document_title: The Orville

question_text: who does the voice of isaac on the oroville

text: The Orville

text: Premise[edit]

text: The Orville is set on the titular U.S.S. Orville (ECV-197), a mid-level exploratory space vessel in service to the Planetary Union, a 25th-century interstellar state encompassing Earth and many other worlds.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Seth MacFarlane as Ed Mercer, the captain of the Orville.[9][10][11] Mercer was an up-and-coming officer, believed to be on the fast track to commanding his own heavy cruiser by age 40. However, a year before the pilot, he caught his wife Kelly in bed with an alien. Since then, he was cited for becoming lax in his duties, including six instances of reporting to duty while hungover, but was informed that due to the size of the fleet and the retirement of the former captain, the Orville, a mid-level exploratory ship, was in need of a new commanding officer.[10]
Adrianne Palicki as Commander Kelly Grayson, the first officer of the Orville and Ed Mercer's ex-wife.[9][11] The two divorced when Mercer caught Grayson in bed with an alien.[12] Unbeknownst to Mercer, Grayson personally went to Admiral Halsey to plead her case to give her ex-husband a command, stating that despite some personal setbacks, he deserved his own command. She asked Halsey to keep that from him when assigned the Orville. Mercer and Grayson decide to put their differences aside, to work together as a team and stay as friends.[10]
Penny Johnson Jerald[11] as Doctor Claire Finn, the Chief Medical Officer on the Orville, holding the rank of Lieutenant Commander. A physician of exceptional credentials, she has expertise in molecular surgery, DNA engineering and psychiatry, which could have afforded her the privilege of serving on the heavy cruiser of her choice. She instead chose the mid-level exploratory vessel because, as she explains to Mercer in the pilot, she prefers to request her transfers based on where she feels she is needed, as she feels more stimulated by such assignments. When she tells Mercer she felt he could use her help on his first command, he interprets this as lack of confidence on her part in his competence, though she denies this.[10] Having never found the ideal opportunity to marry, she chose to become a single mother, and her two sons, Marcus and Ty, travel aboard the Orville with her.[13]
Scott Grimes as Lieutenant Gordon Malloy, the helmsman of the Orville and Mercer's best friend.[9][11] Considered the best helmsman in the fleet, he was relegated to desk duty after an attempt to impress a girl resulted in him shearing the door off a cargo bay during a precarious shuttle docking, losing cargo in the process. He was specifically requested by Mercer despite some hesitation by Admiral Halsey, who harbors concern over Malloy's history of crude and juvenile pranks.[10]
Peter Macon[11] as Lieutenant Commander Bortus, the second officer aboard the U.S.S. Orville. Bortus is from Moclus, a planet whose primary industry is weapons manufacturing,[14] and whose inhabitants, the Moclans, are a single-gender species. Bortus exhibits a degree of stoic formality. For example, Bortus disapproves of the bridge crew discussing Mercer and Grayson's breakup after Mercer leaves the bridge in the pilot episode. Among the peculiarities of the Moclans are that they only urinate once a year.[10][11] Moclans reproduce through the laying of eggs, which are incubated for 21 days. Bortus and his mate, Klyden, become parents in the series' second episode, when Bortus incubates and hatches an egg.[15] When the child is revealed to be female, a rare occurrence among Moclans, Bortus and Klyden's desire to have her undergo sex reassignment surgery provides the allegorical conflict of the series' third episode.[14]
Halston Sage[11] as Lieutenant Alara Kitan, the Orville's 23-year-old Chief of Security. She is a member of the Xelayan race, which inhabits a high-gravity planet, giving her greater-than-human strength, allowing her to knock down doors and walls by charging against them,[10] or crush a handheld cube of solid titanium and reshape it into a sphere with her bare hands.[14]
J. Lee as Lieutenant John LaMarr,[11] the navigator of the Orville. He and Malloy strike up an immediate friendship in the pilot, based on their ironic view that they are both "jerks".[10]
Mark Jackson[11][16] as Isaac, the Orville's Science and Engineering Officer. Isaac is a member of the artificial, non-biological race from Kaylon-1 that views biological lifeforms, including humans, as inferior. Isaac explains to Mercer in the pilot that the Union's Admiralty offered a posting to any Kaylon willing to accept it, as an attempt to initiate relations between the two powers. Isaac accepted the offer because he saw it as a way to study human behavior. During the course of his time with the crew, he comes to observe and understand aspects of human behavior, such as sarcasm, slang,[7][10] and practical jokes. Isaac perceives his surroundings with his body's internal sensors, and not with the two glowing blue "eyes" on his face, which are purely aesthetic.[17]

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Victor Garber as Admiral Halsey, Mercer's superior and an old friend of Grayson's father. He first appears in the series premiere and again in Episode 9.
Chad Coleman as Klyden, Bortus' mate and father of their child. He first appears at the end of the series' second episode.
Norm Macdonald as the voice of Yaphit, an amorphous, gelatinous Engineering crew member of the Orville,[18] who in his first few appearances, repeatedly attempts to obtain a date with Dr. Finn,[14][19] and frequently flirts with other females on the ship.[17]
Larry Joe Campbell as Lieutenant Commander[15] Steve Newton, Chief Engineer of the Orville.[17]
Rachael MacFarlane as the voice of the Orville computer.[20]

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Brian George as Doctor Aronov, the leader of the Epsilon II science station in the series premiere
Ron Canada as Admiral Tucker in Episodes 2 and 7
Jeffrey Tambor as Captain Mercer's father, Ben in Episode 2
Holland Taylor as Captain Mercer's mother, Jeannie in Episode 2
Jonathan Adams as the Moclan Arbitrator in Episode 3
Rena Owen as Heveena in Episode 3
Robert Knepper as Hamelac in Episode 4
Liam Neeson as Jahavus Dorahl, Captain of the derelict Bio Ship in Episode 4
Charlize Theron as Pria Lavesque, who appears in Episode 5
Kelly Hu as Admiral Ozawa, who appears in Episode 6
Michaela McManus as Teleya, a Krill teacher serving on Krill destroyer Yakar, in Episode 6
Brian Thompson as Drogen, a survivalist on a planet that Finn, Isaac and Finn's children crash on in Episode 8
Rob Lowe as Darulio, a Retepsian archeologist. He briefly appears as Kelly's blue alien lover in the series premiere (uncredited) and returns in Episode 9.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
"Old Wounds"
Jon Favreau
Seth MacFarlane
September 10, 2017 (2017-09-10)
1LAB01
8.56[21]

25th-century Union command officer Ed Mercer divorces his wife, Kelly Grayson, after he catches her cheating on him. A year later, he accepts a position as Captain of the U.S.S. Orville and finds (to his dismay) that his ex-wife will serve as his First Officer. During the Orville's first mission, the hostile alien Krill Captain (Joel Swetow) attempts to steal a device that can accelerate time, which has both beneficial and dangerous applications. Mercer and Grayson rig the device to destroy itself and the Krill vessel.

2
"Command Performance"
Robert Duncan McNeill
Seth MacFarlane
September 17, 2017 (2017-09-17)
1LAB03
6.63[22]

The technologically advanced Calivon imprison Mercer and Grayson in a replica of their former home as a zoo exhibit. Alara is left in command of the Orville, as Bortus has laid an egg and must incubate it. Alara is unsure of herself, but gains confidence with the help of Claire's mentorship. Mercer and Grayson wonder if they could have made their relationship work, but finally conclude that they were never compatible for a long-term romantic relationship, despite their strong camaraderie. Admiral Tucker orders Alara to return to Earth instead of approaching the powerful Calivon; Alara violates these orders and rescues Mercer and Grayson, along with an alien child, by trading an archive of Earth's reality television for them. Ed presents Alara with a medal of honor and believes he and Grayson can prevent her from being punished for insubordination. A female offspring hatches from Bortus' egg, stunning him and Klyden, as Moclan females are extremely rare.

3
"About a Girl"
Brannon Braga
Seth MacFarlane
September 21, 2017 (2017-09-21)
1LAB04
4.05[23]

When Doctor Finn refuses Bortus and Klyden's request to have their daughter undergo sex reassignment surgery, which is standard practice for Moclans on the very rare occasions when a female is born, the parents petition Mercer to order the procedure. Mercer refuses, as he (and the rest of the crew) object to performing such a procedure on a healthy infant, so Bortus and Klyden arrange to have the procedure performed on a Moclan vessel. Gordon and John change Bortus' mind by showing him Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, but Klyden still wants to proceed, revealing that he was born female. The case is arbitrated on the Moclan planet, Moclus, where Grayson represents Bortus; she casts doubt on the idea of male superiority by demonstrating that Alara is physically strong and Gordon is stupid. Ed locates a female Moclan of advanced years, Heveena, who testifies that she lived a happy and fulfilling life in seclusion, and reveals that under the pseudonym "Gondus Elden," she has become an esteemed novelist on Moclus. But Klyden and the tribunal are unconvinced, and the baby undergoes the surgery. Despite their disagreement, Bortus and Klyden are committed to one another and to giving their son, Topa, a good life.

4
"If the Stars Should Appear"
James L. Conway
Seth MacFarlane
September 28, 2017 (2017-09-28)
1LAB02
3.70[24]

The Orville encounters a huge, 2000-year-old derelict ship drifting into a star. Mercer, Grayson, Kitan, Finn, and Isaac enter, discovering an artificial biosphere and a civilization of 3 million who worship an entity called Dorahl, and do not know they are on a ship. Grayson is held prisoner by their theocratic dictator Hamelac, who imposes a death penalty on "Reformers" who believe anything exists beyond the known world. While Bortus takes the Orville to save a colony ship from a Krill attack, Grayson's crewmates rescue her and lead a group of Reformers to the alien ship's bridge. An ancient recording from Captain Jahavus Dorahl (played by Liam Neeson) reveals that it was a generation ship disabled by an ion storm. Isaac initiates repairs and opens the hull's window, enabling the populace to see stars for the first time, moving even Hamelac. Mercer makes arrangements for the Union to train the people to operate their ship. Meanwhile, Klyden is frustrated that Bortus' duties leave him little time for family.

5
"Pria"
Jonathan Frakes
Seth MacFarlane
October 5, 2017 (2017-10-05)
1LAB05
3.43[25]

The Orville comes to the rescue of a mining ship. Grayson is suspicious of their new guest, Pria Lavesque (Charlize Theron), to whom Mercer is clearly attracted. Grayson's concerns are shown to have merit when Pria is discovered to be a time-traveling artifact dealer from the 29th Century. Pria claims to have rescued the Orville from a dark matter storm that would have killed them all, mainly so she could sell the ship to an artifact buyer in her own time. Meanwhile, Malloy tries to teach the concept of humor to Isaac, which soon backfires for him when Isaac pulls off a very unexpected practical joke.

6
"Krill"
Jon Cassar
David A. Goodman
October 12, 2017 (2017-10-12)
1LAB06
3.37[26]

After recovering a Krill shuttle intact, Mercer and Malloy are ordered to pose as Krill soldiers in order to board one of their vessels and get a copy of the Ankhana, a sacred religious text. They are forced to change priorities when they learn that the Krill plan to detonate a powerful bomb over a remote Union colony. Rather than destroy the bomb, and therefore the ship, they exploit the Krill's natural weakness to sunlight to eliminate all the crew members, with the exception of a classroom full of children and their teacher Teleya, who warns Mercer that his actions will only reinforce the Krill's hatred for the Union.

7
"Majority Rule"
Tucker Gates
Seth MacFarlane
October 26, 2017 (2017-10-26)
1LAB07
4.18[27]

An undercover team led by Grayson lands on Sargas 4, an Earth-like planet with a culture similar to that of 21st-century human civilization, to locate two missing anthropologists. There, LaMarr is arrested after a video of him dancing with a beloved statue receives more than a million "down" votes, and must convince the public to pardon him or be subjected to "treatment" for his actions. Alara and Claire locate one of the missing, but find him in an irreversible lobotomized state. With LaMarr facing a final vote to determine his guilt, Mercer brings one of the planet's inhabitants, Lysella, aboard the Orville and learns about the "Master Feed", which Isaac is able to hack and upload doctored images of John, narrowly swinging the vote in his favor. Now free, John and the others return to the ship and depart. The next day, Lysella decides against taking part in a public vote.

8
"Into the Fold"
Brannon Braga
Brannon Braga & Andre Bormanis
November 2, 2017 (2017-11-02)
1LAB08
3.83[28]

While traveling to a recreational planet in a shuttle, Isaac, Finn, and her sons Marcus and Ty fall into a spatial fold, and crash on a planet devastated by famine and disease, and populated by cannibals. Finn is separated from the other three and captured by a survivalist named Drogen. While she works to escape, Isaac, who is unfamiliar with the care of human children, is forced to protect her sons while he tries to fix the shuttle's communication systems in order to send a distress signal. Ty becomes ill with the planet's indigenous disease. After Finn kills Drogen and reunites with the others, Isaac and Marcus hold off a large attack by the cannibals long enough for the Orville to rescue them. After Finn cures Ty's infection, Isaac tells her that, for all the faults he sees in the children, he still thinks of them fondly.

9
"Cupid's Dagger"
Jamie Babbit
Liz Heldens
November 9, 2017 (2017-11-09)
1LAB09
3.69[29]

Two alien species, the Navarians and the Bruidians, are moments away from battling over control for the planet Lapovius, and enlist the help of the Orville to scan an ancient artifact found on the planet to see which species' DNA is located on it. The Orville brings on Darulio, who is not only the one who can complete the scan, but the person who Kelly had slept with ending their marriage. Ed is furious, but Darulio's annual pheromonal release causes Ed and Kelly to individually have sex with him. Finn is also affected by Darulio's pheromones, which leads to a sexual encounter with Yaphit.

10
"Firestorm"[30]
Jon Cassar[31]
TBA
November 16, 2017 (2017-11-16)
1LAB10
TBD

11
"New Dimensions"[32]
Kelly Cronin[33]
TBA
November 30, 2017 (2017-11-30)
1LAB11
TBD

12
TBA
Kevin Hooks[34]
TBA
TBA
1LAB12
TBD

13
TBA
Seth MacFarlane[35]
TBA
TBA
1LAB13
TBD

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: MacFarlane originally wrote The Orville as a spec script, which was given a 13-episode order by Fox on May 4, 2016, making it the first live-action television series created by MacFarlane, as well as his first live-action starring role on television.[36]

text: Following the project's greenlight, MacFarlane stated, “I've wanted to do something like this show ever since I was a kid, and the timing finally feels right. [...] I think this is gonna be something special.”[5]

text: According to MacFarlane, The Orville was inspired by The Twilight Zone and Star Trek.[37] He was also encouraged to sell the series due to the success of Guardians of the Galaxy and Deadpool.[38]

text: Casting[edit]

text: On July 29, 2016, MacFarlane's role was revealed to be Ed Mercer, the captain of the Orville, while Adrianne Palicki had been cast as Kelly Grayson, Ed's ex-wife and the newly appointed first officer of the Orville, and Scott Grimes, who voices Steve Smith on American Dad! (another show created by MacFarlane), was cast as Gordon Malloy, Ed's best friend whom he hires to pilot the Orville.[9] On August 19, Peter Macon and J Lee were cast as series regulars.[39][40] On October 31, Halston Sage and Penny Johnson Jerald joined the cast.[41] On December 8, Mark Jackson was cast.[16] On April 3, 2017, Chad L. Coleman was added as a series regular and Larry Joe Campbell was cast in a recurring role.[42]

text: At San Diego Comic Con, MacFarlane said that Charlize Theron would guest-star in an episode.[43] The two had previously co-starred in A Million Ways to Die in the West.

text: Filming[edit]

text: On August 24, 2016, Jon Favreau signed on to direct the pilot.[44] Production on the pilot episode began in late 2016, and the rest of the episodes began filming on March 27, 2017.[36] Production wrapped on August 23, 2017.[35]

text: Jonathan Frakes and Robert Duncan McNeill also direct episodes of the show; both Star Trek actors, the two have also directed Star Trek episodes in the past.[45]

text: Music[edit]

text: The show uses a 75-piece orchestra for the music in each episode, alongside several different composers. MacFarlane said "We score it like a movie" and "We really put as much into that as we do into the effects."[46]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 18% approval rating, with an average rating of 4.61/10 based on 38 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "An odd jumble of campiness and sincerity, homage and satire, The Orville never quite achieves liftoff."[47] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 36 out of 100, based on 21 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[48]

text: Liz Miller writing for IndieWire compared the series to Star Trek, calling it a rip-off and "Creatively, Morally, and Ethically Bankrupt". She criticized the lack of creativity, the blatant imitation, and was surprised that the show is "uninterested in being a comedy".[45]

text: Erik Kain of Forbes gave a positive review of the show with the observation that "All the optimism and sincerity and lightheartedness of Star Trek is here, and in many ways it's kind of wonderful. I'm honestly surprised something like this exists." He says the critics were wrong and suggests their opinions are based on disliking MacFarlane and his type of humor.[49]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The Orville has performed well in ratings. After its Sunday premiere on September 10, the show moved to Thursday nights at 9 pm. In its first broadcast in the new time slot, The Orville became Fox's highest rated Thursday 9pm broadcast in two years.[50]

text: After taking into account DVR and VOD, The Orville was Fox's most-viewed drama debut since the premiere of Empire in 2015.

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Old Wounds"
September 10, 2017
2.7/9
8.56[21]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

2
"Command Performance"
September 17, 2017
2.2/8
6.63[22]
0.9
2.42
3.1
9.05[51]

3
"About a Girl"
September 21, 2017
1.1/4
4.05[23]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

4
"If the Stars Should Appear"
September 28, 2017
1.1/4
3.70[24]
1.0
3.11
2.1
6.81[52]

5
"Pria"
October 5, 2017
0.9/3
3.43[25]
1.2
3.35
2.1
6.79[53]

6
"Krill"
October 12, 2017
1.0/4
3.37[26]
1.1
3.32
2.1
6.69[54]

7
"Majority Rule"
October 26, 2017
1.2/5
4.18[27]
1.1
3.11
2.3
7.29[55]

8
"Into the Fold"
November 2, 2017
1.0/4
3.83[28]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

9
"Cupid's Dagger"
November 9, 2017
1.0/4
3.69[29]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

10
"Firestorm"
November 16, 2017
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD


document_title: Vehicle registration plates of the European Union

question_text: what does b mean on a number plate

question_tokens: what does b mean on a number plate

root

text: Format[edit]

text: The common EU format of having a blue section on the extreme left with EU circle of stars and the country code was introduced by Council Regulation (EC) No 2411/98 of 3 November 1998[1] and entered into force on the 11 November 1998. It was based on a model registration plate which several member states had introduced: Ireland (1991),[2] Portugal (1992)[3] and Germany (1994).[4] Luxembourg plates had displayed the European Flag on the left part since 1988.

tag: p

text: The EU format is optional in Finland[citation needed] and the United Kingdom. Denmark implemented the EU format on a voluntary basis in 2009.[5] Vehicles with EU number plates do not need to display the white oval international vehicle registration code while within another member state. However,   according to the small print of the French legislation, the specified size of the lettering is slightly larger than that used on UK plates.[6]

text: Variants[edit]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Within the United Kingdom, motorists with vehicles registered in Great Britain may use number plates featuring the national flag of England, Scotland and Wales, or alternatively the Union Flag, together with the code name "ENG" for England, "SCO" for Scotland, "Wales" or "CYM" for Wales, "GB" for Great Britain or "UK" for United Kingdom respectively. Although not officially recognised outside the UK, they are authorised by the nation's Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency.[7] However, motorists with vehicles registered in Northern Ireland fall within the jurisdiction of the Driver & Vehicle Agency, which does not permit the letters NI to appear alongside any flag; only the Union Flag alongside GB/UK or the EU format (featuring in this case the letters GB), being optionally permitted.[8]  The British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar, unlike the Crown dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, counts as part of the EU and, therefore, uses number plates in the EU format.

text: Other countries[edit]

text: Several non-EU European states have implemented similar formats, replacing the circle of stars with own symbols. Norway is an example of such state, issuing europlates with the Norwegian flag replacing the circle of stars. From those states that joined in the 2004 enlargement of the European Union, Malta already used europlates, Slovakia had used its coat of arms instead of the circle of stars, while Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland had used EU number plates displaying the national flag before their accession, as did Bulgaria and Romania before their accession in 2007. These formats are valid in countries that have signed the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, as both the EU format and e.g. the Norwegian format satisfies the requirements set in the convention.

text: Validity[edit]

text: Following countries are required to recognize EU format licence plate as an international vehicle registration code:

text:
all EU member states
European Economic Area members
signatories to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic[9]

tag: ul

text: Gallery of blue sections[edit]

text: List[edit]

text: Vehicle registration plates of each European Union country are described in the following table:

text:
Member state
Abbr.
Example

 Austria
A

 Belgium
B

 Bulgaria
BG

 Croatia
HR

 Cyprus
CY

 Czech Republic
CZ

 Denmark
DK

 Estonia
EST

 Finland
FIN

 France
F

 Germany
D

 Gibraltar
GBZ

 Greece
GR

 Hungary
H

 Ireland
IRL

 Italy
I

 Latvia
LV

 Lithuania
LT

 Luxembourg
L

 Malta
M

 Netherlands
NL

 Poland
PL

 Portugal
P

 Romania
RO

 Slovakia
SK

 Slovenia
SLO

 Spain
E

 Sweden
S

 United Kingdom
GB

tag: table

text: Motorcycle plates[edit]

text: These are used for motorcycles and vehicles where mounting space is an issue, such as taxis which display their licence plate beside the registration plate, and vehicles imported from countries where the mounting space was not originally designed to take European-sized plates (e.g. United States).

text:
Member state
Abbr.
Example

 France
F

 Germany
D

 Italy
I

 Latvia
LV

 Malta
M

 Poland
PL

 Spain
E

 Sweden
S

 United Kingdom
GB


document_title: National Archives Building

question_text: where is the declaration of independence located in washington dc

text: National Archives Building

text: Exhibits[edit]

text: It holds the original copies of the three main formative documents of the United States and its government: the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. It also hosts an original version of the 1297 Magna Carta confirmed by Edward I.[4] These are displayed to the public in the main chamber of the National Archives, which is called the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom. The National Archives Building also exhibits other important American historical documents such as the Articles of Confederation, the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, the Emancipation Proclamation, and collections of photography and other historically and culturally significant American artifacts.

text: Once inside the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom, there are no lines to see the individual documents and visitors are allowed to walk from document to document as they wish. Photography is not permitted in the National Archives Museum.[5] Photography with natural light is permitted in research rooms.[6]

text: History[edit]

text: Before the National Archives Building[edit]

text: From its founding, the U.S. federal government has documented its policies and decisions, but for almost 150 years it had virtually no method or place to safeguard historically important records. During those years, officials occasionally decried federal neglect, or too often, fires destroyed important documents, reinforcing the need for an archives. By the end of the 19th century, a few architects had even submitted plans to the government for an archives or a hall of records. By the early 20th century an organized effort aimed at creating the National Archives began, but not until 1926 did Congress finally approve the National Archives Building.[7]

text: Planning stages[edit]

text: That year, Congress authorized construction of the National Archives Building as part of a massive public buildings program designed to beautify the center of Washington, DC, and provide office space for the growing federal bureaucracy. This program led to the design and construction of buildings within the Federal Triangle. Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon gave the responsibility for designing the Triangle grouping to a Board of Architectural Consultants. Louis A. Simon, the Supervisory Architect of the Treasury Department, drafted a preliminary design for the Archives, placing it along Pennsylvania Avenue between 9th and 10th Streets, NW.

text: In late 1927, preliminary drawings of the individual Triangle buildings were incorporated into a formal presentation of the entire project. The drawings became the basis for a three-dimensional scale model that was publicly unveiled in April 1929. The next month, after examining the model, the Commission of Fine Arts was highly critical of Simon's design for an archives. Commissioners suggested that the noted architect John Russell Pope be added to the Board of Architectural Consultants and that he design the National Archives. Pope was asked to join when the death of a board member created a vacancy.

text: Pope's architectural vision transformed both the location and design of the National Archives Building. He successfully proposed relocating the Archives to the block between Seventh and Eighth Streets, a site he believed demanded a monumental building such as the National Archives. In place of Simon's design, Pope's National Archives was to be a neoclassical temple befitting an institution dedicated to American history.[7]

text: Breaking ground[edit]

text: Ground was broken for the National Archives on September 5, 1931, by the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, Ferry K. Heath.[8] By the time President Herbert Hoover laid the cornerstone of the building in February 1933, significant problems had arisen. Because the massive structure was to be constructed above an underground stream, 8,575 piles had been driven into the unstable soil, before pouring a huge concrete bowl as a foundation.[clarification needed] Another difficulty arose over the choice of building materials. Both limestone and granite were authorized as acceptable, but construction began during the darkest days of the Great Depression, and suppliers of each material lobbied fiercely to have the government use their stone. Ultimately, as in the other Federal Triangle buildings, limestone was used for the exterior superstructure and granite for the base.[7]

text: Construction[edit]

text: Constructing the National Archives was a mammoth task. Not only was the building the most ornate structure on the Federal Triangle, but it also called for installation of specialized air-handling systems and filters, reinforced flooring, and thousands of feet of shelving to meet the building's archival storage requirements. The building's exterior took more than 4 years to finish and required a host of workers ranging from sculptors and model makers to air-conditioning contractors and structural-steel workers.[7]

text: Completion[edit]

text: In November 1935, 120 National Archives staff members moved into their uncompleted building. Most of the exterior work was complete, but many stack areas, where records would be stored, had no shelving for incoming records. Work also continued on the Rotunda and other public spaces. More significantly, earlier estimates about the need for future stack space proved to be quite insufficient. Almost as soon as Pope's original design was complete, a project to fill the Archives' interior courtyard began, doubling storage space from 374,000 square feet to more than 757,000 square feet.[clarification needed]

text: John Russell Pope's vision of the Archives as a temple of history has been preserved through maintenance and periodic restoration work on the building since the mid-1930s. Over the years, however, more records filled the building and even the courtyard expansion proved to be inadequate. By the late 1960s, the building reached its storage capacity of 900,000 cubic feet and the agency began renting large amounts of storage and administrative space.[clarification needed] The 1993 completion of a second National Archives building in College Park, Maryland, added 1.8 million square feet to the National Archives, providing the nation with the most modern archives facility in the world.[7]

text: Reencasement and renovation[edit]

text: The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights have been displayed to the public in the Rotunda of the National Archives Building since 1952. That year National Bureau of Standards placed the documents into hermetically sealed encasements filled with inert helium gas, which the Bureau believed would preserve the Charters well into the next century. Since the 1952 installation, National Archives conservators have conducted regular visual inspections of the encased documents. Since 1987, these inspections have been greatly enhanced through the use of an electronic imaging monitoring system developed for NARA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California.

text: In an electronic inspection of the documents in 1995, conservators noticed changes in the glass encasements of the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights. Glass experts from Libby-Owens-Ford (the original manufacturer of the encasement glass) and the Corning Glass Museum determined that the case glass components were showing signs of deterioration. Both the glass experts and the National Archives Advisory Committee on Preservation recommended that the Charters be reencased within seven years (by 2002) to ensure the continued safety and preservation of the documents.

text: In July 2001, the Charters were taken off display in the Rotunda to be removed from their deteriorating cases. National Archives conservators removed the documents from their cases and analyzed their condition. Appropriate conservation measures were taken on each document and they have been installed in the new encasements, returning to public display in September 2003.[7]

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
Congress authorized construction in 1926.[8]
Ground was broken on September 5, 1931.[8]
President Herbert Hoover laid the cornerstone in February 1933.[8]
First opened in 1935.[8]
Completed in 1937.[8]
A renovation was completed in late 2004.[9][10]
Public display space expanded from 12,000 to more than 19,000 square feet in 2013.[11]

text: Warren Commission[edit]

text: Investigating the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the Warren Commission met formally for the first time on December 5, 1963 in a hearing room on the second floor of the National Archives Building.[12]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
National Archives Building at night

National Archives Building, June 2016


document_title: Treaty Clause

question_text: who has to ratify a treaty made by the president

text: Treaty Clause

text: Full text of the clause[edit]

text: [The President] shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur...

text: One of three types of international accord[edit]

text: In the United States, the term "treaty" is used in a more restricted legal sense than in international law. U.S. law distinguishes what it calls treaties from congressional-executive agreements and sole-executive agreements.[1] All three classes are considered treaties under international law; they are distinct only from the perspective of internal United States law. Distinctions among the three concern their method of ratification: by two-thirds of the Senate, by normal legislative process, or by the President alone, respectively. The Treaty Clause [2] empowers the President to make or enter into treaties with the "advice and consent" of two-thirds of the Senate. In contrast, normal legislation becomes law after approval by simple majorities in both the Senate and the House of Representatives and the signature of the President.

text: Throughout U.S. history, the President has also made international "agreements" through congressional-executive agreements (CEAs) that are ratified with only a majority from both houses of Congress, or sole-executive agreements made by the President alone.[1] Though the Constitution does not expressly provide for any alternative to the Article II treaty procedure, Article I, Section 10 of the Constitution does distinguish between treaties (which states are forbidden to make) and agreements (which states may make with the consent of Congress).[3] The Supreme Court of the United States has considered congressional-executive and sole-executive agreements to be valid, and they have been common throughout American history. Thomas Jefferson explained that the Article II treaty procedure is not necessary when there is no long-term commitment:

text: It is desirable, in many instances, to exchange mutual advantages by Legislative Acts rather than by treaty: because the former, though understood to be in consideration of each other, and therefore greatly respected, yet when they become too inconvenient, can be dropped at the will of either party: whereas stipulations by treaty are forever irrevocable but by joint consent....[4]

text: A further distinction embodied in U.S. law is between self-executing treaties, which do not require additional legislative action, and non-self-executing treaties which do require the enactment of new laws.[1][5] These various distinctions of procedure and terminology do not affect the binding status of accords under international law. Nevertheless, they do have major implications under U.S. domestic law. In Missouri v. Holland, the Supreme Court ruled that the power to make treaties under the U.S. Constitution is a power separate from the other enumerated powers of the federal government, and hence the federal government can use treaties to legislate in areas which would otherwise fall within the exclusive authority of the states. By contrast, a congressional-executive agreement can only cover matters which the Constitution explicitly places within the powers of Congress and the President.[1] Likewise, a sole-executive agreement can only cover matters within the President's authority or matters in which Congress has delegated authority to the President.[1] For example, a treaty may prohibit states from imposing capital punishment on foreign nationals, but a congressional-executive agreement or sole-executive agreement cannot.

text: In general, arms control agreements are often ratified by the treaty mechanism.[6] At the same time, trade agreements (such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and United States accession to the World Trade Organization) are generally voted on as a CEA, and such agreements typically include an explicit right to withdraw after giving sufficient written notice to the other parties.[7] If an international commercial accord contains binding "treaty" commitments, then a two-thirds vote of the Senate may be required.[8]

text: Between 1946 and 1999, the United States completed nearly 16,000 international agreements. Only 912 of those agreements were treaties, submitted to the Senate for approval as outlined in Article II of the United States Constitution. Since the Franklin Roosevelt presidency, only 6% of international accords have been completed as Article II treaties.[1] Most of these executive agreements consist of congressional-executive agreements.

text: Repeal[edit]

text: American law is that international accords become part of the body of U.S. federal law.[1] Consequently, Congress can modify or repeal treaties by subsequent legislative action, even if this amounts to a violation of the treaty under international law. This was held, for instance, in the Head Money Cases. The most recent changes will be enforced by U.S. courts entirely independent of whether the international community still considers the old treaty obligations binding upon the U.S.[1]

text: Additionally, an international accord that is inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution is void under domestic U.S. law, the same as any other federal law in conflict with the Constitution. This principle was most clearly established in the case of Reid v. Covert.[9] The Supreme Court could rule an Article II treaty provision to be unconstitutional and void under domestic law, although it has not yet done so.

text: In Goldwater v. Carter,[10] Congress challenged the constitutionality of then-president Jimmy Carter's unilateral termination of a defense treaty. The case went before the Supreme Court and was never heard; a majority of six Justices ruled that the case should be dismissed without hearing an oral argument, holding that "The issue at hand ... was essentially a political question and could not be reviewed by the court, as Congress had not issued a formal opposition." In his opinion, Justice Brennan dissented, "The issue of decision making authority must be resolved as a matter of constitutional law, not political discretion; accordingly, it falls within the competence of the courts". Presently, there is no official Supreme Court ruling on whether the President has the power to break a treaty without the approval of Congress, and the courts also declined to interfere when President George W. Bush unilaterally withdrew the United States from the ABM Treaty in 2002, six months after giving the required notice of intent.[11]

text: Scope of presidential powers[edit]

text: Presidents have regarded the Article II treaty process as necessary where an international accord would bind a future president. For example, Theodore Roosevelt explained:

text: The Constitution did not explicitly give me power to bring about the necessary agreement with Santo Domingo. But the Constitution did not forbid my doing what I did. I put the agreement into effect, and I continued its execution for two years before the Senate acted; and I would have continued it until the end of my term, if necessary, without any action by Congress. But it was far preferable that there should be action by Congress, so that we might be proceeding under a treaty which was the law of the land and not merely by a direction of the Chief Executive which would lapse when that particular executive left office. I therefore did my best to get the Senate to ratify what I had done.[12]

text: A sole-executive agreement can only be negotiated and entered into through the president's authority (1) in foreign policy, (2) as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, (3) from a prior act of Congress, or (4) from a prior treaty.[1] Agreements beyond these competencies must have the approval of Congress (for congressional-executive agreements) or the Senate (for treaties).

text: In 1972, Congress passed legislation requiring the president to notify Congress of any executive agreements that are formed.[13]

text: Although the nondelegation doctrine prevents Congress from delegating its legislative authority to the executive branch, Congress has allowed the executive to act as Congress's "agent" in trade negotiations, such as by setting tariffs, and, in the case of Trade Promotion Authority, by solely authoring the implementing legislation for trade agreements. The constitutionality of this delegation was upheld by the Supreme Court in Field v. Clark (1892).


document_title: CONCACAF Gold Cup

question_text: when was the last time usa won the gold cup

text: CONCACAF Gold Cup

text: History[edit]

text: Championships before CONCACAF[edit]

text: Before the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF) was formed in 1961, association football in the region was divided into smaller, regional divisions. The two main bodies consisted of the Confederación Centroamericana y del Caribe de Fútbol (CCCF) founded in 1938 (consisting of Central America and most of the Caribbean) and the North American Football Confederation (NAFC) founded in 1946 (consisting of the North American nations of United States, Mexico, Canada, and Cuba). Each confederation held its own competition, the CCCF Championship and the NAFC Championship. The CCCF held 10 championships from 1941–1961, Costa Rica winning seven (1941, ’46, ’48, ’53, ’55, ’60, ’61), and one each by El Salvador (1943), Panama (1951) and Haiti (1957). The NAFC held four championships in 1947 and 1949 and later, after 41 years of absence, in 1990 and 1991 for the North American zone as the North American Nations Cup with Mexico winning two (47 & ’49) and Canada winning one (1990) before the introduction of the CONCACAF Gold Cup. [3]

text: CONCACAF Championship (1963–1989)[edit]

text: CONCACAF was founded in 1961 through the merging of NAFC and CCCF which resulted in a single championship being held for the continent. The first CONCACAF tournament was held in 1963 in El Salvador with Costa Rica becoming the first champion. The CONCACAF Campeonato de Naciones, as it was called, was held every two years from 1963–1973. The second tournament was held in Guatemala in 1965 when Mexico defeated the host country in the final of a six-team tournament. The 1967 competition was held in Honduras and saw a third champion crowned, Guatemala. Costa Rica won their second title as hosts in 1969, knocking off Guatemala, while two years later, Mexico won their second championship as the tournament moved to Trinidad & Tobago, the first time in the Caribbean. In 1973, the tournament kept the same format of six teams playing a single round-robin, but there were bigger stakes attached: CONCACAF’s berth in the FIFA World Cup tournament in 1974. In Port-au-Prince, Haiti, the host country pulled off a shocking upset by winning the tournament and claiming a spot in the World Cup in West Germany.

text: With the Campeonato de Naciones doubling as the final World Cup qualifying tournament, the next two editions were held in Mexico City and Tegucigalpa, Honduras in 1977 and 1981, respectively. In each case the host country was crowned champion and earned a spot in the World Cup. In 1985 and 1989, the winner of the World Cup qualifying tournament was again crowned Confederation champion. Canada and Costa Rica were named champions in 1985 and 1989, receiving a trophy.[4][better source needed]

text: CONCACAF Gold Cup (1991–present)[edit]

text: In 1990, CONCACAF brought the CONCACAF Championship to an end and created the CONCACAF Gold Cup, with the USA hosting the first competition in 1991. The host country was the inaugural champion of the eight-team tournament. Mexico dominated the remainder of the decade, winning three consecutive CONCACAF Gold Cup titles in 1993, 1996 and 1998.

text: In 1996, the Gold Cup field included its first guest team, the defending FIFA World Cup Champions Brazil. Guests were invited to participate in the six Gold Cup tournaments from 1996 to 2005. Starting with the 2000 Gold Cup, the tournament field was increased to twelve teams and for the 2007 tournament, the Gold Cup again was contested exclusively by nations within CONCACAF.

text: The 2007 Gold Cup was contested in the United States where the hosts successfully defended their title beating Mexico in the final 2–1 in Chicago; Canada and Guadeloupe shared third place. Mexico won the 2009 Gold Cup by beating the United States 5–0. In the 2011 Gold Cup, Mexico defeated the USA 4–2 in the final while the USA won the 2013 Gold Cup by beating Panama 1–0.

text: Since the formation of the Gold Cup in 1991, the CONCACAF Championship has been won seven times by Mexico, six times by the United States, and once by Canada. Runners-up include Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Honduras, Panama, and Jamaica.

text: In January 2017, Victor Montagliani announced the expansion of the Gold Cup from 12 to 16 teams, starting with the 2019 tournament.[5]

text: Tournament results[edit]

text:
CONCACAF Gold Cup

Year
Host

Final

Third Place Match

Winner
Score
Runner-up
3rd Place
Score
4th Place

1991
Details
 United States

United States
0–0 a.e.t.
(4–3 pen.)

Honduras

Mexico
2–0

Costa Rica

1993
Details
 United States
 Mexico

Mexico
4–0

United States
 Costa Rica
 Jamaica
1–1
a.e.t. (1)

1996
Details
 United States

Mexico
2–0

Brazil

United States
3–0

Guatemala

1998
Details
 United States

Mexico
1–0

United States

Brazil
1–0

Jamaica

2000
Details
 United States

Canada
2–0

Colombia
Not Held

 Peru
 Trinidad and Tobago

2002
Details
 United States

United States
2–0

Costa Rica

Canada
2–1

South Korea

2003
Details
 United States
 Mexico

Mexico
1–0
a.s.d.e.t.

Brazil

United States
3–2

Costa Rica

2005
Details
 United States

United States
0–0 a.e.t.
(3–1 pen.)

Panama
Not held

 Colombia
 Honduras

2007
Details
 United States

United States
2–1

Mexico
 Canada
 Guadeloupe

2009
Details
 United States

Mexico
5–0

United States
 Costa Rica
 Honduras

2011
Details
 United States

Mexico
4–2

United States
 Honduras
 Panama

2013
Details
 United States

United States
1–0

Panama
 Honduras
 Mexico

2015
Details
 United States
 Canada

Mexico
3–1

Jamaica

Panama
1–1 a.e.t.
(3–2 pen.)

United States

2017
Details
 United States

United States
2–1

Jamaica
Not held

 Costa Rica
 Mexico

2019
TBA

TBD
-
TBD

TBD

text: (1) Costa Rica and Jamaica shared third place.

text: Teams in italics are guest nations.

text: Performance by country[edit]

text: The following table shows cumulative top four results for all editions of the CONCACAF Gold Cup. The Third Place column lists third-place match winners, and teams eliminated in semi-finals in years without a third-place match.

text:
Team
Winners
Runners-up
Third Place
Fourth Place

 Mexico
7 (1993, 1996, 1998, 2003, 2009, 2011, 2015)
1 (2007)
3 (1991, 2013, 2017)
—

 United States
6 (1991, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2017)
4 (1993, 1998, 2009, 2011)
2 (1996, 2003)
1 (2015)

 Canada
1 (2000)
—
2 (2002, 2007)
—

 Panama
—
2 (2005, 2013)
2 (2011, 2015)
—

 Jamaica
—
2 (2015, 2017)
1 (1993)
1 (1998)

 Brazil
—
2 (1996, 2003)
1 (1998)
—

 Honduras
—
1 (1991)
4 (2005, 2009, 2011, 2013)
—

 Costa Rica
—
1 (2002)
3 (1993, 2009, 2017)
2 (1991, 2003)

 Colombia
—
1 (2000)
1 (2005)
—

 Peru
—
—
1 (2000)
—

 Trinidad and Tobago
—
—
1 (2000)
—

 Guadeloupe
—
—
1 (2007)
—

 Guatemala
—
—
—
1 (1996)

 South Korea
—
—
—
1 (2002)

text: Records and statistics[edit]

text: Media coverage[edit]

text: In the United States, the CONCACAF Gold Cup airs on Fox Sports (since 2007) and Univision Deportes (since 2000). In Mexico it airs on Televisa and TV Azteca. In Canada it switched to TSN in 2017, after years on Sportsnet.

text: Official songs[edit]

text: Like most international football tournaments, the CONCACAF Gold Cup has featured official songs for each tournament since 2002. Unlike most larger tournaments, such as the FIFA World Cup, the songs were usually mainstream music released at around the same year of each tournament, in English and/or Spanish (the tournament's official languages) and the official language of the host country.

text:
Year
Official Song/Anthem(s)
Language(s)
Performer(s)
Home country

2002
"More Than a Woman"
English
Aaliyah
 United States

2003
"That Don't Impress Me Much (Greatest Hits version)"
English
Shania Twain
 Canada

2005
"Broken Home"
English
Fan 3
 United States

2007
"This Kiss (Almighty Mix)"
English
Faith Hill
 United States

"Baila la Copa"[a]
Spanish
Osé
 Venezuela

2009
"Know Your Enemy"
English
Green Day
 United States

2011
"More (RedOne Jimmy Joker Remix)"
English
Usher
 United States

2013
"Cups"
English
Anna Kendrick
 United States

"Superhero"
English
Sophia & A-Lo
 Canada

2015
"Sun Goes Down"
English
Robin Schulz with Jasmine Thompson
 England (Thompson)
 Germany (Schulz)

"All The Way"
English
Spanish
Reykon with Bebe Rexha
 Colombia (Reykon)
 United States (Rexha)

"You Are Unstoppable"
English
Conchita Wurst
 Austria

2017
"The Arena"
"Don't Let This Feeling Fade"
English
Lindsey Stirling
 United States

"Levántate"
Spanish
Gale
 Puerto Rico

"Thunder"
"Whatever It Takes"
English
Imagine Dragons
 United States


document_title: River valley civilization

question_text: which civilizations developed in the fertile valley between the tigris and euphrates rivers

text: River valley civilization

text: History[edit]

text: Civilization first began in 3500 BCE, which along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Middle East; the name given to that civilization, Mesopotamia, means "land between the rivers". The Nile valley in Egypt had been home to agricultural settlements as early as 5500 BCE, but the growth of Egypt as a civilization began around 3100 BCE. A third civilization grew up along the Indus River around 2600 BCE, in parts of what are now India and Pakistan. The fourth great river civilization emerged around 1700 BCE along the Yellow River in China, also known as the Huang-He River Civilization.[1][2]

text: Causes[edit]

text: Civilizations tended to grow up in river valleys for a number of reasons. The most obvious is access to a usually reliable source of water for agriculture and human needs. Plentiful water, and the enrichment of the soil due to annual floods, made it possible to grow excess crops beyond what was needed to sustain an agricultural village. This allowed for some members of the community to engage in non-agricultural activities such as construction of buildings and cities (the root of the word "civilization"), metal working, trade, and social organization.[3][4] Boats on the river provided an easy and efficient way to transport people and goods, allowing for the development of trade and facilitating central control of outlying areas.[5]

text: Early civilizations[edit]

text: Mesopotamia[edit]

text: Mesopotamia was the earliest river valley civilization, starting to form around 3500 BCE. The civilization was created after regular trading started relationships between multiple cities and states around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamian cities became self-run civil governments. One of the cities within this civilization, Uruk, was the first literate society in history. Eventually, they all joined together to irrigate the two rivers in order to make their dry land fertile for agricultural growth. The increase in successful farming in this civilization allowed population growth throughout the cities and states within Mesopotamia.[6]

text: Egypt[edit]

text: Egypt also created irrigation systems from its local river, the Nile River, more intricate than previous systems. The Egyptians would rotate legumes with cereal which would stop salt buildup from the fresh water and enhance the fertility of their fields. The Nile River also allowed easier travel among the civilization, eventually resulting in the creation of two kingdoms in the north and south areas of the river until both were unified into one society by 3000 BCE.[7]

text: Indus valley[edit]

text: Much of the history of the Indus valley civilization, discovered in the 1920s, is unknown. Discovered in the 1920s, Harappan society remains a mystery because the Harappan system of writing has not yet been deciphered. It was larger than either Egypt or Mesopotamia. Historians have found no evidence of violence or a ruling class; there are no distinctive burial sites and there is not a lot of evidence to suggest a formal military. However, historians believe that the lack of knowledge about the ruling class and the military is mainly due to the inability to read Harappan writing.[8]

text: Yellow River[edit]

text: The Yellow River (Huang He) area became settled around 4000 BC.[9] Many tribes settled along the river, sixth longest in the world, which was distinguished by its heavy load of yellow silt and its periodic devastating floods. Recorded Chinese history begins with the first great wall, the Xia Dynasty, which went through the Yellow River valley from 2100 to 1600 BC. A major impetus for the tribes to unite into a single kingdom was the desire to find a solution to the frequent deadly floods. The Xia dug canals to channel excess water away from the area, resulting in a strong civilization with bountiful harvests and powerful leaders. The Yellow River is often called "The Cradle of Chinese Civilization".[10]


document_title: History of the World Wide Web

question_text: when did the world wide web become popular

text: History of the World Wide Web

text: Precursors[edit]

text: The hypertext portion of the Web in particular has an intricate intellectual history; notable influences and precursors include Vannevar Bush's Memex,[3] IBM's Generalized Markup Language,[4] and Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu.[3]

text: Paul Otlet's Mundaneum project has also been named as an early 20th century precursor of the Web.[5]

text: The concept of a global information system connecting homes is prefigured in "A Logic Named Joe", a 1946 short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called "logics," are present in every home. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story anticipates a ubiquitous information environment similar to the Web. The cultural impact of the web was imagined even further back in a short story by E. M. Forster, "The Machine Stops," first published in 1909.

text: 1980–1991: Invention and implementation of the Web[edit]

text: In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee, an English independent contractor at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal database of people and software models, but also as a way to play with hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had to be linked to an existing page.[3]

text: Berners-Lee's contract in 1980 was from June to December, but in 1984 he returned to CERN in a permanent role, and considered its problems of information management: physicists from around the world needed to share data, yet they lacked common machines and any shared presentation software.

text: Shortly after Berners-Lee's return to CERN, TCP/IP protocols were installed on some key non-Unix machines at the institution, turning it into the largest Internet site in Europe within a few years. As a result, CERN's infrastructure was ready for Berners-Lee to create the Web.[6]

text: Berners-Lee wrote a proposal on March 13, 1989 for "a large hypertext database with typed links".[7] Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners-Lee was encouraged by his boss, Mike Sendall, to begin implementing his system on a newly acquired NeXT workstation.[8] He considered several names, including Information Mesh,[7] The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled on World Wide Web.[9]

text: Berners-Lee found an enthusiastic supporter in Robert Cailliau. Berners-Lee and Cailliau pitched Berners-Lee's ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September 1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate his vision of marrying hypertext with the Internet.[10]

text: By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9,[11] the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first Web browser (named WorldWideWeb, which was also a Web editor), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server (http://info.cern.ch), and the first Web pages that described the project itself. The browser could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files as well. However, it could run only on the NeXT; Nicola Pellow therefore created a simple text browser, called the Line Mode Browser, that could run on almost any computer.[12] To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web — previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers.[12]

text: While inventing and working on setting up the Web, Berners-Lee spent most of his working hours in Building 31 (second floor) at CERN (46°13′57″N 6°02′42″E / 46.2325°N 6.0450°E / 46.2325; 6.0450 (CERN Building 31, Birthplace of the World Wide Web)), but also at his two homes, one in France, one in Switzerland.[13] In January 1991 the first Web servers outside CERN itself were switched on.[14]

text: The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNC-Chapel Hill in North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that he has a copy of a page sent to him in 1991 by Berners-Lee which is the oldest known web page. Jones stored the plain-text page, with hyperlinks, on a floppy disk and on his NeXT computer.[15] CERN put the oldest known web page back online in 2014, complete with hyperlinks that helped users get started and helped them navigate what was then a very small web.[16][17]

text: On August 6, 1991,[18] Berners-Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt.hypertext newsgroup, inviting collaborators.[19] This date is sometimes confused with the public availability of the first web servers, which had occurred months earlier.

text: Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the VM/CMS operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to display SLAC's catalog of online documents;[12] this was the first Web server outside of Europe and the first in North America.[20] The www-talk mailing list was started in the same month.[14]

text: In 1992 the Computing and Networking Department of CERN, headed by David Williams, did not support Berners-Lee's work. A two-page email sent by Williams stated that the work of Berners-Lee, with the goal of creating a facility to exchange information such as results and comments from CERN experiments to the scientific community, was not the core activity of CERN and was a misallocation of CERN's IT resources. Following this decision, Tim Berners-Lee left CERN despite many of his peers in the IT center advocating for his support, in particular, M. Ben Segal from the distributed computing SHIFT project. He left for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he continued to develop the HTTP protocol.

text: An early CERN-related contribution to the Web was the parody band Les Horribles Cernettes, whose promotional image is believed to be among the Web's first five pictures.[21]

text: 1992–1995: Growth of the Web[edit]

text: In keeping with its birth at CERN and the first page opened, early adopters of the World Wide Web were primarily university-based scientific departments or physics laboratories such as Fermilab and SLAC. By January 1993 there were fifty Web servers across the world. In April 1993 CERN made the World Wide Web available on a royalty-free basis.[22] By October 1993 there were over five hundred servers online.[14] Two of the earliest webcomics started on the World Wide Web in 1993: Doctor Fun and NetBoy.[23][24]

text: Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web protocol and the then-popular Gopher protocol, which provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a file system rather than through HTML files. Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages, such as Berners-Lee's first site at http://info.cern.ch/, or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What's New" page. Some sites were also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full-text searches similar to the capability later provided by search engines.

text: By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still minute compared to present figures, but quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiring examples of today's most popular services.

text: Early browsers[edit]

text: Initially, a web browser was available only for the NeXT operating system. This shortcoming was discussed in January 1992,[14] and alleviated in April 1992 by the release of Erwise, an application developed at the Helsinki University of Technology, and in May by ViolaWWW, created by Pei-Yuan Wei, which included advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting, and animation.[12] ViolaWWW was originally an application for HyperCard. Both programs ran on the X Window System for Unix.[12] In 1992, the first tests between browsers on different platforms were concluded successfully between buildings 513 and 31 in CERN, between browsers on the NexT station and the X11-ported Mosaic browser.

text: Students at the University of Kansas adapted an existing text-only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web. Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a website not accessible through Lynx wasn’t worth visiting.

text: The first Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School to provide legal information, since access to Windows was more widespread amongst lawyers than access to Unix. Cello was released in June 1993.[12]

text: The Web was first popularized by Mosaic,[25] a graphical browser launched in 1993 by Marc Andreessen's team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC).[26] The origins of Mosaic date to 1992. In November 1992, the NCSA at the University of Illinois (UIUC) established a website. In December 1992, Andreessen and Eric Bina, students attending UIUC and working at the NCSA, began work on Mosaic with funding from the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a US-federal research and development program.[27] Andreessen and Bina released a Unix version of the browser in February 1993; Mac and Windows versions followed in August 1993.[14] The browser gained popularity due to its strong support of integrated multimedia, and the authors’ rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new features.

text: After graduation from UIUC, Andreessen and James H. Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed Mosaic Communications Corporation in April 1994, to develop the Mosaic Netscape browser commercially. The company later changed its name to Netscape, and the browser was developed further as Netscape Navigator.

text: Web governance[edit]

text: In May 1994, the first International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau,[28][10] was held at CERN;[29] the conference has been held every year since. In April 1993, CERN had agreed that anyone could use the Web protocol and code royalty-free; this was in part a reaction to the perturbation caused by the University of Minnesota's announcement that it would begin charging license fees for its implementation of the Gopher protocol.

text: In September 1994, Berners-Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the European Commission. It comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners-Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C decided that its standards must be based on royalty-free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone.

text: 1996–1998: Commercialization of the Web[edit]

text: By 1996 it became obvious to most publicly traded companies that a public Web presence was no longer optional.[citation needed] Though at first people saw mainly[citation needed] the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two-way communication over the "Web" led to the possibility of direct Web-based commerce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. More dotcoms, displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web.

text: 1999–2001: "Dot-com" boom and bust[edit]

text: Low interest rates in 1998–99 facilitated an increase in start-up companies. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot-com concept.

text: Historically, the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology-inspired booms of the past including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time-sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the 1980s.

text: In 2001 the bubble burst, and many dot-com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital and failing to become profitable. Many others, however, did survive and thrive in the early 21st century. Many companies which began as online retailers blossomed and became highly profitable. More conventional retailers found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically self-sufficient. Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to generate advertising revenue. The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things in common; a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well-defined and well-served.

text: 2002–present: The Web becomes ubiquitous[edit]

text: In the aftermath of the dot-com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many Internet business clients went bust. That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity charges low, helped to make high-speed Internet connectivity more affordable. During this time, a handful of companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling experience. These include airline booking sites, Google's search engine and its profitable approach to keyword-based advertising, as well as eBay's auction site and Amazon.com's online department store.

text: This new era also begot social networking websites, such as MySpace and Facebook, which gained acceptance rapidly and became a central part of youth culture. The 2010s also saw the emergence of various controversial trends, such as the expansion of cybercrime, of the manosphere and of internet censorship.[30]

text: Web 2.0[edit]

text: Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring user-generated and user-edited websites, was dubbed Web 2.0. The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service-oriented startups catering to a newly democratized Web.

text: As the Web became easier to query, it attained a greater ease of use overall and gained a sense of organization which ushered in a period of rapid popularization. Many new sites such as Wikipedia and its Wikimedia Foundation sister projects were based on the concept of user-edited content. In 2005, three former PayPal employees created a video viewing website called YouTube, which quickly became popular and introduced a new concept of user-submitted content in major events.

text: The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high-speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video-content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.

text: This combination of more user-created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0" feel. They have articles with embedded video, user-submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.

text: Continued extension of the Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.

text: "Web 2.0" has found a place in the English lexicon.[31]

text: The semantic web[edit]

text: Popularized by Berners-Lee's book Weaving the Web[32] and a Scientific American article by Berners-Lee, James Hendler, and Ora Lassila,[33] the term Semantic Web describes an evolution of the existing Web in which the network of hyperlinked human-readable web pages is extended by machine-readable metadata about documents and how they are related to each other, enabling automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform tasks on behalf of users. This has yet to happen. In 2006, Berners-Lee and colleagues stated that the idea "remains largely unrealized".[34]


document_title: Model Parliament

question_text: when was the model parliament first called to meet

text: Model Parliament

text: The Model Parliament is the term, attributed to Frederic William Maitland, used for the 1295 Parliament of England of King Edward I.

text: This assembly included members of the clergy and the aristocracy, as well as representatives from the various counties and boroughs. Each county returned two knights, two burgesses were elected from each borough, and each city provided two citizens. This composition became the model for later parliaments, hence the name.[1]

text: A similar scheme had been used in summoning Simon de Montfort's Parliament in 1265. That Parliament, however, had been called by Simon de Montfort in the midst of the Second Barons' War against Henry III of England; that the same scheme should be adopted by a king (Henry's son and heir, who had quelled Montfort's uprising) was remarkable.

text: Edward I summoned the parliament on 13 November 1295. In calling the parliament, Edward proclaimed in his writ of summons, "what touches all, should be approved of all, and it is also clear that common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon in common."[2] At the time, Parliament's legislative authority was limited and its primary role was to levy taxes. Edward's paramount goal in summoning the parliament was to raise funds for his wars, specifically planned campaigns against the French and the Scots for the upcoming year, and countering an insurgency in Wales. This "sound finance" by taxation was a goal of summoning the parliament, but it was tied into "counsel" to the king and "the element of service" for feudalism.[1]

text: However, the resulting parliament became a model for a new function as well: the addressing of grievances with the king. "The elected members were far more anxious to establish the second function: to discuss grievances. A kind of quid pro quo was looked for: money for the Scottish campaign of 1296 would be forthcoming if certain grievances were addressed. This consciousness was growing, even if all was still in an embryonic state."[3] The concept of "Parliament" was, in fact, such that the division into House of Commons and House of Lords had not yet taken place; the Model Parliament was unicameral, summoning 49 lords to sit with 292 representatives of the Commons.[4]

text: The Model Parliament created a precedent, whereby each "successor of a baron" (which includes Lords Spiritual) who received a writ to the parliament of 1295 "had a legal right to receive a writ."[1] However, that strictly hereditary right was not recognised formally until 1387.[1]


document_title: Indian national calendar

question_text: which is the first month of the national calender of india

text: Indian national calendar

text: Calendar structure[edit]

text: The calendar months follow the signs of the tropical zodiac rather than the sidereal zodiac normally used with the Hindu calendar.

text:
#
Month (Sanskrit)
Length
Start date (Gregorian)
Tropical zodiac
Tropical zodiac (Sanskrit)

1
Chaitra
30/31
March 22/21
Aries
Meṣa

2
Vaishākha
31
April 21
Taurus
Vṛṣabha

3
Jyēshtha
31
May 22
Gemini
Mithuna

4
Āshādha
31
June 22
Cancer
Karkata

5
Shrāvana
31
July 23
Leo
simha

6
Bhaadra
31
August 23
Virgo
Kanyā

7
Āshwin
30
September 23
Libra
Tulā

8
Kārtika
30
October 23
Scorpio
Vṛścika

9
Agrahayana
30
November 22
Sagitarius
Dhanur

10
Pausha
30
December 22
Capricorn
Makara

11
Māgha
30
January 21
Aquarius
Kumbha

12
Phalguna
30
February 20
Pisces
Mīna

text: Chaitra has 30 days and starts on March 22, except in leap years, when it has 31 days and starts on March 21. The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days, to take into account the slower movement of the sun across the ecliptic at this time.

text: The names of the months are derived from older, Hindu lunisolar calendars, so variations in spelling exist, and there is a possible source of confusion as to what calendar a date belongs to.

text: Years are counted in the Saka era, which starts its year 0 in the year 78 of the Common Era. To determine leap years, add 78 to the Saka year – if the result is a leap year in the Gregorian calendar, then the Saka year is a leap year as well. Its structure is just like the Persian calendar.

text: Adoption[edit]

text: Senior Indian Astrophysicist Meghnad Saha was the head of the Calendar Reform Committee under the aegis of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Other members of the Committee were: A. C. Banerjee, K. K. Daftari, J. S. Karandikar, Gorakh Prasad, R. V. Vaidya and N. C. Lahiri. It was Saha's effort, which led to the formation of the Committee. The task before the Committee was to prepare an accurate calendar based on scientific study, which could be adopted uniformly throughout India. It was a mammoth task. The Committee had to undertake a detailed study of different calendars prevalent in different parts of the country. There were thirty different calendars. The task was further complicated by the fact that religion and local sentiments were integral to those calendars. India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, in his preface to the Report of the Committee, published in 1955, wrote: “They (different calendars) represent past political divisions in the country ... . Now that we have attained Independence, it is obviously desirable that there should be a certain uniformity in the calendar for our civic, social, and other purposes, and this should be done on a scientific approach to this problem.” [2]

text: Usage started officially at 1 Chaitra 1879, Saka Era, or 22 March 1957. However, government officials seem to largely ignore the New Year's Day of this calendar in favour of the religious calendar.[3]