′07″N 62°48′10″W / 17.3685°N 62.8029°W / 17.3685; -62.8029 (Mount Liamuiga)

14
Nevis Peak[43][44]
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Island of Nevis
7002985000000000000♠985 m
3,232 ft
7002985000000000000♠985 m
3,232 ft
7004208800000000000♠20.9 km
12.97 mi
17°09′00″N 62°35′00″W / 17.1501°N 62.5834°W / 17.1501; -62.5834 (Nevis Peak)

15
Mount Gimie[45][46][47]
 Saint Lucia
Island of Saint Lucia
7002950000000000000♠950 m
3,117 ft
7002950000000000000♠950 m
3,117 ft
7004597900000000000♠59.8 km
37.2 mi
13°51′49″N 61°00′42″W / 13.8637°N 61.0117°W / 13.8637; -61.0117 (Mount Gimie)

16
Aripo Peak[48][49][50]
 Trinidad and Tobago
Island of Trinidad
7002940000000000000♠940 m
3,084 ft
7002940000000000000♠940 m
3,084 ft
7005151630000000000♠151.6 km
94.2 mi
10°43′23″N 61°15′00″W / 10.7231°N 61.2499°W / 10.7231; -61.2499 (Aripo Peak)

17
Soufrière Hills Volcano[51][52]
 Montserrat
Island of Montserrat
7002914000000000000♠914 m
2,999 ft
7002914000000000000♠914 m
2,999 ft
7004650700000000000♠65.1 km
40.4 mi
16°42′44″N 62°10′32″W / 16.7123°N 62.1756°W / 16.7123; -62.1756 (Soufrière Hills Volcano)

18
Cerro El Copey[53][54]
 Venezuela
Isla de Margarita
7002900000000000000♠900 m
2,953 ft
7002900000000000000♠900 m
2,953 ft
7004562900000000000♠56.3 km
35.0 mi
10°59′51″N 63°54′45″W / 10.9975°N 63.9126°W / 10.9975; -63.9126 (Cerro El Copey)

19
Mount Scenery[55][56]
 Saba
Island of Saba
7002870000000000000♠870 m
2,854 ft
7002870000000000000♠870 m
2,854 ft
7004547700000000000♠54.8 km
34.0 mi
17°38′05″N 63°14′16″W / 17.6348°N 63.2377°W / 17.6348; -63.2377 (Mount Scenery)

20
Mount Saint Catherine[57][58][59]
 Grenada
Island of Grenada
7002840000000000000♠840 m
2,756 ft
7002840000000000000♠840 m
2,756 ft
7005135220000000000♠135.2 km
84.0 mi
12°09′44″N 61°40′30″W / 12.1623°N 61.6750°W / 12.1623; -61.6750 (Mount Saint Catherine)

text: Most isolated major summits[edit]

text: Of the 20 most isolated major summits of the Caribbean, Pico Duarte and La Grande Soufrière exceed 500 kilometers (310.7 miles) of topographic isolation, seven peaks exceed 200 kilometers (124.3 miles), and 14 peaks exceed 100 kilometers (62.14 miles) of topographic isolation.

text: Of these 20 peaks, three are located in Cuba, two in the Dominican Republic, two in Haiti, two in Trinidad and Tobago, and one each in Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Granada, the British Virgin Islands, Martinique, Dominica, Montserrat, and Saint Lucia.

text:
The 20 most topographically isolated summits of the Caribbean with at least 500 meters of topographic prominence

Rank
Mountain peak
Country
Island
Elevation
Prominence
Isolation
Location

1
Pico Duarte[5][6]
 Dominican Republic
Island of Hispaniola
7003309800000000000♠3098 m
10,164 ft
7003309800000000000♠3098 m
10,164 ft
7005940530000000000♠941 km
584 mi
19°01′23″N 70°59′52″W / 19.0231°N 70.9977°W / 19.0231; -70.9977 (Pico Duarte)

2
La Grande Soufrière[21][22][23]
 Guadeloupe
île de Basse-Terre
7003146700000000000♠1467 m
4,813 ft
7003146700000000000♠1467 m
4,813 ft
7005698700000000000♠699 km
434 mi
16°02′42″N 61°39′50″W / 16.0449°N 61.6638°W / 16.0449; -61.6638 (La Grande Soufrière)

3
Cerro de Punta[30][31][32][33]
 Puerto Rico
Island of Puerto Rico
7003133780000000000♠1337.8 m
4,389 ft
7003133780000000000♠1338 m
4,389 ft
7005431970000000000♠432 km
268 mi
18°10′20″N 66°35′30″W / 18.1722°N 66.5917°W / 18.1722; -66.5917 (Cerro de Punta)

4
Pico San Juan[41][42]
 Cuba
Island of Cuba
7003114000000000000♠1140 m
3,740 ft
7002500000000000000♠>500 m
>1,640 ft
7005407800000000000♠408 km
253 mi
21°59′07″N 80°07′58″W / 21.9853°N 80.1327°W / 21.9853; -80.1327 (Pico San Juan)

5
Blue Mountain Peak[15][16][17]
 Jamaica
Island of Jamaica
7003225600000000000♠2256 m
7,402 ft
7003225600000000000♠2256 m
7,402 ft
7005272750000000000♠273 km
169.5 mi
18°02′47″N 76°34′44″W / 18.0465°N 76.5788°W / 18.0465; -76.5788 (Blue Mountain Peak)

6
Pico Turquino[18][19][20]
 Cuba
Island of Cuba
7003197400000000000♠1974 m
6,476 ft
7003197400000000000♠1974 m
6,476 ft
7005216810000000000♠217 km
134.7 mi
19°59′23″N 76°50′10″W / 19.9898°N 76.8360°W / 19.9898; -76.8360 (Pico Turquino)

7
Pic Macaya[12][13]
 Haiti
Island of Hispaniola
7003234700000000000♠2347 m
7,700 ft
7003208700000000000♠2087 m
6,847 ft
7005216400000000000♠216 km
134.5 mi
18°22′56″N 74°01′27″W / 18.3822°N 74.0243°W / 18.3822; -74.0243 (Pic Macaya)

8
Mount Liamuiga[39][40]
(Mount Misery)
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Christopher Island
(Island of Saint Kitts)
7003115600000000000♠1156 m
3,793 ft
7003115600000000000♠1156 m
3,793 ft
7005190290000000000♠190.3 km
118.2 mi
17°22′07″N 62°48′10″W / 17.3685°N 62.8029°W / 17.3685; -62.8029 (Mount Liamuiga)

9
La Soufrière[36][37][38]
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Island of Saint Vincent
7003123400000000000♠1234 m
4,049 ft
7003123400000000000♠1234 m
4,049 ft
7005161700000000000♠161.7 km
100.5 mi
13°20′52″N 61°10′34″W / 13.3477°N 61.1761°W / 13.3477; -61.1761 (La Soufrière)

10
Aripo Peak[48][49][50]
 Trinidad and Tobago
Island of Trinidad
7002940000000000000♠940 m
3,084 ft
7002940000000000000♠940 m
3,084 ft
7005151630000000000♠151.6 km
94.2 mi
10°43′23″N 61°15′00″W / 10.7231°N 61.2499°W / 10.7231; -61.2499 (Aripo Peak)

11
Mount Saint Catherine[57][58][59]
 Grenada
Island of Grenada
7002840000000000000♠840 m
2,756 ft
7002840000000000000♠840 m
2,756 ft
7005135220000000000♠135.2 km
84.0 mi
12°09′44″N 61°40′30″W / 12.1623°N 61.6750°W / 12.1623; -61.6750 (Mount Saint Catherine)

12
Pic la Selle[9][10][11]
 Haiti
Island of Hispaniola
7003267400000000000♠2674 m
8,773 ft
7003264400000000000♠2644 m
8,675 ft
7005126600000000000♠126.6 km
78.7 mi
18°21′37″N 71°58′36″W / 18.3602°N 71.9767°W / 18.3602; -71.9767 (Pic la Selle)

13
Mount Sage[60][61]
 British Virgin Islands
Island of Tortola
7002521000000000000♠521 m
1,709 ft
7002521000000000000♠521 m
1,709 ft
7005120090000000000♠120.1 km
74.6 mi
18°24′34″N 64°39′20″W / 18.4095°N 64.6556°W / 18.4095; -64.6556 (Mount Sage)

14
Gran Piedra[34][35]
 Cuba
Island of Cuba
7003124900000000000♠1249 m
4,098 ft
7002500000000000000♠>500 m
>1,640 ft
7005100650000000000♠100.7 km
62.5 mi
20°00′41″N 75°37′37″W / 20.0115°N 75.6270°W / 20.0115; -75.6270 (Gran Piedra)

15
Montagne Pelée[27][28][29]
 Martinique
Island of Martinique
7003139500000000000♠1395 m
4,577 ft
7003139500000000000♠1395 m
4,577 ft
7004808400000000000♠80.8 km
50.2 mi
14°48′33″N 61°09′55″W / 14.8092°N 61.1654°W / 14.8092; -61.1654 (Montagne Pelée)

16
Morne Diablotins[24][25][26]
 Dominica
Island of Dominica
7003144700000000000♠1447 m
4,747 ft
7003144700000000000♠1447 m
4,747 ft
7004662800000000000♠66.3 km
41.2 mi
15°30′14″N 61°23′53″W / 15.5040°N 61.3981°W / 15.5040; -61.3981 (Morne Diablotins)

17
Soufrière Hills Volcano[51][52]
 Montserrat
Island of Montserrat
7002914000000000000♠914 m
2,999 ft
7002914000000000000♠914 m
2,999 ft
7004650700000000000♠65.1 km
40.4 mi
16°42′44″N 62°10′32″W / 16.7123°N 62.1756°W / 16.7123; -62.1756 (Soufrière Hills Volcano)

18
Mount Gimie[45][46][47]
 Saint Lucia
Island of Saint Lucia
7002950000000000000♠950 m
3,117 ft
7002950000000000000♠950 m
3,117 ft
7004597900000000000♠59.8 km
37.2 mi
13°51′49″N 61°00′42″W / 13.8637°N 61.0117°W / 13.8637; -61.0117 (Mount Gimie)

19
Loma Gajo en Medio[14]
 Dominican Republic
Island of Hispaniola
7003227900000000000♠2279 m
7,477 ft
7003177900000000000♠1779 m
5,837 ft
7004575100000000000♠57.5 km
35.7 mi
18°37′45″N 71°30′39″W / 18.6292°N 71.5108°W / 18.6292; -71.5108 (Loma Gajo en Medio)

20
Main Ridge[62][63][64]
Island of Tobogo
7002576000000000000♠576 m
1,890 ft
7002576000000000000♠576 m
1,890 ft
7004568600000000000♠56.9 km
35.3 mi
11°17′00″N 60°38′00″W / 11.2833°N 60.6333°W / 11.2833; -60.6333 (Main Ridge)

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Pico Duarte is the highest summit of the Dominican Republic, the Island of Hispaniola, and the entire Caribbean.

La Grande Soufrière is the highest point of île de Basse-Terre and the French Région Guadeloupe.

The active volcano Morne Diablotins is the highest point of the island and Commonwealth of Dominica.

Montagne Pelée is the highest point of the island and French Région Martinique.

Cerro de Punta is the highest point of the island and Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.