document_title: List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field

question_text: who is considered to be the father of medicine

text: Natural sciences[edit]

text: Biology[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Bacteriology

Robert Koch / Ferdinand Cohn[4] / Louis Pasteur

First to produce precise, correct descriptions of bacteria.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[5]

Biogeography

Alfred Russel Wallace

"...Often described as the Father of Biogeography, Wallace shows the impact of human activity on the natural world."[6]

Biology[n 1]

Aristotle

0.25em|

Ecology

Carl Linnaeus / Ernst Haeckel / Eugenius Warming[7]

Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called The Economy of Nature (1772), Haeckel coined the term "ecology" (German: Oekologie, Ökologie) (1866), Warming authored the first book on plant ecology. Plantesamfund (1895).

Entomology

Jan Swammerdam

[8]

Johan Christian Fabricius[9]

Fabricius described and published information on over 10,000 insects and refined Linnaeus's system of classification.

William Kirby

[10]

Ethology

Nikolaas TinbergenKarl von Frisch Konrad Lorenz

The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, joint awardees of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[11]

EvolutionNatural selection

Charles Darwin[12][13][14]

On the Origin of Species (1859).

Genetics

Gregor Mendel

For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance.[15]

William Bateson

Proponent of Mendelism.[16]

Ichthyology

Peter Artedi

"Far greater than either of these… was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."[17]

Lichenology

Erik Acharius

"Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology..."[18]

Microbiology

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek / Louis Pasteur[19]

The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria.

Molecular biology

Linus Pauling

[20]

Molecular biophysics

Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran[21]

Founded the [world's first?] molecular biophysics unit (1970).

Paleontology

Leonardo da VinciGeorge Cuvier

[22]

Parasitology

Francesco Redi

The founder of experimental biology and the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.[23]

Protozoology

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[5]

First to produce precise, correct descriptions of protozoa.

Taxonomy

Carl Linnaeus[24]

Devised the system of naming living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world.

Virology

Dmitry Ivanovsky  Martinus Beijerinck

The first men to discover viruses (1892).

text: Chemistry[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Atomic theory (early)

Democritus[25]

Founder of atomism in cosmology.

Atomic theory (modern)

Father Roger Boscovich[26]

First coherent description of atomic theory.

John Dalton[27]

First scientific description of the atom as a building block for more complex structures.

Chemical thermodynamics (modern)

Gilbert Lewis / Willard Gibbs / Merle Randall / Edward Guggenheim[28]

Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933), which made a major contribution to the use of thermodynamics in chemistry.

Chemistry (early)

Jabir ("Geber") ibn Hayyan (died 815)[29][30][31][32]

Introduced the experimental method to Islamic alchemy.

Chemistry (modern)

Antoine Lavoisier[33]

Elements of Chemistry (1787)

Robert Boyle[33]

The Sceptical Chymist (1661)

Jöns Berzelius[34][35]

Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)

John Dalton[33]

Revival of atomic theory (1803)

Green chemistry

Paul Anastas[36]

Design and manufacture of chemicals that are non-hazardous and environmentally benign.

Nuclear chemistry

Otto Hahn[37]

Applied Radiochemistry (1936)First person to split an atomic nucleus (nuclear fission, 1938)Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery (1944)

Periodic table

Dmitri Mendeleev[38]

Arranged the sixty-six elements known at the time in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869).

Physical chemistry

Mikhail Lomonosov

The first to read lectures in physical chemistry and coin the term (1752).

Jacobus van 't Hoff

Jacobus van 't Hoff is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry. His work helped found the discipline as it is today.[39][40][41]

Svante Arrhenius[42]

Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry. On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876), Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange (1882).

Wilhelm Ostwald

"Wilhelm Ostwald is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry..."[43]

Hermann von Helmholtz

[citation needed]

text: Earth sciences[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Geochemistry (modern)

Victor Goldschmidt

For developing the Goldschmidt classification of elements.

Early geodesy (mathematical geography)

Eratosthenes[44][45]

Eratosthenes was first to write the word Geography (from Geo- and -graphy, literally "writing about the Earth")

Modern geodesy

Al-Biruni[46][47]

Geology (modern)

Father Nicholas Steno[48]James Hutton[49]

For setting down most of the principles of modern geology.For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory.

Limnology (modern)

G. Evelyn Hutchinson

[50]

Mineralogy

Georgius Agricola

[51]

MeteorologyNaval oceanography (modern)

Matthew Fontaine Maury

[52]

Plate tectonics

Alfred Wegener

[citation needed]

Acoustical oceanography

Leonid Brekhovskikh

[53]

Stratigraphy

Father Nicholas Steno

[48]

Speleology

Édouard-Alfred Martel

Began the first systematic exploration of cave systems and promoted speleology as a field separate from geology.

text: Medicine and physiology[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Anatomy (modern)

Marcello Malpighi

Biophysics

Hermann von Helmholtz

Biomechanics

Christian Wilhelm Braune

First to describe the methodology of human gait walking.

Bioelectromagnetics

Luigi Galvani

First to discover animal electricity through a series of experiments.

Cognitive therapy

Aaron T. Beck

"In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."[54]The Prospect of Immortality (1962)

Cryonics

Robert Ettinger

[55]

Dentistry (modern)

Pierre Fauchard

[56]

Electrophysiology

Emil du Bois-Reymond

The discoverer of nerve action potential.

Emergency medicine

Peter Safar[57][58]Frank Pantridge

Safar pioneered CPR, intensive-care units and developed standards for EMT, ambulance design and equipment.Pantridge: [59]

Epidemiology (modern)

John Snow

Fitness

Jack LaLanne

[60]

Gynaecology

J. Marion Sims

[61][62]

Histology

Marcello Malpighi

Human anatomy (modern)

Vesalius[63]

De humani corporis fabrica (1543)

Medical genetics

Victor McKusick[64]

Mendelian Inheritance in Man

Medicine (early)

Imhotep[65]Charaka[66]Hippocrates[67][68]

None.Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine.Prescribed professional practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath.

Medicine (modern)

Sir William Osler

Neurosurgery

Harvey Cushing[69]

Developed techniques that considerably reduced the risks involved with brain surgery in the early 20th Century.[69]

Nursing (modern)

Florence Nightingale

See Nursing#History.

Nutrition (modern)

Justus von LiebigAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier

"Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of [...]"[70]"In addition to being known as the Father of Modern Chemistry, Lavoisier is also considered the Father of Modern Nutrition, as the first to discover the metabolism that occurs inside the human body..."[71]

Organ transplantation

Thomas Starzl[72]

Performed the first human liver transplant and established the clinical utility of anti-rejection drugs including ciclosporin. Developed major advances in organ preservation,  procurement and transplantation.

Orthopedic surgery (modern)

Hugh Owen Thomas[73]

He stressed the importance of rest in treatment and was responsible for many landmark contributions to orthopaedic surgery. He was especially celebrated for his design and use of splints; the famous Thomas knee splint was still in wide use at the end of World War II.

Psychology (experimental)

Wilhelm Wundt[74]

Founded the first laboratory for psychological research.

Pediatrics

Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rhazes")[75]

Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field.

Physiology

Claude Bernard[76]

An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865)

Physical culture

Bernarr Macfadden

"It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."[77]

Plastic surgery

Sushruta[78][79]Harold Gillies

Wrote the Sushruta Samhita.

Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud

[80]

Psychophysics

Ernst Heinrich WeberGustav Fechner[81]

Elements of Psychophysics (1860)

Space medicine

Hubertus Strughold

"After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'"[82]

Surgery (early)

Sushruta[78][79]

Wrote the Sushruta Samhita.

Surgery (modern)

Abu al-Qasim ("Abulcasis") al-Zahrawi[83]Guy de Chauliac[84]Ambroise ParéJohn HunterJoseph ListerWilliam Stewart HalstedSee also Father of modern surgery

Kitab al-Tasrif (1000 AD).Chirurgia magnaLeader in surgical techniques, especially the treatment of wounds.[85]Experimental, scientific approach to surgery.[86][87]Use of carbolic acid as an antiseptic.[88][89]Introduction of residency system in the United States.[90]

Toxicology

Paracelsus

[91]

text: Physics and astronomy[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Acoustics

Ernst Chladni[92]

For important research in vibrating plates

Atomic bomb

Enrico FermiJ. Robert OppenheimerLeslie GrovesEdward Teller

For their role in the Manhattan Project

Aerodynamics

Nikolai ZhukovskyGeorge Cayley[93]

Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built

Physical cosmology

Albert Einstein (founder)
Henrietta Leavitt (mother)[94]
Edwin Hubble (father)[94]

Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables, the "Standard Candle" by which Hubble later determined galactic distances. Einstein's general theory of relativity is usually recognized as the theoretic foundation of modern cosmology.

Classical mechanics

Isaac Newton (founder)[95]

Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)

Electricity

William Gilbert[96]Michael Faraday[97]

Book: De Magnete (1600)Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)

Electrodynamics

André-Marie Ampère[98]

Book: Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience (1827)

Energetics

Willard Gibbs[99]

Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)

Experimental physics (founder)

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[100][101]

For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics (1021)

Modern astronomy

Nicolaus Copernicus[102]

Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)

Nuclear physics

Ernest Rutherford[103]

Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)

Nuclear science

Marie CuriePierre Curie[104]

Optics

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[105]

Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).

Physics (early)

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[106]Francis Bacon[107]

Alhazen developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures.
Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum (1620).

Physics (modern)

Galileo Galilei[108]

His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope

Plasma physics

Irving LangmuirHannes Alfvén[109]

Langmuir first described ionised gas as plasma and observed fundamental plasma vibrations, Langmuir waves.Alfvén pioneered the theoretical description of plasma by developing magnetohydrodynamics.

Quantum mechanics

Max Planck[110]

Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form

Relativity

Albert Einstein (founder)[111]

Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)

Spaceflight (rocketry)

Robert Hutchings GoddardKonstantin TsiolkovskyHermann Oberth

Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket.Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.

Thermodynamics

Sadi Carnot (founder)[112]

Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)

text: Formal sciences[edit]

text: Mathematics[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Algebra(see also The father of algebra)

Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[113] Brahmagupta[114]Diophantus[115][116]

Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline.First use of symbolism (syncopation) in his Arithmetica.

Algebraic topology

Henri Poincaré[117]

Published Analysis Situs in 1895,[118] introducing the concepts of homotopy and homology, which are now considered part of algebraic topology.

Analysis

Augustin-Louis Cauchy[119]Karl Weierstrass[120]

Analytic geometry

René DescartesPierre de Fermat[121] (founders)

For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System

Calculus

Isaac Newton[122]Gottfried Leibniz

See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.

Classical analysis

Madhava of Sangamagrama[123]

Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions

Computer science

Charles BabbageAlan Turing

In the history of computer science Babbage is often regarded as one of the first pioneers of computing and Turing invented the principle of the modern computer and the stored program concept that almost all modern day computers use.

Computer programming

Ada Lovelace

Work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine

Cryptanalysis

Al-Kindi[124][125][126]

Developed the first code breaking algorithm based on frequency analysis. He wrote a book entitled "Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages", containing detailed discussions on statistics.

Descriptive geometry

Gaspard Monge[127](founder)

Developed a graphical protocol that creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane

Fractal geometry

Benoît B. Mandelbrot

Geometry

Euclid[128]

Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.

Graph theory

Leonhard Euler[129]

See Seven Bridges of Königsberg

Italian school of algebraic geometry

Corrado Segre[130]

Publications and students developing algebraic geometry

Modern algebra

Emmy Noether[131]

Provided the first general definitions of a commutative ring, and suggested that topology be studied algebraically.[132] Combined the structure theory of associative algebras and the representation theory of groups into a single arithmetic theory of modules and ideals in rings satisfying ascending chain conditions.[133]

Non-Euclidean geometry

János Bolyai,Nikolai Lobachevsky[134](founders)

Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true

Number theory

Pythagoras[135]

Probability

Gerolamo Cardano, Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, Christiaan Huygens[136] (founders)

Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book

Projective geometry

Girard Desargues[137](founder)

By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away

Tensor calculus

Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[138](founder)

Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus

Trigonometry

Hipparchus[139][140]

Constructed the first trigonometric table.

Vector algebra,vector calculus

Willard Gibbs[141]Oliver Heaviside[142](founders)

For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

text: Systems theory[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Chaos theory

Henri Poincaré[143]Mary Cartwright[144][145]Edward Lorenz[146]

Poincaré's work on the three-body problem was the first discovered example of a chaotic dynamical system. Cartwright made the first mathematical analysis of dynamical systems with chaos. Lorenz introduced strange attractor notation.

Cybernetics

Norbert Wiener[147]

Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948.

Dynamic programming

Richard E. Bellman

Fuzzy logic

Lotfi Asker Zadeh

Information theory

Claude Shannon[148]

Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)

Optimal control

Arthur E. Bryson[149]

Book: Applied Optimal Control[150]

Robust control

George Zames[citation needed]

Small gain theorem and H infinity control.

Stability theory

Alexander Lyapunov[citation needed]

Lyapunov function

System dynamics

Jay Wright Forrester[151]

Book: Industrial dynamics (1961)

text: Social sciences[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Anthropology

Herodotus[152]Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[153][154]

Bibliometrics

Paul Otlet

The term bibliométrie was first used by Paul Otlet in 1934[155] and defined as "the measurement of all aspects related to the publication and reading of books and documents."[156]

Demography

Ibn Khaldun[157]

Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)

Egyptology

Father Athanasius Kircher[158]
Jean-François Champollion[citation needed]

First to identify the phoenetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta stone's discovery.Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone.

Historiography

Ibn Khaldun

Wrote several essential books

History

Herodotus (who also coined the term)

Indology

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[154]

Wrote the Indica

International law

Alberico GentiliFrancisco de VitoriaHugo Grotius

Influential contributions to the theory of international law, war and human rights

Linguistics (early)

Panini

Wrote the first descriptive grammar (of Sanskrit)

Linguistics (modern)

Ferdinand de Saussure
Noam Chomsky

Sociology

Ibn Khaldun[157][159]Adam Ferguson[160]Auguste Comte (who also coined the term)[161]Marquis de Condorcet (founder)[162]

Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena)."Father of modern sociology"Introduced the scientific method into sociology.

text: Economics[edit]

text:
Field

Person(s)considered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Accounting and bookkeeping

Luca Pacioli[163]

Establisher of accounting and the first person to publish a work on bookkeeping.[163]

Economics (early)

Ibn Khaldun[164]Chanakya / Kautilya[165]

Publication: Muqaddimah (1370)Publication: Arthashastra (400 BCE - 200 CE)

Economics (modern)

Richard Cantillon[166]Anders Chydenius[167]Adam Smith[168]

First specific treatise on economics.The National Gain (1765), a pamphlet that included key ideas about free trade.[169]The Wealth of Nations (1776).

Evolutionary economicsEcological economicsThermoeconomicsbioeconomics

Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen[170][171][172][173][174]

The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971)

Macroeconomics

John Maynard Keynes[175]

Author of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money and groundbreaking economist, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking. Prior to Keynes, the general consensus among economists was that the economy was self-fixing. During the Great Depression, when people began to realize that the economy would not fix itself, Keynes proposed that the government needed to intervene to combat excessive boom and bust. This idea was the largest influence in U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal.[176][177]

Mathematical economics

Daniel Bernoulli

Forerunner of the Tableau économique.[178]

Monetary economics

Nicole Oresme (c. 1322–1382)[179]Irving Fisher (1867–1947)Milton Friedman (1912–2006)

Oresme's De Moneta."Irving Fisher [...] spent his career studying questions about money and the economy - how money affects interest rates, how money affects inflation, and the impact of money on overall economic activity. For this work, he is regarded as the father of monetary economics."[180]"[...] no less an authority than the University of Chicago's Milton Friedman, the father of monetary economics, [...]"[181]

Microcredit

Muhammad Yunus[182]

Founded Grameen Bank

Personnel economics

Edward Lazear

Published the first paper in the field.

text: Schools of thought[edit]

text:
Field

Person(s)considered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Austrian School

Carl Menger[183]

Communism

Karl MarxFriedrich EngelsDavid Ricardo[184]

School of Salamanca

Francisco de Vitoria[185]

Highly influential teacher and lecturer on commercial morality

text: Theories[edit]

text:
Field

Person(s)considered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Expectations theory

Thomas Cardinal Cajetan[186]

Recognised the effect of market expectations on the value of money

Modern portfolio theory

Harry Markowitz[187]

Social choice theory

Kenneth Arrow

Created the field with his 1951 book Social Choice and Individual Values.

text: Other fields[edit]

text:
Field

Person/sconsidered "father" or "mother"

Rationale

Science (modern)

Galileo Galilei[188][189][190]

For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy

Family and consumer science

Ellen Swallow Richards

Founded the American Association of Home Economics, currently the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences. "Bringing science into the home, Richards hoped to "...attain the best physical, mental, and moral development" for the family, which she believed was the basic unit of civilization."[191]


document_title: Fundamental rights in India

question_text: who protect the fundamental rights of indian citizens

root

text: Fundamental rights in India

text: Genesis[edit]

text: The development of constitutionally guaranteed fundamental human rights in India was inspired by historical examples such as England's Bill of Rights (1689), the United States Bill of Rights (approved on 17 September 1787, final ratification on 15 December 1791) and France's Declaration of the Rights of Man (created during the revolution of 1789, and ratified on 26 August 1789).[2]

tag: p

text: In 1919, the Rowlatt Act gave extensive powers to the British government and police, and allowed indefinite arrest and detention of individuals, warrant-less searches and seizures, restrictions on public gatherings, and intensive censorship of media and publications. The public opposition to this act eventually led to mass campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience throughout the country demanding guaranteed civil freedoms, and limitations on government power. Indians, who were seeking independence and their own government, were particularly influenced by the independence of Ireland and the development of the Irish constitution. Also, the directive principles of state policy in Irish constitution were looked upon by the people of India as an inspiration for the independent India's government to comprehensively tackle complex social and economic challenges across a vast, diverse nation and population.

text: In 1928, the Nehru Commission composing of representatives of Indian political parties proposed constitutional reforms for India that apart from calling for dominion status for India and elections under universal suffrage, would guarantee rights deemed fundamental, representation for religious and ethnic minorities, and limit the powers of the government. In 1931, the Indian National Congress (the largest Indian political party of the time) adopted resolutions committing itself to the defence of fundamental civil rights, as well as socio-economic rights such as the minimum wage and the abolition of untouchability and serfdom.[3] Committing themselves to socialism in 1936, the Congress leaders took examples from the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which inspired the fundamental duties of citizens as a means of collective patriotic responsibility for national interests and challenges.

text: Task of developing a constitution for the nation was undertaken by the Constituent Assembly of India, composing of elected representatives. The Constituent Assembly first met on December 9, 1946 under the presidency of Dr. Sachidanand later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was made its President. While members of Congress composed of a large majority, Congress leaders appointed persons from diverse political backgrounds to responsibilities of developing the constitution and national laws.[4] Notably, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar became the chairperson of the drafting committee, while Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became chairpersons of committees and sub-committees responsible for different subjects. A notable development during that period having significant effect on the Indian constitution took place on 10 December 1948 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and called upon all member states to adopt these rights in their respective constitutions.

text: The fundamental rights were included in the First Draft Constitution (February 1948), the Second Draft Constitution (17 October 1948) and final Third Draft Constitution (26 November 1949), prepared by the Drafting Committee.

text: Significance and characteristics[edit]

text: The fundamental rights were included in the constitution because they were considered essential for the development of the personality of every individual and to preserve human dignity. The writers of the constitution regarded democracy of no avail if civil liberties, like freedom of speech and religion were not recognised and protected by the State.[5] According to them, "democracy" is, in essence, a government by opinion and therefore, the means of formulating public opinion should be secured to the people of a democratic nation. For this purpose, the constitution guaranteed to all the citizens of India the freedom of speech and expression and various other freedoms in the form of the fundamental rights.[6]

text:
Rights

Theoretical distinctions

Claim rights and liberty rights
Individual and group rights
Natural and legal rights
Negative and positive rights

Human rights

Civil and political
Economic, social and cultural
Three generations

Rights by beneficiary

Animals
Authors
Children
Consumers
Creditors
Elders
Fathers
Fetuses
Gun owners
Humans
Natives
Intersex
Kings
LGBT
Men
Minorities
Mothers
Patients
Plants
Prisoners
Students
Victims
Women
Workers
Youth
Disabled persons

Other groups of rights

Civil liberties
Digital
Linguistic
Property
Reproductive
Self-determination of people
Water and sanitation

v
t
e

tag: table

text: All people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have been given the right to petition directly the Supreme Court or the High Courts for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so. Poverty stricken people may not have the means to do so and therefore, in the public interest, anyone can commence litigation in the court on their behalf. This is known as "Public interest litigation".[7] In some cases, High Court judges have acted suo moto on their own on the basis of newspaper reports.

text: These fundamental rights help not only in protection but also the prevention of gross violations of human rights. They emphasise on the fundamental unity of India by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of the same facilities, irrespective of background. Some fundamental rights apply for persons of any nationality whereas others are available only to the citizens of India. The right to life and personal liberty is available to all people and so is the right to freedom of religion. On the other hand, freedoms of speech and expression and freedom to reside and settle in any part of the country are reserved to citizens alone, including non-resident Indian citizens.[8] The right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India.[9]

text: Fundamental rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary state actions, but some rights are enforceable against individuals.[10] For instance, the Constitution abolishes untouchability and also prohibits begar. These provisions act as a check both on state action as well as the action of private individuals. However, these rights are not absolute or uncontrolled and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of general welfare. They can also be selectively curtailed. The Supreme Court has ruled[11] that all provisions of the Constitution, including fundamental rights can be amended. However, the Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the constitution. Since the fundamental rights can be altered only by a constitutional amendment, their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch but also on the Parliament and state legislatures.[12]

text: A state of national emergency has an adverse effect on these rights. Under such a state, the rights conferred by Article 19 (freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) remain suspended. Hence, in such a situation, the legislature may make laws that go against the rights given in Article 19. Also, the President may by order suspend the right to move court for the enforcement of other rights as well.

text: Right to equality[edit]

text: Right to equality is an important and meaningful right provided for in Articles 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 of the constitution. It is the principal foundation of all other rights and liberties, and guarantees the following:

text:
Equality before law: Article 14 of the constitution guarantees that all people shall be equally protected by the laws of the country. It means that the State[5] will treat people in the same circumstances alike. This article also means that individuals, whether citizens of India or otherwise shall be treated differently if the circumstances are different.
Social equality and equal access to public areas: Article 15 of the constitution states that no person shall be discriminated on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Every person shall have equal access to public places like public parks, museums, wells, bathing ghats and temples etc. However, the State may make any special provision for women and children. Special provisions may be made for the advancements of any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or scheduled tribes.
Equality in matters of public employment: Article 16 of the constitution lays down that the State cannot discriminate against anyone in the matters of employment. All citizens can apply for government jobs. There are some exceptions. The Parliament may enact a law stating that certain jobs can be filled only by applicants who are domiciled in the area. This may be meant for posts that require knowledge of the locality and language of the area. The State may also reserve posts for members of backward classes, scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not adequately represented in the services under the State to bring up the weaker sections of the society. Also, there a law may be passed that requires that the holder of an office of any religious institution shall also be a person professing that particular religion. According to the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003, this right shall not be conferred to Overseas citizens of India.[9]
Abolition of untouchability: Article 17 of the constitution abolishes the practice of untouchability. Practice of untouchability is an offence and anyone doing so is punishable by law. The Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 (renamed to Protection of Civil Rights Act in 1976) provided penalties for preventing a person from entering a place of worship or from taking water from a tank or well.

tag: ul

text: Abolition of Titles: Article 18 of the constitution prohibits the State from conferring any titles. Citizens of India cannot accept titles from a foreign State. The British government had created an aristocratic class known as Rai Bahadurs and Khan Bahadurs in India – these titles were also abolished. However, Military and academic distinctions can be conferred on the citizens of India. The awards of Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan cannot be used by the recipient as a title and do not, accordingly, come within the constitutional prohibition".[13] The Supreme Court, on 15 December 1995, upheld the validity of such awards.

text: Right to freedom[edit]

text: The Constitution of India contains the right to freedom, given[14] in articles 19, 20, 21, 21A and with the view of guaranteeing individual rights that were considered vital by the framers of the constitution. It is a cluster of four main laws. The right to freedom in Article 19 guarantees the following six freedoms:

text:
Freedom of speech and expression, on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence.[15]
Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order and the sovereignty and integrity of India.
The Freedom to form associations or unions or co-operative societies on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of public order, morality and the sovereignty and integrity of India.
Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India though reasonable restrictions can be imposed on this right in the interest of the general public, for example, restrictions may be imposed on movement and travelling, so as to control epidemics.
Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India, subject to reasonable restrictions by the State in the interest of the general public or for the protection of the scheduled tribes because certain safeguards as are envisaged here seem to be justified to protect indigenous and tribal peoples from exploitation and coercion.[16] Article 370 restricts citizens from other Indian states and Kashmiri women who marry men from other states from purchasing land or property in Jammu & Kashmir.[17]

text: Freedom to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business on which the State may impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of the general public. Thus, there is no right to carry on a business which is dangerous or immoral. Also, professional or technical qualifications may be prescribed for practising any profession or carrying on any trade.

text: Article 21A gives education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.

text: The constitution also imposes restrictions on these rights. The government restricts these freedoms in the interest of the independence, sovereignty and integrity of India. In the interest of morality and public order, the government can also impose restrictions. However, the right to life and personal liberty cannot be suspended. The six freedoms are also automatically suspended or have restrictions imposed on them during a state of emergency.

text: Right to Information (RTI)

text: Right to Information has been given the status of a fundamental right under Article 19(1) of the Constitution in 2005. Article 19 (1) under which every citizen has freedom of speech and expression and have the right to know how the government works, what role does it play, what are its functions and so on.[18]

text: Right against exploitation[edit]

text: The right against exploitation, given in Articles 23 and 24, provides for two provisions, namely the abolition of trafficking in human beings and Begar (forced labour), and abolition of employment of children below the age of 14 years in dangerous jobs like factories, mines, etc. Child labour is considered a gross violation of the spirit and provisions of the constitution. Begar, practised in the past by landlords, has been declared a crime and is punishable by law. Trafficking in humans for the purpose of slave trade or prostitution is also prohibited by law. An exception is made in employment without payment for compulsory services for public purposes. Compulsory military conscription is covered by this provision.

text: Right to freedom of religion[edit]

text: Right to freedom of religion, covered in Articles 25, 26, 27 and 28, provides religious freedom to all citizens of India. The objective of this right is to sustain the principle of secularism in India. According to the Constitution, all religions are equal before the State and no religion shall be given preference over the other. Citizens are free to preach, practice and propagate any religion of their choice.

text: Religious communities can set up charitable institutions of their own. However, activities in such institutions that are not religious are performed according to the laws laid down by the government. Establishing a charitable institution can also be restricted in the interest of public order, morality and health. No person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of a particular religion. A State run institution cannot be impart education that is pro-religion. Also, nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any further law regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political or other secular activity that may be associated with religious practice, or providing for social welfare and reform.

text: Right to life[edit]

text: The constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, which in turn cites specific provisions in which these rights are applied and enforced:

text:
Protection with respect to conviction for offences is guaranteed in the right to life and personal liberty. According to Article 20, no one can be awarded punishment which is more than what the law of the land prescribes at that time. This legal axiom is based on the principle that no criminal law can be made retrospective, that is, for an act to become an offence, the essential condition is that it should have been an offence legally at the time of committing it. Moreover, no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. "Compulsion" in this article refers to what in law is called "Duress" (injury, beating or unlawful imprisonment to make a person do something that he does not want to do). This article is known as a safeguard against self incrimination. The other principle enshrined in this article is known as the principle of double jeopardy, that is, no person can be convicted twice for the same offence, which has been derived from Anglo Saxon law. This principle was first established in the Magna Carta.
Protection of life and personal liberty is also stated under right to life and personal liberty. Article 21 declares that no citizen can be denied his life and liberty except by law. This means that a person's life and personal liberty can be disputed only if that person has committed a crime. However, the right to life does not include the right to die and hence, suicide or an attempt thereof, is an offence. (Attempted suicide being interpreted as a crime has seen many debates. The Supreme Court of India gave a landmark ruling in 1994. The court repealed section 309 of the Indian penal code, under which people attempting suicide could face prosecution and prison terms of up to one year.[19] In 1996 however another Supreme Court ruling nullified the earlier one.[20]) "Personal liberty" includes all the freedoms which are not included in Article 19 (that is, the six freedoms). The right to travel abroad is also covered under "personal liberty" in Article 21.[21]
In 2002, through the 86th Amendment Act,Article 21(A) was incorporated. It made the right to primary education part of the right to freedom, stating that the State would provide free and compulsory education to children from six to fourteen years of age.[22] Six years after an amendment was made in the Indian Constitution, the union cabinet cleared the Right to Education Bill in 2008.[23]
Rights of a person arrested under ordinary circumstances is laid down in the right to life and personal liberty. No one can be arrested without being told the grounds for his arrest. If arrested, the person has the right to defend himself by a lawyer of his choice. Also an arrested citizen has to be brought before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours. The rights of a person arrested under ordinary circumstances are not available to an enemy alien. They are also not available to persons detained under the Preventive Detention Act. Under preventive detention, the government can imprison a person for a maximum of three months. It means that if the government feels that a person being at liberty can be a threat to the law and order or to the unity and integrity of the nation, it can detain or arrest that person to prevent him from doing this possible harm. After three months such a case is brought before an advisory board for review.

text: Cultural and Educational rights[edit]

text: As India is a country of many languages, religions, and cultures, the Constitution provides special measures, in Articles 29 and 30, to protect the rights of the minorities. Any community that has a language and a script of its own has the right to conserve and develop it. No citizen can be discriminated against for admission in State or State aided institutions.

text: All minorities, or linguistic, can set up their own educational institutions to preserve and develop their own culture. In granting aid to institutions, the State cannot discriminate against any institution on the basis of the fact that it is administered by a minority institution. But the right to administer does not mean that the State cannot interfere in case of maladministration. In a precedent-setting judgement in 1980, the Supreme Court held that the State can certainly take regulatory measures to promote the efficiency and excellence of educational standards. It can also issue guidelines for ensuring the security of the services of the teachers or other employees of the institution. In another landmark judgement delivered on 31 October 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that in case of aided minority institutions offering professional courses, admission could be only through a common entrance test conducted by State or a university. Even an unaided minority institution ought not to ignore the merit of the students for admission.

text: Right to constitutional remedies[edit]

text: Right to constitutional remedies [Article 32 to 35] empowers the citizens to move a court of law in case of any denial of the fundamental rights. For instance, in case of imprisonment, any citizen can ask the court to see if it is according to the provisions of the law of the country by lodging a PIL. If the court finds that it is not, the person will have to be freed. This procedure of asking the courts to preserve or safeguard the citizens' fundamental rights can be done in various ways. The courts can issue various kinds of writs. These writs are habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar rightly declared Right to constitutional remedies as "the heart and soul" of Indian constitution. When a national or state emergency is declared, this right is suspended by the central government.

text: Article 32 is also called citizens right to protect and defend the constitution as it can be used by the citizens to enforce the constitution through the judiciary.

text: Right to Privacy[edit]

text: The right to privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 and as a part of the freedoms guaranteed by Part III of the Constitution. It protects the inner sphere of the individual from interference from both State, and non-State actors and allows the individuals to make autonomous life choices. On 24 August 2017 the Supreme Court[24] ruled that:

text: "Right to Privacy is an integral part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty guaranteed in Article 21 of the Constitution,"

text: Critical analysis[edit]

text: The fundamental rights have been revised for many reasons. Political groups have demanded that the right to work, the right to economic assistance in case of unemployment, old age, and similar rights be enshrined as constitutional guarantees to address issues of poverty and economic insecurity,[25] though these provisions have been enshrined in the Directive Principles of state policy.[26] The right to freedom and personal liberty has a number of limiting clauses, and thus have been criticised for failing to check the sanctioning of powers often deemed "excessive".[25] There is also the provision of preventive detention and suspension of fundamental rights in times of Emergency. The provisions of acts like the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act and the National Security Act (NSA) are a means of countering the fundamental rights, because they sanction excessive powers with the aim of fighting internal and cross-border terrorism and political violence, without safeguards for civil rights.[25] The phrases "security of State", "public order" and "morality" are of wide implication. People of alternate sexuality are criminalised in India with prison term up to 10 years. The meaning of phrases like "reasonable restrictions" and "the interest of public order" have not been explicitly stated in the constitution, and this ambiguity leads to unnecessary litigation.[25] The freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms is exercised, but in some cases, these meetings are broken up by the police through the use of non-fatal methods.[27][28]

text: "Freedom of press" has not been included in the right to freedom, which is necessary for formulating public opinion and to make freedom of expression more legitimate.[25] Employment of child labour in hazardous job environments has been reduced, but their employment even in non-hazardous jobs, including their prevalent employment as domestic help violates the spirit and ideals of the constitution. More than 16.5 million children are employed and working in India.[29] India was ranked 88 out of 159 in 2005, according to the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians worldwide. But in 2014, India has improved marginally to a rank of 85.[30][31] The right to equality in matters regarding public employment shall not be conferred to overseas citizens of India, according to the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003.[9]

text: As per Article 19 of Part III of the Indian constitution, the fundamental rights of people such as freedom of speech and expression, gathering peaceably without arms and forming associations or unions shall not effect the interests of the sovereignty[32] and integrity of India but not unity of India. The words sovereignty and integrity are the qualities to be cultivated / emulated by Indian people as urged by the Indian constitution but not used related to territory of India. Article 1 of Part 1 of the Indian constitution,defines India (Bharat) as union of states. In nutshell, India is its people not its land as enshrined in its constitution.

text: Since speedy trial is not the constitutional right of the citizens, the cases involving violations of fundamental rights take inordinate time for resolution by the Supreme Court which is against the legal maxim 'justice delayed is justice denied'.[33]

text: Amendments[edit]

text: Changes to the fundamental rights require a constitutional amendment, which has to be passed by a special majority of both houses of Parliament. This means that an amendment requires the approval of two-thirds of the members present and voting. However, the number of members voting in support of the amendment shall not be less than the simple majority of the total members of a house – whether the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.

text: Fundamental rights not sacrosanct[edit]

text: While deciding the Golaknath case in February 1967, Supreme Court ruled that the Parliament has no power to curtail the fundamental rights. They were made permanent and sacrosanct reversing the Supreme Court's earlier decision which had upheld Parliament's power to amend all parts of the Constitution, including Part III related to Fundamental Rights. Up till the 24th constitutional amendment in 1971, the fundamental rights given to the people were permanent and can not be repealed or diluted by the Parliament. 24th constitutional amendment introduced a new Article 13(4) enabling Parliament to legislate on the subjects of Part III of the constitution using its constituent powers per Article 368 (1). In the year 1973, the 13 member constitutional bench of supreme court also upheld with majority the validity of 24th constitutional amendment. However it ruled that Basic structure of the constitution which is built on the basic foundation representing the dignity and freedom of the individual. This is of supreme importance and cannot be destroyed by any form of amendment to the constitution.[34] Many constitutional amendments to Part III of the constitution were made deleting or adding or diluting the fundamental rights before the judgement of Golaknath case (Constitutional amendments 1,4,7 and 16) and after the validity of 24th constitutional amendment is upheld by the Supreme Court (Constitutional amendments 25,42,44,50,77,81,85,86,93 and 97).

text: Validity of Article 31B[edit]

text: Articles 31A and Article 31B are added by First constitutional amendment in 1951. Article 31B says that any acts and regulations included in the Ninth Schedule of the constitution by the Parliament can override the fundamental rights and such laws can not be repealed or made void by the judiciary on the grounds of violating fundamental rights. In 2007, Supreme Court ruled that there could not be any blanket immunity from judicial review for the laws inserted in the Ninth Schedule. Apex court also stated it shall examine laws included in the Ninth Schedule after 1973 for any incompatibility with the basic structure doctrine.[35]

text: Amendment to Article 31C[edit]

text: Section 4 of the 42nd Amendment, had changed Article 31C of the constitution to accord precedence to the Directive Principles (earlier applicable only to clauses b & c of Article 39) over the fundamental rights of individuals. In Minerva Mills v. Union of India case, supreme court ruled that the amendment to the Article 31C is not valid and ultra vires.

text: Right to property[edit]

text: The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and 31. Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property. Article 31 provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law." It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property has been taken for public purposes.

text: The provisions relating to the right to property were changed a number of times. The Forty-Fourth Amendment of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of fundamental rights[36] A new provision, Article 300-A, was added to the constitution, which provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law". Thus if a legislature makes a law depriving a person of his property, there would be no obligation on the part of the State to pay anything as compensation. The aggrieved person shall have no right to move the court under Article 32. Thus, the right to property is no longer a fundamental right, though it is still a constitutional right. If the government appears to have acted unfairly, the action can be challenged in a court of law by aggrieved citizens.[25]

text: The liberalisation of the economy and the government's initiative to set up special economic zones has led to many protests by farmers and have led to calls for the reinstatement of the fundamental right to private property.[37] The Supreme Court has sent a notice to the government questioning why the right should not be brought back but in 2010 the court rejected the PIL[38]

text: Right to education[edit]

text: The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights in 2002 under the Eighty-Sixth Amendment of 2002.[22] However this right was brought in to implementation after eight years in 2010. Article 21A – On 2 April 2010, India joined a group of few countries in the world, with a historic law making education a fundamental right of every child coming into force.[39] Making elementary education an entitlement for children in the 6–14 age group, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act will directly benefit children who do not go to school at present. This act provides for appointment of teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.

text: The former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh announced the operationalisation of the Act. Children, who had either dropped out of schools or never been to any educational institution, will get elementary education as it will be binding on the part of the local and State governments to ensure that all children in the 6–14 age group get schooling. As per the Act, private educational institutions should reserve 25 per cent seats for children from the weaker sections of society. The Centre and the States have agreed to share the financial burden in the ratio of 55:45, while the Finance Commission has given Rs.250 billion to the States for implementing the Act. The Centre has approved an outlay of Rs.150 billion for 2010–2011.

text: The school management committee or the local authority will identify the drop-outs or out-of-school children aged above six and admit them in classes appropriate to their age after giving special training.

text:
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Constitution of India/Part III


document_title: Popcorn ceiling

question_text: when did they ban asbestos in popcorn ceilings

text: Popcorn ceiling

text: A popcorn ceiling (slang), also known as a cottage cheese ceiling, a stucco ceiling or formally an acoustic ceiling, is a term for a spray-on or paint-on ceiling treatment. It was the standard for bedroom and residential hallway ceilings for its bright, white appearance, ability to hide imperfections, and acoustical characteristics.[citation needed] In comparison, kitchen and living room ceilings would normally be finished in smoother skip-trowel or orange peel texture for their higher durability and ease of cleaning.

text: In early formulations it often contained white asbestos fibers. When asbestos was banned in ceiling treatments by the Clean Air Act of 1978 in the United States,[1] popcorn ceilings fell out of favor in much of the country. However, in order to minimize economic hardship to suppliers and installers, existing inventories of asbestos-bearing texturing materials were exempt from the ban, so it is possible to find asbestos in popcorn ceilings that were applied through the 1980s. After the ban, popcorn ceiling materials were created using a paper-based or Styrofoam product to create the texture, rather than asbestos. Textured ceilings remain common in residential construction in the United States.


document_title: Wildcard mask

question_text: what is the wildcard mask equivalent of the subnet mask /23

question_tokens: what is the wildcard mask equivalent of the subnet mask / 23

text: Wildcard mask

text: A wildcard mask is a mask of bits that indicates which parts of an IP address are available for examination. In the Cisco IOS,[1] they are used in several places, for example:

text:
To indicate the size of a network or subnet for some routing protocols, such as OSPF.
To indicate what IP addresses should be permitted or denied in access control lists (ACLs).

text: At a simplistic level a wildcard mask can be thought of as an inverted subnet mask. For example, a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 (binary equivalent = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000) inverts to a wildcard mask of 0.0.0.255.

text: A wild card mask is a matching rule [2] The rule for a wildcard mask is:

text:
0 means that the equivalent bit must match
1 means that the equivalent bit does not matter

text: Any wildcard bit-pattern can be masked for examination: For example, a wildcard mask of 0.0.0.254 (binary equivalent = 00000000.00000000.00000000.11111110) applied to IP address 10.10.10.2 (00001010.00001010.00001010.00000010) will match even-numbered IP addresses 10.10.10.0, 10.10.10.2, 10.10.10.4, 10.10.10.6 etc. Same mask applied to 10.10.10.1 (00001010.00001010.00001010.00000001) will match odd-numbered IP addresses 10.10.10.1, 10.10.10.3, 10.10.10.5 etc.

text: A network and wildcard mask combination of 1.1.1.1 0.0.0.0 would match an interface configured exactly with 1.1.1.1 only, and nothing else. This is really useful if you want to activate OSPF on a specific interface in a very clear and simple way.

text: If you insist on matching a range of networks, the network and wildcard mask combination of 1.1.0.0 0.0.255.255 would match any interface in the range of 1.1.0.0 to 1.1.255.255. Because of this, it's simpler and safer to stick to using wildcard masks of 0.0.0.0 and identify each OSPF interface individually, but once configured, they function exactly the same -- one way is not better than the other.

text: Wildcard masks are used in situations where subnet masks may not apply. For example, when two affected hosts fall in different subnets, the use of a wildcard mask will group them together.

text:
Slash
Netmask
Wildcard Mask

/32
255.255.255.255
0.0.0.0

/31
255.255.255.254
0.0.0.1

/30
255.255.255.252
0.0.0.3

/29
255.255.255.248
0.0.0.7

/28
255.255.255.240
0.0.0.15

/27
255.255.255.224
0.0.0.31

/26
255.255.255.192
0.0.0.63

/25
255.255.255.128
0.0.0.127

/24
255.255.255.0
0.0.0.255

/23
255.255.254.0
0.0.1.255

/22
255.255.252.0
0.0.3.255

/21
255.255.248.0
0.0.7.255

/20
255.255.240.0
0.0.15.255

/19
255.255.224.0
0.0.31.255

/18
255.255.192.0
0.0.63.255

/17
255.255.128.0
0.0.127.255

/16
255.255.0.0
0.0.255.255

/15
255.254.0.0
0.1.255.255

/14
255.252.0.0
0.3.255.255

/13
255.248.0.0
0.7.255.255

/12
255.240.0.0
0.15.255.255

/11
255.224.0.0
0.31.255.255

/10
255.192.0.0
0.63.255.255

/9
255.128.0.0
0.127.255.255

/8
255.0.0.0
0.255.255.255

/7
254.0.0.0
1.255.255.255

/6
252.0.0.0
3.255.255.255

/5
248.0.0.0
7.255.255.255

/4
240.0.0.0
15.255.255.255

/3
224.0.0.0
31.255.255.255

/2
192.0.0.0
63.255.255.255

/1
128.0.0.0
127.255.255.255

/0
0.0.0.0
255.255.255.25

text:
Jump up ^ Cisco Wide Area Application Services Command Reference Cisco Command Reference
Jump up ^ Matching Guide OmniSecu Site

tag: ol

text: RoutingIP addressesInternet architecture


document_title: Longest recorded sniper kills

question_text: what is the longest sniper shot in us history

text: Longest recorded sniper kills

text: Sniper technology[edit]

text: Although technology such as electronics have improved, optical equipment such as rangefinders and ballistic calculators have eliminated manual mathematical calculations to determine elevation and windage, the fundamentals of accurate and precise long-range shooting are the same as throughout the history of shooting, and the skill and training of the shooter and his spotter where applicable are the primary factors. Accuracy and precision of ammunition and firearms are also still reliant primarily on human factors and attention to detail in the complex process of producing maximum performance.

text: The modern method of long-distance sniping (shots over 1.1 kilometres or 0.7 miles) requires intense training and practice. A sniper must have the ability to accurately estimate the various factors that influence a bullet's trajectory and point of impact, such as range to the target, wind direction, wind speed, air density, elevation, and even the Coriolis effect due to the rotation of the Earth. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can cause a shot to only injure, or to miss completely.[5] Any given combination of firearm and ammunition will have an associated value, known as the circular error probable (CEP), defined as the radius of a circle whose boundary is expected to contain the impact points of half of the rounds fired.[6]

text: If the shooter wishes to improve accuracy and precision, wishes to increase range or wishes to do all of these things, the accuracy of "estimates" of external factors must improve accordingly. At extreme ranges, extremely accurate "estimates" are required and even with the most accurate estimates, hitting the target becomes subject to uncontrollable factors. For example, a rifle capable of firing a 1/2 MOA (approximately 1/2" center to center of the two holes furthest apart) 5-round group (often referred to as "grouping") at 100 yards will fire a theoretical 12.5" group at 2500 yards. Unless the group is centered perfectly on the target at 100 yards, the 2500- yard group will be centered 25 times the off-center error at 100 yards. This example ignores all other factors and assumes "perfect" no-wind shooting conditions and identical muzzle velocities and ballistic performance for each shot.

text: USMC Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock's confirmed 2500-yard kill in Vietnam was primarily due to the enemy soldier stopping his bicycle on the spot Hathcock had fired at while sighting in his Browning M2 heavy machine-gun.

text: Devices such as laser rangefinders, handheld meteorological measuring equipment, handheld computers, and ballistic-prediction software can contribute to increased accuracy (i.e. reduced CEP), although they rely on proper use and training to realize any advantages. In addition, as instruments of measure, they are subject to accuracy errors and malfunction. Handheld meteorological instruments only measure conditions at the location they are used. Wind direction and speed can vary dramatically along the path of the bullet.

text: History[edit]

text: The science of long-range sniping came to fruition in the Vietnam War. Carlos Hathcock held the record from 1967 to 2002 at 2,286 m (2,500 yd).[7] He recorded 93 official kills.[8] After returning to the U.S., Hathcock helped to establish the Marine Corps Scout Sniper School at Quantico, Virginia.[9]

text: In addition to his success as a USMC Scout-Sniper during multiple deployments to Vietnam, Gunnery Sergeant Hathcock competed in multiple USMC shooting teams. Hathcock also won the 1966 Wimbledon Cup, which is earned by the winner of the U.S. 1000-yard high-powered rifle National Championship. Even after being severely burned during an attack on an Amtrac on which he was riding and his efforts to rescue other soldiers, and after being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis, Hathcock continued to serve, shoot and instruct. In Vietnam, Hathcock also completed missions involving a "through the scope" shot which killed an enemy sniper specifically hunting him, and a multiple-day solo stalk and kill of an enemy general.

text: Hathcock's record stood until Canadian Master Corporal Arron Perry of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry beat it with a shot of 2,310 metres. Perry held the title for only a few days, as another man in his unit (Corporal Rob Furlong) beat Perry's distance with a 2,430 m (2,657 yd) shot in March 2002. Perry and Furlong were part of a six-man sniper team during 2002's Operation Anaconda, part of the War in Afghanistan.[4]

text: Corporal Furlong's record was bested by a British soldier, Corporal of Horse Craig Harrison, of the Blues and Royals, Household Cavalry, who recorded two 2,475 m (2,707 yd) shots (confirmed by GPS) in November 2009, also during the War in Afghanistan, in which he hit two Taliban insurgents consecutively.[10] Harrison killed the two Taliban machine gunners with shots that took the 8.59 mm rounds almost five seconds to hit their targets, which were 900 metres (1000 yd) beyond the L115A3 sniper rifle’s recommended range. A third shot took out the insurgents' machine gun. The rifle used was made by Accuracy International.

text: In June 2017, an unnamed sniper of Canada's special forces Unit Joint Task Force 2 surpassed the 2009 record by over a kilometre, with a 3,540 m (3,871 yd) shot in the Iraqi Civil War. As with the previous two Canadian records, a McMillan Tac-50 with Hornady A-MAX .50 (.50 BMG) ammunition was used.[1][2][3]

text: Confirmed kills 1,250 m (1,367 yd) or greater[edit]

text: This list is not exhaustive, as such data is generally not tracked nor managed under any official procedure. For example, the Canadian Army 2002 sniper team that saw two soldiers (Arron Perry/2,310 m and Rob Furlong/2,430 m) set consecutive new records, also made a number of kills at 1,500 m that are not counted here.[11] The list also shows that, in some cases, an armed force command may choose to withhold the name of the actual sniper for security reasons. The United Nations Security Forces, such as in the Balkans, also had one American Sniper (name withheld) attributed with a 1271-metre shot.

text: While not on the list due to the range being less than the minimum distance used to compile it, Hathcock's second-longest confirmed kill was 1,200 yards (1,100 m) using a "standard" USMC sniper rifle chambered in .30-06 Springfield. At the time of Hathcock's service, snipers had essentially been eliminated from the USMC, and its sniper rifles were a hodgepodge mix of commercial Remington 700 and Winchester Model 70 rifles chambered for multiple cartridges. The major challenge for Hathcock and other scout-snipers was improving the performance and reliability of their rifles and ammunition.

text:
Sniper
Date
Distance
Weapon
Ammunition
Nationality
Military Unit
Conflict
References

N !JTF-2 sniper
(name withheld)
2017–06 !May 2017
3,540 m (3,871 yd)
McMillan Tac-50
.50 !Hornady A-MAX .50
(.50 BMG)
 Canada
Joint Task Force 2
Iraq Civil War
[1][2][3][4]

Harrison !Corporal of Horse (CoH) Craig Harrison
2009–11 !November 2009
2,475 m (2,707 yd)
Accuracy International L115A3
.338 Lapua Magnum LockBase B408 bullets
 United Kingdom
Household Cavalry
War in Afghanistan
[10][12][13][14]

Furlong, RobCorporal Rob Furlong
2002–03 !March 2002
2,430 m (2,657 yd)
McMillan Tac-50
.50 !Hornady A-MAX .50
(.50 BMG)
 Canada
3rd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry
War in Afghanistan
[11][4]

Perry !Master Corporal Arron Perry
2002–03 !March 2002
2,310 m (2,526 yd)
McMillan Tac-50
.50 !Hornady A-MAX .50
(.50 BMG)
 Canada
3rd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry
War in Afghanistan
[11][4]

Kremer !Sgt. Brian Kremer
2004 !October 2004
2,300 m (2,515 yd)
Barrett M82A1
Raufoss NM140 MP (.50 BMG)
 United States
2nd Ranger Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment, United States Army
Iraq War
[15]

Hathcock !Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock [A 1]
1967-02 !February 1967
2,286 m (2,500 yd)
M2 Browning machine gun
.50 BMG
 United States
1st Marine Division, United States Marine Corps
Vietnam War
[7]

N !Special Forces sniper (name withheld) [A 2]
2013–08 !August 2013
2,125 m (2,324 yd)
Denel NTW-14.5
14.5×114mm
 South Africa
South African Special Forces Brigade [A 3]
United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
[16][17][18][19]

Ranstad , NicholasNicholas Ranstad
2007-01 !January 2008
2,092 m (2,288 yd)
Barrett M82A1
.50 BMG
 United States
1st Squadron, 91st Cavalry Regiment, United States Army
War in Afghanistan
[20]

Kyle !Chief Petty Officer Chris Kyle [A 4]
2009-08 !August 2008
1,920 m (2,100 yd)
McMillan Tac-338
.338 Lapua Magnum
 United States
US Navy SEAL – Team 3, Charlie
Iraq War – Sadr City
[21][22][23]

Reynolds !Corporal Christopher Reynolds
2009-08 !August 2009
1,853 m (2,026 yd)
Accuracy International L115A3
.338 Lapua Magnum LockBase B408 bullets
 United Kingdom
3 Scots – The Black Watch
War in Afghanistan
[24]

N !AL-GNAS AL SABOR (name withheld)
2016-01-24 !January 24, 2016
1,700 m (1,859 yd)
LRT-3 sniper rifle
.50 BMG
 Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabian army
Yemeni Civil War (2015–present) – Harth (Jizan Region)
[25]

Staff Sgt. Reichert !Steve Reichert
2004-04 !April 2004
1,614 m (1,765 yd)
Barrett M82A3
Raufoss NM140 MP (.50 Cal)
 United States
2nd Battalion, 2nd Marine Regiment, United States Marine Corps
Iraq War - Latifiya
[26]

Dixon !Billy Dixon
1874-06 !June 1874
1,406 m (1,538 yd)
Sharps .50-90
.50-90 Sharps
 United States
Civilian Buffalo Hunter
American Indian Wars
[27]

N !Army sniper (name withheld) [A 5]
2007–11 !November 2007
1,380 m (1,509 yd)
Barrett M82A1
Raufoss NM140 MP (.50 Cal)
 Norway
Norwegian Army 2nd Battalion
War in Afghanistan
[28]

Sergeant Vladimir Ilyin !Vladimir Ilyin
1985
1,350 m (1,476 yd)
Dragunov SVD
7.62×54mmR 7N1
 Soviet Union
345th Independent Guards Airborne Regiment (Soviet Union), Soviet Army
Soviet war in Afganistan
[29]

McGuire Brandon !Sgt. First Class Brandon McGuire
2007-04 !April 2007
1,310 m (1,433 yd)
M107 (M82A1)
Raufoss NM140 MP (.50 Cal)
 United States
3rd Battalion, 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment, United States Army
Iraq War
[30]

Sleigh !Sergeant Major Herbert Sleigh
1918–02 !Feberuary 1918
1,280 m (1,400 yd)
M1903A4 Springfield [A 6]
.30-06 (7.62×63mm)
 United States
American Expeditionary Forces
World War I
[31]

C !Confederate sniper (Name unknown)
1864-12-06 !December 5, 1864
1,271 m (1,390 yd)
Whitworth Rifle
.451 caliber hexagonal bullet
 Confederate States
South Carolina Troops
American Civil War – Fort Sumter to Morris Island, South Carolina
[32]

Gilliland !Staff Sergeant Jim Gilliland [A 7]
2005-09-27 !September 27, 2005
1,250 m (1,367 yd)
M24 rifle
7.62×51mm NATO
 United States
2nd Battalion, 69th Armored Regiment, United States Army
Iraq War – Ramadi
[33]

text:
Jump up ^ During the Vietnam War Hathcock had 93 confirmed kills of North Vietnamese Army and Viet-Cong personnel. During the Vietnam War, kills had to be confirmed by an acting third party, who had to be an officer, besides the sniper's spotter. Hathcock himself estimated that he had killed 300 or more enemy personnel during his time in Vietnam.
Jump up ^ Longest confirmed kill using 14.5×114 mm ammunition
Jump up ^ Serving as part of the UN Force Intervention Brigade
Jump up ^ Christopher Scott "Chris" Kyle (April 8, 1974 – February 2, 2013) was a United States Navy SEAL who claimed to be the most lethal sniper in American military history with 160 "confirmed" kills out of 255 claimed kills. This figure has been corroborated by the Department of Defense, U.S. Special Operations Command, and the U.S. Navy Special Warfare Command.
Jump up ^ Longest confirmed kill using 12.7 mm multi-purpose ammunition
Jump up ^ Officially adopted as a United States military bolt-action rifle on June 19, 1903, and issued to soldiers in WWI. The A4 was a sniper variant modified to accept a scope
Jump up ^ Longest confirmed kill with a 7.62×51mm NATO chambered rifle