document_title: List of NRL Grand finals

question_text: when did grand finals start in rugby league

text: List of NRL Grand finals

text: This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (February 2016)

text: All but 12 of the National Rugby League's (and its predecessors') 108 seasons had the premiers decided by the outcome of one final game, usually called a grand final.

text: The minor premiership is determined by who finishes first at the end of the season before the finals.

text: The premierships not decided by a grand final were determined by league ladder position.

text: Since 1954 the grand final was officially sanctioned as the only way to determine the premiership,[1] but it had been commonplace for decades before that.

text:
Year

Date

Winner

Score

Runner-up

Referee(s)

Ground

Attendance

1908 NSWRFL Final
29 Aug
South Sydney
14–12
Eastern Suburbs
C. Hutchison
RAS Showground, Sydney (now called Moore Park Showground)
4,000

1910 NSWRFL Final
17 Sep
Newtown
4–4
South Sydney
B. Finegan
RAS Showground, Sydney
14,000

1911 NSWRFL Final
16 Sep
Eastern Suburbs
11–8
Glebe
T. McMahon, Sr
RAS Showground, Sydney
20,000

1916 NSWRFL Final
26 Jul
Balmain
5–3
South Sydney
A. Farrow
SCG, Sydney
7,000

1922 NSWRFL Final
6 Sep
North Sydney
35–3
Glebe
T. McMahon, Sr
SCG, Sydney
15,000

1923 NSWRFL Final
12 Sep
Eastern Suburbs
15–12
South Sydney
T. McMahon, Sr
SCG, Sydney
15,000

1924 NSWRFL Final
29 Jul
Balmain
3–0
South Sydney
W. Neill
SCG, Sydney
15,000

1926 NSWRFL Final
18 Sep
South Sydney
11–5
University
W. Neill
RAS Showground, Sydney
20,000

1927 NSWRFL Final
17 Sep
South Sydney
20–11
St George
W. Neill
RAS Showground, Sydney
8,000

1928 NSWRFL Final
15 Sep
South Sydney
26–5
Eastern Suburbs
L. Deane
RAS Showground, Sydney
25,000

1929 NSWRFL Final
14 Sep
South Sydney
30–10
Newtown
L. Deane
Sports Ground, Sydney
16,360

1930 NSWRFL Final
4 Oct
Western Suburbs
27–2
St George
L. Deane
Sports Ground, Sydney
12,178

1931 NSWRFL Final
12 Sep
South Sydney
12–7
Eastern Suburbs
L. Deane
Sports Ground, Sydney
27,104

1932 NSWRFL Final
24 Sep
South Sydney
19–12
Western Suburbs
L. Deane
Sports Ground, Sydney
16,925

1933 NSWRFL Final
9 Sep
Newtown
18–5
St George
B. Fry
Sports Ground, Sydney
18,080

1934 NSWRFL Final
8 Sep
Western Suburbs
15–12
Eastern Suburbs
J. Murphy
Sports Ground, Sydney
25,174

1935 NSWRFL Final
14 Sep
Eastern Suburbs
19–3
South Sydney
T. McMahon, Jr
SCG, Sydney
22,106

1936 NSWRFL Final
12 Sep
Eastern Suburbs
32–12
Balmain
L. Deane
SCG, Sydney
14,395

1938 NSWRFL Final
3 Sep
Canterbury
19–6
Eastern Suburbs
T. McMahon, Jr
SCG, Sydney
20,287

1939 NSWRFL Final
2 Sep
Balmain
33–4
South Sydney
G. Bishop
SCG, Sydney
26,972

1940 NSWRFL Final
31 Aug
Eastern Suburbs
24–14
Canterbury
J. O'Brien
SCG, Sydney
24,167

1941 NSWRFL Final
30 Aug
St George
31–14
Eastern Suburbs
T. McMahon, Jr
SCG, Sydney
39,957

1942 NSWRFL Final
12 Sep
Canterbury
11–9
St George
J. O'Brien
SCG, Sydney
26,171

1943 NSWRFL Final
4 Sep
Newtown
34–7
North Sydney
J. O'Brien
SCG, Sydney
60,922

1944 NSWRFL Final
16 Sep
Balmain
12–8
Newtown
J. O'Brien
SCG, Sydney
24,186

1945 NSWRFL Final
1 Sep
Eastern Suburbs
22–18
Balmain
T. McMahon, Jr
SCG, Sydney
44,585

1946 NSWRFL Final
14 Sep
Balmain
13–12
St George
G. Bishop
Sports Ground, Sydney
32,296

1947 NSWRFL Final
20 Sep
Balmain
13–9
Canterbury
J. O'Brien
Sports Ground, Sydney
29,292

1948 NSWRFL Grand Final Chall.
18 Sep
Western Suburbs
8–5
Balmain
G. Bishop
Sports Ground, Sydney
29,122

1949 NSWRFL Grand Final Chall.
10 Sep
St George
19–12
South Sydney
G. Bishop
SCG, Sydney
56,534

1950 NSWRFL Final
16 Sep
South Sydney
21–15
Western Suburbs
T. McMahon, Jr
Sports Ground, Sydney
32,373

1951 NSWRFL Grand Final Chall.
23 Sep
South Sydney
42–14
Manly Warringah
J. O'Brien
Sports Ground, Sydney
28,505

1952 NSWRFL Grand Final Chall.
20 Sep
Western Suburbs
22–12
South Sydney
G. Bishop
SCG, Sydney
41,060

1953 NSWRFL Final
12 Sep
South Sydney
31–12
St George
D. Lawler
SCG, Sydney
44,581

1954 NSWRFL Grand Final
18 Sep
South Sydney
23–15
Newtown
J. O'Brien
SCG, Sydney
45,759

1955 NSWRFL Grand Final
17 Sep
South Sydney
12–11
Newtown
C. Pearce
SCG, Sydney
42,466

1956 NSWRFL Grand Final
8 Sep
St George
18–12
Balmain
D. Lawler
SCG, Sydney
61,987

1957 NSWRFL Grand Final
21 Sep
St George
31–9
Manly Warringah
D. Lawler
SCG, Sydney
54,399

1958 NSWRFL Grand Final
13 Sep
St George
20–9
Western Suburbs
D. Lawler
SCG, Sydney
62,283

1959 NSWRFL Grand Final
15 Aug
St George
20–0
Manly Warringah
D. Lawler
SCG, Sydney
49,457

1960 NSWRFL Grand Final
3 Sep
St George
31–6
Eastern Suburbs
D. Lawler
SCG, Sydney
53,156

1961 NSWRFL Grand Final
16 Sep
St George
22–0
Western Suburbs
D. Lawler
SCG, Sydney
61,196

1962 NSWRFL Grand Final
15 Sep
St George
9–6
Western Suburbs
J. Bradley
SCG, Sydney
41,184

1963 NSWRFL Grand Final
24 Aug
St George
8–3
Western Suburbs
D. Lawler
SCG, Sydney
69,860

1964 NSWRFL Grand Final
19 Sep
St George
11–6
Balmain
C. Pearce
SCG, Sydney
61,369

1965 NSWRFL Grand Final
18 Sep
St George
12–8
South Sydney
C. Pearce
SCG, Sydney
78,056

1966 NSWRFL Grand Final
17 Sep
St George
23–4
Balmain
C. Pearce
SCG, Sydney
61,129

1967 NSWRFL Grand Final
16 Sep
South Sydney
12–10
Canterbury
C. Pearce
SCG, Sydney
56,358

1968 NSWRFL Grand Final
21 Sep
South Sydney
13–9
Manly Warringah
C. Pearce
SCG, Sydney
54,255

1969 NSWRFL Grand Final
20 Sep
Balmain
11–2
South Sydney
K. Page
SCG, Sydney
58,825

1970 NSWRFL Grand Final
19 Sep
South Sydney
23–12
Manly Warringah
D. Lancashire
SCG, Sydney
53,241

1971 NSWRFL Grand Final
18 Sep
South Sydney
16–10
St George
K. Holman
SCG, Sydney
62,838

1972 NSWRFL Grand Final
16 Sep
Manly Warringah
19–14
Eastern Suburbs
K. Page
SCG, Sydney
54,357

1973 NSWRFL Grand Final
15 Sep
Manly Warringah
10–7
Cronulla
K. Page
SCG, Sydney
52,044

1974 NSWRFL Grand Final
21 Sep
Eastern Suburbs
19–4
Canterbury
L. Bruyeres
SCG, Sydney
57,214

1975 NSWRFL Grand Final
20 Sep
Eastern Suburbs
38–0
St George
L. Bruyeres
SCG, Sydney
63,047

1976 NSWRFL Grand Final
18 Sep
Manly Warringah
13–10
Parramatta
G. Cook
SCG, Sydney
57,343

1977 NSWRFL Grand Final
17 Sep
St George
9–9
Parramatta
G. Cook
SCG, Sydney
65,959

1977 NSWRFL Grand Final Rep.
24 Sep
St George
22–0
Parramatta
G. Cook
SCG, Sydney
47,828

1978 NSWRFL Grand Final
16 Sep
Manly Warringah
11–11
Cronulla
G. Hartley
SCG, Sydney
51,510

1978 NSWRFL Grand Final Rep.
19 Sep
Manly Warringah
16–0
Cronulla
G. Hartley
SCG, Sydney
33,552

1979 NSWRFL Grand Final
22 Sep
St George
17–13
Canterbury
G. Hartley
SCG, Sydney
50,991

1980 NSWRFL Grand Final
27 Sep
Canterbury
18–4
Eastern Suburbs
G. Hartley
SCG, Sydney
52,881

1981 NSWRFL Grand Final
27 Sep
Parramatta
20–11
Newtown
G. Hartley
SCG, Sydney
57,333

1982 NSWRFL Grand Final
26 Sep
Parramatta
21–8
Manly Warringah
J. Gocher
SCG, Sydney
52,186

1983 NSWRFL Grand Final
25 Sep
Parramatta
18–6
Manly Warringah
K. Roberts
SCG, Sydney
40,285

1984 NSWRL Grand Final
23 Sep
Canterbury
6–4
Parramatta
K. Roberts
SCG, Sydney
47,076

1985 NSWRL Grand Final
29 Sep
Canterbury
7–6
St George
K. Roberts
SCG, Sydney
44,569

1986 NSWRL Grand Final
28 Sep
Parramatta
4–2
Canterbury
M. Stone
SCG, Sydney
45,843

1987 NSWRL Grand Final
27 Sep
Manly Warringah
18–8
Canberra
M. Stone
SCG, Sydney
50,201

1988 NSWRL Grand Final
11 Sep
Canterbury
24–12
Balmain
M. Stone
SFS, Sydney (now called Allianz Stadium)
40,000

1989 NSWRL Grand Final
24 Sep
Canberra
19–14
Balmain
B. Harrigan
SFS, Sydney
40,500

1990 NSWRL Grand Final
23 Sep
Canberra
18–14
Penrith
B. Harrigan
SFS, Sydney
41,535

1991 NSWRL Grand Final
22 Sep
Penrith
19–12
Canberra
B. Harrigan
SFS, Sydney
41,815

1992 NSWRL Grand Final
27 Sep
Brisbane
28–8
St George
G. McCallum
SFS, Sydney
41,560

1993 NSWRL Grand Final
26 Sep
Brisbane
14–6
St George
G. McCallum
SFS, Sydney
42,329

1994 NSWRL Grand Final
25 Sep
Canberra
36–12
Canterbury
G. McCallum
SFS, Sydney
42,234

1995 ARL Grand Final
24 Sep
Canterbury
17–4
Manly Warringah
E. Ward
SFS, Sydney
41,127

1996 ARL Grand Final
29 Sep
Manly Warringah
20–8
St George
D. Manson
SFS, Sydney
40,985

1997 Super League Grand Final
20 Sep
Brisbane Broncos
26–8
Cronulla
B. Harrigan
QEII Stadium, Brisbane
58,912

1997 ARL Grand Final
28 Sep
Newcastle
22–16
Manly Warringah
D. Manson
SFS, Sydney
42,482

1998 NRL Grand Final
27 Sep
Brisbane
38–12
Canterbury
B. Harrigan
SFS, Sydney
40,857

1999 NRL Grand Final
26 Sep
Melbourne
20–18
St George Illawarra
B. Harrigan
Stadium Aus., Sydney (now called ANZ Stadium)
107,999

2000 NRL Grand Final
27 Aug
Brisbane
14–6
Sydney Roosters
B. Harrigan
Stadium Aus., Sydney
94,277

2001 NRL Grand Final
30 Sep
Newcastle
30–24
Parramatta
B. Harrigan
Stadium Aus., Sydney
90,414

2002 NRL Grand Final
6 Oct
Sydney Roosters
30–8
Warriors
B. Harrigan
Stadium Aus., Sydney
80,130

2003 NRL Grand Final
5 Oct
Penrith
18–6
Sydney Roosters
B. Harrigan
Stadium Aus., Sydney
81,166

2004 NRL Grand Final
3 Oct
Canterbury
16–13
Sydney Roosters
T. Mander
Stadium Aus., Sydney
82,127

2005 NRL Grand Final
2 Oct
Wests Tigers
30–16
North Queensland
T. Mander
Stadium Aus., Sydney
82,453

2006 NRL Grand Final
1 Oct
Brisbane
15–8
Melbourne
P. Simpkins
Stadium Aus., Sydney
79,609

2007 NRL Grand Final
30 Sep
Melbourne*
34–8
Manly Warringah
T. Archer
Stadium Aus., Sydney
81,392

2008 NRL Grand Final
5 Oct
Manly Warringah
40–0
Melbourne
T. Archer
Stadium Aus., Sydney
80,388

2009 NRL Grand Final
4 Oct
Melbourne*
23–16
Parramatta
T. Archer, S. Hayne
Stadium Aus., Sydney
82,538

2010 NRL Grand Final
3 Oct
St George Illawarra
32–8
Sydney Roosters
T. Archer, S. Hayne
Stadium Aus., Sydney
82,334

2011 NRL Grand Final
2 Oct
Manly Warringah
24–10
Warriors
M. Cecchin, T. Archer
Stadium Aus., Sydney
81,988

2012 NRL Grand Final
30 Sep
Melbourne
14–4
Canterbury
T. Archer, B. Cummins
Stadium Aus., Sydney
82,976

2013 NRL Grand Final
6 Oct
Sydney Roosters
26–18
Manly Warringah
S. Hayne, B. Cummins
Stadium Aus., Sydney
81,491

2014 NRL Grand Final
5 Oct
South Sydney
30–6
Canterbury
S. Hayne, G. Sutton

Stadium Aus., Sydney
83,833

2015 NRL Grand Final
4 Oct
North Queensland
17–16
Brisbane
G. Sutton, B. Cummins
ANZ Stadium, Sydney
82,758

2016 NRL Grand Final
2 Oct
Cronulla
14–12
Melbourne
M. Checcin, B. Cummins
ANZ Stadium, Sydney
83,625

2017 NRL Grand Final
1 Oct
Melbourne

34–6

North Queensland

M. Checcin, G. Sutton

ANZ Stadium, Sydney
79,722

2018 NRL Grand Final
30 Sep
Sydney Roosters

21–6

Melbourne

G.Sutton, A.Klein

ANZ Stadium, Sydney
82,688

text: 2007 and 2009 premierships were subsequently stripped from Melbourne as a penalty for cheating of the salary cap


document_title: The Shack (2017 film)

question_text: who played wisdom in the movie the shack

root

text: The Shack (2017 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Mackenzie "Mack" Phillips suffered physical and emotional abuse as a child at the hands of his drunken father. He witnessed similar abuse of his mother as well. There is the implication that as a 13-year-old boy he planned to poison his father with strychnine, although it is never made clear whether he proceeded with this or how it was resolved. A lack of any subsequent guilt ascribed to it suggests that it was not carried out. As an adult he has a fulfilling life with his wife, Nan, and their three children: Kate, Josh and Missy.

tag: p

text: Mack's life is shattered, however, when their youngest child Missy disappears during a camping trip while he is saving Kate and Josh during a canoeing accident. The police determine Missy is the victim of a serial killer after finding her torn dress and blood in a vacant cabin. Kate blames herself for Missy's death because of her own reckless behavior in causing the canoe accident in the first place. The tragedy derails Mack's faith and life until the onset of winter when he receives an unstamped, typewritten note in his mailbox. The surrounding snow is devoid of any incriminating tracks. The message is signed "Papa" (which was Nan's nickname for God) and invites him to meet at the cabin.

text: Thinking this may possibly be an opportunity for meeting and capturing or killing the serial killer, Mack drives himself there and, finding the ruined cabin cold and desolate and empty, is overcome with frustration, rage and an almost irresistible impulse to turn his handgun on himself. But he suddenly encounters a mysterious trio of strangers who invite him to stay at their well-furnished, cozy little house that is situated just down the path and, oddly, in the midst of a beautiful, sunshiny, summertime wilderness.

text: The trio of strangers gradually reveal their identities. The purpose of their invitation is to first help him to better understand his life as seen from a much broader context or higher perspective. This realization helps free him from an inclination to pass judgment upon himself as well as upon everyone else who crosses his path. It is from that new starting point that he may then continue his long, slow journey into healing for himself and his family and forgiveness for himself as well as for those who have grievously harmed him and his loved ones.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sam Worthington[5] as Mackenzie "Mack" Phillips

Carson Reaume as Young Mack

Octavia Spencer as Papa[6][7]
Graham Greene as Male Papa[8]
Radha Mitchell as Nan Phillips[8]
Aviv Alush as Jesus[8]
Sumire Matsubara as Sarayu[9]
Tim McGraw[10] as Willie
Alice Braga[10] as Sophia (Wisdom)
Megan Charpentier as Kate Phillips[10]
Gage Munroe as Josh Phillips[10]
Amélie Eve as Missy Phillips[10]
Ryan Robbins as Emil Ducette[10]

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2017)

tag: table

text: Forest Whitaker was once attached to direct and star in the film.[11]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography on the film began on June 8, 2015, in Vancouver, Canada.[12][13]

text: The camping scenes were filmed at Sunnyside campground in Cultus Lake, British Columbia, while the waterfall was filmed at Multnomah Falls, the Oregon site referenced in the source novel.[14]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
The Shack: Music From and Inspired By the Original Motion Picture

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
February 24, 2017 (2017-02-24)

Genre
CCM, Christian hip hop, Christian rock

Length
52:24

Label
Atlantic

Producer
Kevin Weaver, Pete Ganbarg, Anastasia Brown

text: The accompanying soundtrack for the film features contributions from popular artists primarily in the genres of country music and contemporary Christian music.[15][16] It was released February 24, 2017 through Atlantic Records.[17]

text: A new duet between Tim McGraw and Faith Hill was written and recorded for the film titled "Keep Your Eyes On Me" which is featured in the trailer.[16] It was released digitally on January 27, 2017 as the soundtrack's first promotional single.[18] This release was followed by Dan + Shay's promotional track, "When I Pray for You", on February 3, 2017.[19] Christian rock band Skillet released an acoustic version of "Stars" from their album, Unleashed, in a music video for the film.[20]

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Performer(s)
Length

1.
"When I Pray for You"
Dan + Shay
3:29

2.
"Keep Your Eyes on Me"
Tim McGraw and Faith Hill
4:11

3.
"Lay Our Flowers Down"
Lady Antebellum
3:12

4.
"Heaven Knows"
Hillsong UNITED
4:44

5.
"Where Were You"
Francesca Battistelli
3:07

6.
"Love Goes On"
Kelly Clarkson and Aloe Blacc
3:54

7.
"River of Jordan"
Lecrae featuring Breyan Isaac
3:45

8.
"Hard Love"
NEEDTOBREATHE featuring Lauren Daigle
3:37

9.
"Days of Dark"
Dierks Bentley
4:13

10.
"Phone Call to God"
Brett Eldredge
3:57

11.
"Honest to God"
Devin Dawson
3:14

12.
"Stars (The Shack version)"
Skillet
3:45

13.
"I'll Think About You"
We Are Messengers
3:56

14.
"Amazing Grace"
for KING & COUNTRY
3:22

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2017)
Peak
position

US Billboard 200[21]
40

US Christian Albums (Billboard)[22]
1

US Soundtrack Albums (Billboard)[22]
6

text: Release[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Shack grossed $57.4 million in the United States and Canada and $39.6 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $96.9 million.[3]

text: In North America, The Shack opened on March 3, 2017, alongside Before I Fall and Logan, and was projected to gross around $10 million from 2,888 theaters in its opening weekend.[23] It made $850,000 from Thursday night previews and $5.5 million on its first day. It went on to open to $16.1 million, finishing above expectations and third at the box office behind Logan and Get Out.[24] It dropped 38% in its second weekend, grossing $10 million and finishing 4th.[25]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 19% based on 67 reviews, with an average rating of 3.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Shack's undeniably worthy message is ill-served by a script that confuses spiritual uplift with melodramatic clichés and heavy-handed sermonizing."[26] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 32 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[27] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave an 85% overall positive score and a 70% "definite recommend".[24]

text: Peter Sobczynski of RogerEbert.com gave the film 1.5 stars out of 5, saying it is "both too innocuous and too off-putting for its own good".[28] Adam Graham of The Detroit News said it "feels like an overly long church sermon".[29] The AV Club said, "Most of its running time is taken with mollifying conversations between Mack and the movie's New Age-meets-Bible Belt oversimplifications of the Holy Trinity. It fits right into a long tradition of quasi-mystical pseudo-parables."[30]

text: Kathy Schiffer with the National Catholic Register writes: "I watched The Shack not once, but twice. It was inspiring, beautifully portrayed, and thought-provoking. The love and humor and the sheer joy of the Trinity, bantering over the dinner table in the Shack, was heartwarming, and it made fresh my awareness of God's love for me."[31] Julie Roy's response: "2 Peter 3:9, which says God doesn't wish any 'to perish, but everyone to come to repentance.' That is God's heart towards us. And The Shack masterfully reveals that heart. I think that's why so many have been profoundly impacted by the movie. And I fear that in our zeal for theological correctness, we may be trampling on something beautiful."[32] Other critics, such as Beliefnet's Wesley Baines, felt the film was successful because it resonated with the desires of its modern audience.[33]

text: Owen Glieberman from Variety sums it up: "'The Shack' has a real chance to connect commercially, because even though its drama is mushy, at heart it's a bit of a theme-park ride: the movie in which you get to know what it’s like to hang out with God and make friends with Jesus. In life, religion isn’t nearly so reassuring. It’s daunting, and our culture is starved for films that portray religious feeling in a way that's both reverent and truthful. 'The Shack' isn’t one of them; it reduces faith to a kind of spiritual comfort food. But thanks, in part, to movies like this one, maybe that's what faith is on its way to becoming."[34]

text: Reaction of theologians and religious leaders[edit]

text: The film attracted the same sort of controversy for unorthodox theology that the book did.[35] Theologian Albert Mohler said the film's depiction of God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit is "profoundly unbiblical".[35] John Mulderig of Catholic News Service said the film was "an intriguing endeavor" but had many problematic elements.[36] Catholic Bishop Robert Barron said about the book "There's a lot of sweet stuff – but you do have to spit out a few seeds."[37] New Testament scholar James B. DeYoung said the film promotes universalism, which he characterized as heresy.[38]


document_title: Phalanx bone

question_text: the number of phalanges in the body is

question_tokens: the number of phalanges in the body is

text: Phalanx bone

text: Structure[edit]

text: The phalanges are the bones that make up the fingers of the hand and the toes of the foot. There are 56 phalanges in the human body, with fourteen on each hand and foot. Three phalanges are present on each finger and toe, with the exception of the thumb and large toe, which possess only two. The middle and far phalanges of the fourth and fifth toes are often fused together (symphalangism).[1] The phalanges of the hand are commonly known as the finger bones. The phalanges of the foot differ from the hand in that they are often shorter and more compressed, especially in the proximal phalanges, those closest to the body.

text: A phalanx is named according to whether is are proximal, middle, or distal and its associated finger or toe. The proximal phalanges are those that are closest to the hand or foot. In the hand, the prominent, knobby ends of the phalanges are known as knuckles. The proximal phalanges join with the metacarpals of the hand or metatarsals of the foot at the metacarpophalangeal joint or metatarsophalangeal joint. The intermediate phalanx is not only intermediate in location, but usually also in size. The thumb and large toe do not possess a middle phalanx. The distal phalanges are the bones at the tips of the fingers or toes. The proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges articulate with one another through interphalangeal articulations.[2]:708–711:708–711

text: Bone anatomy[edit]

text: Each phalanx consists of a central part, called the body, and two extremities.

text:
The body is flat on either side, concave on the palmar surface, and convex on the dorsal surface. Its sides are marked with rough areas giving attachment to fibrous sheaths of flexor tendons. It tapers from above downwards.
The proximal extremities of the bones of the first row present oval, concave articular surfaces, broader from side to side than from front to back. The proximal extremity of each of the bones of the second and third rows presents a double concavity separated by a median ridge.
The distal extremities are smaller than the proximal, and each ends in two condyles (knuckles) separated by a shallow groove; the articular surface extends farther on the palmar than on the dorsal surface, a condition best marked in the bones of the first row.

text: In the foot, the proximal phalanges have a body that is compressed from side to side, convex above, and concave below. The base is concave, and the head presents a trochlear surface for articulation with the second phalanx. The middle are remarkably small and short, but rather broader than the proximal. The distal phalanges, as compared with the distal phalanges of the finger, are smaller and are flattened from above downward; each presents a broad base for articulation with the corresponding bone of the second row, and an expanded distal extremity for the support of the nail and end of the toe.

text: Distal phalanx[edit]

text: In the hand, the distal phalanges are flat on their palmar surface, small, and with a roughened, elevated surface of horseshoe form on the palmar surface, supporting the finger pulp.[3]:6b. 3. The Phalanges of the Hand The flat, wide expansions found at the tips of the distal phalanges are called apical tufts. They support the fingertip pads and nails.[4] The phalanx of the thumb has a pronounced insertion for the flexor pollicis longus (asymmetric towards the radial side), an ungual fossa, and a pair of unequal ungual spines (the ulnar being more prominent). This asymmetry is necessary to ensure that the thumb pulp is always facing the pulps of the other digits, an osteological configuration which provides the maximum contact surface with held objects.[5]

text: In the foot, the distal phalanges are flat on their dorsal surface. It is largest proximally and tapers to the distal end. The proximal part of the phalnx presents a broad base for articulation with the middle phalanx, and an expanded distal extremity for the support of the nail and end of the toe.[3]:6b. 3. The Phalanges of the Foot The phalanx ends in a crescent-shaped rough cap of bone epiphysis — the apical tuft (or ungual tuberosity/process) which covers a larger portion of the phalanx on the volar side than on the dorsal side. Two lateral ungual spines project proximally from the apical tuft. Near the base of the shaft are two lateral tubercles. Between these a V-shaped ridge extending proximally serves for the insertion of the flexor pollicis longus. Another ridge at the base serves for the insertion of the extensor aponeurosis.[6] The flexor insertion is sided by two fossae — the ungual fossa distally and the proximopalmar fossa proximally.

text: Development[edit]

text: The number of phalanges in animals is often expressed as a "phalangeal formula" that indicates the numbers of phalanges in digits, beginning from the innermost medial or proximal. For example, humans have a 2-3-3-3-3 formula for the hand, meaning that the thumb has two phalanges, whilst the other fingers each have three.

text: In the distal phalanges of the hand the centres for the bodies appear at the distal extremities of the phalanges, instead of at the middle of the bodies, as in the other phalanges. Moreover, of all the bones of the hand, the distal phalanges are the first to ossify.[3]:6b. 3. The Phalanges of the Hand

text: Function[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2014)

text: The distal phalanges of ungulates carry and shape nails and claws and these in primates are referred to as the ungual phalanges.

text: History of phalanges[edit]

text: The term phalanx or phalanges refers to an ancient Greek army formation in which soldiers stand side by side, several rows deep, like an arrangement of fingers or toes.

text: In animals[edit]

text: Most land mammals including humans have a 2-3-3-3-3 formula in both the hands (or paws) and feet. Primitive reptiles typically had the formula 2-3-4-4-5, and this pattern, with some modification, remained in many later reptiles and in the mammal-like reptiles. The phalangeal formula in the flippers of cetaceans (marine mammals) is 2-12-8-1.

text: In vertebrates, proximal phalanges have a similar placement in the corresponding limbs, be they paw, wing or fin. In many species, they are the longest and thickest phalanx ("finger" bone). The middle phalanx also a corresponding place in their limbs, whether they be paw, wing, hoof or fin.

text: The distal phalanges are cone-shaped in most mammals, including most primates, but relatively wide and flat in humans.

text: Primates[edit]

text: The morphology of the distal phalanges of human thumbs closely reflects an adaptation for a refined precision grip with pad-to-pad contact. This has traditionally been associated with the advent of stone tool-making. However, the intrinsic hand proportions of australopiths and the resemblance between human hands and the short hands of Miocene apes, suggest that human hand proportions are largely plesiomorphic (as found in ancestral species) — in contrast to the derived elongated hand pattern and poorly developed thumb musculature of other extant hominoids.[5]

text: In Neanderthals, the apical tufts were expanded and more robust than in modern and early upper Paleolithic humans. A proposal that Neanderthal distal phalanges was an adaptation to colder climate (than in Africa) is not supported by a recent comparison showing that in hominins, cold-adapted populations possessed smaller apical tufts than do warm-adapted populations. [7]

text: In non-human, living primates the apical tufts vary in size, but they are never larger than in humans. Enlarged apical tufts, to the extent they actually reflect expanded digital pulps, may have played a significant role in enhancing friction between the hand and held objects during Neolithic toolmaking.[4]

text: Among non-human primates phylogenesis and style of locomotion appear to play a role in apical tuft size. Suspensory primates and New World monkeys have the smallest apical tufts, while terrestrial quadrupeds and Strepsirrhines have the largest.[7] A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species, indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and reduced flexor and extensor tubercles in distal phalanges and broadened distal parts of distal phalanges, coupled with expanded apical pads and developed epidermal ridges. This suggests that widened distal phalanges were developed in arboreal primates, rather than in quadrupedal terrestrial primates.[8]

text: Other mammals[edit]

text: In ungulates (hoofed mammals) the forelimb is optimized for speed and endurance by a combination of length of stride and rapid step; the proximal forelimb segments are short with large muscles, while the distal segments are elongated with less musculature. In two of the major groups of ungulates, odd-toed and even-toed ungulates, what remain of the "hands" — the metacarpal and phalangeal bones — are elongated to the extent that they serve little use beyond locomotion. The giraffe, the largest even-toed ungulate, has large terminal phalanges and fused metacarpal bones able to absorb the stress from running.[9]

text: The sloth spends its life hanging upside-down from branches, and has highly specialized third and fourth digits for the purpose. They have short and squat proximal phalanges with much longer terminal phalanges. They have vestigial second and fifth metacarpals, and their palm extends to the distal interphalangeal joints. The arboreal specialization of these terminal phalanges makes it impossible for the sloth to walk on the ground where the animal has to drag its body with its claws.[9]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Phalanges.

Phalanges.


document_title: List of NCAA Division I men's basketball season scoring leaders

question_text: who led the ncaa in scoring this year

question_tokens: who led the ncaa in scoring this year

text: In basketball, points are the sum of the score accumulated through free throw or field goal.[1] The National Collegiate Athletic Association's (NCAA) Division I scoring title is awarded to the player with the highest points per game (ppg) average in a given season. The NCAA did not split into its current divisions format until August 1973.[2] From 1906 to 1955, there were no classifications to the NCAA nor its predecessor, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS).[2] Then, from 1956 to 1973, colleges were classified as either "NCAA University Division (Major College)" or "NCAA College Division (Small College)".[2] The NCAA's official men's basketball media guide recognizes scoring champions beginning with the 1947–48 season; from 1935–36 to 1946–47, "unofficial" scoring champions were compiled from the annual National Basketball Committee Official Basketball Guide.[2][3]

text: Pete Maravich of LSU holds the all-time NCAA Division I records for career scoring (3,667) and average (44.2).[3][4][5] His three consecutive scoring titles from 1968–1970 are also the three highest single-season averages in NCAA history.[3]

text: Nine players have earned multiple scoring titles. The most recent player to accomplish this is Reggie Williams of Virginia Military Institute (2007, 2008).[6][7] There have been two occurrences where, in back-to-back seasons, two different teammates have earned the NCAA scoring title. Frank Selvy and Darrell Floyd of Furman each won in 1954 and 1955, respectively,[8][9][10][11] while Hank Gathers and Bo Kimble of Loyola Marymount won in 1989 and 1990, respectively.[12][13]

text: Many of the scoring champions from the 1986–87 season and earlier could have added significantly more points if the three-point line had been instituted. It wasn't until the 1987–88 season that the NCAA standardized the line and accounted for three-point field goals in its official record book.[3][14] The only player since they were instituted to have not made a single three-point shot in his scoring title season is Gathers, who instead made 419 field goals and 177 free throws en route to scoring 1,015 points and averaging 32.7 points per game.[3][12]

text: One prolific college basketball scorer who was not an NCAA scoring champion was Notre Dame's Austin Carr. Carr averaged 38.2 ppg as a junior in 1969–70 (tied for eighth highest in NCAA history) and 38.0 ppg as a senior in 1970–71 (tenth highest).[3][15][16] Unfortunately for Carr, he happened to accomplish these feats while playing at the same time as Maravich, whose 44.5 ppg in 1969–70 is the highest in Division I history,[3] and as Johnny Neumann, whose 40.1 ppg in 1970–71 is the fifth highest average.[3] While finishing second in the scoring races each of his last two seasons, Carr is the only player on the NCAA's top ten single season scoring averages list who never won an NCAA scoring title.[3]

text: Key[edit]

text:
Pos.
G
F
C
PPG
Ref.

Position
Guard
Forward
Center
Points per game
References

Class (Cl.) key

Fr
Freshman
So
Sophomore
Jr
Junior
Sr
Senior

^
Player still competing in NCAA Division I

*
Elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Player (X)
Denotes the number of times the player had been the
scoring leader up to and including that season

text: Scoring leaders[edit]

text: Unofficial[edit]

text: Between 1935–36 and 1946–47, there were no "official" NCAA scoring champions. The statistics during that era were compiled from the National Basketball Committee Official Basketball Guide, which was not regulated by NCAA authorities. Therefore, the following players are included in the annual NCAA men's basketball media guide, but are listed as unofficial season scoring leaders.[3]

text:
Season
Player
Pos.
Cl.
Team
Games
played
Field goals
made
3-point
field goals
made
Free throws
made
Total
points
PPG

1935–36
Luisetti, HankHank Luisetti*
G
2 !So
Stanford
29
?

—

?
416
14.3

1936–37
Luisetti, HankHank Luisetti* (2)
G
3 !Jr
Stanford
24
?

—

?
410
17.1

1937–38
Jaworski, ChetChet Jaworski
F
3 !Jr
Rhode Island
21
177

—

87
441
21.0

1938–39
Jaworski, ChetChet Jaworski (2)
F
4 !Sr
Rhode Island
21
201

—

73
475
22.6

1939–40
Modzelewski, StanStan Modzelewski
G/F
2 !So
Rhode Island
22
210

—

89
509
23.1

1940–41
Modzelewski, StanStan Modzelewski (2)
G/F
3 !Jr
Rhode Island
25
178

—

107
463
18.5

1941–42
Modzelewski, StanStan Modzelewski (3)
G/F
4 !Sr
Rhode Island
22
182

—

106
470
21.4

1942–43
Senesky, GeorgeGeorge Senesky
G
4 !Sr
Saint Joseph's
22
211

—

93
515
23.4

1943–44
Calverley, ErnieErnie Calverley
G
2 !So
Rhode Island
20
226

—

82
534
26.7

1944–45
Mikan, GeorgeGeorge Mikan*
C
3 !Jr
DePaul
24
222

—

114
558
23.3

1945–46
Mikan, GeorgeGeorge Mikan* (2)
C
4 !Sr
DePaul
24
206

—

143
555
23.1

1946–47
Lacy, JimJim Lacy
F
2 !So
Loyola (MD)
32
242

—

183
667
20.8

text: Official[edit]

text:
Season
Player
Pos.
Cl.
Team
Games
played
Field goals
made
3-point
field goals
made
Free throws
made
Total
points
PPG
Ref.

1947–48
Wier, MurrayMurray Wier
G
4 !Sr
Iowa
19
152

—

95
399
21.0
[17][18]

1948–49
Lavelli, TonyTony Lavelli
F
4 !Sr
Yale
30
228

—

215
671
22.4
[3][19]

1949–50
Arizin, PaulPaul Arizin*
F
4 !Sr
Villanova
29
260

—

215
735
25.3
[20][21]

1950–51
Mlkvy, BillBill Mlkvy
F
4 !Sr
Temple
25
303

—

125
731
29.2
[22][23]

1951–52
Lovellette, ClydeClyde Lovellette*
C
4 !Sr
Kansas
28
352

—

182
795
28.4
[24][25]

1952–53
Selvy, FrankFrank Selvy
G
3 !Jr
Furman
25
272

—

194
738
29.5
[8][9]

1953–54
Selvy, FrankFrank Selvy (2)
G
4 !Sr
Furman
29
427

—

355
1,209
41.7
[8][9]

1954–55
Floyd, DarrellDarrell Floyd
G
3 !Jr
Furman
25
344

—

209
897
35.9
[10][11]

1955–56
Floyd, DarrellDarrell Floyd (2)
G
4 !Sr
Furman
28
339

—

268
946
33.8
[10][11]

1956–57
Wallace, GradyGrady Wallace
F
4 !Sr
South Carolina
29
336

—

234
906
31.2
[3][26]

1957–58
Robertson, OscarOscar Robertson*
G
2 !So
Cincinnati
28
352

—

280
984
35.1
[27][28]

1958–59
Robertson, OscarOscar Robertson* (2)
G
3 !Jr
Cincinnati
30
331

—

316
978
32.6
[27][28]

1959–60
Robertson, OscarOscar Robertson* (3)
G
4 !Sr
Cincinnati
30
369

—

273
1,011
33.7
[27][28]

1960–61
Burgess, FrankFrank Burgess
G
4 !Sr
Gonzaga
26
304

—

234
842
32.4
[29][30]

1961–62
McGill, BillyBilly McGill
C/F
4 !Sr
Utah
26
394

—

221
1,009
38.8
[31][32]

1962–63
Werkman, NickNick Werkman
F
3 !Jr
Seton Hall
22
221

—

208
650
29.5
[33][34]

1963–64
Komives, HowieHowie Komives
G
4 !Sr
Bowling Green
23
292

—

260
844
36.7
[35][36]

1964–65
Barry, RickRick Barry*
F
4 !Sr
Miami (FL)
26
340

—

293
973
37.4
[37][38]

1965–66
Schellhase, DaveDave Schellhase
G
4 !Sr
Purdue
24
284

—

213
781
32.5
[39][40]

1966–67
Walker, JimmyJimmy Walker
G
4 !Sr
Providence
28
323

—

205
851
30.4
[41][42]

1967–68
Maravich, PetePete Maravich*
G
2 !So
LSU
26
432

—

274
1,138
43.8
[4][5]

1968–69
Maravich, PetePete Maravich* (2)
G
3 !Jr
LSU
26
433

—

282
1,148
44.2
[4][5]

1969–70
Maravich, PetePete Maravich* (3)
G
4 !Sr
LSU
31
522

—

337
1,381
44.5
[4][5]

1970–71
Neumann, JohnnyJohnny Neumann
F/G
2 !So
Ole Miss
23
366

—

191
923
40.1
[43][44]

1971–72
Lamar, BoBo Lamar
G
3 !Jr
Southwest Louisiana
29
429

—

196
1,054
36.3
[45][46]

1972–73
Averitt, BirdBird Averitt
G
4 !Sr
Pepperdine
25
352

—

144
848
33.9
[47][48]

1973–74
Fogle, LarryLarry Fogle
G
2 !So
Canisius
25
326

—

183
835
33.4
[49][50]

1974–75
McCurdy, BobBob McCurdy
G
4 !Sr
Richmond
26
321

—

213
855
32.9
[51][52]

1975–76
Rogers, MarshallMarshall Rogers
G
4 !Sr
Texas–Pan American
25
361

—

197
919
36.8
[53][54]

1976–77
Williams, FreemanFreeman Williams
F/G
3 !Jr
Portland State
26
417

—

176
1,010
38.8
[55][56]

1977–78
Williams, FreemanFreeman Williams (2)
F/G
4 !Sr
Portland State
27
410

—

149
969
35.9
[55][56]

1978–79
Butler, LawrenceLawrence Butler
G
4 !Sr
Idaho State
27
310

—

192
812
30.1
[57][58]

1979–80
Murphy, TonyTony Murphy
G
4 !Sr
Southern
29
377

—

178
932
32.1
[3][59]

1980–81
Fredrick, ZamZam Fredrick
G
4 !Sr
South Carolina
27
300

—

181
781
28.9
[60][61]

1981–82
Kelly, HarryHarry Kelly
F
3 !Jr
Texas Southern
29
336

—

190
862
29.7
[59][62]

1982–83
Kelly, HarryHarry Kelly (2)
F
4 !Sr
Texas Southern
29
333

—

169
835
28.8
[59][62]

1983–84
Jakubick, JoeJoe Jakubick
G
4 !Sr
Akron
27
304

—

206
814
30.1
[3][59]

1984–85
McDaniel, XavierXavier McDaniel
F/C
4 !Sr
Wichita State
31
351

—

142
844
27.2
[63][64]

1985–86
Bailey, TerranceTerrance Bailey
G
3 !Jr
Wagner
29
321

—

212
854
29.4
[65][66]

1986–87
Houston, KevinKevin Houston
G
4 !Sr
Army
29
311

—

268
953
32.9
[67][68]

1987–88
Hawkins, HerseyHersey Hawkins
G
4 !Sr
Bradley
31
377
87
284
1,125
36.3
[69][70]

1988–89
Gathers, HankHank Gathers
F/C
3 !Jr
Loyola Marymount
31
419
0
177
1,015
32.7
[12][71]

1989–90
Kimble, BoBo Kimble
G
4 !Sr
Loyola Marymount
32
404
92
231
1,131
35.3
[13][71]

1990–91
Bradshaw, KevinKevin Bradshaw
G
4 !Sr
U.S. International
28
358
60
278
1,054
37.6
[72][73]

1991–92
Roberts, BrettBrett Roberts
F
4 !Sr
Morehead State
29
278
66
193
815
28.1
[74][75]

1992–93
Guy, GregGreg Guy
G
3 !Jr
Texas–Pan American
19
189
67
111
556
29.3
[59][76]

1993–94
Robinson, GlennGlenn Robinson
F
3 !Jr
Purdue
34
368
79
215
1,030
30.3
[77][78]

1994–95
Thomas, KurtKurt Thomas
C
4 !Sr
TCU
27
288
3
202
781
28.9
[79][80]

1995–96
Granger, KevinKevin Granger
G
4 !Sr
Texas Southern
24
194
30
230
648
27.0
[59][76]

1996–97
Jones, CharlesCharles Jones
G
3 !Jr
Long Island
30
338
109
118
903
30.1
[81][82]

1997–98
Jones, CharlesCharles Jones (2)
G
4 !Sr
Long Island
30
326
116
101
869
29.0
[81][82]

1998–99
Young, AlvinAlvin Young
G
4 !Sr
Niagara
29
253
65
157
728
25.1
[59][83]

1999–00
Alexander, CourtneyCourtney Alexander
G
4 !Sr
Fresno State
27
252
58
107
669
24.8
[84][85]

2000–01
McCollum, RonnieRonnie McCollum
G
4 !Sr
Centenary
27
244
85
214
787
29.1
[86][87]

2001–02
Conley, JasonJason Conley
G
1 !Fr
VMI
28
285
79
171
820
29.3
[88][89]

2002–03
Douglas, RubenRuben Douglas
G
4 !Sr
New Mexico
28
218
94
253
783
28.0
[90][91]

2003–04
Clark, KeydrenKeydren Clark
G
2 !So
Saint Peter's
29
233
112
197
775
26.7
[92][93]

2004–05
Clark, KeydrenKeydren Clark (2)
G
3 !Jr
Saint Peter's
28
230
109
152
721
25.8
[92][93]

2005–06
Morrison, AdamAdam Morrison
F
3 !Jr
Gonzaga
33
306
74
240
926
28.1
[29][94]

2006–07
Williams, ReggieReggie Williams
G
3 !Jr
VMI
33
338
76
176
928
28.1
[6][7]

2007–08
Williams, ReggieReggie Williams (2)
G
4 !Sr
VMI
25
269
43
114
695
27.8
[6][7]

2008–09
Curry, StephenStephen Curry
G
3 !Jr
Davidson
34
312
130
220
974
28.6
[95][96]

2009–10
Coleman, AubreyAubrey Coleman
G
4 !Sr
Houston
35
305
51
235
896
25.6
[97][98]

2010–11
Fredette, JimmerJimmer Fredette
G
4 !Sr
BYU
37
346
124
252
1,068
28.9
[99][100]

2011–12
Hamilton, ReggieReggie Hamilton
G
4 !Sr
Oakland
36
281
118
262
942
26.2
[101][102]

2012–13
Green, ErickErick Green
G
4 !Sr
Virginia Tech
32
261
61
218
801
25.0
[103]

2013–14
McDermott, DougDoug McDermott
F
4 !Sr
Creighton
35
330
96
178
934
26.7
[104]

2014–15
Harvey, TylerTyler Harvey
G
3 !Jr
Eastern Washington
32
230
128
150
738
23.1
[105]

2015–16
Daniel III, JamesJames Daniel III
G
3 !Jr
Howard
30
226
80
280
812
27.1
[106]

2016–17
Keene, MarcusMarcus Keene
G
3 !Jr
Central Michigan
32
313
125
208
959
30.0
[107]

2017–18
Young, TraeTrae Young
G
1 !Fr
Oklahoma
32
261
118
236
876
27.4
[108]


document_title: Early history of food regulation in the United States

question_text: who inspired the start of the pure food movement

text: The 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act (Wiley Act)[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: Before the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act, most food oversight was mandated to state laws, which were enacted during the colonial days and served mainly trade interests.[1] They set standards of weight, and "provided for inspections of exports like salt meats, fish and flour".[1] In 1848, the first national law concerned with regulating food come out of the Mexican–American War, and "banned the importation of adulterated drugs".[2] Food inspection was largely thought to be the duty of the consumer, not the government.[3]

text: Changes in technology[edit]

text: With the advent of modern machinery, food production (especially grain) moved forward at an alarming pace.[4] For example, the “canning line” increased the efficiency of canning foods in an industrial setting.[4] An 1886 report by the Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics claimed that “New machinery has displaced fully 50 percent of the muscular labor formerly required to do a given amount of work”.[4] Because of these improvements to agriculture, packaged cereals and canned foods became popular.[4] Synthetic medicines (made in labs instead of natural medicines) and chemicals that altered the growing and processing of food began to appear.[2]

text: Processed food[edit]

text: Processed food was more easily transported, thanks to improvements in transportation.[5] Chemical additives were used to "heighten color, modify flavor, soften texture, deter spoilage, and even transform ... apple scraps, glucose, coal-tar dye, and timothy seed" into a "strawberry jam".[5] However, for these new products, there was no regulation and manufacturers were able to put whatever ingredients they wanted in products like “tonics” without having to list them.[6] Products were often labeled and packaged to appear larger than they were, or packaged to appear to have a higher concentration of food.[7]

text: This began to worry high-quality producers who worried that their products might be undermined by deceitful goods.[8] Farmers felt threatened by unfair competition as shady producers adulterated "fertilizers, deodorized rotten eggs, revived rancid butter, and substituted glucose for honey".[5]  Real strawberry jam producers felt threatened by the bad strawberry “spread” substitutes, since consumers could not tell the difference while buying.[5]

text: Court response[edit]

text: The first court case involving "adulterated" products was in 1886, in which farmers pitted quote “the reigning champion, butter, against a challenger, oleomargarine. Butter won and oleomargarine was taxed".[2]  "Adulterated" products often used chemicals or additives to mask poor quality wheat, sour milk, or meat gone bad.[8] In response, these "unethical" companies asserted that it was a consumer’s duty to protect themselves from shoddy products.[8] The Division of Chemistry started looking into the adulteration of agricultural commodities around 1867, and in 1883 Harvey Washington Wiley was appointed chief chemist.

text: Provisions of the act[edit]

text: The law "forbade interstate and foreign commerce in adulterated and misbranded food and drugs".[3] If a product was found to be in violation, it could be seized and condemned; if a seller was found violating they could be fined and jailed. The law did not define food standards by chemists, but it did prohibit the "adulteration of food by the removal of valuable constituents, the substitution of ingredients so as to reduce quality, the addition of deleterious ingredients and the use of spoiled animal and vegetable products".[3]  Misleading or false labeling was now considered misbranding and thus illegal.

text: Effects of the act[edit]

text: The 1906 US Pure Food and Drug Act “defined food adulterations as a danger to health and as consumer fraud”.[9] The “Meat Inspection Act,” which accompanied the law, made tax payers pay for the new regulation.[10] The Department of Chemistry was transformed into a regulatory body charged with regulating packaging, labeling and protecting the consumer. The jam industry was one of the first to be subject to regulation. If a jam did not fit a certain standard of fruit-to-sugar-to-pectin ratio, it bore a “Compound Jam” label. After World War One, these companies, like BRED-SPRED, started aggressive marketing campaigns and attractive packaging to promote themselves. Branded with ‘distinctive names’ like “Peanut Spread” and “Salad Bouquet,” they sold a weak product (like a low ratio of peanuts, or weak vinegar) as  high-quality substitutes. Similar deceptive labeling in canned foods prompted the McNary-Mapes Amendment in 1930 which “authorized standards of quality, condition, and/or fill-of-containers.” If a product was sub-standard, it had to display a ‘crepe label’ which read ‘below US standard, low quality, but not illegal’.[11]

text: The American Chambers of Horrors[edit]

text: Aided by Eleanor Roosevelt, the "American Chamber of Horrors" helped illuminate the deficiencies in the old 1906 Act. Launched in 1933 with the book 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs by Arthur Kallet and Frederick J. Schlink, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) put on an exhibit to illustrate the need for a new law. Eleanor Roosevelt toured it to help elevate its status as a public relations tool. It showed jars with deceptive labeling and packaging which, in the case of jarred chicken, hid dark meat and was jarred in deceptive containers which seemed larger than they were.

text: Included were examples of harmful drugs, including Banbar, a “cure” for diabetes, protected under the 1906 law, and Lash Lure, an eyelash dye that caused many of its women users to go blind.[12] Also legal under the old law was Raditor, a “radium-containing tonic that sentenced users to a slow and painful death.” This, along with the above court cases, caused the FDA to focus on replacing the now outdated “Wiley Act” of 1906.

text: The Pure Foods Movement[edit]

text: The Pure Foods Movement of the 1870s was a grass-roots movement creating the "principal source of political support for the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906".[1] It was a coalition of many different groups,  which is why it became so influential.[13] The following explains the influential groups and individuals involved, as it was not an official coalition, rather a movement created by different individual interests.

text: Impact of women's clubs[edit]

text: The Ladies Health Association was the first women's group to join the pure foods movement.[14] Starting in 1884, they began a campaign to rid New York City of unsanitary slaughter houses.[14] These women were "energized to take legal action almost as much by the attitude of the city bureaucrats [who were apathetic] was by the need to protect their families and the neighborhood".[15] If the city agency in charge of regulating slaughterhouses had been willing to listen to the Association and clean up the slaughterhouses, the women would have never continued their crusade.[15] However, after a hearing, a slaughterhouse owner refused to clean up his property and this caused the women to pursue the execution of the penalty and continue a "constant vigilance" to keep it from happening again.[16]

text: Inspired by the Association, 11 other city health protective associations grew out of the need to clean up stockyards and slaughterhouses. In Louisiana, Mrs. Richard Bloor took individual action and visited a packinghouse and afterwards "sent a description of the conditions to Upton Sinclair to use in his exposes of the meat industry".[17] The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was borne out of a need to protect communities from alcohol abuse and worked mostly on the local level.[18]

text: Working mostly only on a local level, they set the tone for the Pure Food movement that would soon follow. Many club women were heavily involved in the temperance movement and began to associate adulterated foods as having the same consequences as alcohol abuse. This is because both inflicted harm on communities.  Both were common abuses prevalent in poor communities, and led to malnourishment, violence and other social problems. Women’s organizations began addressing these issues and broadened their activities beyond normal WCTU activities and more women who wanted to protect their communities joined their cause.[19] Members of the WCTU, the Ladies Health Association, and women's clubs laid the foundation for further "pure food, drink, and drug campaigns in the early 1880s, while their activities centered around study, self-improvement, and philanthropy".[19]

text: Harvey W. Wiley[edit]

text: Harvey W. Wiley became the leader of the pure foods crusade. When Wiley was appointed, he decidedly set the Division of Chemistry in a different direction.[8] He expanded the Division's research and conducted the Foods and Food Adulterants study, which demonstrated his concern about chemicals used in food. He also created the "Poison Squad" experiments, in which young, healthy men volunteered to ingest food additive chemicals to determine their impact on human health.[8] Wiley unified many different concerned groups, including state inspectors, the General Federation of Women's Clubs, journalists, reform wing of business, congress members and associations of physicians and pharmacists.[13] As Wiley worked to bring awareness to the pure foods crusades, it gained momentum and legitimacy.[13] His "poison squad" brought national awareness to the problem, whereas women's groups brought local attention to the cause.

text: Upton Sinclair and The Jungle[edit]

text: In 1906, Upton Sinclair published The Jungle, a book which exposed the filthy conditions of Chicago slaughterhouses. Sinclair wrote the book while living in Chicago; he talked to workers and their families and his focus was the plight of the workers. However, the book turned people away from "tubercular beef" instead of turning them socialist like Sinclair wanted.[20] The book was a best seller and the public outcry prompted President Theodore Roosevelt to send officials to investigate.[20] Their “report was so shocking that its publication would ‘be well-nigh ruinous to our export trade in meat’”.[21] This report, Neill-Reynolds, underscored the terrible conditions illustrated by Sinclair.[22] It indicated a need for "'a drastic and thorogooing [sic]' federal inspection of all stockyards, packinghouses and their products".[22] The Jungle, combined with the shocking reports of the Neill-Reynolds Report (published June 1906) proved to be the final push to help the Pure Food and Drug Act move quickly through congress.

text: The Federal Food, Drug  and Cosmetic Act of 1938[edit]

text: The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 25, 1938.[23] The first attempt at reform, The “Tugwell Bill” was a “legislative disaster”.[23] Spurred by public outcry from the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster (in which 100 people were killed because under the 1906 law, “premarketing toxicity testing was not required”), congress rushed to enact a new bill.[24] Even with the Elixar disaster, the bill itself was not subject to much public awareness.[25]

text: Provisions of the act[edit]

text: This resulted in the 1938 Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act which “pioneered policies designed to protect the pocketbooks of consumers and food standards were enacted to ensure the ‘value expected’ of consumers”.[26] “It changed the drug focus of the Food and Drug Administration from that of a policing agency primarily concerned with the confiscation of adulterated drugs to a regulatory agency increasingly involved with overseeing the evaluation of new drugs”.[27]

text: Changes from the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act[edit]

text: The following is a list of substantial changes from the previous 1906 law[28]

text:
Drug manufacturers were required to provide scientific proof that new products could be safely used before putting them on the market.
Cosmetics and therapeutic devices were regulated, for the first time.
Proof of fraud was no longer required to stop false claims for drugs.
Addition of poisonous substances to foods was prohibited except where unavoidable or required in production. Safe tolerances were authorized for residues of such substances, for example pesticides.
Specific authority was provided for factory inspections.
Food standards were required to be set up when needed “to promote honesty and fair dealing in the interest of consumers.”
Federal court injunctions against violations were added to the previous legal remedies of product seizures and criminal prosecutions.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c Janssen 24

^ Jump up to: a b c Young 17

^ Jump up to: a b c Young 21

^ Jump up to: a b c d Garraty 478

^ Jump up to: a b c d Young 18

Jump up ^ Garraty 590

Jump up ^ Junod 176

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Swann 10

Jump up ^ Junod 167

Jump up ^ Schesinger 205

Jump up ^ Schesinger 172

Jump up ^ Swann 12

^ Jump up to: a b c Young 19

^ Jump up to: a b Goodwin 17

^ Jump up to: a b Goodwin 18

Jump up ^ Goodwin 19

Jump up ^ Goodwin 22

Jump up ^ Goodwin 30

^ Jump up to: a b Goodwin 35

^ Jump up to: a b Goodwin 250

Jump up ^ Garraty 591

^ Jump up to: a b Goodwin 251

^ Jump up to: a b Janssen 28

Jump up ^ Wax 1, Janssen 28

Jump up ^ Cavers 2

Jump up ^ Junod 180

Jump up ^ Wax 1

Jump up ^ Janssen 29

tag: ol


document_title: A Charlie Brown Christmas

question_text: who did the voice of linus in charlie brown christmas

text: A Charlie Brown Christmas

text: Plot[edit]

text: The Peanuts are celebrating the start of the winter season by ice skating on a frozen pond and singing "Christmas Time Is Here." Leaning against a nearby fence, Charlie Brown tells Linus that despite all the traditions of Christmas presents, Christmas cards and decorations, he still winds up depressed, but is not sure why.  Linus dismisses Charlie Brown's attitude as typical, quoting Lucy:  "Of all the Charlie Browns in the world, you're the Charlie Browniest."

text: Charlie Brown's depression is only made worse by the goings-on in the neighborhood, most of which show his peers' rampant commercialism. He encounters Violet and sarcastically "thanks" her for the Christmas card he never received, only for Violet to proudly snipe back that she never sent him one. At the psychiatric booth, Lucy expresses joy in the sound of jingling money, tries to diagnose Charlie Brown with various phobias, admits she never receives her Christmas wish of real estate, and ultimately decides that Charlie Brown needs more involvement. Lucy recommends that Charlie Brown direct an upcoming Christmas play and offers to help him do so; Charlie Brown jumps at the opportunity to have a leadership role. At Snoopy's doghouse, Charlie Brown is further disgusted when he finds out that his dog has entered the doghouse into a lights and display contest with a cash prize. He is finally accosted by his sister Sally, who asks him to write her letter to Santa Claus. When she hints at having an extremely long and specific list of requests, and says she will accept large sums of money as a substitute ("tens and twenties"), Charlie Brown becomes even more dismayed and runs off.

text: Charlie Brown arrives at the rehearsal, but he is unable to gain control of the situation, since everyone in the play has their own complaints, and everybody would rather dance along to the jazz-rock band (consisting of Schroeder on keyboards, Snoopy on an inaudible electric guitar and Pig-Pen on bass) as they play "Linus and Lucy." The play is revealed to be quite modern, with an upbeat jazz score, a "Christmas queen," shepherds, innkeepers and penguins but no identifiable Biblical figures. A displeased Charlie Brown decides the play needs "the proper mood" and suggests they should get a Christmas tree. Lucy instructs him, and the accompanying Linus, to get an aluminum Christmas tree that is big, shiny and pink from a nearby tree lot.

text: When they get to the lot, filled with numerous trees fitting Lucy's description, Charlie Brown ironically and symbolically chooses the only real tree there (in disbelief that wooden Christmas trees still exist)—a tiny sapling. Linus is unsure about Charlie Brown's choice, but Charlie Brown is convinced that all it needs is some decoration and it will be just right.  While those two get the tree, Schroeder tries to pass off "Für Elise" as a Christmas song, as Lucy tries to get him to play the perfect rendition of "Jingle Bells;" after two failed attempts, Schroeder tersely pecks the keys on his toy piano, which is exactly what Lucy seeks.

text: Linus and Charlie Brown return to the auditorium with the tree, only to be scorned by Lucy for disobeying her instructions and mocked by the other girls who, along with Snoopy, walk off laughing.  At his wit's end, Charlie Brown loudly asks if anybody knows what Christmas is all about.  Linus says he does and, after walking to center stage, recites the annunciation to the shepherds from the Gospel of Luke, chapter 2, verses 8 through 14, as translated by the Authorized King James Version:

text:
"8And there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flock by night.
9And, lo, the angel of the Lord came upon them, and the glory of the Lord shone round about them: and they were sore afraid.
10And the angel said unto them, Fear not; for, behold, I bring you tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people.
11For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, which is Christ the Lord.
12And this shall be a sign unto you: Ye shall find the babe wrapped in swaddling clothes, lying in a manger.
13And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God, and saying,
14Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace and goodwill towards men."

text: Linus then walks back over to Charlie Brown and gently says, "That's what Christmas is all about, Charlie Brown."

text: Charlie Brown quietly picks up the tree and walks out of the auditorium toward home, now determined not to let commercialism ruin the holiday.  He stops at Snoopy's decorated doghouse, which now sports a blue ribbon for winning the display contest. He takes a large ornament from the doghouse and hangs it at the top of his tree, but the branch, seemingly unable to hold the ornament's weight, promptly droops to the ground.  Believing he has killed the tree and that he has ruined everything as usual, Charlie Brown walks off in despair.

text: Linus and the others, realizing they were too hard on Charlie Brown, quietly follow him to Snoopy's doghouse. Linus admits he always liked the tree while gently propping the drooping branch back in its upright position and wraps his blanket around its base, and when the others add the remaining decorations from Snoopy's doghouse to the tree, Lucy agrees.  They start humming "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing".  Charlie Brown returns, surprised at the humming and the redecorated tree, and the gang all joyously shout "Merry Christmas, Charlie Brown!"  They all begin to sing "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing," and Charlie Brown joins them as the special ends.

text: Voice cast[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Peter Robbins: Charlie Brown
Chris Shea: Linus van Pelt
Tracy Stratford: Lucille "Lucy" van Pelt
Kathy Steinberg: Sally Brown
Bill Melendez: Snoopy

text: Additional voices[edit]

text:
Chris Doran: Schroeder and Shermy
Karen Mendelson: Patty
Geoffrey Orstein: Pig-Pen
Sally Dryer: Violet Gray
Anne Altieri: Frieda
Children's vocals for the songs "Christmas Time is Here", "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" and when the kids all shout "Merry Christmas, Charlie Brown" were performed by members of the choir of St. Paul's Episcopal Church in San Rafael, California. Several months before the making of A Charlie Brown Christmas this choir was featured on the Vince Guaraldi recording "Vince Guaraldi at Grace Cathedral."
The characters named "5", "3", and "4" have cameo appearances but are silent.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: By the early 1960s, Charles M. Schulz's comic strip Peanuts had become a sensation worldwide.[2] Television producer Lee Mendelson acknowledged the strip's cultural impression and had an idea for a documentary on its success, phoning Schulz to propose the idea. Schulz, an avid baseball fan, recognized Mendelson from his documentary on ballplayer Willie Mays, A Man Named Mays, and invited him to his home in Sebastopol, California, to discuss the project.[3] Their meeting was cordial, with the plan to produce a half-hour documentary set. Mendelson wanted to feature roughly "one or two" minutes of animation, and Schulz suggested animator Bill Melendez, with whom he collaborated some years before on a spot for the Ford Motor Company.[4]

text: Despite the popularity of the strip and acclaim from advertisers, networks were not interested in the special.[5] By April 1965, Time featured the Peanuts gang on its magazine cover, perhaps prompting a call from John Allen of the New York-based McCann Erickson Agency.[2] Mendelson imagined he would sell his documentary, and blindly agreed to Allen's proposal: an animated half-hour Peanuts Christmas special.[5] The Coca-Cola Company was looking for a special for advertising during the holiday season. "The bad news is that today is Wednesday and they'll need an outline in Atlanta by Monday," Allen remarked to Mendelson.[6] He quickly contacted Schulz, and the duo got to work with plans for a Peanuts Christmas special.[2] The duo prepared an outline for the Coca-Cola executives in less than one day, and Mendelson would later recall that the bulk of ideas came from Schulz, whose "ideas flowed nonstop."[7] According to Mendelson, their pitch to Coca-Cola consisted of "winter scenes, a school play, a scene to be read from the Bible, and a sound track combining jazz and traditional music."[8] The outline did not change over the course of its production.[9]

text: As Allen was in Europe, the duo received no feedback on their pitch for several days.[7] When Allen got in touch with them, he informed them that Coca-Cola wanted to buy the special, but also wanted it for an early December broadcast, giving the duo just six months to scramble together a team to produce the special. Mendelson assured him – without complete confidence in his statements – that this would be no problem. Following this, A Charlie Brown Christmas entered production.[7]

text: Writing[edit]

text: Schulz's main goal for a Peanuts-based Christmas special was to focus on the true meaning of Christmas.[7] He desired to juxtapose this theme with interspersed shots of snow and ice-skating, perhaps inspired by his own childhood growing up in St. Paul, Minnesota.[7] He also created the idea for the school play, and mixing jazz with traditional Christmas carols.[7] Schulz was adamant about Linus' reading of the Bible, despite Mendelson and Melendez's concerns that religion was a controversial topic, especially on television.[9] Melendez recalled Schulz turned to him and remarked "If we don't do it, who will?".[2] Schulz's estimation proved accurate, and in the 1960s, less than 9 percent of television Christmas episodes contained a substantive reference to religion, according to university researcher Stephen Lind.[10] It could also be worth noting that the Linus's recitation of Scripture was incorporated in such a way that it forms the climax of the film, thus making it impossible to successfully edit out.

text: Schulz's faith in the Bible stemmed from his Midwest background and religious and historical studies;[9] as such, aspects of religion would be a topic of study throughout his life.[11] According to a 2015 "spiritual biography", Schulz's religion was personal and complex, and would be integrated in a number of his programs.[12]

text: The program's script has been described as "barebones", and was completed in only a few weeks.[13] In the days following the special's sell to Coca-Cola, Mendelson and animator Bill Melendez met with Schulz in his home to expand upon the ideas promised in the pitch. Mendelson noted that on the previous Christmas Day he and his spouse had read Hans Christian Andersen's "The Fir-Tree" to their children.[8] Schulz countered with the idea that there be a tree with the spirit of lead character Charlie Brown.[14] Mendelson suggested they employ a laugh track, a staple of television animation, but Schulz rejected this idea immediately.[14] He felt strongly that the audience should not be informed on when to laugh.[13] They spoke at length about creating an official theme that was neither jazz nor traditional to open the program. Schulz wanted a part of the special to feature the character of Schroeder performing Beethoven, and Mendelson combined this with the inclusion of Guaraldi's "Linus & Lucy" number.[14] Schulz penned the script for A Charlie Brown Christmas, with Melendez plotting out the animation via a storyboard. His storyboard contained six panels for each shot, spanning a combined eighty or-so pages.[14]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In casting the silent comic strip characters of Peanuts, the trio pulled from their personalities.[15] Lead character Charlie Brown's voice was decided to be downbeat and nondescript ("blah," as Mendelson noted), while Lucy be bold and forthright.[15] Linus' voice, it was decided, would combine both sophistication with childlike innocence.[15] Mendelson recognized that the character of Snoopy was the strip's most popular character who seemed to seize "the best jokes," but realized they could not cast a voice for the cartoon dog. "In the process, we gained a veritable 'canine Harpo Marx,'" Mendelson later wrote.[15] Melendez suggested he provide gibberish for Snoopy's mutterings, and simply speed up the tape to prevent viewers from knowing.[15] There are no adult characters in the strip or in this special. Later specials would introduce an offscreen teacher; her lines are eschewed for the sound of a trombone as the team behind the specials found it humorous.[16]

text: With this in mind, the trio set out to cast the characters, which proved to be a daunting process. Casting for Charlie Brown proved most difficult, as it required both good acting skills but also the ability to appear nonchalant.[14] The producers picked eight-year-old Peter Robbins, already known for his roles spanning television, film, and advertisements.[15] His godmother, famous Hollywood agent Hazel McMillen, discovered Christopher Shea, who would become Linus in the special.[15] His slight lisp, according to Mendelson, gave him a "youthful sweetness," while his emotional script reading "gave him power and authority as well."[17] Tracy Stratford played the role of Lucy, with the creators being impressed by her attitude and professionalism.[18] Kathy Steinberg was the youngest of the performers, just six years old at the time of recording. Too young to read, the producers had to give her one line at a time to recite.[18] Robbins remembered Melendez did this for him as well, joking that he also mistakenly copied his Latino accent.[2] Mendelson desired to have non-actors (not "Hollywood kids") perform on the special, and he sent tape recorders home with his employees for their children to audition.[13]

text: Much of the background cast came from Mendelson's home neighborhood in northern California.[18] According to Robbins, the children viewed the script's sophisticated dialogue as "edgy," finding several words and phrases, among them "eastern syndicate", difficult to pronounce.[15] He recalled the recording sessions as chaotic, with excited children running rampant. Nevertheless, the recording of A Charlie Brown Christmas was completed in one day.[15] Jefferson Airplane was recording next door and came over to get the children's autographs.[2] Following the special's broadcast, the children became wildly popular in their respective elementary schools; Robbins recalled groups approaching him asking him to recite lines of dialogue.[18]

text: Animation[edit]

text: Animation for A Charlie Brown Christmas was created by Bill Melendez Productions. Mendelson had no idea whether or not completing a half-hour's worth of animation would be possible given the production's six-month schedule, but Melendez confirmed its feasibility.[8] In actuality, animation was only completed in the final four months of production.[19] CBS initially wanted an hour's worth of animation, but Melendez talked them down to a half-hour special, believing an hour of television animation was too much.[1] Having never worked on a half-hour special before, Melendez phoned Bill Hanna of Hanna-Barbera for advice, but Hanna declined to give any. CBS gave a budget of $76,000 to produce the show and it went $20,000 over budget.[1] The first step in creating the animation was to make a pencil drawing, afterwards inking and painting the drawing onto a cel.[2] The cel was then placed onto a painted background. There are 13,000 drawings in the special, with 12 frames per second to create the illusion of movement.[2]

text: Melendez had previously worked for Warner Bros. and Disney, and working on Peanuts-related material gave him a chance to animate a truly flat cartoon design.[20] The movement of Schulz's characters, particularly the Peanuts gang, was very limited. The character of Snoopy, however, proved the exception to the rule. "He can do anything – move and dance – and he's very easy to animate," said Melendez.[20]

text: Music[edit]

text: The soundtrack to A Charlie Brown Christmas is an unorthodox mix of traditional Christmas music and jazz. The jazz portions were created by the Vince Guaraldi Trio. Producer Lee Mendelson, a fan of jazz, heard Guaraldi's crossover hit "Cast Your Fate to the Wind" on the radio not long after completion of his documentary Charlie Brown & Charles Schulz, and contacted the musician to produce music for the special.[4] Guaraldi composed the music for the project, creating an entire piece, "Linus and Lucy," to serve as the theme.[5] When Coca-Cola commissioned A Charlie Brown Christmas in spring 1965, Guaraldi returned to write the music.[2] The first instrumentals for the special were recorded by Guaraldi at Glendale, California's Whitney Studio with bassist Monty Budwig and drummer Colin Bailey.[21] Recycling "Linus and Lucy" from the earlier special, Guaraldi completed two new originals for the special, "Skating", and "Christmas Time Is Here".[21] In the weeks preceding the premiere, Mendelson encountered trouble finding a lyricist for Guaraldi's instrumental intro, and penned "Christmas Time is Here" in "about 15 minutes" on the backside of an envelope.[9]

text: The special opens and closes with a choir of children, culled from St. Paul's Episcopal Church in San Rafael, California, performing "Christmas Time Is Here" and "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing".[18] One of the singers, Candace Hackett Shively, went on to become an elementary school teacher, and sent a letter of gratitude to Schulz after he announced his retirement in 2000.[18] In the letter, she recalls recording the choir at Fantasy Studios and going out for ice cream afterwards, while also noting that she tells the story to her grade-schoolers each holiday season.[16] The recording sessions were conducted in late autumn 1965, and were cut in three separate sessions over two weeks. They often ran late into the night, resulting in angry parents, some who forbade their children from returning; consequently, numerous new children were present at each session.[22] The children were directed by Barry Mineah, who demanded perfection from the choir. Mendelson and Guaraldi disagreed, desiring the "kids to sound like kids"; they used a slightly off-key version of "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" in the final cut.[22] Children were paid five dollars for their participation. In addition, the children recorded dialogue for the special's final scene, in which the crowd of kids shout "Merry Christmas, Charlie Brown!"[22]

text: The soundtrack for the special was recorded during these sessions, with decisions regarding timing and phrasing determined quickly. Guaraldi brought in bassist Fred Marshall and drummer Jerry Granelli to record the music, and spent time later re-recording earlier tracks, including covers of "The Christmas Song" and "Greensleeves." The eventual LP release credited Guaraldi solely, neglecting to mention the other musicians; Guaraldi was notorious for never keeping records of his session players.[23] Nearly three decades later, in an effort to correct the matter, Fantasy surmised that the recordings with Budwig and Bailey were employed in the special, while Marshall and Granelli recorded the album.[23] Despite this, other individuals have come forward claiming to have recorded the special's music: bassists Eugene Firth and Al Obidinski, and drummers Paul Distel and Benny Barth. Firth and Distil are noted as performers on a studio-session report Guaraldi filed for the American Federation of Musicians.[23]

text: A Charlie Brown Christmas was voted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2007,[24] and added to the Library of Congress's National Recording Registry list of "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important" American sound recordings in 2012.[25]

text: Reception[edit]

text: A Charlie Brown Christmas was completed just ten days shy of its national broadcast premiere.[2] All involved believed the special would be an unmitigated disaster. Melendez first saw the completed animation at a showing in a theater in the days before its premiere, turning to his crew of animators and remarking, "My golly, we've killed it."[2] Melendez was embarrassed, but one of the animators, Ed Levitt, was more positive regarding the special, telling him it was "the best special [he'll] ever make [...] This show is going to run for a hundred years."[2][1] Mendelson was similar in his assumptions of the show's quality, and when he showed the film to network executives in New York, their opinions were also negative. Their complaints included the show's slow pace, the music not fitting, and the animation too simple. "I really believed, if it hadn't been scheduled for the following week, there's no way they were gonna broadcast that show," Mendelson later said.[2] Executives had invited television critic Richard Burgheim of Time to view the special, and debated as to whether showing it to him would be a good idea.[9] His review, printed the following week, was positive, praising the special as unpretentious and writing that "A Charlie Brown Christmas is one children's special this season that bears repeating."[26]

text: The program premiered on CBS on December 9, 1965, at 7:30 pm ET (pre-empting The Munsters),[27] and was viewed by 45% of those watching television that evening,[13] with the number of homes watching the special an estimated 15,490,000, placing it at number two in the ratings, behind Bonanza on NBC.[2] The special received unanimous critical acclaim: The Hollywood Reporter deemed the show "delightfully novel and amusing," while the Weekly Variety dubbed it "fascinating and haunting."[28] Bob Williams of the New York Post praised the "very neat transition from comic page to screen," while Lawrence Laurent of The Washington Post declared that "natural-born loser Charlie Brown finally turned up a real winner last night."[29] Harriet Van Horne of the New York World-Telegram hailed the scene in which Linus recites scripture, commenting, "Linus' reading of the story of the Nativity was, quite simply, the dramatic highlight of the season."[29] Harry Harris of The Philadelphia Inquirer called the program "a yule classic [...] generated quiet warmth and amusement," and Terrence O'Flaherty of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote, "Charlie Brown was a gem of a television show."[28] Ben Gross of the New York Daily News praised the special's "charm and good taste," while Rick DuBrow of United Press International predicted, "the Peanuts characters last night staked out a claim to a major television future."[29]

text: The show's glowing reviews were highlighted with an ad in trade magazines;[30] one thanked Coca-Cola, CBS, United Features Syndicate, and the show's viewers.[28] Fantasy released the special's soundtrack the first week of December 1965, coinciding with the special's airdate.[31] United Feature Syndicate pushed hard to promote the special, while Word Publishing issued a hardcover adaption of the special.[31] CBS promptly ordered four additional Peanuts specials.[9] A Charlie Brown Christmas was awarded the Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program in 1966. "Charlie Brown is not used to winning, so we thank you," Schulz joked.[2]

text: Television broadcasts[edit]

text: Although originally broadcast on the CBS network from 1965 until December 25, 2000, in January 2000, the broadcast rights were acquired by ABC, which is where the special currently airs, usually twice, in December.

text: The original broadcasts included references to the sponsor, Coca-Cola.[32][33] Subsequent broadcasts and home media releases have excised all references to Coca-Cola products. Later subsequent broadcasts of the special also had some scenes, animation, including sound effects being redone for correction. Snoopy's dog bowl was given a new color, Charlie Brown no longer looked off-model in Lucy's psychiatric booth, new animation was placed in scenes where Charlie Brown was giving directions at the auditorium, the hearts when Sally gets enamored in Linus were redone, and Snoopy no longer sings like a human in the final carol.[34]

text: On December 6, 2001, a half-hour documentary on the special titled The Making of 'A Charlie Brown Christmas' (hosted by Whoopi Goldberg) aired on ABC. This documentary has been released as a special feature on the DVD and Blu-ray editions of the special.

text: The show's 40th anniversary broadcast on Tuesday, December 6, 2005, had the highest ratings in its time slot[citation needed].

text: The 50th anniversary broadcast aired on November 30, 2015, and it featured a full two-hour time slot that was padded by a special, It's Your 50th Christmas, Charlie Brown, which was hosted by Kristen Bell, and featured musical performances by Kristin Chenoweth, Matthew Morrison, Sarah McLachlan, Boyz II Men, Pentatonix, David Benoit, and the All-American Boys Chorus.[35] It also included documentary features.[36]

text: Home media releases[edit]

text: In 1987 the special was released on VHS by Hi-Tops Video.     In 1992, the special was released for a limited time on VHS through Shell Oil for sale at their gas stations.[citation needed]

text:
In September 1994 the special was released by Paramount on VHS. A laserdisc was released by Paramount (distributed by Pioneer) in 1996; Side 2 contained the 1979 special You're the Greatest, Charlie Brown. In September 2000 it was released on DVD. Bonus features included the 1992 special It's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown. On September 23, 2008, Warner Home Video (to which the rights to the Peanuts specials reverted earlier in the year, due to Melendez's
connections to WB) released a "remastered" DVD. Bonus features include a restored version of Christmastime Again and a new documentary titled "A Christmas Miracle: The Making of A Charlie Brown Christmas".

text: On October 6, 2009, it was released in high definition Blu-ray Disc from Warner in remastered Dolby 5.1 surround sound. This disc also contains It's Christmastime Again, A Christmas Miracle, a DVD of the special, and a Digital Copy.[37]

text:
Since off-network rights to this special have been transferred to Warner Bros., it has become available as a download on the iTunes Store, PlayStation Network, Amazon Instant Video, and Google Play, and includes It's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown
and It's Flashbeagle, Charlie Brown.

text: In December 2014, a 50th anniversary 2-DVD set was released. It also features the special It's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown, and the Making of... documentary from previous editions.

text: On October 31, 2017, it was released on 4K UHD Blu-ray disc containing It's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown and the Making of... special.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: A Charlie Brown Christmas became a Christmas staple in the United States for several decades afterward. Within the scope of future Peanuts specials, it established their style, combining thoughtful themes, jazzy scores, and simple animation.[38] It also, according to author Charles Solomon, established the half-hour animated special as a television tradition, inspiring the creation of numerous others, including How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1966) and Frosty the Snowman (1969).[38] (Earlier animated specials such as Mr. Magoo's Christmas Carol and Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer ran a full hour.) USA Today summarized the program's appeal upon its 40th anniversary in 2005: "Scholars of pop culture say that shining through the program's skeletal plot is the quirky and sophisticated genius that fueled the phenomenal popularity of Schulz's work."[13] Beyond its references to religion, unheard of on television at the time, the special also marked the first time children voiced animated characters.[13]

text: The special influenced dozens of young aspiring artists and animators, many of whom went on to work within both the comics and animation industries, among them Eric Goldberg (Pocahontas),[39] Pete Docter (Monsters, Inc., Up), Andrew Stanton (Finding Nemo, WALL-E),[1] Jef Mallett (Frazz),[38] and Patrick McDonnell (Mutts).[40] The show's score made an equally pervasive impact on viewers who would later perform jazz, among them David Benoit[41] and George Winston.[31]  More directly, the special launched a series of Peanuts films, TV specials (many of them holiday-themed) and other works of entertainment.

text: Linus' speech near the end of the special was used in the Sidewalk Prophets Christmas song "What a Glorious Night".[42]

text: Stage adaptation[edit]

text: In 2013 Tams-Witmark Music Library, Inc. began licensing an official stage version of the television special authorized by the Schulz family and Lee Mendelson.[43] The stage version follows the television special but includes an optional sing-along section of Christmas songs at the end. It includes all of Vince Guaraldi's music from the television special and the television script is adapted for the stage by Eric Schaeffer. It has been performed at hundreds of schools, churches and community theatres.

text: Tree (The Charlie Brown Christmas Tree)[edit]

text: The popularity of the special practically eliminated the popularity of the aluminum Christmas tree, which was a fad from 1958 to 1965, when the special portrayed it negatively. By 1967, just two years after the special first aired, they were no longer being regularly manufactured.[44][45][46][47]

text: The "Charlie Brown Christmas Tree" has been used to comedic effect with people familiar with the special and has become synonymous with poorly executed or minimalist Christmas decorating. A model of the tree is offered by various retailers.

text: Other Christmas specials[edit]

text: Three lesser-known Christmas specials were produced decades after the 1965 original.

text:
It's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown (1992). This special was 30 minutes in length with commercials and aired on CBS. It was abandoned by CBS shortly thereafter; it was released on DVD as a bonus feature with A Charlie Brown Christmas.
Charlie Brown's Christmas Tales (2002). This special is a slightly shorter, with a running time of 20 minutes with commercials and debuted on ABC. It has been released on DVD along with I Want a Dog for Christmas, Charlie Brown
I Want a Dog for Christmas, Charlie Brown (2003) This special is a full hour long with commercials and debuted on ABC. It is available on DVD.

text: Notes[edit]


document_title: List of current National Football League stadiums

question_text: what is the biggest nfl football stadium in the us

text: Stadium characteristics[edit]

text: Stadiums represent a considerable expense to a community, and thus their construction, use, and funding often enters the public discourse.[3]  Also, given the perceived advantage a team gets to playing in its home stadium, particular attention is given in the media to the peculiarities of each stadium's environment. Climate, playing surface (either natural or artificial turf), and the type of roof all contribute to giving each team its home-field advantage.

text: Stadiums are either open, enclosed, or have a retractable roof. For retractable roofs, the home team determines if the roof is to be opened or closed 90 minutes before kickoff. The roof remains open unless precipitation or lightning is within the vicinity of the stadium, the temperature drops below 40 °F (4 °C), or wind gusts are greater than 40 miles per hour (64 km/h), in which case the roof operators will close the roof.[4]

text: Seating[edit]

text: With a peak capacity of over 100,000 spectators, AT&T Stadium has the highest capacity of any NFL stadium, while MetLife Stadium has the highest listed seating capacity at 82,500. The smallest stadium is StubHub Center, which is hosting the Los Angeles Chargers in 2017 with a capacity of 27,000 seats; it is the smallest stadium to host a full NFL season for a team since a 25,000-seat City Stadium hosted its last Green Bay Packers games in 1956.

text: In their normal configurations, 29 of the league's 31 stadiums have a seating capacity of at least 60,000 spectators; of those, a majority (16) have less than 70,000 seats, while eight have between 70,000 and 80,000 and five can seat 80,000 or more. In contrast to college football stadiums, the largest of which can and regularly do accommodate over 100,000 spectators, no stadium in the league currently has a listed seating capacity of more than 82,500. Teams rarely build their stadiums far beyond the 80,000 seat threshold (and even then, only in the largest markets) because of the league's blackout policy, which prohibited the televising of any NFL game within 75 miles of its home market if a game does not sell all of its non-premium seating. For this reason, until the blackout was suspended in 2015, the Los Angeles Rams cap capacity at the 93,607-seat Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum to 80,000 seats for most games. Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, the stadium that hosts the Oakland Raiders, has over 60,000 seats, but the team has restricted capacity to under 57,000 in more recent seasons.[5] In the opposite direction, the league has a firm minimum on the number of seats an NFL stadium should have; since 1971 the league has not allowed any stadium under 50,000 seats to host a full-time NFL team (not counting the StubHub Center, there have been two exceptions to this; 45,000-seat Metropolitan Stadium in Minnesota was not replaced until 1982, and 40,000-seat Vanderbilt Stadium hosted the Tennessee Oilers for one season in 1998 after a planned two-year residency in Memphis was cut in half). In normal circumstances, all NFL stadiums are all-seaters.

text: Legend[edit]

text:
Denotes stadium with a retractable roof.

Denotes stadium with a fixed roof.

text: List of current stadiums[edit]

text: Some stadiums can be expanded to fit larger crowds for other events such as concerts or conventions. Official seating capacities do not include standing room.

text:
Image

Name

Seating capacity

Location

Playing surface

Roof type

Team(s)

Opened

Ref(s)

Arrowhead Stadium

76,416

Kansas City, Missouri

Bermuda grass

Open

Kansas City Chiefs

1972

[6]

AT&T Stadium

80,000

Arlington, Texas

Hellas Matrix Turf

Retractable

Dallas Cowboys

2009

[7][8]

Bank of America Stadium

75,419

Charlotte, North Carolina

Bermuda grass

Open

Carolina Panthers

1996

[9]

Broncos Stadium at Mile High

76,125

Denver, Colorado

Kentucky bluegrass

Open

Denver Broncos

2001

[10]

CenturyLink Field

68,000

Seattle, Washington

FieldTurf Revolution

Open

Seattle Seahawks

2002

[11]

FedExField

82,000

Landover, Maryland

Bermuda grass

Open

Washington Redskins

1997

[12]

FirstEnergy Stadium

67,895

Cleveland, Ohio

Kentucky bluegrass

Open

Cleveland Browns

1999

[13][14]

Ford Field

65,000

Detroit, Michigan

FieldTurf Classic HD

Fixed

Detroit Lions

2002

[15]

Gillette Stadium

66,829

Foxborough, Massachusetts

FieldTurf Revolution

Open

New England Patriots

2002

[16]

Hard Rock Stadium

65,326

Miami Gardens, Florida

Platinum TE Paspalum

Open

Miami Dolphins

1987

[17]

Heinz Field

68,400

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Kentucky bluegrass

Open

Pittsburgh Steelers

2001

[18]

Lambeau Field

81,435

Green Bay, Wisconsin

Desso GrassMaster[19]

Open

Green Bay Packers

1957

[20]

Levi's Stadium

68,500

Santa Clara, California

Bermuda grass / Perennial Ryegrass mixture

Open

San Francisco 49ers

2014

[21]

Lincoln Financial Field

69,596

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Desso GrassMaster[22]

Open

Philadelphia Eagles

2003

[23]

Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum

77,500

Los Angeles, California

Bermuda grass

Open

Los Angeles Rams

1923

[24]

Lucas Oil Stadium

67,000

Indianapolis, Indiana

FieldTurf Classic HD

Retractable

Indianapolis Colts

2008

[25]

M&T Bank Stadium

71,008

Baltimore, Maryland

Bermuda grass

Open

Baltimore Ravens

1998

[26]

Mercedes-Benz Superdome

73,208

New Orleans, Louisiana

UBU Sports Speed Series S5-M Synthetic Turf[27]

Fixed

New Orleans Saints

1975

[28]

Mercedes-Benz Stadium

71,000

Atlanta, Georgia

FieldTurf Revolution[29]

Retractable

Atlanta Falcons

2017

[30]

MetLife Stadium

82,500

East Rutherford, New Jersey

UBU Sports Speed Series S5-M Synthetic Turf[31]

Open

New York GiantsNew York Jets

2010

[32]

New Era Field

71,608

Orchard Park, New York

A-Turf Titan 50[33]

Open

Buffalo Bills

1973

[33]

Nissan Stadium

69,143

Nashville, Tennessee

Bermuda grass

Open

Tennessee Titans

1999

[34]

NRG Stadium

72,220

Houston, Texas

Hellas Matrix Turf[35]

Retractable

Houston Texans

2002

[36]

Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum

53,286

Oakland, California

Bermuda grass

Open

Oakland Raiders

1966

[37]

Paul Brown Stadium

65,515

Cincinnati, Ohio

UBU Speed Series S5-M Synthetic Turf

Open

Cincinnati Bengals

2000

[38]

Raymond James Stadium

65,890

Tampa, Florida

Bermuda grass

Open

Tampa Bay Buccaneers

1998

[39]

Soldier Field

61,500

Chicago, Illinois

Kentucky bluegrass

Open

Chicago Bears

1924[nb 1]

[40]

State Farm Stadium

63,400

Glendale, Arizona

Bermuda grass

Retractable

Arizona Cardinals

2006

[41]

StubHub Center

27,000

Carson, California

Bermuda grass

Open

Los Angeles Chargers

2003

[42]

TIAA Bank Field

69,132

Jacksonville, Florida

Bermuda grass

Open

Jacksonville Jaguars

1995

[43]

U.S. Bank Stadium

66,655

Minneapolis, Minnesota

UBU Speed Series S5-M Synthetic Turf[44]

Fixed

Minnesota Vikings

2016

[45]

text: Map of current stadiums[edit]

text: Additional stadiums[edit]

text:
Image

Stadium

Capacity

Location

Playing surface

Roof type

Event(s)

Opened

Ref(s)

Camping World Stadium

65,000

Orlando, Florida

AstroTurf GameDay Grass 3D

Open

Pro Bowl

1936[nb 2]

Estadio Azteca

87,523[46]

Mexico City, Mexico

Grass

Open

NFL Mexico Game

1966

Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium

22,364

Canton, Ohio

FieldTurf Classic HD

Open

Hall of Fame Game

1938[nb 3]

[47]

Wembley Stadium

86,000[nb 4]

London, England

Desso GrassMaster

Partially retractable

NFL London Games

2007

text: Future stadiums[edit]

text:
Under construction

Stadium

Capacity

Location

Playing surface

Roof type

Team(s)

Opening

Ref(s)

Las Vegas Stadium

65,000

Paradise, Nevada

Grass

Fixed

Las Vegas Raiders*

2020

[48]

LASED

70,240

Inglewood, California

Artificial turf

Fixed

Los Angeles RamsLos Angeles Chargers

2020

[49]

Tottenham Hotspur Stadium

62,062

London, England

Artificial turf

Open

NFL London Games

2019

[50]

text:
Proposed

Stadium

Capacity

Location

Playing surface

Roof type

Team(s)

Opening

Ref(s)

New Era Field II

Buffalo, New York

Grass

Open

Buffalo Bills

text: *In 2020 the Oakland Raiders will move to Las Vegas and become the Las Vegas Raiders