document_title: Red fox

question_text: how long does a red fox live in the wild

question_tokens: how long does a red fox live in the wild

text: Red fox

text: Terminology

text: Females are called vixens, and young cubs are known as kits.[12] Although the Arctic fox has a small native population in northern Scandinavia, while the corsac fox's range extends into European Russia, the red fox is the only fox native to Western Europe, and so is simply called "the fox" in colloquial British English.

text: The word "fox" comes from Old English, which derived from Proto-Germanic *fuhsaz. Compare with  West Frisian foks, Dutch vos, and German Fuchs. This, in turn, derives from Proto-Indo-European *puḱ- 'thick-haired; tail'. Compare to the Hindi pū̃ch 'tail', Tocharian B päkā 'tail; chowrie', and Lithuanian paustìs 'fur'. The bushy tail also forms the basis for the fox's Welsh name, llwynog, literally 'bushy', from llwyn 'bush'. Likewise, Portuguese: raposa from rabo 'tail', Lithuanian uodẽgis from uodegà 'tail', and Ojibwa waagosh from waa, which refers to the up and down "bounce" or flickering of an animal or its tail.

text: The scientific term vulpes derives from the Latin word for fox, and gives the adjectives vulpine and vulpecular.[13]

text: Evolution

text: The red fox is considered a more specialised form of Vulpes than the Afghan, corsac and Bengal foxes in the direction of size and adaptation to carnivory; the skull displays much fewer neotenous traits than in other species, and its facial area is more developed.[6] It is, however, not as adapted for a purely carnivorous diet as the Tibetan fox.[6]

text:
Arctic fox

Kit fox

Corsac fox

Rüppell's fox

Red fox[14](Fig. 10)

Cape fox

Blanford's fox

Fennec fox

Raccoon dog

Bat-eared fox

text: Origins

text: The species is Eurasian in origin, and may have evolved from either Vulpes alopecoides or the related Chinese V. chikushanensis, both of which lived during the Middle Villafranchian.[4] The earliest fossil specimens of V. vulpes were uncovered in Baranya, Hungary dating from 3.4-1.8 million years ago.[15] The ancestral species was likely smaller than the current one, as the earliest red fox fossils are smaller than modern populations.[4]:115–116 The earliest fossil remains of the modern species date back to the mid-Pleistocene in association with the refuse of early human settlements. This has led to the theory that the red fox was hunted by primitive humans as both a source of food and pelts.[16]

text: Colonisation of North America

text: Red foxes colonised the North American continent in two waves: during or before the Illinoian glaciation, and during the Wisconsinan glaciation.[17] Gene mapping demonstrates that red foxes in North America have been isolated from their Old World counterparts for over 400,000 years, thus raising the possibility that speciation has occurred, and that the previous binomial name of Vulpes fulva may be valid.[18] In the far north, red fox fossils have been found in Sangamonian deposits in the Fairbanks District and Medicine Hat. Fossils dating from the Wisconsian are present in 25 sites in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Missouri, New Mexico, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Wyoming. Although they ranged far south during the Wisconsinan, the onset of warm conditions shrank their range toward the north, and have only recently reclaimed their former American ranges because of human-induced environmental changes.[5] Genetic testing indicates two distinct red fox refugia exist in North America, which have been separated since the Wisconsinan. The northern (or boreal) refugium occurs in Alaska and western Canada, and consists of the large subspecies V. v. alascensis, V. v. abietorum, V. v. regalis, and V. v. rubricosa. The southern (or montane) refugium occurs in the subalpine parklands and alpine meadows of the Rocky Mountains, the Cascade Range, and Sierra Nevada. It encompasses the subspecies V. v. macroura, V. v. cascadensis, and V. v. necator. The latter clade has been separated from all other red fox populations since the last glacial maximum, and may possess unique ecological or physiological adaptations.[17]

text: Although European foxes were introduced to portions of the United States in the 1900s recent genetic investigation indicates an absence of European fox haplotypes in any North American populations.[19] Also, introduced eastern red foxes have colonized southern California, the San Joaquin Valley, and San Francisco Bay Area, but appear to have mixed with the Sacramento Valley red fox V. v. patwin only in a narrow hybrid zone.[20] In addition, no evidence is seen of interbreeding of eastern red foxes in California with the montane Sierra Nevada red fox V. v. necator or other populations in the Intermountain West (between the Rocky Mountains to the east and the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges to the west.[21]

text: Subspecies

text: As of  2005[update],[7] 45 subspecies are recognised. In 2010, another distinct subspecies, which inhabits the grasslands of the Sacramento Valley, V. v. patwin, was identified through mitochondrial haplotype studies.[22]

text: Substantial gene pool mixing between different subspecies is known; British red foxes have crossbred extensively with foxes imported from Germany, France, Belgium, Sardinia, and possibly Siberia and Scandinavia.[23]:140 However, genetic studies suggest very little differences between red foxes sampled across Europe.[24][25] Lack of genetic diversity is consistent with the red fox being a highly vagile species, with one red fox covering 320 km (200 mi) in under a year's time.[26]

text: Red fox subspecies in Eurasia and North Africa are divided into two categories:[6]

text:
Northern foxes are large and brightly coloured.
Southern grey desert foxes include the Asian subspecies V. v. griffithi, V. v. pusilla, and V. v. flavescens. These foxes display transitional features between northern red foxes and smaller fox species; their skulls possess more primitive, neotenous traits than the northern forms,[6] and they are much smaller; the maximum sizes attained by southern foxes are invariably less than the average sizes of northern foxes. Their limbs are also longer, and their ears larger.[6]

text: Red foxes living in Middle Asia show physical traits intermediate to the northern and southern forms.[6]

text:
showSubspecies

Trinomial authority

Description

Range

Synonyms

Scandinavian red foxV. v. vulpes
(Nominate subspecies)

Linnaeus, 1758

A large subspecies measuring 70–90 cm in length and weighing 5–10 kg, the maximum length of the skull for males is 163.2 mm. The fur is bright red with a strongly developed whitish and yellow ripple on the lower back.[6]

Scandinavia and the northern and middle (forest) districts of the European part of the former Soviet Union, southwards to forest-steppe and eastwards approximately to the Urals, and probably Central and Western Europe

alopex (Linnaeus, 1758)
communis (Burnett, 1829)
lineatus (Billberg, 1827)
nigro-argenteus (Nilsson, 1820)
nigrocaudatus (Billberg, 1827)
septentrionalis (Brass, 1911)
variegates (Billberg, 1827)
vulgaris (Oken, 1816)

British Columbian foxV. v. abietorum

Merriam, 1900

Generally similar to V. v. alascensis, but with a lighter, longer and more slender skull[27]

Interior of British Columbia and probably southeastern Alaska, US

sitkaensis (Brass, 1911)

Northern Alaskan foxV. v. alascensis

Merriam, 1900

A large, long tailed, small eared form with golden-fulvous fur[27]

Andreafsky Wilderness, Alaska, US

Eastern trans-Caucasian foxV. v. alpherakyi

Satunin, 1906

A small subspecies weighing 4 kg, its maximum skull length is 132–39 mm in males and 121–26 mm in females. The fur is rusty grey or rusty brown, with a brighter rusty stripe along the spine. The coat is short, coarse and sparse.[6]

Geok Tepe, Aralsk, Kazakhstan

Anatolian foxV. v. anatolica

Thomas, 1920

Izmir, Aegean Region, Turkey

Arabian foxV. v. arabica

Thomas, 1920

Dhofar and the Hajar Mountains, Oman

Atlas foxV. v. atlantica

Wagner, 1841

Atlas Mountains, Mila Province, Algeria

algeriensis (Loche, 1858)

Labrador foxV. v. bangsi

Merriam, 1900

Similar to V. v. fulva, but with smaller ears and less pronounced black markings on the ears and legs[27]

L'Anse au Loup, Strait of Belle Isle, Labrador, Canada

Barbary foxV. v. barbara

Shaw, 1800

Barbary Coast, northwestern Africa

acaab (Cabrera, 1916)

Anadyr foxV. v. beringiana

Middendorff, 1875

A large subspecies, it is the most brightly coloured of Old World red foxes, the fur being saturated bright-reddish and almost lacking the bright ripple along the back and flanks. The coat is fluffy and soft.[6]

Shore of the Bering Strait, north-eastern Siberia

anadyrensis (J. A. Allen, 1903)
beringensis (Merriam, 1902)
kamtschadensis (Brass, 1911)
kamtschatica (Dybowski, 1922)
schantaricus (Yudin, 1986)

Cascade red foxV. v. cascadensis

Merriam, 1900

A short tailed, small toothed fox with yellow rather than fulvous fur, it is the most common form producing "cross" varieties.[27]

Cascade Mountains, Skamania County, Washington, US

North Caucasian foxV. v. caucasica

Dinnik, 1914

A large subspecies, its coat is variable in colour, ranging from reddish to red-grey and nearly grey. The fur is short and coarse. This form could be a hybrid of mixing V. v. stepensis and V. v. karagan populations.[6]

Near Vladikavkaz, Caucasus, Russia

European foxV. v. crucigera

Bechstein, 1789

A medium-sized subspecies, its yellowish-fulvous or reddish-brown pelt lacks the whitish shading on the upper back. The tail is not grey, as in most other subspecies.[28] It is primarily distinguished from V. v. vulpes by its slightly smaller size, distinctly smaller teeth, and widely spaced premolars. Red foxes present in Britain (and therefore Australia) are usually ascribed to this subspecies, though many populations there display a great degree of tooth compaction not present in continental European populations.[8]

All Europe, except Scandinavia, Iberian Peninsula and some islands of the Mediterranean Sea, introduced to Australia and Virginia

alba (Borkhausen, 1797)
cinera (Bechstein, 1801)
diluta (Ognev, 1924)
europaeus (Kerr, 1792)
hellenica (Douma-Petridou and Ondrias, 1980)
hypomelas (Wagner, 1841)
lutea (Bechstein, 1801)
melanogaster (Bonaparte, 1832)
meridionalis (Fitzinger, 1855)
nigra (Borkhausen, 1797)
stepensis (Brauner, 1914)

Trans-Baikal foxV. v. daurica

Ognev, 1931

A large subspecies, the colour along its spine is light, dull yellowish-reddish with a strongly developed white ripple and greyish longitudinal stripes on the anterior side of the limbs. The coat is coarse but fluffy.[6]

Kharangoi, 45 km west of Troizkosavsk, Siberia

ussuriensis (Dybowski, 1922)

Newfoundland foxV. v. deletrix

Bangs, 1898

A very pale-coloured form, its light, straw-yellow fur deepens to golden yellow or buff-fulvous in some places. The tail lacks the usual black basal spot. The hind feet and claws are very large.[27]

St. George's Bay, Newfoundland, Canada

Ussuri foxV. v. dolichocrania

Ognev, 1926

Sidemi, southern Ussuri, southeastern Siberia

ognevi (Yudin, 1986)

V. v. dorsalis

J. E. Gray, 1838

Turkmenian foxV. v. flavescens

J. E. Gray, 1838

A small subspecies, with an infantile skull and an overall grey coloured coat, its body length is 49–57.5 cm, and it weighs 2.2–3.2 kg.[6]

Northern Iran

cinerascens (Birula, 1913)splendens (Thomas, 1902)

American red foxV. v. fulvus

Desmarest, 1820

This is a smaller subspecies than V. v. vulpes, with a smaller, sharper face, a shorter tail and a lighter pelt more profusely mixed with whitish, and darker limbs.[27]

Eastern Canada and eastern US

pennsylvanicus (Rhoads, 1894)

Afghan red foxV. v. griffithi

Blyth, 1854

Slightly smaller than V. vulpes montana, it has a more extensively hoary and silvered pelt.[29]:121

Kandahar, Afghanistan

flavescens (Hutton, 1845)

Kodiak foxV. v. harrimani

Merriam, 1900

This large subspecies has an enormous tail and coarse, wolf-like fur on the tail and lower back. The hairs on the neck and shoulders are greatly elongated and form a ruff.[27]

Kodiak Island, Alaska, US

Southern Chinese fox
V. v. hoole

Swinhoe, 1870

[30]

Near Amoy, Fukien, southern China

aurantioluteus (Matschie, 1907)lineiventer (Swinhoe, 1871)

Sardinian foxV. v. ichnusae

Miller, 1907

A small subspecies with proportionately small ears[28]

Sarrabus, Sardinia, Italy, may have been introduced to the English Midlands[23]:6

Cyprus fox
V. v. indutus

Miller, 1907

Cape Pyla, Cyprus

Yakutsk foxV. v. jakutensis

Ognev, 1923

This subspecies is large, but smaller than V. v. beringiana. The back, neck, and shoulders are brownish rusty, while the flanks are bright ocherous reddish-yellow.[6]

Taiga, south of Yakutsk, eastern Siberia

sibiricus (Dybowski, 1922)

Japanese fox
V. v. japonica

Ognev, 1923

Japan

Karaganka fox
V. v. karagan

Erxleben, 1777

A smaller subspecies than V. v. vulpes, its fur is short, coarse and is of a light sandy-yellow or yellowish grey colour.[6]

Kirghiz Steppes, Khirgizia, Russia

ferganensis (Ognev, 1926)
melanotus (Pallas, 1811)
pamirensis (Ognev, 1926)
tarimensis (Matschie, 1907)

Kenai Peninsula fox
V. v. kenaiensis

Merriam, 1900

One of the largest North American subspecies, it has softer fur than V. v. harrimani.[27]

Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, US

Trans-Caucasian montane foxV. v. kurdistanica

Satunin, 1906

A form intermediate in size between V. v. alpheryaki and V. v. caucasica, its fur is pale yellow or light grey, sometimes brownish-reddish and is fluffier and denser than that of other Caucasian subspecies.[6]

Northeastern Turkey

alticola (Ognev, 1926)

Wasatch Mountain foxV. v. macroura

Baird, 1852

This fox is similar to V. v. fulva, but with a much longer tail, larger hind feet, and more extensive blackening of the limbs[27]

Named for the Wasatch Mountains, near Great Salt Lake, Utah, found in the Rocky Mountains from Colorado and Utah, western Wyoming and Montana through Idaho north to southern Alberta

Hill foxV. v. montana

(Pearson, 1836)

This subspecies is distinguished from V. v. vulpes by its smaller size, proportionately smaller skull and teeth, and coarser fur. The hairs on the sole of the feet are copiously mixed with softer, woolly hairs.[29]:111

Himalaya

alopex (Blanford, 1888)
himalaicus (Ogilby, 1837)
ladacensis (Matschie, 1907)
nepalensis (J. E. Gray, 1837)
waddelli (Bonhote, 1906)

Sierra Nevada red fox or High Sierra foxV. v. necator

Merriam, 1900

Externally similar to V. v. fulvus, it has a short tail, but cranially more like V. v. macroura[27]

High Sierra, California

Nile foxV. v. niloticus

E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803

A small subspecies, it measures 76.7–105.3 cm in body length, 30.2–40.1 cm in tail length, and weighs 1.8–3.8 kg. It is ruddy to grey-brown above and darker on the back of the neck. The flanks are greyer and tinged with buff.[31] It is larger than V. v. arabica and V. v. palaestina.[32]

Egypt

aegyptiacus (Sonnini, 1816)
anubis (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)
vulpecula (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)

Turkestan fox
V. v. ochroxantha

Ognev, 1926

Aksai, Semirechye, eastern Russian Turkestan, Kirgizia

Palestinian foxV. v. palaestina

Thomas, 1920

Ramleh, near Jaffa, Israel

Korean foxV. v. peculiosa

Kishida, 1924

Northeast China, Korea

kiyomassai (Kishida and Mori, 1929)

White-footed foxV. v. pusilla

Blyth, 1854

Slightly smaller than V. v. griffithii,[29]:123> it closely resembles V. bengalensis in size, but is distinguished by its longer tail and hind feet.[29]:129

Salt Range, Punjab, Pakistan

leucopus (Blyth, 1854)
persicus (Blanford, 1875)

Northern plains foxV. v. regalis

Merriam, 1900

The largest North American red fox subspecies, it has very large and broad ears and a very long tail. It is of a golden yellow colour with pure black feet.[27]

Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota, US

Nova Scotia foxV. v. rubricosa

Bangs, 1898

A large-sized subspecies with a large, broad tail and larger teeth and rostrum than V. v. fulva, it is the deepest-coloured form.[27]

Digby, Nova Scotia, Canada

bangsi (Merriam, 1900)
deletrix (Bangs, 1898)
rubricos (Churcher, 1960)
vafra (Bangs, 1897)

Sakhalin foxV. v. schrencki

Kishida, 1924

Sakhalin, Russia

Iberian foxV. v. silacea

Miller, 1907

Though equal in size to V. v. vulpes, it has smaller teeth and more widely spaced premolars. The fur is dull buff, without any yellowish or reddish tints. The hindquarters are frosted with white and the tail is clear grey in colour.[33]

Iberian Peninsula

Kurile Island foxV. v. splendidissima

Kishida, 1924

North and central Kurile Islands, Russia

Steppe foxV. v. stepensis

Brauner, 1914

This subspecies is slightly smaller and more lightly coloured than V. v. crucigera, with shorter, coarser fur. Specimens from the Crimean Mountains have brighter, fluffier, and denser fur.[6]

Steppes near Kherson, Ukraine

krymeamontana (Brauner, 1914)
crymensis (Brauner, 1914)

Tobol'sk foxV. v. tobolica

Ognev, 1926

This large subspecies has yellowish-rusty or dirty-reddish fur with a well-developed cross, and often a black area on the belly. The coat is long and fluffy.[6]

Obdorsk, Tobolsk, Russia

Northern Chinese foxV. v. tschiliensis

Matschie, 1907

Slightly larger than V. v. hoole, but unlike other Chinese red foxes, it closely approaches V. v. vulpes in size.[34]

Peiping, Chihli, northeastern China

huli (Sowerby, 1923)

text: Description

text: Build

text: The red fox has an elongated body and relatively short limbs. The tail, which is longer than half the body length[6] (70 per cent of head and body length),[35] is fluffy and reaches the ground when in a standing position. Their pupils are oval and vertically oriented.[6] Nictitating membranes are present, but move only when the eyes are closed. The forepaws have five digits, while the hind feet have only four and lack dewclaws.[8] They are very agile, being capable of jumping over 2-metre-high (6 ft 7 in) fences, and swim well.[36] Vixens normally have four pairs of teats,[6] though vixens with seven, nine, or ten teats are not uncommon.[8] The testes of males are smaller than those of Arctic foxes.[6]

text: Their skulls are fairly narrow and elongated, with small braincases. Their canine teeth are relatively long. Sexual dimorphism of the skull is more pronounced than in corsac foxes, with female red foxes tending to have smaller skulls than males, with wider nasal regions and hard palates, as well as having larger canines.[6] Their skulls are distinguished from those of dogs by their narrower muzzles, less crowded premolars, more slender canine teeth, and concave rather than convex profiles.[8]

text: Dimensions

text: Red foxes are the largest species of the genus Vulpes.[37] However, relative to dimensions, red foxes are much lighter than similarly sized dogs of the genus Canis. Their limb bones, for example, weigh 30 percent less per unit area of bone than expected for similarly sized dogs.[38] They display significant individual, sexual, age and geographical variation in size. On average, adults measure 35–50 cm (14–20 in) high at the shoulder and 45–90 cm (18–35 in) in body length with tails measuring 30–55.5 cm (11.8–21.9 in). The ears measure 7.7–12.5 cm (3–5 in) and the hind feet 12–18.5 cm (5–7 in). Weights range from 2.2–14 kg (5–31 lb), with vixens typically weighing 15–20% less than males.[39][40] Adult red foxes have skulls measuring 129–167 mm (5.1–6.6 in), while those of vixens measure 128–159 mm (5.0–6.3 in).[6] The forefoot print measures 60 mm (2.4 in) in length and 45 mm (1.8 in) in width, while the hind foot print measures 55 mm (2.2 in) long and 38 mm (1.5 in) wide. They trot at a speed of 6–13 km/h (4–8 mph), and have a maximum running speed of 50 km/h (30 mph). They have a stride of 25–35 cm (9.8–13.8 in) when walking at a normal pace.[38]:36 North American red foxes are generally lightly built, with comparatively long bodies for their mass and have a high degree of sexual dimorphism. British red foxes are heavily built, but short, while continental European red foxes are closer to the general average among red fox populations.[41] The largest red fox on record in Great Britain was a 17.2 kg (38 lb), 1.4-metre (4 ft 7 in) long male, killed in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in early 2012.[42]

text: Fur

text: The winter fur is dense, soft, silky and relatively long. For the northern foxes, the fur is very long, dense and fluffy, but is shorter, sparser and coarser in southern forms.[6] Among northern foxes, the North American varieties generally have the silkiest guard hairs,[11]:231 while most Eurasian red foxes have coarser fur.[11]:235 There are three main colour morphs; red, silver/black and cross (see Mutations).[35] In the typical red morph, their coats are generally bright reddish-rusty with yellowish tints. A stripe of weak, diffuse patterns of many brown-reddish-chestnut hairs occurs along the spine. Two additional stripes pass down the shoulder blades, which, together with the spinal stripe, form a cross. The lower back is often a mottled silvery colour. The flanks are lighter coloured than the back, while the chin, lower lips, throat and front of the chest are white. The remaining lower surface of the body is dark, brown or reddish.[6] During lactation, the belly fur of vixens may turn brick red.[8] The upper parts of the limbs are rusty reddish, while the paws are black. The frontal part of the face and upper neck is bright brownish-rusty red, while the upper lips are white. The backs of the ears are black or brownish-reddish, while the inner surface is whitish. The top of the tail is brownish-reddish, but lighter in colour than the back and flanks. The underside of the tail is pale grey with a straw-coloured tint. A black spot, the location of the supracaudal gland, is usually present at the base of the tail. The tip of the tail is white.[6]

text: Mutations

text: Atypical colourations in red foxes usually represent stages toward full melanism,[6] and mostly occur in cold regions.[9]

text:
Colour variant

Image

Description

Red

The typical colouration. See Fur

Grey

The rump and spine is brown or grey with light yellowish bands on the guard hairs. The cross on the shoulders is brown, rusty brown or brownish-reddish. The limbs are brown[6]

Cross

The fur has a darker colouration to the former. The rump and lower back are dark brown or dark grey, with varying degrees of silver on the guard hairs. The cross on the shoulders is black or brown, sometimes with light silvery fur. The feet and head are brown[6]

Blackish-brown

The melanistic form of the Eurasian red fox. Has blackish-brown or black skin with a light-brownish tint. The skin usually has an admixture of various amounts of silver. Reddish hairs are either completely absent or in small quantities[6]

Silver

The melanistic form of the North American red fox, but introduced to the Old World by the fur trade. Characterised by pure black colour with a variable admixture of silver (covering 25–100% of the skin area)[6]

Platinum

Distinguished from the silver morph by its late pale, almost silver-white fur with a bluish cast[11]:251

Amber

Samson

Distinguished by its woolly pelt, which lacks guard hairs[11]:230

text: Senses

text: Red foxes have binocular vision,[8] but their sight reacts mainly to movement. Their auditory perception is acute, being able to hear black grouse changing roosts at 600 paces, the flight of crows at 0.25–0.5 kilometres (0.16–0.31 mi) and the squeaking of mice at about 100 metres (330 ft).[6] They are capable of locating sounds to within one degree at 700–3,000 Hz, though less accurately at higher frequencies.[36] Their sense of smell is good, but weaker than that of specialised dogs.[6]

text: Scent glands

text: Red foxes have a pair of anal sacs lined by sebaceous glands, both of which open through a single duct. The anal sacs act as fermentation chambers in which aerobic and anaerobic bacteria convert sebum into odorous compounds, including aliphatic acids. The oval-shaped caudal gland is 25 mm (1.0 in) long and 13 mm (0.51 in) wide, and reportedly smells of violets.[6] The presence of foot glands is equivocal. The interdigital cavities are deep, with a reddish tinge and smell strongly. Sebaceous glands are present on the angle of the jaw and mandible.[8]

text: Behaviour

text: Social and territorial behaviour

text: Red foxes either establish stable home ranges within particular areas or are itinerant with no fixed abode.[38]:117  They use their urine to mark their territories.[44] A male fox raises one hind leg and his urine is sprayed forward in front of him, whereas a female fox squats down so that the urine is sprayed in the ground between the hind legs.[45] Urine is also used to mark empty cache sites, used to store found food, as reminders not to waste time investigating them.[38]:125 [46][47] The use of up to 12 different urination postures allows them to precisely control the position of the scent mark.[48] Red foxes live in family groups sharing a joint territory. In favourable habitats and/or areas with low hunting pressure, subordinate foxes may be present in a range. Subordinate foxes may number one or two, sometimes up to eight in one territory. These subordinates could be formerly dominant animals, but are mostly young from the previous year, who act as helpers in rearing the breeding vixen's kits. Alternatively, their presence has been explained as being in response to temporary surpluses of food unrelated to assisting reproductive success. Non-breeding vixens will guard, play, groom, provision and retrieve kits,[8] an example of kin selection. Red foxes may leave their families once they reach adulthood if the chances of winning a territory of their own are high. If not, they will stay with their parents, at the cost of postponing their own reproduction.[38]:140–141

text: Reproduction and development

text: Red foxes reproduce once a year in spring. Two months prior to oestrus (typically December), the reproductive organs of vixens change shape and size. By the time they enter their oestrus period, their uterine horns double in size, and their ovaries grow 1.5–2 times larger. Sperm formation in males begins in August–September, with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in December–February.[6] The vixen's oestrus period lasts three weeks,[8] during which the dog-foxes mate with the vixens for several days, often in burrows.  The male's bulbus glandis enlarges during copulation,[9] forming a copulatory tie which may last for more than an hour.[8] The gestation period lasts 49–58 days.[6] Though foxes are largely monogamous,[49] DNA evidence from one population indicated large levels of polygyny, incest and mixed paternity litters.[8] Subordinate vixens may become pregnant, but usually fail to whelp, or have their kits killed postpartum by either the dominant female or other subordinates.[8]

text: The average litter size consists of four to six kits, though litters of up to 13 kits have occurred.[6] Large litters are typical in areas where fox mortality is high.[38]:93 Kits are born blind, deaf and toothless, with dark brown fluffy fur. At birth, they weigh 56–110 g (2.0–3.9 oz) and measure 14.5 cm (5.7 in) in body length and 7.5 cm (3.0 in) in tail length. At birth, they are short-legged, large-headed and have broad chests.[6] Mothers remain with the kits for 2–3 weeks, as they are unable to thermoregulate. During this period, the fathers or barren vixens feed the mothers.[8] Vixens are very protective of their kits, and have been known to even fight off terriers in their defence.[23]:21–22 If the mother dies before the kits are independent, the father takes over as their provider.[23]:13 The kits' eyes open after 13–15 days, during which time their ear canals open and their upper teeth erupt, with the lower teeth emerging 3–4 days later.[6] Their eyes are initially blue, but change to amber at 4–5 weeks. Coat colour begins to change at three weeks of age, when the black eye streak appears. By one month, red and white patches are apparent on their faces. During this time, their ears erect and their muzzles elongate.[8] Kits begin to leave their dens and experiment with solid food brought by their parents at the age of 3–4 weeks. The lactation period lasts 6–7 weeks.[6] Their woolly coats begin to be coated by shiny guard hairs after 8 weeks.[8] By the age of 3–4 months, the kits are long-legged, narrow-chested and sinewy. They reach adult proportions at the age of 6–7 months.[6] Some vixens may reach sexual maturity at the age of 9–10 months, thus bearing their first litters at one year of age.[6] In captivity, their longevity can be as long as 15 years, though in the wild they typically do not survive past 5 years of age.[50]

text: Denning behaviour

text: Outside the breeding season, most red foxes favour living in the open, in densely vegetated areas, though they may enter burrows to escape bad weather.[8] Their burrows are often dug on hill or mountain slopes, ravines, bluffs, steep banks of water bodies, ditches, depressions, gutters, in rock clefts and neglected human environments. Red foxes prefer to dig their burrows on well drained soils. Dens built among tree roots can last for decades, while those dug on the steppes last only several years.[6] They may permanently abandon their dens during mange outbreaks, possibly as a defence mechanism against the spread of disease.[8] In the Eurasian desert regions, foxes may use the burrows of wolves, porcupines and other large mammals, as well as those dug by gerbil colonies. Compared to burrows constructed by Arctic foxes, badgers, marmots and corsac foxes, red fox dens are not overly complex. Red fox burrows are divided into a den and temporary burrows, which consist only of a small passage or cave for concealment. The main entrance of the burrow leads downwards (40–45°) and broadens into a den, from which numerous side tunnels branch. Burrow depth ranges from 0.5–2.5 metres (1 ft 8 in–8 ft 2 in), rarely extending to ground water. The main passage can reach 17 m (56 ft) in length, standing an average of 5–7 m (16–23 ft). In spring, red foxes clear their dens of excess soil through rapid movements, first with the forepaws then with kicking motions with their hind legs, throwing the discarded soil over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) from the burrow. When kits are born, the discarded debris is trampled, thus forming a spot where the kits can play and receive food.[6] They may share their dens with woodchucks[9] or badgers.[6] Unlike badgers, which fastidiously clean their earths and defecate in latrines, red foxes habitually leave pieces of prey around their dens.[23]:15–17> The average sleep time of a captive red fox is 9.8 hours per day.[51]

text: Communication

text: Body language

text: Red fox body language consists of movements of the ears, tail and postures, with their body markings emphasising certain gestures. Postures can be divided into aggressive/dominant and fearful/submissive categories. Some postures may blend the two together.[38]:42–43

text: Inquisitive foxes will rotate and flick their ears whilst sniffing. Playful individuals will perk their ears and rise on their hind legs. Male foxes courting females, or after successfully evicting intruders, will turn their ears outwardly, and raise their tails in a horizontal position, with the tips raised upward. When afraid, red foxes grin in submission, arching their backs, curving their bodies, crouching their legs and lashing their tails back and forth with their ears pointing backwards and pressed against their skulls. When merely expressing submission to a dominant animal, the posture is similar, but without arching the back or curving the body. Submissive foxes will approach dominant animals in a low posture, so that their muzzles reach up in greeting. When two evenly matched foxes confront each other over food, they approach each other sideways and push against each other's flanks, betraying a mixture of fear and aggression through lashing tails and arched backs without crouching and pulling their ears back without flattening them against their skulls. When launching an assertive attack, red foxes approach directly rather than sideways, with their tails aloft and their ears rotated sideways.[38] During such fights, red foxes will stand on each other's upper bodies with their forelegs, using open mouthed threats. Such fights typically only occur among juveniles or adults of the same sex.[8]

text: Vocalisations

text: Red foxes have a wide vocal range, and produce different sounds spanning five octaves, which grade into each other.[38]:28 Recent analyses identify 12 different sounds produced by adults and 8 by kits.[8] The majority of sounds can be divided into "contact" and "interaction" calls. The former vary according to the distance between individuals, while the latter vary according to the level of aggression.[38]:28

text:
Contact calls: The most commonly heard contact call is a three to five syllable barking "wow wow wow" sound, which is often made by two foxes approaching one another. This call is most frequently heard from December to February (when they can be confused with the territorial calls of tawny owls). The "wow wow wow" call varies according to individual; captive foxes have been recorded to answer pre-recorded calls of their pen-mates, but not those of strangers. Kits begin emitting the "wow wow wow" call at the age of 19 days, when craving attention. When red foxes draw close together, they emit trisyllabic greeting warbles similar to the clucking of chickens. Adults greet their kits with gruff huffing noises.[38]:28
Interaction calls: When greeting one another, red foxes emit high pitched whines, particularly submissive animals. A submissive fox approached by a dominant animal will emit a ululating siren-like shriek. During aggressive encounters with conspecifics, they emit a throaty rattling sound, similar to a ratchet, called "gekkering". Gekkering occurs mostly during the courting season from rival males or vixens rejecting advances.[38]:28

text: Another call that does not fit into the two categories is a long, drawn out, monosyllabic "waaaaah" sound. As it is commonly heard during the breeding season, it is thought to be emitted by vixens summoning males. When danger is detected, foxes emit a monosyllabic bark. At close quarters, it is a muffled cough, while at long distances it is sharper. Kits make warbling whimpers when nursing, these calls being especially loud when they are dissatisfied.[38]:28

text: Ecology

text: Diet, hunting and feeding behaviour

text: Red foxes are omnivores with a highly varied diet. Research conducted in the former Soviet Union showed red foxes consuming over 300 animal species and a few dozen species of plants.[6] They primarily feed on small rodents like voles, mice, ground squirrels, hamsters, gerbils,[6] woodchucks, pocket gophers and deer mice.[9] Secondary prey species include birds (with passeriformes, galliformes and waterfowl predominating), leporids, porcupines, raccoons, opossums, reptiles, insects, other invertebrates and flotsam (marine mammals, fish and echinoderms).[6][9] On very rare occasions, foxes may attack young or small ungulates.[6] They typically target mammals up to about 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) in weight, and they require 500 grams (18 oz) of food daily.[36] Red foxes readily eat plant material, and in some areas fruit can amount to 100% of their diet in autumn. Commonly consumed fruits include blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, cherries, persimmons, mulberries, apples, plums, grapes, and acorns. Other plant material includes grasses, sedges and tubers.[9]

text: Red foxes are implicated in the predation of game and song birds, hares, rabbits, muskrats, and young ungulates, particularly in preserves, reserves, and hunting farms where ground nesting birds are protected and raised, as well as in poultry farms.[6]

text: While the popular consensus is that olfaction is very important for hunting,[52] two studies that experimentally investigated the role of olfactory, auditory, and visual cues found that visual cues are the most important ones for hunting in red foxes[53] and coyotes.[54][55]

text: Red foxes prefer to hunt in the early morning hours before sunrise and late evening.[6] Although they typically forage alone, they may aggregate in resource-rich environments.[50] When hunting mouse-like prey, they first pinpoint their prey's location by sound, then leap, sailing high above their quarry, steering in mid-air with their tails, before landing on target up to 5 metres (16 ft) away.[1] They typically only feed on carrion in the late evening hours and at night.[6] They are extremely possessive of their food and will defend their catches from even dominant animals.[38]:58 Red foxes may occasionally commit acts of surplus killing; during one breeding season, four foxes were recorded to have killed around 200 black-headed gulls each, with peaks during dark, windy hours when flying conditions were unfavorable. Losses to poultry and penned game birds can be substantial because of this.[8][38]:164 Red foxes seem to dislike the taste of moles but will nonetheless catch them alive and present them to their kits as playthings.[38]:41

text: A 2008–2010 study of 84 red foxes in the Czech Republic and Germany found that successful hunting in long vegetation or under snow appeared to involve an alignment of the fox with the Earth's magnetic field.[56][57]

text: Enemies and competitors

text: Red foxes typically dominate other fox species. Arctic foxes generally escape competition from red foxes by living farther north, where food is too scarce to support the larger-bodied red species. Although the red species' northern limit is linked to the availability of food, the Arctic species' southern range is limited by the presence of the former. Red and Arctic foxes were both introduced to almost every island from the Aleutian Islands to the Alexander Archipelago during the 1830s–1930s by fur companies. The red foxes invariably displaced the Arctic foxes, with one male red fox having been reported to have killed off all resident Arctic foxes on a small island in 1866.[38] Where they are sympatric, Arctic foxes may also escape competition by feeding on lemmings and flotsam, rather than voles, as favoured by red foxes. Both species will kill each other's kits, given the opportunity.[6] Red foxes are serious competitors of corsac foxes, as they hunt the same prey all year. The red species is also stronger, is better adapted to hunting in snow deeper than 10 cm (4 in) and is more effective in hunting and catching medium to large-sized rodents. Corsac foxes seem to only outcompete red foxes in semi-desert and steppe areas.[6][58] In Israel, Blanford's foxes escape competition with red foxes by restricting themselves to rocky cliffs and actively avoiding the open plains inhabited by red foxes.[38]:84–85 Red foxes dominate kit and swift foxes. Kit foxes usually avoid competition with their larger cousins by living in more arid environments, though red foxes have been increasing in ranges formerly occupied by kit foxes due to human-induced environmental changes. Red foxes will kill both species, and compete for food and den sites.[9] Grey foxes are exceptional, as they dominate red foxes wherever their ranges meet. Historically, interactions between the two species were rare, as grey foxes favoured heavily wooded or semiarid habitats as opposed to the open and mesic ones preferred by red foxes. However, interactions have become more frequent due to deforestation allowing red foxes to colonise grey fox-inhabited areas.[9]

text: Wolves may kill and eat red foxes in disputes over carcasses.[6][59] In areas in North America where red fox and coyote populations are sympatric, fox ranges tend to be located outside coyote territories. The principal cause of this separation is believed to be active avoidance of coyotes by the foxes. Interactions between the two species vary in nature, ranging from active antagonism to indifference. The majority of aggressive encounters are initiated by coyotes, and there are few reports of red foxes acting aggressively toward coyotes except when attacked or when their kits were approached. Foxes and coyotes have sometimes been seen feeding together.[60] In Israel, red foxes share their habitat with golden jackals. Where their ranges meet, the two canids compete due to near identical diets. Foxes ignore jackal scents or tracks in their territories, and avoid close physical proximity with jackals themselves. In areas where jackals become very abundant, the population of foxes decreases significantly, apparently because of competitive exclusion.[61]

text: Red foxes dominate raccoon dogs, sometimes killing their kits or biting adults to death. Cases are known of foxes killing raccoon dogs entering their dens. Both species compete for mouse-like prey. This competition reaches a peak during early spring, when food is scarce. In Tartaria, red fox predation accounted for 11.1% of deaths among 54 raccoon dogs, and amounted to 14.3% of 186 raccoon dog deaths in north-western Russia.[6]

text: Red foxes may kill small mustelids like weasels,[9] stone martens,[62] pine martens, stoats, kolonoks, polecats and young sables. Eurasian badgers may live alongside red foxes in isolated sections of large burrows.[6] It is possible that the two species tolerate each other out of mutualism; foxes provide badgers with food scraps, while badgers maintain the shared burrow's cleanliness.[23]:15 However, cases are known of badgers driving vixens from their dens and destroying their litters without eating them. Wolverines may kill red foxes, often while the latter are sleeping or near carrion. Foxes in turn may kill unattended young wolverines.[6]

text: Red foxes may compete with striped hyenas on large carcasses. Red foxes may give way to hyenas on unopened carcasses, as the latter's stronger jaws can easily tear open flesh that is too tough for foxes. Foxes may harass hyenas, using their smaller size and greater speed to avoid the hyena's attacks. Sometimes, foxes seem to deliberately torment hyenas even when there is no food at stake. Some foxes may mistime their attacks, and are killed.[38]:77–79 Fox remains are often found in hyena dens, and hyenas may steal foxes from traps.[6]

text: In Eurasia, red foxes may be preyed upon by leopards, caracals and Eurasian lynxes. The lynxes chase red foxes into deep snow, where their longer legs and larger paws give them an advantage over foxes, especially when the depth of the snow exceeds one metre.[6] In the Velikoluki district in Russia, red foxes are absent or are seen only occasionally where lynxes establish permanent territories.[6] Researchers consider lynxes to represent considerably less danger to red foxes than wolves do.[6] North American felid predators of red foxes include cougars, Canadian lynxes and bobcats.[35] Occasionally, large raptors such as Eurasian eagle owls will prey on young foxes,[63] while golden eagles have been known to kill adults.[64]

text: Range

text: Red foxes are wide-ranging animals, whose range covers nearly 70 million km2 (27 million sq mi). They are distributed across the entire Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and Asia. They are absent in Iceland, the Arctic islands, some parts of Siberia, and in extreme deserts.[1]

text: Red foxes are not present in New Zealand and are classed as a "prohibited new organism" under the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, preventing them from being imported.[65]

text: Australia

text: In Australia, 2012 estimates indicate that there are more than 7.2 million[66] red foxes with a range extending throughout most of the continental mainland.[38]:14 The species became established in Australia through successive introductions by settlers in 1830s in the British colonies of Van Diemen's Land (as early as 1833) and the Port Phillip District of New South Wales (as early as 1845) for the purpose of the traditional English sport of fox hunting. A permanent fox population was not established on the island of Tasmania and it is widely held that they were outcompeted by the Tasmanian devil.[67] On the mainland, however, the species was successful as an apex predator. It is generally less common in areas where the dingo is more prevalent, however it has, primarily through its burrowing behaviour, achieved niche differentiation with both the feral dog and the feral cat. As such it has become one of the continent's most invasive species. The red fox has been implicated in the extinction and decline of several native Australian species, particularly those of the family Potoroidae including the desert rat-kangaroo.[68] The spread of red foxes across the southern part of the continent has coincided with the spread of rabbits in Australia and corresponds with declines in the distribution of several medium-sized ground-dwelling mammals, including brush-tailed bettongs, burrowing bettongs, rufous bettongs, bilbys, numbats, bridled nailtail wallabys and quokkas.[69] Most of these species are now limited to areas (such as islands) where red foxes are absent or rare. Local eradication programs exist, although eradication has proven difficult due to the denning behaviour and nocturnal hunting, so the focus is on management with the introduction of state bounties.[70] According to the Tasmanian government, red foxes were introduced to the previously fox-free island of Tasmania in 1999 or 2000, posing a significant threat to native wildlife including the eastern bettong, and an eradication program conducted by the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries and Water has been established.[71]

text: Sardinia

text: The origin of the Sardinian ichnusae subspecies is uncertain, as it is absent from Pleistocene deposits in their current homeland. It is possible it originated during the Neolithic following its introduction to the island by humans. It is likely then that Sardinian fox populations stem from repeated introductions of animals from different localities in the Mediterranean. This latter theory may explain the subspecies' phenotypic diversity.[16]

text: Diseases and parasites

text: Red foxes are the most important rabies vector in Europe. In London, arthritis is not uncommon in foxes, being particularly frequent in the spine.[8] Foxes may be infected with leptospirosis and tularemia, though they are not overly susceptible to the latter. They may also fall ill from listeriosis and spirochetosis, as well as acting as vectors in spreading erysipelas, brucellosis and tick-borne encephalitis. A mysterious fatal disease near Lake Sartlan in the Novosibirsk Oblast was noted among local red foxes, but the cause was undetermined. The possibility was considered that it was caused by an acute form of encephalomyelitis, which was first observed in captive bred silver foxes. Individual cases of foxes infected with Yersinia pestis are known.[6]

text: Red foxes are not readily prone to infestation with fleas. Species like Spilopsyllus cuniculi are probably only caught from the fox's prey species, while others like Archaeopsylla erinacei are caught whilst travelling. Fleas that feed on red foxes include Pulex irritans, Ctenocephalides canis and Paraceras melis. Ticks such as Ixodes ricinus and I. hexagonus are not uncommon in foxes, and are typically found on nursing vixens and kits still in their earths. The louse Trichodectes vulpis specifically targets foxes, but is found infrequently. The mite Sarcoptes scabiei is the most important cause of mange in red foxes. It causes extensive hair loss, starting from the base of the tail and hindfeet, then the rump before moving on to the rest of the body. In the final stages of the condition, foxes can lose most of their fur, 50% of their body weight and may gnaw at infected extremities. In the epizootic phase of the disease, it usually takes foxes four months to die after infection. Other endoparasites include Demodex folliculorum, Notoderes, Otodectes cynotis (which is frequently found in the ear canal), Linguatula serrata (which infects the nasal passages) and ringworms.[6]

text: Up to 60 helminth species are known to infect foxes in fur farms, while 20 are known in the wild. Several coccidian species of the genera Isospora and Eimeria are also known to infect them.[6] The most common nematode species found in fox guts are Toxocara canis and Uncinaria stenocephala, Capillaria aerophila[72] and Crenosoma vulpis, the latter two infect their lungs. Capillaria plica infect the fox's bladder. Trichinella spiralis rarely affects them. The most common tapeworm species in foxes are Taenia spiralis and T. pisiformis. Others include Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis. Eleven trematode species infect red foxes,[8] including Metorchis conjunctus.[73]

text: Relationships with humans

text: In folklore and mythology

text: Red foxes feature prominently in the folklore and mythology of human cultures with which they are sympatric. In Greek mythology, the Teumessian fox[74] or Cadmean vixen, was a gigantic fox that was destined never to be caught. The fox was one of the children of Echidna.[75]

text: In Celtic mythology, the red fox is a symbolic animal. In the Cotswolds, witches were thought to take the shape of foxes to steal butter from their neighbours.[76] In later European folklore, the figure of Reynard the Fox symbolises trickery and deceit. He originally appeared (then under the name of "Reinardus") as a secondary character in the 1150 poem "Ysengrimus". He reappeared in 1175 in Pierre Saint Cloud's Le Roman de Renart, and made his debut in England in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Nun's Priest's Tale. Many of Reynard's adventures may stem from actual observations on fox behaviour; he is an enemy of the wolf and has a fondness for blackberries and grapes.[38]:32–33

text: Chinese folk tales tell of fox-spirits called huli jing that may have up to nine tails, or kumiho as they are known in Korea.[77] In Japanese mythology, the kitsune are fox-like spirits possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. Foremost among these is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others, other stories portray them as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives.[78] In Arab folklore, the fox is considered a cowardly, weak, deceitful, and cunning animal, said to feign death by filling its abdomen with air to appear bloated, then lies on its side, awaiting the approach of unwitting prey.[32] The animal's cunning was noted by the authors of the Bible, and applied the word "fox" to false prophets (Ezekiel 13:4) and the hypocrisy of Herod Antipas (Luke 13:32).[79]

text: The cunning Fox is commonly found in Native American mythology, where it is portrayed as an almost constant companion to Coyote. Fox, however, is a deceitful companion that often steals Coyote's food. In the Achomawi creation myth, Fox and Coyote are the co-creators of the world, that leave just before the arrival of humans. The Yurok tribe believed that Fox, in anger, captured the sun, and tied him to a hill, causing him to burn a great hole in the ground. An Inuit story tells of how Fox, portrayed as a beautiful woman, tricks a hunter into marrying her, only to resume her true form and leave after he offends her. A Menominee story tells of how Fox is an untrustworthy friend to the Wolf.[80]

text: Hunting

text: The earliest historical records of fox hunting come from the fourth century BC; Alexander the Great is known to have hunted foxes and a seal dated from 350 BC depicts a Persian horseman in the process of spearing a fox. Xenophon, who viewed hunting as part of a cultured man's education, advocated the killing of foxes as pests, as they distracted hounds from hares. The Romans were hunting foxes by 80 AD. During the Dark Ages in Europe, foxes were considered secondary quarries, but gradually grew in importance. Cnut the Great reclassed foxes as Beasts of the Chase, a lower category of quarry than Beasts of Venery. Foxes were gradually hunted less as vermin and more as Beasts of the Chase, to the point that by the late 1200s, Edward I had a royal pack of foxhounds and a specialised fox huntsman. In this period, foxes were increasingly hunted above ground with hounds, rather than underground with terriers. Edward, Second Duke of York assisted the climb of foxes as more prestigious quarries in his The Master of Game. By the Renaissance, fox hunting became a traditional sport of the nobility. After the English Civil War caused a drop in deer populations, fox hunting grew in popularity. By the mid-1600s, Britain was divided into fox hunting territories, with the first fox hunting clubs being formed (the first was the Charlton Hunt Club in 1737). The popularity of fox hunting in Britain reached a peak during the 1700s.[38]:21 Although already native to North America, red foxes from England were imported for sporting purposes to Virginia and Maryland in 1730 by prosperous tobacco planters.[81] These American fox hunters considered the red species more sporting than grey species.[81]

text: The grays furnished more fun, the reds more excitement. The grays did not run so far, but usually kept near home, going in a circuit of six or eight

text: miles. 'An old red, generally so called irrespective of age, as a tribute to his prowess, might lead the dogs all day, and end by losing them as evening fell, after taking them a dead stretch for thirty miles. The capture of a gray was what men boasted of ; a chase after 'an old red' was what they 'yarned' about.[81]

text: Red foxes are still widely persecuted as pests, with human-caused deaths among the highest causes of mortality in the species. Annual fox kills are: UK 21,500–25,000 (2000); Germany 600,000 (2000–2001); Austria 58,000 (2000–2001); Sweden 58,000 (1999–2000); Finland 56,000 (2000–2001); Denmark 50,000 (1976–1977); Switzerland 34,832 (2001); Norway 17,000 (2000–2001); Saskatchewan (Canada) 2,000 (2000–2001); Nova Scotia (Canada) 491 (2000–2001); Minnesota (US) 4,000–8,000 (average annual trapping harvest 2002–2009);[82] New Mexico (US) 69 (1999–2000).[62]

text: Fur use

text: Red foxes are among the most important furbearing animals harvested by the fur trade. Their pelts are used for trimmings, scarfs, muffs, jackets and coats. They are principally used as trimming for both cloth coats and fur garments, including evening wraps.[11]:229–230 The pelts of silver-morph foxes are popular as capes,[11]:246 while cross foxes are mostly used for scarves and rarely for trimming.[11]:252 The number of sold fox scarves exceeds the total number of scarves made from other furbearers. However, this amount is overshadowed by the total number of fox pelts used for trimming purposes.[11]:229–230 The silver morphs are the most valued by furriers, followed by the cross and red morphs respectively.[23]:207> In the early 1900s, over 1,000 American fox skins were imported to Britain annually, while 500,000 were exported annually from Germany and Russia.[23]:6 The total worldwide trade of wild red foxes in 1985–86 was 1,543,995 pelts. Foxes amounted to 45% of US wild-caught pelts worth $50 million.[62] Pelt prices are increasing, with 2012 North American wholesale auction prices averaging $39, and 2013 prices averaging $65.78.[83]

text: North American red foxes, particularly those of northern Alaska, are the most valued for their fur, as they have guard hairs of a silky texture, which, after dressing, allow the wearer unrestricted mobility. Red foxes living in southern Alaska's coastal areas and the Aleutian Islands are an exception, as they have extremely coarse pelts that rarely exceed one-third of the price of their northern Alaskan cousins.[11]:231 Most European peltries have coarse-textured fur compared to North American varieties. The only exceptions are the Nordic and Far Eastern Russian peltries, but they are still inferior to North American peltries in terms of silkiness.[11]:235

text: Livestock and pet predation

text: Red foxes may on occasions prey on lambs. Usually, lambs targeted by foxes tend to be physically weakened specimens, but not invariably. Lambs belonging to small breeds, such as Blackface, are more vulnerable than larger breeds such as Merino. Twins may be more vulnerable to foxes than singlets, as ewes cannot effectively defend both simultaneously. Crossbreeding small, upland ewes with larger, lowland rams can cause difficult and prolonged labour for ewes due to the heaviness of the resulting offspring, thus making the lambs more at risk to fox predation. Lambs born from gimmers (ewes breeding for the first time) are more often killed by foxes than those of experienced mothers, who stick closer to their young.[38]:166–167

text: Red foxes may prey on domestic rabbits and guinea pigs if they are kept in open runs or are allowed to range freely in gardens. This problem is usually averted by housing them in robust hutches and runs. Urban foxes frequently encounter cats and may feed alongside them. In physical confrontations, the cats usually have the upper hand. Authenticated cases of foxes killing cats usually involve kittens. Although most foxes do not prey on cats, some may do so, and may treat them more as competitors rather than food.[38]:180–181

text: Taming and domestication

text: In their unmodified wild state, red foxes are generally unsuitable as pets.[84] Many supposedly abandoned kits are adopted by well-meaning people during the spring period, though it is unlikely that vixens would abandon their young. Actual orphans are rare, and the ones that are adopted are likely kits that simply strayed from their den site.[85] Kits require almost constant supervision; when still suckling, they require milk at four-hour intervals day and night. Once weaned, they may become destructive to leather objects, furniture and electric cables.[38]:56 Though generally friendly toward people when young, captive red foxes become fearful of humans, save for their handlers, once they reach 10 weeks of age.[38]:61 They maintain their wild counterpart's strong instinct of concealment, and may pose a threat to domestic birds, even when well fed.[23]:122 Although suspicious of strangers, they can form bonds with cats and dogs, even ones bred for fox hunting. Tame foxes were once used to draw ducks close to hunting blinds.[23]:132–133

text: A strain of truly domesticated red foxes was introduced by Russian geneticist Dmitry Belyayev who, over a 40-year period, bred several generations of silver morph foxes on fur farms, selecting only those individuals that showed the least fear of humans. Eventually, Belyayev's team selected only those that showed the most positive response to humans, thus resulting in a population of foxes whose behaviour and appearance was significantly changed. After about ten generations of controlled breeding, these foxes no longer showed any fear of humans, and often wagged their tails and licked their human caretakers to show affection. These behavioural changes were accompanied by physical alterations, which included piebald coats, floppy ears in pups, and curled tails, similar to traits that distinguish domestic dogs from wolves.[86]

text: Urban foxes

text: Distribution

text: Red foxes have been exceedingly successful in colonising built-up environments, especially lower-density suburbs,[36] although many have also been sighted in dense urban areas far from the countryside. Throughout the twentieth century, they established themselves in many Australian, European, Japanese, and North American cities. The species first colonised British cities during the 1930s, entering Bristol and London during the 1940s, and later established themselves in Cambridge and Norwich. In Australia, red foxes were recorded in Melbourne as early as the 1930s, while in Zurich, Switzerland, they only starting appearing in the 1980s.[87] Urban red foxes are most common in residential suburbs consisting of privately owned, low-density housing. They are rare in areas where industry, commerce or council-rented houses predominate.[36] In these latter areas, the distribution is of a lower average density because they rely less on human resources; the home range of these foxes average from 80–90 hectares (200–220 acres), whereas those in more residential areas average from 25–40 hectares (60–100 acres).[88]

text: In 2006 it was estimated that there were 10,000 foxes in London.[89] City-dwelling foxes may have the potential to consistently grow larger than their rural counterparts, as a result of abundant scraps and a relative dearth of predators. In cities foxes may scavenge food from litter bins and bin bags, although much of their diet will be similar to rural foxes.

text: Behaviour

text: Urban red foxes are most active at dusk and dawn, doing most of their hunting and scavenging at these times. It is uncommon to spot them during the day, but they can be caught sunbathing on roofs of houses or sheds. Foxes will often make their homes in hidden and undisturbed spots in urban areas as well as on the edges of a city, visiting at night for sustenance. While foxes will scavenge successfully in the city (and the foxes tend to eat anything that the humans eat) some urban residents will deliberately leave food out for the animals, finding them endearing.[90] Doing this regularly can attract foxes to one's home; they can become accustomed to human presence, warming up to their providers by allowing themselves to be approached and in some cases even played with, particularly young cubs.[88]

text: Urban fox control

text: Urban foxes can cause problems for local residents. Foxes have been known to steal chickens, disrupt rubbish bins and damage gardens. Most complaints about urban foxes made to local authorities occur during the breeding season in late January/early February or from late April to August, when the new cubs are developing.[88] In the UK, hunting foxes in urban areas is banned, and shooting them in an urban environment is not suitable. One alternative to hunting urban foxes has been to trap them, which appears to be a more viable method.[91] However, killing foxes has little effect on the population in an urban area; those that are killed are very soon replaced, either by new cubs during the breeding season or by other foxes moving into the territory of those that were killed. A more effective method of fox control is to deter them from the specific areas they inhabit. Deterrents such as creosote, diesel oil, or ammonia can be used. Cleaning up and blocking access to den locations can also discourage a fox's return.[88]

text: Relationship between urban and rural foxes

text: In January 2014 it was reported that "Fleet", a relatively tame urban fox tracked as part of a wider study by the University of Brighton in partnership with the BBC's Winterwatch, had unexpectedly travelled 195 miles in 21 days from his neighbourhood in Hove, at the western edge of East Sussex, across rural countryside as far as Rye, at the eastern edge of the county. He was still continuing his journey when the GPS collar stopped transmitting, due to suspected water damage. Along with setting a record for the longest journey undertaken by a tracked fox in the United Kingdom, his travels have highlighted the fluidity of movement between rural and urban fox populations.[92][93]

text:
Red fox in an urban environment

Red fox in central London

Eating from a bag of biscuits

"Fleet" the urban fox from the BBC's Winterwatch


document_title: History of the United Nations

question_text: who was the us president when the united nations was formed

root

text: History of the United Nations

text: Origins[edit]

text: The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization to replace the ineffective League of Nations began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939.[1] On 12 June 1941, representatives of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and of the exiled governments of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and Yugoslavia, as well as General de Gaulle of France, met in London and signed the Declaration of St. James's Palace. This was the first of six conferences that led up to the founding of the United Nations and the Charter of the United Nations.[2]

tag: p

text: U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt first suggested using the name United Nations, to refer to the Allies of World War II, to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill during the latter's three-week visit to the White House in December 1941. Roosevelt suggested the name as an alternative to "Associated Powers", a term the U.S. used in the First World War (the U.S. was never formally a member of the Allies of World War I but entered the war in 1917 as a self-styled "Associated Power"). Churchill accepted the idea and cited Lord Byron's use of the phrase "United Nations" in the poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, which referred to the Allies at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.[3][4]

text: 1942 "Declaration of United Nations"[edit]

text: The text of the "Declaration of United Nations" was drafted by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins, while meeting at the White House on 29 December 1941. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France. The first official use of the term "United Nations" was on 1–2 January 1942 when 26 Governments signed the Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted.[5][6] By early 1945 it had been signed by 21 more states.[7]

text:
A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, CHINA, AUSTRALIA, BELGIUM, CANADA, COSTA RICA, CUBA, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EL SALVADOR, GREECE, GUATEMALA, HAITI, HONDURAS, INDIA, LUXEMBOURG, NETHERLANDS, NEW ZEALAND, NICARAGUA, NORWAY, PANAMA, POLAND, SOUTH AFRICA, YUGOSLAVIA
The Governments signatory hereto,
Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14, 1941, known as the Atlantic Charter,
Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world,
DECLARE:
(1) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources, military or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war.
(2) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies.
The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism.[8]

text: During the war, the United Nations became the official term for the Allies. To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis.[9]

text: Planning[edit]

text: The idea for the future United Nations as an international organization emerged in declarations signed at the wartime Allied conferences: the Moscow Conference and the Tehran Conference in 1943.

text: US President Franklin D. Roosevelt considered his most important legacy the creation of the United Nations, making a permanent organization out of the wartime Alliance of the same name. He provided continuous backstage political support inside the United States, and with Churchill and Stalin abroad. He made sure that leading Republicans were on board, especially Senators Arthur Vandenberg of Michigan,[10] and Warren Austin of Vermont.[11] He went public with strong advocacy in the 1944 presidential campaign, and turned detailed planning over to the State Department, where Sumner Welles and Secretary Cordell Hull worked on the project. The United States, Britain, Soviet Union and China made the major decisions and became permanent members of the all-powerful Security Council. Roosevelt made sure that each (including France) had a veto power, thus avoiding the fatal weakness of the League of Nations, which theoretically could order its members to act in defiance of their own parliaments.[12]

text: From August to October 1944, representatives of the Republic of China, Britain, the US and the USSR met to elaborate plans at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in Washington, D.C. Those and later talks produced proposals outlining the purposes of the United Nations organization, its membership and organs, as well as arrangements to maintain international peace and security and international economic and social cooperation. Governments and private citizens worldwide discussed and debated these proposals.[13] Winston Churchill urged Roosevelt to restore France to its status of a major Power after the liberation of Paris in August 1944.

text: At the Yalta Conference it was agreed that membership would be open to nations that had joined the Allies by 1 March 1945.[14] Brazil, Syria and a number of other countries qualified for membership by declarations of war on either Germany or Japan in the first three months of 1945 – in some cases retroactively.

text: Establishment[edit]

text: On 25 April 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco. In addition to Governments, a number of non-government organizations, including Rotary International and Lions Clubs International received invitations to assist in the drafting of a charter. After working for two months, the fifty nations represented at the conference signed the Charter of the United Nations on 26 June. Poland, which was unable to send a representative to the conference due to political instability, signed the charter on 15 October 1945. The charter stated that before it would come into effect, it must be ratified by the Governments of the Republic of China, France, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. This occurred on 24 October 1945, and the United Nations was officially formed.[15]

text: The date each founding member state deposited their ratification of the UN Charter is as follows:[16]

text:
USA – 8 Aug 1945
France – 31 Aug 1945
Dominican Rep. – 4 Sep 1945
Nicaragua – 6 Sep 1945
New Zealand – 19 Sep 1945
Brazil – 21 Sep 1945
Argentina – 24 Sep 1945
El Salvador – 26 Sep 1945
Haiti – 27 Sep 1945
China – 28 Sep 1945
Turkey – 28 Sep 1945
Denmark – 9 October 1945
Chile – 11 Oct 1945
Philippines – 11 Oct 1945
Paraguay – 12 Oct 1945
Cuba – 15 Oct 1945
Lebanon – 15 Oct 1945
Iran – 16 Oct 1945
Luxembourg – 17 Oct 1945
Saudi Arabia – 18 Oct 1945
Czechoslovakia – 19 Oct 1945
Syria – 19 Oct 1945
Yugoslavia – 19 Oct 1945
UK – 20 Oct 1945
Egypt – 22 Oct 1945
Byelorussia – 24 Oct 1945
Poland – 24 Oct 1945
Ukraine – 24 Oct 1945
USSR – 24 Oct 1945 (note - the United Nations is established on this date)
Greece – 25 Oct 1945
India – 30 Oct 1945
Peru – 31 Oct 1945
Australia – 1 Nov 1945
Costa Rica – 2 Nov 1945
Liberia – 2 Nov 1945
Colombia – 5 Nov 1945
Mexico – 7 Nov 1945
South Africa – 7 Nov 1945
Canada – 9 Nov 1945
Ethiopia – 13 Nov 1945
Panama – 13 Nov 1945
Bolivia – 14 Nov 1945
Venezuela – 15 Nov 1945
Honduras – 17 Nov 1945
Guatemala – 21 Nov 1945
Norway – 27 Nov 1945
Netherlands – 10 Dec 1945
Uruguay – 18 Dec 1945
Ecuador – 21 Dec 1945
Iraq – 21 Dec 1945
Belgium – 27 Dec 1945

tag: ul

text: The first meeting of the General Assembly was held in Westminster Central Hall, London, on 10 January 1946.[17] The Security Council met for the first time a week later in Church House, Westminster.[18] The League of Nations formally dissolved itself on 18 April 1946 and transferred its mission to the United Nations.

text: Activities[edit]

text: The United Nations has achieved considerable prominence in the social arena, fostering human rights, economic development, decolonization, health and education, for example, and interesting itself in refugees and trade.

text: The leaders of the UN had high hopes that it would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible. Those hopes have obviously not fully come to pass. From about 1947 until 1991 the division of the world into hostile camps during the Cold War made agreement on peacekeeping matters extremely difficult. Following the end of the Cold War, renewed calls arose for the UN to become the agency for achieving world peace and co-operation, as several dozen active military conflicts continued to rage across the globe. The breakup of the Soviet Union has also left the United States in a unique position of global dominance, creating a variety of new problems for the UN (See the United States and the United Nations).

text: Facilities[edit]

text: In December 1945, the US Senate and the US House of Representatives, by unanimous votes, requested that the UN make its headquarters in the United States. The UN accepted this suggestion and, after considering sites in the Black Hills, Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, Navy Island and what would become the World Trade Center site, constructed the United Nations headquarters building in New York City in 1949 and 1950 beside the East River on land purchased with an $8.5 million donation from John D. Rockefeller, Jr. The UN headquarters officially opened on January 9, 1951, although construction was not formally completed until October 9, 1952.[19]

text: Under special agreement with the United States, the UN enjoys certain diplomatic privileges and immunities, but generally the laws of New York City, New York State, and the United States apply.

text: While the principal headquarters of the UN remain in New York City, major agencies base themselves in Geneva, The Hague, Vienna, Nairobi and elsewhere.

text: Structure and associated organizations[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2011)

tag: table

text: The basic constitutional makeup of the United Nations has changed little, though vastly increased membership has altered the functioning of some elements. The UN as a whole has generated a rich assortment of non-governmental organizations and special bodies over the years: some with a regional focus, some specific to the various peacekeeping missions, and others of global scope and importance. Other bodies (such as the International Labour Organization) formed prior to the establishment of the United Nations and only subsequently became associated with it.

text: Milestones[edit]

text: In October 2015 over 350 landmarks in 60 countries were lit in blue to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the world body.[20][21][22]


document_title: Caribbean Community

question_text: when did guyana became a member of caricom

text: Caribbean Community

text: Membership[edit]

text: Currently CARICOM has 15 full members, 5 associate members and 8 observers. All of the associate members are British overseas territories, and it is currently not established what the role of the associate members will be. The observers are states which engage in at least one of CARICOM's technical committees. Although the group has close ties with Cuba, that nation was excluded due to lack of full democratic internal political arrangement.

text:
CARICOM Members[8]

Status

Name

Join date

Notes

Full member

 Antigua and Barbuda

4 July 1974

 Bahamas

4 July 1983

Not part of customs union

 Barbados

1 August 1973

One of the four founding members

 Belize

1 May 1974

 Dominica

1 May 1974

 Grenada

1 May 1974

 Guyana

1 August 1973

One of the four founding members

 Haiti

2 July 2002

Provisional membership on 4 July 1998

 Jamaica

1 August 1973

One of the four founding members

 Montserrat

1 May 1974

British overseas territory

 Saint Kitts and Nevis

26 July 1974

Joined as Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla

 Saint Lucia

1 May 1974

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

1 May 1974

 Suriname

4 July 1995

 Trinidad and Tobago

1 August 1973

One of the four founding members

Associate

 Anguilla

July 1999

British overseas territory

 Bermuda

2 July 2003

British overseas territory

 British Virgin Islands

July 1991

British overseas territory

 Cayman Islands

16 May 2002

British overseas territory

 Turks and Caicos Islands

July 1991

British overseas territory

Observer

 Aruba

Constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

 Colombia

 Curaçao

Constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

 Dominican Republic

 Mexico

 Puerto Rico

Unincorporated territory of the United States

 Sint Maarten

Constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

 Venezuela

text: Organizational structure[edit]

text: Structures comprised by the overall Caribbean Community (CARICOM).[9]

text: Under Article 4 CARICOM breaks its 15 member states into two groups: Less Developed Countries (LDCs) and More Developed Countries (MDCs).[10]

text: The countries of CARICOM which are designated as Less Developed Countries (LDCs) are:[10]

text:
Antigua & Barbuda
Belize
Commonwealth of Dominica
Grenada
Republic of Haiti
Montserrat
Federation of St. Kitts & Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent & the Grenadines

text: The countries of CARICOM which are designated as More Developed Countries (MDCs) are:[10]

text:
Commonwealth of the Bahamas
Barbados
Co-operative Republic of Guyana
Jamaica
Republic of Suriname
Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

text: Chairmanship[edit]

text: The post of Chairman (Head of CARICOM) is held in rotation by the regional Heads of State (for the republics) and Heads of Government (for the realms) of CARICOM's 15 member states. These include: Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Haiti, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Bahamas, Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago.

text: Heads of government[edit]

text: CARICOM contains a quasi-Cabinet of the individual Heads of Government. These heads are given specific specialised portfolios of responsibility for overall regional development and integration.[11]

text: Secretariat[edit]

text:
Secretariat of the Caribbean Community, The term of office of the Secretary-General is five years, which may be renewed. (Chief Administrative Organ)
Secretary-General of the Caribbean Community, the CARICOM Secretary General (Chief Executive) handles foreign and community relations.
Deputy Secretary-General of the Caribbean Community, handles human and social Development.
General Counsel of the Caribbean Community, handles trade and economic integration.

text: The goal statement of the CARICOM Secretariat is:

text: To provide dynamic leadership and service, in partnership with Community institutions and Groups, toward the attainment of a viable, internationally competitive and sustainable Community, with improved quality of life for all.

text: Organs and bodies[edit]

text:
Principal organs

Organ

Description

CARICOM Heads of Government

Consisting of the various heads of Government from each member state

Standing Committee of Ministers

Ministerial responsibilities for specific areas, for example the Standing Committee of Ministers responsible for Health will consist of Ministers of Health from each member state

text: Community Council[edit]

text: The Community Council consists of ministers responsible for community affairs and any other Minister designated by the member states in their absolute discretion. It is one of the community's principal organs; the other is the Conference of the Heads of Government. It is supported by four other organs and three bodies.

text:
Secondary organs

Secondary organ

Abbreviation

Council for Finance and Planning

COFAP

Council for Foreign and Community Relations

COFCOR

Council for Human and Social Development

COHSOD

Council for Trade and Economic Development

COTED

text:
Bodies

Body

Description

Legal Affairs Committee

provides legal advice

Budget Committee

examines the draft budget and work programme of the Secretariat and submits recommendations to the Community Council.

Committee of the Central Bank Governors

provides recommendations to the COFAP on monetary and financial matters.

text: Institutions[edit]

text: The 23 designated institutions of CARICOM are as follows:

text:
Institutions

Institution

Abbreviation

Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency

CDEMA

Caribbean Meteorological Institute

CMI

Caribbean Meteorological Organisation

CMO

Caribbean Food Corporation

CFC

Caribbean Environment Health Institute

CEHI

Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute

CARDI

Caribbean Regional Centre for the Education and training of Animal Health and Veterinary Public Health Assistants

REPAHA

Assembly of Caribbean Community Parliamentarians

ACCP

Caribbean Centre for Development Administration

CARICAD

Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute

CFNI

CARICOM Implementation Agency for Crime and Security

IMPACS

Caribbean Examinations Council

CXC

CARICOM Single Market and Economy

CSME

Caribbean Court of Justice

CCJ

CARICOM Competition Commission

CCC

Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism

CRFM

Caribbean Regional Organisation for Standards and Quality

CROSQ

Caribbean Telecommunications Union

CTU

Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre

CCCCC

Caribbean Organisation of Tax Administrators

COTA

Council of Legal Education

CLE

Caribbean Aviation Safety and Securing Oversight System

CASSOS

Caribbean Regional Information and Translation Institute

CRITI

text: The Caribbean Court of Justice will act in its "original jurisdiction", as settlement unit for disputes on the functioning of the Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy (CSME). Additionally the states of CARICOM voted to supplement original jurisdiction with "appellate jurisdiction" under this the former colonies of the United Kingdom will have effectively replaced the Privy Council in London, United Kingdom with the CCJ.[citation needed]

text: The CCJ is based in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. The majority of member states[which?] however, continue to utilize the Privy Council as their final appellate court and three member states do not use the CCJ for either its original jurisdiction or its appellate jurisdiction because they have either not signed the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas (the Bahamas and Haiti) or are a current British colony (Montserrat).

text: Associate institutions[edit]

text: The six designated associate institutions of CARICOM are as follows:

text:
Associate institutions

Associate institution

Abbreviation

Caribbean Development Bank

CDB

University of Guyana

UG

University of the West Indies

UWI

Caribbean Law Institute / Caribbean Law Institute Centre

CLI / CLIC

Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States

OECS

West Indies Cricket Board

WICB

text: CARICOM Standard and Song[edit]

text: The flag of the Caribbean Community was chosen and approved in November 1983 at the Conference of Heads of Government Meeting in Port of Spain, Trinidad. The original design by the firm of WINART Studies in Georgetown, Guyana was substantially modified at the July 1983 Meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government.[12] The flag was first flown on 4 July 1984 in Nassau, Bahamas at the fifth Meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government.[13]

text: The flag features a blue background, but the upper part is a light blue representing sky and the lower, a darker blue representing the Caribbean Sea. The yellow circle in the centre represents the sun on which is printed in black the logo of the Caribbean Community, two interlocking Cs. The two Cs are in the form of broken links in a chain, symbolising both unity and a break with the colonial past. The narrow ring of green around the sun represents the vegetation of the region.[12]

text: For CARICOM's 40th anniversary, a competition to compose an official song or anthem for CARICOM was launched in April 2013[14] to promote choosing a song that promoted unity and inspired CARICOM identity and pride. A regional panel of judges comprising independent experts in music was nominated by member states and the CARICOM Secretariat. Three rounds of competition condensed 63 entries to a final three, from which judges chose Celebrating CARICOM by Michele Henderson of Dominica[14] in March 2014.[15] Henderson won a US$10,000 prize.[16] Her song was produced by her husband, Roland Delsol Jr., and arranged by Earlson Matthew. It also featured Michael Ferrol on drums and choral input from the St. Alphonsus Choir. It was re-produced for CARICOM by Carl Beaver Henderson of Trinidad and Tobago.[15]

text: A second-place entry titled My CARICOM came from Jamaican Adiel Thomas[14] who won US$5,000,[16] and a third-place song titled One CARICOM by Carmella Lawrence of St. Kitts and Nevis,[14] won US$2,500.[16] The other songs from the top-ten finalists (in no particular order) were:

text:
One Region one Caribbean from Anguilla,
One Caribbean Family from Jamaica,
CARICOM’s Light from St. Vincent & the Grenadines,
We Are CARICOM from Dominica,
Together As one from Dominica,
Blessed CARICOM from Jamaica,
Together We Rise from Jamaica.[15]

text: The first official performance of Celebrating CARICOM by Henderson took place on Tuesday 1 July 2014 at the opening ceremony for the Thirty-Fifth Regional Meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government in Antigua and Barbuda.[14]

text: History[edit]

text: CARICOM, originally the Caribbean Community and Common Market, was established by the Treaty of Chaguaramas[17] which took effect on 1 August 1973. The first four signatories were Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.

text: CARICOM superseded the 1965–1972 Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) organised to provide a continued economic linkage between the English-speaking countries of the Caribbean after the dissolution of the West Indies Federation, which lasted from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962.

text: A revised Treaty of Chaguaramas established the Caribbean Community including the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) and was signed by the CARICOM Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community on 5 July 2001 at their Twenty-Second Meeting of the Conference in Nassau, The Bahamas.[10] The revised treaty cleared the way to transform the idea of a common market CARICOM into the Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy. Part of the revised treaty includes the establishing and implementing the Caribbean Court of Justice.

text: Haiti's membership in CARICOM remained effectively suspended from 29 February 2004 through early June 2006 following the 2004 Haitian coup d'état and the removal of Jean-Bertrand Aristide from the presidency.[18][19] CARICOM announced that no democratically elected government in CARICOM should have its leader deposed. The fourteen other heads of government sought to have Aristide fly from Africa to Jamaica and share his account of events with them, which infuriated the interim Haitian prime minister, Gérard Latortue, who announced he would take steps to take Haiti out of CARICOM. CARICOM thus voted on suspending the participation of Haitian officials from the councils of CARICOM.[20] Following the presidential election of René Préval, Haitian officials were readmitted and Préval himself gave the opening address at the CARICOM Council of Ministers meeting in July.

text: Since 2013 the CARICOM-bloc and with the Dominican Republic have been tied to the European Union via an Economic Partnership Agreements signed in 2008 known as CARIFORUM.[21]  The treaty grants all members of the European Union and CARIFORUM equal rights in terms of trade and investment. Under Article 234 of the agreement, the European Court of Justice handles dispute resolution between CARIFORUM and European Union states.[22]

text: Statistics[edit]

text:
Population and economic statistics of full and associate members

Member

Membership

Land area (km2)[23]

Population[24] (2016)

GDP (PPP) Millions USD[25]

GDP Per Capita (PPP) USD (2015)

Human Development Index (2016)

 Anguilla

associate

91

14,764

0.108

8,800

 Antigua & Barbuda

full member

442.6

100,963

1,920

23,523

0.786

 Bahamas

full member

10,010

391,232

8,800

24,505

0.792

 Barbados

full member

430

284,996

4,500

16,670

0.795

 Belize

full member

22,806

366,954

2,800

8,321

0.706

 Bermuda

associate

54

61,666

5,085

-

 British Virgin Islands

associate

151

30,661

-

 Cayman Islands

associate

264

60,765

1,939

-

 Dominica

full member

751

73,543

730

11,163

0.726

 Grenada

full member

344

107,317

1,210

13,572

0.754

 Guyana

full member

214,970

773,303

5,200

7,537

0.638

 Haiti

full member

27,560

10,847,334

17,600

1,757

0.493

 Jamaica

full member

10,831

2,881,355

23,600

8,771

0.730

 Montserrat

full member

102

5,152

0.043

-

 Saint Kitts and Nevis

full member

261

54,821

1,160

24,476

0.765

 Saint Lucia

full member

606

178,015

1,880

11,710

0.735

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

full member

389

109,643

1,160

10,937

0.722

 Suriname

full member

156,000

558,368

8,800

16,253

0.725

 Trinidad & Tobago

full member

5,128

1,364,962

40,600

32,573

0.780

 Turks and Caicos Islands

associate

948

34,900

0.845

-

Full members

members only

432,510

16,743,693

107,815

6,439

0.725

text: Thousands of Caricom nationals live within other member states of the Community.

text: An estimated 30,000 Jamaicans legally reside in other CARICOM member states,[26] mainly in the Bahamas (5,600),[27] Antigua & Barbuda (estimated 12,000),[28] Barbados and Trinidad & Tobago).[26] Also, an estimated 150 Jamaicans live and work in Montserrat.[28] A November 21, 2013 estimated put 16,958 Jamaicans residing illegally in Trinidad & Tobago, as according to the records of the Office of the Chief Immigration Officer, their entry certificates would have since expired.[29] By October 2014, the estimated Jamaicans residing illegally in Trinidad and Tobago was 19,000 along with an estimated 7,169 Barbadians and 25,884 Guyanese residing illegally.[30] An estimated 8,000 Trinidadians and Tobagonians live in Jamaica.[31]

text: Barbados hosts a large diaspora population of Guyanese, of whom (in 2005) 5,032 lived there permanently as citizens, permanent residents, immigrants (with immigrant status) and Caricom skilled nationals; 3,200 were residing in Barbados temporarily under work permits, as students, or with "reside and work" status. A further 2,000-3,000 Guyanese were estimated to be living illegally in Barbados at the time.[32] Migration between Barbados and Guyana has deep roots, going back over 150 years, with the most intense period of Barbadian migration to then-British Guiana occurring between 1863 and 1886, although as late as the 1920s and 1930s Barbadians were still leaving Barbados for British Guiana.[33]

text: Migration between Guyana and Suriname also goes back a number of years. An estimated 50,000 Guyanese had migrated to Suriname by 1986[34][35] In 1987 an estimated 30-40,000 Guyanese were in Suriname.[36] Many Guyanese left Suriname in the 1970s and 1980s, either voluntarily by expulsion. Over 5,000 were expelled in January 1985 alone.[37] in the instability Suriname experienced following independence, both coups and civil war.[35] In 2013 an estimated 11,530 Guyanese had emigrated to Suriname and 4,662 Surinamese to Guyana.[38]

text: Relationship to other supranational Caribbean organisations[edit]

text: Parts of this article (those related to Anguilla) need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2012)

text: Association of Caribbean States[edit]

text: CARICOM was instrumental in the formation of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) on 24 July 1994. The original idea for the Association came from a recommendation of the West Indian Commission, established in 1989 by the CARICOM heads of state and government. The Commission advocated both deepening the integration process (through the CARICOM Single Market and Economy) and widening it through a separate regional organization encompassing all states in the Caribbean.[39]

text: CARICOM accepted the commission's recommendations and opened dialogue with other Caribbean states, the Central American states and the Latin American nations of Colombia, Venezuela and Mexico which border the Caribbean, for consultation on the proposals of the West Indian Commission.[39]

text: At an October 1993 summit the heads of state and government of CARICOM and the presidents of the then-Group of Three (Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela) formally decided to create an association grouping all states of the Caribbean basin. A work schedule for its formation was adopted. The aim was to create the association in less than a year, an objective which was achieved with the formal creation of the ACS.[39]

text: Community of Latin American and Caribbean States[edit]

text: CARICOM was also involved in the formation of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) on 3 December 2010. The idea for CELAC originated at the Rio Group–Caribbean Community Unity Summit on 23 February 2010 in Mexico.[40][41][42][43][44]

text: European Union: Economic Partnership Agreements[edit]

text: Since 2013, the CARICOM-bloc and the Dominican Republic have been tied to the European Union via an Economic Partnership Agreements known as CARIFORUM signed in 2008.[21]  The treaty grants all members of the European Union and CARIFORUM equal rights in terms of trade and investment.  Within the agreement under Article 234, the European Court of Justice also carries dispute resolution mechanisms between CARIFORUM and the European Union states.[22]

text: OHADAC Project[edit]

text: In May 2016, Caricom's court of original jurisdiction, the CCJ, signed a  memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the ACP Legal Association based in Guadeloupe recognizing and supporting the goals of implementing a harmonized business law framework in the Caribbean through ACP Legal Association's OHADAC Project.[45]

text: OHADAC is the acronym for the French "Organisation pour l'Harmonisation du Droit des Affaires en les Caraïbes", which translates into English as "Organisation for the Harmonization of Business Law in the Caribbean". The OHADAC Project takes inspiration from a similar organisation in Africa and aims to enhance economic integration across the entire Caribbean and facilitate increased trade and international investment through unified laws and alternative dispute resolution methods.[45]