document_title: Pride & Prejudice (2005 film)

question_text: who plays charlotte in pride and prejudice 2005

text: Pride & Prejudice (2005 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: During the late 18th century, the Bennet family, consisting of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet and their five daughters—Jane, Elizabeth, Mary, Kitty and Lydia—live in comparative financial independence as gentry at Longbourn, a working farm in rural England. As the Bennets have no sons, Longbourn is destined to be inherited by Mr. Bennet's cousin, Mr. Collins, and so Mrs. Bennet is anxious to marry off her five daughters before Mr. Bennet dies, in order to secure herself in her widowhood.

text: Wealthy bachelor Charles Bingley has recently moved into Netherfield, a large, nearby estate. He is introduced to local society at an assembly ball, along with his haughty sister Caroline and reserved friend, Mr. Darcy, who "owns half of Derbyshire". Bingley is enchanted with the gentle and beautiful Jane, while Elizabeth takes an instant dislike to Darcy after he coldly rebuffs her attempts at conversation and after she later overhears him insulting her. When Jane becomes sick on a visit to Netherfield, Elizabeth goes to stay with her, verbally sparring with both Caroline and Darcy.

text: Later the Bennets are visited by Mr. Collins, a pompous clergyman who talks of little but his patroness, Lady Catherine de Bourgh. After learning from Mrs. Bennet that Jane is expected to become engaged soon, Collins decides to pursue Elizabeth, utterly oblivious to her lack of receptivity towards himself. Meanwhile, the easy-going and charming Lieutenant Wickham of the newly-arrived militia captures the girls' attention; he wins Elizabeth's sympathy by telling her that Darcy had cheated him of his inheritance. At a ball at Netherfield, Elizabeth, startled by Darcy's abrupt appearance and request, accepts a dance with him before realizing it, but vows to her best friend Charlotte Lucas that she has "sworn to loathe him for all eternity". During the dance, she attacks him with witty sarcasm and Darcy responds in kind. At the same ball, Charlotte expresses concern to Elizabeth that Jane's behaviour towards Mr. Bingley is too reserved, and that Bingley may not realise that she loves him.

text: The next day, at Longbourn, Collins proposes to Elizabeth, but she strongly declines. When Bingley unexpectedly returns to London, Elizabeth dispatches a heartbroken Jane to the city to stay with their aunt and uncle, the Gardiners, in hopes of re-establishing contact between Jane and Bingley. Later, Elizabeth is appalled to learn that her friend Charlotte will marry Collins to gain financial security and avoid remaining a spinster.

text: Months later, Elizabeth visits the newly-wed Mr. and Mrs. Collins at Rosings, Lady Catherine's manor estate; they are invited to dine there, and meet Darcy and Colonel Fitzwilliam, who it transpires are Lady Catherine's nephews. Here Darcy shows greater interest in Elizabeth, especially when she replies to Lady Catherine's jabs with spirited wit. The next day, not realizing that Jane is Elizabeth's sister, Colonel Fitzwilliam lets slip to Elizabeth that Darcy had separated Bingley from Jane. Distraught, she flees outside, but Darcy chooses that moment to track her down and propose marriage.

text: He says that he loves her "most ardently," despite her "lower rank." Elizabeth refuses him, citing his treatment of Jane and Bingley and of Wickham; they argue fiercely, with Darcy explaining that he had been convinced that Jane did not return Bingley's love. Darcy leaves angry and heartbroken. He finds Elizabeth later and presents her with a letter, which explains that Wickham is a gambler who demanded and received £3,000 in cash in-lieu of the clergy position intended for him by Darcy's father; upon being refused more money, after having squandered it all a few years later, Wickham had attempted to seduce and elope with Darcy's 15-year-old sister, Georgiana, in order to obtain her £30,000 inheritance, but abandoned her upon learning that he would never receive the money.

text: A couple of months later, the Gardiners take Elizabeth on a trip to the Peak District; their visit also includes Darcy's estate, Pemberley; Elizabeth agrees to go with them, believing that he is away travelling. Elizabeth is stunned by its wealth and beauty, and hears nothing but good things about Darcy from his housekeeper. There, she accidentally runs into Darcy, who has arrived home early. He invites her and the Gardiners to meet his sister. His manners have softened considerably, and Georgiana takes an instant liking to Elizabeth. When Elizabeth learns that her immature and flirtatious youngest sister Lydia has run away with Wickham, she tearfully blurts out the news to Darcy and the Gardiners before returning home. Her family expects social ruin for having a disgraced daughter, but over a week later they are relieved to hear that Mr. Gardiner had discovered the pair in London and that they had married. Lydia later slips to Elizabeth that Darcy was the one who found them and paid for the marriage.

text: When Bingley and Darcy suddenly return to Netherfield, Jane accepts Bingley's proposal. The same evening, Lady Catherine unexpectedly visits Elizabeth, insisting that she renounce Darcy, as he is supposedly to marry her own daughter, Anne. Elizabeth refuses and, unable to sleep, walks on the moor at dawn. There, she meets Darcy, also unable to sleep after hearing of his aunt's behaviour. He admits his continued love and Elizabeth accepts his proposal.

text: Mr. Bennet gives his consent after Elizabeth assures him of her love for Darcy. In the U.S. release of the film, an additional last scene shows the newlyweds outside of Pemberley, happy together.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Keira Knightley as Elizabeth Bennet
Matthew Macfadyen as Mr Fitzwilliam Darcy
Brenda Blethyn as Mrs Bennet
Donald Sutherland as Mr Bennet
Tom Hollander as Mr William Collins
Rosamund Pike as Jane Bennet
Carey Mulligan as Catherine (Kitty) Bennet
Jena Malone as Lydia Bennet
Talulah Riley as Mary Bennet
Judi Dench as Lady Catherine de Bourgh
Simon Woods as Mr Charles Bingley
Tamzin Merchant as Georgiana Darcy
Claudie Blakley as Charlotte Lucas
Kelly Reilly as Caroline Bingley
Rupert Friend as Mr George Wickham
Rosamund Stephen as Anne de Bourgh
Cornelius Booth as Colonel Fitzwilliam
Penelope Wilton as Mrs Gardiner
Peter Wight as Mr Gardiner
Meg Wynn Owen as Mrs Reynolds
Sinead Matthews as Betsy

text: Production[edit]

text: Conception and adaptation[edit]

text: As with several recent Jane Austen adaptations, Pride & Prejudice was an Anglo-American collaboration, between British studio Working Title Films (in association with French company StudioCanal) and its American parent company Universal Studios.[6][7] Working Title at the time was known for mainstream productions like Bridget Jones's Diary and Love Actually that drew international audiences,[8] rather than films in the historical drama genre.[9] Its co-chairman Tim Bevan explained that the studio wanted to "bring Austen's original story, concentrating on Lizzie, back in all its glory to the big screen for audiences everywhere to enjoy".[10] Given a "relatively inexpensive" budget of £22 million ($28 million),[2][3] the film was expected to excel at the box office, particularly based on the commercial successes of Romeo + Juliet (1996) and Shakespeare in Love (1998) as well as the resurgence of interest in Austen's works.[11][12]

text: Given little instruction from the studio, screenwriter Deborah Moggach spent over two years adapting Pride and Prejudice for film. She had sole discretion with the early script, and eventually wrote approximately ten drafts.[14][15] Realising it held "a perfect three-act structure",[15] Moggach attempted to be as faithful to the original novel as possible, calling it "so beautifully shaped as a story – the ultimate romance about two people who think they hate each other but who are really passionately in love. I felt, 'If it's not broken, don't fix it.'"[10] While she could not reproduce the novel's "fiercely wonderful dialogue in its entirety", she attempted to keep much of it.[10]

text: Moggach's first script was closest to Austen's book, but later versions trimmed extraneous storylines and characters.[15] Moggach initially wrote all scenes from Elizabeth's point of view in keeping with the novel; she later set a few scenes from the male perspective, such as when Bingley practices his marriage proposal, in order to "show Darcy and Bingley being close" and to indicate Darcy was a "human being instead of being stuck up".[14] Small details were inserted that acknowledged wider events outside of the characters' circle, such as those then occurring in France.[10] While Moggach is the only screenwriter credited for the film, playwright Lee Hall also made early additions to the script.[16][17]

text: Television director Joe Wright was hired in early 2004,[17] making Pride & Prejudice his directional feature film debut.[18] He was considered a surprising choice for a film in the romance drama genre due to his past work with social realism.[19][20] Wright's body of work had impressed the producers,[10] who were looking for a fresh perspective;[8] they sent him a script despite the fact that Wright had not read the novel.[10][21] He commented that at the time, "I didn't know if I was really all that interested; I thought I was a little bit more mainstream than this, a bit more edgy. But then I read the script and I was surprised I was very moved by it".[22] He next read the novel, which he called "an amazing piece of character observation and it really seemed like the first piece of British Realism. It felt like it was a true story; had a lot of truth in it about understanding how to love other people, understanding how to overcome prejudices, understanding the things that separate us from other people ... things like that."[22]

text:
"I wanted to make something that is about young people, about young people experiencing these emotions for the first time and not understanding the feelings they are having. If you have a 40-year-old man as your star not understanding the feeling he's having then it becomes a bit unbelievable and suspect, rather like The 40-Year-Old Virgin or something instead of Pride & Prejudice".

— Director Joe Wright commenting on the ages of the actors in the 1940 adaptation[22]

tag: div

text: The only adaptation of Pride and Prejudice Wright had seen was the 1940 production, which was the last time the novel had been adapted into a feature film. The director purposely did not watch the other productions, both out of fear he would inadvertently steal ideas and because he wanted to be as original as possible.[22] He did, however, watch other period films, including Ang Lee's Sense and Sensibility, Roger Michell's Persuasion, and John Schlesinger's Far from the Madding Crowd; Wright cited this last film as the greatest influence on his own adaptation, calling it "very real and very honest – and it is quite romantic as well".[23] In trying to create an atmosphere of charged flirtation, the director also gained inspiration from teen romance films such as Sixteen Candles[24] and The Breakfast Club.[25]

text: Wright's hire occurred while Moggach was on her third draft.[15] Despite her desire to work closely with Austen's dialogue, Wright made an effort to not "be too reverential to [it]. I don't believe people spoke like that then; it's not natural."[21] While a few scenes, such as the discussion over accomplished women, aligned closely with the author's original dialogue, many others "substituted instead a mixture of modern idiom and archaic-sounding sentence structure".[16] One alteration concerned politeness; Wright noted that while Austen's work had characters waiting before speaking, he believed that "particularly in big families of girls, everyone tends to speak over each other, finishing each other's sentences, etc. So I felt that the Bennet family's conversations would be overlapping like that."[10] Sense and Sensibility actress and screenwriter Emma Thompson aided in script development, though she opted to be uncredited. She advised the nervous director about adapting Austen for the screen and made dialogue recommendations, such as with parts of the Collins-Charlotte storyline.[26][27]

text: Citing the year Austen first wrote a draft of the novel,[note 1] Wright and Moggach changed the period setting from 1813 (the novel's publication date) to the late eighteenth century; this decision was partly because Wright wanted to highlight the differences within an England influenced by the French Revolution,[10][21] as he was fascinated that it had "caused an atmosphere among the British aristocracy of fear".[23] Additionally, Wright chose the earlier period because he hated dresses with an empire silhouette, which were popular in the later period.[10][21] The decision helped make the film visually distinct from other recent Austen adaptations.[24] In comparison to the popular 1995 BBC version, which featured Colin Firth and Jennifer Ehle, producer Paul Webster desired to make an adaptation that "doesn't conform to the television drama stereotypes of a perfect clean Regency world".[10] Wright and Moggach opted for a "muddy hem version" of Longbourn, presenting a more rural setting than in previous adaptations[29][14] out of a desire to depict the Bennets in "very close proximity to their rural life"[21] and to emphasise their relative poverty.[30] While the degree of poverty was criticised by some critics, Wright felt that the "mess adds to the drama of the predicament that the family were in", and helps contrast the Bennets, Darcys, and Bingleys.[31]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Wright found casting of the film to be difficult because he was very particular about "the types of people [he] wanted to work with".[22] While interviewing to direct, he insisted that the actors match the ages of the characters in the novel.[23] Wright specifically cast actors that had rapport on and off screen, and insisted that they partake in three weeks of rehearsal in improvisation workshops.[15] Wright also had to balance who he thought was best for each role with what the producers wanted – mainly a big name attraction.[22] Though Wright had not initially pictured someone as attractive as English actress Keira Knightley for the lead role of Elizabeth Bennet,[19] he cast her after realising that the actress "is really a tomboy [and] has a lively mind and a great sense of humour".[10] Knightley at the time was known for Bend It Like Beckham and the Pirates of the Caribbean film series.[24] She had been an Austen fan since age 7, but initially feared taking the role out of apprehension that she would be doing "an absolute copy of Jennifer Ehle's performance", which she deeply admired.[32] Knightley believed Elizabeth is "what you aspire to be: she's funny, she's witty and intelligent. She's a fully rounded and very much loved character."[33] For the period, the actress studied etiquette, history and dancing but ran into trouble when she acquired a short haircut while preparing for her role in the bounty hunter film Domino.[32]

text: Webster found the casting of Darcy especially hard due to the character's iconic status and because "Colin Firth cast a very long shadow" as the 1995 Darcy.[34] Wright later commented that his choice of Knightley allowed him to cast comparative unknown Matthew Macfadyen, something that would have been impossible had he chosen a less well-known actress for Elizabeth Bennet.[22] Macfadyen at the time was known for his role in the British television spy series Spooks,[34] but had no recognition internationally.[24] A fan of the actor's television work,[23] Wright called Macfadyen "a proper manly man ... I didn't want a pretty boy kind of actor. His properties were the ones I felt I needed [for Darcy]. Matthew's a great big hunk of a guy."[22] Macfadyen did not read the novel before filming, preferring to rely solely on the script.[35]

text: According to Wright, Rosamund Pike was cast as the eldest sister "because [he] knew she wasn't going to play her as a nice, simple person. Jane has a real interior world, she has her heart broken."[19] Despite being Pike's ex-boyfriend, Simon Woods was cast as her romantic interest Mr Bingley.[19] The other three Bennet sisters were played by Talulah Riley, Carey Mulligan, and Jena Malone, the only American actress among them.[10] Wright believed Malone to have a "pretty faultless English accent".[36] Mulligan heard about the casting call at a dinner hosted by Julian Fellowes, to whom she had written a letter after failing to get into drama school; she won the part after three auditions.[37][38] Tamzin Merchant appears as Georgiana Darcy; she was hired despite having no previous acting experience after she wrote a letter to the casting director.[10] In addition to Merchant, Pride & Prejudice was the feature film debut of both Mulligan[39] and Riley.[40]

text: Donald Sutherland reminded Wright of his own father and was cast as the Bennet patriarch;[36] Wright thought the actor possessed the "strength to handle those six women".[19] Brenda Blethyn was hired to play Mrs Bennet, whom Moggach believed to be the unsung heroine of the film;[41] Wright explained that it was "a tricky part [to fill], as she can be very annoying; you want to stop her chattering and shrieking. But Brenda has the humour and the heart to show the amount of love and care Mrs Bennet has for her daughters."[10] Wright convinced veteran actress Judi Dench to join the cast as Lady Catherine de Bourgh by writing her a letter that read "I love it when you play a bitch. Please come and be a bitch for me."[5][19] Dench had only one week available to shoot her scenes, forcing Wright to make them his first days of filming.[26][42]

text: Costume design[edit]

text: Known for her BAFTA award-winning work on the 2004 film Vera Drake, Jacqueline Durran was hired as the costume designer. She and Wright approached his film "as a difficult thing to tackle" because of their desire to distinguish it from the television adaptation. Due to Wright's dislike of the high waistline, Durran focused on later eighteenth century fashions that often included a corseted, natural waistline rather than an empire silhouette (which became popular after the 1790s).[43] A generational divide was established: the older characters dress in mid-eighteenth century fashions while the young wear "a sort of proto-Regency style of hair and dress".[44] Mrs Bennet was of the older generation, and her dresses appeared to have been mended.[35]

text: Durran's costumes also helped emphasise social rank among the different characters;[45] Caroline Bingley for instance is introduced in an empire silhouetted dress, clothing that would have then been at the height of fashion.[46] During her interview, Durran opined that all the women wear white at the Netherfield Ball due to its contemporary popularity, an idea that Wright credits as his reason for hiring her.[47] All of the costumes were handmade, as clothing was at the time.[35] However, costumes and hairstyles were adjusted to appeal to contemporary audiences, sacrificing historical accuracy.[48]

text: To help differentiate the Bennet sisters, Durran viewed Elizabeth as the "tomboy", clothing her in earthy colours because of her love of the countryside.[43] For the other sisters, Durran remarked, "Jane was the most refined and yet it's still all a bit slapdash and homemade, because the Bennets have no money. One of the main things Joe wanted was for the whole thing to have a provincial feel. Mary is the bluestocking: serious and practical. And then Lydia and Kitty are a bit Tweedledum and Tweedledee in a kind of teenage way. I tried to make it so that they'd be sort of mirror images. If one's wearing a green dress, the other will wear a green jacket; so you always have a visual asymmetry between the two."[43] In contrast to the 1940 film, the 2005 production displayed the Bennet sisters in worn-down but comfortable dresses[30] that allowed the actors better moveability.[35]

text: Mr Darcy's costume went through a series of phases. Durran noted:

text: "The first time we see him he's at Meriton  [sic], where he has a very stiffly tailored jacket on and he's quite contained and rigid. He stays in that rigid form for the first part of the film. By the time we get to the proposal that goes wrong in the rain, we move to a similar cut, but a much softer fabric. And then later he's got a completely different cut of coat, not interlined and he wears it undone. The nth degree is him walking through the mist in the morning, completely undressed by 18th-century standards. It's absolutely unlikely, but then Lizzie's in her nightie, so what can you say?"[43]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Moggach believed the novel was very filmable, "despite it containing no description and being a very unvisual book".[15] To Wright, many other period films had relied on paintings for inspiration rather than photographs, causing them to appear unreal. He thus used "Austen's prose [to give him] many visual references for the people in the story", including using close-up shots of various characters.[10] The filmmakers also changed several scenes to more romantic locales than those in the book. For instance, in the film, Darcy first proposes outdoors in a rainstorm at a building with neoclassical architecture; in the book, this scene takes place inside a parsonage. In the film, his second proposal occurs on the misty moors as dawn breaks;[50][51] in the book, he and Elizabeth are walking down a country lane in broad daylight.[52] Wright has acknowledged that "there are a lot of period film clichés; some of them are in the film and some are not, but for me it was important to question them".[10]

text: During script development, the crew spent four to five months scouting locations,[35] creating a "constant going back and forth between script and location".[15] The film was shot entirely on location within England on an 11-week schedule[6][10] during the 2004 summer.[54] Co-producer Paul Webster noted that "it is quite unusual for a movie this size to be shot entirely on location. Part of Joe [Wright]'s idea was to try to create a reality which allows the actors to relax and feel at one with their environment."[10] Working under production designer Sarah Greenwood and set decorator Katie Spencer, the crew filmed on seven estates in six different counties. Because "nothing exists in the United Kingdom that is untouched by the twenty-first century", many of the sites required substantial work to make them suitable for filming.[55] Visual effects company Double Negative digitally restored several locations to make them contemporaneous; they eradicated weeds, enhanced gold plating on window frames, and removed anachronisms such as gravel driveways and electricity pylons. Double Negative also developed the typeface used for the film's title sequence.[56]

text: Production staff selected particularly grand-looking residences to better convey the wealth and power of certain characters.[57] Locations included Chatsworth House in Derbyshire, the largest privately held country house in England. Chatsworth and Wilton House in Salisbury stood in for Pemberley.[18][49] After a search of various sites in England, the moated manor house Groombridge Place in Kent was chosen for Longbourn.[58] Location manager Adam Richards believed Groombridge had an "immense charm" that was "untouched by post-17th Century development".[59] Reflecting Wright's choice of realism, Groombridge's interior was designed to be "shabby chic".[60] Representing Netherfield Park was the late-18th century site Basildon Park in Berkshire, leading it to close for seven weeks to allow time for filming.[61] Burghley House in Cambridgeshire[18][53] stood in for Rosings, while the adjacent town of Stamford served as Meryton. Other locations included Haddon Hall (for The Inn at Lambton), the Temple of Apollo and Palladian Bridge of Stourhead (for the Gardens of Rosings), Hunsford (for Collins' parsonage and church) and Peak District (for Elizabeth and the Gardiners' tour).[49] The first dance scenes were shot on a set in a potato warehouse in Lincolnshire with the employment of local townspeople as extras;[15] this was the only set the crew built that was not already in existence.[62]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Film locations of Pride and Prejudice (2005).

text: Music[edit]

text: Italian composer Dario Marianelli wrote the film score, the first of his four collaborations with Wright. Their relationship began when Paul Webster, who had worked with Marianelli on the 2001 film The Warrior, introduced him to Wright. In their first conversation, Marianelli and Wright discussed the early piano sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven, which "became a point of reference" and "starting point" for the original score.[63] In addition to Beethoven, pieces such as "Meryton Townhall" and "The Militia Marches In" (featuring the flute) were inspired by the film's period,[64] with the intention that they could conceivably have been heard during that time. "Meryton Townhall" and "Another Dance" contained actual dance cues that were fitting for the late eighteenth century. According to music critic William Ruhlmann, Marianelli's score had a "strong Romantic flavour to accompany the familiar romantic plot".[65]

text: Multiple scenes feature actors playing pianos, forcing Marianelli to complete several of the pieces before filming began. According to him, "Those pieces already contained the seeds of what I developed later on into the score, when I abandoned historical correctness for a more intimate and emotional treatment of the story".[63] Marianelli was not present when the actors played his music due to the birth of his second daughter.[63] The soundtrack featured French pianist Jean-Yves Thibaudet, whom Wright considered one of the greatest piano players in the world.[66] Thibaudet was accompanied by the English Chamber Orchestra. The soundtrack ultimately contained seventeen instrumental tracks of music organised in a different way from the film.[64]

text: Editing[edit]

text:
"You have to be true to the integrity of the book and to Jane Austen, but then you also have to be quite ruthless. What you don't see, you don't miss ... By focusing on Elizabeth Bennett and what's happening to her, and her gruelling and difficult journey, certain things slough off as you go along."

— Deborah Moggach on editing the film[15]

text: In contrast to the five-hour BBC adaptation,[67] Wright compressed his film into two hours and nine minutes of screen time.[68] He remarked that the film is "obviously about Elizabeth and Darcy, following them and anything that detracts or diverts you from that story is what you have to cut".[22] Some of the most notable changes from the original book include time compression of several major sequences, including the departure of Wickham and the militia, Elizabeth's visit to Rosings Park and Hunsford Parsonage, Elizabeth's visit to Pemberley, Lydia's elopement and subsequent crisis; the elimination of several supporting characters, including Mr and Mrs Hurst, Mr and Mrs Phillips,[14] Lady and Maria Lucas, Mrs Younge, several of Lydia's friends (including Colonel and Mrs Forster) and various military officers and townspeople;[67] and the elimination of several sections in which characters reflect or converse on events that have recently occurred—for example, Elizabeth's chapter-long change of mind after reading Darcy's letter.[69]

text: Moggach and Wright debated how to end the film, but knew they did not want to have a wedding scene "because we didn't want Elizabeth to come off as the girl who became a queen at this lavish wedding, or for it to be corny".[14] Shortly before the North American release, the film was modified to include a final scene (not in the novel) of the married Darcys enjoying a romantic evening and passionate kiss at Pemberley[70][71] in an attempt to attract sentimental viewers;[14] this became a source of complaint for the Jane Austen Society of North America (JASNA). After watching a preview of the film before its wide release, former JASNA president Elsa Solender commented, "It has nothing at all of Jane Austen in it, is inconsistent with the first two-thirds of the film, insults the audience with its banality and ought to be cut before release".[72] It had been removed from the British version after preview audiences found it unintentionally humorous;[73] however, later audiences complained that they were excluded from viewing this version, causing the film to be re-released in the UK and Ireland 10 weeks after the original UK premiere date.[74][75] The original British version ended with Mr Bennet's blessing upon Elizabeth and Darcy's union,[5] thus circumventing the last chapter in the novel, which summarises the lives of the Darcys and the other main characters over the next several years.[76]

text: Major themes and analysis[edit]

text: Romanticism and realism[edit]

text: Film, literary, and Austen scholars noted the appearance of romance and romanticism within Pride & Prejudice, especially in comparison to previous adaptations.[77] Sarah Ailwood marked the film as "an essentially Romantic interpretation of Austen's novel", citing as evidence Wright's attention to nature as a means to "position Elizabeth and Darcy as Romantic figures ... Wright's Pride & Prejudice takes as its central focus Austen's concern with exploring the nature of the Romantic self and the possibilities for women and men to achieve individual self-fulfillment within an oppressive patriarchal social and economic order."[78] Likewise, Catherine Stewart-Beer of Oxford Brookes University called Elizabeth's presence on the Derbyshire cliff a "stunning, magical evocation of Wright's strong stylistic brand of Postmodern Romanticism", but found this less like Austen and more reminiscent of Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights.[79] In her analysis, University of Provence scholar Lydia Martin concluded that the "Romantic bias of the film is shown through the shifts in the characters' relationships, the soundtrack and the treatment of landscape".[80]

text: Realism is a prominent aspect of the film, a theme confirmed by Wright in interviews as well as the DVD audio commentary.[81] In a 2007 article, Ursinus College film studies professor Carole Dole argued that Pride & Prejudice is "a hybrid that embraces both an irreverent realism to which younger audiences are accustomed (and which reflects the director's realist aesthetic) and the classic heritage film's reverence for country houses, attractive landscapes and authentic period detail". Such "irreverent realism" included the depiction of Longbourn as a working farm complete with chickens, cattle and pigs; as Dole explains, "The agricultural realities of 1790s England are equally evident in the enclosed yard with barn and hay where Lizzie twirls barefoot over the mud on a rope swing". Referring to recent adaptations such as 1999's gritty Mansfield Park, Dole cited Pride & Prejudice as evidence that the heritage film is still around but has "been transformed into a more flexible genre".[5] Jessica Durgan agreed with this assessment, writing that the film "simultaneously reject[s] and embrac[es] heritage to attract a larger audience".[8]

text: Family[edit]

text: Raised with three sisters, Moggach was particularly interested in the story's family dynamics.[10] Brock University professor Barbara K. Seeber believed that in contrast to the novel, the 2005 adaptation emphasises the familial over the romantic. Evidence of this can be seen in how Pride & Prejudice "significantly recast the Bennet family, in particular its patriarch, presenting Mr Bennet as a sensitive and kind father whose role in the family's misfortunes is continually downplayed."[82] Seeber further observed that the film is "the first to present Mrs Bennet in a sympathetic light", with Mr Bennet displayed as "an attentive husband as well as a loving father."[82]

text: Stewart-Beer and Austen scholar Sally B. Palmer noted alterations within the depiction of the Bennet family;[83] Stewart-Beer remarked that while their family home "might be chaotic, in this version it is, at heart, a happy home—much happier and much less dysfunctional, than Austen's original version of Longbourn ... For one, Mr and Mrs Bennet actually seem to like each other, even love each other, a characterisation which is a far cry from the source text."[79] Producer Paul Webster acknowledged the familial theme in the DVD featurette "A Bennet Family Portrait", remarking "Yes, it's a great love story between Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy, but underpinning it all is the kind of love that runs this family."[82]

text: Depiction of Elizabeth Bennet[edit]

text: Wright intended for the film to be "as subjective as possible" in being from Elizabeth's perspective; the audience first glimpses Darcy when she does.[84] This focus on Elizabeth features some dramatic changes from the novel. Knightley's Elizabeth has an "increasingly aloof and emotionally distant" relationship with her family. Evidence of this can be seen with Elizabeth's gradual alienation from Jane as the film progresses; this is in contrast to the book, where Elizabeth confides more of her feelings to Jane after difficult events.[79] Wright wanted to create a "real" relationship between the two sisters and have them grow apart, as he thought the book depicted them as too "syrupy."[85] Moggach's intent was for Elizabeth to "keep secrets to herself. They are a great burden to her ... As she keeps all this to herself, we feel for her more and more. The truest comedy, I believe, is born from pain."[10]

text: In her "feisty, impassioned" interactions with Darcy and "rebellious refusal to 'perform'" for Lady Catherine, Stewart-Beer sees Knightley's depiction as "far removed from Austen's original Elizabeth, who has a greater sense of grounded maturity, even though both Elizabeths have an occasional inclination to fluster, fun and giggles."[79] According to George Washington University professor Laurie Kaplan, while Wright's focus on Elizabeth is consistent with the novel, the screenplay removed her line of self-recognition: "Till this moment, I never knew myself". Kaplan characterises the sentence as Elizabeth's "most important", and believes its deletion "violates not only the spirit and the essence of Austen's story but the viewer's expectations as well."[86]

text: Release[edit]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: After a string of Jane Austen semi-adaptions in the late 1990s and early 2000s,[note 2] Pride & Prejudice was positioned to take audiences "back into the world of period drama and what many saw as a more authentic version of Austen."[7] While the novel was known to audiences, the large number of related productions required the film to distinguish itself.[88] It was marketed to attract mainstream, young viewers,[89] with one observer referring to it as "the ultimate chick-flick romance" and "more commercial than previous big-screen Austen adaptations."[90] Another wrote that it brings "millennial girlhood to the megaplex ... If Ehle's Lizzie is every forty-, or fifty-something's favorite independent, even 'mature,' Austen heroine, Knightley is every twenty-something's sexpot good girl."[91] An ampersand replaced the word "and" in the film title, similar to the 1996 postmodern film Romeo + Juliet.[5]

text: Already a star at the time of release, Knightley's appearance in the film was emphasised by featuring her in all promotional materials (similar to Colin Firth's prominent appearance in the 1995 adaptation).[92] Several commentators likened the main poster of Pride & Prejudice to that of 1995's Sense and Sensibility, which was seen as an attempt to attract the same demographic.[13] Advertising noted that the film came "from the producers of Bridget Jones's Diary", a 2001 romantic comedy film, before mentioning Austen.[5] Leading up to the release, fans were allowed to download pictures and screensavers online, which emphasised the differences between Pride & Prejudice and previous adaptations. Lydia Martin wrote that in contrast to past Pride and Prejudice productions, marketing materials downplayed the "suggested antagonism between the heroes" in favour of highlighting a "romantic relationship", as can be seen with the positioning of the characters as well as with the tagline, "Sometimes the last person on earth you want to be with is the one you can't be without."[80]

text: Box office[edit]

text: On 11 September 2005, Pride & Prejudice premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival as a special Gala Presentation.[93][94] The film was released in cinemas on 16 September in the United Kingdom and Ireland.[95][96] It achieved the number one spot in its first week, earning £2.5 million ($4.6 million) while playing on 397 screens.[97][98][99] The film stayed at the top for two more weeks, earning by then a total of over £9 million at the UK box office. It was featured on 412 screens at its widest domestic release.[99]

text: On 11 November 2005, the film debuted in the United States with an opening weekend of $2.9 million on 215 screens.[100] Two weeks later, it played on 1,299 screens and box office returns increased to $7.2 million; the film left cinemas the week of 24 February 2006 with a total US gross of $38,405,088.[4] Jack Foley, the president of distribution of Focus Features, the film's US distributor, attributed Pride & Prejudice's success in America to Austen's appeal to "the boomer market" and its status as a known "brand".[101]

text: Pride & Prejudice was released in an additional fifty-nine countries between September 2005 and May 2006 by United International Pictures.[98] With a worldwide gross of $121,147,947, it was the 72nd highest grossing film of 2005 in the US and was the 41st highest internationally.[4]

text: Home media[edit]

text: In the US and UK, Universal Studios Home Entertainment released the standard VHS and DVD in February 2006 for both widescreen and fullframe; attached bonus features included audio commentary by director Joe Wright, a look into Austen's life and the ending scene of Elizabeth and Darcy kissing.[68][4][102] On 13 November 2007, Universal released the deluxe edition DVD to coincide with the theatrical arrival of Wright's 2007 film Atonement. The deluxe edition included both widescreen and fullscreen features, the original soundtrack CD, a collectible book and booklet, as well as a number of special features not included in the original DVD.[103] In the US, a Blu-ray version of the film was released by Universal on 26 January 2010, which also contained bonus features.[104]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Pride & Prejudice was only the second film version after "the famed, but oddly flawed, black-and-white 1940 adaptation, starring Greer Garson and Laurence Olivier",[105] and until 2005, The Times considered the 1995 television adaptation "so dominant, so universally adored, [that] it has lingered in the public consciousness as a cinematic standard."[105] Wright's film consequently met with some scepticism from admirers of Austen, especially in relation to plot changes and casting choices.[106]"Any resemblance to scenes and characters created by Miss Austen is, of course, entirely coincidental," mocked The New Yorker's film critic.[107] Given Austen's characters were landed gentry, especially criticised was the re-imagining of the Bennetts as country bumpkins, lacking even the basics of table manners, and their home "a barnyard".[108]

text: Comparing six major adaptations of Pride and Prejudice in 2005, The Daily Mirror gave the only top marks of 9 out of 10 to the 1995 serial and the 2005 film, leaving the other adaptations behind with six or fewer points.[109] On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film has a "certified fresh" approval rating of 85% based on reviews from 172 critics, with an average rating of 7.7 out of 10. The website's consensus reads: "Sure, it's another adaptation of cinema's fave Jane Austen novel, but key performances and a modern filmmaking sensibility make this familiar period piece fresh and enjoyable."[110] Metacritic reported an average score of 82 out of 100, based on 37 reviews and classified the film as "universally acclaimed".[111]

text: Critics claimed the film's time constraints did not capture the depth and complexity of the television serials[18] and called Wright's adaptation "obviously [not as] daring or revisionist" as the serial.[112] JASNA president Joan Klingel Ray preferred the young age of Knightley and Macfadyen, saying that Jennifer Ehle had formerly been "a little too 'heavy' for the role."[113] Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian, while praising Knightley for an outstanding performance "which lifts the whole movie", considered the casting of the leads "arguably a little more callow than Firth and Ehle." He does add that "Only a snob, a curmudgeon, or someone with necrophiliac loyalty to the 1995 BBC version with Colin Firth and Jennifer Ehle could fail to enjoy [Knightley's] performance."[112] At the time, BBC film critic Stella Papamichael considered it Knightley's "best performance yet."[95] However, The Daily Telegraph critic thought Knightley's acting skills slight, in her view, "Someone who radiates little more than good-mannered perkiness", and that between her and Macfadyen there was "little spark".[114]

text: Critics were divided about Macfadyen's portrayal of Darcy, expressing pleasant surprise,[113][115] dislike for his lack of gradual emotional shift as in the novel,[113][116] and praise for his matching the insecure and sensitive personality of the book character better than Firth.[18]

text: Critics also drew attention to other aspects of the film. Writing for The Sydney Morning Herald, Sandra Hall criticised Wright's attention to realism for being "careless with the customs and conventions that were part of the fabric of Austen's world."[117] In another review, Time Out magazine lamented the absence of Austen's "brilliant sense of irony", remarking that the film's "romantic melodrama's played up at the expense of her razor-sharp wit."[116] More positively, Derek Elley of Variety magazine praised Wright and Moggach for "extracting the youthful essence" of the novel while also "providing a richly detailed setting" under Greenwood and Durran's supervision.[6] Equally pleased with the film was the San Francisco Chronicle's Ruthe Stein, who wrote that Wright made a "spectacular feature film debut" that is "creatively reimagined and sublimely entertaining".[118] Claudia Puig of USA Today called it "a stellar adaptation, bewitching the viewer completely and incandescently with an exquisite blend of emotion and wit."[119]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result

Academy Awards[120]
Best Actress
Keira Knightley
Nominated

Best Original Score
Dario Marianelli
Nominated

Best Art Direction
Sarah Greenwood, Katie Spencer
Nominated

Best Costume Design
Jacqueline Durran
Nominated

American Cinema Editors[121]
Best Edited Feature Film – Comedy or Musical
Paul Tothill
Nominated

Boston Society of Film Critics[122]
Best New Filmmaker
Joe Wright
Won

British Academy Film Awards[123][124]
Best British Film
Pride & Prejudice
Nominated

Best Actress in a Supporting Role
Brenda Blethyn
Nominated

Most Promising Newcomer
Joe Wright
Won

Best Adapted Screenplay
Deborah Moggach
Nominated

Best Costume Design
Jacqueline Durran
Nominated

Best Makeup & Hair
Fae Hammond
Nominated

Broadcast Film Critics Association[125]
Best Actress
Keira Knightley
Nominated

Chicago Film Critics Association[126]
Best Actress
Keira Knightley
Nominated

Best Cinematography
Roman Osin
Nominated

Best Supporting Actor
Donald Sutherland
Nominated

Most Promising Filmmaker
Joe Wright
Nominated

Empire Awards[127]
Best Actress
Keira Knightley
Nominated

Best British Film
Pride & Prejudice
Won

Best Director
Joe Wright
Nominated

Best Newcomer
Kelly Reilly
Won

European Film Awards[128]
Best Cinematographer
Roman Osin
Nominated

Best Composer
Dario Marianelli
Nominated

Best Film
Joe Wright
Nominated

Golden Globe Awards[129]
Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Keira Knightley
Nominated

Best Film – Musical or Comedy
Pride & Prejudice
Nominated

London Film Critics' Circle[130]
British Actress of the Year
Keira Knightley
Nominated

British Director of the Year
Joe Wright
Won

British Film of the Year
Pride & Prejudice
Nominated

British Newcomer of the Year
Matthew Macfadyen
Nominated

British Newcomer of the Year
Joe Wright
Nominated

British Supporting Actor of the Year
Tom Hollander
Won

British Supporting Actress of the Year
Brenda Blethyn
Nominated

British Supporting Actress of the Year
Rosamund Pike
Nominated

text: Impact and legacy[edit]

text: Wright's adaptation failed to have the same cultural impact as the 1995 serial and has since attracted sharply-divided opinions.[92][131][132] However, even three years after the release, Knightley was still associated with Elizabeth Bennet among a generation of young viewers who had not seen the 1995 production.[133] Given the varied opinions about the film, JASNA published an edited special issue of its online journal Persuasions On-Line in 2007 with the collaboration of nineteen Austen scholars from six countries; the intent was to foster discussion and stimulate scholarly analysis. JASNA had done this only once before, for the 1996 film Emma.[92][131][134]

text: Pride & Prejudice impacted later productions in the costume drama and heritage film genres. Literary critics protested that Wright's adaptation effectively "popularized Austen's celebrated romance and brought her novel to the screen as an easy visual read for an undemanding mainstream audience."[135] Carole Dole noted that the film's success "only made it more likely that future adaptations of Austen will feature, if not necessarily mud, then at least youthful and market-tested performers and youth-oriented filmmaking techniques balanced with the visual pleasures of the heritage film." She cited Anne Hathaway in the 2007 film Becoming Jane as an example.[5] Jessica Durgan added that Pride & Prejudice conceived a new hybrid genre by rejecting the visual cues of the heritage film, which attracted "youth and mainstream audiences without alienating the majority of heritage fans."[8]

text: Production of Pride & Prejudice began Wright's relationship with Working Title Films, the first of four collaborations.[136] Many members of the film's cast and crew joined Wright in his later directorial efforts. For his adaptation of Atonement, which he viewed as "a direct reaction to Pride & Prejudice",[137] Wright hired Knightley, Blethyn, Marianelli, Thibaudet, Greenwood, and Durran.[138] Atonement employed themes similar to Austen's, including the notion of a young writer living in "an isolated English country house" who "mixes up desires and fantasies, truths and fiction."[73] Wright's 2009 film The Soloist included Hollander, Malone, and Marianelli,[139][140][141] while Hollander was also featured in Hanna (2011).[142] Wright's 2012 adaptation of Anna Karenina features Knightley, Macfadyen, Marianelli, Durran, and Greenwood and is produced by Bevan, Eric Fellner, and Webster.[136]

text: On 11 December 2017, Netflix announced that a person from Chile watched the film 278 times during the entire year.[143] It was later reported that the person is a 51-year old woman, who declared herself as "obssesed" to the film and sees Elizabeth Bennet as "a feminist icon".[144]


document_title: University of the West Indies

question_text: when was the university of the west indies established

root

text: University of the West Indies

text: History[edit]

text: The university was founded in 1948, on the recommendation of the Asquith Commission[4] through its sub-committee on the West Indies chaired by Sir James Irvine.[5] The Asquith Commission had been established in 1943 to review the provision of higher education in the British colonies. Initially in a special relationship with the University of London, the then University College of the West Indies (UCWI) was seated at Mona, about five miles from Kingston, Jamaica. The university was based at a camp used by evacuated Gibraltarians during the war.[6]

tag: p

text: The University College achieved independent university status in 1962. The St Augustine Campus in Trinidad, formerly the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture (ICTA), was established in 1960, followed by the Cave Hill Campus in Barbados in 1963. Before the establishment of the Open Campus, University Centres, headed by a Resident Tutor, were established in each of the other thirteen contributing territories.

text: Each of the physical campuses has faculties common to all of the campuses, such as Humanities & Education and Social Sciences. Cave Hill and Mona have the Faculty of Science & Technology while St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago, houses the School of Natural Sciences and the School of Agriculture under the Faculty of Agriculture and Sciences. Cave Hill, Barbados and Mona, Jamaica and St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago has a full Faculty of Law. Both Mona, Jamaica, and St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago, have the Faculty of Medicine. In 2008 Cave Hill accepted the first students at their Faculty of Medicine. Previously, they only accommodated students in the final two years in the medical program at their School of Medicine which was located at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. St. Augustine also has the Faculty of Engineering.

text: In 1950, HRH Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, the last surviving granddaughter of Queen Victoria, became the first Chancellor of the University College of the West Indies.

text: Sir William Arthur Lewis was the first Vice-Chancellor under the UWI’s independent Charter. A native of St Lucia, he served as the first West Indian Principal of the UCWI from 1958 to 1960 and as Vice-Chancellor from 1960 to 1963. He was succeeded by Sir Philip Sherlock (a Jamaican and one of the UWI’s founding fathers) who served as Vice-Chancellor from 1963 to 1969. Sir Roy Marshall, a Barbadian, was the next Vice-Chancellor, serving from 1969 to 1974. He was succeeded by Dr Aston Zachariah Preston, a Jamaican, who died in office on June 24, 1986 having served from 1974. The fifth Vice-Chancellor was Sir Alister McIntyre, who served from 1988 to 1998, followed by alumnus and Professor Emeritus Rex Nettleford who served from 1998 to 2004. The current Vice-Chancellor is Professor Sir Hilary Beckles, who succeeded Professor E. Nigel Harris in May 2015.

text: Current enrollment across the four campuses is 56,000.

text: Notable faculty and administrators[edit]

text:
Hilary Beckles: historian, vice-chancellor from May 2015.
Dr. Daniel Coore: Senior Lecturer in Computer Science at UWI Mona Campus[7]
Dr. Elsa Goveia first female professor of UCWI and noted pioneer in West Indian historiography[8][9]
Dr. Patrick Hosein: Senior Lecturer in Computer Science at UWI St Augustine Campus[10]
William Arthur Lewis: Economist, lecturer, author and joint winner of Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics of 1979.
Albert Belville Lockhart: Consultant and Ophthalmologist, Recipient of the Jamaican Order of Merit, co-inventor of Canasol[11]
Sam Mc Daniel:- B.Sc.UWI Mona Jamaica, M.A. (Biostatistics), Harvard University, Ph.D, Harvard University[12]
Manley Elisha West: Professor of Pharmacology, Recipient of the Jamaican Order of Merit, co-inventor of Canasol[11]
Dr. Kim Mallalieu: Senior Lecturer in Computer and Electrical Engineering at UWI ST Augustine[13][14]
Professor St. Clair King:Professor Emeritus in Computer and Electrical Engineering at UWI St. Augustine[15]
Orlando Patterson: John Cowles Professor of Sociology at Harvard University[16]

tag: ul

text: Notable alumni[edit]

text: UWI graduates who are, or have been, heads of government:

text:
Kenny Anthony, former prime minister of St. Lucia
Owen Arthur, former prime minister of Barbados
Dean Barrow, prime minister of Belize
Denzil Douglas, former prime minister of St. Kitts & Nevis
Rufus Ewing, premier of the Turks and Caicos Islands
Bruce Golding, former prime minister of Jamaica
Ralph Gonsalves, prime minister of St. Vincent and the Grenadines
David A. Granger, president of Guyana
Andrew Holness, prime minister of Jamaica
Patrick Manning, former prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago
Keith Mitchell, prime minister of Grenada
Joseph Walcott Parry, former premier of Nevis
P. J. Patterson, former prime minister of Jamaica
Kamla Persad-Bissessar, first female prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago
Keith Rowley: prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago
Lloyd Erskine Sandiford, former prime minister of Barbados
Kennedy A. Simmonds, former prime minister of St. Kitts & Nevis
Orlando Smith, chief minister of the British Virgin Islands
Freundel Stuart, prime minister of Barbados
David Thompson, former prime minister of Barbados
Hubert Minnis, prime minister of The Bahamas

text: Graduates in other fields:

text:
Sharon Aarons, Australian soil scientist
Faris Al-Rawi, Attorney General of Trinidad and Tobago
Fae Ellington, Jamaican media personality and lecturer
Marlon James, Jamaican-born winner of the 2015 Man Booker Prize for Fiction
Dolliver Nelson, member of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
Kris Rampersad, journalist, author, cultural advocate
Patrick Lipton Robinson, judge of the International Court of Justice
Dame Anita Allen, president of the Court of Appeal of The Bahamas
Walter Rodney, Guyanese historian and political activist
Richard Sealy, Barbadian Tourism Minister
Shafimana Ueitele, Namibian lawyer
Burton P. C. Hall, judge of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and former Chief Justice of The Bahamas
Adalbert "Bert" Tucker, Belize River Valley Development Program (BELRIV)[17]
Derek Walcott, Nobel Prize for Literature


document_title: Modoc Plateau

question_text: what large plateau is in the north-eastern part of california

text: Modoc Plateau

text: The Modoc Plateau lies in the northeast corner of California as well as parts of Oregon and Nevada.  Nearly 1,000,000 acres (400,000 ha) of the Modoc National Forest are on the plateau between the Medicine Lake Highlands in the west and the Warner Mountains in the east.

text: Its landform is volcanic table land ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level, cut by many north-south faults. "Occasioned lakes, marshes, and sluggishly flowing streams meander across the plateau."[1]

text: It is a thick accumulation of lava flows and tuff beds, along with many small volcanic cones.[1] It has cinder cones, juniper flats, pine forests, and seasonal lakes.[2] The plateau is thought to have been formed approximately 25 million years ago.[3]

text: Vegetation and wildlife[edit]

text: Forested areas of the plateau include Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa), as well as other tree species such as California Buckeye (Aesculus californica).[4] and Modoc Cypress (Cupressus bakeri).[5]

text: The plateau supports large herds of Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus), Rocky Mountain Elk (Cervus canadensis), and Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). There are also several herds of wild horses on the plateau. The Clear Lake National Wildlife Refuge and Long Bell State Game Refuge are located on the plateau as well.

text: Watersheds[edit]

text: The Lost River watershed drains the north part of the plateau, while southern watersheds either collect in basin reservoirs[clarification needed] or flow into the large Big Sage Reservoir, which sits in the center of Modoc County.


document_title: Wii launch

question_text: what was the original price of the wii

question_tokens: what was the original price of the wii

text: Wii launch

text: Announcement[edit]

text: At a June 7, 2006 policy briefing, Nintendo revealed plans to release 6 million console units and 17 million software units during the fiscal year ending March 31, 2007.[1] This included the 4 million or more console units they expected to ship by the end of the 2006 calendar year.[2] On September 14, 2006, it was announced that the majority of the 2006 shipments would be allotted to the Americas.[3]

text: The Spanish launch of the Wii console was moved to December 9, 2006, because December 8, 2006 is the celebration of the Immaculate Conception and thus all shops were closed.[4] For the same reason, the Italian and Swiss releases were also moved to the day before, December 7, 2006.[5]

text: Nintendo of Canada vice president and general manager Ron Bertram stated that the company expected to have one million consoles available in North America at launch, as reported by IGN on September 25, 2006.[6] The next day, Nintendo branded the information as a "misstatement about the number of Wii consoles that will be available in the Americas during the launch rollout," and reiterated earlier statements of expected shipments of 4 million consoles worldwide by the end of 2006 with the largest allotment available in the Americas. The company affirmed that they "are working to ensure a plentiful supply and a consistent flow."[2]

text: On December 26, 2006, Nintendo announced that they would release its console in South Korea by the end of 2007. However, on October 28, 2007, plans for South Korea were changed as Satoru Iwata announced that the Wii would instead be launched in South Korea on April 26, 2008, along with first details to release the Wii in China also in 2008, due to high demand for the Wii console.[7]

text: Release dates and pricing[edit]

text:
Release date and suggested retail price by region*

Region
Expected pricing at release
Release
date
Accessories

Release price
Approx. US$ equivalent
Wii Remote
Nunchuk
Classic Controller

 USA
USD $249.99[8]
$249.99
November 19, 2006
$39.99
$19.99
$19.99

 Canada
CAD $279.83[9]
$265.31
C$44.99
C$24.99
C$24.99

 Mexico
MXN $4,499
$410 ($355†)
Mex$699
Mex$349
Mex$349

 Panama
PAB B/.299
$299
B/.49.99
B/.29.99
B/.29.99

 Guatemala
GTQ Q3,499
$450 ($375†)
-
-
-

 Colombia
COP $1,099,000[10]
$480 ($410†)
COP$85.990
COP$47.200
COP$47.200

 Peru
PEN S/.1,499[citation needed]
$465 ($390†)
-
-
-

 Chile
CLP $219,900[11]
$440 ($360†)
CLP$34,900
CLP$14,900
CLP$14,900

 Brazil
BRL R$2,399§[12]
$1,440 ($274†)
R$299.00
R$199.00
-

 Japan
JPY ¥25,000[13]
$215* ($205†)
December 2, 2006
¥3,800
¥1,800
¥1,800

 Australia
AUD A$399.95[14]
$315 ($285†)
December 7, 2006
A$69.95
A$29.95
A$29.95

 New Zealand
NZD NZ$499.90[15]
$340 ($305†)
NZ$99.95
NZ$49.95
NZ$49.95

 Italy
€259[16]
$340 ($285†)
€39.99
€19.99
€19.99

  Switzerland
CHF 399S₣‡[17]
$330 ($310†)
69.90S₣
34.90S₣
34.90S₣

 Croatia
HRK 2099.99kn
$399.99
December 8, 2006
399.98kn
199.99kn
199.99kn

 Europe
€249‡[18]
$330 ($275†)
€39.99
€19.99
€19.99

 UK
GBP £179‡
$350 ($300†)
£29.99
£14.99
£14.99

 Hungary
HUF 70,000[19]
$360 ($300†)
-
-
-

 Ireland
€259
$340 ($285†)
€44
€25
€25

 Denmark
DKK 2,199[citation needed]
$390 ($310†)
449 kr.
249 kr.
249 kr.

 Poland
PLN S/.1,099[citation needed]
no info
-
-
-

 Russia
RUB 9,900‡[20]
$380 ($335†)
1999 RUB
1499 RUB
999 RUB

 Latvia
LVL 200‡
$400 ($330†)
50 LVL
20 LVL
20 LVL

 Norway
NOK 2,499[21]
$385 ($310†)
399 kr
249 kr
249 kr

 Sweden
SEK 2,490‡[22]
$276 ($310†)
479 kr
299 kr
299 kr

 Iceland
ISK 29,990[23]
$440 ($335†)

5990 kr
2990 kr
2990 kr

 Finland
€269.90[24]
$355 ($290†)

€49.90
€29.90
€29.90

 Turkey
TRY TL799.90
$550 ($466†)
-
-
-

 Spain
€249‡[25]
$330 ($285†)
December 9, 2006
€41,95
€19,95
€19,95

 Singapore
SGD 499.00
$330
April 25, 2007
SGD69.00
SGD39.00
SGD39.00

 South Africa
ZAR 2899
$410 ($360†)
September 28, 2007[26]
ZAR 475.00
ZAR 239.00
ZAR 239.00

 Argentina
ARS $2399[27]
$760
March 2008
ARS $320
ARS $200
ARS $190

 Malaysia
MYR 1399
$410 ($360†)
-
MYR 139.00
MYR 69.00
MYR 69.00

 South Korea
KRW ₩220,000
$220*
April 26, 2008[28]
₩28,000[29]
₩15,000[29]
₩15,000[29]

 Taiwan
TWD NT$8,500
$280
July 12, 2008[30]
NT$ 1,050
NT$ 525
NT$ TBA

 Hong Kong
HKD HK$1,799
$232
December 12, 2009[31]
HK$299
HK$139

 United Arab Emirates
AED 1,299 د.إ
$354
unknown
199 د.إ
99 د.إ
99 د.إ

 Fiji
FJD TBA
TBA
December 29, 2008
FJ$ TBA
FJ$ TBA
FJ$ TBA

tag: table

text: * Wii Sports comes packaged with the console in all regions except Japan and South Korea.

text: † USD equivalent with local VAT, GST or sales tax removed for ease of comparison with territories that do not include taxes in consumer prices

text: ‡ Retail price as estimated by, rather than suggested by, Nintendo[18]

text: § Prices might be significantly lower on the informal market

text: Titles[edit]

text: On November 13, 2006, it was confirmed that 21 titles would be available on launch day in North America and South America, with another 12 games being released in the 2006 launch window. This makes 33 games total.[32] Wii Sports is included with the console bundle in all regions excluding Japan and South Korea. Despite the price point of US$60 quoted for many seventh generation games in the USA,[33] Wii titles cost at most US$50 at major US retail stores.

text: For a full list of all titles available for the console since launch, see List of Wii games.

text: Key:

text:
NA/SA North America/South America
EU Europe
JP Japan
AUS Australasia

text:
Launch title
Region(s) released[34][35]

Launch title
Region(s) released

Avatar: The Last Airbender
NA/SA[36]

Barnyard
NA/SA[36]

Call of Duty 3
NA/SA EU AUS

Cars
NA/SA EU AUS[36]

Crayon Shin-chan: Saikyou Kazoku Kasukabe King Wii
JP[37]

Elebits
JP[38]

Ennichi no Tatsujin
JP[39]

Excite Truck
NA/SA

The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy
NA/SA

Gottlieb Pinball Classics
EU

GT Pro Series
NA/SA EU AUS

Happy Feet
NA/SA EU[40][41]

Kororinpa: Marble Mania
JP[37]

Machi Kuru Domino
JP

Madden NFL 07
NA/SA EU

Marvel: Ultimate Alliance
NA/SA

Monster 4x4 World Circuit
NA/SA EU

Necro-Nesia
JP

Need for Speed: Carbon
NA/SA EU AUS

Open Season
NA/SA EU AUS

Rampage: Total Destruction
NA/SA EU AUS

Rayman Raving Rabbids
NA/SA EU AUS

Red Steel
NA/SA JP EU AUS

SD Gundam G Breaker
JP[37]

SpongeBob SquarePants: Creature from the Krusty Krab
NA/SA EU[36]

Super Fruit Fall
EU

Super Monkey Ball: Banana Blitz
NA/SA JP EU AUS

Super Swing Golf
JP

Tamagotchi: Party On!/Tamagotchi's Sparkling President
JP[37]

Tony Hawk's Downhill Jam
NA/SA EU AUS

The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess
NA JP AU EU

Trauma Center: Second Opinion
NA/SA JP

WarioWare: Smooth Moves
JP[37]

Wii Play
JP EU AUS

Wii Sports[1]
NA/SA JP EU AUS

Wing Island
JP[37]

text: Metroid Prime 3: Corruption was pushed as a launch title, but was eventually delayed to a release date of August 27, 2007 in North America.[42] Satoru Iwata also initially wished for Super Smash Bros. Brawl to be released at launch.

text: Wii Sports came bundled with the Wii in all territories except Japan and South Korea.[1]

text: Sales[edit]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2011)

text: On November 28, 2006, Nintendo reported that it had sold over 600,000 consoles in the first eight days of launch in the Americas, making it Nintendo's largest console launch until the release of the Nintendo Switch in 2017. Including the sales of accessories and games, Nintendo's Wii-related revenue had hit $190 million in its first week.[43]

text: The Wii launched in Japan on December 2, 2006. Japan initially received 400,000 Wii consoles,[44] with around an estimate of 370,000 sold in two days, with Wii Sports and Wii Play being the top two selling games.[45] While many PlayStation 3 consoles were resold on online auctions for a much higher price, the average Wii price on Yahoo! Auctions were only 30,000 ¥ (USD: $260).[46] This is perhaps because more people wanted to use the consoles, rather than resell them, as the Wii software tie ratio was 1.69.[47]

text: On December 12, 2006, sales data analysis firm Chart-Track and Nintendo confirmed with several press outlets in the United Kingdom that the Wii had become the fastest selling video game console in the region's recorded history, selling 105,000 consoles in its opening weekend, trumping the previous record holder, Xbox 360, which posted sales numbers of 70,000 units.[48] Nintendo announced on the following day that the Wii had sold 325,000 units across Europe in its first two days of sale, making it the fastest selling console across the entire European continent.[49]

text: In the United Kingdom, gamers lined up at the midnight launch of the console at Game and HMV. Queues from both retail stores stretched into back alleyways and side streets. Game even provided them with slices of pizza and Wii branded umbrellas. HMV, meanwhile, handed out goodie bags containing Wii-branded T-shirts and The Legend of Zelda posters. Celebrities such as Pat Cash and Ian Wright appeared to promote the Wii.

text: On December 14, 2006, it was announced that the Wii console had become the fastest selling console in Australian history with 32,901 units sold in just four days, beating the Xbox 360's opening weekend record of 30,241 units.[50]

text: In Singapore, local distributor Maxsoft said that 2,000 consoles were sold in the first two days of retail, much greater than for the launches of the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, and that many preorders remained unfulfilled due to a low stock inventory.[51]

text: While the Wii launch was considerably smoother than that of the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, it was not without its problems. Due to the scarcity of the Wii Remote and Nunchuk, widespread price gouging began to form.[citation needed] Initial consumer reaction to the Wii appears to have been positive, with commentators judging the launch to have been successful.[52]

text: According to the Financial Times, as of September 2007 the Wii became the market leader in worldwide console sales.[53]


document_title: Powers of the United States Congress

question_text: who has the power to make laws in america

text: Powers of the United States Congress

text: General powers[edit]

text: Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress, which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution.

text: Congress has authority over financial and budgetary matters, through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, extended power of taxation to include income taxes.[1] The Constitution also grants Congress exclusively the power to appropriate funds. This power of the purse is one of Congress' primary checks on the executive branch.[1] Other powers granted to Congress include the authority to borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money.[2] Generally both Senate and House have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue bills and, by tradition, appropriation bills.[3]

text: The Constitution also gives Congress an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military.[4] Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's Constitutionally-defined task of declaring war.[5] While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World War I, and World War II,[6] although President Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent.[6] Presidents have initiated war without Congressional war declarations; Truman called the Korean War a "police action"[7] and the Vietnam War lasted over a decade without a declaration of war.[6] In 1970, Time magazine noted: "All told, it has been calculated, U.S. presidents have ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times" before 1970.[6] In 1993, one writer noted "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion (of Congressional authority to declare war) began after World War II."[8] President George H. W. Bush claimed he could begin Operation Desert Storm and launch a "deliberate, unhurried, post–Cold War decision to start a war" without Congressional approval.[8] Critics charge that President George W. Bush largely initiated the Iraq War with little debate in Congress or consultation with Congress, despite a Congressional vote on military force authorization.[9][10] Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history.[11]

text: Congress also has the power to establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof." Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.

text: One of the foremost non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate and to oversee the executive branch.[12] Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress' subpoena power.[13] Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Valerie Plame Wilson episode sometimes known as the Plame affair, some critics, including Representative Henry A. Waxman, charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case.[14] Other critics charge Congress was lax in its oversight duties regarding presidential actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of decisions by President George W. Bush involving such matters.[15]

text: Congress also has the exclusive impeachment power, allowing impeachment, trial, and removal of the President, federal judges and other federal officers.[16]

text: Enumerated powers[edit]

text: Among the powers specifically given to Congress in Article I Section 8, are the following:

text: 1.To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

text: 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

text: 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Native American tribes;

text: 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;

text: 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;

text: 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;

text: 7. To establish post offices and post roads;

text: 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;

text: 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;

text: 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;

text: 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;

text: 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

text: 13. To provide and maintain a navy;

text: 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;

text: 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;

text: 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

text: 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles (16 km) square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings.

text: Other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of all citizens regardless of race, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law.[17] Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.[18]

text: Implied powers and the commerce clause[edit]

text: Congress also has implied powers, which derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and permit Congress "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof."[19] Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress' legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.[20][21]


document_title: Coin

question_text: what term is used to describe the value given to a coin because of its metal content

text: Coin

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The first coins were developed in Iron Age Anatolia around the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans.[2]

text: Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire. Important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages (see Gold dinar, Solidus, Aureus, Denarius). Ancient and early medieval coins in theory had the value of their metal content, although there have been many instances throughout history of governments inflating their currencies by debasing the metal content of their coinage, so that the inferior coins were worth less in metal than their face value. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the jiaozi paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, but some coins continued to have the value of the gold or silver they contained throughout the Early Modern period. The penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century.

text: The first circulating United States coins were cents (pennies), produced in 1793, and made entirely from copper.[3] Silver content was reduced in many coins in the 19th century (use of billon), and the first coins made entirely of base metal (e.g. nickel, cupronickel, aluminium bronze), representing values higher than the value of their metal, were minted in the mid 19th century.

text: Coins were an evolution of "currency" systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made, such as those discovered in a tomb near Anyang.[4][5] These were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell.[6]

text: Iron Age[edit]

text: According to Aristotle (fr. 611,37, ed. V. Rose) and Pollux (Onamastikon IX.83), the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme[8]

text:
The earliest coins are mostly associated with Iron Age Anatolia, especially with the kingdom of Lydia.[9]
Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests.[10]
Many early Lydian and Greek coins were minted under the authority of private individuals and are thus more akin to tokens or badges than to modern coins,[11] though due to their numbers it is evident that some were official state issues, with King Alyattes of Lydia, 619–560 BC, being a frequently mentioned originator of coinage.[12]

text: The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold that was further alloyed with added silver and copper.[13]

text: Most of the early Lydian coins include no writing ("legend" or "inscription"), only an image of a symbolic animal. Therefore, the dating of these coins relies primarily on archaeological evidence, with the most commonly cited evidence coming from excavations at the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, also called the Ephesian Artemision (which would later evolve into one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World). Because the oldest lion head "coins" were discovered in that temple, and they do not appear to have been used in commerce, these objects may not have been coins but badges or medals issued by the priests of that temple. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν (Potnia Thêrôn, "Mistress of Animals"), whose symbol was the stag.

text: It took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread.[14] The first coins to be used for retailing on a large-scale basis were likely small silver fractions, Hemiobol, Ancient Greek coinage minted by the Ionian Greeks in the late sixth century BC.[15]

text:
A small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend.[16] A famous early electrum coin, the most ancient inscribed coin at present known, is from nearby Caria. This coin has a Greek legend reading phaenos emi sema[17] interpreted variously as "I am the badge of Phanes", or "I am the sign of light",[18] or  "I am the tomb of light", or "I am the tomb of Phanes".
The coins of Phanes are known to be amongst the earliest of Greek coins, a hemihekte of the issue was found in the foundation deposit of the temple of Artemis at Ephesos (the oldest deposit of electrum coins discovered). One assumption is that Phanes was a wealthy merchant, another that this coin is associated with Apollo-Phanes and, due to the Deer, with Artemis (twin sister of the god of light Apollo-Phaneos). Although only seven Phanes type coins were discovered, it is also notable that 20% of all early electrum coins also have the lion of Artemis and the sun burst of Apollo-Phaneos.

text: Alternatively, Phanes may have been the Halicarnassian mercenary of Amasis mentioned by Herodotus, who escaped to the court of Cambyses, and became his guide in the invasion of Egypt in 527 or 525 BC. According to Herodotus, this Phanes was buried alive by a sandstorm, together with 50,000 Persian soldiers, while trying to conquer the temple of Amun–Zeus in Egypt.[19]  The fact that the Greek word "Phanes" also means light (or lamp), and the word "sema" also means tomb makes this coin a famous and controversial one.[20]

text: Another candidate for the site of the earliest coins is Aegina, where Chelone ("turtle") coins were first minted circa 700 BC.[21]  Coins from Athens and Corinth appeared shortly thereafter, known to exist at least since the late 6th century BC.[22]

text: Classical antiquity[edit]

text: Coinage followed Greek colonization and influence first around the Mediterranean and soon after to North Africa (including Egypt), Syria, Persia, and the Balkans.[23]

text: Coins were minted in the Achaemenid Empire, including the gold darics and silver sigloi. With the Achemenid conquest of Gandhara under Darius the Great c. 520 BC, the practice spread to the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The coins of this period were called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana.[24] These earliest Indian coins, however, are unlike those circulated in Persia, which were derived from the Greek/Anatolian type; they not disk-shaped but rather stamped bars of metal, suggesting that the innovation of stamped currency was added to a pre-existing form of token currency which had already been present in the Mahajanapada kingdoms of the Indian Iron Age. Mahajanapadas that minted their own coins included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena and Surashtra.[25]

text: In China, early round coins appeared in the 4th century BC.

text: The first Roman coins, which were crude, heavy cast bronzes, were issued c. 289 BC.[26]

text:
Persian Achaemenid Daric, c. 350 BC

Reverse of a silver Tetradrachm from Athens, c. 480-420 BC

Bronze coin issued by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, 2nd century BC. Coin edges are curled to prevent swindlers from stealing metal by scraping the edges.

Bactrian Drachm minted c. 185-170 BC

A bronze coin of the Chinese Han Dynasty, c. 1st century BC

Sestertius of Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus, AD 238

Silver Drachma of Mehrdad (Mithridates I) of Persian Empire of Parthia, 165 BC

Coins of Early Gandhara Janapada: Very probably the earliest Indian coin: a large

text: Philippines[edit]

text: In the Philippines, gold, which was plentiful in many parts of the islands, invariably found its way into these objects that included the Piloncitos, small bead-like gold bits considered by the local numismatists as the earliest coin of ancient Filipinos, and gold barter rings.

text: Piloncitos are small—some are of the size of a corn kernel—and weigh from 0.09 to 2.65 grams of fine gold. Large Piloncitos weighing 2.65 grams approximate the weight of one mass. Piloncitos have been excavated from Mandaluyong, Bataan, the banks of the Pasig River, Batangas, Marinduque, Samar, Leyte and some areas in Mindanao. They have been found in large numbers in Indonesian archeological sites leading to questions of origin. Were Piloncitos made in the Philippines or imported? That gold was mined and worked here is evidenced by many Spanish accounts, like one in 1586 that said:

text: “The people of this island (Luzon) are very skillful in their handling of gold. They weigh it with the greatest skill and delicacy that have ever been seen. The first thing they teach their children is the knowledge of gold and the weights with which they weigh it, for there is no other money among them.”[28]

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text: The first European coin to use Arabic numerals to date the year in which the coin was minted was the St. Gall silver Plappart of 1424.[29]

text:
Lombardic Tremissis depicting Saint Michael, AD 688-700

Silver coin of Boran of Persian Sassanian Empire, AD 629

Silver Dirham of the Umayyad Caliphate, 729; minted by using Persian Sassanian framework

Abbasid coin, c. 1080s

Almoravid coin, 1138–1139

text:
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Thaler minted in 1629

Japanese local currency Genbun Inari Koban Kin, c. 1736–1741

1768 silver Spanish Dollar, or eight reales coin (the “piece of eight” of pirate fame), minted throughout the Spanish Empire

Ottoman coin, 1818

One Rupee coin issued by the East India Company, 1835

text: Value[edit]

text: An unusual copper coin of King George IV of Georgia with Georgian inscriptions, 1210

text: Currency[edit]

text: Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is decreed by government fiat (law), and thus is determined by the free market only in as much as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded internationally on foreign exchange markets. Thus, these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: they are usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Some have suggested that such coins not be considered to be "true coins" (see below). Thus, there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value.

text: Coins may be in circulation with fiat values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the fiat declared face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar (nominally containing slightly less than a tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between fiat values and metal values of coins cause coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realise the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels.[30] Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years.

text: Collector's item[edit]

text: A coin's value as a collector's item or as an investment generally depends on its condition, specific historical significance, rarity, quality, beauty of the design and general popularity with collectors. If a coin is greatly lacking in all of these, it is unlikely to be worth much. The value of bullion coins is also influenced to some extent by those factors, but is largely based on the value of their gold, silver, or platinum content. Sometimes non-monetized bullion coins such as the Canadian Maple Leaf and the American Gold Eagle are minted with nominal face values less than the value of the metal in them, but as such coins are never intended for circulation, these face values have no relevance.

text: Medium of expression[edit]

text: Coins can be used as creative medium of expression – from fine art sculpture to the penny machines that can be found in most amusement parks. In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in the United States there are some regulations specific to nickels and pennies that are informative on this topic. 31 CFR § 82.1 forbids unauthorized persons from exporting, melting, or treating any 5 or 1 cent coins.

text: This has been a particular problem with nickels and dimes (and with some comparable coins in other currencies) because of their relatively low face value and unstable commodity prices. For a while,[when?] the copper in US pennies was worth more than one cent, so people would hoard pennies and then melt them down for their metal value. It cost more than face value to manufacture pennies or nickels, so any widespread loss of the coins in circulation could be expensive for the US Treasury. This was more of a problem when coins were still made of precious metals like silver and gold, so strict laws against alteration make more sense historically.

text: 31 CFR § 82.2 goes on to state that: "(b) The prohibition contained in § 82.1 against the treatment of 5-cent coins and one-cent coins shall not apply to the treatment of these coins for educational, amusement, novelty, jewelry, and similar purposes as long as the volumes treated and the nature of the treatment makes it clear that such treatment is not intended as a means by which to profit solely from the value of the metal content of the coins."

text: Debasement and Clipping[edit]

text: Throughout history, monarchs and governments have often created more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow if the coins were pure metal. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often copper or nickel), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby "debasing" the money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible. Debasement occasionally occurs in order to make the coin physically harder and therefore less likely to be worn down as quickly, but the more usual reason is to profit from the difference between face value and metal value. Debasement of money almost always leads to price inflation. Sometimes price controls are at the same time also instituted by the governing authority, but historically these have generally proved unworkable.

text: The United States is unusual in that it has only slightly modified its coinage system (except for the images and symbols on the coins, which have changed a number of times) to accommodate two centuries of inflation. The one-cent coin has changed little since 1856 (though its composition was changed in 1982 to remove virtually all copper from the coin) and still remains in circulation, despite a greatly reduced purchasing power. On the other end of the spectrum, the largest coin in common circulation is valued at 25 cents, a very low value for the largest denomination coin compared to many other countries. Increases in the prices of copper, nickel, and zinc meant that both the US one- and five-cent coins became worth more for their raw metal content than their face (fiat) value. In particular, copper one-cent pieces (those dated prior to 1982 and some 1982-dated coins) contained about two cents' worth of copper.

text: Some denominations of circulating coins that were formerly minted in the United States are no longer made. These include coins with a face value of a half cent, two cents, three cents, and twenty cents. (The half dollar and dollar coins are still produced, but mostly for vending machines and collectors.) In the past, the US also coined the following denominations for circulation in gold: One dollar, $2.50, three dollars, five dollars, ten dollars, and twenty dollars. In addition, cents were originally slightly larger than the modern quarter and weighed nearly half an ounce, while five-cent coins (known then as "half dimes") were smaller than a dime and made of a silver alloy. Dollar coins were also much larger, and weighed approximately an ounce.  One-dollar gold coins are no longer produced and rarely used. The US also issues bullion and commemorative coins with the following denominations: 50¢, $1, $5, $10, $25, $50, and $100.

text: Circulating coins commonly suffered from "shaving" or "clipping": the public would cut off small amounts of precious metal from their edges to sell it and then pass on the mutilated coins at full value.[31] Unmilled British sterling silver coins were sometimes reduced to almost half their minted weight. This form of debasement in Tudor England was commented on by Sir Thomas Gresham, whose name was later attached to Gresham's law. The monarch would have to periodically recall circulating coins, paying only the bullion value of the silver, and reminting them. This, also known as recoinage, is a long and difficult process that was done only occasionally.[32] Many coins have milled or reeded edges, originally designed to make it easier to detect clipping.

text: Other uses[edit]

text: Some convicted criminals from the British Isles who were sentenced to transportation to Australia in the 18th and 19th centuries used coins to leave messages of remembrance to loved ones left behind in Britain. The coins were defaced, smoothed and inscribed, either by stippling or engraving, with sometimes touching words of loss. These coins were called "convict love tokens" or "leaden hearts".[33] A number of these tokens are in the collection of the National Museum of Australia.

text: Features of modern coins[edit]

text: The side of a coin carrying an image of a monarch, other authority (see List of people on coins), or a national emblem is called the obverse (colloquially, heads); the other side, carrying various types of information, is called the reverse (colloquially, tails). The year of minting is usually shown on the obverse, although some Chinese coins, most Canadian coins, the pre-2008 British 20p coin, the post-1999 American quarter, and all Japanese coins are exceptions.

text: The relation of the images on the obverse and reverse of a coin is the coin's orientation.  Suppose the image on the obverse of the coin is right side up; if you turn the coin left or right on its horizontal axis, and the reverse of the coin is also right side up, then the coin is said to have medallic orientation—typical of the Euro and pound sterling; if, however, turning the coin left or right shows that the reverse image is upside down, then the coin is said to have coin orientation, characteristic of the United States dollar coin.

text: Bimetallic coins are sometimes used for higher values and for commemorative purposes. In the 1990s, France used a tri-metallic coin. Common circulating bimetallic examples include the €1, €2, British £1, £2 and Canadian $2 and several peso coins in Mexico.

text: The exergue is the space on a coin beneath the main design, often used to show the coin's date, although it is sometimes left blank or containing a mint mark, privy mark, or some other decorative or informative design feature. Many coins do not have an exergue at all, especially those with few or no legends, such as the Victorian bun penny.

text: Not all coins are round; they come in a variety of shapes. The Australian 50-cent coin, for example, has twelve flat sides. Some coins have wavy edges, e.g. the $2 and 20-cent coins of Hong Kong and the 10-cent coins of Bahamas. Some are square-shaped, such as the 15-cent coin of the Bahamas and the 50-cent coin from Aruba. During the 1970s, Swazi coins were minted in several shapes, including squares, polygons, and wavy edged circles with 8 and 12 waves.

text:
Scalloped coin of Israel

1996 one cent coin from Belize

2005 Bahamas 15 cent coin is square with rounded corners

Decagonal two Piso Philippine coin 1990

text: Some other coins, like the British 20 and 50 pence coins and the Canadian Loonie, have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This way the coin has a constant diameter, recognisable by vending machines whichever direction it is inserted.

text: A triangular coin with a face value of £5 (produced to commemorate the 2007/2008 Tutankhamun exhibition at The O2 Arena) was commissioned by the Isle of Man: it became legal tender on 6 December 2007.[34] Other triangular coins issued earlier include: Cabinda coin, Bermuda coin, 2 Dollar Cook Islands 1992 triangular coin, Uganda Millennium Coin and Polish Sterling-Silver 10-Zloty Coin.

text: Some mediaeval coins, called bracteates, were so thin they were struck on only one side.

text: Many coins over the years have been manufactured with integrated holes such as Chinese "cash" coins, Japanese coins, Colonial French coins, etc. This may have been done to permit their being strung on cords, to facilitate storage and being carried.

text:
1917 French coin with integrated hole

Chinese cash coin, 1102–1106

1941 Palestine coin

Modern-day Japanese 5-yen coin

1924 East African coin

text: The Royal Canadian Mint is now able to produce holographic-effect gold and silver coinage. However, this procedure is not limited to only bullion or commemorative coinage. The 500 yen coin from Japan was subject to a massive amount of counterfeiting. The Japanese government in response produced a circulatory coin with a holographic image.

text: The Royal Canadian Mint has also released several coins that are coloured, the first of which was in commemoration of Remembrance Day. The subject was a coloured poppy on the reverse of a 25-cent piece minted through a patented process[35].

text: An example of non-metallic composite coins (sometimes incorrectly called plastic coins) was introduced into circulation in Transnistria on 22 August 2014. Most of these coins are also non-circular, with different shapes corresponding to different coin values.[36]

text: For a list of many pure metallic elements and their alloys which have been used in actual circulation coins and for trial experiments, see coinage metals.[37]

text: Physics and chemistry[edit]

text: Flipping[edit]

text: To flip a coin to see whether it lands heads or tails is to use it as a two-sided dice in what is known in mathematics as a Bernoulli trial: if the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a "success") is exactly 0.5, the coin is fair.

text: Spinning[edit]

text: Coins can also be spun on a flat surface such as a table. This results in the following phenomenon: as the coin falls over and rolls on its edge, it spins faster and faster (formally, the precession rate of the symmetry axis of the coin, i.e., the axis passing from one face of the coin to the other) before coming to an abrupt stop. This is mathematically modeled as a finite-time singularity – the precession rate is accelerating to infinity, before it suddenly stops, and has been studied using high speed photography and devices such as Euler's Disk. The slowing down is predominantly caused by rolling friction (air resistance is minor), and the singularity (divergence of the precession rate) can be modeled as a power law with exponent approximately −1/3.[38]

text: Odor[edit]

text: Iron and copper coins have a characteristic metallic smell that is produced upon contact with oils in the skin. Perspiration is chemically reduced upon contact with these metals, which causes the skin oils to decompose, forming with iron the volatile molecule 1-octen-3-one.[39]