document_title: Color television

question_text: when did color tv come out what year

question_tokens: when did color tv come out what year

text: Color television

text: Development[edit]

text: The human eye's detection system, which is in the retina consists primarily of two types of light detectors: rod cells that capture light, dark, and shapes/figures, and the cone cells that detect color. A typical retina contains 120 million rods and 4.5 million to 6 million cones, which are divided among three groups that are sensitive to red, green, and blue light. This means that the eye has far more resolution in brightness, or "luminance", than in color. However, post-processing of the optic nerve and other portions of the human visual system combine the information from the rods and cones to re-create what appears to be a high-resolution color image.

text: The eye has limited bandwidth to the rest of the visual system, estimated at just under 8 Mbit/s.[1] This manifests itself in a number of ways, but the most important in terms of producing moving images is the way that a series of still images displayed in quick succession will appear to be continuous smooth motion. This illusion starts to work at about 16 frame/s, and common motion pictures use 24 frame/s. Television, using power from the electrical grid, tunes its rate in order to avoid interference with the alternating current being supplied – in North America, some Central and South American countries, Taiwan, Korea, part of Japan, the Philippines, and a few other countries, this is 60 video fields per second to match the 60 Hz power, while in most other countries it is 50 fields per second to match the 50  Hz power.

text: In its most basic form, a color broadcast can be created by broadcasting three monochrome images, one each in the three colors of red, green, and blue (RGB). When displayed together or in rapid succession, these images will blend together to produce a full-color image as seen by the viewer. One of the great technical challenges of introducing color broadcast television was the desire to conserve bandwidth, potentially three times that of the existing black-and-white standards, and not use an excessive amount of radio spectrum. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee[2] approved an all-electronic system developed by RCA which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the eye to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement.

text: Early television[edit]

text: Experiments in television systems using radio broadcasts date to the 19th century, but it was not until the 20th century that advances in electronics and light detectors made development practical. A key problem was the need to convert a 2D image into a "1D" radio signal; some form of image scanning was needed to make this work. Early systems generally used a device known as a "Nipkow disk", which was a spinning disk with a series of holes punched in it that caused a spot to scan across and down the image. A single photodetector behind the disk captured the image brightness at any given spot, which was converted into a radio signal and broadcast. A similar disk was used at the receiver side, with a light source behind the disk instead of a detector.

text: A number of such systems were being used experimentally in the 1920s. The best-known was John Logie Baird's, which was actually used for regular public broadcasting in Britain for several years. Indeed, Baird's system was demonstrated to members of the Royal Society in London in 1926 in what is generally recognized as the first demonstration of a true, working television system. In spite of these early successes, all mechanical television systems shared a number of serious problems. Being mechanically driven, perfect synchronization of the sending and receiving discs was not easy to ensure, and irregularities could result in major image distortion. Another problem was that the image was scanned within a small, roughly rectangular area of the disk's surface, so that larger, higher-resolution displays required increasingly unwieldy disks and smaller holes that produced increasingly dim images. Rotating drums bearing small mirrors set at progressively greater angles proved more practical than Nipkow discs for high-resolution mechanical scanning, allowing images of 240 lines and more to be produced, but such delicate, high-precision optical components were not commercially practical for home receivers.[citation needed]

text: It was clear to a number of developers that a completely electronic scanning system would be superior, and that the scanning could be achieved in a vacuum tube via electrostatic or magnetic means. Converting this concept into a usable system took years of development and several independent advances. The two key advances were Philo Farnsworth's electronic scanning system, and Vladimir Zworykin's Iconoscope camera. The Iconoscope, based on Kálmán Tihanyi's early patents, superseded the Farnsworth-system. With these systems, the BBC began regularly scheduled black-and-white television broadcasts in 1936, but these were shut down again with the start of World War II in 1939. In this time thousands of television sets had been sold. The receivers developed for this program, notably those from Pye Ltd., played a key role in the development of radar.

text: By 22 March 1935, 180-line black-and-white television programs were being broadcast from the Paul Nipkow TV station in Berlin. In 1936, under the guidance of "Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda" Joseph Goebbels, direct transmissions from fifteen mobile units at the Olympic Games in Berlin were transmitted to selected small television houses (Fernsehstuben) in Berlin and Hamburg.

text: In 1941 the first NTSC meetings produced a single standard for US broadcasts. US television broadcasts began in earnest in the immediate post-war era, and by 1950 there were 6 million televisions in the United States.[3]

text: All-mechanical color[edit]

text: The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built.

text: Among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc in 1880 for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning, although he gave no practical details.[4] Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color television system in 1897, using a selenium photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it.[5] An Armenian inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him,[6] and was patented in Germany on March 31, 1908, patent № 197183, then in Britain, on April 1, 1908, patent № 7219,[7] in France (patent № 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent № 17912).[8]

text: Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the world's first color transmission on July 3, 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources, controlled by the signal, at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination.[9] The demonstration was of a young girl wearing different colored hats. Noele Gordon went on to become a successful TV actress, famous for the soap opera Crossroads. Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on February 4, 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's Crystal Palace studios to a projection screen at London's Dominion Theatre.[10]

text: Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green, and blue images into one full color image.

text: Hybrid systems[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: As was the case with black-and-white television, an electronic means of scanning would be superior to the mechanical systems like Baird's. The obvious solution on the broadcast end would be to use three conventional Iconoscopes with colored filters in front of them to produce an RGB signal. Using three separate tubes each looking at the same scene would produce slight differences in parallax between the frames, so in practice a single lens was used with a mirror or prism system to separate the colors for the separate tubes. Each tube captured a complete frame and the signal was converted into radio in a fashion essentially identical to the existing black-and-white systems.

text: The problem with this approach was there was no simple way to recombine them on the receiver end. If each image was sent at the same time on different frequencies, the images would have to be "stacked" somehow on the display, in real time. The simplest way to do this would be to reverse the system used in the camera; arrange three separate black-and-white displays behind colored filters and then optically combine their images using mirrors or prisms onto a suitable screen, like frosted glass. RCA built just such a system in order to present the first electronically scanned color television demonstration on February 5, 1940, privately shown to members of the US Federal Communications Commission at the RCA plant in Camden, New Jersey.[11] This system, however, suffered from the twin problems of costing at least three times as much as a conventional black-and-white set, as well as having very dim pictures, the result of the fairly low illumination given off by tubes of the era. Projection systems of this sort would become common decades later, however, with improvements in technology.

text: Another solution would be to use a single screen, but break it up into a pattern of closely spaced colored phosphors instead of an even coating of white. Three receivers would be used, each sending its output to a separate electron gun, aimed at its colored phosphor. Although obvious, this solution was not practical. The electron guns used in monochrome televisions had limited resolution, and if one wanted to retain the resolution of existing monochrome displays, the guns would have to focus on individual dots three times smaller. This was beyond the state of the art at the time.

text: Instead, a number of hybrid solutions were developed that combined a conventional monochrome display with a colored disk or mirror. In these systems the three colored images were sent one after each other, in either complete frames in the "field-sequential color system", or for each line in the "line-sequential" system. In both cases a colored filter was rotated in front of the display in sync with the broadcast. Since three separate images were being sent in sequence, if they used existing monochrome radio signaling standards they would have an effective refresh rate of only 20 fields, or 10 frames, a second, well into the region where flicker would become visible. In order to avoid this, these systems increased the frame rate considerably, making the signal incompatible with existing monochrome standards.

text: The first practical example of this sort of system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he publicly demonstrated a color television combining a traditional black-and-white display with a rotating colored disk. This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console.[12] However, Baird was not happy with the design, and as early as 1944 had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.

text: In 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark introduced an electro-mechanical system while at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set.[13] The system was first demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on August 29, 1940, and shown to the press on September 4.[14][15][16][17]

text: CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as August 28, 1940, and live cameras by November 12.[18] NBC (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on February 20, 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on June 1, 1941.[19] These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 22, 1942 to August 20, 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.[20][21]

text: Fully electronic[edit]

text: As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the "Telechrome". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic" at the time). Baird's demonstration on August 16, 1944 was the first example of a practical color television system.[22] Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system.[23][24]

text: Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 50s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer tube was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The Penetron used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The Chromatron used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.

text: FCC color[edit]

text: In the immediate post-war era the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was inundated with requests to set up new television stations. Worrying about congestion of the limited number of channels available, the FCC put a moratorium on all new licenses in 1948 while considering the problem. A solution was immediately forthcoming; rapid development of radio receiver electronics during the war had opened a wide band of higher frequencies to practical use, and the FCC set aside a large section of these new UHF bands for television broadcast. At the time, black and white television broadcasting was still in its infancy in the U.S., and the FCC started to look at ways of using this newly available bandwidth for color broadcasts. Since no existing television would be able to tune in these stations, they were free to pick an incompatible system and allow the older VHF channels to die off over time.

text: The FCC called for technical demonstrations of color systems in 1948, and the Joint Technical Advisory Committee (JTAC) was formed to study them. CBS displayed improved versions of its original design, now using a single 6 MHz channel (like the existing black-and-white signals) at 144 fields per second and 405 lines of resolution. Color Television Inc. demonstrated its line-sequential system, while Philco demonstrated a dot-sequential system based on its beam-index tube-based "Apple" tube technology. Of the entrants, the CBS system was by far the best-developed, and won head-to-head testing every time.

text: While the meetings were taking place it was widely known within the industry that RCA was working on a dot-sequential system that was compatible with existing black-and-white broadcasts, but RCA declined to demonstrate it during the first series of meetings. Just before the JTAC presented its findings, on August 25, 1949, RCA broke its silence and introduced its system as well. The JTAC still recommended the CBS system, and after the resolution of an ensuing RCA lawsuit, color broadcasts using the CBS system started on June 25, 1951. By this point the market had changed dramatically; when color was first being considered in 1948 there were fewer than a million television sets in the U.S., but by 1951 there were well over 10 million. The idea that the VHF band could be allowed to "die" was no longer practical.

text: During its campaign for FCC approval, CBS gave the first demonstrations of color television to the general public, showing an hour of color programs daily Mondays through Saturdays, beginning January 12, 1950, and running for the remainder of the month, over WOIC in Washington, D.C., where the programs could be viewed on eight 16-inch color receivers in a public building.[25] Due to high public demand, the broadcasts were resumed February 13–21, with several evening programs added.[26] CBS initiated a limited schedule of color broadcasts from its New York station WCBS-TV Mondays to Saturdays beginning November 14, 1950, making ten color receivers available for the viewing public.[27][28] All were broadcast using the single color camera that CBS owned.[29] The New York broadcasts were extended by coaxial cable to Philadelphia's WCAU-TV beginning December 13,[30] and to Chicago on January 10,[31][32] making them the first network color broadcasts.

text: After a series of hearings beginning in September 1949, the FCC found the RCA and CTI systems fraught with technical problems, inaccurate color reproduction, and expensive equipment, and so formally approved the CBS system as the U.S. color broadcasting standard on October 11, 1950. An unsuccessful lawsuit by RCA delayed the first commercial network broadcast in color until June 25, 1951, when a musical variety special titled simply Premiere was shown over a network of five East Coast CBS affiliates.[33] Viewing was again restricted: the program could not be seen on black-and-white sets, and Variety estimated that only thirty prototype color receivers were available in the New York area.[34] Regular color broadcasts began that same week with the daytime series The World Is Yours and Modern Homemakers.

text: While the CBS color broadcasting schedule gradually expanded to twelve hours per week (but never into prime time),[35] and the color network expanded to eleven affiliates as far west as Chicago,[36] its commercial success was doomed by the lack of color receivers necessary to watch the programs, the refusal of television manufacturers to create adapter mechanisms for their existing black-and-white sets,[37] and the unwillingness of advertisers to sponsor broadcasts seen by almost no one. CBS had bought a television manufacturer in April,[38] and in September 1951, production began on the only CBS-Columbia color television model, with the first color sets reaching retail stores on September 28.[39][40] But it was too little, too late. Only 200 sets had been shipped, and only 100 sold, when CBS discontinued its color television system on October 20, 1951, ostensibly by request of the National Production Authority for the duration of the Korean War, and bought back all the CBS color sets it could to prevent lawsuits by disappointed customers.[41][42] RCA chairman David Sarnoff later charged that the NPA's order had come "out of a situation artificially created by one company to solve its own perplexing problems" because CBS had been unsuccessful in its color venture.[43]

text: Compatible color[edit]

text: While the FCC was holding its JTAC meetings, development was taking place on a number of systems allowing true simultaneous color broadcasts, "dot-sequential color systems". Unlike the hybrid systems, dot-sequential televisions used a signal very similar to existing black-and-white broadcasts, with the intensity of every dot on the screen being sent in succession.

text: In 1938 Georges Valensi demonstrated an encoding scheme that would allow color broadcasts to be encoded so they could be picked up on existing black-and-white sets as well. In his system the output of the three camera tubes were re-combined to produce a single "luminance" value that was very similar to a monochrome signal and could be broadcast on the existing VHF frequencies. The color information was encoded in a separate "chrominance" signal, consisting of two separate signals, the original blue signal minus the luminance (B'–Y'), and red-luma (R'–Y'). These signals could then be broadcast separately on a different frequency; a monochrome set would tune in only the luminance signal on the VHF band, while color televisions would tune in both the luminance and chrominance on two different frequencies, and apply the reverse transforms to retrieve the original RGB signal. The downside to this approach is that it required a major boost in bandwidth use, something the FCC was interested in avoiding.

text: RCA used Valensi's concept as the basis of all of its developments, believing it to be the only proper solution to the broadcast problem. However, RCA's early sets using mirrors and other projection systems all suffered from image and color quality problems, and were easily bested by CBS's hybrid system. But solutions to these problems were in the pipeline, and RCA in particular was investing massive sums (later estimated at $100 million) to develop a usable dot-sequential tube. RCA was beaten to the punch by the Geer tube, which used three B&W tubes aimed at different faces of colored pyramids to produce a color image. All-electronic systems included the Chromatron, Penetron and beam-index tube that were being developed by various companies. While investigating all of these, RCA's teams quickly started focusing on the shadow mask system.

text: In July 1938 the shadow mask color television was patented by Werner Flechsig (1900–1981) in Germany, and was demonstrated at the International radio exhibition Berlin in 1939. Most CRT color televisions used today are based on this technology. His solution to the problem of focusing the electron guns on the tiny colored dots was one of brute-force; a metal sheet with holes punched in it allowed the beams to reach the screen only when they were properly aligned over the dots. Three separate guns were aimed at the holes from slightly different angles, and when their beams passed through the holes the angles caused them to separate again and hit the individual spots a short distance away on the back of the screen. The downside to this approach was that the mask cut off the vast majority of the beam energy, allowing it to hit the screen only 15% of the time, requiring a massive increase in beam power to produce acceptable image brightness.

text: In spite of these problems in both the broadcast and display systems, RCA pressed ahead with development and was ready for a second assault on the standards by 1950.

text: Second NTSC[edit]

text: The possibility of a compatible color broadcast system was so compelling that the NTSC decided to re-form, and held a second series of meetings starting in January 1950. Having only recently selected the CBS system, the FCC heavily opposed the NTSC's efforts. One of the FCC Commissioners, R. F. Jones, went so far as to assert that the engineers testifying in favor of a compatible system were "in a conspiracy against the public interest".

text: Unlike the FCC approach where a standard was simply selected from the existing candidates, the NTSC would produce a board that was considerably more pro-active in development.

text: Starting before CBS color even got on the air, the U.S. television industry, represented by the National Television System Committee, worked in 1950–1953 to develop a color system that was compatible with existing black-and-white sets and would pass FCC quality standards, with RCA developing the hardware elements. ("Compatible color," a phrase from advertisements for early sets, appears in the song "America" of West Side Story, 1957.) RCA first made publicly announced field tests of the dot sequential color system over its New York station WNBT in July 1951.[44] When CBS testified before Congress in March 1953 that it had no further plans for its own color system,[45] the National Production Authority dropped its ban on the manufacture of color television receivers,[46] and the path was open for the NTSC to submit its petition for FCC approval in July 1953, which was granted on December 17.[47] The first publicly announced network demonstration of a program using the NTSC "compatible color" system was an episode of NBC's Kukla, Fran and Ollie on August 30, 1953, although it was viewable in color only at the network's headquarters.[48] The first network broadcast to go out over the air in NTSC color was a performance of the opera Carmen on October 31, 1953.[49][50]

text: Adoption[edit]

text: North America[edit]

text: Canada[edit]

text: Color broadcasts from the United States were available to Canadian population centers near the border since the mid-1950s.[51] At the time that NTSC color broadcasting was officially introduced into Canada in 1966, less than one percent of Canadian households had a color television set.[51] Color television in Canada was launched on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's (CBC) English language TV service on September 1, 1966.[51] Private television broadcaster CTV also started colorcasts in early September 1966.[52] The CBC's French-language TV service, Radio-Canada, was broadcasting color programming for 15 hours a week in 1968.[53] Full-time color transmissions started in 1974 on the CBC, with other private sector broadcasters in the country doing so by the end of the 1970s.[51]

text: The following provinces and areas of Canada introduced color television by the years as followed: -Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba, British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec (1966; Major networks only - private sector around 1968-1972) -Newfoundland and Labrador (1967) -Nova Scotia, New Brunswick (1968) -Prince Edward Island (1969) -Yukon (1971) -Northwest Territories (including Nunavut) (1972; Major networks in large centers, many remote areas in the far north did not get color until at least 1977/1978)

text: Cuba[edit]

text: Cuba in 1958 became the second country in the world to introduce color television broadcasting, with Havana's Channel 12 using standards established by the NTSC Committee of United States Federal Communications Commission in 1940, and American technology patented by the American electronics company RCA, or Radio Corporation of America. But the color transmissions ended when broadcasting stations were seized in the Cuban Revolution in 1959, and did not return until 1975, using equipment acquired from Japan's NEC Corporation, and SECAM equipment from the Soviet Union, adapted for the American NTSC standard.[54]

text: Mexico[edit]

text: Guillermo González Camarena independently invented and developed a field-sequential tricolor disk system in México in the late 1930s, for which he requested a patent in México on August 19 of 1940 and in the USA in 1941.[55] González Camarena produced his color television system in his laboratory Gon-Cam for the Mexican market and exported it to the Columbia College of Chicago, who regarded it as the best system in the world.[56][57] Goldmark actually applied patent for the same field-sequential tricolor system in USA on September 7 of 1940;[13] while González Camarena made his application in México nineteen days before, on August 19 of 1940.

text: On August 31, 1946 González Camarena sent his first color transmission from his lab in the offices of The Mexican League of Radio Experiments at Lucerna St. No. 1, in Mexico City. The video signal was transmitted at a frequency of 115 MHz. and the audio in the 40 metre band. He obtained authorization to make the first publicly announced color broadcast in Mexico, on February 8, 1963, of the program Paraíso Infantil on Mexico City's XHGC-TV, using the NTSC system which had by now been adopted as the standard for color programming.

text: González Camarena also invented the Simplified Mexican Color TV system as a much more simpler and cheaper alternative to the NTSC system.[58] Due to its simplicity, NASA used a modified version of the Simplified Mexican Color TV system in his Voyager mission of 1979, to take pictures and video of Jupiter.[59]

text: United States[edit]

text: Although all-electronic color was introduced in the U.S. in 1953,[60] high prices and the scarcity of color programming greatly slowed its acceptance in the marketplace. The first national color broadcast (the 1954 Tournament of Roses Parade) occurred on January 1, 1954, but over the next dozen years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. In 1956 NBC's The Perry Como Show became the first live network television series to present a majority of episodes in color. CBS's The Big Record, starring pop vocalist Patti Page, was the first television show broadcast in color for the entire 1957-1958 season; its production costs were greater than most movies were at the time not only because of all the stars featured on the hour-long extravaganza but the extremely high-intensity lighting and electronics required for the new RCA TK-41 cameras. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that autumn. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later.

text: NBC made the first coast-to-coast color broadcast when it telecast the Tournament of Roses Parade on January 1, 1954, with public demonstrations given across the United States on prototype color receivers by manufacturers RCA, General Electric, Philco, Raytheon, Hallicrafters, Hoffman, Pacific Mercury, and others.[61] A color model from Westinghouse H840CK15 ($1,295, or equivalent to $11,801 in 2017) became available in the New York area on February 28, 1954 and is generally agreed to be the first production receiver using NTSC color offered to the public;[62] a less expensive color model from RCA (CT-100) reached dealers in April 1954.[63] Television's first prime time network color series was The Marriage, a situation comedy broadcast live by NBC in the summer of 1954.[64] NBC's anthology series Ford Theatre became the first network color filmed series that October.[65]

text: Early color telecasts could be preserved only on the black-and-white kinescope process introduced in 1947. It was not until September 1956 that NBC began using color film to time-delay and preserve some of its live color telecasts.[66] Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958, which NBC used to tape An Evening With Fred Astaire, the oldest surviving network color videotape. This system was also used to unveil a demonstration of color television for the press. On May 22, 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower visited the WRC-TV NBC studios in Washington, D.C. and gave a speech touting the new technology's merits. His speech was recorded in color, and a copy of this videotape was given to the Library of Congress for posterity.

text: Several syndicated shows had episodes filmed in color during the 1950s, including The Cisco Kid, The Lone Ranger, My Friend Flicka, and Adventures of Superman. The first two were carried by some stations equipped for color telecasts well before NBC began its regular weekly color dramas in 1959, beginning with the Western series Bonanza.

text: NBC was at the forefront of color programming because its parent company RCA manufactured the most successful line of color sets in the 1950s, and by 1959 RCA was the only remaining major manufacturer of color sets.[67] CBS and ABC, which were not affiliated with set manufacturers and were not eager to promote their competitor's product, dragged their feet into color.[68][69] CBS broadcast color specials and sometimes aired its big weekly variety shows in color, but it offered no regularly scheduled color programming until the fall of 1965. At least one CBS show, The Lucy Show, was filmed in color beginning in 1963 but continued to be telecast in black and white through the end of the 1964–65 season. ABC delayed its first color programs until 1962, but these were initially only broadcasts of the cartoon shows The Flintstones, The Jetsons and Beany and Cecil.[70] The DuMont network, although it did have a television-manufacturing parent company, was in financial decline by 1954 and was dissolved two years later.[71]

text: The relatively small amount of network color programming, combined with the high cost of color television sets, meant that as late as 1964 only 3.1 percent of television households in the U.S. had a color set. But by the mid-1960s, the subject of color programming turned into a ratings war. A 1965 ARB study that proposed an emerging trend in color television set sales convinced NBC that a full shift to color would gain a ratings advantage over its two competitors.[72] As a result, NBC provided the catalyst for rapid color expansion by announcing that its prime time schedule for fall 1965 would be almost entirely in color.[73] ABC and CBS followed suit and over half of their combined prime-time programming also was in color that season, but they were still reluctant to telecast all their programming in color due to production costs.[72] All three broadcast networks were airing full color prime time schedules by the 1966–67 broadcast season, and ABC aired its last new black-and-white daytime programming in December 1967.[74] Public broadcasting networks like NET, however, did not use color for a majority of their programming until 1968. The number of color television sets sold in the U.S. did not exceed black-and-white sales until 1972, which was also the first year that more than fifty percent of television households in the U.S. had a color set.[75] This was also the year that "in color" notices before color television programs ended[citation needed], due to the rise in color television set sales, and color programming having become the norm.

text: In a display of foresight, Disney had filmed many of its earlier shows in color so they were able to be repeated on NBC, and since most of Disney's feature-length films were also made in color, they could now also be telecast in that format. To emphasize the new feature, the series was re-dubbed Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color, which premiered in September 1961, and retained that moniker until 1969.[76]

text: By the mid-1970s the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets, and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and by the early 1980s, B&W sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or use as video monitor screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s, even those areas switched to color sets.

text: Color broadcasting in Hawaii started in September 1965, and in Alaska a year later.[citation needed] One of the last television stations in North America to convert to color, WQEX (now WINP-TV) in Pittsburgh, started broadcasting in color on October 16, 1986 after its black-and-white transmitter, which dated from the 1950s, broke down in February 1985 and the parts required to fix it were no longer available. The then-owner of WQEX, PBS member station WQED, diverted some of its pledge money into getting a color transmitter for WQEX.

text: Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice, they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of GE's relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets. Also in 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.

text: Europe[edit]

text: The first regular color broadcasts in Europe were by the United Kingdom's BBC2 beginning on July 1, 1967 (PAL). West Germany's first broadcast occurred in August (PAL), followed by the Netherlands in September (PAL), and by France in October (SECAM). Norway, Sweden, Finland, Austria, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary all started regular color broadcasts before the end of 1969. Ireland's national TV station RTÉ began using color in 1968 for recorded programmes; the first outside broadcast made in color for RTÉ Television was when Ireland hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in Dublin in 1971.[77] The PAL system spread through most of Western Europe.

text: More European countries introduced color television using the PAL system in the 1970s and early 1980s; examples include Denmark (1970), Belgium (1971), Yugoslavia/Serbia (1971), Spain (1972, but not fully implemented until 1978), Iceland (1973), Portugal (1976, but not fully implemented until 1980), Albania (1981), and Turkey (1981) and Romania (1983, but not fully implemented until 1990). In Italy there were debates to adopt a national color television system, the ISA, developed by Indesit, but that idea was scrapped. As a result, Italy was one of the last European countries to officially adopt the PAL system in 1977.[78]

text: France, Luxembourg, and most of the Eastern Bloc along with their overseas territories opted for SECAM. SECAM was a popular choice in countries with a lot of hilly terrain, and technologically backward countries with a very large installed base of monochrome equipment, since the greater ruggedness of the SECAM signal could cope much better with poorly maintained equipment. However, for many countries the decision was more down to politics than technical merit.

text: A drawback of SECAM for production is that, unlike PAL or NTSC, certain post-production operations of encoded SECAM signals are not really possible without a significant drop in quality. As an example, a simple fade to black is trivial in NTSC and PAL: you just reduce the signal level until it is zero. However, in SECAM the color difference signals, which are frequency modulated, need first to be decoded to e.g. RGB, then the fade-to-black is applied, and finally the resulting signal is re-encoded into SECAM. Because of this, much SECAM video editing was actually done using PAL equipment, then the resultant signal was converted to SECAM. Another drawback of SECAM is that comb filtering, allowing better color separation, is not possible in TV receivers. This was not, however, much of a drawback in the early days of SECAM as such filters did not become readily available in high-end TV sets before the 1990s.

text: The first regular color broadcasts in SECAM were started on October 1, 1967, on France's Second Channel (ORTF 2e chaîne). In France and the UK color broadcasts were made on UHF frequencies, the VHF band being used for legacy black and white, 405 lines in UK or 819 lines in France, until the beginning of the 1980s. Countries elsewhere that were already broadcasting 625-line monochrome on VHF and UHF, simply transmitted color programs on the same channels.

text: Some British television programs, particularly those made by or for ITC Entertainment, were shot on color film before the introduction of color television to the UK, for the purpose of sales to U.S. networks. The first British show to be made in color was the drama series The Adventures of Sir Lancelot (1956–57), which was initially made in black and white but later shot in color for sale to the NBC network in the United States. Other British color television programs include Stingray (1964–1965), which was the first British TV show to be filmed entirely in color, Thunderbirds (1965–1966) and Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons (1967–1968). However, most UK series predominantly made using videotape, such as Doctor Who (1963–89; 2005–present) did not begin color production until later, with the first color Doctor Who episodes not airing until 1970.

text: Asia and the Pacific[edit]

text: In Japan, NHK and NTV introduced color television, using a variation of the NTSC system (called NTSC-J) on September 10, 1960, making it the first country in Asia to introduce color television. The Philippines (1960) and Taiwan (1969) also adopted the NTSC system.

text: Other countries in the region instead used the PAL system, starting with Australia (1967, but not fully implemented until 1975), and then Thailand (1969; this country converted from a 525-line system to 625 lines), Hong Kong (1970), the People's Republic of China (1971), New Zealand (1973), North Korea (1974), Singapore (1974), Pakistan (1976, but not fully implemented until 1982), Kazakhstan (1978), Vietnam (1978), Malaysia (1978, but not fully implemented until 1980), Indonesia (1979), India (1979, but not fully implemented until 1982), and Bangladesh (1980). South Korea did not introduce color television (using NTSC) until 1980 (full-time color transmissions began in 1981), although it was already manufacturing color television sets for export. Cambodia was the last country in Asia to introduce color television, officially introduced in 1981 using the PAL system, with full-time color transmissions since 1985.

text: Middle East[edit]

text: Nearly all of the countries in the Middle East use PAL. The first country in the Middle East to introduce color television was Iraq in 1967. Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar followed in the mid-1970s, but Israel, Lebanon, and Cyprus continued to broadcast in black and white until the early 1980s. Israeli television even erased the color signals using a device called the mekhikon.

text: Africa[edit]

text: The first color television service in Africa was introduced on the Tanzanian island of Zanzibar, in 1973, using PAL.[79] In 1973 also, MBC of Mauritius broadcast the OCAMM Conference, in color, using SECAM. At the time, South Africa did not have a television service at all, owing to opposition from the apartheid regime, but in 1976, one was finally launched.[80] Nigeria adopted PAL for color transmissions in 1974 in the then Benue Plateau state in the north central region of the country, but countries such as Ghana and Zimbabwe continued with black and white until 1984.[81] The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) started television broadcasting in 1963 as a cooperation between the SLBS and commercial interests; coverage was extended to all districts in 1978 when the service was also upgraded to color.[82]

text: South America[edit]

text: In contrast to most other countries in the Americas, which had adopted NTSC, Brazil began broadcasting in color using PAL-M. Its first color transmission was on February 19, 1972. However Ecuador was the first South American country to use NTSC color. Its first color transmission was on November 5, 1974. In 1978, Argentina started broadcasting in color using PAL-N in connection with the country's hosting of the FIFA World Cup. Some countries in South America, including Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay, continued to broadcast in black and white until the early 1980s.

text: Cor Dillen, director and later CEO of the South American branch of Philips, was responsible for bringing color television to South America.[citation needed]

text: Color standards[edit]

text: There are three main analog broadcast television systems in use around the world, PAL (Phase Alternating Line), NTSC (National Television System Committee), and SECAM (Séquentiel Couleur à Mémoire—Sequential Color with Memory).

text: The system used in The Americas and part of the Far East is NTSC. Most of Asia, Western Europe, Australia, Africa, and Eastern South America use PAL (though Brazil uses a hybrid PAL-M system). Eastern Europe and France uses SECAM.[83] Generally, a device (such as a television) can only read or display video encoded to a standard which the device is designed to support; otherwise, the source must be converted (such as when European programs are broadcast in North America or vice versa).

text: This table illustrates the differences:

text:
NTSC M
PAL B,G,H
PAL I
PAL N
PAL M
SECAM B,G,H
SECAM D,K,K',L

Lines/Fields
525/60
625/50
625/50
625/50
525/60
625/50
625/50

Horizontal Frequency
15.734 kHz
15.625 kHz
15.625 kHz
15.625 kHz
15.750 kHz
15.625 kHz
15.625 kHz

Vertical Frequency
60 Hz
50 Hz
50 Hz
50 Hz
60 Hz
50 Hz
50 Hz

Color Subcarrier Frequency
3.579545 MHz
4.43361875 MHz
4.43361875 MHz
3.582056 MHz
3.575611 MHz

Video Bandwidth
4.2 MHz
5.0 MHz
5.5 MHz
4.2 MHz
4.2 MHz
5.0 MHz
6.0 MHz

Sound Carrier
4.5 MHz
5.5 MHz
5.9996 MHz
4.5 MHz
4.5 MHz
5.5 MHz
6.5 MHz

text: Digital television broadcasting standards, such as ATSC, DVB-T, DVB-T2, and ISDB, have superseded these analog transmission standards in many countries.


document_title: European association football club records

question_text: who scored the most goals in a year

question_tokens: who scored the most goals in a year

root

text: Individual records[edit]

text: Most goals in a season[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
Rank
Player
Nationality
Goals
Club
Season
League
Cup
International[1]
Other[2]
Golden Shoe

1
Lionel Messi
 Argentina
73
 Barcelona
2011–12
50[3]
3
14
6
Yes

2
Gerd Müller
 Germany
67[4]
 Bayern Munich
1972–73
36
7
12
12
No

3
Ferenc Deák
 Hungary
66[5]
 Szentlőrinci
1945–46
66
**
*
-
Yes

Arthur Ceuleers
 Belgium
66
 Beerschot
1940–41
15
-
*
51
^

5
Gyula Zsengellér
 Hungary
65
 Újpest
1938–39
56[6]
**
9
-
^

6
Dixie Dean
 England
63
 Everton
1927–28
60
3
*
-
^

Jimmy McGrory
 Scotland
63
 Celtic
1927–28
48
6
*
9
^

Marc Lloyd-Williams
 Wales
63
 Bangor City
2001–02
47
13
-
3
No

9
Cristiano Ronaldo
 Portugal
61
 Real Madrid
2014–15
48
1
10
2
Yes

10
William MacFadyen
 Scotland
60
 Motherwell
1932–33
45
15
*
-
^

Isidro Lángara
 Spain
60
 Real Oviedo
1933–34
27
9
*
24
^

Cristiano Ronaldo
 Portugal
60
 Real Madrid
2011–12
46
3
10
1
No

Lionel Messi
 Argentina
60
 Barcelona
2012–13
46
4
8
2
Yes

14
Fred Roberts
 Northern Ireland
59
 Glentoran
1930–31
55
4
*
-
^

Ferenc Deák
 Hungary
59[7]
 Ferencváros
1948–49
59
**
*
-
^

Refik Resmja
 Albania
60+?
 Partizani Tirana
1950–51
59
?
*
-
Yes

Luis Suárez
 Uruguay
59
 Barcelona
2015–16
40
5
8
6
Yes

18
Jimmy McGrory
 Scotland
58
 Celtic
1926–27
47
9
*
2
^

Lionel Messi
 Argentina
58
 Barcelona
2014–15
43
5
10
-
No

20
Joe Bambrick
 Northern Ireland
57
 Linfield
1929–30
50
7
*
-
^

Josef Bican
 Czech Republic
57+?
 Slavia Prague
1943–44
57[8]
?
*
?
^

Fernando Peyroteo
 Portugal
57
 Sporting CP
1945–46
37
9
*
11
^

23
Duncan Walker
 Scotland
56
 St Mirren
1921–22
45
11
-
-
^

Werner Baßler
 Germany
56
 1. FC Kaiserslautern
1948–49
-
**
*
56
^

Jim Forrest
 Scotland
56
 Rangers
1964–65
30
3
6
17
^

Rhys Griffiths
 Wales
56
 Llanelli
2007–08
40
7
3
6
No

Aleksandrs Čekulajevs
 Latvia
56
 Narva Trans
2011
46
10
-
-
No

28
Fernando Peyroteo
 Portugal
55
 Sporting CP
1937–38
34
9
*
12
^

Henk Groot
 Netherlands
55
 Ajax
1960–61
41
14
-
-
^

Mário Jardel
 Brazil
55
 Sporting CP
2001–02
42
7
6
-
Yes

Cristiano Ronaldo
 Portugal
55
 Real Madrid
2012–13
34
7
12
2
No

text:
All records happened while the players' clubs in top-flight domestic league
*: No European football competition before 1955
**: No domestic cup competition held
^: No Golden Shoe Award before 1967

tag: ul

text: Most Ballon d'Or (1956–2009, 2016–) + FIFA Ballon d'Or (2010–2015)[edit]

text: Active players are marked in bold.

tag: p

text:
Rank
Player
Club(s)
Awards
Years

1
 Cristiano Ronaldo[9]
Manchester United, Real Madrid
5
2008, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017

 Lionel Messi
Barcelona
2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015

3
 Johan Cruyff
Ajax, Barcelona[10]
3
1971, 1973, 1974

 Michel Platini
Juventus
1983, 1984, 1985

 Marco van Basten
Milan
1988, 1989, 1992

6
 Franz Beckenbauer
Bayern Munich
2
1972, 1976

  Alfredo Di Stéfano
Real Madrid
1957, 1959

 Kevin Keegan
Hamburger SV
1978, 1979

 Ronaldo
Internazionale,[11] Real Madrid[12]
1997, 2002

 Karl-Heinz Rummenigge
Bayern Munich
1980, 1981

text: Club records[edit]

text: Most consecutive national league titles[edit]

text:
14 - Skonto Riga (LVA) (1991–2004), Lincoln (GIB) (2003–16)
13 - Rosenborg (NOR) (1992–2004)
12 - BATE Borisov (BLR) (2006–17)
11 - Dinamo Zagreb (CRO) (2006–16)

text: Longest unbeaten run across all competitions[edit]

text:
62 - Celtic (SCO) 1915–17 (all league matches)
60 - Union SG (BEL) 1933–35 (all league matches)

text: After the introduction of European club tournaments:

text:
48 - Benfica (POR) 1963–65
45 - Dinamo Zagreb (CRO) 2014–15
45 - Rijeka (CRO) 2016–17
43 - Juventus (ITA) 2011–12
42 - Milan (ITA) 1991–92
42 - Ajax (NED) 1995–96
40 - Nottingham Forest (ENG) 1978
40 - Real Madrid (ESP) 2016–17

text: Most consecutive wins across all competitions[edit]

text: Italic denotes record that was not achieved in country's top tier (unofficial record for nonprofessional leagues).

text:
32 - South Shields in 2016–17[15]
30 - East Kilbride in 2016–17[16]
27 - Hereford FC in 2015–16[17]
27 - The New Saints in 2016–17[18]
26 - Ajax in 1971–72 (Ajax also has 25 consecutive wins achieved during 1995–96)[19]
26 - Salisbury City reserves in 2007–08[20]
22 - Real Madrid in 2014–15[21]

text: Longest unbeaten league run[edit]

text:
104 - Steaua București (ROM) (1986–89)
63 - Sheriff Tiraspol (MOL) (2006–08)
62 - Celtic (SCO) (1915–17)
61 - Levadia (EST) (2008–09)
60 - Union Saint-Gilloise (BEL) (1933–35)
59 - Shirak (ARM) (1993–95)
59 - Pyunik (ARM) (2002–04)
58 - Milan (ITA) (1991–93)
58 - Olympiacos (GRE) (1972–74)
58 - Skonto (LAT) (1993–96)
56 - Benfica (POR) (1976–78)
56 - Celtic (SCO) (2016–17)
55 - Porto (POR) (2010–12)
55 - Shakhtar Donetsk (UKR) (2000–02)

text: Most consecutive wins in domestic league[edit]

text: Italic denotes record that was not achieved in country's top tier (unofficial record for non-professional leagues).

text:
30 - Tiverton Town F.C. between 1995–96[24] and 1996–97[25]
29 - Benfica, between 1971–72 and 1972–73
28 - Dinamo Zagreb in 2006–07
25 - Dinamo Tirana, between 1951 and 1952
25 - Celtic in 2003–04[23]
24 - Red Star Belgrade in 2015–16[26]
23 - Dresdner SC in 1942–43[27]
23 - Malmö FF between 1948–49 and 1949–50
22 - Ferencváros in 1931–32[27][28]
22 - PSV Eindhoven in 1987–88
22 - The New Saints in 2016–17
19 - Hereford FC in 2015–16[17]

text: Longest run of games scored in[edit]

text:
Real Madrid – 73 games, 6 April 2016 – 20 September 2017[29]
Bayern Munich – 61, 16 March 2013 – 5 April 2014[30]

text: Highest attendance at a European domestic match[edit]

text: 149,433 - 1937 Scottish Cup Final, Celtic and Aberdeen in 1937 at Hampden Park in Glasgow[31]

text: Highest goal margin (aggregate) in European Cup[edit]

text:
18 - Benfica against Stade Dudelange in European Cup 1965–66[32]
1st leg score: Stade Dudelange 0–8 Benfica[33]
2nd leg score: Benfica 10–0 Stade Dudelange[34]
Aggregate score: Benfica 18–0 Stade Dudelange[35]


document_title: Cowboys & Aliens

question_text: where was the film cowboys and aliens filmed

text: Cowboys & Aliens

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1873 New Mexico Territory, an unnamed loner (Daniel Craig) awakens injured in the desert with no memory and with a strange metal object on his wrist. He wanders into the town of Absolution, where preacher Meacham treats his wound. Sheriff Taggart recognizes the stranger as wanted outlaw Jake Lonergan and attempts to arrest him. Jake beats up the posse sent to take him in and nearly escapes, but a woman named Ella Swenson (Olivia Wilde) knocks him out. Taggart prepares to transport both Jake and volatile drunk Percy Dolarhyde to Santa Fe for trial.

text: Percy's father, Colonel Woodrow Dolarhyde (Harrison Ford), a ruthless cattle baron, demands Percy be released. He also demands Jake be released to him, since Jake had stolen gold from him. During the standoff, alien spacecraft begin attacking the town. Percy, the sheriff and other townsfolk are abducted by long, whip-like feelers hanging from the bottom of the ships. Jake's bracelet activates and becomes a weapon; he shoots down a ship, ending the attack.

text: Dolarhyde, Ella, and other townsfolk form a posse to track an injured alien that escaped from the downed ship. Meanwhile, Jake travels to an abandoned cabin and, in a flashback, recalls returning to it with stolen gold and then being abducted, along with a woman named Alice, by the aliens. His memories returning, Jake joins up with the posse. During the evening, the group comes upon a capsized paddle wheel steamboat that the aliens apparently dumped hundreds of miles from any rivers capable of holding it. They camp in it, and during the night the alien they were tracking kills Meacham, who sacrifices himself to save Emmett, Taggart's grandson.

text: By morning, most of the posse has deserted, and those remaining are attacked by Jake's former gang. Jake, who had stolen the gang's loot after their last heist, attempts to retake control but it is foiled. The aliens begin attacking them again and Ella is captured. Jake jumps aboard the ship and attacks the alien pilot, causing the ship to crash. The alien survives the crash, suddenly comes out of the water and attacks Ella, fatally wounding her. Jake then kills the alien with his wrist-blaster.

text: The remaining posse is captured by Chiricahua Apache Native Americans, who blame them for the alien attacks. After Ella's corpse is dumped on a fire by a Chiricahua warrior, she is resurrected and emerges from the fire. Ella reveals herself to be from another alien race, who had travelled to Earth to help resist the invaders after they destroyed her home world. The aliens, who are mining gold and abducting people to conduct experiments to find humans' weaknesses, are far stronger and more durable than humans, and have superior weaponry, but are not invulnerable. They can be stabbed and shot to death, but only Jake's gauntlet weapon or a well-aimed shot with a rifle can kill them with a single blast. Ella tells them that the aliens which previously attacked them are just scouts.

text: She also claims Jake holds the secret to the aliens' whereabouts and argues that they must defeat the aliens before the invaders exterminate all life on earth. After taking medicine offered by the Apaches' medicine man, Jake recalls that Alice was euthanized after she was used in an alien experiment, but he had escaped, inadvertently stealing the gauntlet-like alien weapon encasing his wrist. He then also remembers the location of the aliens' base of operations.

text: Armed with this knowledge, the group, now led by Dolarhyde, prepares to attack the aliens' grounded mother ship. Meanwhile, Jake returns to his old gang and persuades them to join the fight. After the humans maneuver the aliens into a ground battle, Jake and Ella board the ship and free the captives, but Jake is captured. Dolarhyde rescues him, and both men escape from the ship after killing the alien responsible for Alice's death. As the remaining aliens are taking off in their damaged craft, Ella sacrifices herself by entering the ship's core and destroying it by using Jake's wrist gauntlet as a bomb, obliterating the ship.

text: With the aliens gone the abducted townsfolk begin to remember their pasts. Still a wanted man, Jake decides to leave, though the sheriff and Dolarhyde say they will claim he was killed in the invasion. The citizens intend to reconstruct their town.

text: Cast[edit]

text: The cast includes:[7]

text:
Daniel Craig as Jake Lonergan, an amnesiac outlaw.
Harrison Ford as Colonel Woodrow Dolarhyde, a powerful cattleman.
Olivia Wilde as Ella Swenson, a mysterious traveler who aids Lonergan.
Sam Rockwell as Doc, owner of Absolution's local saloon (when he isn't tending to patients).
Paul Dano as Percy Dolarhyde, Woodrow's trouble-making son.
Clancy Brown as Meacham, Absolution's preacher and doctor (when the real one is too busy tending bar) .
Keith Carradine as Sheriff John Taggart, Absolution's sheriff.
Noah Ringer as Emmett Taggart, John Taggart's grandson.
Adam Beach as Nat Colorado, Dolarhyde's Native American right-hand man.
Abigail Spencer as Alice, Jake's lost love.
Ana de la Reguera as María, Absolution's saloon maid and Doc's wife.
Walton Goggins as Hunt, a bandit and friend of Lonergan.
Julio Cedillo as Bronc, a Mexican bandit.
David O'Hara as Pat Dolan, Lonergan's former gang-member.
Toby Huss as Roy Murphy
Raoul Trujillo as Black Knife, the Chiricahua Apache chief.
Paul Ortega as Apache Medicine Man

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and casting[edit]

text: The project began development in 1997, when Universal Pictures and DreamWorks bought film rights to a concept pitched by Scott Mitchell Rosenberg, former president at Malibu Comics, which he described as a graphic novel in development. They hired Steve Oedekerk to write and direct the film, which Oedekerk planned to do after completing Nutty Professor II: The Klumps. Rosenberg, who formed Platinum Studios to pursue adapting Cowboys & Aliens and other Malibu Comics properties into film and television, joined as a producer.[9] By 1998, Oedekerk left the project to pursue a remake of the 1964 film The Incredible Mr. Limpet with Jim Carrey.[10] By 2004, the film rights were acquired by Columbia Pictures, who did not move the project beyond development.[11]

text: In 2006, Rosenberg published Cowboys & Aliens as a graphic novel. In the following year, Universal and DreamWorks partnered again to adapt Cowboys & Aliens into a film.[12] In June 2008, Robert Downey, Jr. entered negotiations to star in the film as Zeke Jackson, a former Union Army gunslinger.[13] While Downey, Jr. was making Iron Man 2, he told director Jon Favreau about Cowboys & Aliens. Favreau investigated the project,[14] and in September 2009, he joined as director.[15] Downey, Jr. left the project in January 2010, to star in Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows,[16] and later in the month, Daniel Craig was hired to replace him.[17] Favreau said Craig's portrayal of James Bond "brings a certain virtuosity".[18] He also described Craig, "On the one hand, he's like this Jason Bourne type, a leading man who's also a lethal character, but on the other hand, he's also got a lot of humanity and vulnerability to him."[19]

text: In April 2010, Harrison Ford was cast alongside Craig.[20] Favreau had cast Craig and Ford in the film because they were actors who suited the action-adventure roles so the characters would be less seen as comedic. The director compared Ford, in particular, with John Wayne in having "a sense of history" with the actor and the role.[18] Before Cowboys & Aliens, Ford had previously acted in the Western films A Time for Killing in 1967, Journey to Shiloh in 1969 and The Frisco Kid in 1979.[21] While Ford is well known for playing Indiana Jones, the filmmakers wanted to avoid giving him a cowboy hat that would remind audiences too much of Jones. Writer Alex Kurtzman said, "We needed to make sure that—no pun intended—we tipped a hat to iconography of Harrison Ford and also presented the audience with a very different version."[22]

text: Olivia Wilde was cast in one of the lead roles, and Favreau called Wilde's character the key to the film.[14] Sam Rockwell was cast in a supporting role as Doc. The character was described as a large Mexican in the original script,[23] but when Favreau and the writers learned of Rockwell's interest in the film, they reconceived and expanded the role.[24] Favreau himself is known for appearing in his films, but for Cowboys & Aliens, he chose not to make a cameo appearance because he thought it would affect the tone of the film.[14] However, his face does appear on a wanted poster as "Todd Kravitz" in the scene establishing Craig as "Lonergan".

text: When asked about how the film was developing, Rosenberg stated, "It's incredible. Sometimes it's like seeing exactly what was going through my head when I first had that spark in my head as a kid. Jon Favreau's bringing his own talent and vision with the adaptation, but at the same time it remains true to what I was really trying to get at in the original story."[25]

text: Steven Spielberg, one of the film's executive producers, visited the director and the writers during pre-production to look over the script and the artwork. He provided Favreau with a collection of classic Western films.[19] Spielberg also invited the director and the writers to a private screening of several Western films and provided live commentary on how to make one properly.[26] The films included Stagecoach, My Darling Clementine, and Destry Rides Again.[21] Spielberg made several other suggestions: a main enemy alien,[27] Jake's final use of the gauntlet being to decapitate an alien,[28] and that Jake and Ella's first kiss should occur in the climax of the film.[29]

text: Writing[edit]

text: In the film's period as a developing project under several studios, different versions of the screenplay were drafted by numerous screenwriters, beginning with Steve Oedekerk. Other screenwriters involved included David Hayter, Thomas Dean Donnelly, Joshua Oppenheimer, Jeffrey Boam, Thompson Evans, and Chris Hauty.[13] When Universal and DreamWorks re-partnered in 2007, they hired Hawk Ostby and Mark Fergus.[12] In 2009, Ostby and Fergus were replaced by Alex Kurtzman, Roberto Orci, and Damon Lindelof.[30] Kurtzman and Orci analyzed American Western films including The Searchers. Orci said, "The first draft was very kind of jokey and broad and then it went very serious. You kind of swing back and forth between the two extremes and the tone until you find the exact right point where a Western and a sci-fi movie can really shake hands without it seeming unnatural."[23] "Imagine you're watching Unforgiven and then Aliens land," Orci explained.[31]

text: Orci also said, "The comic has the themes of enemies uniting to fight a common enemy and has the setting of that specific time period, so we kept the inspiration from all of that. In terms of the specifics of the story and who these characters are, we wanted the audience to be surprised and to not feel like they've already seen everything if they were fans of the comic. So, while the themes and the setting and many of the elements are a great inspiration, the story is completely adapted and translated for live action."[32] The aliens were loosely based on the Anunnaki gods of Zecharia Sitchin's interpretation of the Babylonian religion, who have a distinct interest in gold.[33]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Cowboys & Aliens was not originally planned to be shown in 3-D. When approached with the idea by DreamWorks, Favreau was not interested, stating that Westerns should be shot only on film (as opposed to being shot digitally, which is required for modern 3D technology),[34] and didn't want it to be converted after filming. "That would be like filming in black and white and colorizing it," he reasoned.[35] Director of photography Matthew Libatique shot Cowboys & Aliens in the anamorphic format on 35 mm film to further a "classic movie feel".[4]

text: On a budget of $163 million,[2] principal photography for Cowboys & Aliens began[36] at Albuquerque Studios in New Mexico on June 30, 2010.[37] One of the filming locations was Plaza Blanca, "The White Place", where Western films like The Missing, 3:10 to Yuma, City Slickers, Young Guns, and The Legend of the Lone Ranger had been filmed.[26] Sound stage work took place in Los Angeles, with additional location shooting at Randsburg, California.[36] Filming finished on September 30.[38]

text: A scene in which Craig's character rides a horse alongside a ravine and jumps down it onto a spacecraft emulated many scenes in American Western films where cowboys rode along a moving train and jumped on it. Favreau said the scene referenced the one in the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark where Indiana Jones chases a truck and noted that a similar scene existed in the 1939 film Stagecoach, saying "We're constantly referencing back to our roots."[18] Cowboys & Aliens also make multiple references to Close Encounters of the Third Kind, such as the introduction to the aliens through the bright lights on their aircraft[39] and an upturned paddle steamer in the middle of the desert.[40] The film also "tease[s]" monster movies, and the scenes in the paddle steamer were a deliberate homage to Alien.[41]

text: Design and effects[edit]

text: Scott Chambliss was hired as the production designer based on his work on Star Trek, produced by Orci and Kurtzman.[42] The visual effects were created by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), represented by Roger Guyett[43] and Eddie Pasquarello as visual effects supervisors. Under the supervision of Shane Mahan,[44] Legacy Effects created practical puppet aliens and full scale alien speeders. New Deal Studios constructed a miniature of the paddle steamer that is seen upturned in the film. Kerner Optical built a miniature of the alien ship and bluescreen stand-ins. The film also featured visual effects by Fuel VFX, The Embassy, Ghost, and Shade VFX, with previsualization from Halon Entertainment.[4]

text: Favreau noted that Cowboys & Aliens focuses on a specific aspect of the alien genre which primarily revolves around the films of the 1980s:[18] "And although we have quite a bit of CG—I like the way they told stories before—before you could show everything with CG. And it was a real unveiling of the creature, little by little, and using lighting and camera work and music to make it a very subjective experience. And so we tried to preserve that here."[26] In designing the film's aliens, ILM was careful to make the creatures "cool and captivating".[6] Guyett stated that they adopted a similar approach to that of District 9:

text: The trick was to make [the aliens] interesting through their behavior and what happens to them, and that was something that District 9 did very well. You were drawn into their world a bit and their idiosyncrasies had an immediate impact: they ate cat food. But those details overwhelm certain design aspects, so I was striving to find some behavior that fit in well with the Western genre, where you have people in very arduous conditions fighting the elements. And I thought that the irony of all this was that the aliens turn up and it could be more exaggerated for them. They're frontiersmen in a way: traveling to another place and having to deal with all the adversities of the climate. And in our case, we played up the fact that they weren't comfortable in our world. There are flies all around them; they don't like the light; and when they were wounded and exposed, a strange fungus grows around them.[6]

text: The use of anamorphic widescreen (rather than shooting full-frame "flat" and cropping later) gave ILM no extra room to re-frame shots; it was a challenge to show both nine-foot-tall aliens and smaller humans in the same space. Instead, Guyett said, they shot more areas in case portions of the shots were lost. In filming the gun battle between the cowboys and aliens, in which the aliens move at twice the speed of the humans, actors were required to ride through the scene on horseback and shoot at men in gray suits and three-foot-tall hats; they aimed at faces drawn by Jon Favreau on the top of the hats. A big challenge for ILM's texture artists was to show the aliens in both a dark cave environment and harsh sunlight. The creatures were rendered in high resolution for close-ups; dirt and wounds were added to the aliens to emphasize the injuries they sustained in battle. After Favreau requested that the aliens experience a very unpleasant biological reaction to being wounded on Earth, the texture team created a yellow fungus-like look on the scars of the aliens. To design the fungus, texture supervisor Martin Murphy searched the Internet for real pictures of mold and growth on trees and eventually designed a "fried egg pattern".[4] The heads of the aliens were based on those of sea turtles, after Favreau encountered sea turtles during a trip to Hawaii.[41]

text: At the suggestion of Steven Spielberg,[27] an "über-alien" was also designed.[6] It was unclear if the red scar Jake gives the über-alien after escaping vivisection would be enough of an identifier to distinguish it from other aliens, so the creature was redesigned[27] with translucent, pale skin due to the lack of time spent outside.[41] Favreau described the über-alien as more fleshy and anthropomorphic than the other aliens[45] and Murphy commented, "There are some parts of him like his arm that you can see into. It's almost like glass or ice or gelatiny surface that blends into a dryer area. The  [sic] there's pieces of him that are more like a soft-shell crab or shiny and wet."[4]

text: In addition to the aliens, other visual effects were required for the speeders, the alien spaceship, its interior, environment re-creations, and the head-up display for Jake's arm gauntlet. For the invasion of the town of Absolution, both practical laser lighting and fire effects were utilized, along with practical ships and effects enhancements. ILM artists had to enhance the initial look of the alien "bolos", the cables used to abduct people, with renderings such as extra lights, after viewers thought the studio had failed to "paint out" the cables in the film’s first trailer. For a scene in which Jake and Ella ride on a speeder, the actors were filming on a practical mock-up against bluescreen; they were digitally replaced in wider shots.[4]

text: Themes[edit]

text: In Cowboys & Aliens, Director Jon Favreau sought a plausible approach to how humans from the late 19th century could confront extraterrestrial beings armed with advanced weaponry. He said, "It was very well laid out, well planned, and there were a lot of discussions with a lot of actors who called me to task on things that seemed too convenient, so we made sure we earned each step."[19] The director also sought to maintain a Western tone as aliens appeared in the film, saying, "It's very easy to just cut the string and then all of a sudden the action starts and you're in Independence Day."[19] Favreau cited the works of John Ford and Sergio Leone as sources of inspiration as well as Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid.[23] Favreau also wanted the science-fiction element to stand on its own,[19] referencing Alien, Predator, and Close Encounters of the Third Kind.[23] He said of both genres, "It's about finding the intersection of those two genres . . . If you do it right, it honors both, and it becomes interesting and clever and a reinvention of two things that people understand the conventions of, instead of just a retread or remake or sequel or reboot of a film you've seen before."[19]

text: In the Americas, Native American nations were severely damaged by European settlers, specifically because of the Europeans' advanced military technology. Favreau compared the film to the historical confrontation "in the frustration of not having the technology to allow you to prevail. It's always the low-tech culture that feels powerless when faced with an enemy that has technology on their side."[18] In the film, the cowboys are the low-tech culture, and the aliens with advanced technology possess the belief of Manifest Destiny. Favreau also said of the premise, "It allows the cowboys and Native Americans to come together, which would be impossible had there not been a greater common enemy. It sets the Western up in a very classic way and then turns it on its ear."[18] When the aliens appear, the film becomes a road movie in which the main characters try to track the aliens, team up with different groups, and ultimately confront the aliens. Favreau compared the gathering to The Magnificent Seven in facing seemingly insurmountable odds in their confrontation.[46]

text: The character of Meacham also presents an unconventional take on Christian principles to support the film's main theme of redemption. According to Favreau, Meacham's teaching Doc how to shoot not only references similar scenes in other Westerns but also "teach[es] him how to be a person".[47] Meacham's dying words to Jake, "God don't care who you were, Son, only who you are", speaks of the central theme of redemption.[48] The hummingbird that Jake sees at various points in the film is a "good spirit" that could represent either Alice or Ella; an alternate theory is that Ella was an angel that helped Jake "get over" Alice.[49] Favreau also suggested a back-story to Cowboys & Aliens: the über-alien is the mastermind of the invasion; all other aliens are "worker bees", possibly genetically engineered by another species of aliens that remained on their home planet and sent the worker bees as conquistadors.[27]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Cowboys & Aliens, which crosses genres with the American Western element of cowboys and the science-fiction element of extraterrestrials, has an "inherently comic" title and premise.[5] At the San Diego Comic-Con International in July 2010, director Jon Favreau hosted a presentation and was accompanied by the film's primary cast members, including Harrison Ford in his first Comic-Con appearance.[35] In the presentation, Favreau explained to audiences that he intended the film as a serious mix of the Western styles of Sergio Leone and John Ford and "really scary" science fiction like Alien and Predator.[5] The first trailer for the film appeared in the following November, and The New York Times reported that film audiences found the premise comedic. Eddie Egan, the president of marketing at Universal Pictures, acknowledged the misconception and said, "The trailer is the first very public step in reconciling the tone of the movie with the more immediate effect of the title on its own."[5] The studio anticipated a marketing campaign that would demonstrate that the film is "a tough-minded adventure" like Unforgiven by Clint Eastwood.[5]

text: During Super Bowl XLV on February 6, 2011, the studio aired a TV spot for Cowboys & Aliens. Hours before the American football game, Favreau used Twitter to link followers to the spot online. Entertainment Weekly reported, "It . . . roused the geek-hive fan base and stirred new speculation about his hybrid of classic Westerns and extraterrestrial-invasion thrillers."[50] After the spot aired, Favreau said the first trailer was intended as an introduction to pique people's curiosity and that the Super Bowl TV spot was "showing more of the sense of adventure as things unfold".[18]

text: In April 2011, Favreau and Roberto Orci appeared at WonderCon in San Francisco, where they presented nine minutes of film footage and answered questions about the film. Favreau explained that marketing would show "only a brief glimpse of the aliens of the title" before the film is released. He explained the withholding of certain elements, "I think there are enough visionary people involved with this film that there is an understanding that there is a personality that the marketing campaign can take on as well as the film itself . . . I want to make sure that if the audience goes to see [the film], there is going to be a lot of surprises in it that they haven't seen in the marketing materials."[51]

text: Release[edit]

text: Cowboys & Aliens had its world premiere at the San Diego Comic-Con International in San Diego on July 23, 2011.[52] It was commercially released in the United States and Canada on July 29, 2011, and in other territories in ensuing weekends.[53] Paramount Pictures International also released the film in IMAX theaters around the world, as it did for Favreau's previous film, Iron Man 2.[54]

text: Box Office Mojo forecast that Cowboys & Aliens would gross $95 million total in the United States and Canada. For the comparatively low figure, the website cited that the marketing had not contextualized the film effectively and that hybridized Western films like Jonah Hex and Wild Wild West were not successful at the box office.[55] In territories outside the United States and Canada, the website forecast $140 million total, citing that American Western films are not historically popular, but that the premise of the alien invasion and the presence of international stars like Daniel Craig and Harrison Ford would generate interest.[56] In contrast, box office tracker Paul Dergarabedian said the film's combination of cowboy and extraterrestrial themes in particular would attract audiences. Dergarabedian also believed that audiences' familiarity with Craig as character James Bond would help the film.[57]

text: Box office[edit]

text: On the opening day of Cowboys & Aliens, estimates showed that its opening day gross was $13.0 million and it came in second place to The Smurfs' opening day gross of $13.3 million. This was considered a surprise since Cowboys & Aliens was expected to be the clear winner for the weekend.[58] Estimates then showed Cowboys & Aliens and The Smurfs tied at the #1 spot for the weekend with $36.2 million each.[59] However, when the actual results for the weekend were announced Cowboys & Aliens won the weekend with $36.4 million just beating out The Smurfs, which grossed $35.6 million.[60] The film grossed $100,240,551 in the U.S. and Canada (making it the 500th $100 million domestic movie[61]) as well as $74,581,774 internationally, bringing its worldwide total to $174,822,325.[3] The film is considered to be a financial disappointment, narrowly grossing its budget back.[62][63][64] In 2014, the LA Times listed the film as one of the most expensive box office flops of all time.[65]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Cowboys & Aliens received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 43% based on 240 reviews with an average rating of 5.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Daniel Craig and Harrison Ford are as dependably appealing as ever, but they're let down by director Jon Favreau's inability to smooth Cowboys & Aliens jarring tonal shifts." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 50 out of 100 based 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[66][67] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[68]

text: Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film, saying, "It sounds kooky on paper but on the screen cowboys and aliens make beautiful, fun music together." Honeycutt felt that the success of the film's blend of aliens and western themes was due to "the determination by everyone involved to play the damn thing straight. Even the slightest goofiness, the tiniest touch of camp, and the whole thing would blow sky high. But it doesn't." He criticized the aliens, which he said "don't rate as characters", existing as "moving blobs you shoot at in a video game."[69] Variety's Peter Debruge echoed Honeycutt's sentiments that the "potential hamminess" of the premise is offset by the cast, particularly Craig through a "mix of ruthlessness and sensitivity." He considered however, that Wilde had the opposite effect, stating she "appears out of place among her grizzled co-stars". Debruge appreciated the attention paid to the roots of the two genres, saying "beneath all the state-of-the-art special effects beats an old-fashioned heart, one that prizes both of the genres in play" and concluded that "a canny blend of CG and practical effects serve the sci-fi elements well, while location shooting and Mary Zophres' form-fitting period duds make the West look its best."[70] Nick Pinkerton of The Village Voice said the Western elements of the film were "lovingly" handled but called felt the science aspects a "gimmick" and "much more standard fare" in comparison. He added that "Ford, enlivened by dude garb, seems to enjoy himself in front of a camera for the first time in decades".[71]

text: Roger Ebert wrote that "as preposterous moneymakers go, it's ambitious and well-made. The acting from the large cast is of a high standard, Craig and Ford were more or less born into their roles, and director Jon Favreau actually develops his characters and gives them things to do, instead of posing them in front of special effects." He lamented however that the film was not a pure Western, saying of the aliens, "[T]here is more genuine suspense when [Percy Dolarhyde] starts shooting up the town than when countless aliens appear".[72] Salon's Andrew O'Hehir offered a mixed response, claiming the film to be well made and clever, and singling out Craig and Ford for their performances. O'Hehir was, however, critical of the combination of western and science-fiction elements, calling it "a mediocre western clumsily welded to a mediocre alien shoot-'em-up".[73]

text: Slant's Nick Schager reacted negatively, stating "Cowboys & Aliens mashes up genres with a staunch dedication to getting everything wrong, making sure that each scene is more inane than the one that preceded it"; giving the film one star out of four. Schager continued "Cowboys & Aliens's western accoutrements are [...] so false as to be stunning, with every steely-eyed glare from Craig's Man With No Memory, every confrontation between his Jake and Ford's grizzled Dolarhyde, and every silhouetted horseback ride across a sunset range seeming like a wan approximation of a familiar genre staple. [...] Favreau's visuals have an inauthentic and bland blockbuster sheen, and his actors are similarly afflicted with a case of poseur-itis (Craig's affected silent-type glowering, Ford's gruff racism, or Wilde's blank, wide-eyed stares), failing to deliver a single believable line-reading or gesture."[74]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Cowboys & Aliens received five nominations. At the 39th Annie Awards, the film was nominated in Animated Effects in a Live Action Production for both Gary Wu and Lee Uren, but lost to Transformers: Dark of the Moon.[75] The ceremony took place on February 4, 2011. The film received nominations from the Art Directors Guild for Fantasy Film, honoring production designer Scott Chambliss, and[76] for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture at the 18th Screen Actors Guild Awards, but lost to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 in both ceremonies.[77] Ford received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.[78]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Cowboys & Aliens was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on December 6, 2011.[79] The release includes an extended version of the film running 135 minutes, three behind-the-scenes featurettes, and feature commentary with director Jon Favreau.

text: Infringement lawsuit[edit]

text: On November 30, 2011, Steven John Busti filed a lawsuit against Universal, DreamWorks, Platinum Studios, and Scott Mitchell Rosenberg, claiming copyright infringement. Busti claimed he wrote a preview for his story Cowboys and Aliens in 1994, which was published in the April 1995 issue of Bizarre Fantasy #1.[80] The story was also previewed in a 1995 issue of "Comic Shop News", which was on the same page that featured coverage of Scott Mitchell Rosenberg.[81] Rosenberg and Platinum produced a one sheet depicting a cowboy being chased by an alien, which eventually led to Universal and DreamWorks buying film rights to their concept.[82]


document_title: Fibre Channel over Ethernet

question_text: which type of technology encapsulates fibre channel communications over tcp/ip

question_tokens: which type of technology encapsulates fibre channel communications over tcp / ip

text: Fibre Channel over Ethernet

text: Functionality[edit]

text:
FCoE transports Fibre Channel directly over Ethernet while being independent of the Ethernet forwarding scheme. The
FCoE protocol specification replaces the FC0 and FC1 layers of the Fibre Channel stack with Ethernet. By retaining the native Fibre Channel constructs, FCoE was meant to integrate with existing Fibre Channel networks and management software.

text: Data centers used Ethernet for TCP/IP networks and Fibre Channel for storage area networks (SANs). With FCoE, Fibre Channel becomes another network protocol running on Ethernet, alongside traditional Internet Protocol (IP) traffic.  FCoE operates directly above Ethernet in the network protocol stack, in contrast to iSCSI which runs on top of TCP and IP.  As a consequence, FCoE is not routable at the IP layer, and will not work across routed IP networks.

text: Since classical Ethernet had no priority-based flow control, unlike Fibre Channel, FCoE required enhancements to the Ethernet standard to support a priority-based flow control mechanism (to reduce frame loss from congestion).  The IEEE standards body added priorities in the data center bridging Task Group.

text: Fibre Channel required three primary extensions to deliver the capabilities of Fibre Channel over Ethernet networks:

text:
Encapsulation of native Fibre Channel frames into Ethernet Frames.
Extensions to the Ethernet protocol itself to enable an Ethernet fabric in which frames are not routinely lost during periods of congestion.
Mapping between Fibre Channel N_port IDs (aka FCIDs) and Ethernet MAC addresses.

text: Computers can connect to FCoE with converged network adapters (CNAs), which contain both Fibre Channel host bus adapter (HBA) and Ethernet network interface controller (NIC) functionality on the same physical card. CNAs have one or more physical Ethernet ports.  FCoE encapsulation can be done in software with a conventional Ethernet network interface card, however FCoE CNAs offload (from the CPU) the low level frame processing and SCSI protocol functions traditionally performed by Fibre Channel host bus adapters.

text: Application[edit]

text: The main application of FCoE is in data center storage area networks (SANs).  FCoE has particular application in data centers due to the cabling reduction it makes possible, as well as in server virtualization applications, which often require many physical I/O connections per server.

text: With FCoE, network (IP) and storage (SAN) data traffic can be consolidated using a single network. This consolidation can:

text:
reduce the number of network interface cards required to connect to disparate storage and IP networks
reduce the number of cables and switches
reduce power and cooling costs

text: Frame format[edit]

text: FCoE is encapsulated over Ethernet with the use of a dedicated Ethertype, 0x8906. A single 4-bit field (version) satisfies the IEEE sub-type requirements. The 802.1Q tag is optional but may be necessary in a given implementation.[2] The SOF (start of frame) and EOF (end of frame) are encoded as specified in RFC 3643. Reserved bits are present to guarantee that the FCoE frame meets the minimum length requirement of Ethernet. Inside the encapsulated Fibre Channel frame, the frame header is retained so as to allow connecting to a storage network by passing on the Fibre Channel frame directly after de-encapsulation.

text: The FIP (FCoE Initialization Protocol) is an integral part of FCoE. Its main goal is to discover and initialize FCoE capable entities connected to an Ethernet cloud. FIP uses a dedicated Ethertype of 0x8914.

text: Timeline[edit]

text: In October 2003, Azul Technology developed early version and applied for a patent.[3]

text: In April 2007, the FCoE standardization activity started.

text: In October 2007, the first public end-to-end FCoE demo occurred at Storage Network World including adapters from QLogic, switches from Nuova Systems, and storage from NetApp (none of the companies involved made any product announcements at the time).[4][5]

text: In April 2008, an early implementor was Nuova Systems, a subsidiary of Cisco Systems, which announced a switch.[6][7] Brocade Communications Systems also announced support in 2008.[8] After the late-2000s financial crisis, however, any new technology had a hard time getting established.[9][10]

text: In June 2009, the FCoE technology that had been defined as part of the International Committee for Information Technology Standards (INCITS) T11 FC-BB-5 standard was forwarded to ANSI for publication.[1]

text: In May 2010, the FC-BB-5 standard was published as ANSI/INCITS 462-2010.[11] Some additional work was done in the INCITS.[12]

text: By September 2011, a columnist was calling the technology "dead".[13]

text: Data center switches from Force10 and Dell PowerConnect supported FCoE and in June 2013, Dell Networking, which is the new brand-name for all networking portfolio of Dell, introduced the S5000 series which can be a fully native FCoE switch with the option to include a native fibre channel module, allowing you to connect the S5000 directly to an FC SAN environment.[14]