document_title: United States budget process

question_text: when was the last time us passed a budget

text: United States budget process

text: The budget processes[edit]

text: The President's budget request[edit]

text: The United States budget process begins when the President of the United States submits a budget request to Congress. The President's budget is formulated over a period of months with the assistance of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the largest office within the Executive Office of the President. The budget request includes funding requests for all federal executive departments and independent agencies. Budget documents include supporting documents and historical budget data and contains detailed information on spending and revenue proposals, along with policy proposals and initiatives with significant budgetary implications. The President's budget request constitutes an extensive proposal of the administration's intended revenue and spending plans for the following fiscal year. The budget proposal includes volumes of supporting information intended to persuade Congress of the necessity and value of the budget provisions. In addition, each federal executive department and independent agency provides additional detail and supporting documentation on its own funding requests. The documents are also posted on the OMB website.

text: The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 requires the President to submit the budget to Congress for each fiscal year, which is the 12-month period beginning on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the next calendar year. The current federal budget law (31 U.S.C. § 1105(a)) requires that the President submit the budget between the first Monday in January and the first Monday in February. In recent times, the President's budget submission has been issued in the first week of February.[4] The budget submission has been delayed, however, in some new presidents' first year when the previous president belonged to a different party. The 2014 United States federal budget was not submitted by the President until April 10, 2013 due to negotiations over the United States fiscal cliff and implementation of the sequester cuts mandated by the Budget Control Act of 2011.[5] (The House had already prepared its budget proposal on March 21, and the Senate proposed a budget on March 23.)

text: President Warren G. Harding brought about the enactment of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, which, for the first time, required the President to submit a budget annually to Congress and which established the Bureau of the Budget, the forerunner of the Office of Management and Budget, to assist in the formulation of the budget. Initially the Bureau was within the U.S. Department of the Treasury, but in 1939 it was moved to the Executive Office of the President.[6]

text: Budget resolutions[edit]

text: The President's budget submission is referred to the House and Senate Budget Committees and to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). Other committees with budgetary responsibilities submit requests and estimates to the budget committees during this time.

text: In March, the CBO publishes an analysis of the President's budget proposals. The CBO budget report and other publications are also posted on the CBO website. CBO computes a current-law baseline budget projection that is intended to estimate what federal spending and revenues would be in the absence of new legislation for the current fiscal year and for the coming 10 fiscal years. However, the CBO also computes a current-policy baseline, which makes assumptions about, for instance, votes on tax cut sunset provisions. The current CBO 10-year budget baseline projection grows from $3.7 trillion in 2011 to $5.7 trillion in 2021.[citation needed]

text: In March, the budget committees consider the President's budget proposals in the light of the CBO budget report, and each committee submits a budget resolution to its house by April 1. The House and Senate each consider these budget resolutions, and are expected to pass them, possibly with amendments, by April 15. A budget resolution is a kind of concurrent resolution; it is not a law, and therefore does not require the President's signature.

text: There is no obligation for either or both houses of Congress to pass a budget resolution. There may not be a resolution every year; if none is established, the previous year's resolution remains in force. For example, the Senate has not passed a budget resolution for FY2011, FY2012, or FY2013, and passed the FY2014 budget resolution on March 23, 2013, 23 days before the April 15 deadline set by the No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013. This was the first budget resolution passed by the Senate since a FY2010 budget passed on April 29, 2009. The House and Senate may propose a budget independently of the President's budget. For example, for the 2014 budget process, the House prepared its budget proposal on March 21 and the Senate proposed a budget on March 23, while the President's budget was not submitted until April 10.

text: After both houses pass a budget resolution, selected Representatives and Senators negotiate a conference report to reconcile differences between the House and the Senate versions. The conference report, in order to become binding, must be approved by both the House and Senate.

text: The budget resolution is not legally binding but serves as a blueprint for the actual appropriation process, and provides Congress with some control over the appropriation process. All new discretionary spending requires authority through enactment of appropriation bills or continuing resolutions.

text: Authorization and appropriations[edit]

text: In general, funds for federal government programs must be authorized by an "authorizing committee" through enactment of legislation. Then, through subsequent acts by Congress, budget authority is then appropriated by the Appropriations Committee of the House. In principle, committees with jurisdiction to authorize programs make policy decisions, while the Appropriations Committees decide on funding levels, limited to a program's authorized funding level, though the amount may be any amount less than the limit.

text: The budget resolutions specify funding levels for the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their 12 subcommittees, establishing various budget totals, allocations, entitlements, and may include reconciliation instructions to designated House or Senate committees. The appropriations committees start with allocations in the budget resolution and draft appropriations bills, which may be considered in the House after May 15. Once appropriations committees pass their bills, they are considered by the House and Senate. When there is a final budget, the spending available to each appropriations committee for the coming fiscal year is usually provided in the joint explanatory statement included in the conference report. The appropriations committees then allocate that amount among their respective subcommittees, each to allocate the funds they control among the programs within their jurisdiction.[7]

text: A conference committee is typically required to resolve differences between House and Senate appropriation bills. Once a conference bill has passed both chambers of Congress, it is sent to the President, who may sign the bill or veto it. If he signs, the bill becomes law. Otherwise, Congress must pass another bill to avoid a shutdown of at least part of the federal government.

text: In recent years, Congress has not passed all of the appropriations bills before the start of the fiscal year. Congress may then enact continuing resolutions that provide for the temporary funding of government operations. Failure to appropriate funds results in a partial government shutdown, such the federal government shutdown in October 2013.

text: In practice, the separation between policy making and funding and the division between appropriations and authorization activities are imperfect. Authorizations for many programs have long lapsed, yet still receive appropriated amounts, while other programs that are authorized receive no funds at all.[citation needed] In addition, policy language, which is legislative text changing permanent law, is included in appropriation measures.

text: Discretionary and mandatory spending[edit]

text: Each function within the budget may include "budget authority" and "outlays" that fall within the broad categories of discretionary spending or direct spending.

text: Discretionary spending[edit]

text: Discretionary spending requires an annual appropriation bill, which is a piece of legislation. Discretionary spending is typically set by the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their various subcommittees. Since the spending is typically for a fixed period (usually a year), it is said to be under the discretion of the Congress. Some appropriations last for more than one year (see Appropriation bill for details). In particular, multi-year appropriations are often used for housing programs and military procurement programs.

text: There are currently 12 appropriation bills that must be passed each fiscal year in order for continued discretionary spending to occur. The subject of each appropriations bill corresponds to the jurisdiction of the respective House and Senate appropriation subcommittees:

text: As of 2012, there are 12 appropriations bills which need to be passed each year:[8]

text:
Agriculture, Rural Development, and Food and Drug Administration
Commerce, Justice, and Science
Defense
Energy and Water Development
Financial Services and General Government (includes judicial branch, the Executive Office of the President, and District of Columbia appropriations)
Homeland Security
Interior and Environment
Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education
Legislative Branch
Military Construction and Veterans Affairs
State and Foreign Operations
Transportation and Housing and Urban Development

text: Multiple bills are sometimes combined into one piece of legislation, such as the Omnibus Appropriations Act, 2009. A continuing resolution is often passed if an appropriations bill has not been signed into law by the end of the fiscal year.

text: Mandatory spending[edit]

text: Direct spending, also known as mandatory spending, refers to spending enacted by law, but not dependent on an annual or periodic appropriation bill. Most mandatory spending consists of transfer payments and welfare benefits such as Social Security benefits, Medicare, and Medicaid. Many other expenses, such as salaries of federal judges, are mandatory, but account for a relatively small share of federal spending. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates costs of mandatory spending programs on a regular basis.[citation needed]

text: Congress can affect spending on entitlement programs by changing eligibility requirements or the structure of programs. Certain programs, because the language authorizing them are included in appropriation bills, are termed "appropriated entitlements." This is a convention rather than a substantive distinction, since the programs, such as Food Stamps, would continue to be funded even were the appropriation bill to be vetoed or otherwise not enacted.[citation needed]

text: Budget functions[edit]

text: The federal budget is divided into categories known as budget functions. These functions include all spending for a given topic, regardless of the federal agency that oversees the individual federal program. Both the President's budget, and Congress' budget resolution provide summaries by function.

text: List of budget functions:[9]

text:
Function Number
Category
Description

050
National Defense
The National Defense function includes the military activities of the Department of Defense (DoD), the nuclear-weapons related activities of the Department of Energy (DoE) and the National Nuclear Security Administration, the national security activities of several other agencies such as the Selective Service Agency, and portions of the activities of the Coast Guard and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The programs in this function include: the pay and benefits of active, Guard, and reserve military personnel; DoD operations including training, maintenance of equipment, and facilities; health care for military personnel and dependents; procurement of weapons; research and development; construction of military facilities, including housing; research on nuclear weapons; and the cleanup of nuclear weapons production facilities.

150
International Affairs
Function 150 contains funding for all U.S. international activities, including: operating U.S. embassies and consulates throughout the world; providing military assistance to allies; aiding developing nations; dispensing economic assistance to fledgling democracies; promoting U.S. exports abroad; making U.S. payments to international organizations; and contributing to international peacekeeping efforts. Funding for all of these activities constitutes about one percent of the federal budget. The major agencies in this function include the Departments of Agriculture, State, and the Treasury; the United States Agency for International Development; and the Millennium Challenge Corporation.

250
General Science, Space, and Technology
This function includes the National Science Foundation (NSF), programs at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration except for aviation programs, and general science programs at the Department of Energy (DOE).

270
Energy
Function 270 contains civilian energy and environmental programs in the Department of Energy (DOE). This function also includes the Rural Utilities Service of the Department of Agriculture, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. This function does not include DOE's national security activities, which are in Function 050 (National Defense), or its basic research and science activities, which are in Function 250 (General Science, Space and Technology).

300
Natural Resources and Environment
Function 300 includes programs concerned with environmental protection and enhancement; recreation and wildlife areas; and the development and management of the nation's land, water, and mineral resources. It includes programs within the following federal departments and agencies: Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, Transportation, the Army Corps of Engineers, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

350
Agriculture
Function 350 includes farm income stabilization, agricultural research, and other services administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The discretionary programs include research and education programs, economics and statistics services, administration of the farm support programs, farm loan programs, meat and poultry inspection, and a portion of the Public Law (P.L.) 480 international food aid program. The mandatory programs include commodity programs, crop insurance, and certain farm loans.

370
Commerce and Housing Credit
Function 370 includes mortgage credit, the Postal Service, deposit insurance, and other advancement of commerce (the majority of the discretionary and mandatory spending in this function). The mortgage credit component includes housing assistance through the Federal Housing Administration, the Federal National Mortgage Association (Fannie Mae), the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac), the Government National Mortgage Association (Ginnie Mae), and rural housing programs of the Department of Agriculture. The function also includes net postal service spending and spending for deposit insurance activities of banks, thrifts, and credit unions. Most of the Commerce Department is provided for in this function. Finally, the function also includes funding for independent agencies such as the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, the Federal Trade Commission, the Federal Communications Commission, and the majority of the Small Business Administration.

400
Transportation
Function 400 consists mostly of the programs administered by the Department of Transportation, including programs for highways, mass transit, aviation, and maritime activities. This function also includes two components of the Department of Homeland Security: the Coast Guard and the Transportation Security Administration. In addition, this function includes several small transportation-related agencies and the research program for civilian aviation at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

450
Community and Regional Development
Function 450 includes federal programs to improve community economic conditions, promote rural development, and assist in federal preparations for and response to disasters. This function provides appropriated funding for the Community Development Block Grant, Department of Agriculture rural development programs, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and other disaster mitigation and community development-related programs. It also provides mandatory funding for the federal flood insurance program.

500
Education, Training, Employment, and Social Services
Function 500 includes funding for the Department of Education, social services programs within the Department of Health and Human Services, and employment and training programs within the Department of Labor. It also contains funding for the Library of Congress and independent research and art agencies such as the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, the Smithsonian Institution, the National Gallery of Art, the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, the National Endowment for the Arts, and the National Endowment for the Humanities.

550
Health
Function 550 includes most direct health care services programs. Other health programs in this function fund anti-bioterrorism activities, national biomedical research, protecting the health of the general population and workers in their places of employment, providing health services for under-served populations, and promoting training for the health care workforce. Some of the agencies funded in this function include the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Health Resources and Services Administration, and the Food and Drug Administration. The major mandatory programs in this function are Medicaid, the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), federal and retirees' health benefits, and health care for Medicare-eligible military retirees.

570
Medicare
Function 570 includes only the Medicare program, which provides health insurance to senior citizens and persons with disabilities. Congress provides an annual appropriation for the costs of administering and monitoring the Medicare program. Nearly 99 percent of spending in this function occurs on the mandatory side of the budget, and almost all of the mandatory spending consists of payments for Medicare benefits.

600
Income Security
Function 600 consists of a range of income security programs that provide cash or near-cash assistance (e.g., housing, nutrition, and energy assistance) to low-income persons, and benefits to certain retirees, persons with disabilities, and the unemployed. Housing assistance programs account for the largest share of discretionary funding in this function. Major federal entitlement programs in this function include unemployment insurance, trade adjustment assistance income support, food stamps, Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, foster care, and Supplemental Security Income. Federal and other retirement and disability programs comprise approximately one third of the funds in this function.

650
Social Security
Function 650 consists of the two payroll tax-financed programs that are collectively known as Social Security: Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and Disability Insurance (OASDI). This function includes Social Security benefit payments and funds to administer the program. Under provisions of the Congressional Budget Act and the Budget Enforcement Act, Social Security trust funds are off-budget and do not appear in the budget resolution totals. However, a small portion of spending in Function 650 - the general fund transfer of income taxes on Social Security benefits - is considered on-budget and appears in the budget resolution totals.

700
Veterans Benefits and Services
Function 700 covers the programs of the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), including veterans' medical care, compensation and pensions, education and rehabilitation benefits, and housing programs. It also includes the Department of Labor's Veterans' Employment and Training Service, the United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, and the American Battle Monuments Commission. Almost 90 percent of appropriated funding in Function 700 goes to veterans' health care.

750
Administration of Justice
The Administration of Justice function consists of federal law enforcement programs, litigation and judicial activities, correctional operations, and state and local justice assistance. Agencies within this function include: the Federal Bureau of Investigation; the Drug Enforcement Administration; Border and Transportation Security; the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives; the United States Attorneys; legal divisions within the Department of Justice; the Legal Services Corporation; the federal Judiciary; and the Federal Bureau of Prisons. This function includes several components of the Department of Homeland Security.

800
General Government
This function includes the activities of the White House and the Executive Office of the President, the legislative branch, and programs designed to carry out the legislative and administrative responsibilities of the federal government, including personnel management, fiscal operations, and property control.

900
Net Interest
Function 900 consists primarily of the interest paid by the federal government to private and foreign government holders of U.S. Treasury securities. This amount is slightly offset by interest income received by the federal government on loans and cash balances and by earnings of the National Railroad Retirement Investment Trust.

920
Allowances
This function displays the budgetary effect of proposals that cannot easily be distributed across other budget functions. In the past, this function has included funding for emergencies or proposals contingent on certain events.

950
Undistributed Offsetting Receipts
This function comprises major offsetting receipt items that would distort the funding levels of other functional categories if they were distributed to them.


document_title: Golden Gate Bridge

question_text: who was the original design of the golden gate bridge

root

text: Golden Gate Bridge

text: History

text: Ferry service

text: Before the bridge was built, the only practical short route between San Francisco and what is now Marin County was by boat across a section of San Francisco Bay. A ferry service began as early as 1820, with a regularly scheduled service beginning in the 1840s for the purpose of transporting water to San Francisco.[10]

tag: p

text: The Sausalito Land and Ferry Company service, launched in 1867, eventually became the Golden Gate Ferry Company, a Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiary, the largest ferry operation in the world by the late 1920s.[10][11] Once for railroad passengers and customers only, Southern Pacific's automobile ferries became very profitable and important to the regional economy.[12] The ferry crossing between the Hyde Street Pier in San Francisco and Sausalito in Marin County took approximately 20 minutes and cost US$1.00 per vehicle, a price later reduced to compete with the new bridge.[13] The trip from the San Francisco Ferry Building took 27 minutes.

text: Many wanted to build a bridge to connect San Francisco to Marin County. San Francisco was the largest American city still served primarily by ferry boats. Because it did not have a permanent link with communities around the bay, the city's growth rate was below the national average.[14] Many experts said that a bridge could not be built across the 6,700 ft (2,042 m) strait, which had strong, swirling tides and currents, with water 372 ft (113 m) deep[15] at the center of the channel, and frequent strong winds. Experts said that ferocious winds and blinding fogs would prevent construction and operation.[14]

text: Conception

text: Although the idea of a bridge spanning the Golden Gate was not new, the proposal that eventually took hold was made in a 1916 San Francisco Bulletin article by former engineering student James Wilkins.[16] San Francisco's City Engineer estimated the cost at $100 million, which would have been $2.12 billion in 2009, and impractical for the time. He asked bridge engineers whether it could be built for less.[10] One who responded, Joseph Strauss, was an ambitious engineer and poet who had, for his graduate thesis, designed a 55-mile-long (89 km) railroad bridge across the Bering Strait.[17] At the time, Strauss had completed some 400 drawbridges—most of which were inland—and nothing on the scale of the new project.[3] Strauss's initial drawings[16] were for a massive cantilever on each side of the strait, connected by a central suspension segment, which Strauss promised could be built for $17 million.[10]

text: Local authorities agreed to proceed only on the assurance that Strauss would alter the design and accept input from several consulting project experts.[citation needed] A suspension-bridge design was considered the most practical, because of recent advances in metallurgy.[10]

text: Strauss spent more than a decade drumming up support in Northern California.[18] The bridge faced opposition, including litigation, from many sources. The Department of War was concerned that the bridge would interfere with ship traffic. The navy feared that a ship collision or sabotage to the bridge could block the entrance to one of its main harbors. Unions demanded guarantees that local workers would be favored for construction jobs. Southern Pacific Railroad, one of the most powerful business interests in California, opposed the bridge as competition to its ferry fleet and filed a lawsuit against the project, leading to a mass boycott of the ferry service.[10]

text: In May 1924, Colonel Herbert Deakyne held the second hearing on the Bridge on behalf of the Secretary of War in a request to use federal land for construction. Deakyne, on behalf of the Secretary of War, approved the transfer of land needed for the bridge structure and leading roads to the "Bridging the Golden Gate Association" and both San Francisco County and Marin County, pending further bridge plans by Strauss.[19] Another ally was the fledgling automobile industry, which supported the development of roads and bridges to increase demand for automobiles.[13]

text: The bridge's name was first used when the project was initially discussed in 1917 by M.M. O'Shaughnessy, city engineer of San Francisco, and Strauss. The name became official with the passage of the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act by the state legislature in 1923, creating a special district to design, build and finance the bridge.[20] San Francisco and most of the counties along the North Coast of California joined the Golden Gate Bridge District, with the exception being Humboldt County, whose residents opposed the bridge's construction and the traffic it would generate.[21]

text: Design

text: Strauss was chief engineer in charge of overall design and construction of the bridge project.[14] However, because he had little understanding or experience with cable-suspension designs,[22] responsibility for much of the engineering and architecture fell on other experts. Strauss's initial design proposal (two double cantilever spans linked by a central suspension segment) was unacceptable from a visual standpoint. The final graceful suspension design was conceived and championed by Leon Moisseiff, the engineer of the Manhattan Bridge in New York City.[23]

text: Irving Morrow, a relatively unknown residential architect, designed the overall shape of the bridge towers, the lighting scheme, and Art Deco elements, such as the tower decorations, streetlights, railing, and walkways. The famous International Orange color was originally used as a sealant for the bridge.[24] The US Navy had wanted it to be painted with black and yellow stripes to ensure visibility by passing ships.[14]

text: Senior engineer Charles Alton Ellis, collaborating remotely with Moisseiff, was the principal engineer of the project.[25] Moisseiff produced the basic structural design, introducing his "deflection theory" by which a thin, flexible roadway would flex in the wind, greatly reducing stress by transmitting forces via suspension cables to the bridge towers.[25] Although the Golden Gate Bridge design has proved sound, a later Moisseiff design, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, collapsed in a strong windstorm soon after it was completed, because of an unexpected aeroelastic flutter.[26] Ellis was also tasked with designing a "bridge within a bridge" in the southern abutment, to avoid the need to demolish Fort Point, a pre–Civil War masonry fortification viewed, even then, as worthy of historic preservation. He penned a graceful steel arch spanning the fort and carrying the roadway to the bridge's southern anchorage.[27]

text: Ellis was a Greek scholar and mathematician who at one time was a University of Illinois professor of engineering despite having no engineering degree. He eventually earned a degree in civil engineering from the University of Illinois prior to designing the Golden Gate Bridge and spent the last twelve years of his career as a professor at Purdue University. He became an expert in structural design, writing the standard textbook of the time.[28] Ellis did much of the technical and theoretical work that built the bridge, but he received none of the credit in his lifetime. In November 1931, Strauss fired Ellis and replaced him with a former subordinate, Clifford Paine, ostensibly for wasting too much money sending telegrams back and forth to Moisseiff.[28] Ellis, obsessed with the project and unable to find work elsewhere during the Depression, continued working 70 hours per week on an unpaid basis, eventually turning in ten volumes of hand calculations.[28]

text: With an eye toward self-promotion and posterity, Strauss downplayed the contributions of his collaborators who, despite receiving little recognition or compensation,[22] are largely responsible for the final form of the bridge. He succeeded in having himself credited as the person most responsible for the design and vision of the bridge.[28] Only much later were the contributions of the others on the design team properly appreciated.[28] In May 2007, the Golden Gate Bridge District issued a formal report on 70 years of stewardship of the famous bridge and decided to give Ellis major credit for the design of the bridge.

text: Finance

text: The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, authorized by an act of the California Legislature, was incorporated in 1928 as the official entity to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge.[14] However, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the District was unable to raise the construction funds, so it lobbied for a $30 million bond measure. The bonds were approved in November 1930,[17] by votes in the counties affected by the bridge.[29] The construction budget at the time of approval was $27 million. However, the District was unable to sell the bonds until 1932, when Amadeo Giannini, the founder of San Francisco–based Bank of America, agreed on behalf of his bank to buy the entire issue in order to help the local economy.[10]

text: Construction

text: Construction began on January 5, 1933.[10] The project cost more than $35 million,[30] ($493 million in 2016 dollars[31]) completing ahead of schedule and $1.3 million under budget.[32] The Golden Gate Bridge construction project was carried out by the McClintic-Marshall Construction Co., a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel Corporation founded by Howard H. McClintic and Charles D. Marshall, both of Lehigh University.

text: Strauss remained head of the project, overseeing day-to-day construction and making some groundbreaking contributions. A graduate of the University of Cincinnati, he placed a brick from his alma mater's demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured. He innovated the use of movable safety netting beneath the construction site, which saved the lives of many otherwise-unprotected ironworkers. Of eleven men killed from falls during construction, ten were killed on February 17, 1937, when the bridge was near completion when the net failed under the stress of a scaffold that had fallen.[33] The workers' platform that was attached to a rolling hanger on a track collapsed when the bolts that were connected to the track were too small and the amount of weight was too great to bear. The platform fell into the safety net, but was too heavy and the net gave way. Two out of the twelve workers survived the 200-foot (61 m) fall into the icy waters, including the 37-year-old foreman, Slim Lambert. Nineteen others who were saved by the net over the course of construction became members of their Half Way to Hell Club.[34]

text: The project was finished and opened May 27, 1937. The Bridge Round House diner was then included in the southeastern end of the Golden Gate Bridge, adjacent to the tourist plaza which was renovated in 2012.[35] The Bridge Round House, an Art Deco design by Alfred Finnila completed in 1938, has been popular throughout the years as a starting point for various commercial tours of the bridge and an unofficial gift shop.[36] The diner was renovated in 2012[35] and the gift shop was then removed as a new, official gift shop has been included in the adjacent plaza.[36]

text: During the bridge work, the Assistant Civil Engineer of California Alfred Finnila had overseen the entire iron work of the bridge as well as half of the bridge's road work.[37] With the death of Jack Balestreri in April 2012, all workers involved in the original construction are now deceased.

text: Opening festivities, 50th, and 75th anniversaries

text: The bridge-opening celebration began on May 27, 1937 and lasted for one week. The day before vehicle traffic was allowed, 200,000 people crossed either on foot or on roller skates.[10] On opening day, Mayor Angelo Rossi and other officials rode the ferry to Marin, then crossed the bridge in a motorcade past three ceremonial "barriers", the last a blockade of beauty queens who required Joseph Strauss to present the bridge to the Highway District before allowing him to pass. An official song, "There's a Silver Moon on the Golden Gate", was chosen to commemorate the event. Strauss wrote a poem that is now on the Golden Gate Bridge entitled "The Mighty Task is Done." The next day, President Roosevelt pushed a button in Washington, D.C. signaling the official start of vehicle traffic over the Bridge at noon. As the celebration got out of hand there was a small riot in the uptown Polk Gulch area. Weeks of civil and cultural activities called "the Fiesta" followed. A statue of Strauss was moved in 1955 to a site near the bridge.[16]

text: In May 1987, as part of the 50th anniversary celebration, the Golden Gate Bridge district again closed the bridge to automobile traffic and allowed pedestrians to cross the bridge. However, this celebration attracted 750,000 to 1,000,000 people, and ineffective crowd control meant the bridge became congested with roughly 300,000 people, causing the center span of the bridge to flatten out under the weight.[38] Although the bridge is designed to flex in that way under heavy loads, and was estimated not to have exceeded 40% of the yielding stress of the suspension cables,[39] bridge officials stated that uncontrolled pedestrian access was not being considered as part of the 75th anniversary on Sunday, May 27, 2012,[40][41][42] because of the additional law enforcement costs required "since 9/11".[43]

text:
A pedestrian poses at the old railing on opening day, 1937

Play media

Opening of the Golden Gate Bridge

Official invitation to the opening of the bridge. This copy was sent to the City of Seattle

tag: ul

text: Structural specifications

text: Until 1964, the Golden Gate Bridge had the longest suspension bridge main span in the world, at 4,200 feet (1,300 m). Since 1964 its main span length has been surpassed by ten bridges; it now has the second-longest main span in the United States, after the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in New York City. The total length of the Golden Gate Bridge from abutment to abutment is 8,981 feet (2,737 m).[44]

text: The Golden Gate Bridge's clearance above high water averages 220 feet (67 m) while its towers, at 746 feet (227 m) above the water,[44] were the world's tallest on a suspension bridge until 1993 when it was surpassed by the Mezcala Bridge, in Mexico.

text: The weight of the roadway is hung from 250 pairs of vertical suspender ropes, which are attached to two main cables. The main cables pass over the two main towers and are fixed in concrete at each end. Each cable is made of 27,572 strands of wire. The total length of galvanized steel wire used to fabricate both main cables is estimated to be 80,000 miles (130,000 km).[44]

text: The bridge has approximately 1,200,000 total rivets.[citation needed]

text: Aesthetics

text: The color of the bridge is officially an orange vermilion called international orange.[45] The color was selected by consulting architect Irving Morrow[46] because it complements the natural surroundings and enhances the bridge's visibility in fog. Aesthetics was the foremost reason why the first design of Joseph Strauss was rejected. Upon re-submission of his bridge construction plan, he added details, such as lighting, to outline the bridge's cables and towers.[47] In 1999, it was ranked fifth on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.

text: The bridge was originally painted with red lead primer and a lead-based topcoat, which was touched up as required. In the mid-1960s, a program was started to improve corrosion protection by stripping the original paint and repainting the bridge with zinc silicate primer and vinyl topcoats.[48][45] Since 1990, acrylic topcoats have been used instead for air-quality reasons. The program was completed in 1995 and it is now maintained by 38 painters who touch up the paintwork where it becomes seriously corroded.[49]

text:
A view of the Golden Gate Bridge from the Marin Headlands on a foggy morning at sunrise

View of the northern tower of the bridge

text: Traffic

text: Most maps and signage mark the bridge as part of the concurrency between U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1. Although part of the National Highway System, the bridge is not officially part of California's Highway System.[50] For example, under the California Streets and Highways Code § 401, Route 101 ends at "the approach to the Golden Gate Bridge" and then resumes at "a point in Marin County opposite San Francisco". The Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District has jurisdiction over the segment of highway that crosses the bridge instead of the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans).

text: The movable median barrier between the lanes is moved several times daily to conform to traffic patterns. On weekday mornings, traffic flows mostly southbound into the city, so four of the six lanes run southbound. Conversely, on weekday afternoons, four lanes run northbound. During off-peak periods and weekends, traffic is split with three lanes in each direction.[51]

text: From 1968 to 2015, opposing traffic was separated by small, plastic pylons, and during that time, there were 16 fatalities resulting from 128 head-on collisions.[52] To improve safety, the speed limit on the Golden Gate Bridge was reduced from 50 to 45 mph (80 to 72 km/h) on October 1, 1983.[53] Although there had been discussion concerning the installation of a movable barrier since the 1980s, only in March 2005 did the Bridge Board of Directors commit to finding funding to complete the $2 million study required prior to the installation of a movable median barrier.[52] Installation of the resulting barrier was completed on January 11, 2015, following a closure of 45.5 hours to private vehicle traffic, the longest in the bridge's history. The new barrier system, including the zipper trucks, cost approximately $30.3 million to purchase and install.[52][54]

text: Usage and tourism

text: The bridge is popular with pedestrians and bicyclists, and was built with walkways on either side of the six vehicle traffic lanes. Initially, they were separated from the traffic lanes by only a metal curb, but railings between the walkways and the traffic lanes were added in 2003, primarily as a measure to prevent bicyclists from falling into the roadway.[55]

text: The main walkway is on the eastern side, and is open for use by both pedestrians and bicycles in the morning to mid-afternoon during weekdays (5 am to 3:30 pm), and to pedestrians only for the remaining daylight hours (until 6 pm, or 9 pm during DST). The eastern walkway is reserved for pedestrians on weekends (5 am to 6 pm, or 9 pm during DST), and is open exclusively to bicyclists in the evening and overnight, when it is closed to pedestrians. The western walkway is open only for bicyclists and only during the hours when they are not allowed on the eastern walkway.[56]

text: Bus service across the bridge is provided by two public transportation agencies: San Francisco Muni and Golden Gate Transit. Muni offers Saturday and Sunday service on the Marin Headlands Express bus line, and Golden Gate Transit runs numerous bus lines throughout the week.[57][58] The southern end of the bridge, near the toll plaza and parking lot, is also accessible daily from 5:30 a.m. to midnight by Muni line 28.[59] The Marin Airporter, a private company, also offers service across the bridge between Marin County and San Francisco International Airport.[60]

text: A visitor center and gift shop, dubbed the "Bridge Pavilion", is located on the San Francisco side of the bridge, adjacent to the southeast parking lot. It opened in 2012, in time for the bridge's 75th anniversary celebration. A cafe, outdoor exhibits, and restroom facilities are located nearby.[61] On the Marin side of the bridge, only accessible from the northbound lanes, is the H. Dana Bower Rest Area and Vista Point,[62] named after the first landscape architect for the California Division of Highways.[63]

text: Lands and waters under and around the bridge are homes to varieties of wildlife such as bobcats and sea lions.[64][65] Three species of cetaceans that had been absent in the area for many years show recent recoveries/(re)colonizations vicinity to the bridge, and researchers study them to strengthen protections, concerning actions by public and recommending to watch whales either from the bridge and nearby, or to use a local whale watching operator.[66][67][68]

text: Tolls

text: The last of the construction bonds were retired in 1971, with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest raised entirely from bridge tolls.[53]

text: In November 2006, the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District recommended a corporate sponsorship program for the bridge to address its operating deficit, projected at $80 million over five years. The District promised that the proposal, which it called a "partnership program," would not include changing the name of the bridge or placing advertising on the bridge itself. In October 2007, the Board unanimously voted to discontinue the proposal and seek additional revenue through other means, most likely a toll increase.[69][70]

text: In an effort to save $19.2 million over the following 10 years, the Golden Gate District voted in January 2011 to eliminate all toll takers by 2012 and use only open road tolling.[71] Subsequently, this was delayed and toll taker elimination occurred in March 2013. The cost savings have been revised to $19 million over an eight-year period. In addition to the FasTrak electronic toll collection system, the Golden Gate District implemented the use of license plate tolling (branded as "Pay-by-Plate"), and also a one time payment system for drivers to pay before or after their trip on the bridge. Twenty-eight positions were eliminated as part of this plan.[72]

text: On April 7, 2014, the toll for users of FasTrak was increased from $5 to $6, while the toll for drivers using either the license plate tolling or the one time payment system was raised from $6 to $7. Bicycle, pedestrian, and northbound motor vehicle traffic remain toll free. For vehicles with more than two axles, the toll rate is $7 per axle for those using license plate tolling or the one time payment system, and $6 per axle for FasTrak users. During peak traffic hours, carpool vehicles carrying two or more people and motorcycles pay a discounted toll of $4; drivers must have Fastrak to take advantage of this carpool rate.[72] The Golden Gate Transportation District then planned to increase the tolls by 25 cents in July 2015, and then by another 25 cents each of the next three years.[73]

text:
Golden Gate Bridge toll increases (2014–18)[73][74]

Effective date
FasTrak
Toll-by-plate
Carpool
Multi-axle vehicle

April 7, 2014
$6.00
$7.00
$4.00
$7.00 per axle

July 1, 2015
$6.25
$7.25
$4.25
$7.25 per axle

July 1, 2016
$6.50
$7.50
$4.50
$7.50 per axle

July 1, 2017
$6.75
$7.75
$4.75
$7.75 per axle

July 1, 2018
$7.00
$8.00
$5.00
$8.00 per axle

tag: table

text: Congestion pricing

text: In March 2008, the Golden Gate Bridge District board approved a resolution to start congestion pricing at the Golden Gate Bridge, charging higher tolls during the peak hours, but rising and falling depending on traffic levels. This decision allowed the Bay Area to meet the federal requirement to receive $158 million in federal transportation funds from USDOT Urban Partnership grant.[75] As a condition of the grant, the congestion toll was to be in place by September 2009.[76][77]

text: The first results of the study, called the Mobility, Access and Pricing Study (MAPS), showed that a congestion pricing program is feasible.[78] The different pricing scenarios considered were presented in public meetings in December 2008.[79]

text: In August 2008, transportation officials ended the congestion pricing program in favor of varying rates for metered parking along the route to the bridge including on Lombard Street and Van Ness Avenue.[80]

text: Issues

text: Suicides

text: The Golden Gate Bridge is the second-most used suicide site/suicide bridge in the world, after the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge.[81] The deck is about 245 feet (75 m) above the water.[82] After a fall of four seconds, jumpers hit the water at around 75 mph or about 120 km/h. Most of the jumpers die from impact trauma. About 5% of the jumpers survive the initial impact but generally drown or die of hypothermia in the cold water.[83][84]

text: After years of debate and over an estimated 1,500 deaths, suicide barriers began to be installed in April 2017. Construction will take approximately four years at a cost of over $200 million.[85]

text: Wind

text: Since its completion, the Golden Gate Bridge has been closed because of weather conditions only three times: on December 1, 1951, because of gusts of 69 mph (111 km/h); on December 23, 1982, because of winds of 70 mph (113 km/h); and on December 3, 1983, because of wind gusts of 75 mph (121 km/h).[48]

text: An anemometer, placed midway between the two towers on the west side of the bridge, has been used to measure wind speeds. Another anemometer was placed on one of the towers.

text: Seismic vulnerability and improvements

text: Modern knowledge of the effect of earthquakes on structures led to a program to retrofit the Golden Gate to better resist seismic events. The proximity of the bridge to the San Andreas Fault places it at risk for a significant earthquake. Once thought to have been able to withstand any magnitude of foreseeable earthquake, the bridge was actually vulnerable to complete structural failure (i.e., collapse) triggered by the failure of supports on the 320-foot (98 m) arch over Fort Point.[86] A $392 million program was initiated to improve the structure's ability to withstand such an event with only minimal (repairable) damage. One challenging undertaking is completing this program without disrupting traffic. A complex electro-hydraulic synchronous lift system was custom built for construction of temporary support towers and a series of intricate lifts, transferring the loads from the existing bridge onto the temporary supports. This was completed with engineers from Balfour Beatty and Enerpac, accomplishing this task without disrupting day-to-day San Francisco commuter traffic.[87][88] The retrofit was planned to be completed in 2012.[88][89]

text: The former elevated approach to the Golden Gate Bridge through the San Francisco Presidio, known as Doyle Drive, dated to 1933 and was named after Frank P. Doyle, President and son of the founder of the Exchange Bank in Santa Rosa, and the man who, more than any other person, made it possible to build the Golden Gate Bridge.[90] The highway carried about 91,000 vehicles each weekday between downtown San Francisco and the North Bay and points north.[91] The road was deemed "vulnerable to earthquake damage", had a problematic 4-lane design, and lacked shoulders, and a San Francisco County Transportation Authority study recommended that it be replaced. Construction on the $1 billion[92] replacement, temporarily known as the Presidio Parkway, began in December 2009.[93] The elevated Doyle Drive was demolished on the weekend of April 27–30, 2012, and traffic used a part of the partially completed Presidio Parkway, until it was switched onto the finished Presidio Parkway on the weekend of July 9–12, 2015. As of May 2012, an official at Caltrans said there is no plan to permanently rename the portion known as Doyle Drive.[94]

text: In popular culture

text: As a prominent American landmark, the Golden Gate Bridge has been used in numerous media which includes books, films and video games.


document_title: List of Black Sails episodes

question_text: how many episodes in black sails season 3

text: List of Black Sails episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
8
January 25, 2014 (2014-01-25)
March 15, 2014 (2014-03-15)

2
10
January 24, 2015 (2015-01-24)
March 28, 2015 (2015-03-28)

3
10
January 23, 2016 (2016-01-23)
March 26, 2016 (2016-03-26)

4
10
January 29, 2017 (2017-01-29)
April 2, 2017 (2017-04-02)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"I."
Neil Marshall
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
January 25, 2014 (2014-01-25)
0.846[5]

John Silver joins Captain Flint's crew as the ship's new cook while holding a highly valuable page of the Captain's Log which he takes from the ship's first cook who has stolen it from the captain. Meanwhile Captain Flint faces a potential mutiny from his crew and must work to secure their support and recruits his first mate Billy Bones's help to overthrow the mutineer's leader Singleton. Also Eleanor Guthrie tries to keep order on the lawless island of New Providence conducting her father's business as the Royal Navy's suspicions of the pirates grow stronger.

2
2
"II."
Sam Miller
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
February 1, 2014 (2014-02-01)
0.840[6]

After Captain Flint reveals Singleton as the thief in front of his crew, he has Gates convince Billy who knows the truth about his captain that this is for the good of the ship. Meanwhile, Silver and Max are forced to hide in the brothel when they put themselves in danger as Captain Vane and his new partners Jack Rackham and Anne Bonny are determined to get a hold of the missing page in the hunt for the Spanish galleon, Urca de Lima. Also, Eleanor is given an ultimatum by Max and has to decide on wealth or love.

3
3
"III."
Neil Marshall
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
February 8, 2014 (2014-02-08)
0.671[7]

Flint asks Gates to seek additional help from Captain Hornigold to borrow his ship, Royal Lion, in search of the Urca de Lima. Meanwhile, Silver and Billy tackle a morale problem when they work together on the finding out the remaining mutineers. During a captains meeting to strike a deal, Eleanor is impressed by Vane's voice of reason and calm demeanor, which leads to them having an intimate encounter. However, once she finds out Max is raped by his crew, she punishes Vane by giving them an ultimatum. Also Gates is promoted from quartermaster to captaining his own ship.

4
4
"IV."
Sam Miller
Brad Caleb Kane
February 15, 2014 (2014-02-15)
0.672[8]

The Walrus suffers a disastrous undertaking when the crew takes on the mission careening the ship's hull under the new quartermaster's orders. Meanwhile, Silver warns Flint about Billy's allegiance with Morley as the story of Mrs. Barlow comes to light. When Captain Bryson arrives in New Providence, Eleanor wants the cannon aboard his supply ship, Andromache for protection in the search for Urca de Lima. However, after he denies her, she turns to her father for help in persuading him despite betraying Mr. Scott's wishes. Also, Vane is surprised to see a figure from his past.

5
5
"V."
Marc Munden
Doris Egan
February 22, 2014 (2014-02-22)
0.744[9]

Flint and his crew of the Walrus play a deadly game of naval warfare when they engage Captain Bryson and the Andromache on the open sea to gain precious cargo. Meanwhile, Richard forces his daughter's hand about his business when he makes an announcement to the locals about his assets being liquidated, causing a mob to riot against Eleanor who seeks help from Hornigold. Rackham makes a career change for him and Vane when they become owners of the brothel. Also, Billy questions Flint about Mrs. Barlow and Bonny confesses to Max about her past with men.

6
6
"VI."
T.J. Scott
Heather Bellson
March 1, 2014 (2014-03-01)
0.847[10]

Capturing the Andromache proves to be a costly endeavor when Flint loses a few of his crew to Bryson's men who are holed up in the hull. Meanwhile, Bonny decides to take a stand against Hamund and his men from harming Max. Eleanor gets a visit from an unlikely ally who needs her help and turns to Silver to form a plan. Billy reads a private letter from Mrs. Barlow asking for a pardon for Flint's murderous actions aboard the Maria Aleyne, and asks Gates to confront him before the men learn of his betrayal. Vane reaches his destination from his self-made voyage.

7
7
"VII."
Marc Munden
Michael Angeli
March 8, 2014 (2014-03-08)
0.703[11]

Flint explains to Gates about Mrs. Barlow's letter after Billy's disappearance. Randell's accusation of Silver being a thief causes problems when he is put in a tight spot with Dufresne, the new quartermaster. Eleanor suffers a loss when Mr. Scott wants nothing to do with her partnership with Flint and becomes a part of Captain Hornigold's crew. When Rackham can't turn a profit, Max helps run his business at the brothel. In need of a new crew, Captain Vane makes a deal with the man from his past to borrow his men, but ends up fighting a battle to the death.

8
8
"VIII."
T.J. Scott
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
March 15, 2014 (2014-03-15)
0.762[12]

The hunt for the Urca de Lima begins when Silver divulges the schedule to Flint, taking them to the ship's location. Not satisfied with her share of the brothel’s profits, Mrs. Mapleton tries to blackmail Rackham that if he does not approve of the new profits sharing in the brothel, she will tell the locals what really happened to Mr. Noonan. Meanwhile, Vane makes his way back to New Providence with his new crew. Eleanor’s situation changes when a small band of men take over Hornigolds’s fort and start sinking supply ships in the bay. While managing the mutiny aboard the Walrus, Gates calls off the attack of the Ranger, putting his fate in Flint’s hands. The final scenes of the season show that the Walrus has beached itself upon the same isle as the Urca de Lima.

text: Season 2 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

9
1
"IX."
Steve Boyum
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
January 24, 2015 (2015-01-24)
0.860[13]

The Walrus crew is stranded on the beach with an army of Spanish soldiers standing between them and the gold on Urca de Lima. When going before his former crew to face judgment for his crimes, Flint devises a plan for survival to sneak aboard the warship and take out the watchman. Thinking he means to escape, Silver volunteers to go on the mission. Meanwhile, Eleanor struggles to maintain her hold on Nassau as a new threat arrives; the murderous pirate Ned Low and his equally violent crew from his ship, Fancy. Also, Vane has a new position at the fort on New Providence, while Jack is reduced to being labeled a "crew-killer" and endures daily beatings.

10
2
"X."
Clark Johnson
Michael Chernuchin
January 31, 2015 (2015-01-31)
0.746[14]

A member of the Walrus crew unexpectedly returns, but finds himself crudely tethered down on a beach. Flint, still stuck in the bowels of the ship, sets his plan in motion to become captain in two days' time by offering advice to Dufresne on a certain route to navigate the galleon through. Meanwhile, Silver tries to make himself indispensable to his crewmates by reading them gossip that the quiet cook Randall witnesses daily aboard the ship. Meeks asks Eleanor to depose of his captain, Ned Low since his unquenchable thirst for power is causing the crew to be reckless. After Jack learns about the intimate encounter between Max and Anne, he accepts it and later proposes his next money-making scheme with them.

11
3
"XI."
Stefan Schwartz
Brad Caleb Kane
February 7, 2015 (2015-02-07)
0.691[15]

When Flint returns to Nassau to retrieve the gold, he encounters a problem when he learns that Hornigold no longer commands the fort on the island, and anchors the Spanish warship in the bay directly in line with it. No longer a "crew-killer", Rackham's reputation is restored, but he is worried that Anne is being taking advantage of by Max, driving a wedge between them. Later, Vane is confronted by Ned Low, who learns of his intimate relationship with Eleanor and threatens her well-being after being provoked. This causes Vane to take action and devises a plan to board Low's ship, kill him and steal his crew, but discovers he is carrying precious "cargo" in the brig.

12
4
"XII."
Clark Johnson
Story by : Julie Siege
Teleplay by : Jonathan E. Steinberg & Dan Shotz
February 14, 2015 (2015-02-14)
0.752[16]

Wanting to remove Vane from the fort, Flint sends a messenger to him issuing a warning. Eleanor tries to put an end to Flint's plan to demolish the fort, giving him an ultimatum; however, the final decision rests in his hands only. Meanwhile, Vane learns that Low's special cargo is Abigail Ashe, daughter of the Carolina's governor, and plots to ransom her off. Rackham admires what Max can do with the help of one of her ladies in order to gain him a ship and crew, making him a captain again. Silver, insuring his portion of the gold, makes use of his time on the island by playing to the locals with gossip, but in doing so, he is reunited with an old crew member from the Walrus who is badly malnourished.

13
5
"XIII."
Alik Sakharov
Aaron Helbing & Todd Helbing
February 21, 2015 (2015-02-21)
0.750[17]

Flint begins the bombardment of Vane's fort in earnest. After destroying a portion of the wall, Flint and Hornigold stage their crews on the beach, arming them to retake the fort. During the bombardment, it is shown through a series of flashbacks that not only had Flint wholly committed himself to Hamilton's plan to retake Nassau and pardon the pirates, but has also begun an affair with him. While seeking the support from his commander, Flint is confronted by him and Lord Hamilton, who strip Flint of rank and expel him from the Royal Navy while giving Flint and Mrs Hamilton till nightfall to flee London, while Mr Hamilton is committed to a mental hospital. In the present, Ms Hamilton, now Ms Barlow, rides into town attempting to avert the bloodshed of the coming battle. She finally gets him alone and tells him of Abigail Ashe, the daughter of a once trusted friend, and that they should trade her for safety in the Colonies, thus gaining the support they need to finally make Mr Hamilton's plan a reality. She leaves a copy of Marcus Aurelius with a dedication to Flint by Mr Hamilton, then leaves him to his thoughts just as Vane bursts into the room with a dagger intent on killing him.

14
6
"XIV."
Michael Nankin
Heather Bellson
February 28, 2015 (2015-02-28)
0.778[18]

To spare Flint exposure to his crew, Billy Bones decides to remain silent and not go ahead with his plans for revenge. However, he later states that he was captured and tortured by the British navy, with the option to denounce Flint for a pardon and a cahoot. Flint contracts his promise to capture the fort and kill Vane, and his promise to raid the Spanish gold, so that he can regain a legitimate reputation by following the plan by Eleanor and Miranda to return the daughter of the Carolina governor. Jack Rackham finally takes on his maiden voyage as a captain, but it takes a turn for the worse when his ship is boarded by rival pirates, who have a stronger crew and heavier weaponry. They give Rackham the option of a sharing term, and given the pitiful nature of it, Rackham decides to risk a confrontation with the rival captain.

15
7
"XV."
Alik Sakharov
Lisa Schultz Boyd
March 7, 2015 (2015-03-07)
0.632[19]

The pirates prepare to take a vote on whether Flint or Hornigold should become captain, causing Flint's plans to take a halt. Billy secretly meets with Dufresne and declares his plan to gather at least ten men that oppose flint, to capture him and surrender him to the British, so that they may all receive full pardons for their piracy. John Silver comes to find out that Flint kept quiet about the fate of the crew of the Spanish gold, in which the entire crew died from a tropical disease, leaving the gold unprotected, after which Flint planned to start a secret expedition to gather the gold without any issues or opposition. Eleanor betrays Vane by releasing Abby, the daughter of the Carolina governor, to help along with the plan for pardons by Flint and Miranda.

16
8
"XVI."
Steve Boyum
Story by : Marc Berzenski & Maria Melnik
Teleplay by : Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
March 14, 2015 (2015-03-14)
0.743[20]

Billy's trap to eliminate the traitors of the pirate screw succeeds, and Flint ends up winning against Hornigold in the election for the captain. After the election and its results against him, Hornigold departs from Nassau. Flint also leaves Nassau, but instead sails to Carolina to meet with the governor there in regards to his daughter; Carolina is a place where pirates are believed to be most evil and the attitude towards them is extremely hostile. John Silver discusses the plan for the retrieval of the unguarded Spanish gold with Jack Rackham and his crew, deliberately ignoring the fact that a major trap is currently being laid for them. The mother of Max, the new madame of Nassau, reveals to Eleanor of Silver's plan to retrieve the gold, on which they both agree that the plan goes against the free dream that they share for Nassau, to transform the pirate town into a legitimate location.

17
9
"XVII."
Lukas Ettlin
Story by : Dan Shotz
Teleplay by : Brad Caleb Kane
March 21, 2015 (2015-03-21)
0.653[21]

As Silver and his party attempt to reclaim the Urca gold, Vane overtakes the plan to Silver's surprise. However, Billy remains faithful to Flint's cause, and Silver remains on board, hiding with a few of the survivors. The remaining traitors that were not captured join forces to capture Eleanor, and deliver her to the British navy as a pirate hostage, to receive their ten full pardons for their actions as pirates. Flint prepares to accept the conditions of Peter Ashe, the Carolina governor, to expose his whole story from London and allowing an inspection of the pirate port of Nassau, but Miranda comes to the realization that it was Peter who betrayed them so many years go, so she retracts her deal with the governor, causing Peter's guards to capture Flint and kill her. Flint's execution is later announced. Upon hearing the news of Flint's upcoming execution, Vane believes that this would destroy the reputation of Nassau, and suggests an alliance with Billy to save Flint from being killed.

18
10
"XVIII."
Steve Boyum
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
March 28, 2015 (2015-03-28)
0.668[22]

In Charles Town, the day of Captain Flint's trial comes. Lord Ashe offers him a chance to avoid humiliation, but Flint declines, still bitter at Ashe for Mrs Barlow's death. However, help for Flint arrives in the unlikeliest form: Charles Vane. Vane's men launch their attack on the city and Flint and Vane fight their way out, with Flint murdering Ashe en route. They reach the ship to find Flint's crew have regained leadership, but Flint orders Vane's crew to be released - realising pirates have to unite against the world. Silver, after being tortured, is forced to have his leg cut off. When he finally awakens, he reveals the spy they hired to watch the Spanish soldiers sold the location to another crew. The crew of Jack Rackham. The ending scene pictures Max celebrating Jack's successful attempt to bring the treasure back to Nassau.

text: Season 3 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

19
1
"XIX."
Alik Sakharov
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
January 23, 2016 (2016-01-23)
0.843[23]

A formidable new character is introduced. Flint and his crew wage war against anyone who has taken a stance against piracy. John Silver thinks this is becoming dangerous and reckless. Max has Anne persuade Jack to start repairs on New Providence Island's fort, which is still in ruins after the events of Season 2. Jack has sent Vane to take a ship, claiming there is much needed timber aboard. Vane finds slaves instead and angrily confronts Jack, who convinces Vane that slave labor is the only way to fix the fort. Back in England, Eleanor is offered a deal in exchange for her life and a new British threat emerges. Flint and the Walrus come across Hornigold and his crew and are forced to make a difficult decision.

20
2
"XX."
Lukas Ettlin
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Brad Caleb Kane
January 30, 2016 (2016-01-30)
0.759[24]

The crew of the Walrus are forced to brace themselves against the elements. Blackbeard disagrees on an issue with Rackham, while Woodes Rogers and Eleanor begin to draft the terms that their partnership will be based upon. Bonny begins to worry about the future, what it entails, and where her relationship with Max will go.

21
3
"XXI."
Stefan Schwartz
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Dan Shotz
February 6, 2016 (2016-02-06)
0.501[25]

While stranded at sea, tensions between Flint and Silver begin to rise, and Silver finds himself pushed to his limit by Flint. While the port of Nassau begins to prepare to defend itself against an invasion, Rackham takes the lead of the force. Max sorts out issues within her house, while at the same time, Vane has to make a difficult decision to ward off his own defeat.

22
4
"XXII."
Steve Boyum
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Lisa Schultz Boyd
February 13, 2016 (2016-02-13)
0.640[26]

Flint and his crew are captured by islanders, marched to a hidden village and imprisoned. Rogers tells Eleanor he wants her as his counselor during his move onto Nassau. Jack blows up the fort so that Vane, aided by Teach, can escape. Flint identifies their captors as escaped slaves. On ship, Teach shows Vane that Eleanor is aboard a British vessel, and later wonders where his loyalties lie. Flint, Silver and Billy realize that they must convince their captors that their interests are aligned. Rogers and his men believe they have trapped the remaining pirates until a single ship begins moving across the bay. When it is closer to the British fleet, Vane lights the ship on fire and jumps overboard. At the village, Flint tells Silver that the islanders will kill them because they can not risk their secret being revealed. Under cover of darkness, Mr. Scott approaches the slaves who escaped from the fort but is challenged by two British sailors and gunfire is exchanged, injuring Mr. Scott. The slaves load him into a boat and make for the open ocean.

23
5
"XXIII."
Alik Sakharov
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
February 20, 2016 (2016-02-20)
0.679[27]

As they begin to face certain death, Flint is forced into action by Silver to save themselves. Blackbeard helps Vane with his issues and shows him a better path forward, while a new threat arises for Eleanor and Woodes Rogers, putting their plans on hold. Max takes issues into her own hands and makes her own way forward.

24
6
"XXIV."
Lukas Ettlin
Dan Shotz
February 27, 2016 (2016-02-27)
0.603[28]

Flint decides to step forward to challenge Blackbeard, to determine the fate and the future of piracy. Woodes Rogers moves forward and makes an arrest, while Rackham is motivated after finding a new purpose and reason to go forward. Madi Scotts, the daughter of Maroons Queen and Mr. Scott, helps Silver as he's being held captive.

25
7
"XXV."
Rob Bailey
Marc Berzenski & Josh Rothenberger
March 5, 2016 (2016-03-05)
0.658[29]

Finally, Flint and Silver make their way to return to Nassau, and upon their arrival, they find that a legend has been created. Rachkam and Bonny find themselves in a jeopardous situation after an unexpected change of terms takes place. Vane continues with his mission, and it begins to evolve, while Eleanor secretly confides her issues in Rogers.

26
8
"XXVI."
Stefan Schwartz
Evan Bleiweiss
March 12, 2016 (2016-03-12)
0.677[30]

While relocating a prisoner, Rogers finds himself under attack. Meanwhile, on the Walrus, violence erupts between the crew members of the ship, and Silver and Madi find themselves in a situation that puts them to a test. Billy finally finds a new role for himself in the upcoming battle, that may benefit both the battle and himself.

27
9
"XXVII."
Steve Boyum
Story by : Brad Caleb Kane & Tyler Van Patten
Teleplay by : Brad Caleb Kane
March 19, 2016 (2016-03-19)
0.608[31]

Eleanor visits Vane in prison and redoubles her commitment to his execution. Later, she visits Rogers, who has fallen ill with fever and is bedridden. Rogers grants her emergency power to govern New Providence Island until he recovers. On the Walrus, Flint and Silver attempt a risky maneuver to shake Captain Hornigold's pursuit. Billy plots a way to buy time before Vane's execution. Rogers becomes unresponsive; Eleanor orders an expedited trial to execute Vane the next day. Flint and Silver discuss leadership styles. Billy prepares to rescue Vane, but things don't go according to plan. Flint and Rackham plan how to best defend themselves, while Eleanor plans the British offensive. Teach is informed of the outcome of Vane's execution.

28
10
"XXVIII."
Alik Sakharov
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
March 26, 2016 (2016-03-26)
0.644[32]

As Flint buries the treasure, he is questioned by Silver about his true reasons for the war against the British and the tactics for the upcoming battle on the island. On the day of the attack, the British and Hornigold manage to take the beach with superior firepower, forcing Flint and his men to retreat. Meanwhile, Rackham and Bonny unite with the fleet of Blackbeard, who seeks revenge for the death of Charles Vane. In Nassau, Eleanor is confronted by an anonymous message, which demands the removal of the remains of Charles Vane and the gibbet from the market square. Rogers recovers and reassures Eleanor his support in overcoming her enemies. Silver sends Dobbs to the beach to kill Hornigold. Hornigold shoots Dobbs and is eventually killed by Flint. In Nassau, a pardoned pirate captain is murdered by Billy, as there was no reaction on the message with the black spot. With the help of Bonny and Rackham, Blackbeard's fleet manage to force the British fleet to retreat. In Nassau, Billy creates the claim of responsibility for the murder and a warning, using the name "Long John Silver".

text: Season 4 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

29
1
"XXIX."
Lukas Ettlin
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
January 29, 2017 (2017-01-29)
0.738[33]

30
2
"XXX."
Alik Sakharov
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Dan Shotz
February 5, 2017 (2017-02-05)
0.340[34]

31
3
"XXXI."
Roel Reiné
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Brad Caleb Kane
February 12, 2017 (2017-02-12)
0.503[35]

32
4
"XXXII."
Marc Jobst
Peter Ocko & Michael Russell Gunn
February 19, 2017 (2017-02-19)
0.483[36]

33
5
"XXXIII."
Alik Sakharov
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Dan Shotz
February 26, 2017 (2017-02-26)
0.448[37]

34
6
"XXXIV."
Steve Boyum
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
March 5, 2017 (2017-03-05)
0.448[38]

35
7
"XXXV."
Lukas Ettlin
Robert Levine & Brad Caleb Kane
March 12, 2017 (2017-03-12)
0.505[39]

36
8
"XXXVI."
Uta Briesewitz
Story by : Jenniffer Castillo & Jillian Molin
Teleplay by : Tyler Van Patten
March 19, 2017 (2017-03-19)
0.473[40]

37
9
"XXXVII."
Steve Boyum
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Dan Shotz
March 26, 2017 (2017-03-26)
0.501[41]

38
10
"XXXVIII."
Jonathan E. Steinberg
Jonathan E. Steinberg & Robert Levine
April 2, 2017 (2017-04-02)
0.568[42]


document_title: Doubling time

question_text: if the growth rate of the population is 3.5 per year then the doubling time would be how many years

text: Doubling time

text: History[edit]

text: The notion of doubling time dates to interest on loans in Babylonian mathematics. Clay tablets from circa 2000 BCE include the exercise "Given an interest rate of 1/60 per month (no compounding), come the doubling time." This yields an annual interest rate of 12/60 = 20%, and hence a doubling time of 100% growth/20% growth per year = 5 years.[1] [2] Further, repaying double the initial amount of a loan, after a fixed time, was common commercial practice of the period: a common Assyrian loan of 1900 BCE consisted of loaning 2 minas of gold, getting back 4 in five years,[1] and an Egyptian proverb of the time was "If wealth is placed where it bears interest, it comes back to you redoubled."[1][3]

text: Examination[edit]

text: Examining the doubling time can give a more intuitive sense of the long-term impact of growth than simply viewing the percentage growth rate

text: For a constant growth rate of r%, the formula for the doubling time Td is given by

text: Some doubling times calculated with this formula are shown in this table.

text: Simple doubling time formula:

text:
N(t) = the number of objects at time t
d = doubling period (time it takes for object to double in number)
c = initial number of objects
t = time

text:
Doubling times Td given constant r% growth

r%
Td

 0.1
693.49

 0.2
346.92

 0.3
231.40

 0.4
173.63

 0.5
138.98

 0.6
115.87

 0.7
99.36

 0.8
86.99

 0.9
77.36

 1.0
69.66

r%
Td

 1.1
63.36

 1.2
58.11

 1.3
53.66

 1.4
49.86

 1.5
46.56

 1.6
43.67

 1.7
41.12

 1.8
38.85

 1.9
36.83

 2.0
35.00

r%
Td

 2.1
33.35

 2.2
31.85

 2.3
30.48

 2.4
29.23

 2.5
28.07

 2.6
27.00

 2.7
26.02

 2.8
25.10

 2.9
24.25

 3.0
23.45

r%
Td

 3.1
22.70

 3.2
22.01

 3.3
21.35

 3.4
20.73

 3.5
20.15

 3.6
19.60

 3.7
19.08

 3.8
18.59

 3.9
18.12

 4.0
17.67

r%
Td

 4.1
17.25

 4.2
16.85

 4.3
16.46

 4.4
16.10

 4.5
15.75

 4.6
15.41

 4.7
15.09

 4.8
14.78

 4.9
14.49

 5.0
14.21

r%
Td

 5.5
12.95

 6.0
11.90

 6.5
11.01

 7.0
10.24

 7.5
9.58

 8.0
9.01

 8.5
8.50

 9.0
8.04

 9.5
7.64

10.0
7.27

r%
Td

11.0
6.64

12.0
6.12

13.0
5.67

14.0
5.29

15.0
4.96

16.0
4.67

17.0
4.41

18.0
4.19

19.0
3.98

20.0
3.80

text: For example with an annual growth rate of 4.8% the doubling time is 14.78 years, and a doubling time of 10 years corresponds to a growth rate between 7% and 7.5% (actually about 7.18%).

text: When applied to the constant growth in consumption of a resource, the total amount consumed in one doubling period equals the total amount consumed in all previous periods. This enabled US President Jimmy Carter to note in a speech in 1977 that in each of the previous two decades the world had used more oil than in all of previous history (The roughly exponential growth in world oil consumption between 1950 and 1970 had a doubling period of under a decade).

text: Given two measurements of a growing quantity, q1 at time t1 and q2 at time t2, and assuming a constant growth rate, you can calculate the doubling time as

text: Where is it useful?[edit]

text: A constant relative growth rate means simply that the increase per unit time is proportional to the current quantity, i.e. the addition rate per unit amount is constant. It naturally occurs when the existing material generates or is the main determinant of new material. For example population growth in virgin territory, or fractional-reserve banking creating inflation. With unvarying growth the doubling calculation may be applied for many doubling periods or generations.

text: In practice eventually other constraints become important, exponential growth stops and the doubling time changes or becomes inapplicable. Limited food supply or other resources at high population densities will reduce growth, or needing a wheel-barrow full of notes to buy a loaf of bread will reduce the acceptance of paper money. While using doubling times is convenient and simple, we should not apply the idea without considering factors which may affect future growth. In the 1950s Canada's population growth rate was over 3% per year, so extrapolating the current growth rate of 0.9% for many decades (implied by the doubling time) is unjustified unless we have examined the underlying causes of the growth and determined they will not be changing significantly over that period.

text: Related concepts[edit]

text: The equivalent concept to doubling time for a material undergoing a constant negative relative growth rate or exponential decay is the half-life.

text: The equivalent concept in base-e is e-folding.

text: Cell culture doubling time[edit]

text: Cell doubling time can be calculated in the following way using growth rate (amount of doubling in one unit of time)

text: Growth rate:

text: or

text:
N(t) = the number of cells at time t
N(0) = the number of cells at time 0
gr = growth rate
t = time (usually in hours)

text: Doubling time:

text: The following is the known doubling time for the following cells:

text:
Cell types
Source
Doubling time

Mesenchymal Stem Cell
Mouse
21-23 hours[4]

Cardiac/heart stem cell
Human
29 ± 10 hours[5]