document_title: Computer data storage

question_text: what part of the computer hardware only retains data while the computer is on

text: Computer data storage

text: Functionality[edit]

text: Without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior. This is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators, digital signal processors, and other specialized devices. Von Neumann machines differ in having a memory in which they store their operating instructions and data.[1]:20 Such computers are more versatile in that they do not need to have their hardware reconfigured for each new program, but can simply be reprogrammed with new in-memory instructions; they also tend to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple processor may keep state between successive computations to build up complex procedural results. Most modern computers are von Neumann machines.

text: Data organization and representation[edit]

text: A modern digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer or device whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, the complete works of Shakespeare, about 1250 pages in print, can be stored in about five megabytes (40 million bits) with one byte per character.

text: Data is encoded by assigning a bit pattern to each character, digit, or multimedia object. Many standards exist for encoding (e.g., character encodings like ASCII, image encodings like JPEG, video encodings like MPEG-4).

text: By adding bits to each encoded unit, redundancy allows the computer to both detect errors in coded data and correct them based on mathematical algorithms. Errors generally occur in low probabilities due to random bit value flipping, or "physical bit fatigue", loss of the physical bit in storage of its ability to maintain a distinguishable value (0 or 1), or due to errors in inter or intra-computer communication. A random bit flip (e.g., due to random radiation) is typically corrected upon detection. A bit, or a group of malfunctioning physical bits (not always the specific defective bit is known; group definition depends on specific storage device) is typically automatically fenced-out, taken out of use by the device, and replaced with another functioning equivalent group in the device, where the corrected bit values are restored (if possible). The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) method is typically used in communications and storage for error detection. A detected error is then retried.

text: Data compression methods allow in many cases (such as a database) to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string ("compress") and reconstruct the original string ("decompress") when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage (tens of percents) for many types of data at the cost of more computation (compress and decompress when needed). Analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not.

text: For security reasons certain types of data (e.g., credit-card information) may be kept encrypted in storage to prevent the possibility of unauthorized information reconstruction from chunks of storage snapshots.

text: Hierarchy of storage[edit]

text: This article appears to contradict the article Memory hierarchy. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit.

text: In contemporary usage, "memory" is usually semiconductor storage read-write random-access memory, typically DRAM (dynamic RAM) or other forms of fast but temporary storage. "Storage" consists of storage devices and their media not directly accessible by the CPU (secondary or tertiary storage), typically hard disk drives, optical disc drives, and other devices slower than RAM but non-volatile (retaining contents when powered down).[2]

text: Historically, memory has been called core memory, main memory, real storage or internal memory. Meanwhile, non-volatile storage devices have been referred to as secondary storage, external memory or auxiliary/peripheral storage.

text: Primary storage[edit]

text: Primary storage (also known as main memory or internal memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.

text: Historically, early computers used delay lines, Williams tubes, or rotating magnetic drums as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic core memory. Core memory remained dominant until the 1970s, when advances in integrated circuit technology allowed semiconductor memory to become economically competitive.

text: This led to modern random-access memory (RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. (The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e. they lose the information when not powered).

text: As shown in the diagram, traditionally there are two more sub-layers of the primary storage, besides main large-capacity RAM:

text:
Processor registers are located inside the processor. Each register typically holds a word of data (often 32 or 64 bits). CPU instructions instruct the arithmetic logic unit to perform various calculations or other operations on this data (or with the help of it). Registers are the fastest of all forms of computer data storage.
Processor cache is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and much slower main memory. It was introduced solely to improve the performance of computers. Most actively used information in the main memory is just duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of much lesser capacity. On the other hand, main memory is much slower, but has a much greater storage capacity than processor registers. Multi-level hierarchical cache setup is also commonly used—primary cache being smallest, fastest and located inside the processor; secondary cache being somewhat larger and slower.

text: Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It is actually two buses (not on the diagram): an address bus and a data bus. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address, that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data in the memory cells using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks.

text: As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (uninitialized at start up), a computer containing only such storage would not have a source to read instructions from, in order to start the computer. Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program (BIOS) is used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called ROM, for read-only memory (the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types are also capable of random access).

text: Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only, as updates to them are possible; however it is slow and memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed. Standard computers do not store non-rudimentary programs in ROM, and rather, use large capacities of secondary storage, which is non-volatile as well, and not as costly.

text: Recently, primary storage and secondary storage in some uses refer to what was historically called, respectively, secondary storage and tertiary storage.[3]

text: Secondary storage[edit]

text: Secondary storage (also known as external memory or auxiliary storage), differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down—it is non-volatile. Per unit, it is typically also two orders of magnitude less expensive than primary storage. Modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage and data are kept for a longer time there.

text: In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary storage. The time taken to access a given byte of information stored on a hard disk is typically a few thousandths of a second, or milliseconds. By contrast, the time taken to access a given byte of information stored in random-access memory is measured in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. This illustrates the significant access-time difference which distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating magnetic storage devices: hard disks are typically about a million times slower than memory. Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer access times. With disk drives, once the disk read/write head reaches the proper placement and the data of interest rotates under it, subsequent data on the track are very fast to access. To reduce the seek time and rotational latency, data are transferred to and from disks in large contiguous blocks.

text: When data reside on disk, blocking access to hide latency offers an opportunity to design efficient external memory algorithms. Sequential or block access on disks is orders of magnitude faster than random access, and many sophisticated paradigms have been developed to design efficient algorithms based upon sequential and block access. Another way to reduce the I/O bottleneck is to use multiple disks in parallel in order to increase the bandwidth between primary and secondary memory.[4]

text: Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are flash memory (e.g. USB flash drives or keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM disks, and Iomega Zip drives.

text: The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which provides the abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also additional information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access permissions, and other information.

text: Most computer operating systems use the concept of virtual memory, allowing utilization of more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap file or page file), retrieving them later when they are needed. As more of these retrievals from slower secondary storage are necessary, the more the overall system performance is degraded.

text: Tertiary storage[edit]

text: Tertiary storage or tertiary memory[5] provides a third level of storage. Typically, it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable mass storage media into a storage device according to the system's demands; this data is often copied to secondary storage before use. It is primarily used for archiving rarely accessed information since it is much slower than secondary storage (e.g. 5–60 seconds vs. 1–10 milliseconds). This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators. Typical examples include tape libraries and optical jukeboxes.

text: When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information. Next, the computer will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the medium and place it in a drive. When the computer has finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the library.

text: Tertiary storage is also known as nearline storage because it is "near to online". The formal distinction between online, nearline, and offline storage is:[6]

text:
Online storage is immediately available for I/O.
Nearline storage is not immediately available, but can be made online quickly without human intervention.
Offline storage is not immediately available, and requires some human intervention to become online.

text: For example, always-on spinning hard disk drives are online storage, while spinning drives that spin down automatically, such as in massive arrays of idle disks (MAID), are nearline storage. Removable media such as tape cartridges that can be automatically loaded, as in tape libraries, are nearline storage, while tape cartridges that must be manually loaded are offline storage.

text: Off-line storage[edit]

text: Off-line storage is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit.[7] The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction.

text: Off-line storage is used to transfer information, since the detached medium can be easily physically transported. Additionally, in case a disaster, for example a fire, destroys the original data, a medium in a remote location will probably be unaffected, enabling disaster recovery. Off-line storage increases general information security, since it is physically inaccessible from a computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack techniques. Also, if the information stored for archival purposes is rarely accessed, off-line storage is less expensive than tertiary storage.

text: In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-line storage. Optical discs and flash memory devices are most popular, and to much lesser extent removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. Older examples are floppy disks, Zip disks, or punched cards.

text: Characteristics of storage[edit]

text: Storage technologies at all levels of the storage hierarchy can be differentiated by evaluating certain core characteristics as well as measuring characteristics specific to a particular implementation. These core characteristics are volatility, mutability, accessibility, and addressability. For any particular implementation of any storage technology, the characteristics worth measuring are capacity and performance.

text: Volatility[edit]

text: Non-volatile memory retains the stored information even if not constantly supplied with electric power.[8] It is suitable for long-term storage of information. Volatile memory requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies are volatile ones, although that is not a universal rule. Since the primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory.

text: Dynamic random-access memory is a form of volatile memory that also requires the stored information to be periodically reread and rewritten, or refreshed, otherwise it would vanish. Static random-access memory is a form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it never needs to be refreshed as long as power is applied; it loses its content when the power supply is lost.

text: An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) can be used to give a computer a brief window of time to move information from primary volatile storage into non-volatile storage before the batteries are exhausted. Some systems, for example EMC Symmetrix, have integrated batteries that maintain volatile storage for several minutes.

text: Mutability[edit]

text: Accessibility[edit]

text: Addressability[edit]

text: Capacity[edit]

text: Performance[edit]

text: Energy use[edit]

text:
Storage devices that reduce fan usage, automatically shut-down during inactivity, and low power hard drives can reduce energy consumption by 90 percent.[9]
2.5-inch hard disk drives often consume less power than larger ones.[10][11] Low capacity solid-state drives have no moving parts and consume less power than hard disks.[12][13][14] Also, memory may use more power than hard disks.[14] Large caches, which are used to avoid hitting memory wall, may also consume a large amount of power.[15]

text: Storage media[edit]

text: As of 2011[update], the most commonly used data storage media are semiconductor, magnetic, and optical, while paper still sees some limited usage. Some other fundamental storage technologies have been used in the past or are proposed for development.

text: Semiconductor[edit]

text: Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits to store information. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. Both volatile and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist. In modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor memory or dynamic random-access memory. Since the turn of the century, a type of non-volatile semiconductor memory known as flash memory has steadily gained share as off-line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory is also used for secondary storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers that are designed for them.

text: As early as 2006, notebook and desktop computer manufacturers started using flash-based solid-state drives (SSDs) as default configuration options for the secondary storage either in addition to or instead of the more traditional HDD.[16][17][18][19][20]

text: Magnetic[edit]

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Magnetic storage media

Wire (1898)
Tape (1928)
Drum (1932)
Ferrite core (1949)
Hard disk (1956)
Stripe card (1956)
MICR (1956)
Thin film (1962)
CRAM (1962)
Twistor (~1968)
Floppy disk (1969)
Bubble (~1970)
MRAM (1995)
Racetrack (2008)

text: Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers. A read/write head only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be moved relative to another in order to access data. In modern computers, magnetic storage will take these forms:

text:
Magnetic disk

Floppy disk, used for off-line storage
Hard disk drive, used for secondary storage

Magnetic tape, used for tertiary and off-line storage
Carousel memory (magnetic rolls)

text: In early computers, magnetic storage was also used as:

text:
Primary storage in a form of magnetic memory, or core memory, core rope memory, thin-film memory and/or twistor memory.
Tertiary (e.g. NCR CRAM) or off line storage in the form of magnetic cards.
Magnetic tape was then often used for secondary storage.

text: Optical[edit]

text:
[show]

v
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e

Optical storage media

Blu-ray (2003)

BD-R (2006)
BD-RE (2006)
BD-R XL (2010)
BD-RE XL (2010)

DVD (1995)

DVD-R (1997)
DVD-RW (1999)
DVD+RW (2001)
DVD+R (2002)
DVD+R DL (2004)
DVD-R DL (2005)

Compact disc (1982)

CD-R (1988)
CD-RW (1997)

Discontinued

Microform (1870)
Optical tape (20th century)
Optical disc (20th century)
LaserDisc (1978)
WORM (1979)
UDO (2003)
ProData (2003)
UMD (2004)
HD DVD (2006)

Magneto-optic Kerr effect (1877)

MO disc (1980s)
MiniDisc (1992)
Hi-MD (2004)

Optical Assist

Laser turntable (1986)
Floptical (1991)
Super DLT (1998)

text: Optical storage, the typical optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is non-volatile. The deformities may be permanent (read only media), formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write media). The following forms are currently in common use:[21]

text:
CD, CD-ROM, DVD, BD-ROM: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs)
CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R, BD-R: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, BD-RE: Slow write, fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
Ultra Density Optical or UDO is similar in capacity to BD-R or BD-RE and is slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.

text: Magneto-optical disc storage is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a ferromagnetic surface stores information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is non-volatile, sequential access, slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.

text: 3D optical data storage has also been proposed.

text: Light induced magnetization melting in magnetic photoconductors has also been proposed for high-speed low-energy consumption magneto-optical storage.[22]

text: Paper[edit]

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Paper data storage media

Antiquity

Writing on papyrus (c. 3000 BCE)
Paper (105 CE)

Modern

Railroad/Transit Punch Photograph (1880s)
Punched card (1890)
Edge-notched card (1896)
Optical mark recognition
Optical character recognition (1929)
Barcode (1948)

text: Paper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punched cards, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically (or later optically) to determine whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole. A few technologies allow people to make marks on paper that are easily read by machine—these are widely used for tabulating votes and grading standardized tests. Barcodes made it possible for any object that was to be sold or transported to have some computer readable information securely attached to it.

text: Other storage media or substrates[edit]

text: Related technologies[edit]

text: Redundancy[edit]

text: While a group of bits malfunction may be resolved by error detection and correction mechanisms (see above), storage device malfunction requires different solutions. The following solutions are commonly used and valid for most storage devices:

text:
Device mirroring (replication) – A common solution to the problem is constantly maintaining an identical copy of device content on another device (typically of a same type). The downside is that this doubles the storage, and both devices (copies) need to be updated simultaneously with some overhead and possibly some delays. The upside is possible concurrent read of a same data group by two independent processes, which increases performance. When one of the replicated devices is detected to be defective, the other copy is still operational, and is being utilized to generate a new copy on another device (usually available operational in a pool of stand-by devices for this purpose).
Redundant array of independent disks (RAID) – This method generalizes the device mirroring above by allowing one device in a group of N devices to fail and be replaced with the content restored (Device mirroring is RAID with N=2). RAID groups of N=5 or N=6 are common. N>2 saves storage, when comparing with N=2, at the cost of more processing during both regular operation (with often reduced performance) and defective device replacement.

text: Device mirroring and typical RAID are designed to handle a single device failure in the RAID group of devices. However, if a second failure occurs before the RAID group is completely repaired from the first failure, then data can be lost. The probability of a single failure is typically small. Thus the probability of two failures in a same RAID group in time proximity is much smaller (approximately the probability squared, i.e., multiplied by itself). If a database cannot tolerate even such smaller probability of data loss, then the RAID group itself is replicated (mirrored). In many cases such mirroring is done geographically remotely, in a different storage array, to handle also recovery from disasters (see disaster recovery above).

text: Network connectivity[edit]

text: A secondary or tertiary storage may connect to a computer utilizing computer networks. This concept does not pertain to the primary storage, which is shared between multiple processors to a lesser degree.

text:
Direct-attached storage (DAS) is a traditional mass storage, that does not use any network. This is still a most popular approach. This retronym was coined recently, together with NAS and SAN.
Network-attached storage (NAS) is mass storage attached to a computer which another computer can access at file level over a local area network, a private wide area network, or in the case of online file storage, over the Internet. NAS is commonly associated with the NFS and CIFS/SMB protocols.
Storage area network (SAN) is a specialized network, that provides other computers with storage capacity. The crucial difference between NAS and SAN is the former presents and manages file systems to client computers, whilst the latter provides access at block-addressing (raw) level, leaving it to attaching systems to manage data or file systems within the provided capacity. SAN is commonly associated with Fibre Channel networks.

text: Robotic storage[edit]

text: Large quantities of individual magnetic tapes, and optical or magneto-optical discs may be stored in robotic tertiary storage devices. In tape storage field they are known as tape libraries, and in optical storage field optical jukeboxes, or optical disk libraries per analogy. Smallest forms of either technology containing just one drive device are referred to as autoloaders or autochangers.

text: Robotic-access storage devices may have a number of slots, each holding individual media, and usually one or more picking robots that traverse the slots and load media to built-in drives. The arrangement of the slots and picking devices affects performance. Important characteristics of such storage are possible expansion options: adding slots, modules, drives, robots. Tape libraries may have from 10 to more than 100,000 slots, and provide terabytes or petabytes of near-line information. Optical jukeboxes are somewhat smaller solutions, up to 1,000 slots.

text: Robotic storage is used for backups, and for high-capacity archives in imaging, medical, and video industries. Hierarchical storage management is a most known archiving strategy of automatically migrating long-unused files from fast hard disk storage to libraries or jukeboxes. If the files are needed, they are retrieved back to disk.


document_title: Yankee Doodle Dandy

question_text: who played the mother in yankee doodle dandy

root

text: Yankee Doodle Dandy

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the early days of World War II, Cohan comes out of retirement to star as President Roosevelt in the Rodgers and Hart musical I'd Rather Be Right. On the first night, he is summoned to meet the President at the White House, who presents him with a Congressional Gold Medal (in fact, this happened several years previously). Cohan is overcome and chats with Roosevelt, recalling his early days on the stage. The film flashes back to his supposed birth on July 4, whilst his father is performing on the vaudeville stage.

tag: p

text: Cohan and his sister join the family act as soon as they can learn to dance, and soon The Four Cohans are performing successfully. But George gets too cocky as he grows up and is blacklisted by theatrical producers for being troublesome. He leaves the act and hawks his songs unsuccessfully around to producers. In partnership with another struggling writer, Sam Harris, he finally interests a producer and they are on the road to success. He also marries Mary, a young singer/dancer.

text: As his star ascends, he persuades his now struggling parents to join his act, eventually vesting some of his valuable theatrical properties in their name.

text: Cohan retires, but returns to the stage several times, culminating in the role of the U.S. President. As he leaves the White House, after receiving the Congressional Gold Medal from the President, he performs a tap dance down a set of interior stairs (which Cagney thought up before the scene was filmed and performed with no rehearsal). Outside, he joins a military parade, where the soldiers are singing "Over There", and, at first, he isn't singing. Not knowing that Cohan is the song's composer, one of them asks if he knows the words.  Cohan's response is a smile and then joins in the singing.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
James Cagney as George M. Cohan
Joan Leslie as Mary Cohan
Walter Huston as Jerry Cohan
Richard Whorf as Sam Harris
Irene Manning as Fay Templeton
George Tobias as Dietz
Rosemary DeCamp as Nellie Cohan
Jeanne Cagney as Josie Cohan
Eddie Foy, Jr. as  Eddie Foy, Sr.
Frances Langford as Nora Bayes
George Barbier as Erlanger
S. Z. Sakall as Schwab
Walter Catlett as Theatre Manager
Minor Watson as Ed Albee
Chester Clute as Harold Goff
Odette Myrtil as Madame Bartholdi
Douglas Croft as George M. Cohan (age 13)
Patsy Lee Parsons as Josie Cohan (age 12)
Captain Jack Young as President Franklin D. Roosevelt

tag: ul

text: Uncredited Roles

text:
Audrey Long as Dietz and Goff's Receptionist
Clinton Rosemond as White House Butler
Spencer Charters as Stage Manager in Providence
Dorothy Kelly and Marijo James as Sister Act
Henry Blair as George M. Cohan (age 7)
Jo Ann Marlow as Josie Cohan (age 6)
Thomas E. Jackson as Stage Manager
Phyllis Kennedy as Fanny
Pat Flaherty as White House Guard
Leon Belasco as Magician
Syd Saylor as Star Boarder
William B. Davidson as Stage Manager in N.Y.
Harry Hayden as Dr. Lewellyn
Francis Pierlot as Dr. Anderson
Charles Smith, Joyce Reynolds, Dick Chandlee, and Joyce Horne as Teenagers
Frank Faylen as Sergeant
Wallis Clark as President Theodore Roosevelt
Georgia Carroll as Betsy Ross
Joan Winfield as Sally
Dick Wessel and James Flavin as Union Army Veterans
Sailor Vincent as Schultz in "Peck's Bad Boy"
Fred Kelsey as Irish Cop in "Peck's Bad Boy"
George Meeker and Frank Mayo as Hotel Clerks
Tom Dugan as Actor at railroad station
Creighton Hale as Telegraph Operator
Murray Alper as Wise Guy
Garry Owen as Army Clerk
Ruth Robinson as Nurse
Eddie Acuff, Walter Brooke, Bill Edwards, and William Hopper as Reporters
William Forrest as 1st Critic
Eddie Kane as 2nd Critic
Jack Mower as  Backstage Actor in "Peck's Bad Boy"
Frank Sully as Army Recruiter
James Flavin as Union Army Veteran #1 on Caisson

text: Cast notes:

text:
In his role as adviser to the film, George M. Cohan, who admired Fred Astaire's work, let it be known that he preferred Astaire, who also bore a passing resemblance to him, to star in his life story. Warners first offered him the role but Astaire turned it down because Cohan's eccentric, stiff-legged dancing was far removed from Astaire's own, more fluid, style.[4]
James Cagney reprised the role of George M. Cohan in the movie The Seven Little Foys (1955), but agreed only on the condition that he receive no money – he did the film as a tribute to Eddie Foy.  In Yankee Doodle Dandy, Eddie Foy, Jr. played the role of his own father.  In The Seven Little Foys, Bob Hope portrayed Foy; Charley Foy (son of Eddie Foy, Jr.) served as a narrator.
Actress Jeanne Cagney, who played the part of Cohan's sister, was James Cagney's real-life sister. Cagney's brother, William Cagney, was the Associate Producer of the film.
Rosemary DeCamp, who played the mother of George M. Cohan, was, in fact, 11 years younger than Cagney.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt was played by Captain Jack Young, a lookalike who is seen only from the back. An impressionist, Art Gilmore, provided the voice of Roosevelt, uncredited. Gilmore would narrate the Joe McDoakes film shorts produced by Warners, and became a well-known announcer on television through the 1970s.
Uncredited cast members include Eddie Acuff, Murray Alper, Ward Bond, Walter Brooke, Georgia Carroll, Glen Cavender, Spencer Charters, Wallis Clark, William B. Davidson, Ann Doran, Tom Dugan, Bill Edwards, Frank Faylen, Pat Flaherty, James Flavin, William Forrest, William Gillespie, Joe Gray, Creighton Hale, John Hamilton, Harry Hayden, Stuart Holmes, William Hopper, Eddie Kane, Fred Kelsey, Vera Lewis, Audrey Long, Hank Mann, Frank Mayo, Lon McCallister, Edward McWade, George Meeker, Dolores Moran, Charles Morton, Jack Mower, Paul Panzer, Francis Pierlot, Clinton Rosemond, Syd Saylor, Frank Sully, Dick Wessel, Leo White, Mickey Daniels and Dave Willock.

text: Background and production[edit]

text: Cagney was a fitting choice for the role of Cohan since, like Cohan, he was an Irish-American who had been a song-and-dance man early in his career. His unique and seemingly odd presentation style, of half-singing and half-reciting the songs, reflected the style that Cohan himself used.  His natural dance style and physique were also a good match for Cohan. Newspapers at the time reported that Cagney intended to consciously imitate Cohan's song-and-dance style, but to play the normal part of the acting in his own style. Although director Curtiz was famous for being a taskmaster, he also gave his actors some latitude. Cagney and other players came up with a number of "bits of business", as Cagney called them, meaning improvised lines or action in theater parlance.[6]

text: A number of the biographical particulars of the movie are Hollywood-ized fiction, such as omitting the fact that Cohan divorced and remarried, and combining Cohan's two wives Ethel and Agnes into a single character named Mary, and taking some liberties with the chronology of Cohan's life and the order of his parents' deaths).  Nevertheless, care was taken to make the sets, costumes, and dance steps match the original stage presentations. Twice, Cagney sprained an ankle while mastering Cohan's stiff-legged dance style.  This effort was aided significantly by a former associate of Cohan's, Jack Boyle, who knew the original productions well. Boyle also appeared in the film in some of the dancing groups.

text: Cagney, as Cohan, is shown performing as a singing and dancing version of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.  Although it was well known, the reality of Roosevelt's use of a wheelchair after polio was not emphasized at the time.  In the film, Roosevelt never leaves his chair when meeting Cohan.

text: The movie poster for this film was the first ever produced by noted poster designer Bill Gold.

text: Cohan himself served as a consultant during the production of the film.  Due to his failing health, his actual involvement in the film was rather limited.  However, Cohan did see the film before he died (from cancer) and approved of Cagney's portrayal.[7]  Because of fears over Cohan's failing health, Warner Brothers moved up the scheduled gala premiere from July 4 to May 29; the original date had been chosen because of the film's patriotic theme and because Cohan really had been born on the Fourth of July as he wrote in the lyrics of his "Yankee Doodle Dandy."  In the end, Cohan lived for several more months after the film's release.

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text:
"Overture" - Played by Orchestra behind titles.
"Keep Your Eyes Upon Me (The Dancing Master)" - Sung and Danced by Walter Huston, then Sung and Danced by Henry Blair.
"While Strolling Through the Park One Day" - Sung and Danced by Jo Ann Marlowe.
"At a Georgia Camp Meeting" - Danced by James Cagney, Walter Huston, Rosemary DeCamp and Jeanne Cagney.
"I Was Born in Virginia" - Sung and Danced by James Cagney, Jeanne Cagney, Walter Huston and Rosemary DeCamp.
"The Warmest Baby in the Bunch" - Sung and Danced by Joan Leslie (dubbed by Sally Sweetland).
"Harrigan" - Sung and Danced by James Cagney and Joan Leslie.
"The Yankee Doodle Boy" - Sung and Danced by James Cagney, Joan Leslie (dubbed by Sally Sweetland) and Chorus.
"Give My Regards To Broadway" - Sung and Danced by James Cagney and Chorus.
"Oh You Wonderful Girl / Blue Skies, Gray Skies / The Belle of the Barbers' Ball" - Sung by James Cagney, Jeanne Cagney, Walter Huston and Rosemary DeCamp.
"Mary's a Grand Old Name" - Sung by Joan Leslie (dubbed by Sally Sweetland).
"Forty-Five Minutes from Broadway" - Sung by James Cagney.
"Mary's a Grand Old Name" (reprise 1) - Sung by Joan Leslie (dubbed by Sally Sweetland).
"Mary's a Grand Old Name" (reprise 2) - Sung by Irene Manning.
"Forty-Five Minutes from Broadway" (reprise) - Sung by Chorus.
"So Long, Mary" - Sung by Irene Manning and Chorus.
"You're a Grand Old Flag" - Performed by James Cagney and Chorus.
"Like the Wandering Minstrel" - Sung by James Cagney and Chorus.
"Over There" - Sung by Frances Langford, James Cagney and Chorus.
"A George M. Cohan Potpouri" - Sung by Frances Langford.
"Off the Record" - Performed by James Cagney.
"Over There" (reprise) - Sung by James Cagney and Chorus.
"The Yankee Doodle Boy" (reprise) - Played by Orchestra behind end credits.

tag: ol

text: Production[edit]

text: Cagney had initially been opposed to a biopic of George M. Cohan's life, having disliked Cohan since the Actors' Equity Strike in 1919, in which he sided with the producers. In 1940, Cagney was named, along with 15 other Hollywood figures, in the grand jury testimony of John R. Leech, the self-described 'chief functionary' of the Los Angeles Communist Party who had been subpoenaed by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). The New York Times printed the allegation that Cagney was a communist on its front page. Cagney refuted the accusation and Martin Dies, Jr. made a statement to the press clearing Cagney. William Cagney, one of the film's producers, is reported to have said to his brother that "we're going to have to make the goddamndest patriotic picture that's ever been made. I think it's the Cohan story".[8]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film nearly doubled the earnings of Captains of the Clouds (1942), Cagney's previous effort, bringing in more than $6 million in rentals to Warner Bros.[9]

text: This made it the biggest box office success in the company's history up to that time. The star earned his contractual $150,000 salary and nearly half a million dollars in profit sharing.[10] According to Variety magazine, the film earned $4.8 million in theatrical rentals through its North American release.[11]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Contemporary reviews were highly positive. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times said that film patrons would do well to see it, for "you will find as warm and delightful a musical picture as has hit the screen in years, a corking good entertainment and as affectionate, if not as accurate, a film biography as has ever—yes, ever—been made ... there is so much in this picture and so many persons that deserve their meed of praise that every one connected with it can stick a feather in his hat and take our word—it's dandy!"[12] Variety called the film "as entertaining as any top filmusical ever made ... James Cagney does a Cohan of which the original George M. might well be proud."[13] Harrison's Reports wrote: "Excellent! Audiences should find this musical comedy, which is based on the life of George M. Cohan, one of the most sparkling and delightful musical pictures that have ever been brought to the screen. Much of its entertainment value is due to the exceptionally fine performance of James Cagney, whose impersonation of Mr. Cohan is uncanny—his gestures, his talk, and his dancing, are done to perfection."[14] John Mosher of The New Yorker called the film "a complete delight, an extravaganza of tunes the country has liked for decades," although he considered it "dubious" as a biography of Cohan.[15]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: The film won Academy Awards for Best Actor in a Leading Role (James Cagney), Best Music, Scoring of a Musical Picture and Best Sound Recording (Nathan Levinson). It was nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Walter Huston), Best Director, Best Film Editing for George Amy, Best Picture and Best Writing, Original Story.[16] In 1993, Yankee Doodle Dandy  was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

text: American Film Institute recognition

text:
1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies - #100
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs - #71
The Yankee Doodle Boy
2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:
"My mother thanks you. My father thanks you. My sister thanks you. And I thank you." - #97
2006: AFI's 100 Years of Musicals - #18
2006: AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers - #88
2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) - #98

text: Adaptations[edit]

text:
Yankee Doodle Dandy was adapted as a radio play on the October 19, 1942 broadcast of The Screen Guild Theater, starring James Cagney with Rita Hayworth and Betty Grable.[17]
George M! is a stage musical, also based on the life of George M. Cohan, opening on Broadway in 1968.


document_title: While My Guitar Gently Weeps

question_text: who played guitar on the beatles while my guitar gently weeps

text: While My Guitar Gently Weeps

text: Background and inspiration[edit]

text:
The Eastern concept is that whatever happens is all meant to be ... every little item that's going down has a purpose. "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" was a simple study based on that theory ... I picked up a book at random, opened it, saw "gently weeps", then laid the book down again and started the song.[10]

– George Harrison

tag: div

text: George Harrison wrote "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" after his return from India, where the Beatles had been studying Transcendental Meditation under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi during the spring of 1968. The visit had allowed Harrison to re-engage with the guitar as his primary instrument, after focusing on the Indian sitar for the previous two years,[11] and also marked the start of a prolific period for him as a songwriter.[12][13] Inspiration for the song came to him when he was visiting his parents in Warrington, Cheshire, and he began reading the I Ching, or "The Book of Changes".[10] As Harrison put it, "[the book] seemed to me to be based on the Eastern concept that everything is relative to everything else, as opposed to the Western view that things are merely coincidental."[14] Embracing this idea of relativism, he committed to writing a song based on the first words he saw upon opening a book, which happened to be "gently weeps".[15] Harrison continued to work on the lyrics after this initial writing session.[14]

text: The song reflects the disharmonious atmosphere within the Beatles following their return from India.[16] Harrison had led the band in their highly publicised endorsement of Transcendental Meditation[17][18] and viewed this spiritual pursuit as superior in importance to their career momentum.[19] When discussing another song he wrote at this time, "Not Guilty", Harrison said it referred to "the grief I was catching" from John Lennon and Paul McCartney for leading them to Rishikesh[20] and supposedly hindering the group's career and the launch of their Apple record label.[21] Eric Clapton, with whom Harrison collaborated on several recordings throughout 1968 as a distraction from the Beatles,[22] said that "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" conveyed Harrison's spiritual isolation within the group.[23][nb 1]

text: A demo that Harrison recorded at his home in Esher includes an unused verse: "I look at the trouble and see that it's raging / While my guitar gently weeps / As I'm sitting here, doing nothing but ageing …"[26] This version also includes the line "The problems you sow are the troubles you're reaping", which he similarly discarded. An early acoustic guitar and harmonium performance of the song features a slightly different third verse: "I look from the wings at the play you are staging / While my guitar gently weeps / As I'm sitting here, doing nothing but ageing …"[26] This version was released on the 1996 compilation Anthology 3 and was used as the basis of the 2006 Love remix, with a string arrangement by George Martin.[27]

text: Composition[edit]

text: Music[edit]

text: "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" was one of the few Beatles compositions from early 1968 that changed markedly from demo form to the official recording.[28] Harrison's demos suggest the influence of folk music, yet the Beatles' version is in the heavy rock style typical of much of the band's late 1960s work.[29] While noting the importance of Harrison's return to the guitar during this period, Beatles biographer Jonathan Gould describes the song as "virtually a declaration of his recommitment to rock".[30]

text: The song as originally issued by the Beatles is in the key of A minor,[31] changing to A major over the bridges.[32] Aside from the intro, the composition is structured into two rounds of verse and bridge, with an instrumental passage extending the second of these verse sections, followed by a final verse and a long instrumental passage that fades out on the released recording.[32] All the sections consist of an even sixteen bars or measures, which are divided into four phrases.[32]

text: The chord progression over the verses includes a shift to a ♭7 (Am/G) on "all" (bass note G) and a 6 (D9 (major 3rd F♯)) after "love" (bass note F♯) to a ♭6 (Fmaj7) on "sleeping" (bass note F). According to musicologist Dominic Pedler, the 8–♭7–6–♭6 progression represents a hybrid of the Aeolian and Dorian modes.[33] The change to the parallel major key is heralded by a C chord as the verse's penultimate chord (replacing the D used in the second phrase of each verse) before the E that leads into the bridge.[32] Musicologist Alan Pollack views this combination of C and E as representing a sense of "arrival", after which the bridge contains "upward [harmonic] gestures" that contrast with the bass descents that dominate the verse.[32] Such contrasts are limited by the inclusion of minor triads (III, VI and II) played over the E chord that ends the bridge's second and fourth phrases.[34]

text: Lyrics[edit]

text: In his lyrics to "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", Harrison revisits the theme of universal love and the philosophical concerns that were evident in his overtly Indian-influenced compositions, particularly "Within You Without You".[35] The song is a lament for how a universal love for humankind is latent in all individuals yet remains unrealised.[35][36] In the description of theologian Dale Allison, the song "conveys spiritual angst and an urgent religious point of view without being explicitly theological".[37] Harrison sings of surveying "you all" and seeing "the love there that's sleeping".[38] Musicologist Walter Everett comments that the change from the minor-mode verse to the parallel major might express hope that "unrealized potential" described in the lyrics is to be "fulfilled", but the continued minor triads "seem to express a strong dismay that love is not to be unfolded".[34] During the bridges, Harrison adopts a repetitive rhyming scheme in the style of Bob Dylan[39] to convey how humankind has become distracted from its ability to manifest this love.[38] He sings of people that have been "inverted" and "perverted" from their natural perspective.[40]

text: According to Harrison biographer Joshua Greene, the song's message reflects the pessimism encouraged by world events throughout 1968, such as the assassinations of Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy in the United States, and the Soviet Russian oppression of Czechoslovakia.[41][nb 2] Allison writes that the lyrics represent the "antithesis of spiritual triumphalism", in which Harrison "mourns because love has not conquered all".[40]

text: Recording[edit]

text: Early attempts and basic track[edit]

text: The Beatles recorded "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" several times during the sessions for their self-titled double album, also known as "the White Album".[43] The recording sessions, which began in late May 1968, were characterised by a lack of cooperation among the four band members,[44][45] and by what Lennon's bandmates regarded as the overly intrusive presence of his new romantic partner, Yoko Ono.[46] In this atmosphere, Harrison had initially been reluctant to present his new compositions to the group.[47][48] Take 1 on 25 July – the version later issued on Anthology 3 – was a solo performance by Harrison, playing his Gibson J-200 acoustic guitar, with an overdubbed harmonium part.[27][34][nb 3]

text: Sessions on 16 August and 5 September produced full band recordings of the song. In the case of the 16 August version, an overdubbing session on 3 September marked the first time that the Beatles had used eight-track recording at EMI Studios.[47][50] At the same session, Harrison overdubbed a backwards (or "backmasked") guitar solo, as he had done two years before on "I'm Only Sleeping", on the Revolver album, but he was not satisfied with the results.[51] The Beatles then remade the basic track on 5 September[34] – a session that marked Ringo Starr's return to the group after he had walked out on 22 August, upset at the unpleasant atmosphere.[52] While Harrison led the band in welcoming back their drummer, by installing a large flower display all over Starr's drum kit,[53] he continued to think that his bandmates were not giving their best to the song.[54][55]

text: Overdubs[edit]

text: On 6 September, during a ride from Surrey into London, Harrison asked Clapton to play guitar on the track. Clapton, who recognised Harrison's talent as a songwriter,[56] and considered that his abilities had long been held back by Lennon and McCartney,[57] was nevertheless reluctant to participate; he later recalled that his initial response was: "I can't do that. Nobody ever plays on Beatles records."[58] Harrison convinced him, and Clapton's lead guitar part, played on Harrison's Gibson Les Paul electric guitar "Lucy" (a recent gift from Clapton), was overdubbed that evening.[4][59] Recalling the session in his 2007 autobiography, Clapton says that, while Lennon and McCartney were "fairly non-committal", he thought the track "sounded fantastic", adding: "I knew George was happy, because he listened to it over and over in the control room."[60]

text: Harrison recalled that Clapton's presence also ensured that his bandmates "tr[ied] a bit harder" and "were all on their best behaviour".[4] The Beatles carried out the remaining overdubs, which included an ascending piano motif, played by McCartney, over the introduction,[61] Hammond organ by Harrison, and further percussion by Starr.[59] McCartney also added a second bass part, played on his Fender Jazz Bass[61] rather than on either of his preferred Hofner or Rickenbacker models.

text: Mixing[edit]

text: Still wary that his contribution might present too much of a departure from the band's sound, Clapton requested that Harrison give the lead guitar track a more "Beatley" sound when mixing the song.[62][63] During final mixing for the White Album, on 14 October,[62] the guitar part was run through an ADT circuit with "varispeed", with engineer Chris Thomas manipulating the oscillator to achieve the desired "wobbly" effect.[64][nb 4] According to Everett, Lennon's tremolo-rich guitar part, recorded on 5 September, was retained only in the song's coda.[66]

text: Clapton's guitar contribution has been described as making this a "monumental" track. As particularly notable features, Everett highlights the increasing lengths of thrice-heard first scale degrees (0:17–0:19), the restraint shown by rests in many bars then unexpected appearances (as at 0:28–0:29), commanding turnaround phrases (0:31–0:33), expressive string bends marking modal changes from C to C♯ (0:47–0:53), power retransition (1:21–1:24), emotive vibrato (2:01–2:07), and a solo (1:55–2:31) with a "measured rise in intensity, rhythmic activity, tonal drive and registral climb".[61] In October 1968, Harrison reciprocated by co-writing "Badge" with Clapton and playing on Cream's recording of the track.[67][68] Released on Cream's final album, Goodbye, "Badge" reflected Harrison's pop sensibilities[68] and helped Clapton transition from the heavy blues style and its reliance on extended soloing, and onto the more song-based approach that he and Harrison admired in the Band's 1968 album Music from Big Pink.[69]

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: Apple Records released The Beatles on 22 November 1968.[70] One of four Harrison compositions on the double album, "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" was sequenced as the penultimate track on side one in the LP format,[71] between Lennon's "The Continuing Story of Bungalow Bill" and "Happiness Is a Warm Gun".[72][73] The song was issued as the B-side of "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da",[74] a McCartney-written song that had also tested the Beatles' patience during the White Album sessions.[75][76] This single was an international hit, topping charts in Australia, Austria, Switzerland[77] and West Germany,[78] but was not released in Britain or the United States.[74][nb 5]

text: According to music critic Tim Riley, Harrison's writing contributions "regain[ed] the promise" evident in his three songs on the Beatles' 1966 album Revolver.[80] Recalling the release in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever, Nicholas Schaffner said that, in returning to pop/rock songwriting after his excursions into the Indian classical style, Harrison's four White Album songs "firmly established him as a contender" beside Lennon and McCartney. In Schaffner's description, "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" was the most instantly popular of "a quartet of more conventionally accessible pop songs [written by Harrison] that many felt were among the finest on the album".[81]

text: Among contemporary reviews, Jann Wenner of Rolling Stone said that "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" was "one of George Harrison's very best songs", and likened it to "Blue Jay Way" in that it "recalls California, the simple Baja California beat, the dreamy words of the Los Angeles haze, the organic pace lapping around every room as if in invisible waves". Wenner found the lyrics "slightly self-righteous and preaching", representing "a general set of incidents, a message, like a sermon, impersonally directed to everyone", and concluded: "I am willing to bet something substantial that the lead guitarist on this cut is Eric Clapton, yet another involution of the circular logic on which this song [is] so superbly constructed as a musical piece."[82] In his review for the International Times, Barry Miles said the song was a "great tune" with "nice hi-hats" but a "lifeless" guitar part,[83] while Alan Smith of the NME wrote: "the words are evocative and the melody line is creeping into my mind to stay."[84] Geoffrey Cannon wrote in The Guardian: "George Harrison has seen the truth, and is anxious that we should see our truth. He's a preacher, man of fire. When his songs speak of 'you,' the address is direct. He achieves his character in 'While My Guitar Gently Weeps', which, with Phil Ochs's 'Tape from California', is the first track I know that succeeds in making magnanimous love serious and touching."[85]

text: "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" became a staple of US rock radio during the early 1970s,[86] on a par with songs such as "Layla" by Clapton's short-lived band Derek and the Dominos, Led Zeppelin's "Stairway to Heaven" and the Who's "Won't Get Fooled Again".[80] In 1973, it appeared on the Beatles' double album compilation 1967–1970,[87] as one of only three tracks representing the White Album.[88] Capitol Records included it on The Best of George Harrison in 1976;[89] a year before this, Harrison released a sequel to the song, titled "This Guitar (Can't Keep from Crying)", which also served as the final single issued by Apple in its original incarnation.[90][91] The Beatles' recording also appeared on the soundtrack to Withnail and I, a 1987 comedy film set in late-1960s London and produced by Harrison's company HandMade Films.[92]

text: Despite his reluctance to record "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", McCartney later identified it as one of his favourite selections on the 1995–96 Anthology outtakes series,[93] and he grouped the song with "Something" and "Here Comes the Sun" as candidates for Harrison's "greatest track".[94] Starr paired it with "Something" as "Two of the finest love songs ever written", adding: "they're really on a par with what John and Paul or anyone else of that time wrote."[94] In their written tributes to Harrison following his death in November 2001, Mick Jagger and Keith Richards each expressed their admiration for the song.[95] Jagger said: "It's lovely, plaintive. Only a guitar player could write that ..."[96]

text: Harrison live performances[edit]

text: Harrison played "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" at every one of his comparatively rare concerts as a solo artist. Writing for Mojo in 2003, Ashley Kahn attributed the track's "classic" status to its evocation of "a band falling out of harmony" and, with regard to the enduring musical bond between Harrison and Clapton, its standing as "their song".[97] At Harrison's Concert for Bangladesh, held at Madison Square Garden in New York on 1 August 1971, Clapton performed the song on a Gibson Byrdland, a hollow-body guitar more suited to jazz[98] or country music than rock.[99] He later said that this was a poor decision and, as with his substandard playing at the event, one indicative of his descent into heroin addiction.[99][100][nb 6]

text: The version performed by Harrison during his set at the 1987 Prince's Trust Concert reunited him with Starr and Clapton,[102] and features an extended coda with the guitars of Harrison and Clapton interweaving. On their 1991 tour of Japan, Harrison and Clapton performed "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" with additional background vocals. An edit combining parts of the 14 December and 17 December Tokyo Dome performances of the song was included on Harrison's 1992 double album Live in Japan.[103]

text: Harrison also featured the song in the set list for his only other tour as a solo artist, a series of North American concerts over November–December 1974 with Ravi Shankar.[104] Harrison shared the lead guitarist's role with Robben Ford, often extending the piece to eight minutes.[105] While it was a popular inclusion in a set list that barely acknowledged Harrison's past as a former Beatle, his alteration of some of the lyrics – so that his guitar "gently smiles" and "tries to smile" – disappointed many concert-goers and reviewers.[104][106] Author Simon Leng comments that on Harrison's return to Madison Square Garden towards the end of the tour, his playing on the song nevertheless received a standing ovation.[107]

text: Cover versions[edit]

text: Canadian guitarist Jeff Healey covered "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" on his 1990 album Hell to Pay. Harrison participated in the recording, contributing on acoustic guitar and backing vocals.[108] Also issued as a single, Healey's version peaked at number 27 in Canada,[109] number 85 in the UK[110] and number 25 in New Zealand.[111]

text: During the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II concert at Buckingham Palace Garden on 3 June 2002, McCartney performed the song with Clapton, as a tribute to Harrison.[112] The performance appears on the DVD release Party at the Palace.[113] On 29 November the same year, Clapton, McCartney, Starr, Dhani Harrison, Jeff Lynne and Marc Mann performed "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" at the Concert for George in memory of Harrison.[112] This version showcased Clapton singing the lead vocal while McCartney provided background vocals and piano; Mann played Clapton's original fills and the mid-song solo. Author Ian Inglis writes that while Clapton was already "permanently associated" with "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" due to his presence on the White Album recording and the Concert for Bangladesh and Live in Japan versions, Clapton's long, closing solo at the Concert for George contained "perhaps the most expressive" playing of all these versions.[114]

text: American musician Todd Rundgren covered "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" for the 2003 album Songs from the Material World: A Tribute to George Harrison. Rundgren said of his contribution to the multi-artist tribute: "[Before the Beatles], I'd never heard the term 'lead guitarist.' George created the job description for my first paying gig, the vocation that I'm still lucky enough to practice today …"[115] Johnny Loftus of AllMusic views the recording as one of the collection's highlights, saying that Rundgren "effortlessly replicates the grandeur" of the Beatles' track.[116] As his personal tribute to Harrison,[117] Peter Frampton released a version of the song on his 2003 album Now.[118]

text: In 2004, when Harrison was inducted posthumously into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist, "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" was played in tribute by a large band that included Tom Petty, Lynne, Steve Winwood, Marc Mann and Dhani Harrison.[112] The performance concluded with an extended guitar solo by Prince, who was also being inducted into the Hall of Fame.[119][120]

text: Among other cover versions, the song has also been recorded by guitarists such as Marc Ribot, Phish and Charlie Byrd, and on ukulele by Jake Shimabukuro.[121][122] Toto did a cover version for their album Through the Looking Glass and in a live performance in Live in Amsterdam.[121] Santana did a cover for his twentieth album Guitar Heaven: The Greatest Guitar Classics of All Time, in 2010, featuring singer India Arie and cellist Yo-Yo Ma.[123] Released as a single, it charted on Billboard's Adult Contemporary.[124] In 2016, Regina Spektor performed the song for the soundtrack to the film Kubo and the Two Strings, accompanied by Kevin Kmetz on a shamisen.

text: 2016 music video[edit]

text: In June 2016, Apple Corps and Cirque du Soleil released a music video for "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". The video was created for the tenth anniversary re-staging of Cirque du Soleil's Love theatrical production.[125] The video was directed by Dandypunk, André Kasten and Leah Moyer. Ryan Reed, describing the clip for rollingstone.com, wrote that "Dandypunk's hand-drawn illustrations depict Harrison's lyrics falling off the page into the air, transporting LOVE performer Eira Glover into a series of fantastical locations. Projection mapping – and no CGI – was used to create the clip."[126]

text: Personnel[edit]

text: According to Ian MacDonald,[127] Walter Everett[66] and John Winn:[59]

text: White Album version

text:
George Harrison – double-tracked vocals, backing vocal, acoustic guitar, Hammond organ
John Lennon – electric guitar with tremolo
Paul McCartney – harmony vocal, piano, bass guitar
Ringo Starr – drums, tambourine, castanets
Eric Clapton – lead guitar

text: Anthology 3 version

text:
George Harrison – vocals, acoustic guitar
Paul McCartney – organ

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Having contributed to "Ski-ing" on Harrison's debut solo album, Wonderwall Music, in January 1968, Clapton played on "Sour Milk Sea", a song that Harrison wrote and produced for his Apple Records signing Jackie Lomax.[24] Another Harrison composition from 1968, "Savoy Truffle", was inspired by Clapton's love of chocolate.[25]
Jump up ^ Greene comments that "Wilting Flowers" was the title of Time magazine's article summarising the year.[41] By contrast, at the start of 1968, Life had declared it "the Year of the Guru", partly as a result of the Beatles' championing of Eastern religion,[19] and had featured the Maharishi on the cover of the magazine.[42]
Jump up ^ This version remained in EMI's archives through the 1980s.[48] It was first presented for public hearing when Abbey Road Studios (formerly EMI Studios) hosted The Beatles at Abbey Road in 1983,[27] at which point EMI reported that Harrison was keen that the song be released "as soon as possible".[49] When remixing the recording for inclusion on the planned Sessions compilation album in 1984, however (and as later heard on Anthology 3), Geoff Emerick chose to loop and repeat Harrison's concluding guitar phrase into a fadeout, and increased the volume of the harmonium.[27]
Jump up ^ In Ken Scott's recollection, the need to manually work the ADT oscillation was a result of the Beatles' impatience to use EMI's new eight-track recording equipment. The company's technical engineers had yet to carry out the conversion necessary to allow the effect to be applied automatically.[65]
Jump up ^ "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" was listed with "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da", as a double A-side, when the single topped Australia's Go-Set National Top 40 chart.[79]
Jump up ^ This 1971 performance of the song was included on Harrison's 2009 compilation album Let It Roll.[101]


document_title: Face Off (TV series)

question_text: when does the next face off season start

text: Face Off (TV series)

text: Format[edit]

text: Face Off is presented as a progressive elimination competition between 12 and 16 make-up artists. Each week, the artists face a "Spotlight Challenge" that tests their artistry and techniques to create a full makeup character to match a theme over the course of 3 days. The first day allows for concept design and sculpting for five hours, a second day of 9½ to 10 hours for work in finishing the molding, and a final day of 4 hours in applying the makeup before a one-hour "Last Look" for touch ups. The judges then have the opportunity to look at the makeups from afar and up close, and decide a series of top and bottom looks for the week. One artist will be deemed the winner, sometimes receiving a special bonus prize such as immunity from elimination or a cash reward, and one artist will be eliminated from the running for the grand prize. Some episodes also feature a "Foundation Challenge", a smaller challenge that introduces a new technique on a smaller scale, and the winner is awarded an advantage for that week's Spotlight Challenge, ranging from immunity from elimination to receiving a first choice of theme. More recent seasons have included a "Guantlet" challenge, where the artists must complete in three rounds of challenges over two days, with either rounds scored on a point system to determine the winner and loser, or the winners of individual rounds considered safe and do not need to participate in the future rounds.

text: The elimination format proceeds until three or four contestants are left. At this point, they are generally given a larger assignment typically involving the makeup of two or more actors for a short film or similar setpiece to feature their work. The judges review the make-up within the context of this final setpiece to determine the winner. The Face Off winner receives US$100,000 and a year's supply of makeup from Alcone (changed to US$25,000 of makeup in season 2),[5] a "grand prize that will launch a career".[6] The second season added the 2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid to its prize package. The Season 3 grand prize winner will receive the same US$25,000 of Alcone makeup and US$100,000 cash prize, in addition to the opportunity to become a guest lecturer at the "Make up for Ever Academy" in New York and Paris, and the Toyota Prius v. The prize package for season 4 remains the same with the exception of the 2013 Fiat 500 replacing the Prius V as the prize vehicle.

text: Production and development[edit]

text: Syfy began the development of Face Off in March 2010 in association with production company Mission Control Media.[7] Syfy confirmed that it had ordered the series in May,[6] and announced the host and judges in November.[2] Producers held open casting calls in Los Angeles and Orlando, Florida and accepted audition videos through September 15.[8]

text: Seasons[edit]

text:
Season
Premiere
Finale
Winner
Runners-Up
Number of contestants
Number of episodes

1
January 26, 2011
March 16, 2011
Conor McCullagh
Gage Hubbard
Tate Steinsiek
12
8

2
January 11, 2012
March 14, 2012
Rayce Bird
Ian Cromer
Robert "RJ" Haddy
14
10

3
August 21, 2012
October 31, 2012
Nicole Chilelli
Laura Tyler
Derek Garcia
12
12

4
January 15, 2013
March 26, 2013
Anthony Kosar
Kristian "Kris" Kobzina
Wayne Anderson
14
11

5
August 13, 2013
November 5, 2013
Laura Tyler
Tate Steinsiek
Roy Wooley
16
13

6
January 14, 2014
April 22, 2014
Rashaad Santiago
George Schminky
Tyler Green
15
15

7
July 22, 2014
October 28, 2014
Dina Cimarusti
Cig Neutron
Drew Talbot
16
14

8
January 13, 2015
April 14, 2015
Darla Edin
Emily Serpico
Logan Long
15
14

9
July 28, 2015
October 27, 2015
Nora Hewitt
Ben Ploughman
Evan Hedges
16
14

10
January 13, 2016
April 13, 2016
Rob Seal
Melissa Ebbe
Walter Welsh
14
14

11
January 24, 2017 [9]
April 25, 2017
Cig Neutron
Emily Serpico
George Troester III
16 [9]
14

12
June 13, 2017
August 22, 2017
Andrew Freeman
KC Mussman
Kierstin Lapatka
12
10

13[10]
June 5, 2018[11]
2018

tag: table

text: Season 1 (2011)[edit]

text: The first season of Face Off was won by Conor McCullagh of Orlando, Florida. Face Off Season 1 drew an average audience of 1.4 million viewers per episode during season 1.[12]

text: Season 2 (2012)[edit]

text: The second season of Face Off was won by Rayce Bird of Shelley, Idaho. Season 2 premiere episode posted the best ratings performance for any Syfy original series since November ‘09,[13] even increasing from those ratings in subsequent episodes.[14] The finale drew over 2.4 million viewers,[15] and was SyFy's most watched unscripted telecast ever.[16]

text: Season 3 (2012)[edit]

text: Syfy held open call auditions for the third season on November 19, 2011 in Los Angeles, California and Orlando, Florida. Filming began during the spring of 2012 to be ready for a summer release. The third season of Face Off premiered on August 21, 2012. The selected contestants were revealed to the public on June 29, 2012. This is the first season of the show where two relatives have been selected as contestants: fraternal twin brothers Eric and Derek Garcia were among those chosen to participate. While Neill and Hetrick remain as judges, concept designer Neville Page became a replacement judge with Tatopoulos appearing in the season premiere, a subsequent episode, and the finale.[17] The season finale was broadcast live on Halloween, October 31, 2012 and viewers voted for the winner. Halfway through the season the first five eliminated contestants (excluding Joe Castro who was the first contestant ever disqualified from the competition in the season premiere) were allowed to compete in a foundation challenge, with the victor returning to the show. This challenge was won by Nicole Chilelli of Sacramento, California, who went on to become this season's champion.[18]

text: Season 4 (2013)[edit]

text: Syfy picked up Face Off for a fourth season on October 9, 2012 which premiered January 15, 2013.[19] A sneak peek of the upcoming season premiered during the live season 3 finale. Season 4 was won by Anthony Kosar of Chicago, Illinois.

text: Season 5 (2013)[edit]

text: Syfy picked up Face Off for a fifth season.[20] During season 4's Face-Off redemption, Eric Zapata won a place as one of the eight returning contestants who are to compete against eight new contestants. This was the second season that a contestant voluntarily left the competition, when Laney Parkhurst departed in episode 11. The season was won by Laura Tyler of Orlando, Florida, who was a finalist on season 3.

text: Season 6 (2014)[edit]

text: Season 6 started January 14, 2014. This season was won by Rashaad Santiago of The Bronx, New York City, New York. This season had a theme of "extremes". During this season the judges had the power to save one contestant who would have normally been eliminated. This season also featured a trip to Tokyo, Japan, where the artists competed in an Oni foundation challenge and found inspiration for an Anime spotlight challenge.

text: Season 7 (2014)[edit]

text: Season 7 was announced on April 18, 2014.[21] It premiered on July 22, 2014. This season features a fourth judge, Lois Burwell. Season 7 was won by Dina Cimarusti of Chicago, Illinois. This season also focused on the theme of "life and death" and used this theme for many of the challenges. This season employed the one-time save of an eliminated contestant that was introduced in season 6.

text: Season 8 (2015)[edit]

text: Season 8 was announced on October 22, 2014. It was premiered on January 13, 2015. During this season the 15 new artists are placed into three teams of five, each coached by a previous winner of Face Off. The coaches were Rayce Bird (Season 2 Winner), Anthony Kosar (Season 4 Winner), and Laura Tyler (Season 3 Runner Up, Season 5 Winner). If every member of a coaches team is eliminated, that coach leaves the competition as well. This season was won by Darla Edin of Minneapolis, Minnesota. She was part of Team Laura, making Laura the first person to win Face Off twice.

text: Season 9 (2015)[edit]

text: Season 9 was announced on April 8, 2015. It premiered on July 28, 2015. This season had a theme of "surprises" and featured two new challenge formats: focus challenges and The Gauntlet. In a focus challenge, the artists are given two days (as opposed to the usual three allotted for a spotlight challenge) to create a makeup that focuses on the face and strong application is emphasized. The Gauntlet is a series of three consecutive foundation challenges, each testing a different aspect of the artists' abilities. The least successful artist after the three rounds is eliminated. The season finale took place on October 27, 2015. The winner of season 9 was Nora Hewitt of Barkhamsted, Connecticut.

text: Season 10 (2016)[edit]

text: Season 10 was announced on October 27, 2015. It premiered on January 13, 2016. In this season the judges were allowed to save one contestant who would normally be eliminated, a device previously used in seasons 6 and 7. The winner of this season was Rob Seal of Lake View Terrace, California.

text: Season 11 (2017)[edit]

text: Season 11 premiered on January 24, 2017. The season featured an all star cast of 16 returning contestants and had all of them working in teams of two until episode 8. From this episode 9, the competition is individual. The winner was Cig Neutron of Los Angeles, California, who was a finalist in Season 7.

text: Season 12 (2017)[edit]

text: Season 12 premiered on June 13, 2017. This season, 12 new artists were split into two competing FX shops. The winner of this season was Andrew Freeman of Glendora, California.

text: Season 13 (2018)[edit]

text: Season 13 was announced on January 6, 2018.[22] An all-star edition consisting of past favorites, it is to be the final season.[23] A petition to continue the show after Season 13 was created May 3, 2018, and has received 7,406 signatures, including William Shatner.[24][25]

text: Cast appearance chart[edit]


document_title: List of Major League Baseball record holders

question_text: mlb player with most hits in a season

question_tokens: mlb player with most hits in a season

text: Batting records (1876–present)[edit]

text: Career[edit]

text:
Record
Player
#
Refs

Highest batting average
Ty Cobb
.366

Most singles
Pete Rose
3,215
[1]

Most doubles
Tris Speaker
792
[2]

Most triples
Sam Crawford
309
[3]

Most home runs
Barry Bonds
762
[4]

Most grand slams
Alex Rodriguez
25

Most home runs by a pitcher
Wes Ferrell
38

Most grand slams by a pitcher
Madison Bumgarner
3

Oldest player to hit first home run
Bartolo Colón
7004156890000000000♠42 years, 349 days old
[5]

Youngest player to hit a home run
Tommy Brown
7003646700000000000♠17 years, 257 days old
[6]

Most runs batted in
Hank Aaron
2,297
[7]

Most hits
Pete Rose
4,256
[8]

Most runs scored
Rickey Henderson
2,295
[9]

Highest on-base percentage
Ted Williams
.482
[10]

Most stolen bases
Rickey Henderson
1,406
[11]

Most steals of home
Ty Cobb
54

Highest slugging percentage
Babe Ruth
.690
[12]

Highest OPS
Babe Ruth
1.164
[13]

Most walks
Barry Bonds
2,558
[14]

Most intentional walks
Barry Bonds
688
[15]

Most strikeouts
Reggie Jackson
2,597
[16]

Most at-bats
Pete Rose
14,555
[17]

Most total bases
Hank Aaron
6,856
[18]

Most runs created
Barry Bonds
2,892
[19]

Most games played
Pete Rose
3,562
[20]

text: Single-Season[edit]

text:
Records
Player
#
Season
Refs

Games
Maury Wills
165
1962

Highest batting average
Hugh Duffy
.440
1894
[21]

Most singles in a season
Ichiro Suzuki
225
2004
[22]

Most doubles
Earl Webb
67
1931
[23]

Most triples
Chief Wilson
36
1912
[24]

Most home runs
Barry Bonds
73
2001

Most runs batted in
Hack Wilson
191
1930
[25]

Most hits
Ichiro Suzuki
262
2004
[26]

Most runs scored
Billy Hamilton
192
1894
[27]

Highest on-base percentage
Barry Bonds
.609
2004
[28]

Most stolen bases[a]
Hugh Nicol
Rickey Henderson
138
130
1887
1982
[29]

Highest slugging percentage
Barry Bonds
.863
2001
[30]

Highest OPS
Barry Bonds
1.422
2004
[31]

Most walks
Barry Bonds
232
2004
[32]

Most strikeouts
Mark Reynolds
223
2009

Most extra base hits
Babe Ruth
119
1921
[33]

Fastest pitch thrown
Aroldis Chapman
106 mph
2010

Most total bases
Babe Ruth
457
1921
[34]

Consecutive game hitting streak
Joe DiMaggio
56
1941

Most at-bats
Jimmy Rollins
716
2007
[35]

text: Pitching records (1876–present)[edit]

text: Career[edit]

text:
Record
Player
#

Most wins
Cy Young
511

Most losses
Cy Young
316

Lowest E.R.A.
Ed Walsh
1.82

Most no-hitters
Nolan Ryan
7

Most strikeouts
Nolan Ryan
5,714

Most shutouts
Walter Johnson
110

Most pickoffs
Steve Carlton
144

Most innings pitched
Cy Young
7,354⅔

Most hit batsmen
Gus Weyhing
278

Most home runs allowed
Jamie Moyer
522

Most complete games
Cy Young
749

Lowest WHIP
Addie Joss
.968

Most saves
Mariano Rivera
652

Highest win–loss percentage
Spud Chandler
71.7%

Most games
Jesse Orosco
1,252

Most consecutive scoreless innings pitched
Orel Hershiser
59[b]

text: Live-ball era (1920–present)[edit]

text: (if different from overall records)

text:
Record
Player
#

Most wins
Warren Spahn
363

Most losses
Nolan Ryan
292

Lowest earned-run average
Mariano Rivera
2.21

Most shutouts
Warren Spahn
63

Most innings pitched
Phil Niekro
5,404⅓

Most complete games
Warren Spahn
382

Lowest WHIP
Mariano Rivera
1.004

text: Single season[edit]

text:
Record
Player
#
Season

Most wins
Old Hoss Radbourn
60
1884

Most losses
John Coleman
48
1883

Lowest E.R.A.
Tim Keefe
0.86
1880

Most strikeouts
Matt Kilroy
513
1886

Most shutouts
George Bradley
Pete Alexander
16
1876
1916

Most innings pitched
Will White
680
1879

Most complete games
Will White
75
1879

Lowest WHIP
Pedro Martínez
.7373
2000

Most saves
Francisco Rodríguez
62
2008

Highest win/loss percentage
Roy Face
94.7%
1959

Most hits allowed
John Coleman
772
1883

Most earned runs allowed
John Coleman
291
1883

text: Live-ball era (1920–present)[edit]

text: (if different from all-time records)

text:
Record
Player
#
Season

Most wins
Jim Bagby, Sr.
Lefty Grove
Denny McLain
31
1920
1931
1968

Most losses
Paul Derringer
27
1933

Most strikeouts
Nolan Ryan
383
1973

Most shutouts
Bob Gibson
13
1968

Most innings pitched
Mickey Lolich
376
1971

Most complete games
Bob Feller
36
1946

Most hits allowed
George Uhle
378
1923

Most earned runs allowed
Bobo Newsom
186
1938

text: Hitting records: single game (1876–present)[edit]

text:
Most hits in a nine-inning game: 7 by Wilbert Robinson, June 10, 1892, and Rennie Stennett, September 16, 1975.
Most hits in an extra-inning game: 9, Johnny Burnett, July 10, 1932.[36]
Most total bases in a nine-inning game: 19 (4 home runs, a double and a single), Shawn Green, May 23, 2002.

text: Pitching records: single game (1876–present)[edit]

text:
Most home runs allowed: 7, Charlie Sweeney, June 12, 1886
Most strikeouts: 21, Tom Cheney, September 12, 1962 (16 innings)
Most strikeouts in a nine-inning game: 20 by Kerry Wood, Roger Clemens (twice), and Max Scherzer [c]
Most consecutive home runs allowed: 4 by Paul Foytack, July 31, 1963, Chase Wright, April 22, 2007, and Dave Bush, August 11, 2010
Oldest pitcher to win a game: Jamie Moyer, age 7004180480000000000♠49 years, 151 days, May 16, 2012

text: Catcher records: career[edit]

text:
Most runners caught stealing: 810, Gary Carter[38]
Most stolen bases allowed: 1,498, Gary Carter[39]
Most stolen-base attempts: 2,308, Gary Carter
Highest caught-stealing %: 57.40%, Roy Campanella[40]
Most pickoffs: 81, Iván Rodríguez[41]
Most games caught: 2,427, Iván Rodríguez

text: Most caught no hitters: 4, Jason Varitek, May 19, 2008 and Carlos Ruiz, July 25, 2015.

text: Note: Pre-1950 stolen-base data is incomplete; career leaders shown from 1950 to present.

text: Catcher records: single season[edit]

text:
Most runners caught stealing: Jody Davis, 89 (1986)[43]
Most stolen bases allowed: Mike Piazza, 155 (1996)[44]
Highest caught-stealing %: Mike LaValliere, 72.73% (1993)[45]
Most no-hitters caught: 2, Carlos Ruiz (2010) (List of Major League Baseball no-hitters)

text: Both of Ruiz's no-hitters were by Roy Halladay; the second was in Game 1 of the National League Division Series, Halladay's first career postseason start.

text: In 1914, Yankees catcher Les Nunamaker threw out three runners in the same inning.[46]

text: Other records[edit]

text:
Most World Series wins (as a manager): 7, Casey Stengel, Joe McCarthy
Most pennants won: 10, Casey Stengel, John McGraw
Most World Series appearances (as a manager): 10, Casey Stengel
Most World Series appearances (as a team): 40, New York Yankees
Most World Series titles (as a team): 27, New York Yankees
Most regular season wins (as a team): 116, Seattle Mariners, Chicago Cubs
Most MVP Awards won: 7, Barry Bonds
Most Grand Slams By a Pitcher in One Season: Tony Cloninger, Madison Bumgarner, 2
Most Consecutive Games Played: 2,632, Cal Ripken, Jr.


document_title: Ancient higher-learning institutions

question_text: who set up the first university in ancient athens

text: Ancient higher-learning institutions

text: Europe and Near East[edit]

text: Hellenism[edit]

text: The Platonic Academy (sometimes referred to as the University of Athens),[3][4] founded ca. 387 BC in Athens, Greece, by the philosopher Plato, lasted 916 years (until AD 529) with interruptions.[5] It was emulated during the Renaissance by the Florentine Platonic Academy, whose members saw themselves as following Plato's tradition.

text: Around 335 BC, Plato's successor Aristotle founded the Peripatetic school, the students of which met at the Lyceum gymnasium in Athens. The school ceased in 86 BC during the famine, siege and sacking of Athens by Sulla.[6]

text: During the Hellenistic period, the Museion in Alexandria (which included the Library of Alexandria) became the leading research institute for science and technology from which many Greek innovations sprang. The engineer Ctesibius (fl. 285–222 BC) may have been its first head. It was suppressed and burned between AD 216 and 272, and the library was destroyed between 272 and 391.

text: The reputation of these Greek institutions was such that at least four central modern educational terms derive from them: the academy, the lyceum, the gymnasium and the museum.

text: Christian Europe[edit]

text: The Pandidakterion of Constantinople, founded as an institution of higher learning in 425, educated graduates to take on posts of authority in the imperial service or within the Church.[7] It was reorganized as a corporation of students in 849 by the regent Bardas of emperor Michael III, is considered by some to be the earliest institution of higher learning with some of the characteristics we associate today with a university (research and teaching, auto-administration, academic independence, et cetera). If a university is defined as "an institution of higher learning" then it is preceded by several others, including the Academy that it was founded to compete with and eventually replaced. If the original meaning of the word is considered "a corporation of students" then this could be the first example of such an institution. The Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School were the two major literary schools of the First Bulgarian Empire.

text: In Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages, bishops sponsored cathedral schools and monasteries sponsored monastic schools, chiefly dedicated to the education of clergy. The earliest evidence of a European episcopal school is that established in Visigothic Spain at the Second Council of Toledo in 527.[8] These early episcopal schools, with a focus on an apprenticeship in religious learning under a scholarly bishop, have been identified in Spain and in about twenty towns in Gaul during the 6th and 7th centuries.[9]

text: In addition to these episcopal schools, there were monastic schools which educated monks and nuns, as well as future bishops, at a more advanced level.[10] Around the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, some of them developed into autonomous universities. A notable example is when the University of Paris grew out of the schools associated with the Cathedral of Notre Dame, the Monastery of Ste. Geneviève, and the Abbey of St. Victor.[11][12]

text: South Asia[edit]

text: Major Buddhist monasteries (mahaviharas), notably those at Pushpagiri, Nalanda, and Taxila, lncluded schools that were some of the primary institutions of higher learning in ancient India.

text: Pushpagiri[edit]

text: The school in Pushpagiri was established in the 3rd century AD as present Odisha, India. As of 2007, the ruins of this Mahavihara had not yet been fully excavated. Consequently, much of the Mahavihara's history remains unknown. Of the three Mahavihara campuses, Lalitgiri in the district of Cuttack is the oldest. Iconographic analysis indicates that Lalitgiri had already been established during the Shunga period of the 2nd century BC, making it one of the oldest Buddhist establishments in the world. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), who visited it in AD 639, as Puphagiri Mahavihara,[13][14] as well as in medieval Tibetan texts. However, unlike Takshila and Nalanda, the ruins of Pushpagiri were not discovered until 1995, when a lecturer from a local college first stumbled upon the site.[15][16] The task of excavating Pushpagiri's ruins, stretching over 58 hectares (143 acres) of land, was undertaken by the Odisha Institute of Maritime and South East Asian Studies between 1996 and 2006. It is now being carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).[17] The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions also mention about this learning center. [18][19]

text: Nalanda[edit]

text: Nalanda was established in the fifth century AD in Bihar, India[22] and survived until circa 1200 AD. It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of war.[23]

text: The center had eight separate compounds, ten temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormitories for students, housing 10,000 students in the school’s heyday and providing accommodation for 2,000 professors.[24] Nalanda attracted pupils and scholars from Sri Lanka, Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey, who left accounts of the center.[25]

text: In 2014 a modern Nalanda University was launched in nearby Rajgir.

text: Taxila[edit]

text: Ancient Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan), was an early Hindu and Buddhist centre of learning. According to scattered references that were only fixed a millennium later, it may have dated back to at least the fifth century BC.[26] Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the sixth century BC.[27] The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis.[26]

text: Takshashila is described in some detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the fifth century AD.[28]

text: It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BC, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the fifth century AD. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous treatise Arthashastra (Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics) by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya),[29] the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta[30] and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila.[31]

text: Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science.[31]

text: Other[edit]

text: Further centers include Telhara in Bihar[32] (probably older than Nalanda[33]), Odantapuri, in Bihar (circa 550 - 1040), Somapura, in Bangladesh (from the Gupta period to the Turkic Muslim conquest), Sharada Peeth, Pakistan, Jagaddala Mahavihara, in Bengal (from the Pala period to the Turkic Muslim conquest), Nagarjunakonda, in Andhra Pradesh, Vikramashila, in Bihar (circa 800-1040), Valabhi, in Gujarat (from the Maitrak period to the Arab raids), Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh (eighth century to modern times), Kanchipuram, in Tamil Nadu, Manyakheta, in Karnataka, Mahavihara, Abhayagiri Vihāra, and Jetavanaramaya, in Sri Lanka.

text: East Asia[edit]

text: In China, the ancient imperial academy known as Taixue was established by the Han Dynasty in AD 3. It was intermittently inherited by later dynasties until Qing, in some of which the name was changed to Guozixue or Guozijian. Peking University (Imperial University of Peking) established in 1898 is regarded as the replacement of Taixue (or Guozijian). In Korea, Taehak was founded in 372 and Gukhak was established in 682. The Seonggyungwan was founded by the Joseon Dynasty in 1398 to offer prayers and memorials to Confucius and his disciples, and to promote the study of the Confucian canon. It was the successor to Gukjagam from the Goryeo Dynasty (992). It was reopened as a private Western-style university in 1946. In Japan, Daigakuryo was founded in 671 and Ashikaga Gakko was founded in the 9th century and restored in 1432. In Vietnam, the Quoc Tu Giam (國子監, literally "National University") functioned for more than 700 years, from 1076 to 1779.

text: Ancient Persia[edit]

text: The Academy of Gondishapur was established in the 3rd century AD under the rule of Sassanid kings and continued its scholarly activities up to four centuries after Islam came to Iran. It was an important medical centre of the 6th and 7th centuries and a prominent example of higher education model in pre-Islam Iran.[34] When the Platonic Academy in Athens was closed in 529, some of its pagan scholars went to Gundishahpur, although they returned within a year to Byzantium.