document_title: Smoking age

question_text: how old do you have to be to buy cigarettes in italy

text: Smoking age

text: Smoking age laws by region[edit]

text: Africa[edit]

text:
Country

De jure

Notes

Legal age to smoke any tobacco products

Legal age to buy any tobacco products

 Algeria

None

19

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors under the age of 19 years. (Chapitre IV sur les problèmes de santé l'article 93: "la vente de tabac ou produits du tabac aux mineurs est interdite".)[1]

 Angola

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to minors under the age of 18.[2]

 Benin

None

18

[3]

 Botswana

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to minors under the age of 18. Any person who sells, by retail, any tobacco product, shall display clearly, for the public, a notice to the effect that the sale of any tobacco product to a person under the age of 18 years is prohibited.[4]

 Burkina Faso

None

18

[5]

 Burundi

None

18

It is illegal to sell cigarettes to anyone under the age of 18. Other tobacco products are not regulated.[6]

 Cameroon

15

 Cape Verde

15

 Central African Republic

14

 Chad

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to a minor. Minors and pregnant women may not smoke in public.[7]

 Comoros

None

18

The sale of tobacco products to minors is prohibited. Vendors of tobacco products must visibly and prominently display at their point of sale a notice of prohibition of the sale of tobacco to minors and by minors.[8]

 Republic of the Congo

18

[9]

 Democratic Republic of the Congo

18

It is illegal for minors to smoke in public, and for anyone to give or sell tobacco to a minor.(ARRETE MINISTERIEL N°1250 Article 1: L'usage, la vente, l'achat et la consommation du tabac, de ses produits et de ses dérivés sont strictement interdits aux mineurs.)[10]

 Djibouti

None

16

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to a minor under the age of 16 years. A notice with the sale restrictions has to be placed at point of sale.[11]

 Egypt

18

The sale of tobacco products to persons under the age of 18 is prohibited.

 Equatorial Guinea

18

[12]

 Eritrea

None

18

[13]

 Ethiopia

None

18

"No person may directly or indirectly give, provide or sell any tobacco product to a person under the age of 18."[14]

 Gabon

None

18

[15]

 Gambia

None

 Ghana

18

[16]

 Guinea-Bissau

15

 Kenya

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. There is no minimum age to possess tobacco or smoke in public.[17]

 Lesotho

14

 Liberia

18

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco to a minor. Minors may not consume tobacco at any public place.[18]

 Libya

None

18

It is strictly prohibited to sell any tobacco product to a person under the age of 18 years.[19]

 Madagascar

None

18

[20]

 Malawi

14

 Mali

None

18

[21]

 Mauritius

18

A person must be 18 years old to purchase or to smoke cigarettes including any tobacco products as is indicated in Public Health (Restrictions on Tobacco Products) Regulations 1999, Sec. 2(e)(i)).

 Morocco

16

 Mozambique

None

18

[22]

 Namibia

None

18

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco to a minor.[23]No minimum age prior to 14 April 2010.

 Niger

None18 (to enter smoking room or facility)

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to a minor. Minors may not enter any smoking room or facility where smoking is permitted by law.[24]No minimum age prior to 17 July 2008.

 Nigeria

None

18

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise supply tobacco products to a minor.[25]

 Republic of the Congo

14

 Rwanda

None

18

It is prohibited to involve a person under 18 in, buying, selling and exchanging of tobacco and tobacco products. It is also prohibited for the seller to sell tobacco and tobacco products to a person under 18.[26]

 São Tomé and Príncipe

None

16

[27]

 Senegal

None

18

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years. (Chapitre III.- Accès aux produits du tabac: Article 17 Il est interdit de vendre ou d'offrir aux mineurs ou de faire vendre ou de faire offrir par les mineurs du tabac ou tout produit du tabac.)[28]

 Seychelles

18

[29]

 Somalia

15

 South Africa

18

It is illegal to sell or supply any tobacco product to a person under the age of 18.[30]

 South Sudan

15

 Swaziland

None

18

It is illegal to sell and give tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years.[31]

 Sudan

None18 (to enter smoking room or facility)

18

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco to a minor. Anyone under the age of 18 may also not handle, store, work or produce with tobacco or within such a facility.[32]

 Tanzania

18

It is unlawful to sell or give tobacco products to a minor, and to smoke such tobacco products if the individual is younger than 18 years.[33]

 Togo

None

18

It is illegal to sell or give any tobacco product to a minor.[34]

 Tunisia

None

18

[35]

 Uganda

None

21

It is now illegal for a person below the age of 21 to access cigarettes.[36]

 Zambia

None

16

It is illegal to sell tobacco to anyone under age 16. No minimum age for consumption and possession in public.No minimum age prior to 1 January 1993.[37]

 Zimbabwe

None

18

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18. Minors may not sell tobacco.[38]

tag: table

text: Americas[edit]

text:
Country

De jure

Notes

Smoking age

Purchase age

 Antigua and Barbuda

None

Antigua and Barbuda doesn't have any restrictions towards selling tobacco to minors or smoking in general.[39]

 Argentina

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors.[40]

 Bahamas

None

18

[41]

 Belize

None

 Bermuda

None

18

No person shall sell or supply any cigarettes, tobacco or tobacco products to a minor. A person selling or supplying any cigarettes, tobacco or tobacco products to a person who appears to be under 25 years of age shall, before selling or supplying them, ensure, by requiring photo identification, that the latter person is not a minor.[42]

 Bolivia

None

18

The sale of tobacco products to minors under the age of 18 years is prohibited.[43]

 Brazil

None

18

It is illegal to "sell Products whose ingredients can cause physical or psychic dependence, even if only through improper use" (…). This also includes tobacco products of any kind.[44]

 British Virgin Islands

None

18

It is illegal to sell or offer to sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is not illegal for minors to purchase, possess or consume tobacco.[45]

 Canada

Regulations by province and territory:

Province/territory

Smoking age

Purchase age

Notes

Federal Government

None

18[46]

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco products to a minor under the age of 18.The minimum age was 16 years of prior to 1994.[47]

 Alberta

18[48]

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco products to a minor under the age of 18. Further, minors are not permitted to smoke at any public place.

 British Columbia

None

19[49]

 Manitoba

None

18[50]

It is illegal to sell, give, buy for, lend or otherwise provide tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. Parents can provide tobacco products to their children on private property. Further it is legal to supply tobacco to a minor if it is solely for use in traditional Aboriginal spiritual or cultural practices or ceremonies.

 New Brunswick

None

19[51]

It is illegal to sell and supply tobacco products to anyone under the age of 19 years. It is also illegal to attempt to purchase tobacco on behalf of, or for the purpose of resale to, a person under the age of 19 years.

 Newfoundland and Labrador

None

19[52]

It is illegal to sell, give or furnish, directly or indirectly, tobacco to a person under the age of 19 years.

 Northwest Territories

None

18[53]

No person shall sell or supply, or offer to sell or supply, tobacco or a tobacco accessory to a person under the age of 18. No one under the age of 18 years shall purchase or attempt to purchase tobacco or a tobacco accessory.

 Nova Scotia

19[54]

19[55]

No vendor or employee of a vendor shall sell or give tobacco or a tobacco product to a person under the age of nineteen years. No person shall purchase tobacco or a tobacco product on behalf of, or for the purpose of resale or give tobacco or a tobacco product, to a person under the age of nineteen years. No person under the age of nineteen years may possess tobacco.

 Nunavut

None

19[56]

No person shall sell or supply, or offer to sell or supply, tobacco to a person who is less than 19 years old.

 Ontario

None

19[57]

No person shall sell or supply tobacco to a person who is less than 19 years old. No person shall sell or supply tobacco to a person who appears to be less than 25 years old unless he or she has required the person to provide identification and is satisfied that the person is at least 19 years old.

 Prince Edward Island

None

19[58]

No person shall sell or supply tobacco to a person under the age of 19 years. No person shall purchase or attempt to purchase tobacco on behalf of, or for the purpose of resale to, a person under the age of 19 years. It is legal to supply tobacco to a minor if it is solely for use in traditional Aboriginal spiritual or cultural practices or ceremonies.

 Quebec

None

18[59]

It is illegal to sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years. The operator of a tobacco retail outlet may not give tobacco to a minor. The operator of a tobacco retail outlet may not sell tobacco to an adult, if the operator knows the person is purchasing the tobacco for a minor.

 Saskatchewan

None

18[60]

It is illegal to sell, lend, assign, give or send tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years.

 Yukon

18 (federal law)

The territory Yukon has no legislations which restrict the sale of tobacco products to minors. Federal laws apply.

 Chile

None

18

It is illegal to sell any form of tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years.[61]

 Colombia

None

18

It is forbidden for any individual  or  legal  entity  to  directly  or  indirectly  sell  tobacco  products  and  its derivatives in any of its presentations to minors under the age of 18 years.  In case of question, one must ask each tobacco purchaser to show that he has reached majority age.[62]

 Costa Rica

None

18

Tobacco products may not be sold to minors. Wholesale or retail vendors of products shall have the obligation, at their own expense, to display posters that are visible, clear and prominently placed on the inside of places of sale, stating that the sale of tobacco products to minors is prohibited.[63]

 Cuba

None

18

Minors cannot legally buy tobacco,[64] but stores may sell it to those who look 13 or older.[citation needed]

 Cayman Islands

None

18

Tobacco Law, 2007 PART V – Section 10: No person shall sell tobacco to a minor.[65]

 Dominican Republic

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years.[66]

 Ecuador

None

18

It is illegal to sell or let sell tobacco to or by a minor.[67]

 El Salvador

None

18

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco to a minor.[68]

 Falkland Islands

None

 Guatemala

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. Public consumption of tobacco by minors is prohibited. (El decreto 90-97, Código de Salud, indica en su artículo 50)[69]

 Guyana

None

18

No tobacco may be sold or furnished to a minor.[70]

 Haiti

None

18

 Honduras

None

21

The sale and/or gifting of tobaccoderived products to persons under 21 years of age is prohibited.[71]

 Jamaica

None

18

[72]

 Mexico

None

18

[73]

 Nicaragua

None

18

[74]

 Panama

None

18

The sale of tobacco products to minors is prohibited.[75]

 Paraguay

None

18

It is unlawful to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years.[76]

 Peru

18

The sale of tobacco products to/by minors under the age of 18 is prohibited.[77]

 Trinidad and Tobago

None

18

Tobacco shall not be sold to or by a child under the age of 18 years.[78]

 United States(50 states and integral territories)
The federal law requires states to have a minimum age of 18 years for sale/purchase of tobacco products (21 U.S.C. § 387f. (3)(a)(ii)). State and local laws may extend this ban and also prohibit supply, possession and consumption to/by person underage, or increase the age beyond 18. However, most states do not directly ban the consumption of tobacco by a minor. The federal law requiring states to have a minimum purchasing age at 18 is enforced by withholding FEMA disaster and non-disaster grants from states that have purchasing ages under 18, and currently no state falls under that category.

Regulations by state:

State/territory

Smoking age

Purchase age

Notes

 Alabama

19 (including Alabama National Guard Bases) 18 (on military bases under federal law)[79]

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 19 years. Minors are prohibited from using and possessing tobacco products.The minimum age was introduced in 1896.[80]

 Alaska

None

19[81]

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 19 years. Possession by minors is prohibited. The minimum age requirement does not apply to a person who is a prisoner at an adult correctional facility.[82]The minimum age of 16 years was introduced in 1978.The minimum age was raised from 16 to 19 in 1988.[80]

 American Samoa

18

 Arizona

None

18[83]

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco products or smoking equipment to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for a minor to be in possession of tobacco or smoking equipment, or to receive them.

None

21[84][85]

Cottonwood and Douglas have raised their tobacco sales age to 21.

 Arkansas

18[86]

It is illegal to give or sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for minors to be in possession of tobacco products and to smoke in public.

18

21[87]

Helena–West Helena has raised the sales age for tobacco products to 21.

 California

18[88]

21[89]

As of 9 June 2016, it is illegal to sell or furnish tobacco to a person under 21 years of age, with an exception for people in active military service who are 18 years old. Before 9 June, the age to purchase tobacco was 18 years of age.

 Colorado

18[90]

It is illegal to sell, give or distribute tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. Minors under the age of 18 years are prohibited from being in possession of any tobacco product.

18

21[91]

Aspen has raised the sales age for tobacco products to 21.

 Connecticut

None

18[92]

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under 18. It is illegal for minors to possess tobacco in public.A minimum age of 16 was introduced in 1902.The minimum age was raised from 16 to 18 in 1987.[80]

 Delaware

None

18[93]

Selling, giving or otherwhise distributing tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years is illegal. Minors under the age of 18 years are not allowed to attempt to purchase tobacco or to be in the possession of tobacco products.The minimum age of 17 years was introduced in 1953.The minimum age was raised from 17 to 18 in 1992.[80][94]

 Florida

None

18[95]

The Florida Statutes make it a criminal offence so sell or supply tobacco to an individual under the age of 18 years. Minors may also not be in possession of tobacco products.

 Georgia

None

18[96]

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for minors to possess tobacco in public. Minors are allowed to possess tobacco products and to consume those, in private home if permission is given by parents or legal guardian.The minimum age of 17 years was introduced in 1987.The minimum age was raised from 17 to 18 in 1993.[80][94]

 Guam

21

The minimum age was raised from 18 to 21, as of 1 January 2018.[97]

 Hawaii

21[98][99]

It is illegal to sell or furnish tobacco to a person under 21 years of age. It is also illegal for a person under 21 years of age to attempt to purchase tobacco.
The minimum age of 15 years was introduced on 11 November 1890.[100]
The minimum age was raised from 15 to 18 on 1 January 1988.[101]
The minimum age was raised from 18 to 21 on 1 January 2016.[102]

 Idaho

18[103][104]

 Illinois

18[105][106][107]

18[105]

21[108]

Fourteen cities in Illinois, including Chicago and Naperville, have raised their tobacco sales age to 21.

 Indiana

None

18[109]

Giving, selling, providing and distributing tobacco to minors is illegal. Minors may not possess, accept or purchase tobacco. Minors are not allowed to enter a tobacco business, defined in state law as a business whose primary activity is the sale of tobacco products and accessories.The minimum age of 16 years was introduced in 1980.The minimum age was raised from 16 to 18 in 1987.[80]

 Iowa

18[110]

It is illegal for minors to be in possession of tobacco, to smoke in public or to purchase tobacco products. It is illegal to sell or distribute tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years.

 Kansas

None

18[111]

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco to a minor. Minors may not possess or purchase or attempt to possess or purchase tobacco.

None

21[112]

Nineteen cities in Kansas, including Overland Park and Olathe, have raised their tobacco sales age to 21.

 Kentucky

None

18[113]

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco to minors. Minors may not purchase or possess tobacco products. Prior to 1990 Kentucky had no minimum age to purchase tobacco. From 1990 until 1992 the minimum age was 16 years.In 1992 the age was raised from 16 to 18 years of age.[94]

 Louisiana

None

18[114]

It is illegal to sell or distribute tobacco to a minor. A minor is not permitted to possess tobacco, except in private residences or if accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian 21 years of age or older.Prior to 1991 there was no minimum age limit in Louisiana.

 Maine

18[115]

21[116]

It is illegal to sell or distribute tobacco to a minor. A minor is not permitted to possess tobacco, except in private residences or if accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian 21 years of age or older. Implementation for 21 and older July 2018.

 Maryland

None

18[117][118]

Minimum age raised from 16 to 18 in 1989.[94]

 Massachusetts

None

18[119]

It is illegal to sell tobacco to minors. Anyone else than the parents or guardian are prohibited from giving any form of tobacco to a minor.

None

21[120]

Over 100 cities in Massachusetts, including Boston, have raised their sales age for tobacco products to 21 years.

 Michigan

18[121]

It is illegal to sell, give, supply or otherwise provide tobacco to minors. Minors may not purchase, attempt to purchase, possess, attempt to possess or consume tobacco products in public. Minors are permitted to smoke on private premises.

18

21[122]

Ann Arbor and Genesee County have raised their tobacco sales age to 21.

 Minnesota

18[123]

It is illegal to sell, give, supply or otherwise provide tobacco to minors. Minors may not purchase, attempt to purchase, possess, attempt to possess or consume tobacco products in public. Indian may furnish tobacco to an Indian under the age of 18 years if the tobacco is furnished as part of a traditional Indian spiritual or cultural ceremony.

18

21[124]

Four cities in Minnesota have raised their sales age for tobacco products to 21.

 Mississippi

18[125]

It is illegal to sell, give, supply or otherwise provide tobacco to minors. Minors may not purchase, attempt to purchase, possess, attempt to possess or consume tobacco products in public.

18

21[126]

Adams County has raised their tobacco sales age to 21.

 Missouri

None

18[127]

It is illegal to sell, give, supply or otherwise provide tobacco to minors. It is not illegal to give tobacco to minors on private premises nor is it illegal for minors to smoke in public.Prior to 1992 Missouri did not have a minimum age limit.[94]

None

21[128]

Twelve cities in Missouri, including Kansas City, St. Louis and Jefferson City, have raised their tobacco sales age to 21.

 Montana

None

18[129]

Sale or distribution of tobacco products to persons under 18 years of age is prohibited, whether over the counter, by vending machine, or otherwise.Prior to 1993 there was no minimum age limit.[94]

 Nebraska

18[130][131]

It is illegal to sell, give or furnish, in any way tobacco to a minor. Minors may not smoke in public.

 Nevada

None

18[132]

 New Hampshire

18[133]

It is illegal to sell, give, supply or otherwise provide tobacco to minors. Minors may not purchase, attempt to purchase, possess, attempt to possess or consume tobacco products in public.

 New Jersey

None

21[134]

No person shall sell, give or furnish to a person under 21 years of age, any cigarettes made of tobacco.The minimum age of 16 years was introduced in 1904.The minimum age was raised from 16 to 18 in 1988.The minimum age was raised from 18 to 19 in 2005. The minimum age was raised from 19 to 21 on 1 November 2017.[80]

 New Mexico

None

18[135]

Prior to 1991 New Mexico had no minimum age.

 New York

None

18[136]

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years.

None

21[137]

New York City (among others) and come counties have raised the sales age for tobacco products to 21.

 North Carolina

None

18[138]

It is illegal for anyone under age 18 to buy, attempt to buy, to receive, or to use a false or misleading proof of age for the purpose of purchasing or receiving any tobacco product or cigarette wrapping papers.The minimum age of 17 years was introduced in 1891.The minimum age was raised from 17 to 18 in 1991.[80][94]

  North Dakota

18[139]

 Northern Mariana Islands

18

It is illegal to sell and supply tobacco to a minor.

 Ohio

18[140]

None

21[141]

Nine cities in Ohio, including Cleveland and Columbus, have raised their tobacco sales age to 21.

 Oklahoma

None

18[142]

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise supply tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years.The minimum age of 18 years was introduced in 1915.

 Oregon

None

21[143]

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise supply tobacco to anyone under the age of 21 years since 1 January 2018.

 Pennsylvania

None

18[144]

It is illegal to sell, furnish, give or otherwise provide tobacco to a minor. Minors may not purchase or attempt to purchase tobacco products.The minimum age of 16 years was introduced in 1972.The minimum age was raised from 16 to 18 in 1990.[80][94]

 Puerto Rico

None

18

 Rhode Island

18[145][146]

No person under eighteen years of age shall purchase, nor shall any person sell, give, or deliver to any person under eighteen years of age, any tobacco products. No person under eighteen years of age shall use or possess, tobacco in any public street, place, or resort, any tobacco and/or electronic nicotine delivery system in any form.The minimum age of 16 years was introduced in 1896.The minimum age was raised from 16 to 18 in 1988.[80]

18

21[147]

Barrington and Central Falls have raised their sales age for tobacco products to 21 years.

 South Carolina

None

18[148]

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise supply tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for minors to purchase, attempt to purchase, possess, or attempt to possess a tobacco product, or present or offer proof of age that is false or fraudulent for the purpose of purchasing or possessing a tobacco product.

 South Dakota

None

18

Prior to 1989 South Dakota didn't regulate the sale of cigarettes to minors. Only smokeless tobacco products could not be sold to coal minors.

 Tennessee

None

18[149]

It is unlawful for a person who has not attained 18 years of age to possess a tobacco product, to purchase or accept receipt of a tobacco product, or to present or offer to any person any purported proof of age which is false, fraudulent, or not actually that person's own for the purpose of purchasing or receiving any tobacco product.

 Texas

18[150]

It is illegal to sell, give, supply or otherwise provide tobacco to minors. Minors may not purchase, attempt to purchase, possess, attempt to possess or consume tobacco products in public. Exception: The individual younger than 18 years of age possessed the cigarette or tobacco product in the presence of an adult parent, a guardian, or a spouse of the individual or an employer of the individual, if possession or receipt of the tobacco product is required in the performance of the employee's duties as an employee.The minimum age to purchase, possess and consume tobacco was 16 years of age from 1899 to 1989.[94]

18

21[151]

San Antonio has raised its sales age for tobacco products to 21.

 United States Virgin Islands

None

18

[152]

 Utah

19[153]

It is illegal to sell, supply, give or otherwise furnish tobacco products or smoking devices to anyone under the age of 19 years. It is illegal for anyone under the age of 19 years to possess, consume, purchase any tobacco product.

 Vermont

None

18[154]

It is illegal to sell, supply, give or otherwise furnish tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for anyone under the age of 18 years to possess or purchase tobacco products.The minimum age of 17 years was introduced in 1888.The minimum age was raised from 17 to 18 in 1991.[80][94]

 Virginia

18[155]

It is illegal to sell, supply, give or otherwise furnish tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for anyone under the age of 18 years to possess or purchase tobacco products.Prior to 1991 the minimum age to purchase tobacco products was 16 years of age.[94]

 Washington

None

18[156]

It is illegal to sell, give or permit to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is not illegal for minors to possess or consume tobacco products in public.

 Washington, D.C.

None

21[157]

It is illegal to sell, give or permit to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 21 years. It is not illegal for minors to possess or consume tobacco products in public. Tobacco use is prohibited at organized sporting events.The minimum age of 16 years was introduced in 1891.The minimum age was raised from 16 to 18 in 1990.[80][94]The minimum age was raised from 18 to 21 in 2016.

 West Virginia

18[158]

It is illegal to sell, supply, give or otherwise furnish tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for anyone under the age of 18 years to possess, consume or purchase tobacco products.

 Wisconsin

None

18[159]

It is illegal to sell, give or permit to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is not illegal for minors to possess or consume tobacco products in public.

 Wyoming

18[160]

It is illegal to sell, supply, give or otherwise furnish tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for anyone under the age of 18 years to possess, consume or purchase tobacco products.Prior to 1991 Wyoming had no minimum purchase/sale age for tobacco products.[94]

 Uruguay

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to a minor. A clearly legible notice with the sale ban to under anyone under the age of 18 years has to be placed inside and outside the premises.[161]

 Venezuela

None

18

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco products to a minor.[162]

text: Asia[edit]

text:
Country

De jure

Notes

Smoking age

Purchase age

 Afghanistan

18

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise furnish tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal to smoke or the use of tobacco in public buildings such as hospitals, schools and restaurants.[163]

 Bhutan

Illegal

In 2004, Bhutan became the first country to ban the sale, cultivation, and production of tobacco. People 18 and over may bring a limited amount of tobacco into Bhutan if they pay import duties.

 Brunei

18

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise furnish tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for minors to possess, buy or consume tobacco products.[164]

 Bangladesh

16

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 16 years. Any police-officer in uniform or any other person or class of persons duty authorized by the Government has the power to seize and destroy tobacco products of anyone under the age of 16 years whom he finds smoking in public.[165]

 Cambodia

None

18

Any act of selling or distributing all types of tobacco products to persons aged under 18 years or to pregnant women whose pregnancy is obvious or is realized must be punished with six days to one month in prison and a fine of 100,000 riel to 1 million riel.[166]

 China

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors. No one shall smoke on school or education premises. Weakly enforced to not enforced.No age limit prior to 29 December 2006.[167]

 Hong Kong

18

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise furnish tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years.[168]

 India

None

18

It is illegal to sell cigarettes or any other tobacco product to a person under the age of 18 years. It is illegal to sell tobacco within a radius of one hundred yards of any educational institution.[169]

 Indonesia

None

18

It is illegal to sell and supply tobacco products to pregnant women or anyone under the age of 18 years.[170]

 Iran

None

18

It is illegal to sell and supply tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. Violation will result in confiscation of tobacco from the minor and a fine for the salesperson.[171]

 Iraq

14

 Israel

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to a minor.No minimum age prior to 12 November 2004.[172]

 Jordan

None18 (consumption of water pipes on premises)

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to a minor. It is also illegal to provide water pipes in cafes, restaurants and similar places.[173]

 Japan

20

It is illegal to supply tobacco to persons under 20 years. It is punishable by a  ¥10,000 fine.[174]

 Kazakhstan

None

18

[175]

 Kuwait

None

21

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 21 years.[176]

 Kyrgyzstan

None

18

No minor shall sell or be sold tobacco products.[177]

 Lebanon

18

18

It is illegal to sell or distribute tobacco to a minor.[178]

 Macau

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years. It is not illegal for a minor to smoke or to obtain tobacco from a person of the legal age.[179]

 Malaysia

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to a minor.[180]

 Maldives

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. The retailer must ensure that the buyer is at least 18 years of age. Furthermore, a clearly legible notice has to be displayed at point of sale stating that tobacco sales to minors are illegal.[181]

 Mongolia

21

   Nepal

None

18

It is illegal to sell or distribute tobacco products to minors and pregnant women.[182]

 North Korea

None

17

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to a minor.[183] (The tobacco law does not define the word "minor", but age of majority is reached at the age of 17 years).

 Oman

18

 Pakistan

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years. A clearly legible notice with the sale restriction has to be placed at point of sale.[184]

 Palestine

14

 Philippines

18

Only people over 18 may buy cigarettes and tobacco due to the "STOP for Health Act". (Stop Tobacco and Other Products for Health)[185]

 Qatar

None

18

It is illegal to sell cigarettes or any other tobacco to a person unter the age of 18 years.[186]

 Saudi Arabia

18

 Singapore

18

Smoking age in Singapore is currently 18, increasing to 19 by 2019 and 21 by 2021.It is illegal to sell or give, directly or indirectly any tobacco product to a person under the age of 18 years. No minor is allowed to consume or possess any tobacco product in public.[187]

 South Korea

19

20

[188]

 Sri Lanka

None

21

It is the law to sell any tobacco product to a person under the age of 21 years.[189]

 Syria

None

18

It is unlawful to sell or give tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years.[190]

 Taiwan

18

It is illegal to sell or provide tobacco to persons under the age of 18 years. It is illegal to force, induce or use other means to cause a pregnant woman to smoke. It is illegal for a pregnant women or a minor to smoke. No penalty is provided for pregnant women who smoke.[191]

 Tajikistan

14

 Thailand

None

18

[192]

 Turkmenistan

Illegal

In January 2016, President Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedow reportedly banned tobacco sales in Turkmenistan.[193]

 United Arab Emirates

18

 Vietnam

18

It is illegal for people less than 18 years of age use, buy, and sell tobacco products. It is illegal to sell and supply tobacco product to people less than 18 years of age.[194]

 Yemen

14¿₡₯₠

text: Europe[edit]

text:
Country

De jure

Notes

Smoking age

Purchase age

 Albania

None

18

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco products to minors under the age of 18 years.[195]

 Armenia

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products anyone under the age of 18 years. Minors may not sell tobacco products.[196]No minimum age prior to 24 December 2004.

 Austria

16

The minimum age is regulated by each federal state, but is nationwide 16 years. It is illegal in every state to sell or give tobacco products to a person under the age of 16 years as well as the consumption by a person under the age of 16 years in any public place.[197]

 Azerbaijan

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. The packaging of tobacco products must contain a warning that sale to minors is prohibited.[198]No minimum age prior to 1 January 2002.

 Belarus

None

18

(Decree No. 28 of 2002 Section 32. "It is banned to sell tobacco products to citizens (by citizens) of the Republic of Belarus, foreign citizens and individuals with no citizenship under 18 years old.")[199]

 Belgium

None

16

("It is forbidden to sell tobacco products to young people under the age of 16 and advertising for tobacco products is forbidden.")[200]

 Bosnia and Herzegovina

18

It is illegal to sell and gift tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. It is illegal for minors under the age of 18 years to gift, sell and consume tobacco products.[201]The minimum age was 15 years prior to 28 September 2004.No minimum age prior to 9 March 1998.[202]

 Bulgaria

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years.[203]

 Croatia

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors. It is the responsibility of any salesperson to ensure that no tobacco is sold to minors and therefore to request an ID to make sure that the purchaser is at least 18 years of age. Minors may not sell tobacco products.[204]

 Cyprus

None

18

It is illegal to sell or otherwise provide tobacco products to a minor. "(…)any  person  who  provides  a  tobacco product  to  a  minor  is  guilty  of  offense  and  in  any  case  of  his/her  conviction, he/she shall  be subject to a penalty not exceeding one thousand pounds or to incarceration not exceeding six months and/or to both penalties."[205]

 Czech Republic

None

18

Selling tobacco products to anyone under 18 is prohibited. Sale of tobacco products and tobacco through vending machines is permitted if the tobacco purchase age is not violated. The seller shall place a clearly visible notice displaying the sale restrictions of tobacco to person under the age of 18. A person selling tobacco must be 18 years or older, unless the minor is preparing for a future career in the hotel or tourism industry, as a cook-waiter or salesman. However, it is very easy to get tobacco products for minors as many sellers don't check the age.[206]The minimum age was 16 years prior to 2 September 1999.[207]

 Denmark

None

18

The minimum age was 16 years prior to 1 September 2008.[208]

 Estonia

18

The minimum age to purchase tobacco products or to smoke in public is set at 18. Minors may not be in possession of, or handle tobacco products.[209]

 Finland

18

Prior to October 2010 it was not illegal for minors to smoke in public.The minimum age was 16 years prior to 1 March 1995.[210]

 France

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. Minors under the age of 18 years may not smoke in any school or on school property.[211] Vending machines outside a tobacco shop is prohibited.Prior to 21 July 2009 the minimum age to purchase tobacco products was 16 years of age.

 Georgia

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors under the age of 18.[212]

 Germany

18

The Protection of Young Persons Act states that children and young people under 18 years of age shall not be sold tobacco products nor should they be permitted to smoke in public. This does not apply to married adolescents.[213]Minimum age was 18 from 10 June 1943 until 1 January 1952.[214]Minimum age was 16 from 1 January 1952 to 1 September 2007.[215]

 Gibraltar

18

It is illegal to sell and furnish tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. Any police officer may confiscate tobacco from a minor in public.[216]The minimum age was 16 years prior to 7 July 2006.[217]

 Greece

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to minors.[218]

 Hungary

18

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18. It is illegal to smoke under the age of 18. The sale of tobacco is prohibited within 200 m of schools and health care units.

 Iceland

None

18

It is illegal to sell or deliver tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. Minors may not handle or sell tobacco products.[219]No minimum age prior to 1 January 1985.The minimum age was 16 years from 1 January 1985 to 1 October 1996.[220]

 Ireland

18

The sale of tobacco to persons under 18 is illegal. It is illegal to buy or smoke cigarettes if you are under the age of 18.[221]The minimum age was 16 years prior to 27 March 2002.[222]

 Italy

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. Violation is punished with a fine between €250.00 and €1000.00. If the law is violated more than once the fine is increased to €500.00 and €2,000.00 and a revocation of the tobacco license for at least 3 months.[223][224]Minimum age for electronic cigarettes was 16 prior to 1 May 2013.[225]

 Kosovo[a]

None

[226]

 Latvia

18

The sale of tobacco products to persons under the age of 18 is prohibited.[227]

 Liechtenstein

16

It is illegal for anyone under the age of 16 to possess or consume tobacco products.[228]

 Lithuania

18

No minimum age to smoke prior to 1 May 2015.

 Luxembourg

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years.[229][230]No minimum age prior to 1 January 2006.Minimum purchase age increased from 16 to 18 on 1 August 2017.

 Macedonia

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years.[231]

 Malta

None

18

"No person shall sell, supply or distribute by way of compensation or otherwise, any cigarettes, cigars, tobacco, tobacco products or smoking requisites to any person who is under the age of 18 years, or in any manner induce such person to smoke."[232]

 Moldova

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 18 years.[233]

 Montenegro

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 18. A poster with the sale restrictions must be placed at point of sale.[234]

 Netherlands

None

18

The sale of tobacco to persons under 18 is illegal.[235] Smoking of tobacco is prohibited by law in all public buildings and in public transport. As of 1 January 2004 every employee has the right to work in a smoke-free environment. All forms of tobacco advertising, promotion or sponsorship are prohibited.  Smoking remains prevalent in the Netherlands despite these efforts. Tobacco can be bought at every supermarket and at other stores.

 Norway

None

18

No age limit for use of tobacco but no sales of cigarettes or Swedish snus to people under 18 by law.[236] Vending machines are only allowed when they are cited inside an approved store, with a demand of buying a receipt from the cashier first.[236] and imitation tobacco products are not allowed. Cigarette commercials are also strictly forbidden by law. As of June 2004, smoking is prohibited in all public places, including restaurants, pubs and work places.

 Poland

None

18

Minors are not allowed to buy tobacco products.[237]

 Portugal

18

It is illegal to sell or give any tobacco product to a minor as well as the consumption of a tobacco product in any public place by a minor. There is a proposition to ban vending machines in places accessible to people younger than 18.[238] Minimum age was 16 prior to 1 January 2008.

 Romania

None

18

There is a ban on sale of tobacco to those younger than 18. Vending machines selling tobacco are banned. There is no minimum legal age of smoking.

 Russia

None

18

Retail sales of tobacco products to any person under the age of 18 years are an offence.[239]

 Serbia

None

18

The sale to persons under 18 is prohibited. Contrary to that, a lot of salesmen sell cigarettes to minors in Serbia. Acquiring tobacco products is very easy for minors despite the law.

 Slovakia

None

18

Tobacco sales to under 18 year olds are prohibited.[240]

 Slovenia

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 18. ID-Card or passport has to be shown if requested.[241]

 Spain

None

18

It is illegal to sell any tobacco product or other smoking substances (e.g. electronic cigarettes) to a person under the age of 18 years.[242]Minimum age was 16 in most regions prior to 1 January 2006.

 Sweden

None

18

It is illegal to sell or commercially distribute tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years.[243]No minimum age prior to 1 January 1997.

  Switzerland

Regulations by canton:

States/territories

Smoking age

Purchase age

Notes

 Aargau

None

16

It is an offence to sell or supply (except for Parents) any tobacco product to a person under 16 years of age.[244]

 Appenzell Ausserrhoden

None

16

It is an offence to sell or supply any tobacco product to a person under 16 years of age.[245]

 Appenzell Innerrhoden

None

No cantonal regulation towards sale and supply of tobacco products to minors.[246]

 Basel-Landschaft

None

18

Selling any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful. If a customer appears to be under the age of 18 years the salesperson must check a valid ID.[247]

 Basel-Stadt

None

18

Selling any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful. If a customer appears to be under the age of 18 years the salesperson must check a valid ID.[248]

 Bern

None18 (to enter smoking facility or premises)

18

Selling or giving any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful. If a customer appears to be under the age of 18 years the salesperson must check a valid ID.[249]

 Fribourg

None

16

Selling or supplying any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful. If a customer appears to be under the age of 16 years the salesperson must check a valid ID.[250]

 Geneva

None

No cantonal regulation towards sale and supply of tobacco products to minors.[246]

 Glarus

None

16

Selling any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful. If a customer appears to be under the age of 16 years the salesperson must check a valid ID.[251]

 Graubünden

None

16

[252]

 Jura

None

18

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco to a minor.[253]

 Luzern

None

16

Selling any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful.[254]

 Neuchâtel

None

18

Selling any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful.[255]

 Nidwalden

None

18

Selling any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful.[256]

 Obwalden

None

No cantonal regulation towards sale and supply of tobacco products to minors.[246]

 Schaffhausen

None

18

Selling any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful.[246]

 Schwyz

None

No cantonal regulation towards sale and supply of tobacco products to minors.[246]

 Solothurn

None

16

Selling any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful.[257]

 St. Gallen

None

16

Selling or supplying any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful. If a customer appears to be under the age of 16 years the salesperson must check a valid ID.[258]

 Thurgau

None

16

Selling or supplying any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful. If a customer appears to be under the age of 16 years the salesperson must check a valid ID.[259]

 Ticino

None

18

Selling any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful.[246]

 Uri

None

16

Selling or supplying any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful.[260]

 Valais

None

16

Selling or supplying any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful. Currently the cantonal government is planning to raise the minimum age to 18 years.[261]

 Vaud

None

18

Selling any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful.[262]

 Zug

None

18

Selling any tobacco product to a minor is unlawful.[263]

 Zürich

None

16

Selling or supplying any tobacco product to a person under the age of 16 is unlawful. If a customer appears to be under the age of 16 years the salesperson must check a valid ID.[264]

 Turkey

None

18

 Ukraine

14

18

 United Kingdom

18 (purchase de jure) 16 (public possession & purchase de facto)

 England and  Wales:It is illegal to sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 18.[265] The minimum age to smoke in public is 16 and authorities have the duty to seize any tobacco or cigarette papers in the possession of any person apparently under the age of 16.[266]Minimum age to purchase was 16 from 1908 to 1 October 2007.
No minimum age prior to 1908.

18

 Scotland:  A person who sells a tobacco product or cigarette papers to a person under the age of 18 commits an offence. Any person under the age of 18 who buys or attempts to buy a tobacco product or cigarette papers commits an offence as well as an adult who knowlingly buys a tobacco product or cigarette papers on behalf of a person under the age of 18.[267] Any constable who has reasonable grounds for suspecting that a person in a public place is under the age of 18, and in possession of a tobacco product or cigarette papers may require the person to surrender the tobacco product.[268]Minimum age was 16 prior to 30 September 2007.

18

Northern Ireland:A person who sells to a person under the age of 18 any tobacco or cigarette papers, whether for his own use or not, shall be guilty of an offence. A member of the Police Service of Northern Ireland may seize any tobacco or cigarette papers in the possession of any person apparently under the age of 18 whom he finds smoking in any street or public place.[269]Minimum age was 16 prior to 1 September 2008.

text: ^ Disputed.

tag: ol

text: Oceania[edit]

text:
Country

De jure

Notes

Smoking age

Purchase age

 Australia

Regulations by state/territory:

Province/territory

Smoking age

Purchase age

Notes

 Australian Capital Territory

None

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco products to a person under the age of 18 years.[270] Further it is illegal to buy a tobacco product for a minor.[271]

 New South Wales

None

18

It is illegal to sell any tobacco or non-tobacco smoking product to a person who is under the age of 18 years.[272]

 Northern Territory

None

18

It is illegal to sell any tobacco product to a minor or on behalf of a minors. It is illegal to smoke in a vehicle with a person under the age of 18 years present.[273][274]

 Queensland

None

18

It is illegal for an adult to supply a tobacco product to a person under the age of 18 years; however, a responsible adult for a child does not commit an offence by supplying a smoking product to the child.[275]

 South Australia

None

18

It is an offence to supply any tobacco product to a person under the age of 18 years.[276]

 Tasmania

None

18

It is illegal to sell or supply tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years.Minimum age was 16 prior to 1 January 1997.[277]

 Victoria

None

18

It is illegal to supply tobacco to a minor. Smoking in a vehicle with a person under 18 present is an offence.[278]

 Western Australia

None

18

It is illegal to sell, deliver or supply tobacco or smoking implement to a minor. Purchase on behalf of people under 18 prohibited.[279][280]

 Fiji

None

18

It is illegal to sell and supply tobacco to a minor.[281]

 Micronesia, Federated States of

18

It is illegal to sell and supply tobacco to a minor.

 New Zealand

None

18

It is illegal to sell and supply tobacco to a minor under 18 years.[282]No minimum age prior to 1903.Minimum age of 15 years from 1903 to 1988.Minimum age of 16 years from 1988 to 1998.[283][284]'

 Palau

None

1821 (Only rolling papers and elaus)

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco products to anyone under the age of 18 years. If the purchaser appears to be under the age of 30 years, ID must be checked before sale. It is illegal to employ anyone under the age of 21 handling tobacco products. It is illegal to sell rolling papers and elaus to anyone under the age of 21 years.[285]

 Papua New Guinea

None

18

It is illegal to sell or give tobacco to a person under the age of 18 years.[286]

 Samoa

21

It is illegal to sell tobacco to anyone under the age of 21 years. It is not illegal for a person under the age of 21 years to possess or smoke tobacco in public.[287]

 Solomon Islands

None

18

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise supply tobacco to a minor.[288]

 Tonga

None

18

It is illegal to sell, give or otherwise supply tobacco to a minor.[289]

 Tokelau

16

It is illegal for a person under 16 to smoke tobacco.[290]

 Vanuatu

18

It is illegal to sell tobacco to a persons under 18. It is illegal for persons under 18 to smoke tobacco.[291]

text: Historical regulations[edit]

text:
Minimum age to purchase tobacco in the European Union as of 1995:   Minimum age is 18  Minimum age is 16  No minimum age

Minimum age to purchase tobacco in the USA as of 1989:[292]   Minimum age is 19  Minimum age is 18  Minimum age is 17  Minimum age is 16  No minimum age


document_title: Electron shell

question_text: the number of electrons in the innermost shell of lithium (atomic number 3)

question_tokens: the number of electrons in the innermost shell of lithium ( atomic number 3 )

root

text: Electron shell

text: History

text: The shell terminology comes from Arnold Sommerfeld's modification of the Bohr model. Sommerfeld retained Bohr's planetary model, but added mildly elliptical orbits (characterized by additional quantum numbers ℓ and m) to explain the fine spectroscopic structure of some elements.[3] The multiple electrons with the same principal quantum number (n) had close orbits that formed a "shell" of positive thickness instead of the infinitely thin circular orbit of Bohr's model.

tag: p

text: The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in Charles Barkla's and Henry Moseley's X-ray absorption studies. Barkla labeled them with the letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q.[4] The origin of this terminology was alphabetic. A "J" series was also suspected, though later experiments indicated that the K absorption lines are produced by the innermost electrons. These letters were later found to correspond to the n values 1, 2, 3, etc. They are used in the spectroscopic Siegbahn notation.

text: The physical chemist Gilbert Lewis was responsible for much of the early development of the theory of the participation of valence shell electrons in chemical bonding. Linus Pauling later generalized and extended the theory while applying insights from quantum mechanics.

text: Shells

text: The electron shells are labeled K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q; or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7; going from innermost shell outwards. Electrons in outer shells have higher average energy and travel farther from the nucleus than those in inner shells. This makes them more important in determining how the atom reacts chemically and behaves as a conductor, because the pull of the atom's nucleus upon them is weaker and more easily broken. In this way, a given element's reactivity is highly dependent upon its electronic configuration.

text: Subshells

text: Each shell is composed of one or more subshells, which are themselves composed of atomic orbitals. For example, the first (K) shell has one subshell, called 1s; the second (L) shell has two subshells, called 2s and 2p; the third shell has 3s, 3p, and 3d; the fourth shell has 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f; the fifth shell has 5s, 5p, 5d, and 5f and can theoretically hold more but the 5f subshell, although partially occupied in actinides, is not filled in any element occurring naturally.[2] The various possible subshells are shown in the following table:

text:
Subshell label
ℓ
Max electrons
Shells containing it
Historical name

s
0
2
Every shell
 sharp

p
1
6
2nd shell and higher
 principal

d
2
10
3rd shell and higher
 diffuse

f
3
14
4th shell and higher
 fundamental

g
4
18
5th shell and higher (theoretically)
(next in alphabet after f)[5]

text:
The first column is the "subshell label", a lowercase-letter label for the type of subshell. For example, the "4s subshell" is a subshell of the fourth (N) shell, with the type (s) described in the first row.
The second column is the azimuthal quantum number (ℓ) of the subshell. The precise definition involves quantum mechanics, but it is a number that characterizes the subshell.
The third column is the maximum number of electrons that can be put into a subshell of that type. For example, the top row says that each s-type subshell (1s, 2s, etc.) can have at most two electrons in it. In each case the figure is 4 greater than the one above it.
The fourth column says which shells have a subshell of that type. For example, looking at the top two rows, every shell has an s subshell, while only the second shell and higher have a p subshell (i.e., there is no "1p" subshell).
The final column gives the historical origin of the labels s, p, d, and f. They come from early studies of atomic spectral lines. The other labels, namely g, h and i, are an alphabetic continuation following the last historically originated label of f.

tag: ul

text: Although it is commonly stated that all the electrons in a shell have the same energy, this is an approximation. However, the electrons in one subshell do have exactly the same level of energy,[6] with later subshells having more energy per electron than earlier ones. This effect is great enough that the energy ranges associated with shells can overlap (see valence shells and Aufbau principle).

text: Number of electrons in each shell

text:
Shell
name
Subshell
name
Subshell
max
electrons
Shell
max
electrons

K
1s
2
2

L
2s
2
2 + 6 = 8

2p
6

M
3s
2
2 + 6 + 10
= 18

3p
6

3d
10

N
4s
2
2 + 6 +
10 + 14
= 32

4p
6

4d
10

4f
14

O
5s
2
2 + 6 +
10 + 14 +
18 = 50

5p
6

5d
10

5f
14

5g
18

text: Each subshell is constrained to hold 4ℓ + 2 electrons at most, namely:

text:
Each s subshell holds at most 2 electrons
Each p subshell holds at most 6 electrons
Each d subshell holds at most 10 electrons
Each f subshell holds at most 14 electrons
Each g subshell holds at most 18 electrons

text: Therefore, the K shell, which contains only an s subshell, can hold up to 2 electrons; the L shell, which contains an s and a p, can hold up to 2 + 6 = 8 electrons, and so forth; in general, the nth shell can hold up to 2n2 electrons.[1]

text: Although that formula gives the maximum in principle, in fact that maximum is only achieved (by known elements) for the first four shells (K, L, M, N). No known element has more than 32 electrons in any one shell.[7][8] This is because the subshells are filled according to the Aufbau principle. The first elements to have more than 32 electrons in one shell would belong to the g-block of period 8 of the periodic table. These elements would have some electrons in their 5g subshell and thus have more than 32 electrons in the O shell (fifth principal shell).

text: Valence shell

text: The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom. Valence electrons in non-transition metal elements reside in this shell. Such elements with complete valence shells (noble gases) are the most chemically non-reactive, while those with only one electron in their valence shells (alkali metals) or just missing one electron from having a complete shell (halogens) are the most reactive.[9]

text: However, this terminology is somewhat misleading in the case of transition metals. In these elements, a valence electron can also be in an inner shell. Thus, the electrons that determine how an atom reacts chemically are those that travel farthest from the nucleus, that is, those with the highest energy, and not necessarily in the valence shell.

text: List of elements with electrons per shell

text: The list below gives the elements arranged by increasing atomic number and shows the number of electrons per shell. At a glance, one can see that subsets of the list show obvious patterns. In particular, the seven elements (in   electric blue) before a noble gas (group 18, in   yellow) higher than helium have the number of electrons in the valence shell in arithmetic progression. (However, this pattern may break down in the seventh period due to relativistic effects.)

text: Sorting the table by chemical group shows additional patterns, especially with respect to the last two outermost shells. (Elements 57 to 71 belong to the lanthanides, while 89 to 103 are the actinides.)

text: The list below is primarily consistent with the Aufbau principle. However, there are a number of exceptions to the rule; for example palladium (atomic number 46) has no electrons in the fifth shell, unlike other atoms with lower atomic number. Some entries in the table are uncertain, when experimental data is unavailable. (For example, the elements past 108 have such short half-lives that their electron configurations have not yet been measured.)

text:
Z
Element
No. of electrons/shell
Group

1
Hydrogen
1
1

2
Helium
2
18

3
Lithium
2, 1
1

4
Beryllium
2, 2
2

5
Boron
2, 3
13

6
Carbon
2, 4
14

7
Nitrogen
2, 5
15

8
Oxygen
2, 6
16

9
Fluorine
2, 7
17

10
Neon
2, 8
18

11
Sodium
2, 8, 1
1

12
Magnesium
2, 8, 2
2

13
Aluminium
2, 8, 3
13

14
Silicon
2, 8, 4
14

15
Phosphorus
2, 8, 5
15

16
Sulfur
2, 8, 6
16

17
Chlorine
2, 8, 7
17

18
Argon
2, 8, 8
18

19
Potassium
2, 8, 8, 1
1

20
Calcium
2, 8, 8, 2
2

21
Scandium
2, 8, 9, 2
3

22
Titanium
2, 8, 10, 2
4

23
Vanadium
2, 8, 11, 2
5

24
Chromium
2, 8, 13, 1
6

25
Manganese
2, 8, 13, 2
7

26
Iron
2, 8, 14, 2
8

27
Cobalt
2, 8, 15, 2
9

28
Nickel
2, 8, 16, 2
10

29
Copper
2, 8, 18, 1
11

30
Zinc
2, 8, 18, 2
12

31
Gallium
2, 8, 18, 3
13

32
Germanium
2, 8, 18, 4
14

33
Arsenic
2, 8, 18, 5
15

34
Selenium
2, 8, 18, 6
16

35
Bromine
2, 8, 18, 7
17

36
Krypton
2, 8, 18, 8
18

37
Rubidium
2, 8, 18, 8, 1
1

38
Strontium
2, 8, 18, 8, 2
2

39
Yttrium
2, 8, 18, 9, 2
3

40
Zirconium
2, 8, 18, 10, 2
4

41
Niobium
2, 8, 18, 12, 1
5

42
Molybdenum
2, 8, 18, 13, 1
6

43
Technetium
2, 8, 18, 13, 2
7

44
Ruthenium
2, 8, 18, 15, 1
8

45
Rhodium
2, 8, 18, 16, 1
9

46
Palladium
2, 8, 18, 18
10

47
Silver
2, 8, 18, 18, 1
11

48
Cadmium
2, 8, 18, 18, 2
12

49
Indium
2, 8, 18, 18, 3
13

50
Tin
2, 8, 18, 18, 4
14

51
Antimony
2, 8, 18, 18, 5
15

52
Tellurium
2, 8, 18, 18, 6
16

53
Iodine
2, 8, 18, 18, 7
17

54
Xenon
2, 8, 18, 18, 8
18

55
Caesium
2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1
1

56
Barium
2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2
2

57
Lanthanum
2, 8, 18, 18, 9, 2
3

58
Cerium
2, 8, 18, 19, 9, 2

59
Praseodymium
2, 8, 18, 21, 8, 2

60
Neodymium
2, 8, 18, 22, 8, 2

61
Promethium
2, 8, 18, 23, 8, 2

62
Samarium
2, 8, 18, 24, 8, 2

63
Europium
2, 8, 18, 25, 8, 2

64
Gadolinium
2, 8, 18, 25, 9, 2

65
Terbium
2, 8, 18, 27, 8, 2

66
Dysprosium
2, 8, 18, 28, 8, 2

67
Holmium
2, 8, 18, 29, 8, 2

68
Erbium
2, 8, 18, 30, 8, 2

69
Thulium
2, 8, 18, 31, 8, 2

70
Ytterbium
2, 8, 18, 32, 8, 2

71
Lutetium
2, 8, 18, 32, 9, 2

72
Hafnium
2, 8, 18, 32, 10, 2
4

73
Tantalum
2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2
5

74
Tungsten
2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2
6

75
Rhenium
2, 8, 18, 32, 13, 2
7

76
Osmium
2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2
8

77
Iridium
2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2
9

78
Platinum
2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
10

79
Gold
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1
11

80
Mercury
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2
12

81
Thallium
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 3
13

82
Lead
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4
14

83
Bismuth
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5
15

84
Polonium
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6
16

85
Astatine
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7
17

86
Radon
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8
18

87
Francium
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1
1

88
Radium
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2
2

89
Actinium
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 9, 2
3

90
Thorium
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 10, 2

91
Protactinium
2, 8, 18, 32, 20, 9, 2

92
Uranium
2, 8, 18, 32, 21, 9, 2

93
Neptunium
2, 8, 18, 32, 22, 9, 2

94
Plutonium
2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2

95
Americium
2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 8, 2

96
Curium
2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 9, 2

97
Berkelium
2, 8, 18, 32, 27, 8, 2

98
Californium
2, 8, 18, 32, 28, 8, 2

99
Einsteinium
2, 8, 18, 32, 29, 8, 2

100
Fermium
2, 8, 18, 32, 30, 8, 2

101
Mendelevium
2, 8, 18, 32, 31, 8, 2

102
Nobelium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 2

103
Lawrencium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 3

104
Rutherfordium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 10, 2
4

105
Dubnium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2
5

106
Seaborgium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 12, 2
6

107
Bohrium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2
7

108
Hassium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2
8

109
Meitnerium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2 (?)
9

110
Darmstadtium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 (?)
10

111
Roentgenium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 2 (?)
11

112
Copernicium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 2 (?)
12

113
Nihonium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 3 (?)
13

114
Flerovium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4 (?)
14

115
Moscovium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 5 (?)
15

116
Livermorium
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 6 (?)
16

117
Tennessine
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 7 (?)
17

118
Oganesson
2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8 (?)
18


question_text: who holds the record for most clean sheets in the premier league

text: In association football a goalkeeper may be said to "keep a clean sheet" if they prevent their opponents scoring any goals during an entire match.

text: Since the Premier League's formation at the start of the 1992–93 season, 14 goalkeepers have managed to keep 100 or more clean sheets in the Premier League.

text: During the 1997–98 season, Peter Schmeichel became the first player to keep 100 Premier League clean sheets.

text: Petr Čech holds the record for most clean sheets kept in a single season, with 24.[1] The record for consecutive clean sheets was also set by Čech, who became the first goalkeeper to keep ten consecutive clean sheets; Edwin van der Sar later eclipsed this when he went 14 games without conceding in 2008–09 for Manchester United.[2]

text: The first goalkeepers to keep a clean sheet in the Premier League were Tim Flowers and Erik Thorstvedt on the opening day of the inaugural season in a 0–0 draw between Southampton and Tottenham Hotspur; all other goalkeepers conceded that day.

text: Each year the goalkeeper who has kept the most clean sheets during the Premier League campaign is awarded the Premier League Golden Glove award. First presented in 2004–05, six goalkeepers have won the award, with Joe Hart and Petr Čech holding the joint record for most wins at four.

text: Players[edit]

text:
List of Premier League goalkeepers with 100 or more clean sheets

Rank
Player
Apps
Clean
sheets
Average
Club(s)
Ref.

1
 Čech, PetrPetr Čech
436
201
0.46
Chelsea (162), Arsenal (39)
[3]

2
 James, DavidDavid James
572
169
0.30
Liverpool (72), Aston Villa (21), West Ham United (18), Manchester City (19), Portsmouth (39)
[4]

3
 Schwarzer, MarkMark Schwarzer
514
151
0.29
Middlesbrough (92), Fulham (56), Chelsea (2), Leicester City (1)
[5]

4
 Seaman, DavidDavid Seaman
344
140
0.41
Arsenal (137), Manchester City (3)
[6]

5
 Martyn, NigelNigel Martyn
372
137
0.37
Crystal Palace (25), Leeds United (82), Everton (30)
[7]

6
 Reina, PepePepe Reina
285
134
0.47
Liverpool (134)
[8]

7
 van der Sar, EdwinEdwin van der Sar
313
132
0.42
Fulham (42), Manchester United (90)
[9]

 Howard, TimTim Howard
399
132
0.33
Manchester United (16), Everton (116)
[10]

 Friedel, BradBrad Friedel
450
132
0.29
Liverpool (6), Blackburn Rovers (77), Aston Villa (35), Tottenham Hotspur (14)
[11]

10
 Schmeichel, PeterPeter Schmeichel
310
128
0.41
Manchester United (112), Aston Villa (7), Manchester City (9)
[12]

11
 Hart, JoeJoe Hart
321
123
0.38
Manchester City (109), Birmingham City (10), West Ham United (4)
[13]

12
 Given, ShayShay Given
451
113
0.25
Blackburn Rovers (1), Newcastle United (89), Manchester City (14), Aston Villa (9)
[14]

13
 Jääskeläinen, JussiJussi Jääskeläinen
436
108
0.25
Bolton Wanderers (89), West Ham United (19)
[15]

14
 Sørensen, ThomasThomas Sørensen
364
107
0.29
Sunderland (35), Aston Villa (46), Stoke City (26)
[16]

(Bold denotes goalkeeper currently playing in Premier League)
(Italics denote goalkeeper currently playing outside the Premier League)
Statistics correct as of 13 May 2018.

text: Consecutives[edit]

text:
Games
Player
Club
Dates
Season(s)

14
 Edwin van der Sar
Manchester United
22 November 2008 – 18 February 2009
2008–09

10
 Petr Čech
Chelsea
18 December 2004 – 15 March 2005
2004–05

8
 Pepe Reina
Liverpool
29 October 2005 – 28 December 2005
2005–06

8
 Petr Čech
Chelsea
31 January 2007 – 7 April 2007
2006–07

7
 Neville Southall
Everton
1 November 1994 – 17 December 1994
1994–95

7
 Peter Schmeichel
Manchester United
8 May 1997 – 30 August 1998
1996–97 and 1997–98

7
 Paul Jones
Southampton
13 January 2001 – 17 March 2001
2000–01

6
 Alex Manninger
Arsenal
31 January 1998 – 14 March 1998
1997–98

6
 Petr Čech
Chelsea
30 April 2005 – 17 September 2005
2004–05 and 2005–06

6
 David de Gea
Manchester United
2 February 2013 – 30 March 2013
2012–13

6
 Joe Hart
Manchester City
24 May 2015 – 19 September 2015
2014–15 and 2015–16

6
 Fraser Forster
Southampton
13 January 2016 – 13 February 2016
2015–16

6
 Thibaut Courtois
Chelsea
1 October 2016 – 26 November 2016
2016–17


document_title: All Is Fair in Love and War

question_text: who first said all is fair in love and war

text: All Is Fair in Love and War

text: All Is Fair in Love and War may refer to:

text:
"All is fair in love and war", a proverb attributed to John Lyly's Euphues
All Is Fair in Love and War (album), an album by Blessed by a Broken Heart
"All Is Fair in Love and War" (song), a song by Ronnie Milsap

text: Disambiguation page providing links to articles with similar titlesThis disambiguation page lists  articles associated with the title All Is Fair in Love and War.  If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

text: Disambiguation pages

text: Disambiguation pages with short descriptionAll article disambiguation pagesAll disambiguation pages


document_title: Banana republic

question_text: where does the phrase banana republic come from

text: Banana republic

text: Etymology[edit]

text: In the 19th century, the American writer O. Henry (William Sydney Porter, 1862–1910) coined the term banana republic to describe the fictional Republic of Anchuria in the book Cabbages and Kings (1904),[4] a collection of thematically related short stories inspired by his experiences in Honduras, where he lived for six months until January 1897, hiding in a hotel in Trujillo, Colón, when he was wanted in the U.S. for embezzlement from a bank.[5]

text: In the early 20th century, the United Fruit company, a multinational American corporation, was instrumental to the creation of the banana republic phenomenon.[6][7] Together with other American corporations, such as the Cuyamel Fruit Company, and with occasional support from the United States government, the corporations created the political, economic, and social circumstances that established a banana republic in Central American countries such as Honduras and Guatemala.[8]

text: Origin[edit]

text: The history of the banana republic began with the introduction of the banana fruit to the U.S. in 1870, by Lorenzo Dow Baker, captain of the schooner Telegraph, who bought bananas in Jamaica and sold them in Boston at a 1,000 percent profit.[9] The banana proved popular with Americans, as a nutritious tropical fruit that was less expensive than locally-grown fruit in the U.S., such as apples; in 1913, 25 cents (equivalent to $6.19 in 2017) bought a dozen bananas, but only two apples.[10] In 1873, to produce food for their railroad workers, the American railroad tycoons Henry Meiggs and his nephew, Minor C. Keith, established banana plantations along the railroads they built in Costa Rica; recognizing the profitability of exporting bananas, and they began exporting the fruit to the Southeastern U.S.[10]

text: In the mid-1870s, to manage the new industrial-agriculture business enterprise in the countries of Central America, Keith founded the Tropical Trading and Transport Company: one-half of what would later become the United Fruit Company (UFC); later Chiquita Brands International, created in 1899 by merger with the Boston Fruit Company, and owned by Andrew Preston. By the 1930s, the international political and economic tensions created by the United Fruit Company enabled the corporation to control 80–90 per cent of the banana business in the U.S.[11]

text: By the late 19th century, three American multinational corporations (the United Fruit Company, the Standard Fruit Company, and the Cuyamel Fruit Company) dominated the cultivation, harvesting, and exportation of bananas, and controlled the road, rail, and port infrastructure of Honduras. In the northern coastal areas near the Caribbean Sea, the Honduran government ceded to the banana companies 500 hectares per kilometre (2,000 acre/mi) of laid railroad, despite there being neither passenger nor freight railroad service to Tegucigalpa, the capital city. Among the Honduran people, the United Fruit Company was known as El pulpo (The Octopus), because its influence pervaded Honduran society, controlled their country's transport infrastructure, and sometimes manipulated Honduran national politics with anti-labour violence.[12]

text: In 1924, despite the UFC monopoly, the Vaccaro Brothers established the Standard Fruit Company (later the Dole Food Company) to export Honduran bananas to the U.S. port of New Orleans. The fruit-exporting corporations kept U.S. prices low by legalistic manipulation of Latin American national land use laws to cheaply buy large tracts of prime agricultural land for corporate banana plantations in the republics of the Caribbean Basin, the Central American isthmus, and tropical South America; the American fruit companies then employed the dispossessed Latin American natives as low-wage employees.[10]

text: By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors confirming the suitability of the phrase Banana Republics.[13]

text: Honduras[edit]

text: In the early 20th century, the American businessman Sam Zemurray (founder of the Cuyamel Fruit Company) was instrumental to establishing the "banana republic" stereotype, when he entered the banana-export business by buying overripe bananas from the United Fruit Company to sell in New Orleans. In 1910, Zemurray bought 6,070 hectares (15,000 acres) in the Caribbean coast of Honduras for exploitation by the Cuyamel Fruit Company. In 1911, Zemurray conspired with Manuel Bonilla, an ex-president of Honduras (1904–07), and the American mercenary Gen. Lee Christmas, to overthrow the civil government of Honduras and install a military government friendly to foreign businessmen.

text: To that end, the mercenary army of the Cuyamel Fruit Company, led by Gen. Christmas, effected a coup d'état against President Miguel R. Dávila (1907–11) and installed General Manuel Bonilla (1912–13). The U.S. ignored the deposition of the elected government of Honduras by a private army, justified by the U.S. State Department's misrepresenting President Dávila as too politically liberal and a poor businessman whose management had indebted Honduras to Great Britain, a geopolitically unacceptable circumstance in light of the Monroe Doctrine. The coup d'état was consequence of the Dávila government's having slighted the Cuyamel Fruit Company by colluding with the rival United Fruit Company to award them a monopoly contract for the Honduran banana, in exchange for the UFC's brokering of U.S.government loans to Honduras.[11][14]

text: The political instability consequent to the coup d'état stalled the Honduran economy, and the unpayable external debt (ca. US$4 billion) of the Republic of Honduras was excluded from access to international investment capital. That financial deficit perpetuated Honduran economic stagnation and perpetuated the image of Honduras as a banana republic.[15] Such a historical, inherited foreign debt functionally undermined the Honduran government, which allowed foreign corporations to manage the country and become sole employers of the Honduran people, because the American fruit companies controlled the economic infrastructure (road, rail, and port, telegraph and telephone) they had built in Honduras.

text: In the event, the U.S. dollar became the legal-tender currency of Honduras; the mercenary Gen. Lee Christmas became commander of the Honduran army, and later was appointed U.S. Consul to the Republic of Honduras.[16] Nonetheless, 23 years later, after much corporate intrigue among the American businessmen, by means of a hostile takeover of agricultural business interests, Sam Zemurray assumed control of the rival United Fruit Company, in 1933.[12]

text: Guatemala[edit]

text: Guatemala suffered the regional socio-economic legacy of the banana republic: inequitably distributed agricultural land and natural wealth, uneven economic development, and an economy dependent upon a few export crops—usually bananas, coffee and sugar cane. The inequitable land distribution was an important cause of national poverty, and the concomitant sociopolitical discontent and insurrection. Almost 90 per cent of the country's farms are too small to yield adequate subsistence harvests to the farmers, while two per cent of the country's farms occupy 65 per cent of the arable land, property of the local oligarchy.[citation needed]

text: During the 1950s, the United Fruit Company sought to convince the governments of U.S. Presidents Harry Truman (1945–53) and Dwight Eisenhower (1953–61) that the popular, elected government of President Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán of Guatemala was secretly pro-Soviet for having expropriated unused "fruit company lands" to landless peasants. In the Cold War (1945–91) context of the pro-active anti-communist politics exemplified by U. S. Senator Joseph McCarthy in the years 1947–57, geo-political concerns about the security of the Western Hemisphere facilitated President Eisenhower's ordering and authorizing Operation Success, the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état by means of which the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency deposed the democratically elected government (1950–54) of President Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán and installed the pro-business government of Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas (1954–57), which lasted for three years until his assassination by a presidential guard.[2][17]

text: A mixed history of elected presidents and puppet-master military juntas were the governments of Guatemala in the course of the 36-year Guatemalan Civil War (1960–96). However, in 1986, at the 26-year mark, the Guatemalan people promulgated a new political constitution, and elected Vinicio Cerezo (1986–91) president; then Jorge Serrano Elías (1991–93).[18]

text: In art[edit]

text: Poetry[edit]

text: In the book Canto General (General Song, 1950), the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda (1904–73) denounced foreign multinational corporate political dominance of Latin American countries with the four-stanza poem "La United Fruit Co."; the second-stanza excerpts read:[19]

text: ... The Fruit Company, Inc.

text:
Reserved for itself the most succulent,
The central coast of my own land,
The delicate waist of the Americas.

text:
It rechristened its territories
As the "Banana Republics",
And over the sleeping dead,
Over the restless heroes
Who brought about the greatness,
The liberty and the flags,

text: Literature[edit]

text: The novel One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967), by Gabriel García Márquez, depicts the imperialist capitalism of foreign fruit companies as voracious socio-economic exploitation of natural resources of Macondo and of the people. Domestically, the corrupt national government of Macondo abets the business policies and labour practices of the foreign corporations, which brutally oppress the workers.

text: The protagonist, José Arcadio Segundo, has been organizing the workers of the banana plantations to jointly effect a work strike to protest the inhumane working conditions. Martial law is imposed upon Macondo, and the workers respond by sabotaging the banana plantations. In unexpected response, the national government diplomatically invites more than 3,000 workers to meet with provincial leaders to resolve their labour-and-management differences. The meeting is a deceit; the army surround the workers and methodically kill them with machine guns. Afterwards, the three thousand corpses are collected onto a train and later dumped into the sea, to be forgotten.

text: Meanwhile, the apparently dead José Arcadio Segundo, also was loaded onto the coast-bound train of corpses, yet later escapes and walks back to Macondo. To his horror, José Arcadio learns that all memory of the massacre has been eliminated, no-one in Macondo remembers the killing of three thousand workers. The townsfolk refuse to believe José Arcadio when he tells them of the massacre, which he survived. Moreover, nature contributes to the oblivion with heavy, unrelenting rain that destroys the physical traces of the massacred workers.

text: Movies[edit]

text: Woody Allen's 1971 film Bananas depicted a fictional banana republic called San Marcos; the film is also named for this term.

text: Modern interpretations[edit]

text: Countries that obtained independence from colonial powers in the 20th and 21st centuries have at times thereafter tended to share traits of banana republics due to influence of large private corporations in their politics,[20] for example; Maldives (resort companies),[21] Chile (foreign mining companies)[citation needed] and the Philippines (tobacco industry, American government and corporations).[22][23]

text: On 14 May 1986, then Australian Treasurer Paul Keating stated that Australia might become a banana republic.[24] This has received a lot of commentary and criticism[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][excessive citations] and is seen as part of a turning point in Australia's political and economic history.[34]


document_title: Sindh High Court

question_text: who is chief justice of sindh high court

text: Sindh High Court

text: History[edit]

text: On 21 August 1926 the Sindh Courts Act (Bom. VII of 1926) was passed into law-making provision for the establishment of a Chief Court for the Province of Sindh. On the coming into operation of Part III of the Government of India Act, 1935, on 1 April 1937, Sindh became a separate Province and the Judges of the Court of Judicial Commissioner of Sindh were appointed by Royal Warrant by the British Government.

text: At the time of establishment of the High Court of West Pakistan the number of the Judges of the Karachi Bench was almost the same but subsequently it was increased to 15 and on separation of Sindh & Balochistan High Court's 12 Judges were allocated to the Sindh High Court and 3 Judges to Balochistan High Court. The present approved strength of Judges is 28. However, the number of Judges appointed is 24.

text: Building Complex[edit]

text: The construction of existing main building was commenced in 1923, at an estimated cost of Rs. 39,75,248 but it was completed on 22-11-1929,[3] at actual cost of Rs. 30,35,000. This building which was meant for 5 Judges with some provision for expansion in 1929 is now accommodating Benches in, Court Rooms and 18 Judges in Chambers. Some Judges have to hold Courts in Chambers. Besides, it also provides accommodation for the offices of the Attorney-General, Deputy Attorney-General, Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan Registry, Advocate-General, Sindh, Additional Advocate General, Sindh, Assistant Advocate General, Sindh and High Court Bar Library. Before shifting Supreme Court Registry from High Court premises two Court rooms and three Chambers were used by the Supreme Court Judges. When the Supreme Court comes to Karachi in bigger strength some more chambers were provided to the Judges of the Supreme Court.

text: In 1974, An Annexe Building on the North-East side of the compound of the High Court was constructed at a cost of Rs. 4.4 Millions but it did not ease the situation much, for it is accommodating the offices of this Court and also provides office accommodation for the Secretary, Ministry of Justice and Parliamentary Affairs, Standing Counsel, Official Assignee, Special Banking Court, Registry of the Federal Shariat Court and Sindh Bar Council. Thus, it will be seen that there is acute shortage of accommodation.

text: The provincial Government has allocated a token amount of Rs. One Lac during the current year for construction of Annexe Building of South-East of the present building in order to make the scheme as ongoing scheme. The building was estimated in 1984 to cost a sum of Rs. 13.35 millions. The cost now may go up slightly because of inflation. Unless the Federal Government provides funds or the Provincial Government give preference to the construction of this building and provide necessary funds, the building is not going to be completed within a year or two.

text: Bench[edit]

text: High Court of Sindh consists of a Chief Justice and 27 other Judges. A Judge of the High Court is appointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of Pakistan, the Governor of the Province and the Chief Justice of the High Court in which appointment is to be made. No person is appointed as a Judge of the High Court unless he is a citizen of Pakistan having forty years and has been an advocate of the High Court or has held a judicial office for ten years and has for a period of not less than three years served as or exercised the functions of a District Judge in Pakistan. A Judge of a High Court holds office until he attains the age of sixty-two years, unless he sooner resigns or is removed from office in accordance with the Constitution.

text: The principal seat of the High Court of Sindh is at Karachi with a Bench at Hyderabad, Sukkur and Larkana The High Court may has more Benches at other places as the Governor on the advice of the Cabinet and in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court may determine Jurisdiction.[4]

text: PC0 25 March 1981[edit]

text:
Agha Ali Hyder-not offered oath under PCO as chief justice of Sindh High Court; took oath under PCO as judge of Federal Shariat Court
Abdul Hayee Qureshi take oath under PCO
Abdul Hafeez Memon Did not take oath under PCO
Zaffar Hussain Mirza take oath under PCO
Naimuddin Ahmed took oath under PCO
S.A. Nusrat took oath under PCO
G. M. Shah Did not take oath under PCO
Ajmal Mian takes fresh oath as new judge under PCO
Muhammad Zahoor-ul-Haq, takes fresh oath as new judge under PCO
Sajjad Ali Shah, takes fresh oath as new judge under PCO
Ghous Ali Shah, took oath under PCO
Dr. Tanzil-ur-Rehman, takes fresh oath as new judge under PCO
Saeed-uz-Zaman Siddiqui, takes fresh oath as new judge under PCO
Ghulam Muhammad Kourejo, took oath under PCO
Nasir Aslam Zahid, takes fresh oath as new judge under PCO
K. A. Ghani, take oath under PCO
Saleem Akhtar, takes fresh oath as new judge under PCO

text: PC0 26 January 2000[edit]

text:
Nazim Hussain Siddiqi take oath under PCO was chief justice
Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhary take oath under PCO
Ghous Mohammed Did not take oath under PCO
Mushtaq Memon Did not take oath under PCO
Rasheed Rizvi. Did not take oath under PCO
Syed Deedar Hussain take oath under PCO
Justice Amanullah Abbasi take oath under PCO
Hamid Ali Mirza take oath under PCO
Hameed Dogar take oath under PCO
Syed Saeed Ashad take oath under PCO
Abdul Ghani Shaikh take oath under PCO
Mohammed Roshan Esani take oath under PCO
S. A. Sarwar take oath under PCO
Zahid Qurban Alvi, take oath under PCO
Shabir Ahmed take oath under PCO
Ata-ur-Rehman take oath under PCO
Ghulam Rabban take oath under PCO
Sarmad Jalal Usmani take oath under PCO
Anwar Zaheer Jamali take oath under PCO
S. A. Rabbani take oath under PCO
M. Ashraf Leghari take oath under PCO
Wahid Bux Brohi take oath under PCO
Sabihuddin Ahmed take oath under PCO
Rana Bhagwandas take oath under PCO
Ghulam Nabi Soomro take oath under PCO
Musheer Alam take oath under PCO

text: PC0 3 November 2007[edit]

text:
Sabihuddin Ahmed - Did not take oath under PCO was chief justice
Sarmad Jalal Usmani -Did not take oath under PCO
Anwar Zaheer Jamali -Did not take oath under PCO
Musheer Alam -Did not take oath under PCO
Mohammad Moosa K. Legari -take oath under Pco elevated to supreme court
Zia Perwez - take oath under Pco elevated to supreme court
Afzal Soomro -take oath under PCO became chief justice
Rahmad Hussain Jaferi -Did not take oath under PCO
Azizullah Memon -take oath under PCO
Khilji Arif Hussain -Did not take oath under PCO
Ameer Hani Muslim -Did not take oath under PCO
Gulzar Ahmad -Did not take oath under PCO
Maqbool Baqar -Did not take oath under PCO
Munib Ahmad Khan -take oath under PCO
Muhammad Athar Saeed -Did not take oath under PCO
Yasmin Abbasey -take oath under PCO
Mrs Qaiser Iqbal -take oath under PCO
Ali Sain Dino Metlo-take oath under PCO
Faisal Arab - Did not take oath under PCO
Sajjad Ali Shah -Did not take oath under PCO
Nadeem Azhar Siddiqui - take oath under PCO was additional judge
Abdul Rasheed Kalwar - Did not take oath under PCO was additional judge
Salman Ansari - Did not take oath under PCO was additional judge
Arshad Siraj Memon - Did not take oath under PCO was additional judge
Zafar Ahmad Khan Sherwani - Did not take oath under PCO was additional judge
Mahmood Alam Rizvi - take oath under PCO was additional judge
Abdul Rahman Farooq Pirzada - take oath under PCO was additional judge
Additional Judges Appointed under PCO
Khawaja Naveed Ahmed
Qazi Khalid
Rana Shamim
Agha Rafiq Ahmed Khan
Syed Pir Ali Shah
Bin Yamin
Arshad Noor
Dr Qamaruddin Bohra
Ghulam Dastagir Shahani
Farrukh Zia Sheikh
Abdul Qadir Khan

text: Reappoinment of Judges[edit]

text: After the general election and resignation of general musharaf ppp lead govt decided to reappoint judges under the 1973 constitution and given fresh oath some of the judges agreed to take fresh oath under constitution and reappointed on

text: 27 August 2008 and 6 September 2008

text:
Reapointed in August 2008
Anwar Zaheer Jamali - made chief justice
Khilji Arif Hussain
Ameer Hani Muslim
Faisal Arab
Sajjad Ali Shah
Abdul Rasheed Kalwar
Salman Ansari
Zafar Ahmad Khan Sherwani
Reappointed on 6 September 2008
Sabihuddin Ahmed elevated to supreme court
Sarmad Jalal Usmani elevated to supreme court
Gulzar Ahmad
Muhammad Athar Saeed

text: Restoration of Judges[edit]

text: After the long march of lawyer and opposition parties, on 16 March 2009, the Government restored the deposed judiciary. Only two judges refused to be reappointed: Musheer Alam and Maqbool Baqar.

text: Former Chief Justices[edit]

text:
Mr. Justice Abdul Kadir Shaikh (01-12-1976 to 30-06-1979)
Mr. Justice Ahga Ali Hyder (01-07-1979 to 24-03-1981)
Mr. Justice Abdul Hayee Qureshi (25-03-1981 to 19-01-1986)
Mr. Justice Naimuddin Ahmed (21-01-1986 to 03-09-1988)
Mr. Justice Ajmal Mian (04-09-1988 to 12-12-1989)
Mr. Justice Sajjad Ali Shah (13-12-1989 to 04-11-1990)
Mr. Justice Saeed-uz-Zaman Siddiqui (05-11-1990 to 21-05-1992)
Mr. Justice Nasir Aslam Zahid (23-05-1992 to 15-04-1994)
Mr. Justice Abdul Hafeez Memon (Acting Chief Justice)(16-04-1994 to 14-04-1996)
Mr. Justice Mamoon Kazi (15-04-1996 to 04-11-1997)
Mr. Justice Wajihuddin Ahmed (05-11-1997 to 04-05-1998)
Mr. Justice Kamal Mansur Alam (05-05-1998 to 21-04-1999)
Mr. Justice Nazim Hussain Siddiqui (22-04-1999 to 03-02-2000)
Mr. Justice Syed Deedar Hussain Shah (04-02-2000 to 27-04-2000)
Mr. Justice Saiyed Saeed Ashhad (28-04-2000 to 04-04-2005)
Mr. Justice Sabihuddin Ahmed (05-04-2005 to 03-11-2007)
Mr. Justice Afzal Soomro (03-11-2007 to 15-05-2008)
Mr. Justice Azizullah M. Memon (Acting Chief Justice)(15-05-2008 to 27-08-2008)
Mr. Justice Anwar Zaheer Jamali (28-08-2008 to 02-08-2009)
Mr. Justice Sarmad Jalal Osmany (03-08-2009 to 13-02-2011)
Mr. Justice Mushir Alam (14-02-2011 to 19-09-2013)
Mr. Justice Maqbool Baqar (20-09-2013 to 16-02-2015)
Mr. Justice Faisal Arab (17-02-2015 to 13-12-2015)
Mr. Justice Syed Sajjad Ali Shah (14-12-2015) to (15-03-2017)
Mr. Justice Ahmed Ali M. Sheikh (15-03-2017) to date

text: Judges of Sindh High Court[edit]

text: High Court of Sindh is headed by a Chief Justice. The bench consist of Justices and additional judges and the retirement age of Chief Justice and Justices is 62 years. The Additional Judges are initially appointed for one year, after that their services could either be extended or they could be confirmed or they are retired. The current Chief Justice of Sindh High Court is Justice Ahmed Ali M. Shaikh

text: Current Composition[edit]

text:
No.
Name
Appointment
Retirement
Note(s)

1
Ahmed Ali M.Sheikh
25 September 2009
2 October 2023
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 25 September 2009 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court. He took oath as Chief Justice of the Sindh High Court on 17 March 2017.

2
Irfan Saadat Khan
25 September 2009
6 February 2025
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 25 September 2009 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

3
Aqeel Ahmed Abbasi
25 September 2009
15 June 2025
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 25 September 2009 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

4
Munib Akhtar
25 September 2009
13 December 2025
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 25 September 2009 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

5
Syed Hasan Azhar Rizvi
18 February 2010
1 February 2024
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 18 February 2010 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

6
Muhammad Ali Mazhar
18 February 2010
4 October 2026
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 18 February 2010 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

7
Nadeem Akhtar
20 March 2012
15 February 2024
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 20 March 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

8
Muhammad Shafi Siddiqui
20 March 2012
11 August 2027
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 20 March 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

9
Abdul Rasool Memon
1 June 2012
7 October 2018
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 1 June 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

10
Naimatullah Phulpoto
1 June 2012
4 February 2025
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 1 June 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

11
Sadiq Hussain Bhatti
1 June 2012
13 December 2017
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 1 June 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

12
Syed Muhammad Farooq Shah
27 June 2012
30 September 2017
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 27 June 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

13
Aziz ur Rehman
27 June 2012
3 March 2021
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 27 June 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

14
Aftab Ahmed Gorar
27 June 2012
31 December 2023
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 27 June 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

15
Salahuddin Panhwar
27 June 2012
8 August 2028
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 27 June 2012 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

16
Mrs. Ashraf Jehan
31 August 2013
8 February 2019
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 31 August 2013 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

17
Abdul Maalik Gaddi
31 August 2013
1 January 2021
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 31 August 2013 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

18
Nazar Akbar
31 August 2013
6 August 2021
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 31 August 2013 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

19
Muhammad Junaid Ghaffar
31 August 2013
13 September 2025
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 31 August 2013 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

20
Zafar Ahmed Rajput
31 August 2013
15 October 2027
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 31 August 2013 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

21
Muhammad Iqbal Kalhoro
30 May 2014
18 July 2030
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 May 2014 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

22
Muhammad Iqbal Mahar
30 October 2015
14 November 2019
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 October 2015 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

23
Khadim Hussain M. Shaikh
30 October 2015
22 October 2020
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 October 2015 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

24
Zulfiqar Ahmed Khan
30 October 2015
31 July 2025
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 October 2015 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

25
Mahmood A. Khan
30 October 2015
23 July 2026
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 October 2015 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

26
Muhammad Karim Khan Agha
30 October 2015
19 September 2026
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 October 2015 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

27
Muhammad Faisal Kamal Alam
30 October 2015
7 May 2031
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 October 2015 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

28
Rasheed Ahmed Soomro
29 June 2016
4 October 2020
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 29 June 2016 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

29
Arshad Hussain Khan
29 June 2016
4 February 2029
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 29 June 2016 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

30
Muhammad Saleem Jessar
29 June 2016
11 September 2029
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 29 June 2016 and confirmed as permanent Judge of the Sindh High Court.

31
Fahim Ahmed Siddiqui
30 November 2016
6 August 2021
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 November 2016. Retirement date is subjected to confirmation.

32
Khadim Hussain Tunio
30 November 2016
31 March 2026
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 November 2016. Retirement date is subjected to confirmation.

33
Omar Sial
30 November 2016
20 October 2031
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 November 2016. Retirement date is subjected to confirmation.

34
Adnan-ul-Karim Memon
30 November 2016
7 January 2033
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 November 2016. Retirement date is subjected to confirmation.

35
Yousuf Ali Sayeed
30 November 2016
18 August 2033
Elevated to the Bench as Additional Judge on 30 November 2016. Retirement date is subjected to confirmation.

36
Vacant

37
Vacant

38
Vacant

39
Vacant

40
Vacant

text: [6] [7] [8]


document_title: Dense regular connective tissue

question_text: where is dense regular elastic connective tissue found

text: Dense regular connective tissue

text: Dense regular connective tissue provides connection between different tissues in the human body. The collagen fibers in dense regular connective tissue are bundled in a parallel fashion. Dense regular connective tissue (DRCT) is divided into white fibrous connective tissue and yellow fibrous connective tissue, both of which occur in two forms: cord arrangement and sheet arrangement.

text: In cord arrangement bundles of collagen and matrix are distributed in regular alternate patterns. In sheet arrangement collagen bundles and matrix are distributed in irregular patterns, sometimes in the form of a network. It is similar to areolar tissue, but in DCRT elastic fibers are completely absent.

text: Structures formed[edit]

text:
An example of their use is in tendons,[1] which connect muscle to bone and derive their strength from the regular, longitudinal arrangement of bundles of collagen fibers.
Ligaments bind bone to bone and are similar in structure to tendons.
Aponeuroses are layers of flat broad tendons that join muscles and the body parts the muscles act upon, whether it be bone or muscle.

text: Functions[edit]

text: Dense regular connective tissue has great tensile strength that resists pulling forces especially well in one direction.

text: DRCT has a very poor blood supply, which is why damaged tendons and ligaments are slow to heal.