document_title: Photography

question_text: what does the word photography mean in greek

question_tokens: what does the word photography mean in greek

text: Photography

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word "photography" was created from the Greek roots φωτός (phōtos), genitive of φῶς (phōs), "light"[2] and γραφή (graphé) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing",[3] together meaning "drawing with light".[4]

text: Several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Hercules Florence, a French painter and inventor living in Campinas, Brazil, used the French form of the word, photographie, in private notes which a Brazilian historian believes were written in 1834.[5] This claim is widely reported but apparently has never been independently confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt.[citation needed]

text: The German newspaper Vossische Zeitung of 25 February 1839 contained an article entitled Photographie, discussing several priority claims — especially Henry Fox Talbot's — regarding Daguerre's claim of invention.[6] The article is the earliest known occurrence of the word in public print. It was signed "J.M.", believed to have been Berlin astronomer Johann von Maedler.[7]

text: Credit has traditionally been given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. His uses of it in private correspondence prior to 25 February 1839 and at his Royal Society lecture on the subject in London on 14 March 1839 have long been amply documented and accepted as settled facts.[citation needed]

text: The inventors Nicéphore Niépce, Henry Fox Talbot and Louis Daguerre seem not to have known or used the word "photography", but referred to their processes as "Heliography" (Niépce), "Photogenic Drawing"/"Talbotype"/"Calotype" (Talbot) and "Daguerreotype" (Daguerre).[7]

text: History[edit]

text: Precursor technologies[edit]

text: Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, ancient Han Chinese philosopher Mo Di from the Mohist School of Logic was the first to discover and develop the scientific principles of optics, camera obscura, and pinhole camera. Later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.[8][9] In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments.[10] Both the Han Chinese polymath Shen Kuo (1031–95) and Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) independently invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera,[9][11] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate,[12] and Georg Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride.[13] Shen Kuo explains the science of camera obscura and optical physics in his scientific work Dream Pool Essays while the techniques described in Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics are capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials.[14][15][16]

text: Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566.[17] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[18] The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.[17]

text: The discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture and keep the image produced by the camera obscura.

text: Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means "dark chamber" in Latin. It is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper.

text: Invention of photography[edit]

text: Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance. He used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that "the images formed by means of a camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver." The shadow images eventually darkened all over.[20]

text: The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it.[19] Niépce was successful again in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of a real-world scene, as formed in a camera obscura by a lens).[21]

text: Because Niépce's camera photographs required an extremely long exposure (at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. In partnership with Louis Daguerre, he worked out post-exposure processing methods that produced visually superior results and replaced the bitumen with a more light-sensitive resin, but hours of exposure in the camera were still required. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy.

text: Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitive silver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light-fast and permanent. Daguerre's efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process. The essential elements—a silver-plated surface sensitized by iodine vapor, developed by mercury vapor, and "fixed" with hot saturated salt water—were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the several-minutes-long exposure to be visible. The existence of Daguerre's process was publicly announced, without details, on 7 January 1839. The news created an international sensation. France soon agreed to pay Daguerre a pension in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of France, which occurred when complete working instructions were unveiled on 19 August 1839. In that same year, American photographer Robert Cornelius is credited with taking the earliest surviving photographic self-portrait.

text: In Brazil, Hercules Florence had apparently started working out a silver-salt-based paper process in 1832, later naming it Photographie.

text: Meanwhile, a British inventor, William Fox Talbot, had succeeded in making crude but reasonably light-fast silver images on paper as early as 1834 but had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention in January 1839, Talbot published his hitherto secret method and set about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot's paper-based photography typically required hours-long exposures in the camera, but in 1840 he created the calotype process, which used the chemical development of a latent image to greatly reduce the exposure needed and compete with the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot's process, unlike Daguerre's, created a translucent negative which could be used to print multiple positive copies; this is the basis of most modern chemical photography up to the present day, as Daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a camera.[22] Talbot's famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey, one of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in existence.[23][24]

text: British chemist John Herschel made many contributions to the new field. He invented the cyanotype process, later familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He had discovered in 1819 that sodium thiosulphate was a solvent of silver halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to "fix" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light-fast. He made the first glass negative in late 1839.

text: In the March 1851 issue of The Chemist, Frederick Scott Archer published his wet plate collodion process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are three subsets to the collodion process; the Ambrotype (a positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (a positive image on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to make positive prints on albumen or salted paper.

text: Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1891, Gabriel Lippmann introduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of the interference of light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1908.

text: Glass plates were the medium for most original camera photography from the late 1850s until the general introduction of flexible plastic films during the 1890s. Although the convenience of the film greatly popularized amateur photography, early films were somewhat more expensive and of markedly lower optical quality than their glass plate equivalents, and until the late 1910s they were not available in the large formats preferred by most professional photographers, so the new medium did not immediately or completely replace the old. Because of the superior dimensional stability of glass, the use of plates for some scientific applications, such as astrophotography, continued into the 1990s, and in the niche field of laser holography, it has persisted into the 2010s.

text: Film photography[edit]

text: Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the light sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised.

text: The first flexible photographic roll film was marketed by George Eastman in 1885, but this original "film" was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and transferred to a hardened gelatin support. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose ("celluloid"), now usually called "nitrate film".

text: Although cellulose acetate or "safety film" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,[25] at first it found only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed for X-ray films until 1933, and although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm motion pictures until it was finally discontinued in 1951.

text: Films remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats.[26] Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts and professional photographers. The distinctive "look" of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including: (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density-to-exposure (H&D curve) with film vs. linear response curve for digital CCD sensors) [27] (2) resolution and (3) continuity of tone.[28]

text: Black-and-white[edit]

text: Originally, all photography was monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define black-and-white photography.[29] It is important to note that monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray but can involve shades of one particular hue depending on the process. The cyanotype process, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. The albumen print process first used more than 170 years ago, produces brownish tones.

text: Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-processed silver-halide-based materials. Some full-color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black-and-white results, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Monochrome printing or electronic display can be used to salvage certain photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in their original form; sometimes when presented as black-and-white or single-color-toned images they are found to be more effective. Although color photography has long predominated, monochrome images are still produced, mostly for artistic reasons. Almost all digital cameras have an option to shoot in monochrome, and almost all image editing software can combine or selectively discard RGB color channels to produce a monochrome image from one shot in color.

text: Color[edit]

text: Color photography was explored beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not "fix" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light.

text: The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855.[30][31] The foundation of virtually all practical color processes, Maxwell's idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and blue filters.[30][31] This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, an additive method of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposing carbon prints of the three images made in their complementary colors, a subtractive method of color reproduction pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron in the late 1860s.

text: Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii made extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on different parts of an oblong plate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color "fringes" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images.

text: Implementation of color photography was hindered by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemist Hermann Vogel in 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of emulsions steadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability.

text: Autochrome, the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by the Lumière brothers in 1907. Autochrome plates incorporated a mosaic color filter layer made of dyed grains of potato starch, which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic image fragments. After an Autochrome plate was reversal processed to produce a positive transparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by the additive method. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of additive color screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s.

text: Kodachrome, the first modern "integral tripack" (or "monopack") color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the three color components in a multi-layer emulsion. One layer was sensitized to record the red-dominated part of the spectrum, another layer recorded only the green part and a third recorded only the blue. Without special film processing, the result would simply be three superimposed black-and-white images, but complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images were created in those layers by adding color couplers during a complex processing procedure.

text: Agfa's similarly structured Agfacolor Neu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently, available color films still employ a multi-layer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa's product.

text: Instant color film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

text: Color photography may form images as positive transparencies, which can be used in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment. After a transition period centered around 1995–2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive "look".

text: Digital photography[edit]

text: In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1991, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital single lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born.

text: Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film.[32] An important difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists photo manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications.

text: Digital photography dominates the 21st century. More than 99% of photographs taken around the world are through digital cameras, increasingly through smartphones.

text: Synthesis photography[edit]

text: Synthesis photography is part of computer-generated imagery (CGI) where the shooting process is modeled on real photography. The CGI, creating digital copies of real universe, requires a visual representation process of these universes. Synthesis photography is the application of analog and digital photography in digital space. With the characteristics of the real photography but not being constrained by the physical limits of real world, synthesis photography allows artists to move into areas beyond the grasp of real photography.[33]

text: Photographic techniques[edit]

text: A large variety of photographic techniques and media are used in the process of capturing images for photography. These include the camera; stereoscopy; dualphotography; full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared media; light field photography; and other imaging techniques.

text: Cameras[edit]

text: The camera is the image-forming device, and a photographic plate, photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the capture medium. The respective recording medium can be the plate or film itself, or a digital magnetic or electronic memory.[34]

text: Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording material to the required amount of light to form a "latent image" (on plate or film) or RAW file (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on a paper.

text: The camera (or 'camera obscura') is a dark room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all light is excluded except the light that forms the image. It was discovered and used in the 16th century by painters. The subject being photographed, however, must be illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept dark while the object to be photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was common for reproduction photography of flat copy when large film negatives were used (see Process camera).

text: As soon as photographic materials became "fast" (sensitive) enough for taking candid or surreptitious pictures, small "detective" cameras were made, some actually disguised as a book or handbag or pocket watch (the Ticka camera) or even worn hidden behind an Ascot necktie with a tie pin that was really the lens.

text: The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on recording medium. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion.[35]

text: Stereoscopic[edit]

text: Photographs, both monochrome and color, can be captured and displayed through two side-by-side images that emulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motion.[36] While known colloquially as "3-D" photography, the more accurate term is stereoscopy. Such cameras have long been realized by using film and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cell phone cameras).

text: Dualphotography[edit]

text: Dualphotography consists of photographing a scene from both sides of a photographic device at once (e.g. camera for back-to-back dualphotography, or two networked cameras for portal-plane dualphotography). The dualphoto apparatus can be used to simultaneously capture both the subject and the photographer, or both sides of a geographical place at once, thus adding a supplementary narrative layer to that of a single image.[37]

text: Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared[edit]

text: Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions.

text: Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.[38]

text: Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters).

text: Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics and law enforcement.

text: Light field photography[edit]

text: Digital methods of image capture and display processing have enabled the new technology of "light field photography" (also known as synthetic aperture photography). This process allows focusing at various depths of field to be selected after the photograph has been captured.[39] As explained by Michael Faraday in 1846, the "light field" is understood as 5-dimensional, with each point in 3-D space having attributes of two more angles that define the direction of each ray passing through that point.

text: These additional vector attributes can be captured optically through the use of microlenses at each pixel point within the 2-dimensional image sensor. Every pixel of the final image is actually a selection from each sub-array located under each microlens, as identified by a post-image capture focus algorithm.

text: Other imaging techniques[edit]

text: Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic medium, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures.

text: Modes of production[edit]

text: Amateur[edit]

text: An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby/passion and not necessarily for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable to that of many professionals and may be highly specialized or eclectic in choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward. Amateur photography grew during the late 19th century due to the popularization of the hand-held camera.[40] Nowadays it has spread widely through social media and is carried out throughout different platforms and equipment, switching to the use of cell phone as a key tool for making photography more accessible to everyone.

text: Commercial[edit]

text: Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light, money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:

text:
Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team.
Fashion and glamour photography usually incorporates models and is a form of advertising photography. Fashion photography, like the work featured in Harper's Bazaar, emphasizes clothes and other products; glamour emphasizes the model and body form. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and men's magazines. Models in glamour photography sometimes work nude.
Concert Photography focuses on capturing candid images of both the artist or band as well as the atmosphere (including the crowd). Many of these photographers work freelance and are contracted through an artist or their management to cover a specific show. Concert photographs are often used to promote the artist or band in addition to the venue.
Crime scene photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details.
Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life is a broader category for food and some natural photography and can be used for advertising purposes.
Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography but requires some special skills.
Editorial photography illustrates a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine and encompass fashion and glamour photography features.

Photojournalism can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story.

Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images.
Landscape photography depicts locations.
Wildlife photography demonstrates the life of animals.
Paparazzi is a form of photojournalism in which the photographer captures candid images of athletes, celebrities, politicians, and other prominent people.
Pet photography involves several aspects that are similar to traditional studio portraits. It can also be done in natural lighting, outside of a studio, such as in a client's home.

text: The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "A picture is worth a thousand words", which has an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.

text: Many people take photographs for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as Getty Images or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.

text: Art[edit]

text: During the 20th century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else.

text: The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.

text: Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not art.

text: There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible — significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions.[42]

text: On 7 February 2007, Sotheby's London sold the 2001 photograph 99 Cent II Diptychon for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder, making it the most expensive at the time.[43]

text: Conceptual photography turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract.

text: Photojournalism[edit]

text: Photojournalism is a particular form of photography (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images, but in some cases the term also refers to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (e.g., documentary photography, social documentary photography, street photography or celebrity photography) by complying with a rigid ethical framework which demands that the work be both honest and impartial whilst telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be well informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a creative format that is not only informative, but also entertaining.

text: Science and forensics[edit]

text: The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording scientific phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording crime scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for use in legal cases are collectively known as forensic photography. Crime scene photos are taken from three vantage point. The vantage points are overview, mid-range, and close-up.[44]

text: In 1845 Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, invented the first successful camera to make continuous recordings of meteorological and geomagnetic parameters. Different machines produced 12- or 24- hour photographic traces of the minute-by-minute variations of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, atmospheric electricity, and the three components of geomagnetic forces. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century.[45][46] Charles Brooke a little later developed similar instruments for the Greenwich Observatory.[47]

text: Science uses image technology that has derived from the design of the Pin Hole camera. X-Ray machines are similar in design to Pin Hole cameras with high-grade filters and laser radiation.[48] Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and improved much further since that time.[49]

text: The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an "Ion" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film.[50]

text: Social and cultural implications[edit]

text: There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community.[51] Sontag argues, "To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one's self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power."[52] Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines, it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation.

text: Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its effect on society. In Alfred Hitchcock's Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented as promoting voyeurism. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'.[52]

text: The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate – all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment.[52]

text: Digital imaging has raised ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post-processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make "photomontages", passing them as "real" photographs. Today's technology has made image editing relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allow digital fingerprinting of photos to detect tampering for purposes of forensic photography.

text: Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.[53] Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed." Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.[52]

text: One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze"[54] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a "reverse gaze"[55] through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images.

text: Additionally, photography has been the topic of many songs in popular culture.

text: Law[edit]

text: Photography is both restricted as well as protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as a First Amendment right and anyone is free to photograph anything seen in public spaces as long as it is in plain view.[56] In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.[57]


document_title: Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

question_text: why is there a statue of liberty in japan

root

text: Replicas of the Statue of Liberty

text: France[edit]

text: Paris[edit]

text: Musée d'Orsay[edit]

text: On the occasion of the Exposition Universelle of 1900, Bartholdi crafted a smaller version of the Statue of Liberty, which he subsequently gave to the Musée du Luxembourg. In 1905, the statue was placed outside the museum in the Jardin du Luxembourg, where it stood for over a century, until 2014. It currently stands at the entrance to the Musée d'Orsay; a newly constructed bronze replica stands in its place in the Jardin du Luxembourg.[1]

tag: p

text: Île aux Cygnes[edit]

text: This statue was given in 1889 to France by U.S. citizens[2] living in Paris to celebrate the French Revolution three years after the main statue in New York was inaugurated. In 1937, the statue was turned from looking east to looking west straight to the direction of the New York's statue.

text: The statue is near the Grenelle Bridge on the Île aux Cygnes, a man-made island in the Seine (48°51′0″N 2°16′47″E / 48.85000°N 2.27972°E / 48.85000; 2.27972). It is 11.50 metres (37 feet 9 inches) high and weighs 14 tons.[3] Inaugurated on July 4, 1889, it looks southwest, downriver along the Seine. Its tablet bears two dates: "IV JUILLET 1776" (July 4, 1776: the United States Declaration of Independence) like the New York statue, and "XIV JUILLET 1789" (July 14, 1789: the storming of the Bastille) associated with an equal sign. This statue is shown in the film National Treasure: Book of Secrets as a historic location.

text: Musée des Arts et Métiers[edit]

text: The original plaster, the first maquette (286 cm) finished in 1878 by Auguste Bartholdi, that was used to make the statue in New York is in the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris.[4][5] This original plaster was bequeathed by the artist's widow in 1907,[6] together with part of the artist's estate.

text: On the square outside the Musée des Arts et Métiers's entrance is a bronze made from this plaster (same size), number 1 from an original edition of 12, made by the museum and cast by Susse Fondeur Paris.

text: Flame of Liberty[edit]

text: A life-size copy of the torch, Flame of Liberty, can be seen above the entrance to the Pont de l'Alma tunnel near the Champs-Élysées in Paris. It was given to the city as a return gift in honor of the centennial celebration of the statue's dedication. Since it is above the Pont de l'Alma car tunnel in which Princess Diana died, the torch became an unofficial memorial to the princess.[7]

text: Barentin[edit]

text: There is a replica in the northwest of France, in the small town of Barentin near Rouen. It was made for a French movie, Le Cerveau ("The Brain"), directed by Gérard Oury and featuring actors Jean-Paul Belmondo and Bourvil.[8]

text: Bordeaux[edit]

text: Another replica is the Bordeaux Statue of Liberty. This 2.5 m (8.2 ft) statue is in the city of Bordeaux. The first Bordeaux statue was seized and melted down by the Nazis in World War II. The statue was replaced in 2000 and a plaque was added to commemorate the victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks. On the night of March 25, 2003, unknown vandals poured red paint and gasoline on the replica and set it on fire. The vandals also cracked the pedestal of the plaque. The mayor of Bordeaux, former prime minister Alain Juppé, condemned the attack.

text: Colmar[edit]

text: A 12 m (39 ft 4 in) replica of the Statue of Liberty in Colmar, the city of Bartholdi's birth, was dedicated on July 4, 2004, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his death. It stands at the north entrance of the city.[9] The Bartholdi Museum in Colmar contains numerous models of various sizes made by Bartholdi during the process of designing the statue.[10]

text: Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer[edit]

text: Frédéric Bartholdi donated a copy of the Statue of Liberty to the town square of Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer.

text: Other French cities[edit]

text: Other Liberty Enlightening the World statues are displayed in Poitiers and Lunel. The Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon owns a terracotta version.

text: Near Chaumont, Haute Marne, is a miniature replica in the flag plaza of the former Chaumont Air Base. This was the home of the US 48th Tactical Fighter Wing, now based at Lakenheath, England, with its own statue at the flag plaza. The 48th TFW is the only USAF wing with a name: "The Statue of Liberty Wing".

text: Another example is of a Liberty Enlightening the World replica in Châteauneuf-la-Forêt, near the city of Limoges in the area of Haute-Vienne, Limousin. There is another "original" Bartholdi replica at Roybon (near Grenoble)

text: Other European countries[edit]

text: Austria[edit]

text: In Minimundus, a miniature park located at the Wörthersee in Carinthia, Austria, is another replica of the Statue of Liberty.[11]

text: In Graz, standing between the Opera House and the NextLiberty Theater, stands a steel structure built out of steel beams, that depict the original size of the statue of liberty, before the plates of the final form were being put into place. Instead of torch of flame, this depiction is holding a sword in extended left arm and a sphere in the right arm representing the world.

text: Denmark[edit]

text: A small replica in lego is situated in Legoland in Billund.

text: Germany[edit]

text: A 35 m (115 ft) copy is in the German Heidepark Soltau theme park, located on a lake with cruising Mississippi steamboats. It weighs 28 metric tons (31 short tons), is made of plastic foam on a steel frame with polyester cladding, and was designed by the Dutch artist Gerla Spee.[12]

text: Ireland[edit]

text: A green painted replica of the Statue of Liberty can be found near Mulnamina More, County Donegal, Ireland.[13]

text: Kosovo[edit]

text: A replica stands atop the Hotel Victory in Pristina, Kosovo.[14]

text: Norway[edit]

text: A smaller replica is in the Norwegian village of Visnes, where the copper used in the original statue was mined.[15] A replica is also on the facade of a pub in Bleik, county of Nordland[16][17]

text: Spain[edit]

text:
In 1897 a 123 cm (4 ft 0 in) replica in iron and bronze was erected in Cenicero, Spain, to honor local fighters during the First Carlist War. In 1936 it was removed during the dictatorship of Francisco Franco. It was restored in 1976.
The Rossend Arús public library in Barcelona has in its entrance a 2 m (6 ft 7 in) replica from 1894. She welcomes visitors to the library, which is devoted to the labour movement, anarchism, and freemasonry.
Cadaqués, a small village that was residence of Salvador Dalí, has an unusual version, with both hands up. It is on top of a small tourism information office.

tag: ul

text: Ukraine[edit]

text: There is a unique "sitting" Statue of Liberty in the Ukrainian city of Lviv. It is a sculpture on a dome of the house (15, Freedom Avenue) built by architect Yuriy Zakharevych and decorated by sculptor Leandro Marconi in 1874–91.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: A 17-foot, 9,200 kg (9.2 tons) replica stood atop the Liberty Shoe factory in Leicester, England, until 2002 when the building was demolished. The statue was put into storage while the building was replaced. The statue, which dates back to the 1920s, was initially going to be put back on the replacement building, but was too heavy, so in December 2008 following restoration, it was placed on a pedestal near Liberty Park Halls of Residence on a traffic island close to where it originally stood.[18][19]

text: A 10-foot-high (3.0 m) replica is in the stairwell of a bowling alley building in Warrington, England. It used to be above the entrance of a restaurant nearby.

text: There is also a small replica located at RAF Lakenheath, England, at the base flag plaza, made from leftover copper from the original.[20]

text: North America[edit]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Coquitlam, British Columbia a small replica stands on Delestre Avenue just east of North Road.[21]

text: Mexico[edit]

text: In Campeche, Mexico, there is a small replica in the small town of Palizada.

text: In Durango, Mexico, a small replica is in Parque Guadiana. This park also has other small reproductions such as the Eiffel Tower and Taj Mahal.

text: United States[edit]

text:
From 1902 to 2002, visitors to midtown Manhattan were occasionally disoriented by what seemed to be an impossibly nearby view of the statue. They were seeing a 30-foot-high (9.1 m) replica located at 43 West 64th Street atop the Liberty Warehouse.[22][23] In February 2002, the statue was removed by the building's owners to allow the building to be expanded.[24] It was donated to the Brooklyn Museum of Art, which installed it in its sculpture garden in October 2005 with plans to restore it on site in spring of 2006.[25][26]
A bronze sculpture of the Statue of Liberty is on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.[27]
Duluth, Minnesota, has a small copy on the south corner of the Duluth Entertainment Convention Center property, in the center of a clearing surrounded by pine trees where it may be passed unnoticed. It was presented to the city by some of Bartholdi's descendants residing in Duluth.[28][29]
The Boy Scouts of America celebrated their fortieth anniversary in 1950 with the theme of "Strengthen the Arm of Liberty".[30] Between 1949 and 1952, approximately two hundred 100-inch (2.5 m) replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper, were purchased by Boy Scout troops and donated in 39 states in the U.S. and several of its possessions and territories. The project was the brainchild of Kansas City businessman J.P. Whitaker, who was then Scout Commissioner of the Kansas City Area Council. The copper statues were manufactured by Friedley-Voshardt Co. (Chicago, Illinois) and purchased through the Kansas City Boy Scout office by those wanting one. The statues are approximately 8 1⁄2 feet (2.6 m) tall without the base, are constructed of sheet copper, weigh 290 pounds (130 kg), and originally cost $350 plus freight. The mass-produced statues are not great art nor meticulously accurate (a conservator notes that "her face isn't as mature as the real Liberty. It's rounder and more like a little girl's"), but they are cherished, particularly since 9/11. Many have been lost or destroyed, but preservationists have been able to account for about a hundred of them, and BSA Troop 101 of Cheyenne, Wyoming, has collected photographs of over 100 of them.[31][32] They are commonly installed at city halls, libraries, and schools. One of these statues was sent to the Philippines. After some years at the mouth of the Pasig River, Manila, it was kept in a store room at the Scout Reservation, Makiling, Laguna, for about two decades. It is now stored at the national office of the Boy Scouts of the Philippines, Manila.
A replica of the original statue was unveiled on October 12, 2011, at 667 Madison Avenue in Manhattan. Its owner, billionaire Leonard N. Stern, purchased it after reading about it in the local news. The replica is one of only 12 cast from the original mold created by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi using digital surface scanning and lost-wax casting methods, and is the only one currently on public display. The statue itself is 9 feet tall and 15 feet including the pedestal on which it stands.[33]

text:
There is a half-size replica at the New York-New York Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada.[34][35][36][37] In April 2011, the U.S. Postal Service announced that three billion postage stamps mistakenly based on a photograph of this replica were produced and would be sold to the public.[38] In November 2013, the statue's sculptor, Robert Davidson, filed a copyright infringement suit against the U.S. government.[39]
The city of Sioux Falls, South Dakota, erected a replacement bronze reproduction standing 9 ft (2.7 m) tall in McKennan Park atop the original pedestal of a long-vanished wooden replica.[40]

text:
A 36-foot-tall (11 m) bronze replica, accurately based on Bartholdi's Liberty Enlightening the World, stands in Vestavia Hills, a suburb of Birmingham, Alabama. It was cast in 1956 at the Société Antoine Durenne foundry in Somerville, Haut Marne, France, for placement in 1958 atop the Liberty National Life Insurance Company building in downtown Birmingham.[22] It was relocated and placed on a 60-foot-tall (18 m) granite pedestal adjacent to Interstate 459 in 1989.[41][42][43]
Two 30-foot (9.1 m) copper replicas by sculptor Leo Lentelli stand atop the Liberty National Bank Building[22] in Buffalo, New York, nearly 108 m (354 ft) above street level.[44][45]
A 25-foot-tall (7.6 m) replica sits on the ruins of the late Marysville Bridge (erected on a platform (pier)) in the Dauphin Narrows of Susquehanna River north of Harrisburg. The replica was built by a local activist Gene Stilp on July 2, 1986; it was made of Venetian blinds and stood 18 feet (5.5 m) tall. Six years later, after it was destroyed in a windstorm, it was rebuilt by Stilp and other local citizens, of wood, metal, glass and fiberglass, to a height of 25 feet (7.6 m).[46][47][48]
A Lego replica of the Statue of Liberty consisting of 2882 bricks and standing 0.9 m (3.0 ft) is a popular sculpture among Lego enthusiasts. The statue went out of production, but due to popular demand was returned to sale.[49]
A 1/12 replica of the Statue of Liberty made essentially out of junk stands at the intersection of US 280 and US 341 in McRae, Georgia. The head is made out of a stump from a nearby swamp, the arm holding the torch is made from styrofoam and the hand holding the book is actually an electric lineman's glove. The town's Lion's Club erected the replica in 1986 during the statue's centennial.[50]
An 11-foot (3.4 m) miniature Statue of Liberty (holding a Bible instead of a tablet) currently stands atop a 15-foot (4.6 m) pedestal outside the Liberty Recycling plant in San Marcos, California. The company was named after the statue, which has been moved throughout northern San Diego County for over 80 years, originating at the Liberty Hotel in Leucadia, in the 1920s.[51]
A 25-foot (7.6 m) replica of the statue, lofting a Christian cross, holding the Ten Commandments, and named the Statue of Liberation through Christ, was erected by a predominantly African American church in Memphis, Tennessee, on July 4, 2006.[52]
A small replica stands on the grounds of the Cherokee Capitol Building in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, a gift from the local Boy Scouts in 1950.[53]
Fargo, North Dakota, also has a replica of the Statue of Liberty on the corner of Main Avenue and 2nd Street at the entrance of the Main Avenue bridge.[54]
There is a replica on the shoreline of Lake Chaubunagungamaug in Webster, Massachusetts.[55]
A 1/6-scale replica (~50 feet including pedestal) stands in a parking lot of a strip mall in Milwaukie, Oregon, off McLoughlin Blvd at 4255 SE Roethe Rd.[56]
A 6-foot (1.8 m) replica stands in West Seattle, Washington, at Alki Beach Park.[57]

text: South America[edit]

text: Argentina[edit]

text: In Buenos Aires there is a small iron replica in Barrancas de Belgrano Square, cast by Bartholdi from the same mould as those cast in Paris; although it is much smaller. It was inaugurated on October 3, 1886, 25 days before the one in New York. Another replica was bought by the government and placed in a school, Colegio Nacional Sarmiento, about the same date.[58]. There is another replica in Plaza Libertad (Liberty Square) in the city of San Juan. This one arrived at the city in 1909 due to a confusion since it had to be shipped to San Juan, Puerto Rico instead. There are also two cheaper non-metallic replicas; one is 6 m tall, located in the "New York" Casino in San Luis and the other crowns a commercial gallery, "Galería de Fabricantes", in Munro, a city in the northeast suburbs of Buenos Aires.[59]

text: Replica: a copy or reproduction of a work of art produced by the maker of the original or under his or her supervision. Saying that, the New York is a big replica of the argentinian one.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: In Bangu, Rio de Janeiro exists a nickel replica made by Bartholdi in 1899. Bartholdi was commissioned by José Paranhos, Baron of Rio Branco to make a replica in order to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the Republic of Brazil. Until 1940, the statue was Paranhos family property. In 1940 the statue was passed to Guanabara State. In January 20, 1964 Carlos Lacerda, governor of Guanabara State, placed the statue in Miami Square, Bangu.[60] 22°51′24″S 43°29′33″W / 22.856681°S 43.492577°W / -22.856681; -43.492577

text: A small-scale cast metal replica can be found in Maceió, the capital of Alagoas State, in northeast Brazil. The replica is in front of a building constructed in 1869 as the seat of the Conselho Provincial (Provincial Council), and which today is the Museu da Imagem e do Som de Alagoas (Museum of Image and Sound of Alagoas). This replica is possibly a casting produced by the Fundição Val d'Osne[61] in France, as in the Praça Lavenere Machado (formerly Praça Dois Leões) on the opposite side of the museum, there are four somewhat larger-than-life size cast metal statues of wild animals, at least one of which is embossed with the name of the foundry. These castings and the replica all appear to be made of similar material and to be of similar age. It is also probable that they are near contemporaries of the actual Statue of Liberty. 9°40′22″S 35°43′20″W / 9.6728563°S 35.7223114°W / -9.6728563; -35.7223114

text: A large modern replica stands in front of the New York City Center, a shopping center constructed in 1999 in Barra da Tijuca in the State of Rio de Janeiro. 22°59′57″S 43°21′38″W / 22.9992837°S 43.360481°W / -22.9992837; -43.360481

text: The Havan department store chain has replicas in many of their stores. The largest one of these, 57 meters tall,[62] is allegedly in the Barra Velha branc, in the state of Santa Catarina.26°38′09″S 48°41′55″W / 26.635870°S 48.698708°W / -26.635870; -48.698708 There is another large replica the parking area of a Havan Department Store on the outskirts of Curitiba, in the State of Paraná, opened in 2000. 25°27′50″S 49°15′08″W / 25.4639912°S 49.2521676°W / -25.4639912; -49.2521676

text: Also, there is a small replica of the statue in Belém, in front of a Belém Importados store, near the city's port.

text: Ecuador[edit]

text: In Guayaquil, a little replica gives the name of "New York" to a neighborhood in the Valle Alto area.

text: Peru[edit]

text: In Lima the New York Casino in the Jesús María District has a small replica in the main entrance. The casino is a tribute to the state of New York and the USA.

text: Asia[edit]

text: India[edit]

text: A small replica can be found in Vardhaman Fantasy, an amusement park in Mira Road, Mumbai along with other six wonders of the world.

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: A large replica can be found in Genting Highlands in the state of Pahang.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: A small replica can be found in Haw Par Villa, a theme park.

text: China[edit]

text: Guangzhou[edit]

text: Set on top of the memorial tomb of "72 Martyrs of Huanghuagang" (see Huanghuagang Uprising). The current one was re-built in 1981.

text: Beijing[edit]

text: During the Tiananmen Square protest of 1989, Chinese student demonstrators in Beijing built a 10 m (33 ft) image called the Goddess of Democracy, which sculptor Tsao Tsing-yuan said was intentionally "dissimilar" to the Statue of Liberty to avoid being "too openly pro-American." (See article for a list of replicas of that statue.)

text: Shenzhen[edit]

text: A replica can be found in Window of the World Park.

text: Israel[edit]

text: A 15 foot high replica of the Statue of Liberty is at the western entrance of the village of Arraba in Israel, near a local restaurant.

text: At a highway intersection in Jerusalem called "New York Square," there is an abstract skeletal replica of the statue.

text: Japan[edit]

text: The French Statue of Liberty from the Île aux Cygnes came to Odaiba, Tokyo, from April 1998 to May 1999 in commemoration of "The French year in Japan".[3] Because of its popularity, in 2000 a replica of the French Statue of Liberty was erected at the same place. Also in Japan, a small Statue of Liberty is in the Amerika-mura (American Village) shopping district in Osaka, Japan. Another replica is in Oirase[63] near the town of Shimoda south of Misawa in Aomori Prefecture, where the United States has an 8,000-person U.S. Air Force base. A replica of the Statue of Liberty in Ishinomaki, Miyagi Prefecture, was damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.[64]

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: There are replicas of the Statue of Liberty in Bahria Town, Lahore, and also in Bahria Town Phase 8, Islamabad.

text: Philippines[edit]

text: Camp John Hay, a former US military station in Baguio City, has a small replica of the statue near the amphitheater.

text: Thailand[edit]

text: The Mini Siam and Mini Europe model village, in Pattaya, has a miniature Statue of Liberty amongst others.

text: Taiwan[edit]

text: There are at least two Statue of Liberty replicas (greater than 30 feet in height) in Taiwan. These two statues are in the cities of Keelung and Taipei.[65]

text: Vietnam[edit]

text: From 1887 to 1945, Hanoi was home to another copy of the statue. Measuring 2.85 m (9 ft 4 in) tall, it was erected by the French colonial government after being sent from France for an exhibition. It was known to locals unaware of its history as Tượng Bà đầm xòe (Statue of the madame saux). When the French lost control of French Indochina during World War II, the statue was toppled on August 1, 1945, after being deemed a vestige of the colonial government along with other statues erected by the French.[66]

text: Australia[edit]

text: A 30-foot replica can also be seen at the Westfield Marion shopping complex in Adelaide, South Australia.


document_title: Monastery of the Holy Trinity, Meteora

question_text: how do you get to the monastery of the holy trinity

text: Monastery of the Holy Trinity, Meteora

text: Geography[edit]

text: The monasteries were built on rock cliffs in the deltaic plains of Meteora. The cliffs rise to a height of more than 400 metres (1,300 ft). They are situated in the Pineios Valley within the Thessalian plains close to the town of Kalambaka. The rock cliffs, dated by chemical analysis to be 60 million years old, were created during earthquakes, and are of sandstone and conglomerate formations caused by fluvial erosion. The sediments were once in an inland sea during the Pliocene epoch.[1] They rose as a cone during the earthquakes, forming steep rock columns, known as "heavenly columns".[2] The area is hilly and forested, with river valleys, and a protected area known as Trikala Aesthetic Forest.[3]

text: The monasteries of St. Stephen's and Holy Trinity are separated from the main group, which are further to the north.[4] Prior to the twentieth century, Holy Trinity had a very difficult approach, requiring crossing a valley and climbing through the rock outcrop to reach the building's entrance. Provisions were placed in baskets drawn up by rope-ladders (now with a winch). In present day, one can walk from Kalambaka for 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) along a foot track to reach the monastery, or use a winch-operated lift.[5][6] There is a road from the back side of the cliff.[7] It is currently reached via tunnels and 130 steps of stone.[8] The grounds include a 2 acres (0.81 ha) garden at the summit.[9]

text: History[edit]

text: The history of building monasteries on top of perilous cliffs near Meteora occurred between the 14th and 15th centuries. Even prior to this, in the 11th century, religious communities had established hermitages at the foot of these cliffs. In the 14th century, the titular emperor of Serbs and Greeks, John Uroš, became a monk and moved to Meteora; he endowed, rebuilt and established monasteries here. During the political upheavals in the region during this century, monks retreated to the safe haven offered by the cliffs.[7] Dometius was said to be the first monk at the site of Holy Trinity, arriving according to local legend, in 1438.[8] Holy Trinity according to many sources was built in 1475–76,[10] though some sources say the construction dates of the monastery and its adjoining chapel, dedicated to St. John the Baptist, are unknown.[11] Holy Trinity's decoration was added in 1741. By end of the fifteenth century, there were 24 such monasteries, such as Holy Trinity, St. Barbara Rousanou, and St. Nicholas Anapafsas.[7] Damascene, Jonah, and Parthenios, were benefactors and those who took part in restorations; their names grace the monastery walls.[11]

text: Only six of the original monasteries are still occupied, including Holy Trinity.[2] These six – Holy Trinity, St. Stephen, Rousanou, St. Nicholas Anapafsas, Varlaam, and the Great Meteoron – make up the UNESCO World Heritage Site entitled Meteora.[5][3] The UNESCO inscribing was done under criteria in 1988.[12] I, II, IV, V and VII.[13][14]

text: Architecture and fittings[edit]

text: The church plan is in the form of a cruciform type and has a dome which is supported on two columns. The monastery’s main cathedral was constructed in the 15th century and decorated with frescoes in 1741 by two monks.[15] A pseudo-trefoil window is part of the apse. There are white columns and arches, as well as rose-coloured tiles.[11] A small skeuophylakion adjoining the church was built in 1684. Its broad esonarthex barrel vault was built in 1689 and embellished in 1692.[5] The small chapel of St. John the Baptist, carved into the rock, contains frescoes from the seventeenth century. It was richly decorated and had precious manuscripts; however, these treasures were looted during World War II, when it was occupied by the Germans. The building's sixteenth-century frescoes are reported to be post-Byzantine paintings.[3] A fresco of St Sisois and the skeleton of Alexander the Great adorns the walls.[8]

text: Monastic life[edit]

text: At one time, fifty monks lived at Holy Trinity, but by the early twentieth century, there were only five.[16] Visitors are allowed. Patrick Leigh Fermor is reported to have visited the monasteries here several decades ago, as a guest of the Abbot of Varlaam. Even then, Holy Trinity was one of the poorest monasteries in Meteora.[17]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The monastery was featured in the 1981 James Bond film For Your Eyes Only.[5][6] It features in the climax to the film where Bond ascends the rock cliff and intrudes upon Aristotle Kristatos and Erich Kriegler to retrieve the ATAC decoder. Aristotle Kristatos, played by Julian Glover, was using the monastery in the film as a hideout. Eventually Bond throws the ATAC decoder off the cliff top when approached by the KGB.

text: The Monastery also features in the 1961 film Tintin and the Golden Fleece.


document_title: United States presidential election, 1892

question_text: in which presidential campaign did the populists first appear quizlet

text: Nominations[edit]

text: Republican Party nomination[edit]

text:
Republican Party Ticket, 1892

Benjamin Harrison
Whitelaw Reid

for President
for Vice President

23rd
President of the United States
(1889–1893)
28th
U.S. Ambassador to France
(1889–1892)

Campaign

tag: table

text: Benjamin Harrison's administration was widely viewed as unsuccessful, and as a result, Thomas C. Platt (a political boss in New York) and other disaffected party leaders mounted a dump-Harrison movement coalescing around veteran candidate James G. Blaine from Maine, a favorite of Republican party regulars. Blaine had been the Republican nominee in 1884 when he was beaten by Democrat Grover Cleveland.

text: Privately, Harrison did not want to be re-nominated for the presidency, but he remained opposed to the nomination going to Blaine, who he was convinced intended to run, and thought himself the only candidate capable of preventing such an occurrence. Blaine, however, did not want another fight for the nomination and a re-match against Cleveland at the general election. His health had begun to fail, and three of his children had recently died (Walker and Alice in 1890, and Emmons in 1892). Blaine refused to run actively, but the cryptic nature of his responses to a draft effort fueled speculation that he was not averse to such a movement. For his part, Benjamin Harrison curtly demanded that he either renounce his supporters or resign his position as Secretary of State, with Blaine choosing the latter a scant three days before the National Convention. A boom began to build around the "draft Blaine" effort with supporters hoping to cause a break towards their candidate.[2]

text: Senator John Sherman from Ohio, who had been the leading candidate for the nomination at the 1888 Republican Convention before Harrison actually won it, was also brought up again as a possible challenger. Like Blaine, however, he was averse to another bitter battle for the nomination and "like the rebels down South, want to be let alone." This inevitably turned attention to Ohio's Governor William McKinley, who was indecisive as to his intentions in spite his ill feelings toward Harrison and popularity among the Republican base. He was not averse to receiving the nomination, but did not expect to win it either. However, should Blaine and Harrison fail to attain the nomination after a number of ballots, he felt he could be brought forth as a harmony candidate. Despite the urging of Republican powerbroker Mark Hanna, McKinley would not openly put himself out as a potential candidate, afraid of offending Harrison and Blaine's supporters, while also feeling that the coming elections would not favor the Republicans.[3]

text: In any case, the president's forces had the nomination locked up by the time delegates met in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on June 7–10, 1892. Richard Thomas from Indiana delivered Harrison's nominating speech. Harrison was nominated on the first ballot with 535.17 votes to 182.83 for Blaine, 182 for McKinley, and the rest scattered. McKinley protested when the Ohio delegation threw its entire vote in his name, despite not being formally nominated, but Joseph Foraker, who headed the delegation, managed to silence him on a point of order.[4] With the ballots counted, many observers were surprised at the strength of the McKinley vote, which almost overtook Blaine. Whitelaw Reid from New York, editor of the New York Tribune and recent United States Ambassador to France, was nominated for vice-president. The incumbent Vice President, Levi Morton, was supported by many at the convention, including Reid himself, but he did not wish to serve another term.[4] Harrison also did not want to have Morton on the ticket.

text: Democratic Party nomination[edit]

text:
Democratic Party Ticket, 1892

Grover Cleveland
Adlai Stevenson

for President
for Vice President

22nd
President of the United States
(1885–1889)
Former U.S. Representative
for Illinois's 13th
(1875–1877 & 1879–1881)

Campaign

text: By the beginning of 1892, many Americans were ready to return to Cleveland's political policies. Although he was the clear frontrunner for the Democratic presidential nomination, he was far from the universal choice of the party's supporters; many, such as the journalists Henry Watterson and Charles Dana, thought that if he were to attain the nomination, their party would lose in November, but there were few capable of challenging him effectively. Though he had remained relatively quiet on the issue of silver versus gold, often deferring to bi-metallism, Senate Democrats in January 1891 voted for free coinage of silver. Furious, he sent a letter to Ellery Anderson, who headed the New York Reform Club, to condemn the party's apparent drift towards inflation and agrarian control, the "dangerous and reckless experiment of free, unlimited coinage of silver at our mints." Advisors warned that such statements might alienate potential supporters in the South and West and risk his chances for the nomination, but Cleveland felt that being right on the issue was more important than the nomination. After making his position clear, Cleveland worked to focus his campaign on tariff reform, hoping that the silver issue would dissipate.[5]

text: A challenger emerged in the form of David Hill, former Governor of and incumbent Senator from New York. In favor of bi-metallism and tariff reform, Hill hoped to make inroads with Cleveland's supporters while appealing to those in the South and Midwest that were not keen on nominating Cleveland for a third consecutive time. Hill had begun to run for the position of president unofficially as early as 1890, and he even offered former Postmaster General Donald Dickinson his support for the vice-presidential nomination. He was not able to escape his past association with Tammany Hall, however, which he supported along machine politics, and the lack of confidence in his ability to defeat Cleveland for the nomination kept Hill from attaining the support he needed. By the time of the convention, Cleveland could count on the support of majority of the state Democratic parties, though his native New York remained pledged to Senator Hill.[6]

text: In a narrow first-ballot victory, Cleveland received 617.33 votes, barely 10 more than needed, to 114 for Senator Hill from New York, 103 for Governor Horace Boies of Iowa, a populist and former Republican, and the rest scattered. Although the Cleveland forces preferred Isaac P. Gray from Indiana for vice-president, Cleveland directed his own support to the convention favorite, Adlai E. Stevenson from Illinois.[7] As a supporter of using paper greenbacks and free silver to inflate the currency and alleviate economic distress in rural districts, Stevenson balanced the ticket headed by Cleveland, who supported hard-money and the gold standard. At the same time, it was hoped that his nomination would represent a promise not to ignore regulars, and so potentially get Hill and Tammany Hall to support the Democratic ticket to their fullest in the coming election.[8][9]

text: People's Party nomination[edit]

text:
People's Party Ticket, 1892

James B. Weaver
James G. Field

for President
for Vice President

Former U.S. Representative
for Iowa's 6th
(1879–1881 & 1885–1889)
13th
Attorney General of Virginia
(1877–1882)

Campaign

text: Populist candidates:

text:
James B. Weaver, former U.S. representative from Iowa
James H. Kyle, U.S. senator from South Dakota
Leonidas L. Polk, former representative from North Carolina
Walter Q. Gresham, Appellate judge from Indiana

text: Candidates gallery[edit]

text:
James B. Weaver
from Iowa

Senator
James H. Kyle
from South Dakota

Leonidas L. Polk
from North Carolina
(Died June 11, 1892)

Appellate Judge
Walter Q. Gresham
from Indiana
(Declined to be Nominated)

text: In 1891, the American farmers' alliances met with delegates from labor and reform groups in Cincinnati, Ohio, to discuss the formation of a new political party. They formed the People's Party, commonly known as the "Populists," a year later in St. Louis, Missouri.

text: Leonidas L. Polk was the initial frontrunner to the presidential nomination. He had been instrumental in the party's formation and held great appeal with its agrarian base, but he unexpectedly died while in Washington, D.C., on June 11. Another candidate mentioned frequently for the nomination was Walter Q. Gresham, an appellate judge who had made a number of rulings against the railroads that made him a favorite of some farmer and labor groups, and it was felt that his rather dignified image would make the Populists appear as more than a minor contender. Both Democrats and Republicans feared his nomination for this reason, and while Gresham toyed with the idea, he ultimately was not ready to make a complete break with the two parties, declining petitions for his nomination right up to and during the Populist Convention. Later he would endorse Grover Cleveland for the presidency.[10]

text: At the first Populist national convention in Omaha, Nebraska, in July 1892, James B. Weaver from Iowa was nominated for president on the first ballot, now lacking any serious opposition. While his nomination brought with him significant campaigning experience from over several decades, he also had a longer tract of history for which Republicans and Democrats could criticize him, and he also alienated many potential supporters in the South, having participated in Sherman's March to the Sea. James G. Field from Virginia was nominated for vice-president to try and rectify this problem while also attaining the regional balance often seen in Republican and Democratic tickets.[11] I

text:
Presidential Ballot
Vice Presidential Ballot

Ballot
1st

1st

James B. Weaver
995
James G. Field
733

James H. Kyle
265
Ben Stockton Terrell
554

Seymour F. Norton
1

Mann Page
1

Others
1

text: Source: US President – P Convention. Our Campaigns. (September 7, 2009). Source: US Vice President – P Convention. Our Campaigns. (September 7, 2009).

text: The Populist platform called for nationalization of the telegraph, telephone, and railroads, free coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, and creation of postal savings banks.

text: Prohibition Party nomination[edit]

text: Prohibition candidates:

text:
John Bidwell, former U.S. representative from California
Gideon T. Stewart, Prohibition Party Chairman from Ohio
William Jennings Demorest, magazine publisher from New York

text: Candidates gallery[edit]

text:
John Bidwell
from California

Prohibition Party Chairman
Gideon T. Stewart
from Ohio

Magazine Publisher
William J. Demorest
from New York

text: The sixth Prohibition Party National Convention assembled in Music Hall in Cincinnati, Ohio. There were 972 delegates present from all states except Louisiana and South Carolina.

text: Two major stories about the convention loomed before it assembled. In the first place, some members of the national committee sought to merge the Prohibition and Populist Parties. While there appeared a likelihood that the merger would materialize, it was clear that it was not going to happen by the time that the convention convened. Secondly, the southern states sent a number of black delegates. Cincinnati hotels refused to serve meals to blacks and whites at the same time, and several hotels refused service to the black delegates altogether.

text: The convention nominated John Bidwell from California for president on the first ballot. Prior to the convention, the race was thought to be close between Bidwell and William Jennings Demorest, but the New York delegation became irritated with Demorest and voted for Bidwell 73-7. James B. Cranfill from Texas was nominated for vice-president on the first ballot with 417 votes to 351 for Joshua Levering from Maryland and 45 for others.[12]

text:
Presidential Ballot

Ballot
1st

John Bidwell
590

Gideon T. Stewart
179

William Jennings Demorest
139

H. Clay Bascom
3

text: Source: US President – P Convention. Our Campaigns. (May 9, 2010).

text: Socialist Labor Party Nomination[edit]

text: The first Socialist Labor Party National Convention assembled in New York City and, despite running on a platform that called for the abolition of the positions of president and vice-president, decided to nominate candidates for those positions: Simon Wing from Massachusetts for president and Charles Matchett from New York for vice-president. They were on the ballot in five states: Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.[13]

text: General election[edit]

text: Campaign[edit]

text: The tariff issue dominated this rather lackluster campaign. Harrison defended the protectionist McKinley Tariff passed during his term. For his part, Cleveland assured voters that he opposed absolute free trade and would continue his campaign for a reduction in the tariff. Cleveland also denounced the Lodge Bill, a voting rights bill that sought to protect the rights of African American voters in the South.[14] William McKinley campaigned extensively for Harrison, setting the stage for his own run four years later.

text: The campaign took a somber turn when, in October, First Lady Caroline Harrison died. Despite the ill health that had plagued Mrs. Harrison since her youth and had worsened in the last decade, she often accompanied Mr. Harrison on official travels. On one such trip, to California in the spring of 1891, she caught a cold. It quickly deepened into her chest, and she was eventually diagnosed with tuberculosis. A summer in the Adirondack Mountains failed to restore her to health. An invalid the last six months of her life, she died in the White House on October 25, 1892, just two weeks before the national election. As a result, all of the candidates ceased campaigning.

text: Results[edit]

text: The margin in the popular vote for Cleveland was 400,000, the largest since Grant’s re-election in 1872.[15] The Democrats won the presidency and both houses of Congress for the first time since 1856. President Harrison's re-election bid was a decisive loss in both the popular and electoral count, unlike President Cleveland's re-election bid four years earlier, in which he won the popular vote, but lost the electoral vote. Cleveland was the third of only five presidents to win re-election with a smaller percentage of the popular vote than in previous elections, although in the two prior such incidents — James Madison in 1812 and Andrew Jackson in 1832 — not all states held popular elections. Ironically, Cleveland saw his popular support decrease not only from his electoral win in 1884, but also from his electoral loss in 1888. A similar vote decrease would happen again for Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 and 1944 and Barack Obama in 2012.

text: At the county level, the Democratic candidate fared much better than the Republican candidate. The Republicans’ vote was not nearly as widespread as the Democrats. In 1892, it was still a sectionally based party mainly situated in the East, Midwest, and West and was barely visible south of the Mason–Dixon line. In the South the party was holding on in only a few counties. In East Tennessee and tidewater Virginia, the vote at the county level showed some strength, but it barely existed in Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas.[16]

text: In a continuation of its collapse there during the 1890 Congressional elections, the Republican Party even struggled in its Midwestern strongholds, where general electoral troubles from economic woes were acutely exacerbated by the promotion of temperance laws and, in Wisconsin and Illinois, the aggressive support of state politicians for English-only compulsory education laws. Such policies, which particularly in the case of the latter were associated with an upwelling of nativist and anti-Catholic attitudes amongst their supporters, resulted in the defection of large sections of immigrant communities, especially Germans, to the Democratic Party. Cleveland carried Wisconsin and Illinois with their 36 combined electoral votes, a Democratic victory not seen in those states since 1852[17] and 1856[18] respectively, and which would not be repeated until Woodrow Wilson’s election in 1912. While not as dramatic a loss as in 1890, it would take until the next election cycle for more moderate Republican leaders to pick up the pieces left by the reformist crusaders and bring alienated immigrants back to the fold.[19]

text: Of the 2,683 counties making returns, Cleveland won in 1,389 (51.77%), Harrison carried 1,017 (37.91%), while Weaver placed first in 276 (10.29%). One county (0.04%) split evenly between Cleveland and Harrison.

text: Populist James B. Weaver, calling for free coinage of silver and an inflationary monetary policy, received such strong support in the West that he become the only third-party nominee between 1860 and 1912 to carry a single state. The Democratic Party did not have a presidential ticket on the ballot in the states of Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, North Dakota, or Wyoming, and Weaver won the first four of these states.[20] Weaver also performed well in the South as he won counties in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Texas. Populists did best in Alabama, where electoral chicanery probably carried the day for the Democrats.[15]

text: The Prohibition ticket received 270,879, or 2.2% nationwide. It was the largest total vote and highest percentage of the vote received by any Prohibition Party national ticket.

text: Wyoming, having attained statehood two years earlier, became the first state to allow women to vote in a presidential election since 1804. (Women in New Jersey had the right to vote under the state's original constitution, but this right was rescinded in 1807.)

text: Wyoming was also one of six states (along with North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, and Idaho) participating in their first presidential election. This was the most new states voting since the first election.

text: The election witnessed many states splitting their electoral votes. Electors from the state of Michigan were selected using the congressional district method (the winner in each congressional district wins one electoral vote, the winner of the state wins two electoral votes). This resulted in a split between the Republican and Democratic electors: nine for Harrison and five for Cleveland.[21] In Oregon, the direct election of presidential electors combined with the fact that one Weaver elector was endorsed by the Democratic Party and elected as a Fusionist, resulted in a split between the Republican and Populist electors: three for Harrison and one for Weaver.[21] In California, the direct election of presidential electors combined with the close race resulted in a split between the Republican and Democratic electors: eight for Cleveland and one for Harrison.[21] In Ohio, the direct election of presidential electors combined with the close race resulted in a split between the Republican and Democratic of electors: 22 for Harrison and one for Cleveland.[21] In North Dakota, two electors from the Democratic-Populist Fusion ticket won and one Republican Elector won. This created a split delegation of electors: one for Weaver, one for Harrison, and one for Cleveland.[21]

text: This was the first occasion in which incumbent presidents were defeated in two consecutive elections. This would not happen again until 1980.

text: This was the last election in which the Democrats won California until 1916 (although it voted against the Republicans by supporting the Progressive Party in 1912), the last in which the Democrats won Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, New Jersey, New York, West Virginia[22] and Wisconsin[17] until 1912, the last in which the Democrats won a majority of electoral votes in Maryland until 1904, and the last in which the Republicans won Montana until 1904. The election was also the last in which the Democrats didn't win Colorado and Nevada until 1904.

text:
Presidential candidate
Party
Home state
Popular vote
Electoral
vote
Running mate

Count
Percentage
Vice-presidential candidate
Home state
Electoral vote

Grover Cleveland
Democratic
New York
5,553,898
46.02%
277
Adlai E. Stevenson
Illinois
277

Benjamin Harrison (Incumbent)
Republican
Indiana
5,190,819
43.01%
145
Whitelaw Reid
New York
145

James B. Weaver
Populist
Iowa
1,026,595
8.51%
22
James G. Field
Virginia
22

John Bidwell
Prohibition
California
270,879
2.24%
0
James Cranfill
Texas
0

Simon Wing
Socialist Labor
Massachusetts
21,173
0.18%
0
Charles Matchett
New York
0

Other
4,673
0.04%
—
Other
—

Total
12,068,037
100%
444

444

Needed to win
223

223

text: Source (Popular Vote): Leip, David. "1892 Presidential Election Results". Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved July 27, 2005.

text: Source (Electoral Vote): "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved July 31, 2005.

text:
Popular vote

Cleveland

46.02%

Harrison

43.01%

Weaver

8.51%

Bidwell

2.24%

Others

0.21%

text:
Electoral vote

Cleveland

62.39%

Harrison

32.66%

Weaver

4.95%

text: Geography of results[edit]

text: Results by county, shaded according to winning candidate's percentage of the vote

text: Cartographic gallery[edit]

text:
Map of presidential election results by county

Map of Democratic presidential election results by county

Map of Republican presidential election results by county

Map of Populist presidential election results by county

Map of "Other" presidential election results by county

Cartogram of presidential election results by county

Cartogram of Democratic presidential election results by county

Cartogram of Republican presidential election results by county

Cartogram of Populist presidential election results by county

Cartogram of "other" presidential election results by county

text: Results by state[edit]

text: Source: Data from Walter Dean Burnham, Presidential ballots, 1836–1892 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) pp 247-57.[23]

text:
States won by Cleveland/Stevenson

States won by Harrison/Reid

States won by Weaver/Field

text:
Grover Cleveland
Democratic
Benjamin Harrison
Republican
James Weaver
Populist
John Bidwell
Prohibition
Simon Wing
Socialist Labor
Margin
State Total

State
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
#

Alabama
11
138,135
59.40
11
9,184
3.95
-
84,984
36.55
-
240
0.10
-
-
-
-
53,151
22.86
232,543
AL

Arkansas
8
87,834
59.30
8
47,072
31.78
-
11,831
7.99
-
113
0.08
-
-
-
-
40,762
27.52
148,117
AR

California
9
118,174
43.83
8
118,027
43.78
1
25,311
9.39
-
8,096
3.00
-
-
-
-
147
0.05
269,609
CA

Colorado
4
-
-
-
38,620
41.13
-
53,584
57.07
4
1,687
1.80
-
-
-
-
-14,964
-15.94
93,891
CO

Connecticut
6
82,395
50.06
6
77,032
46.80
-
809
0.49
-
4,026
2.45
-
333
0.20
-
5,363
3.26
164,595
CT

Delaware
3
18,581
49.90
3
18,077
48.55
-
-
-
-
564
1.51
-
-
-
-
504
1.35
37,235
DE

Florida
4
30,153
85.01
4
-
-
-
4,843
13.65
-
475
1.34
-
-
-
-
25,310
71.35
35,471
FL

Georgia
13
129,446
58.01
13
48,408
21.70
-
41,939
18.80
-
988
0.44
-
-
-
-
81,038
36.32
223,126
GA

Idaho
3
-
-
-
8,599
44.31
-
10,520
54.21
3
288
1.48
-
-
-
-
-1,921
-9.90
19,407
ID

Illinois
24
426,281
48.79
24
399,288
45.70
-
22,207
2.54
-
25,871
2.96
-
-
-
-
26,993
3.09
873,647
IL

Indiana
15
262,740
47.46
15
255,615
46.17
-
22,208
4.01
-
13,050
2.36
-
-
-
-
7,125
1.29
553,613
IN

Iowa
13
196,367
44.31
-
219,795
49.60
13
20,595
4.65
-
6,402
1.44
-
-
-
-
-23,428
-5.29
443,159
IA

Kansas
10
-
-
-
157,241
48.40
-
163,111
50.20
10
4,553
1.40
-
-
-
-
-5,870
-1.81
324,905
KS

Kentucky
13
175,461
51.48
13
135,462
39.74
-
23,500
6.89
-
6,441
1.89
-
-
-
-
39,999
11.73
340,864
KY

Louisiana
8
87,926
76.53
8
26,963
23.47
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
60,963
53.06
114,889
LA

Maine
6
48,049
41.26
-
62,936
54.05
6
2,396
2.06
-
3,066
2.63
-
-
-
-
-14,887
-12.78
116,451
ME

Maryland
8
113,866
53.39
8
92,736
43.48
-
796
0.37
-
5,877
2.76
-
-
-
-
21,130
9.91
213,275
MD

Massachusetts
15
176,813
45.22
-
202,814
51.87
15
3,210
0.82
-
7,539
1.93
-
649
0.17
-
-26,001
-6.65
391,028
MA

Michigan
14
201,624
43.26
5
222,708
47.79
9
19,931
4.28
-
20,857
4.48
-
-
-
-
-21,084
-4.52
466,045
MI

Minnesota
9
100,920
37.76
-
122,823
45.96
9
29,313
10.97
-
14,182
5.31
-
-
-
-
-21,903
-8.20
267,238
MN

Mississippi
9
40,030
76.22
9
1,398
2.66
-
10,118
19.27
-
973
1.85
-
-
-
-
29,912
56.95
52,519
MS

Missouri
17
268,400
49.56
17
227,646
42.03
-
41,204
7.61
-
4,333
0.80
-
-
-
-
40,754
7.52
541,583
MO

Montana
3
17,690
39.79
-
18,871
42.44
3
7,338
16.50
-
562
1.26
-
-
-
-
-1,181
-2.66
44,461
MT

Nebraska
8
24,943
12.46
-
87,213
43.56
8
83,134
41.53
-
4,902
2.45
-
-
-
-
-4,079
-2.04
200,192
NE

Nevada
3
714
6.56
-
2,811
25.84
-
7,264
66.78
3
89
0.82
-
-
-
-
-4,453
-40.94
10,878
NV

New Hampshire
4
42,081
47.11
-
45,658
51.11
4
293
0.33
-
1,297
1.45
-
-
-
-
-3,577
-4.00
89,329
NH

New Jersey
10
171,066
50.67
10
156,101
46.24
-
985
0.29
-
8,134
2.41
-
1,337
0.40
-
14,965
4.43
337,623
NJ

New York
36
654,868
48.99
36
609,350
45.58
-
16,429
1.23
-
38,190
2.86
-
17,956
1.34
-
45,518
3.41
1,336,793
NY

North Carolina
11
132,951
47.44
11
100,346
35.80
-
44,336
15.82
-
2,637
0.94
-
-
-
-
32,605
11.63
280,270
NC

North Dakota
3
0
0.00
1
17,519
48.50
1
17,700
49.01
1
899
2.49
-
-
-
-
-181
-0.50
36,118
ND

Ohio
23
404,115
47.53
1
405,187
47.66
22
14,850
1.75
-
26,012
3.06
-
-
-
-
-1,072
-0.13
850,164
OH

Oregon
4
14,243
18.15
-
35,002
44.59
3
26,965
34.35
1
2,281
2.91
-
-
-
-
-8,037
-10.24
78,491
OR

Pennsylvania
32
452,264
45.09
-
516,011
51.45
32
8,714
0.87
-
25,123
2.50
-
898
0.09
-
-63,747
-6.36
1,003,010
PA

Rhode Island
4
24,336
45.75
-
26,975
50.71
4
228
0.43
-
1,654
3.11
-
-
-
-
-2,639
-4.96
53,196
RI

South Carolina
9
54,680
77.56
9
13,345
18.93
-
2,407
3.41
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
41,335
58.63
70,504
SC

South Dakota
4
9,081
12.88
-
34,888
49.48
4
26,544
37.64
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-8,344
-11.83
70,513
SD

Tennessee
12
136,468
51.36
12
100,537
37.83
-
23,918
9.00
-
4,809
1.81
-
-
-
-
35,931
13.52
265,732
TN

Texas
15
239,148
56.65
15
81,144
19.22
-
99,688
23.61
-
2,165
0.51
-
-
-
-
139,460
33.04
422,145
TX

Vermont
4
16,325
29.26
-
37,992
68.09
4
44
0.08
-
1,424
2.55
-
-
-
-
-21,667
-38.83
55,796
VT

Virginia
12
164,136
56.17
12
113,098
38.70
-
12,275
4.20
-
2,729
0.93
-
-
-
-
51,038
17.46
292,238
VA

Washington
4
29,802
33.88
-
36,460
41.45
4
19,165
21.79
-
2,542
2.89
-
-
-
-
-6,658
-7.57
87,969
WA

West Virginia
6
84,467
49.37
6
80,292
46.93
-
4,167
2.44
-
2,153
1.26
-
-
-
-
4,175
2.44
171,079
WV

Wisconsin
12
177,325
47.72
12
171,101
46.05
-
10,019
2.70
-
13,136
3.54
-
-
-
-
6,224
1.68
371,581
WI

Wyoming
3
-
-
-
8,454
50.52
3
7,722
46.14
-
530
3.17
-
-
-
-
-732
-4.37
16,735
WY

TOTALS:
444
5,553,898
46.02
277
5,190,799
43.01
145
1,026,595
8.51
22
270,889
2.24
-
21,173
0.18
-
363,099
3.01
12,068,027
US

text: Close states[edit]

text: Margin of victory less than 5% (193 electoral votes):

text:
California, 0.05%
Ohio, 0.13%
North Dakota, 0.50%
Indiana, 1.29%
Delaware, 1.35%
Wisconsin, 1.68%
Kansas, 1.81%
Nebraska, 2.04%
West Virginia, 2.44%
Montana, 2.66%
Illinois, 3.09%
Connecticut, 3.26%
New York, 3.41%
New Hampshire, 4.00%
Wyoming, 4.37%
New Jersey, 4.43%
Michigan, 4.52%
Rhode Island, 4.96%

tag: ol

text: Margin of victory between 5% and 10% (101 electoral votes):

text:
Iowa, 5.29%
Pennsylvania, 6.36%
Massachusetts, 6.65%
Missouri, 7.52%
Washington, 7.57%
Minnesota, 8.20%
Idaho, 9.90%
Maryland, 9.91%