document_title: Lost in Space (2018 TV series)

question_text: where did they film new lost in space

question_tokens: where did they film new lost in space

text: Lost in Space (2018 TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: In the year 2048 the Robinson family is selected for the 24th mission of the Resolute, an interstellar spacecraft which will carry selected families to colonize a new world. The Resolute was built after a celestial object, dubbed "The Christmas Star" by the media, crashed into Earth a few years earlier, threatening humanity's survival on Earth. Before they reach their destination, an alien robot breaches the Resolute's hull. Some of the families are forced to evacuate the mothership in their short-range Jupiter spacecraft. The Robinsons and other colonists crash-land on a nearby habitable planet, where they battle the strange new environment and their own personal demons as they attempt to find a way back to the Resolute.[1]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Molly Parker as Maureen Robinson, a fearless and brilliant aerospace engineer taking her family on the mission to colonize Alpha Centauri for a new life on a better world. She is a mission commander. She is married to John Robinson and is the biological mother of all three children.[3]
Toby Stephens as John Robinson, a former U.S. Navy SEAL, and husband to Maureen. He is the biological father of Maureen's two youngest children.[4]
Maxwell Jenkins as Will Robinson, the 11-year-old son and youngest child of Maureen and John Robinson. He forms a tight bond with the Robot, whom he saves from destruction during a forest fire.[5]
Taylor Russell as Judy Robinson, Maureen's 18-year-old biracial daughter and eldest child. She is a mission doctor, having received accelerated medical training.[6][7]
Mina Sundwall as Penny Robinson, the 15-year-old daughter and middle Robinson child.[7][8]
Ignacio Serricchio as Don West, a mechanic who also smuggles luxury goods. He has a chicken named Debbie, which he claims to be lucky.[9]
Parker Posey as Dr. Smith. She is a criminal and a psychopath who uses other people's identities to claim their belongings. Dr. Smith, whose real name is June Harris, stole her sister Jessica's identity and place on the colony ship. There she impersonates Dr. Zachary Smith, to take his seat on an evacuating Jupiter ship. After landing on the planet, Dr. Smith attempts to sabotage the Jupiters' chances of being rescued by the Resolute while manipulating and gaslighting the survivors to avoid prosecution for her crimes.[10] The theft of the doctor's identity is a reference to the corresponding Dr. Smith character of the original TV series.[11]
Brian Steele as the Robot,[12] an alien mechanoid being that Will encounters on the planet that his family crash lands on. The robot has a different form from the ones on the previous series and movie.[13]
Sibongile Mlambo as Angela Goddard (season 2; recurring season 1),[14] a survivor struggling from post tramatic stress syndrome following her husband’s death during the Resolute attack.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Raza Jaffrey as Victor Dhar, an educated and officious man with a sense of entitlement. Victor has been a career-builder and politician from a young age. His arrogance and impatience masks an underlying fear that it will be discovered that he is not quite good enough.[15]
Ajay Friese as Vijay Dhar, Victor’s son and Penny’s love interest.
Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as Hiroki Watanabe, a scientist and friend of Maureen.
Kiki Sukezane as Aiko Watanabe, Hiroki’s daughter.
Yukari Komatsu as Naoko Watanabe, Hiroki’s wife.
Veenu Sandhu as Prisha Dhar, Victor's wife.
Adam Greydon Reid as Peter Beckert, a survivor.
Amelia Burstyn as Diane, a survivor.
Iain Belcher as Evan, a survivor.
Shaun Parkes as Captain Radic, commander of the Resolute.

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Selma Blair as Jessica Harris, June's wealthy younger sister.
Bill Mumy as Dr. Zachary Smith, the real Dr. Smith, whose identity June steals.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: This section's plot summaries may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve them by removing unnecessary details and making them more concise. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
No.TitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date1"Impact"Neil MarshallMatt Sazama & Burk SharplessApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
The spacecraft Resolute, a large ferris wheel style ship, is carrying colonists, including the Robinson family, to Alpha Centauri. The Resolute is attacked and colonists escape in their “family home” Jupiter landing crafts but are hurled into a wormhole, crash-landing on an Earth-like planet. The Robinsons' craft, Jupiter 2, crashes into a glacial bed. The family evacuates with some supplies before their craft sinks in rapidly freezing water. Eldest Robinson child, Judy, a doctor, dives to the ship to retrieve power equipment. She becomes encased in ice, and with five hours of oxygen left in Judy's suit, John and son, Will, set out to collect magnesium that will melt the ice. Judy guides her sister, Penny, through a medical procedure to treat their injured mother, Maureen. Inside a cave, Will falls down a chasm, landing at the edge of a forest. John radios Will, saying he will return after saving Judy. Alone, Will finds a crashed alien ship and a dismembered robot that he helps to self-repair. In return, it saves Will as a forest fire nearly engulfs them. The family attempt to free Judy, but a sudden rainstorm hinders their progress. Will and the Robot arrive, and the Robot rescues Judy. In a flashback scene, a woman steals the identity of Dr. Zachary Smith and boards a Jupiter landing craft, along with Don West and Tam Roughneck.
2"Diamonds in the Sky"Neil MarshallMatt Sazama & Burk SharplessApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Don West, Smith, and Debbie the chicken survive the Jupiter 18 landing. While looking for other survivors, they find Angela Goddard, who is barely alive. When a storm approaches, Don and Angela take cover while Smith heads out. Meanwhile, the robot melts more ice to allow the Robinsons to start the process of recovering the Jupiter 2. Maureen, John, Will and the robot hike to another Jupiter crash site and then later to the robot's ship. They leave Penny and Judy behind, instructing them how to carefully raise the ship out of the ice. Inside the alien ship, a holographic map of the planet is activated, showing John and Maureen they are in an unidentified galaxy. Outside, the robot touches the ship's hull, creating a mental connection to Will who learns what really happened on the Resolute. He decides to say nothing to his parents about the vision. When Penny sees the storm approaching and is unable to reach her parents to warn them, she raises the Jupiter 2 enough that the garage can be opened. She drives the ship's Chariot  all-terrain vehicle to reach her family just in front of the storm. As they head back to Jupiter 2, they pass Don who sees them only to discover his flare gun is missing. The Robinsons see a flare and find Smith, who claims to be alone, returning with her to the Jupiter 2.
3"Infestation"Tim SouthamZack EstrinApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
In a flashback, Dr. Smith is revealed to be June Harris, the older, ex-con sister of Jess Harris, a successful businesswoman. Jess offers June her entire estate as she is leaving Earth, but June drugs Jess and assumes her sister's identity. Aboard the Resolute, she bumps into her sister's lover and there is a struggle ending in him getting blown out an airlock. June is arrested but escapes during the robot's attack. In the present, Maureen explains they are trillions of light years from Earth. At night, the ice layer over Jupiter 2 cracks, endangering the ship. They rush to complete repairs, but the engines are losing fuel. When Will and the robot discover large eel-like creatures in the conduits, the robot locks Will, along with Smith, in the storeroom for safety. The glacier shifts, which forces the crew to make an emergency take-off after flushing the eels from the engines. They escape with just enough fuel to land near a forest region. Comms pick up radio communication from other Jupiter survivors and also from Resolute, who are searching for survivors. Somebody hacks the onboard 3D printer to make a gun. Will finds it, and hides the gun under his mattress, unaware Smith is watching.
4"The Robinsons Were Here"Alice TroughtonKatherine CollinsApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Stuck without fuel, the family initiates Jupiter 2’s colonization expansion protocol. Smith and Will discuss the robot, who does Will's bidding. Don West and Angela are rescued by the Watanabe family; Hiroki Watanabe reunites with John and Maureen at Jupiter 11 where Judy treats Angela. She tells Judy about the attack on Resolute. The Robinsons learn none of the other surviving families can fly due to the giant eels consuming fuel. John notices that one crash site is not a Jupiter ship. Maureen, John, and Don go there and discover the Resolute's comm dish. They realize the Resolute cannot hear them. Maureen also discovers contraband whiskey that Don smuggled aboard. Judy confronts Will about the robot, and he reveals he knew it attacked the Resolute. They decide to hide the robot in a nearby cave, unaware Smith is following them. On the way, they are spotted by Vijay Dhar, the son of another survivor group. Penny blackmails him to say nothing about the robot, having found and keeping an item he dropped. While away, Maureen and John discuss their marital problems. The next morning, the kids return to Jupiter 2 before their parents arrive. Smith talks to the robot inside the cave, attempting to instill distrust in it about Will. When John and Maureen return home, the kids tell them that the robot wandered away.
5"Transmission"Deborah ChowKari DrakeApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
The surviving colonists build a light tower to try to signal the Resolute. Maureen, noticing strange weather phenomena, conducts an experiment using a weather balloon. She discovers the sun is paired with a deadly black hole, and that the disturbances will only get worse until the planet is entirely unhabitable. Will ignores Penny and Judy's advice to tell their father about the Robot. Penny develops a crush on Vijay, flirting with him as they move supplies. Don confronts Dr. Smith about the stolen flare gun, though she claims she took it by mistake. In a flashback, Maureen and the kids discuss pros versus cons of going to Alpha Centauri. Judy and Don discuss his smuggling activities. He also reveals his suspicions about Dr. Smith's identity. Judy confronts Dr. Smith about this, but she lies and instead casts doubt on Don. When the colonists activate the light signal, Dr. Smith sneaks away and shuts off the perimeter fence, allowing a large reptilian creature to enter the camp and destroy the light tower. Smith tells John about the kids hiding the robot.  When another creature shows up, Dr. Smith tells Will to call the robot. It does save the survivors, but only after Will tells it to defend itself against the creatures. It assumes its original multi-limb form to do this. The colonists witness all of this and recognize the robot from the attack on the Resolute.
6"Eulogy"Vincenzo NataliEd McCardieApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Maureen tells her family about the black hole but is afraid the other colonists might panic. John has a heated argument with the other survivors about the robot. In the end, despite an enraged Angela claiming it killed her husband, John convinces the community to allow the robot to stay and takes Will on a hike to discuss Will's responsibility for the robot's actions. He has Will fetch 27 large stones to build a memorial to the casualties. Don takes the community leader and Vijay's father, Victor Dhar, to his Jupiter which crashed in the desert where there are none of the eel-like creatures, and wants money for its fuel. Don also retrieves identification of the real Dr. Smith, later showing Judy. Maureen learns that Hiroki also knows the planet is dying. Penny tells Vijay about the black hole but swears him to secrecy, and they share a kiss. Back at camp, Dr. Smith makes the distraught Angela recount the horrifying details of the robot attack. The emotional Angela enters the hub with the gun Dr. Smith has taken from Will's bunk and arranged for her to find. When she shoots at the robot it goes into attack mode and accidentally injures John before Will gets it to stop. Distraught, Will takes the robot to a cliff and orders it to walk off. He then places a stone on the memorial for the robot.
7"Pressurized"Tim SouthamVivian LeeApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
While driving back to Jupiter 2, Judy is about to tell Dr. Smith she knows the truth about her when Don stops her. When Will is confronted by his mother, he confirms the robot 3D-printed the gun and that he hid it. Anyone could have taken the gun, though. Dr. Smith refuses blame for Angela's attack, and suggests Victor Dhar might have taken the gun. John and Maureen's rover gets stuck in a tar pit. As they sink to the bottom, Maureen admits to doctoring Will's test results. To escape the vehicle, Maureen uses the helium weather balloon to create a shielded path to the surface. Meanwhile, Smith locates the destroyed robot, but cannot get it to reassemble. Don's group speeds through a dangerous geyser field but a tube shakes loose and when Evan fixes the problem, a geyser blast flips the tanker on top of him. Victor realizes that a rock has punctured the tanker and if they move it they'll lose most of the fuel. Despite this Don reluctantly sides with Judy and lifts the tanker, spilling the fuel, but Evan dies anyway. Back on Jupiter 2, Dr. Smith finally manages to reactivate the robot. When Victor returns home, Vijay tells him about the planet's coming demise. Victor decides to use what fuel they did retrieve to launch their own Jupiter 4.
8"Trajectory"Stephen SurjikKatherine Collins & Kari DrakeApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Maureen cannot talk Victor out of launching, but John sneaks aboard the Dhar's Jupiter 4 and triggers the emergency shut down. Later, he explains to the gathered colonists how the planet is about to become uninhabitable. Penny breaks off with Vijay for him telling his father. Maureen has a plan on how to launch despite the limited fuel, stripping out non-essential modules, and relying on old-school manual piloting. Judy tells Maureen the truth about the real Dr. Smith aboard Don's Jupiter. Returning to Jupiter 2, Maureen confines Dr. Smith to a holding cell. Dr. Smith now claims she is really Jessica Harris, a physicist. Maureen tells John about Smith, and he tells her that Don believes the Jupiter 4 is still too heavy to take off. With life support also removed, the pilot now needs a spacesuit and will need to withstand extreme G-forces. They select John, but not even he can regain consciousness fast enough to make all the maneuvers alone. When the Resolute sends a message that due to Hawking radiation they must leave the planet's orbit within 24 hours, Don reluctantly agrees to help pilot the ship. With his assistance the test run is a success. As John and Don launch in the Jupiter 4, Dr. Smith tricks Will and escapes to knock out Maureen right when John needs her instructions. With everyone watching, the ship explodes mid-air and John and Don are presumed dead.
9"Resurrection"Tim SouthamStory by : Daniel McLellan Teleplay by : Kari DrakeApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
Will tries to signal his father using his radio, convinced he survived the explosion. Dr. Smith drives Maureen to the alien wreck, where she tells Maureen she did not know Maureen was needed for the ship launch, and when she knocked her out, the ship exploded. She does promise to help Maureen get her children off the planet, if she in return helps Dr. Smith with the alien ship. Will discovers that the rocks he collected in the cave are petrified biomass that can fuel the Jupiter ships to reach the Resolute. While the colonists gather to harvest the biomass, Judy leaves to find Maureen. The colonists find enough biomass to power all the Jupiters, but they must sneak it out quietly so as to not wake winged predators roosting in the cave. When John manages to send a signal, Penny and others are trapped inside the cave after the creatures wake up. Throughout the episode, flashbacks reveal the Christmas Star not to be a meteor but an alien craft, and that its engine was used to build The Resolute. The robot's attack was an attempt to retrieve the stolen engine. The group trapped in the cave manage to narrowly escape. Judy tracks Smith and Maureen. She manages to disable Dr. Smith, but the robot reactivates and is revealed to obey the Doctor's commands.
10"Danger, Will Robinson"David NutterMatt Sazama & Burk SharplessApril 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)
John and Don survived the explosion and are clinging to ship wreckage in orbit, with only a few hours of oxygen left. Will is upset to learn the robot now serves Dr. Smith. John responds to Will, confirming that he and Don are still alive. Will tries to bond with the robot again but is rejected. Victor Dhar hails them from the Resolute, telling them it will leave in just over an hour. Maureen traps Dr Smith and the robot in order to search for John and Don. Just as they are about to retrieve them, Dr Smith and the robot escape. Maureen leads the robot into the garage, as an alien ship arrives to retrieve the engine. When the alien robot is about to kill Will, his robot remembers him and attacks the alien robot, saving Will. In the fight, both robots are flung out into space and the garage ramp is damaged. Will goes outside the hull to manually close the hatch. Afterwards, he loses his grip but is saved by his father, who was rescued by Dr. Smith. With everyone safely back on the Jupiter, Maureen is grateful to Dr. Smith, but still locks her up. Before they can dock with the Resolute, the alien engine aboard the Jupiter 2 sends it and the Robinsons to a different galaxy. Will recognizes its shape from the robot's sand drawing: Danger.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In October 2014, it was announced that Legendary Television and Synthesis Entertainment were developing a new reboot of Lost in Space and had hired screenwriting duo Matt Sazama and Burk Sharpless to pen the pilot episodes.[16] In November 2015, Netflix landed the project.[17][18] On June 29, 2016, Netflix ordered a full 10 episode season of Lost in Space, with Zack Estrin as executive producer and showrunner. Sazama, Sharpless, Kevin Burns, Jon Jashni, Neil Marshall, and Marc Helwig also serve as executive producers.[19]

text: Toby Stephens, speaking about the distinction between the original series and the new show:

text: "It's a very clever, modern reworking of a great story. Lost in Space is Swiss Family Robinson in space, so it was a story that existed before Lost in Space. The fundamental story is that it's a family that is lost in a difficult, life-threatening situation and how it challenges them and brings them closer together. That is essentially what the story of this is, it's just the context is a lot more modern. It's a more modern take on the '60s version. If you look at it now, it's charming, but it seems so innocent. Whereas this is a version that is for our time. I'm hoping it will still have humour and humanity in it, but it has obviously gotta be for a modern audience."[20]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Production on the first season began in February 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and concluded in July 2017.[21][22]

text: Release[edit]

text: The series was released on April 13, 2018, on Netflix.[1] On March 31, 2018, the pilot of the series was screened at Awesome Con in Washington, D.C., followed by a Q&A session with series executive producers and writers Matt Sazama and Burk Sharpless.[23]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 68% approval rating with an average rating of 6.21/10, based on 65 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Lost in Space's production values are ambitious enough to attract sci-fi adventure fans, while the story's large heart adds an emotional anchor to all the deep space derring-do."[24] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a normalized score of 58 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[25]

text: David Griffin of IGN gave the first season a rating of 8.5/10 calling it "an excellent sci-fi adventure with a slight villain problem," giving particular praise to the Robinson family, while criticizing Parker Posey's Dr. Smith as an unsophisticated and one-dimensional character that lacks redeeming qualities.[26] In contrast, Jen Chaney of Vulture characterized Posey's performance as providing "understated, sly comedic touches".[27]


document_title: Engagement ring

question_text: when did diamonds become popular for engagement rings

root

text: Engagement ring

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient times[edit]

text: Although the ancient Egyptians are sometimes credited with having invented the engagement ring,[1] and the ancient Greeks with having adopted the tradition,[2] the history of the engagement ring can only be reliably traced as far back as ancient Rome.[3][4][5]

tag: p

text: In many countries, engagement rings are placed on the ring finger of the left hand. At one time it was believed that this finger contained a vein (the vena amoris) that led to the heart. This idea was popularized by Henry Swinburne in A treatise of Spousals, or Matrimonial Contracts (1686).[6] The story seems to have its origin in the ancient Roman book Attic Nights by Aulus Gellius quoting Apion's Aegyptiacorum, where the alleged vein was originally a nervus (a word that can be translated either as "nerve" or "sinew").[7]

text: The popular belief that an engagement ring was originally part of the bride price which represented purchase and ownership of the bride,[8] has been called into question by contemporary scholarship.[4]:42 note 105

text: In the second century BC, the Roman bride-to-be was given two rings, a gold one which she wore in public, and one made of iron which she wore at home while attending to household duties. At one time Roman citizens wore rings made of iron. In later years senators who served as ambassadors were given gold seal rings for official use when abroad. Later the privilege of wearing gold rings was extended to other public officials, then to the knights, later to all freeborn, and finally under Justinian, to freedmen. For several centuries it was the custom for Romans to wear iron rings at home, gold rings in public. During this period a girl or woman might receive two engagement rings, one of iron and one of gold.[9][10]

text: Middle ages[edit]

text: The mid-7th century Visigothic Code required "that when the ceremony of betrothal has been performed, ..., and the ring shall have been given or accepted as a pledge, although nothing may have been committed to writing, the promise shall, under no circumstances, be broken."[11][12]

text: In 860 AD, Pope Nicholas I wrote a letter to Boris I of Bulgaria in reply to questions regarding differences between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox practices. Pope Nicholas describes how in the Western church the man gives his betrothed an engagement ring.[13][14][15] At the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215, convoked by Pope Innocent III, the banns of marriage was instituted, prohibiting clandestine marriages and requiring that marriages be made public in advance.[16] Some[who?] legal scholars have seen in this a parallel with the engagement-ring tradition described by Pope Nicholas I.[citation needed]

text: Renaissance[edit]

text: The first well-documented use of a diamond ring to signify engagement was by the Archduke Maximilian of Austria in imperial court of Vienna in 1477, upon his betrothal to Mary of Burgundy.[17] This then influenced those of higher social class and of significant wealth to give diamond rings to their loved ones.[citation needed]

text: Reformation[edit]

text: During the Protestant Reformation the wedding ring replaced the betrothal ring as the primary ring associated with marriage.[18] In Catholic countries the transition took place somewhat later.[19]

text: There is a modern belief that in early colonial New England, where Puritans shunned ornaments and jewels, a thimble substituted for both engagement ring and wedding ring; and some women would remove the tops of the thimble in order to create a ring.[20][unreliable source?] Some researchers strongly believe this to be just a myth without basis in reality.[21]

text: Enlightenment[edit]

text: During the Age of Enlightenment both the gimmal rings and posie rings were popular, although the latter was more often used as an expression of sentiment than to indicate a formal engagement.[22]

text: Victorian era[edit]

text: In South Africa, diamonds were first found in 1866,[23] although they were not identified as such until 1867.[24] By 1872, the output of the diamond mines exceeded one million carats per year.[25] As production increased, those of lesser means were able to join in on this movement. However, diamond engagement rings were for a long time seen as the domain of the nobility and aristocracy, and tradition often favoured simpler engagement bands.[citation needed]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: In the United States, the popularity of diamond engagement rings declined after World War I, even more so after the onset of the Great Depression.[26]

text: In 1938, the diamond cartel De Beers began a marketing campaign that would have a major impact on engagement rings. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the price of diamonds collapsed.[27] At the same time, market research indicated that engagement rings were going out of style with the younger generation. While the first phase of the marketing campaign consisted of market research, the advertising phase began in 1939. One of the first elements of this campaign was to educate the public about the 4 Cs (cut, carats, color, and clarity). In 1947 the slogan "a diamond is forever" was introduced.[28] Ultimately, the De Beers campaign sought to persuade the consumer that an engagement ring is indispensable, and that a diamond is the only acceptable stone for an engagement ring.

text: Purchase[edit]

text: In the 20th century, if he could afford it, the typical Western groom privately selected and purchased an engagement ring, which he then presented to his desired bride when he proposed marriage. In countries where both partners wear engagement rings, matching rings may be selected and purchased together.[29] In the United States and Canada, where only women traditionally wear engagement rings, women also occasionally present their partners with an engagement gift.[30]

text: Like all jewelry, the price for an engagement ring varies considerably depending on the materials used: the design of the ring, whether it includes a gemstone, the value of any gemstone, and the seller. The price of the gemstones, if any, in the ring depends on the type and quality of the gem. Diamonds have a standardized description that values them according to their carat weight, color, clarity and cut. Other gemstones, such as sapphires, rubies, emeralds, have different systems. These may be chosen to honor a family tradition, to use family heirlooms, to be unique, to be socially responsible (they are not associated with blood diamonds[dubious – discuss] or the pollution caused by gold mining and cyanide process)[dubious – discuss], to fit the individual's stylistic preferences, or to manage cost. Synthetic stones and diamond substitutes such as cubic zirconias and moissanites are also popular choices that are socially responsible and reduce cost while maintaining the desired appearance.[citation needed]

text: The idea that a man should spend a significant fraction of his annual income for an engagement ring originated from De Beers marketing materials in the mid-20th century in an effort to increase the sale of diamonds. In the 1930s, they suggested that a man should spend the equivalent of one month's income in the engagement ring; later they suggested that he should spend two months' income on it.[31] In 2012, the average cost of an engagement ring in USA as reported by the industry was US$4,000.[32] In the UK, estimates of the average cost of an engagement ring range from £1200 to £2000.[33]

text: One reason for the increased popularity of expensive engagement rings is its relationship to human sexuality and the woman's marriage prospects.[34] In the United States, until the Great Depression, a man who broke off a marriage engagement could be sued for breach of promise. Monetary damages included actual expenses incurred in preparing for the wedding, plus damages for emotional distress and loss of other marriage prospects. Damages were greatly increased if the woman had engaged in sexual intercourse with her fiancé.[34] Beginning in 1935, these laws were repealed or limited. However, the social and financial cost of a broken engagement was no less: marriage was the only financially sound option for most women, and if she was no longer a virgin, her prospects for a suitable future marriage were greatly decreased. The diamond engagement ring thus became a source of financial security for the woman.[34]

text: The online purchase of engagement rings is growing, disrupting the market for the diamonds by bringing greater transparency to an industry that has traditionally relied on opacity. Online diamond retailers and e-commerce platforms include Rare Carat, Blue Nile, Brilliant Earth, and Costco.[35]

text: Legal ownership[edit]

text: Tradition generally holds that if the betrothal fails because the man himself breaks off the engagement, the woman is not obliged to return the ring. This reflects the ring's role as a form of compensation for the woman's damaged reputation.[34] Legally, this condition can be subject to either a modified or a strict fault rule. Under the former, the fiancé can demand the return of the ring unless he breaks the engagement. Under the latter, the fiancé is entitled to the return unless his actions caused the breakup of the relationship, the same as the traditional approach. However, a no-fault rule is being advanced in some jurisdictions, under which the fiancé is always entitled to the return of the ring. The ring only becomes the property of the woman when marriage occurs. An unconditional gift approach is another possibility, wherein the ring is always treated as a gift, to be kept by the fiancée whether or not the relationship progresses to marriage. Recent court rulings have determined that the date in which the ring was offered can determine the condition of the gift. E.g. Valentine's Day and Christmas are widely recognized as gift giving holidays in the United States and some other countries. A ring offered in the form of a Christmas present is likely to remain the personal property of the recipient in the event of a breakup.[36]

text: In most states of the United States, engagement rings are considered "conditional gifts" under the legal rules of property. This is an exception to the general rule that gifts cannot be revoked once properly given. See, for example, the case of Meyer v. Mitnick, 625 N.W.2d 136 (Michigan, 2001), whose ruling found the following reasoning persuasive: "the so-called 'modern trend' holds that because an engagement ring is an inherently conditional gift, once the engagement has been broken, the ring should be returned to the donor. Thus, the question of who broke the engagement and why, or who was 'at fault,' is irrelevant. This is the no-fault line of cases." Though in certain states, whether a judicial action can be maintained at all to require return of an engagement ring is blocked by statute, as many states have statutes which state that no civil action shall be maintained for breach of promise to marry.[37]

text: One case in New South Wales, Australia ended in the man suing his former fiancée because she threw the ring away, after he told her she could keep it even though the marriage plans had fallen through. The Supreme Court of New South Wales held that, despite what the man said, the ring remained a conditional gift (partly because his saying that she could keep it reflected his desire to salvage the relationship) and she was ordered to pay him its A$15,250 cost.[38]

text: In England and Wales, the gift of an engagement ring is presumed to be an absolute gift to the fiancée. This presumption may be rebutted however by proving that the ring was given on condition (express or implied) that it must be returned if the marriage did not take place, for whatever reason. This was decided in the case Jacobs v Davis (1917).[39]

text: Styles[edit]

text: Engagement rings, like any other kind of jewelry, come in many different styles.

text: Gold (Available in Yellow Gold, White Gold and Rose Gold) and platinum are preferred for engagement rings, but common metal types such as titanium, silver, and stainless steel are also used for engagement rings. This allows for the bride-to-be to exert her own individual style into the ring in a simple manner.

text: In the United States, where engagement rings are worn by women, diamonds have been widely featured in engagement rings since the middle of the 20th century.[40] Solitaire rings have one single diamond. The most common setting for engagement rings is the solitaire prong setting, which was popularized by Tiffany & Co. in 1886 and its six-claw prong setting design sold under the "Tiffany setting" trademark.[41] The modern favorite cut for an engagement ring is the brilliant cut, which provides the maximum amount of sparkle to the gemstone.[42] The traditional engagement rings may have different prong settings and bands. Another major category is engagement rings with side stones. Rings with a larger diamond set in the middle and smaller diamonds on the side fit under this category. Three-stone diamond engagement rings, sometimes called trinity rings or trilogy rings, are rings with three matching diamonds set horizontally in a row with the bigger stone placed in the center. The three diamonds on the ring are typically said to represent the couple's past, present, and future, but other people give religious significance to the arrangement.

text: A wedding set, or bridal set, includes an engagement ring and a wedding band that matches and can be bought as a set. In some cases, the wedding ring looks "incomplete"; it is only when the two halves, engagement and wedding, are assembled that the ring looks whole. In other cases, a wedding set consists of two rings that match stylistically and are worn stacked, although either piece would look appropriate as a separate ring. Although the wedding band is not to be worn until the wedding day, the two rings are usually sold together as a wedding set. After the wedding, the bride may choose to have the two pieces welded together, to increase convenience and reduce the likelihood of losing one of the rings. A trio ring set includes a ladies engagement ring, ladies wedding band and a men's wedding band. These sets often have matching rings and are lower in price.

text: In Nordic countries, engagement rings are worn by both men and women. Traditionally they are plain gold bands, although more ornate designs and other materials are gaining popularity. The engagement rings resemble the wedding bands sold in the United States, whereas women's wedding rings may resemble US engagement rings.

text: In North America and the United Kingdom, it is customarily worn on the left hand ring finger. Similar traditions purportedly date to classical times, dating back from an early usage reportedly referring to the fourth finger of the left hand as containing the vena amoris or "vein of love". This custom may have its origins in an ancient Egyptian myth that the finger contained a vein leading directly to the heart, or it may simply be because the heart lies slightly to the left side of the body. In Germany the ring is worn on the left hand while engaged, but moved to the right hand when married. In Poland and Turkey, the engagement ring and wedding band are traditionally worn on the right hand but modern practice varies considerably.

text: For men[edit]

text: In some countries it is common for both men and women to wear engagement rings. The rings are often in the form of a plain band of a precious metal. Sometimes, the engagement ring eventually serves as the wedding ring for the man. In Brazil, for example, the groom and bride-to-be usually wear a plain wedding band on the right hand during the course of their engagement.[43] After the wedding, the band is moved to the left hand. In Argentina, it is also known for the groom and bride-to-be to wear a plain silver band on the left hand while engaged. Then, after the wedding the silver band is either replaced with the wedding ring or moved to the right hand.[citation needed]

text: Traditionally, women in the British Isles may propose marriage to men during a leap year. Women proposing has become more common in recent years, to the point that some jewelry companies have started manufacturing men's engagement rings. They resemble typical men's rings, often with a diamond centrepiece. In the countries where both sexes have traditionally worn engagement rings, the rings tend to be plainer bands, and there is no real difference between men's and women's engagement ring designs.


document_title: Uterus

question_text: where is the uterus located in the female body

text: Uterus

text: Structure[edit]

text: The uterus is located within the pelvic region immediately behind and almost overlying the bladder, and in front of the sigmoid colon. The human uterus is pear-shaped and about 7.6 cm (3.0 in) long, 4.5 cm (1.8 in) broad (side to side), and 3.0 cm (1.2 in) thick.[1][2] A typical adult uterus weighs about 60 grams. The uterus can be divided anatomically into four regions: The fundus – the uppermost portion of the uterus, the corpus (body), the cervix and the cervical canal. The cervix protrudes into the vagina. The uterus is held in position within the pelvis by ligaments, which are called endopelvic fascia. These ligaments include the pubocervical, transverse cervical ligaments or cardinal ligaments, and the uterosacral ligaments. It is covered by a sheet-like fold of peritoneum, the broad ligament.[3]

text: From outside to inside, regions of the uterus include:

text:
Cervix uteri – "neck of uterus"

External orifice of the uterus
Cervical canal
Internal orifice of the uterus

Body (Latin: Corpus)

Uterine cavity
Fundus

tag: ul

text: Layers[edit]

text:
Uterine wall thickness (cm)[4]

Location
Mean (mm)
Range (mm)

Anterior wall
23
17 - 25

Posterior wall
21
15 - 25

Fundus
20
15 - 22

Isthmus
10
8 - 22

tag: table

text: The uterus has three layers, which together form the uterine wall. From innermost to outermost, these layers are as follows:

text: Vertical section of mucous membrane of human uterus.

text: Support[edit]

text: The uterus is primarily supported by the pelvic diaphragm, perineal body and the urogenital diaphragm. Secondarily, it is supported by ligaments and the peritoneal ligament the broad ligament of uterus.[13]

text: Major ligaments[edit]

text: It is held in place by several peritoneal ligaments, of which the following are the most important (there are two of each):

text:
Name
From
To

Uterosacral ligament
Posterior cervix
Anterior face of sacrum

Cardinal ligaments
Side of the cervix
Ischial spines

Pubocervical ligament[13]
Side of the cervix
Pubic symphysis

text: Axes[edit]

text: Normally the uterus lies in anteversion & anteflexion. In most women, the long axis of the uterus is bent forward on the long axis of the vagina, against the urinary bladder. This position is referred to as anteversion of the uterus. Furthermore, the long axis of the body of the uterus is bent forward at the level of the internal os with the long axis of the cervix. This position is termed anteflexion of the uterus.[14] Uterus assumes anteverted position in 50% women, retroverted position in 25% women and rest have midposed uterus.[1]

text: Position[edit]

text: The uterus is in the middle of the pelvic cavity in frontal plane (due to ligamentum latum uteri). The fundus does not surpass the linea terminalis, while the vaginal part of the cervix does not extend below interspinal line. The uterus is mobile and moves posteriorly under the pressure of a full bladder, or anteriorly under the pressure of a full rectum. If both are full, it moves upwards. Increased intraabdominal pressure pushes it downwards. The mobility is conferred to it by musculo-fibrous apparatus that consists of suspensory and sustentacular part. Under normal circumstances the suspensory part keeps the uterus in anteflexion and anteversion (in 90% of women) and keeps it "floating" in the pelvis. The meaning of these terms are described below:

text:
Distinction
More common
Less common

Position tipped
"Anteverted": Tipped forward
"Retroverted": Tipped backwards

Position of fundus
"Anteflexed": Fundus is pointing forward relative to the cervix
"Retroflexed": Fundus is pointing backwards

text: Sustentacular part supports the pelvic organs and comprises the larger pelvic diaphragm in the back and the smaller urogenital diaphragm in the front.

text: The pathological changes of the position of the uterus are:

text:
retroversion/retroflexion, if it is fixed
hyperanteflexion – tipped too forward; most commonly congenital, but may be caused by tumors
anteposition, retroposition, lateroposition – the whole uterus is moved; caused by parametritis or tumors
elevation, descensus, prolapse
rotation (the whole uterus rotates around its longitudinal axis), torsion (only the body of the uterus rotates around)
inversion

text: In cases where the uterus is "tipped", also known as retroverted uterus, women may have symptoms of pain during sexual intercourse, pelvic pain during menstruation, minor incontinence, urinary tract infections, fertility difficulties,[15] and difficulty using tampons. A pelvic examination by a doctor can determine if a uterus is tipped.[16]

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The uterus is supplied by arterial blood both from the uterine artery and the ovarian artery. Another anastomotic branch may also supply the uterus from anastomosis of these two arteries.

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text: Afferent nerves supplying uterus are T11 and T12. Sympathetic supply is from hypogastric plexus and ovarian plexus. Parasympathetic supply is from second, third and fourth sacral nerves.

text: Development[edit]

text: Bilateral Müllerian ducts form during early fetal life. In males, anti-müllerian hormone (AMH) secreted from the testes leads to their regression. In females, these ducts give rise to the Fallopian tubes and the uterus. In humans the lower segments of the two ducts fuse to form a single uterus, however, in cases of uterine malformations this development may be disturbed. The different uterine forms in various mammals are due to various degrees of fusion of the two Müllerian ducts.

text: Various congenital conditions of the uterus can develop in utero. Though uncommon some of these are a double uterus, didelphic uterus, bicornate uterus and others.[17]

text: Function[edit]

text: The reproductive function of the uterus is to accept a fertilized ovum which passes through the utero-tubal junction from the fallopian tube (uterine tube). The fertilized ovum divides to become a blastocyst, which implants into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, attaches to a wall of the uterus, creates a placenta, and develops into a fetus (gestates) until childbirth. Due to anatomical barriers such as the pelvis, the uterus is pushed partially into the abdomen due to its expansion during pregnancy. Even during pregnancy the mass of a human uterus amounts to only about a kilogram (2.2 pounds).

text: The uterus also plays a role in sexual response, by directing blood flow to the pelvis and ovaries, and to the external genitals, including the vagina, labia, and clitoris.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus which may be carried out for a number of reasons including the ridding of tumours both benign and malignant. A complete hysterectomy involves the removal of the body, fundus, and cervix of the uterus. A partial hysterectomy may just involve the removal of the uterine body while leaving the cervix intact. It is the most commonly performed gynecological surgical procedure.

text: During pregnancy the growth rate of the fetus can be assessed by measuring the fundal height.

text: Some pathological states include:

text:
Prolapse of the uterus
Carcinoma of the cervix – malignant neoplasm
Carcinoma of the uterus – malignant neoplasm
Fibroids – benign neoplasms
Adenomyosis – ectopic growth of endometrial tissue within the myometrium
Endometritis, infection at the uterine cavity.
Pyometra – infection of the uterus, most commonly seen in dogs
Uterine malformations mainly congenital malformations including Uterine Didelphys, bicornuate uterus and septate uterus. It also includes congenital absence of the uterus Rokitansky syndrome
Asherman's syndrome, also known as intrauterine adhesions occurs when the basal layer of the endometrium is damaged by instrumentation (e.g. D&C) or infection (e.g. endometrial tuberculosis) resulting in endometrial scarring followed by adhesion formation which partially or completely obliterates the uterine cavity.
Hematometra, which is accumulation of blood within the uterus.

text:
Accumulation of fluids other than blood or of unknown constitution. One study came to the conclusion that postmenopausal women with endometrial fluid collection on gynecologic ultrasonography should undergo endometrial biopsy if the endometrial lining is thicker than 3 mm or the endometrial fluid is echogenic. In cases of a lining 3 mm or less and clear endometrial fluid, endometrial biopsy was not regarded to be necessary, but endocervical curettage to rule out endocervical cancer was recommended.[18]
Myometritis – inflammation of the muscular uterine wall.[19]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Most animals that lay eggs, such as birds and reptiles, including most ovoviviparous species, have an oviduct instead of a uterus. However, recent research into the biology of the viviparous (not merely ovoviviparous) skink Trachylepis ivensi has revealed development of a very close analogue to eutherian mammalian placental development.[20]

text: In monotremes, mammals which lay eggs, namely the platypus and the echidnas, either the term uterus or oviduct is used to describe the same organ, but the egg does not develop a placenta within the mother and thus does not receive further nourishment after formation and fertilization.

text: Marsupials have two uteri, each of which connect to a lateral vagina and which both use a third, middle "vagina" which functions as the birth canal.[21] Marsupial embryos form a choriovitelline placenta (which can be thought of as something between a monotreme egg and a "true" placenta), in which the egg's yolk sac supplies a large part of the embryo's nutrition but also attaches to the uterine wall and takes nutrients from the mother's bloodstream. However, bandicoots also have a rudimentary chorioallantoic placenta, similar to those of placental mammals.

text: The fetus usually develops fully in placental mammals and only partially in marsupials including kangaroos and opossums. In marsupials the uterus forms as a duplex organ of two uteri. In monotremes (egg-laying mammals) such as the platypus, the uterus is duplex and rather than nurturing the embryo, secretes the shell around the egg. It is essentially identical with the shell gland of birds and reptiles, with which the uterus is homologous.[22]

text: In mammals, the four main forms of the uterus are: duplex, bipartite, bicornuate and simplex.[23]

text: Two uteri usually form initially in a female and usually male fetus, and in placental mammals they may partially or completely fuse into a single uterus depending on the species. In many species with two uteri, only one is functional. Humans and other higher primates such as chimpanzees, usually have a single completely fused uterus, although in some individuals the uteri may not have completely fused.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Schematic frontal view of female anatomy

Uterus and uterine tubes.

Sectional plan of the gravid uterus in the third and fourth month.

Fetus in utero, between fifth and sixth months.

Female pelvis and its contents, seen from above and in front.

The arteries of the internal organs of generation of the female, seen from behind.

Median sagittal section of female pelvis.

(Description located on image page)

Uterus


document_title: Marisa Coulter

question_text: who is lyra's mother in the golden compass

question_tokens: who is lyra 's mother in the golden compass

text: Marisa Coulter

text: Description[edit]

text: Mrs. Coulter is described as being 35 years old in the third novel, The Amber Spyglass. She is described as appearing 'beautiful and young' with 'sleek black hair' that 'framed her cheeks' and slim.[1] Such details of a character's physical appearances are uncommon in His Dark Materials. There is a reference in Lyra's Oxford to Mrs. Coulter having written an academic work called 'The Bronze Clocks of Benin'.

text: In the books she is portrayed as an elegant and cool-minded sophisticate; with social savoir faire, but she is also an extremely determined, calculating, and ruthless power-seeker with wide political connections, who is highly placed and trusted in the Church's hierarchy who give her a large degree of autonomy, which she uses for her own as well as their benefit. She arranges for Iorek Byrnison, the heir to the throne of the Armoured bears to be exiled, and plots to dominate the new king, turning the bears into her subordinates. When Lyra is in danger in Bolvangar, her motherly instincts override her other loyalties and she rescues Lyra, although in the second book of the trilogy she still expresses no qualms about killing her to prevent the Fall.[2] However, by the third book she finds herself torn, ultimately feigning loyalty to betray the Church and finally giving up her life for Lyra's sake. Metatron, the Regent of the Authority describes her character in "the most searching examination Marisa Coulter had ever undergone", stripping away "all shelter and deceit" and describing that he sees:[3]

text: Despite this, Metatron describes her as lovelier than any wife he had, and he wishes to take her as his consort.[3] This is her final deception as by this point she intends to betray Metatron himself in order to safeguard her daughter. She describes her self-perception to Asriel just prior to their joint sacrifice:[4]

text: Mrs. Coulter's dæmon takes the form of a golden monkey with long fur, who is not named in the books, but was given the name "Ozymandias" in the radio adaptation. The golden monkey is shown to be capable of going much further from Mrs. Coulter than other dæmons are able to separate from their humans. How the golden monkey can go so far from Mrs. Coulter is not explained, Mrs. Coulter has not undergone any of the processes which enable other humans to achieve such separation. Her final act in the trilogy occurs when she is reconciled with Asriel, and they together drag Metatron into an endless abyss, the three thus ceasing to exist.

text: Relationship with Lyra[edit]

text: In the beginning of the book The Northern Lights Marisa Coulter seems to have a keen interest in Lyra. It is then revealed that Coulter is in fact Lyra's mother by her love affair with Lord Asriel (her title of "Mrs." comes from her marriage to Edward Coulter, who died before the events in the books.) In Northern Lights it is stated by John Faa that she fell in love with Asriel as soon as they met.

text: Although throughout most of the series Lyra hates and fears her mother, Mrs Coulter repeatedly saves Lyra. At the beginning of The Northern Lights Mrs. Coulter saves Lyra from the Gobblers by taking her out of Oxford, and nearing the end of The Northern Lights, Mrs. Coulter yet again saves Lyra from having her daemon cut away (a process known as intercision). A distraught Mrs. Coulter cries out for Lyra, and Lyra passes out. When Lyra suddenly opens her eyes again, she is lying in a soft, comfortable bed. Mrs. Coulter immediately reassures Lyra she's safe and, on her daughter's instruction, explains to her gently why children have to be intercised at such a young age, commenting on their "unhappy thoughts and feelings". When Lyra asks why Mrs. Coulter herself saved her, Mrs. Coulter reveals that she is Lyra's mother. Mrs. Coulter is ultimately forced to make choice between Lyra and the church when it is revealed that Lyra is the new "Eve" whose death will be sought by the Church to prevent original sin re-entering the world. Coulter takes Lyra to a cave and keeps her drugged there at the beginning of The Amber Spyglass and ultimately saves Lyra at the end of The Subtle Knife.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text:
Emma Fielding played Mrs Coulter in the BBC Radio 4 version of His Dark Materials.
Alison Dowling plays her in the Chivers Children's Audio Books version. Author Philip Pullman narrates with a full cast.
Patricia Hodge played Marisa Coulter in the first run of the National Theatre stage adaptation in London, and Lesley Manville played her in the second run.[5]
Nicole Kidman plays Mrs. Coulter in the film adaptation, The Golden Compass, Pullman had previously indicated that he would like to see Kidman play the role.[6] Kidman is blonde, though Pullman approved of the hair colour change made from the book's description, saying he regretted not making her blonde in the first place.[7]


document_title: Spirit Riding Free

question_text: when does spirit riding free season 4 start

text: Spirit Riding Free

text: Plot[edit]

text: Set during the 19th century in the small town of Miradero, Texas, a 12-year-old[2] girl named Lucky, who had recently relocated from the city, encounters a wild kiger mustang named Spirit. Offspring of Spirit and Rain from Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron, the horse is caught by wranglers and brought to be "broken" in Miradero. Lucky gradually bonds with the stallion, and frees him. Lucky also meets two other girls, Pru and Abigail, who both own horses, Chica Linda, a palomino, and Boomerang, a pinto horse, respectively. They embark on everyday adventures across the land.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Amber Frank as Lucky Prescott[2]
Bailey Gambertoglio as Abigail Stone[2]
Sydney Park as Pru Granger[2]
Jeff Bennett as Mesteneros
Darcy Rose Byrnes as Maricela[2]
Nolan North as Jim Prescott[2]
Andy Pessoa as Turo
Tiya Sircar as Miss Flores
Kari Wahlgren as Aunt Cora[2]
Jonathan Craig Williams as Al

text: Production[edit]

text: Six episodes of the first season premiered on May 5, 2017.[3] The series was renewed for a second season and it premiered on September 8, 2017.[6] The series was renewed for a third season and it premiered on November 17, 2017.[7] The series was renewed for a fourth season and it premiered on March 16, 2018.[8] A fifth season of the show was released on Netflix on May 11, 2018.[9]

text: Crew[edit]

text: The voice director for the first three episodes was Ginny McSwain; Katie McWane took over as voice director subsequent to that.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally released

1
6
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)

2
7
September 8, 2017 (2017-09-08)

3
7
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)

4
6
March 16, 2018 (2018-03-16)

5
7
May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)

text: Season 1 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Storyboarded by
Original release date

1
1
"Lucky and the Unbreakable Spirit"
Joshua Taback
Aury Wallington
Stephanie Arnett
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)

Newly arrived in the town of Miradero, city girl Lucky struggles to fit in at school but befriends a wild stallion after he is wrangled for taming.

2
2
"Lucky and the Treacherous Trail"
Joshua Taback
Aury Wallington
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)

Headstrong Lucky persuades Pru to give her a crash course in horseback riding so she and Spirit can participate in the annual Saddle Club race.

3
3
"Lucky and the Mysterious Map"
Beth Sleven
Aury Wallington
Jean Kang & Christina Manrique
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)

On her first camping trip, Lucky decides to decode her dad's old treasure map, then sneaks off with Abigail, Pru and Spirit to find the fortune.

4
4
"Lucky and the Competition Conundrum"
Joshua Taback
Katherine Nolfi
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)

Desperate to be Student of the Month, Lucky teams with Maricela to create a booth for a school fundraiser, pitting herself against Pru and Abigail.

5
5
"Lucky and the Appaloosa Adventure"
Beth Sleven
Robert Taylor
Jean Kang & Christina Manrique
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)

As Lucky and saddle-maker Turo plot to help a horse neglected by his cruel owner, Lucky's dad works to fix a cracked dam before disaster strikes.

6
6
"Lucky and the Not-So-Secret Surprise"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Nancy Cohen
Kathryn Marusik & David Van Tuyle
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)

Determined to throw Pru the best surprise birthday party ever, Lucky enlists Abigail's help in planning the event, which quickly gets out of hand.

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Storyboarded by
Original release date

7
1
"Lucky and the Cowboy Next Door"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Laura Sreebny
Kathryn Marusik & David VanTuyle
September 8, 2017 (2017-09-08)

Eager to follow in her mother's footsteps, Lucky gets lessons in trick riding from dashing young performer, Javier.

8
2
"Lucky and the Pie P.I."
Beth Sleven
Robert Taylor
Jean Kang & Christina Manrique
September 8, 2017 (2017-09-08)

When Abigail's prize cherry pie goes missing, Lucky draws inspiration from her favorite book sleuth and plays detectives with her pals.

9
3
"Lucky and the Super Amazing and Fun Cousin Julian"
Beth Sleven
Nancy Cohen
Jean Kang & Christina Manrique
September 8, 2017 (2017-09-08)

Lucky's visiting cousin, Julian, charms her friends with his exciting schemes, but Lucky believes he's up to no good.

10
4
"Lucky and the Harvest Hunt"
Joshua Taback
Laura Sreebny
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
September 8, 2017 (2017-09-08)

Lucky and her pals search for a scarecrow.

11
5
"Lucky and the Christmas Spirit"
Joshua Taback
Katherine Nolfi
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
September 8, 2017 (2017-09-08)

Lucky and her friends send gifts to everyone in town during Christmas.

12
6
"Lucky and the Deadly Blizzard"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Aury Wallington
Kathryn Marusik & David VanTuyle
September 8, 2017 (2017-09-08)

Lucky and Maricela work together to get medicine from a broken train during a flu outbreak when a blizzard is coming.

13
7
"Lucky and the Price of Freedom"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Aury Wallington
Christian Lignan & Kathryn Marusik
September 8, 2017 (2017-09-08)

Lucky pretends to be a man to enter a horse race to prove that women are good at riding horses. Though she wins, her identity is exposed and she is disqualified. The winner, Junipero's former owner, decides to get back at Lucky by capturing Spirit, a wild mustang, and shipping him to the auction house. Will Lucky ever see Spirit again?

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Storyboarded by
Original release date

14
1
"Lucky and the Long Way Home"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Nancy Cohen
Gus Corrales, Liza Epps, Rianna Liu, Kathryn Marusik
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)

15
2
"Lucky and the New Governor"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Lauren Bradley
Kathryn Marusik
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)

16
3
"Lucky and the Risky Rescue"
Beth Sleven
Laura Sreebny
Jean Kang, Christina "Kiki" Manrique
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)

17
4
"Lucky and the Field Trip Fraud"
Beth Sleven
Candie Kelty Langdale
Jean Kang, Christina "Kiki" Manrique
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)

18
5
"Lucky and the Shaky Day"
Beth Sleven
Katherine Nolfi
Jean Kang, Christina "Kiki" Manrique
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)

19
6
"Lucky and the Golden Opportunity"
Joshua Taback
Robert Taylor
Mandy Clotworthy, Kevin Wotton
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)

20
7
"Lucky and the Lion"
Joshua Taback
Aury Wallington
Rianna Liu, Marc Wasik, Kevin Wotton
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)

text: Season 4 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Storyboarded by
Original release date

21
1
"Lucky and the Impatient Patient"
Joshua Taback
Nancy Cohen & Robert Taylor
Mandy Clotworthy & Kevin Wotton
March 16, 2018 (2018-03-16)

22
2
"Lucky and the Train Tycoon"
Joshua Taback
Rich Burns
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
March 16, 2018 (2018-03-16)

23
3
"Lucky and the Role Reversal"
Beth Sleven
Katherine Nolfi
Jean Kang & Christina "Kiki" Manrique
March 16, 2018 (2018-03-16)

24
4
"Lucky and the Patchwork Plan"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Laura Sreebny
Liza Epps & Kathryn Marusik
March 16, 2018 (2018-03-16)

25
5
"Lucky and the Her New Family Part 1"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Aury Wallington
Liza Epps & Kathryn Marusik
March 16, 2018 (2018-03-16)

26
6
"Lucky and the Her New Family Part 2"
Beth Sleven
Aury Wallington
Jean Kang & Christina "Kiki" Manrique
March 16, 2018 (2018-03-16)

text: Season 5 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Storyboarded by
Original release date

27
1
"Lucky and La Voltereta Feroz"
Joshua Taback
Laura Sreebny
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)

28
2
"Lucky and the No-Good Outlaw Butch LePray"
Joshua Taback
Robert Taylor
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)

29
3
"Lucky and the Big Goodbye"
Beth Sleven
Katherine Nolfi
Jean Kang & Kimberly Jo Mills
May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)

30
4
"Lucky and the Two-Wheeled Terror"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Rich Burns
Liza Epps & Kathryn Marusik
May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)

31
5
"Lucky and the Rough Ride"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Laura Sreebny
Liza Epps & Kathryn Marusik
May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)

32
6
"Lucky and the Ghostly Gotcha!"
Joshua Taback
Aury Wallington
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)

33
7
"Lucky and the Doomed Delivery"
Julia "Fitzy" Fitzmaurice
Katherine Nolfi
Marc Wasik & Kevin Wotton
May 11, 2018 (2018-05-11)

text: Home media[edit]

text: A DVD collection of all the episodes from seasons 1–4, titled Spirit Riding Free: Season 1–4 is set to be released on DVD on June 5, 2018 by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.[10]


document_title: Safety car

question_text: when was the safety car introduced in formula 1 races

text: Safety car

text: Effect[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The use of a safety car has the effect of bunching up competitors together, such as to eliminate any time and distance advantage that a leading driver may have had over the remaining field of competitors. This effect can make racing more competitive upon full race resumption; conversely, it has also contributed to faster leading drivers being negated just rewards for their efforts prior to the caution period.

text: Subject to the racing regulations in force, it is not uncommon for drivers to be allowed to make pitstops during safety car periods. This situation may provide a strategic advantage since any scheduled refueling, tire change or maintenance may be carried out while other competitors are lapping at lower speed, and the drivers who pit then simply rejoin a queue of cars all running together. During normal racing conditions, such interventions would typically involve losing significant terrain over those drivers that remain on-track.

text: Another notable effect of safety car periods is that racing cars consume less fuel until full race resumption, which can allow competitors to run longer distances on a tank of fuel than would otherwise have been possible and/or reduce the number of pitstops required for the duration of the race.

text: Formula One[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Procedure[edit]

text: In Formula One if an accident or inclement weather (typically, heavy rain) prevents normal racing from continuing safely, the Race Director will call for a "safety car" period, which would see marshals wave yellow flags and hold "SC" boards, pending the car in question entering the track. From 2007, all Formula One cars must have LEDs and/or displays fitted to the steering wheel or cockpit, which inform the driver which flags are being waved. A yellow LED is illuminated when the safety car is deployed.

text: The safety car has both orange and green lights mounted on its roof in the form of a light bar. The green lights are used to signal that it is possible to overtake the safety car; this is only done until the race leader is immediately behind the safety car and at the head of the queue of race cars following.[2]

text: From 2015, the safety car is not required to wait until all backmarkers have caught back up to the queue. When the safety car is ready to leave the circuit, it will turn off its orange lights to indicate that it will enter the pit lane at the end of the lap. Drivers must continue in formation until they cross the first safety car line, where circuit green lights and flags will indicate they are free to race again.[3]

text: The safety car is piloted by professional drivers (since 2000, by Bernd Mayländer) on-board high-powered modified vehicles supplied by Mercedes-Benz,[4] and must maintain a reasonable speed so as to ensure that the competitors' tyres are as close as possible to operating temperature and their engines do not overheat. The driver of the safety car is accompanied by a co-driver to assist with operations and communications.

text: For incidents during the first three laps, the safety car also has an advantage over the traditional red flag; with a red flag, it would take a minimum of fifteen minutes to restart the race, and the two-hour limit would not start until the cars were ready for a second formation lap. With regards to the time limit, the race is being scored and the time is also counting while the safety car is on the track, and the race resumes.

text: History[edit]

text: The first use of a safety car in Formula One is reported to have taken place at the 1973 Canadian Grand Prix, where a yellow Porsche 914[5][6] was called for duty following various incidents under treacherous weather conditions. Controversially, on that occasion, it took several hours after the race to figure out the winner and final results since the safety car driver had placed his car in front of the wrong competitor thus causing part of the field to be one lap down incorrectly.[7]

text: The sport officially introduced safety cars in 1993, after trials were conducted at both the French and British Grands Prix during the preceding 1992 season. Since 1996, as part of promotional arrangements, the supplier of safety cars has been Mercedes-Benz,[4] unlike previous years that have seen cars of different brands being used throughout the season and depending on the track visited (for example, the exotic Lamborghini Countach for the Monaco Grand Prix in the 1980s[6][6][8] to the more mundane Fiat Tempra used at the rain-affected 1993 Brazilian Grand Prix[9] and the high performance version of the Opel Vectra used at the infamous 1994 San Marino Grand Prix[10]).

text: From 2007, new procedures were applied for the first time during the Bahrain Grand Prix. The pit lane was closed immediately upon the deployment of the safety car. No car could enter the pits until all cars on the track had formed up in a line behind the safety car, they passed the pit entrance, and the message "pit lane open" was given. A ten-second stop/go penalty (which must be taken when the race is resumed) was imposed on any driver who entered the pit lane before the pit lane open message is given. However, any car which was in the pit entry or pit lane when the safety car was deployed would not incur a penalty.

text: From 2009, however, this procedure has been dropped, and replaced by software that calculates where a car is on the track and a minimum lap time it should take the car to get to the pits. Cars that enter the pits before this time limit has expired are penalised.

text: When the safety car and the drivers behind it are on the start/finish straight, there is a red light at the exit of the pit lane. Drivers who go past the red light are disqualified from the race. This has happened to several drivers during the years, such as Giancarlo Fisichella and Felipe Massa in the 2007 Canadian Grand Prix. At the same race a year later, Lewis Hamilton failed to notice the red light and slammed into the back of the car of Kimi Räikkönen, who was waiting at the end of the pit lane alongside Robert Kubica.

text: From 2010, once cars were lined up behind the safety car, lapped cars were no longer allowed to unlap themselves before the race was restarted.[11] This rule was abandoned from the 2012 season onwards, with cars now allowed to unlap themselves before the race resumes; however, since 2015, the safety car need not wait for the backmarkers to catch up with the leading pack before returning to the pits.

text: Virtual Safety Car (VSC)[edit]

text: Following an accident at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix, which saw driver Jules Bianchi suffer a serious head injury which led to his death, the FIA established an Accident Panel to investigate the dynamics of the accident and ways to minimize the risk of a crash during similar circumstances that do not warrant the deployment of a safety car and cannot be simply managed with yellow flags.

text: The Panel recommended the implementation of a "Virtual Safety Car", based on the "slow zone" system used in Le Mans racing. On top of not being allowed to overtake under yellow flag conditions in the affected sector, a "VSC" icon would appear trackside and on the driver's steering display, obliging drivers to not exceed the posted speed limit thus resulting in a 35% speed reduction. The system was similar to the Electro-PACER lights used in the Indianapolis 500 races from 1972 until 1978, except that ECUs were involved and could enforce speed limits under the current system.

text: The VSC was tested over the course of the final three races of the 2014 Formula One season, during parts of free practice sessions.[12][13] The system was evolved taking into account drivers' feedback and was officially introduced for the 2015 season following ratification by the World Motor Sport Council (WMSC).[14] The VSC was officially used for the first time — and for a brief period prior to the deployment of the actual safety car — at the 2015 Monaco Grand Prix, following a crash involving Max Verstappen. The system saw its first extended deployment at the 2015 British Grand Prix after Carlos Sainz, Jr's power unit failed at Club Corner of the Silverstone Circuit.

text: Indianapolis 500[edit]

text: The first use of a pace car in automobile racing was at the inaugural Indy 500 in 1911.[1] The officials at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway have been selecting a pace car and its driver for the Indy 500 each year since that first race. The first pace car was a Stoddard-Dayton driven by Carl G. Fisher. In recent years Chevrolet models have been chosen as the official pace car, owing to the ability for them to be used at both major automobile races at the Speedway (typically Corvette at the 500 and Impala at the 400). The pace car is selected two months before the race runs, allowing the manufacturer of the selected pace car to produce replicas of that year's car, which sell at a marked premium to collectors and race fans. Pace car replicas are often seen on the streets of Indianapolis weeks before the race is actually held, and a celebrity driver is usually used for the start of the race only.

text: Automakers compete for the prestige of having one of their models selected as the year's pace car for the publicity. In 1971, the move backfired as no automakers stepped up to provide a pace car. Instead, local Indianapolis-area Dodge dealers fulfilled the duty. Eldon Palmer, a local dealer, lost control of the Dodge Challenger pace car and crashed into a photography stand, injuring several people. The blame for the crash was never fully determined, as officials realized that an orange cone (or perhaps an orange flag), which was to identify Palmer's braking point, was accidentally removed.

text: In the last 50 years, the Pontiac Trans Am, Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Corvette, Oldsmobile Cutlass, and Ford Mustang are the only models that have been selected as pace cars three or more times.

text: During the IndyCar Series season, however, Johnny Rutherford is the normal driver of the IRL pace car for all events. The pace car is deployed for debris, collision, or weather reasons. Since 1993, upon the waving of the yellow flag, pit road is closed until the pace car picks up the leader and passes the pit entrance the first time, unless track blockage forces the field to drive through pit lane. Another duty of the pace car is to lead the field around the course on parade laps prior to the start of the race. These increase in speed, allowing for a flying start of the race.

text: Furthermore, two other rule changes have been implemented. Since 2000, with one lap to go before going back to green, the pace car pulls off the track in turn one rather than in turn four. The current leader of the race is then assigned the task of pacing the field back to the green flag. After much consideration, this rule was added to prevent a situation much like the one that happened in the 1995 Indianapolis 500, when Scott Goodyear passed the pace car going back to green. In 2002, another rule was added. With one lap to go before the green, the pace car waves by all cars (if there are any) between the pace car and the actual leader of the race. This allows for the leader to control the restart without lapped cars being in front of him. It also creates a strategy for cars to gain laps back, loosely resembling the "Lucky dog" rule. However, the cars who get waved around are not allowed to pit until the green flag restarts the race (so they do not get the advantage of getting their lap back AND a free pit stop).

text: NASCAR[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In all NASCAR series, if the caution is out for debris, accident, or inclement weather, the flagman will display the yellow caution flag and the pace car [15] will pull out of the pits and turn on the yellow strobes on top and/or behind the car. When race officials are ready to open pit lane, a green light will come on in the rear window of the safety car. One lap before a green flag, the pace car will shut off its lights to signal drivers to line up double file.

text: Unlike most series in motorsport, owing to NASCAR's short-track roots, each track usually offers their own safety car, typically from the manufacturer, but in recent years, it has been a local dealer or association of regional dealerships-provided Safety car. Tracks that use Toyota safety cars will use a Toyota Camry Hybrid, while Ford tracks will use a Ford Mustang, while Chevrolet tracks use a Chevrolet Camaro and most Dodge tracks use a Dodge Challenger. If a manufacturer is promoting a new vehicle, they will often use the new car instead of the standard-specification safety car.

text: For the Camping World Truck Series, often the safety car is a pickup truck, as the series races pickup trucks. Tracks affiliated with a local or regional Chevrolet dealership will use a Chevrolet Silverado, while Chrysler dealership affiliated tracks will use a Ram 1500. Ford-affiliated tracks will often use the F-Series, but Toyota-affiliated tracks are less likely to use the Toyota Tundra, but prefer marketing the Camry Hybrid. However, Ford and Toyota manufacturer sponsored tracks will prefer the Mustang and Camry, respectively, instead of a truck, and occasionally, pickup trucks have been used as pace vehicles for Sprint Cup and Xfinity races.

text: Since NASCAR does not allow speedometers or electronic speed limiting devices, the pace car circles the track at pit road speed during the warm-up laps. This allows each driver to note the RPM at which pit road speed is maintained. Drivers exceeding that speed on pit road will be penalized, typically a "drive-through" or "stop and go" penalty, costing them valuable track position.

text: Since mid-2004, NASCAR official Brett Bodine has driven the vehicle during official race functions during Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series races. Other famous NASCAR pace car drivers include Robert "Buster" Auton and Elmo Langley.

text: At many races, NASCAR has an honorary pace car driver that actually drives a car during the parade laps . Depending on the drivers skill, some drivers are allowed to pace the field right up to the dropping of the green flag. Some famous drivers have been Jay Leno, Richard Hammond, Luke Wilson, Rob Gronkowski, Guy Fieri and many others.

text: The beneficiary rule (informally known as the "lucky dog" rule) states once the safety car is deployed, the first car not on the lead lap will regain a lap. The Beneficiary will regain his lap once pit road opens. Bodine will signal that car to pass him through radio contact between NASCAR and that team. The free pass car must pit with the lapped cars.

text: In 2009, NASCAR introduced a new "Double-file restart" rule that lines the field two cars on each row on every restart, similar to the start of the race, instead of lead-lap cars on the outside and lapped cars on the inside. Also, the "wave-around" rule, similar to what is enforced in the Indy Racing League was adopted to ensure the first car on the restart is the leader, and ensure there are no lapped cars ahead of the leader.

text: Incidents with safety cars and other course cars[edit]

text: 2014 Sprint Unlimited[edit]

text: Before the start of the final segment of the Sprint Cup Series' Sprint Unlimited exhibition race at Daytona, the Chevrolet SS pace car caught fire and stopped off the track, delaying the restart. The fire was believed to have started in a trunk-mounted battery pack powering the lights.[16]

text: 2012 Daytona 500[edit]

text: During a safety car situation on Lap 160 of the 2012 Daytona 500, Earnhardt Ganassi Racing driver Juan Pablo Montoya's car had a suspension part failure, and it lost control on turn 3, sharply veering right into a safety truck and jet dryer trailer, causing a massive diesel/jet fuel fire. As it was seen on video, sparks were seen emanating from Montoya's car right before its hard collision with the jet dryer trailer and left driver's side of the truck. Montoya was treated at the infield care center and released. Montoya's report over the radio after the incident was "I left the pits and felt a really weird vibration and I came back in and checked the rear end and said it was okay and I got into the backstraight and we were are going fourth gear but wasn't going that fast. Every time I got on the gas I could feel the rear squeezing. When I was telling the spotter to have a look how the rear was moving the car just turned right." The driver of the Chevrolet Silverado Crew Cab, Duane Barnes, was taken to a local hospital for observation and was resting comfortably. He was an employee at Michigan International Speedway, a sister track of Daytona. The tracks often share jet dryer equipment on race weekends to help in case of rain such as the case on Sunday, the original scheduled start time of the race. The entire incident took about two hours to clean up before the last 40 (later extended to 42 due to a Green-white-checkered finish) laps were able to be completed.

text: NASCAR subsequently added the use of the second safety car (used during race start situations) to protect the last jet dryer in other safety car situations.

text: 2011 6 Hours of Castellet[edit]

text: The 2011 6 Hours of Castellet got off to a controversial start when the pace car did not return to the pits when the green lights came on. The front running LMPs slowed down but some of the GT cars could not react fast enough, resulting in heavy damage to all three GTE Pro class Porsches which caused them to retire. The GTE Am class IMSA Performance Matmut Porsche and GTE Pro JOTA Aston Martin were also caught up in the carnage.[17]

text: 2009 WTCC Pau[edit]

text: An accident occurred during the 2009 FIA WTCC Race of France in Pau, France. A succession of first-lap accidents caused the safety car to be placed on standby, with yellow flags waving on the start-finish section of the track. The safety car driver then proceeded to drive onto the track at slow speed, without official approval,[18] moving across the pit exit line immediately after exiting the pits, instead of confining to the inside of it until the line ended. Race leader Franz Engstler came through the kink on the start-finish straight and was unable to avoid hitting the side of the pace car.[19] Engstler commented "I saw the safety car coming out from the right and realized that I had no chance to brake... I really do not understand why he was going out of the pits".[20] After this incident, the Portuguese Bruno Correia was appointed as the official safety car driver.[21]

text: 2008 Dutch Supercar Challenge Spa[edit]

text: A safety car caused a crash during the 2008 Dutch Supercar Challenge race at Spa Francorchamps. The Seat Leon was released too late, allowing the leading Marcos LM600 to pass while erroneously identifying the Audi TT DTM in 2nd and Mosler MT900R GT3 in 3rd as 'the leading pack.' Race officials immediately realized their mistake, and the safety car was instructed to slow down and let the entire field pass.

text: As the safety car was exiting turn 11, an approaching Lamborghini Gallardo GT3 drastically reduced its speed in response to the unusually slow safety car. However, a BMW a few seconds behind came around the blind turn at speed, colliding with the Gallardo and safety car. The collision destroyed the Gallardo and sent the BMW into a number of rolls. The safety car was sent off the track into the Armco at great speed. In the chaos, a Marcos LM600 coming around turn 11 locked up its brakes and spun into the wet grass on the inside of the track. Sliding back onto the track, it was hit from the side by a BMW Z3. Furthermore, two E46 BMW M3 GTRs were damaged: one on the outside line hit the rear of the Marcos, and the other, on the inside line, slightly damaged its front right. The second M3 continued around the track, while the first slid into the grass before turn 12. The race was stopped, and there were no serious injuries to any of the drivers.

text: 1971 Indianapolis 500[edit]

text: The pace car of the 1971 Indianapolis 500, an orange Dodge Challenger driven by local auto dealer Eldon Palmer, crashed at the start of the race. As Palmer drove the car off into the pit lane to let the race cars begin the race, he lost control of the car and crashed into a photographer stand.[22] There were no fatalities, and the number of people reported injured has ranged from 18 to 29.[23]


document_title: Biomass (ecology)

question_text: who has the greatest biomass in a food chain

text: Biomass (ecology)

text: Ecological pyramids[edit]

text: An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation that shows, for a given ecosystem, the relationship between biomass or biological productivity and trophic levels.

text:
A biomass pyramid shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level.
A productivity pyramid shows the production or turn-over in biomass at each trophic level.

text: An ecological pyramid provides a snapshot in time of an ecological community.

text: The bottom of the pyramid represents the primary producers (autotrophs). The primary producers take energy from the environment in the form of sunlight or inorganic chemicals and use it to create energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This mechanism is called primary production. The pyramid then proceeds through the various trophic levels to the apex predators at the top.

text: When energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, typically only ten percent is used to build new biomass. The remaining ninety percent goes to metabolic processes or is dissipated as heat. This energy loss means that productivity pyramids are never inverted, and generally limits food chains to about six levels. However, in oceans, biomass pyramids can be wholly or partially inverted, with more biomass at higher levels.

text: Terrestrial biomass[edit]

text: Terrestrial biomass generally decreases markedly at each higher trophic level (plants, herbivores, carnivores). Examples of terrestrial producers are grasses, trees and shrubs. These have a much higher biomass than the animals that consume them, such as deer, zebras and insects. The level with the least biomass are the highest predators in the food chain, such as foxes and eagles.

text: In a temperate grassland, grasses and other plants are the primary producers at the bottom of the pyramid. Then come the primary consumers, such as grasshoppers, voles and bison, followed by the secondary consumers, shrews, hawks and small cats. Finally the tertiary consumers, large cats and wolves. The biomass pyramid decreases markedly at each higher level.

text: Ocean biomass[edit]

text:
The marine food chain

  predatory fish

↑

  filter feeders

↑

predatory zooplankton

↑

zooplankton

↑

phytoplankton

text: Ocean or marine biomass, in a reversal of terrestrial biomass, can increase at higher trophic levels. In the ocean, the food chain typically starts with phytoplankton, and follows the course:

text: Phytoplankton → zooplankton → predatory zooplankton → filter feeders → predatory fish

text: Phytoplankton are the main primary producers at the bottom of the marine food chain. Phytoplankton use photosynthesis to convert inorganic carbon into protoplasm. They are then consumed by microscopic animals called zooplankton.

text: Zooplankton comprise the second level in the food chain, and includes small crustaceans, such as copepods and krill, and the larva of fish, squid, lobsters and crabs.

text: In turn, small zooplankton are consumed by both larger predatory zooplankters, such as krill, and by forage fish, which are small, schooling, filter-feeding fish. This makes up the third level in the food chain.

text: The fourth trophic level consists of predatory fish, marine mammals and seabirds that consume forage fish. Examples are swordfish, seals and gannets.

text: Apex predators, such as orcas, which can consume seals, and shortfin mako sharks, which can consume swordfish, make up the fifth trophic level. Baleen whales can consume zooplankton and krill directly, leading to a food chain with only three or four trophic levels.

text: Marine environments can have inverted biomass pyramids. In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton that grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, terrestrial primary producers grow and reproduce slowly.

text: There is an exception with cyanobacteria. Marine cyanobacteria are the smallest known photosynthetic organisms; the smallest of all, Prochlorococcus, is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across.[10] Prochlorococcus is possibly the most plentiful species on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater may contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide, there are estimated to be several octillion (~1027) individuals.[11] Prochlorococcus is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the oligotrophic (nutrient poor) regions of the oceans.[12] The bacterium accounts for an estimated 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere, and forms part of the base of the ocean food chain.[13]

text: Bacterial biomass[edit]

text: There are typically 50 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. In a much-cited study from 1998[6] the world bacterial biomass was calculated to be 350 to 550 billions of tonnes of carbon, equal to between 60% and 100% of the carbon in plants. More recent studies of seafloor microbes have cast considerable doubt on that, one study in 2012[7] reduced the calculated microbial biomass on the seafloor from the original 303 billions of tonnes of C to just 4.1 billions of tonnes of C, reducing the global biomass of prokaryotes to 50 to 250 billions of tonnes of C. Further, if the average per cell biomass of prokaryotes is reduced from 86 to 14 femtograms C[7] then the global biomass of prokaryotes is reduced to 13 to 44.5 billions of tonnes of C, equal to between 2.4% and 8.1% of the carbon in plants.

text:
Geographic location
Number of cells (×1029)
Billions of tonnes of carbon

Ocean floor

2.9[7] to 50[14]

4.1[7] to 303[6]

Open ocean

1.2[6]

1.7[6][7] to 10[6]

Terrestrial soil

2.6[6]

3.7[6][7] to 22[6]

Subsurface terrestrial

2.5 to 25[6]

3.5[6][7] to 215[6]

text: Global biomass[edit]

text: Estimates for the global biomass of species and higher level groups are not always consistent across the literature. Apart from bacteria, the total global biomass has been estimated at about 560 billion tonnes C.[1] Most of this biomass is found on land, with only 5 to 10 billion tonnes C found in the oceans.[1] On land, there is about 1,000 times more plant biomass (phytomass) than animal biomass (zoomass). About 18% of this plant biomass is eaten by the land animals.[15] However, in the ocean, the animal biomass is nearly 30 times larger than the plant biomass.[16] Most ocean plant biomass is eaten by the ocean animals.[15]

text:
name
number of species
date of estimate
individual count
mean living mass of individual
percent biomass (dried)
total number of carbon atoms
global dry biomass in million tonnes
global wet (fresh) biomass in million tonnes

Terrestrial

Humans

1

2012[17]

7.0 billion

50 kg
(incl children)

30%

4.015 x 1036 [18]

105

350

2005

4.63 billion

62 kg
(excl children)[19]

287[19]

Cattle

1

1.3 billion[20]

400 kg

30%

156

520

Sheep and goats

2

2002

1.75 billion[21]

60 kg

30%

31.5

105

Chickens

1

24 billion

2 kg

30%

14.4

48

Ants

12,649[22]

107 - 108 billion [23]

3 x 10−6 kg
(0.003 grams)

30%

10–100

30-300

Earthworms

>7,000

1881
Darwin

1.3 x 10 6 billion [24]

3 g

30% [25]

1,140-2,280[24]

3,800-7,600[24]

Termites

>2,800

1996

445[26]

Marine

Blue whales[27]

1

Pre-whaling

340,000

40%[28]

36

2001

4,700

40%[28]

0.5

Fish

>10,000

2009

800-2,000[29]

Antarctic krill

1

1924–2004

7.8 x 1014

0.486 g

379[30]

Copepods
(a zooplankton)

13,000

10−6 - 10−9 kg

1x1037 [31]

Cyanobacteria
(a picoplankton)

?

2003

1,000[32]

Global

Prokaryotes
(bacteria)

?

1998

4–6 x 1030 cells[6]

1.76-2.76 x 1040 [6]

350,000-550,000[6]

text: Humans comprise about 100 million tonnes of the Earth's dry biomass,[33] domesticated animals about 700 million tonnes, earthworms over 1,100 million tonnes,[24] and annual cereal crops about 2.3 billion tonnes.[34]

text: The most successful animal species, in terms of biomass, may well be Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, with a fresh biomass approaching 500 million tonnes,[30][35][36] although domestic cattle may also reach these immense figures.[citation needed] However, as a group, the small aquatic crustaceans called copepods may form the largest animal biomass on earth.[37] A 2009 paper in Science estimates, for the first time, the total world fish biomass as somewhere between 0.8 and 2.0 billion tonnes.[38][39] It has been estimated that about 1% of the global biomass is due to phytoplankton,[40] and 25% is due to fungi.[41][42]

text:
Grasses, trees and shrubs have a much higher biomass than the animals that consume them

The total biomass of bacteria may equal that of plants.[6]

Copepods may form the largest biomass of any animal species group.[37]

Antarctic krill form one of the largest biomasses of any individual animal species.[35]

It has been claimed that fungi make up 25% of the global biomass

text: Global rate of production[edit]

text: Net primary production is the rate at which new biomass is generated, mainly due to photosynthesis. Global primary production can be estimated from satellite observations. Satellites scan the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) over terrestrial habitats, and scan sea-surface chlorophyll levels over oceans. This results in 56.4 billion tonnes C/yr (53.8%), for terrestrial primary production, and 48.5 billion tonnes C/yr for oceanic primary production.[5] Thus, the total photoautotrophic primary production for the Earth is about 104.9 billion tonnes C/yr. This translates to about 426 gC/m²/yr for land production (excluding areas with permanent ice cover), and 140 gC/m²/yr for the oceans.

text: However, there is a much more significant difference in standing stocks—while accounting for almost half of total annual production, oceanic autotrophs account for only about 0.2% of the total biomass. Autotrophs may have the highest global proportion of biomass, but they are closely rivaled or surpassed by microbes.[43][44]

text: Terrestrial freshwater ecosystems generate about 1.5% of the global net primary production.[45]

text: Some global producers of biomass in order of productivity rates are

text:
Producer
Biomass productivity
(gC/m²/yr)
Ref
Total area
(million km²)
Ref
Total production
(billion tonnes C/yr)

Swamps and Marshes
2,500
[3]

Tropical rainforests
2,000
[46]
8

16

Coral reefs
2,000
[3]
0.28
[47]
0.56

Algal beds
2,000
[3]

River estuaries
1,800
[3]

Temperate forests
1,250
[3]
19

24

Cultivated lands
650
[3][48]
17

11

Tundras
140
[3][48]

Open ocean
125
[3][48]
311

39

Deserts
3
[48]
50

0.15