document_title: Government of the District of Columbia

question_text: who must approve the budget created by washington dc city council

root

text: Government of the District of Columbia

text: Organization[edit]

text: Mayor[edit]

text: The Mayor of the District of Columbia is the head of the executive branch. The Mayor has the duty to enforce city laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Council. In addition, the Mayor oversees all city services, public property, police and fire protection, most public agencies, and the District of Columbia Public Schools.[2] The mayor's office oversees an annual city budget of $8.8 billion.[3]

tag: p

text: Council[edit]

text: The Council of the District of Columbia is the legislative branch. Each of the city's eight wards elects a single member of the council and residents elect four at-large members to represent the District as a whole. The council chair is also elected at-large.[4]

text: Advisory Neighborhood Commissions[edit]

text: There are 37 Advisory Neighborhood Commissions (ANCs) elected by small neighborhood districts. ANCs can issue recommendations on all issues that affect residents; government agencies take their advice under careful consideration.[5]

text: Attorney General[edit]

text: The Attorney General of the District of Columbia is the chief legal officer of the District. Following numerous election delays after D.C. voters approved a charter amendment in 2010 to make the office an elected position, white-collar attorney Karl Racine was elected in 2014 and sworn in in January 2015. Previously, the post was appointed by the Mayor.

text: Judiciary[edit]

text: The District of Columbia Court of Appeals is the highest court. Established in 1970, it is equivalent to a state supreme court, except that its authority is derived from the United States Congress rather than from the inherent sovereignty of the states. The Court of Appeals should not be confused with the District's federal appellate court, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The Court of Appeals is authorized to review all final orders, judgments, and specified interlocutory orders of the associate judges of the Superior Court, to review decisions of administrative agencies, boards, and commissions of the District government, and to answer questions of law presented by the Supreme Court of the United States, a United States court of appeals, or the highest appellate court of any state. The court consists of a chief judge and eight associate judges. The court is assisted by the service of retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. Despite being the District's local appellate court, judges are appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for 15-year terms. The DC Courts are a Federal agency.[6]

text: The Superior Court of the District of Columbia is the local trial court. It hears cases involving criminal and civil law. The court also handles specialized cases in the following areas: family court, landlord and tenant, probate, tax, and traffic offenses. All appeals of Superior Court decisions go to the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. The Court consists of a chief judge and 61 associate judges. The Court is assisted by the service of 24 magistrate judges, as well as retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. Judges are appointed to the court by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for fifteen-year terms.[6]

text: Departments[edit]

text: There are 21 departments within the Government of the District of Columbia as of 2015. They are:

text:
Behavioral Health
Consumer and Regulatory Affairs
Corrections
Disability Services
Employment Services
Environment
Fire and Emergency Medical Services
Forensic Sciences
General Services
Health Care Finance
Health
Housing and Community Development
Human Services
Insurance, Securities and Banking
Metropolitan Police
Motor Vehicles
Parks and Recreation
Public Works
Small and Local Business Development
Transportation
Youth Rehabilitation Services

tag: ul

text: Agencies[edit]

text: The Secretary of the District of Columbia is one of the officers of the government.

text: The District of Columbia Public Schools (DCPS) is the local, traditional public school system. The District of Columbia Public Charter School Board (PCSB) was created in 1996 as a second, independent authorizer of public charter schools.[7] The DC Council passed legislation in 2007 giving the DC Mayor direct authority over the DCPS and transferred the oversight responsibility for the charter schools previously authorized by the DC Board of Education to the PCSB.[7]

text: The District of Columbia Board of Elections (BOE) is the independent agency responsible for the administration of elections, ballot access and voter registration. The BOE consists of three active board members and an Executive Director.

text: The Alcoholic Beverage Control Board (ABRA) is an independent adjudicatory body responsible for overseeing the District's Alcoholic Beverage Regulation Administration and hiring its director, conducting investigations, the licensing process, handling complaints, keeping of records, and referral of evidence of criminal misconduct to the proper authorities. The Board is composed of seven members, appointed by the Mayor and confirmed by the Council of the District of Columbia, who serve four-year terms.

text: Other agencies include:

text:
DC Commission on the Arts and Humanities
District of Columbia Housing Authority Office of Public Safety
District of Columbia Public Library
District of Columbia State Board of Education
District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority

text: Budget[edit]

text: The mayor and council set local taxes and a budget, which must be approved by the Congress.

text: Employment[edit]

text: According to DCHR (DC Department of Human Resources, 20% of the DC government workforce will be eligible for retirement in the year 2021. The DC government offers a host of internship opportunities for recent graduates seeking employment. {http://capitolstandard.com/the-dc-government-wants-to-hire-you/}

text: Law[edit]

text: The District of Columbia Code is the subject compilation of enacted legislation, and also contains federal statutes which affect the District of Columbia.[8] The District of Columbia Municipal Regulations (DCMR) is the publication and compilation of the current regulations.[8] The District of Columbia Register (DCR) gives brief information of actions of the Council of the District of Columbia (such as resolutions and notices of council hearings) and actions of the executive branch and independent agencies (such as proposed and emergency rulemaking).[8]

text: The District observes all federal holidays and also celebrates Emancipation Day on April 16, which commemorates the end of slavery in the District.[9] The flag of the District of Columbia was adopted in 1938 and is a variation on George Washington's family coat of arms.[10]

text: Politics[edit]

text: Budget deficits[edit]

text: The city's local government, particularly during the mayoralty of Marion Barry, was criticized for mismanagement and waste.[11] During his administration in 1989, The Washington Monthly magazine claimed that the District had "the worst city government in America."[12] In 1995, at the start of Barry's fourth term, Congress created the District of Columbia Financial Control Board to oversee all municipal spending.[13] Mayor Anthony Williams won election in 1998 and oversaw a period of urban renewal and budget surpluses. The District regained control over its finances in 2001 and the oversight board's operations were suspended.[14]

text: The Government Accountability Office and other analysts have estimated that the city's high percentage of tax-exempt property and the Congressional prohibition of commuter taxes create a structural deficit in the District's local budget of anywhere between $470 million and over $1 billion per year. Congress typically provides additional grants for federal programs such as Medicaid and the operation of the local justice system; however, analysts claim that the payments do not fully resolve the imbalance.[15][16]

text: Voting rights debate[edit]

text: The District is not a U.S. state and therefore has no voting representation in the Congress. D.C. residents elect a non-voting delegate to the House of Representatives, currently Eleanor Holmes Norton (D-D.C. At-Large), who may sit on committees, participate in debate, and introduce legislation, but cannot vote on the House floor. The District has no official representation in the United States Senate. Neither chamber seats the District's elected "shadow" representative or senators. Unlike residents of U.S. territories such as Puerto Rico or Guam, which also have non-voting delegates, D.C. residents are subject to all U.S. federal taxes.[17] In the financial year 2012, D.C. residents and businesses paid $20.7 billion in federal taxes; more than the taxes collected from 19 states and the highest federal taxes per capita.[18]

text: A 2005 poll found that 78% of Americans did not know that residents of the District of Columbia have less representation in Congress than residents of the 50 states.[19] Efforts to raise awareness about the issue have included campaigns by grassroots organizations and featuring the city's unofficial motto, "Taxation Without Representation", on D.C. vehicle license plates.[20] There is evidence of nationwide approval for D.C. voting rights; various polls indicate that 61 to 82% of Americans believe that D.C. should have voting representation in Congress.[19][21] Despite public support, attempts to grant the District voting representation, including the D.C. statehood movement and the proposed District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment, have been unsuccessful.

text: Opponents of D.C. voting rights propose that the Founding Fathers never intended for District residents to have a vote in Congress since the Constitution makes clear that representation must come from the states. Those opposed to making D.C. a state claim that such a move would destroy the notion of a separate national capital and that statehood would unfairly grant Senate representation to a single city.[22]

text: History[edit]

text: The District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 is an organic act enacted by Congress in accordance with Article 1, Section 8 of the United States Constitution that formally placed the District of Columbia under the control of Congress and organized the unincorporated territory within the District into two counties: Washington County to the north and east of the Potomac River and Alexandria County to the west and south; left in place and made no change to the status of the charters of the existing cities of Georgetown and Alexandria; and established a court in each of the new counties,[23] with the common law of both Maryland and Virginia continuing to remain in force within the District.[24]

text: The District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871 repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown and established a new territorial government for the whole District of Columbia. Though Congress repealed the territorial government in 1874, the legislation was the first to create a single municipal government for the federal district.[25]

text: The District of Columbia Home Rule Act of 1973 devolved certain congressional powers of the District of Columbia to local government and enacted the District Charter (also called the Home Rule Charter), furthering District of Columbia home rule.


document_title: Grammy Award records

question_text: which female artist either solo or in a group has received the most grammy nominations of all time

text: Grammy Award records

text: Awards[edit]

text: Most Grammys won[edit]

text: The record for the most Grammy Awards won in a lifetime is held by Sir Georg Solti, a Hungarian-British conductor who conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for twenty-two years. He has won a total of 31 competitive Grammy Awards out of 74 nominations and was awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996.[1][2]

text:
Rank
Artist
Awards

1
Georg Solti
31

2
Quincy Jones
27

Alison Krauss

4
Pierre Boulez
26

5
Vladimir Horowitz
25

Stevie Wonder

7
John Williams
23

8
U2
22

Chick Corea

Beyoncé

11
Jay-Z
21

Kanye West

Vince Gill

Paul McCartney

15
Henry Mancini
20

Pat Metheny

Bruce Springsteen

tag: table

text: Most Grammys won by a male artist[edit]

text: Georg Solti had won a total of 31 Grammy Awards.

text:
Rank
Artist
Awards

1
Georg Solti
31

2
Quincy Jones
27

3
Pierre Boulez
26

4
Vladimir Horowitz
25

Stevie Wonder

6
John Williams
23

7
Chick Corea
22

8
Kanye West
21

Paul McCartney

Vince Gill

Jay Z

12
Henry Mancini
20

Pat Metheny

Bruce Springsteen

Al Schmitt

16
Jimmy Sturr
18

Tony Bennett

Yo-Yo Ma

text: Most Grammys won by a female artist[edit]

text: Alison Krauss has, as a solo artist, collaborator and producer, won 27 Grammy Awards.[3]

text:
Rank
Artist
Awards

1
Alison Krauss[note 1]
27

2
Beyoncé[note 2]
22

3
Aretha Franklin
18

4
Adele
15

Alicia Keys

6
Ella Fitzgerald
13

Leontyne Price

Emmylou Harris

9
Shirley Caesar
11

10
Chaka Khan
10

Bonnie Raitt

Linda Ronstadt

Taylor Swift

CeCe Winans

15
Mary J. Blige
9

Natalie Cole

Sheryl Crow

Norah Jones

Hillary Scott[note 3]

text: Most Grammys won by a group[edit]

text: U2 holds the record for most Grammy Awards won by a group. They have won 22 awards.

text:
Rank
Artists
Awards

1
U2
22

2
Alison Krauss and Union Station
14

3
Dixie Chicks
13

4
Foo Fighters
11

5
Pat Metheny Group
10

6
The Manhattan Transfer
9

The Beatles

Emerson String Quartet

Asleep At The Wheel

10
Blackwood Brothers
8

Metallica

Santana

Take 6

14
Coldplay
7

Kentucky Thunder

Lady Antebellum

Simon & Garfunkel

Los Tigres del Norte

text: Most Grammys won by a producer[edit]

text: Quincy Jones with 27 awards holds the record for most Grammy Awards won by a producer (and eleven of those were awarded for production duties. Jones also received Grammys as an arranger and a performing artist). Some producers have also won awards as engineers, mixers and/or mastering engineers.

text:
Rank
Producer
Awards

1
Quincy Jones
27

2
Kanye West
21

3
David Foster
16

James Mallinson

4
Steven Epstein
15

David Frost

7
Phil Ramone
14

8
T Bone Burnett
13

Robert Woods

Jay David Saks

11
Arif Mardin
11

text: Most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer[edit]

text: Al Schmitt, with 20 awards, has won more Grammy Awards than any other engineer or mixer.

text: Youngest winners[edit]

text: The Peasall Sisters are the youngest Grammy winners, when they were credited artists on the O Brother, Where Art Thou? soundtrack, which won Album of the Year in 2002.[4] LeAnn Rimes is the youngest individual winner. She was 14 years old when she won her first two awards in 1997. She was also the first Country artist to win the Best New Artist Grammy.

text:
Rank
Age
Artist

1
7 years
Leah Peasall

2
9 years
Hannah Peasall

3
13 years
Sarah Peasall

4
14 years, 182 days
LeAnn Rimes

5
14 years, 313 days
Luis Miguel

6
17 years, 81 days
Lorde

7
18 years, 105 days
Daya

8
18 years, 123 days
Monica

9
19 years, 67 days
Christina Aguilera

10
19 years, 112 days
LaTavia Roberson

text: Youngest artists to win Album of the Year[edit]

text: Taylor Swift is the youngest artist to win Album of the Year. She was 20 years old when she won in 2010 for her album Fearless.

text:
Rank
Age
Artist

1
20 years, 49 days
Taylor Swift

2
21 years, 242 days
Alanis Morissette

3
22 years, 18 days
Barbra Streisand

4
23 years, 274 days
Lauryn Hill

5
23 years, 283 days
Adele

6
23 years, 293 days
Stevie Wonder

7
23 years, 330 days
Norah Jones

text: Oldest winners[edit]

text: Pinetop Perkins is the oldest person to win a Grammy. In 2011 he was awarded Best Traditional Blues Album for Joined At The Hip at 97 years of age.

text:
Rank
Age
Artist

1
97 years, 221 days
Pinetop Perkins

2
95 years, 31 days
George Burns

3
91 years, 137 days
Jimmy Carter

4
90 years, 52 days
Elizabeth Cotten

5
90 years, 26 days
Betty White

text: Note: Sources vary on the birth year of Elizabeth Cotten, with some stating it as 1893, while others say 1895. The above information credits it as 1895. With either year, Cotten is the oldest female Grammy winner.

text: Most honored albums[edit]

text: Santana's Supernatural and U2's How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb hold the record for most honored album having won nine awards. Supernatural won nine awards in 2000 and How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb won three awards in 2005 and won a further six in 2006 giving it a total of nine awards.

text:
Rank
Albums & Artists
Awards

1
How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb — U2
9

3
Supernatural — Santana

Come Away With Me — Norah Jones
8

Genius Loves Company — Ray Charles

Thriller — Michael Jackson

7
All That You Can't Leave Behind — U2
7

Back on the Block — Quincy Jones

9
21 — Adele
6

Back To Black — Amy Winehouse

The Blueprint 3 — Jay Z

Bridge Over Troubled Water — Simon & Garfunkel

Raising Sand — Robert Plant & Alison Krauss

The Return of Roger Miller — Roger Miller

Taking the Long Way — Dixie Chicks

To Pimp a Butterfly — Kendrick Lamar

Toto IV — Toto

Unforgettable... with Love — Natalie Cole

Unplugged — Eric Clapton

text: Most Album of the Year wins[edit]

text: The record for most Album of the Year wins is three. Three recording artists, four record producers, two mastering engineers and one engineer/mixer have won the award three times.

text:
Frank Sinatra, artist — Come Dance with Me! (1960), September of My Years (1966), A Man and His Music (1967)
Stevie Wonder, artist — Innervisions (1974), Fulfillingness' First Finale (1975), Songs in the Key of Life (1977)
Paul Simon, artist — Bridge over Troubled Water (1971), Still Crazy After All These Years (1976), Graceland (1987)
David Foster, producer — Unforgettable… with Love (1992), The Bodyguard: Original Soundtrack Album (1994), Falling into You (1997)
Phil Ramone, producer — Still Crazy After All These Years (1976), 52nd Street (1980), Genius Loves Company (2005)
Daniel Lanois, producer — The Joshua Tree (1988), Time out of Mind (1998), How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb (2006)
Bob Ludwig, mastering engineer — Babel (2013), Random Access Memories (2014), Morning Phase (2015)
Tom Coyne, mastering engineer — 21 (2012), 1989 (2016), 25 (2017)
Tom Elmhirst, engineer/mixer — 21 (2012), Morning Phase (2015), 25 (2017)
Ryan Tedder, producer — 21 (2012), 1989 (2016), 25 (2017)

text: Most Record of the Year wins[edit]

text: The record for most wins are three.

text:
Paul Simon, artist
Tom Elmhirst, engineer/mixer
Tom Coyne, mastering engineer

text: Most Grammys won for consecutive albums[edit]

text: Pat Metheny and his band the Pat Metheny Group have won 20 Grammy Awards in total, including seven consecutive awards for seven consecutive albums.[5] Metheny held the record for Grammy wins in the most different categories as of the 2005 Grammy Awards:

text:
Best Jazz Fusion Performance (1983, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1990)
Best Instrumental Composition (1991)
Best Contemporary Jazz Performance/Album (1993, 1994, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2005)
Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Individual or Group (1998, 2000, 2013)
Best Rock Instrumental Performance (1999)
Best Jazz Instrumental Solo (2001)
Best New Age Album (2004, 2012)

text: Most consecutive Grammys won for the same category[edit]

text: Aretha Franklin holds the record for winning the most consecutive Grammys in the same category. She won the Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance every year from 1968 to 1975, for an eight-year winning streak. She also won in this category in 1982, 1986, and 1988, giving her 11 wins in the category.

text: After Franklin, Jimmy Sturr, Bill Cosby and John Williams are tied for second place for consecutive Grammy wins in the same category:

text: Sturr won six years in a row between 1987 and 1992 for Best Polka Album. He also won for three runs of four consecutive years (1996–1999, 2001–2004, and 2006–2009.) He won 18 out of the 24 Best Polka Album Grammys that were awarded since that category was added in 1985. The award was discontinued in 2009.

text: Cosby won six years in a row between 1965 and 1970 for Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.

text: Williams won six years in a row between 1978 and 1983 for Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media.

text: Lenny Kravitz won the Best Male Rock Vocal Performance award four years in a row (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002).

text: Artists who have won all four General Field awards[edit]

text: There have been only two artists who have won all four General Field awards. In 1981, Christopher Cross won Record, Album and Song of the Year as well as Best New Artist.[6] Adele is the second artist to win all four, and the first female to do so. In 2009, she won Best New Artist and in 2012 and 2017, she won Record, Album and Song of the Year.

text: Single ceremony[edit]

text: Most Grammys won in one night[edit]

text: The Record for Most Grammys won in one night is eight. Michael Jackson won eight in 1984 and Santana tied Jackson's record in 2000.

text:
Rank
Artist(s)
Awards

1
Michael Jackson (1984)
8

Santana (2000)

3
Roger Miller (1966)
6

Toto (1983)

Quincy Jones (1991)

Eric Clapton (1993)

Beyoncé (2010)

Adele (2012)

text: Most Grammys won by a male artist in one night[edit]

text: Michael Jackson won eight awards in 1984.

text:
Rank
Artist(s)
Awards

1
Michael Jackson (1984)
8

2
Roger Miller (1966)
6

Quincy Jones (1991)

Eric Clapton (1993)

text: Most Grammys won by a female artist in one night[edit]

text: The record most Grammys won by a female artist in one night is six. Beyoncé and Adele each won six in 2010 and 2012, respectively.

text:
Rank
Artist
Awards

1
Beyoncé (2010)
6

Adele (2012)

3
Lauryn Hill (1999)
5

Alicia Keys (2002)

Norah Jones (2003)

Beyoncé (2004)

Amy Winehouse (2008)

Alison Krauss (2009)

Adele (2017)

text: Most Grammys won by a group in one night[edit]

text: In 2000, Santana was awarded a total of 8 awards. They won the awards for Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, Best Pop Instrumental Performance, Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Rock Album.

text:
Rank
Artists
Awards

1
Santana (2000)
8

2
Toto (1983)
6

3
Simon & Garfunkel (1971)
5

U2 (2006)

Dixie Chicks (2007)

Lady Antebellum (2011)

Foo Fighters (2012)

text: Most Grammys won by a record producer in one night[edit]

text: The record for most awards won by a producer in one night is five. Rick Rubin won five awards in 2007 including Record of the Year, Album of the Year and Best Country Album for the Dixie Chicks, Best Rock Album for the Red Hot Chili Peppers as well as Producer of the Year, Non Classical.

text: Most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer in one night[edit]

text: The most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer in one night is six. At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards in 2017, Tom Elmhirst won Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Best Pop Vocal Album, Best Engineered Album Non Classical, Best Alternative Music Album and Best Rock Album for his work on Adele's '25', David Bowie's 'Blackstar' and Cage The Elephant's 'Tell Me I'm Pretty'.

text: Artist who has won all four General Field Awards at a single ceremony[edit]

text: Christopher Cross (1981) received all four General Field awards in one night. Cross won the Record of the Year ("Sailing"), Album of the Year ("Christopher Cross"), Song of the Year ("Sailing"), and Best New Artist Grammys in a single ceremony.[7]

text: Artists who have won Record, Album and Song of the Year in one night[edit]

text: The three biggest Grammy Awards are Record of the Year, Album of the Year and Song of the Year. Six artists have won all three in one night. Adele is the only artist in Grammy history to accomplish this twice.

text:
Year
Artist

1971
Paul Simon

1972
Carole King

1981
Christopher Cross

1993
Eric Clapton

2007
Dixie Chicks

2012
Adele

2017

text: Most Grammys won by an album in one night[edit]

text: The most awards awarded to an album in one night is nine. In 2000 Santana's Supernatural was awarded nine awards. It won Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a duo or Group With Vocals, Best Pop Collaboration with vocals, Best Pop Instrumental Performance, Best Rock Performance by a Duo or group with Vocals, Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Rock Album.

text: Most posthumous Grammys won in one night[edit]

text: Ray Charles holds the record for most posthumous awards won in one night. He was awarded five Grammy Awards in 2005 including Album of the Year.

text: Nominations[edit]

text: Most Grammy nominations[edit]

text: Quincy Jones holds the record for the most Grammy nominations with 79.[8][9]

text:
Rank
Artist
Nominations

1
Quincy Jones
79

2
Paul McCartney[note 4]
78

3
Georg Solti
74

Stevie Wonder

5
Henry Mancini
72

6
Kanye West
68

7
Pierre Boulez
67

8
Jay Z
66

9
Leonard Bernstein
63

10
Chick Corea
64

11
Beyoncé[note 5]
62

John Williams

13
Bruce Springsteen[note 6]
51

Jay David Saks

15
Bono[note 7][note 6]
50

Thomas Z. Shepard

17
Willie Nelson
49

James Mallinson

Babyface

text: Most nominations in one night[edit]

text: Michael Jackson holds the record for most Grammy nominations in one night with 12 nominations.

text:
Rank
Artist
Nominations
Year

1
Michael Jackson
12
1984

2
Kendrick Lamar
11
2016

3
Lauryn Hill
10
1999

Kanye West
2005

Beyoncé
2010

Eminem
2011

7
Roger Miller
9
1966

Paul McCartney
1966

The Manhattan Transfer
1986

Jay Z
2014

Beyoncé
2017

text: Most nominations without winning[edit]

text: The record for most Grammy nominations without a win is 20, held by Morten Lindberg.

text:
Rank
Artist
Nominations

1
Morten Lindberg
20

2
Snoop Dogg
17

Brian McKnight

4
Joe Satriani
15

5
Toshiko Akiyoshi
14

Martina McBride

Björk

8
Katy Perry
13

Nas

Spyro Gyra

11
Diana Ross
12

Dierks Bentley

Busta Rhymes

Lenny Gomulka

Peter Kater

16
Musiq Soulchild
11

Connie Smith

Vanessa L. Williams

Jazmine Sullivan

R. Carlos Nakai

Alan Parsons

Elly Ameling

text: Most nominations in one night without winning[edit]

text:
Rank
Artist
Nominations

1
Paul McCartney (1966)
9

2
Kanye West (2017)
8

Rihanna (2017)

4
Stevie Wonder (1983)
7

India.Arie (2002)

Kendrick Lamar (2014)

7
Henry Mancini (1959)
6

Mariah Carey (1996)

50 Cent (2006)

Bruno Mars (2012)

11
Robert M. Jones (1961)
5

Elvis Presley (1961)

Frank Sinatra (1961)

James Taylor (1971)

Sting (1986)

Joan Osborne (1996)

Avril Lavigne (2003)

50 Cent (2004)

Alicia Keys (2006)

Gwen Stefani (2006)

James Blunt (2007)

Jazmine Sullivan (2009)

B.o.B (2011)

Lil Wayne (2012)

Drake (2014, 2016)

text: Grammy nominations in the most categories[edit]

text: Bob Dylan has been nominated in more categories than any other musician. He has been nominated in 13 different categories. These were in folk, spoken word, country, general, gospel, historical, rock, music video, visual media, pop, american roots, and most recently traditional. He is followed by Sir Paul McCartney who has received nomination in the general field, pop, arrangement, rock, visual media, music video, spoken word, historical, alternative music and rap. Béla Fleck is the artist with the third most nominations among categories. He has been nominated in the country, pop, jazz, bluegrass, world music, classical, folk, and spoken word, as well as composition and arranging categories.

text: Jackson siblings Michael and Janet are tied for the fourth most nominations in the most categories with nominations in seven different categories, they have received nominations in the general field and other categories. See list of awards and nominations received by Michael and Janet.

text: Artists who had been nominated for all four General Field awards in one night[edit]

text: Only ten artists have been nominated for all four General Field awards in one night.

text:
Year
Artist

1968
Bobbie Gentry

1980
Christopher Cross

1985
Cyndi Lauper

1989
Tracy Chapman

1991
Mariah Carey

1998
Paula Cole

2002
India.Arie

2008
Amy Winehouse

2013
Fun.

2015
Sam Smith

text: Youngest nominees[edit]

text: Leah Peasall of the Peasall sisters is the youngest ever Grammy nominee (and winner) as one of the credited artists on the O Brother, Where Art Thou? (soundtrack) in 2002.[4] Deleon Richards is the youngest performer to receive an individual nomination, for Best Soul/Gospel performance.[10]

text:
Rank
Age
Artist

1
7 years
Leah Peasall

2
8 years, 161 days
Deleon Richards

3
9 years
Hannah Peasall

4
12 years, 126 days
Zac Hanson

5
12 years, 155 days
Joey Alexander

6
12 years, 199 days
Michael Jackson

7
12 years, 273 days
Billy Gilman

8
13 years
Sarah Peasall

9
14 years, 45 days
Chris "Daddy Mac" Smith

10
14 years, 182 days
LeAnn Rimes

11
14 years, 197 days
Chris "Mac Daddy" Kelly

12
14 years, 313 days
Luis Miguel

13
14 years, 348 days
Taylor Hanson


document_title: The Rebel (TV series)

question_text: who played johnny yuma in the tv series the rebel

text: The Rebel (TV series)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: The series portrays the adventures of young Confederate Army veteran Johnny Yuma, an aspiring writer, played by Nick Adams. Haunted by his memories of the American Civil War, Yuma, in search of inner peace, roams the American West, specifically the Texas Hill Country and the South Texas Plains. He keeps a journal of his adventures and fights injustice where he finds it with a revolver and his dead father's sawed-off double-barreled shotgun.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Nick Adams was the star and only regular actor of this series. He was involved in the show's design, inception, and writing, along with the producer, Andrew J. Fenady, who appeared twice in the series, once as United States Army General Philip Sheridan in the episode "Johnny Yuma at Appomattox", with George Macready as General Robert E. Lee.[3] John Carradine appeared in two episodes as Elmer Dodson, the newspaper editor in Johnny Yuma's hometown, fictitious Mason City, Texas, who encourages Yuma to keep a journal of his travels.[4]

text: John M. Pickard, formerly of the syndicated Boots and Saddles television series appeared three times on The Rebel, including the role of Sheriff Pruett in "Run, Killer, Run". Hal Stalmaster played Skinny in the 1959 episode "Misfits," including Malcolm Cassell as Billy the Kid and Hampton Fancher as "Bull". The young "Misfits" enlist The Rebel's "help" to rob a bank and in their mind live thereafter a life of leisure. Leonard Nimoy was cast as Jim Colburn in the 1960 episode "The Hunted", the story of an innocent man on the run from a posse which does not know that Colburn was acquitted by a jury.[5]

text: Olive Sturgess guest-starred twice on The Rebel, as Jeannie in "The Scavengers" (1959) and as Charity Brunner, a woman in search of her missing miner husband, in "The Pit" (1961). In the second episode, Sturgess's real-life six-month-old nephew, Leonard Sturgess, played the baby required in the script.[6]

text: Other guest stars[edit]

text:
Charles Aidman
Philip Ahn
Claude Akins
Michael Ansara
Barry Atwater
James Best
Robert Blake
Dan Blocker
Henry Brandon
Patricia Breslin
Victor Buono
Johnny Cash
Iron Eyes Cody
Elisha Cook, Jr.
Ellen Corby
Vic Damone
Royal Dano
John Dehner
Frank DeKova
William Demarest
Richard Devon
Bobby Diamond
George Dolenz
James Drury
Jack Elam
Ross Elliott
Jason Evers
Richard Farnsworth
Jamie Farr
Virginia Field
Robert Foulk
Steven Franken
Ned Glass
Mark Goddard
Virginia Gregg
Clu Gulager
Stacy Harris
Myron Healey
Richard Jaeckel
L.Q. Jones
Gail Kobe
Wright King
Otto Kruger
Ruta Lee
Lisa Lu
John Marley
Strother Martin

Lon McCallister
Tyler McVey
Patricia Medina
Robert Middleton
John Mitchum
Joanna Moore
Terry Moore
Agnes Moorehead
Ed Nelson
Leonard Nimoy
Jeanette Nolan
Tom Nolan
Jay Novello
Warren Oates
Cathy O'Donnell
J. Pat O'Malley
Gigi Perreau
William Phipps
Paul Picerni
Mala Powers
Sue Randall
Madlyn Rhue
Paul Richards
Tex Ritter
Gail Russell
Soupy Sales
Walter Sande
William Schallert
James Seay
Dan Sheridan
Frank Silvera
Bob Steele
Olan Soule
K.T. Stevens
Warren Stevens
Gloria Talbott
Buck Taylor
Vaughn Taylor
Kenneth Tobey
Harry Townes
Robert Vaughn
James Westerfield
Peter Whitney
Marie Windsor
Carleton G. Young

text: Series highlights[edit]

text: The first episode, "Johnny Yuma", is set in early 1867. It shows Johnny Yuma returning to his hometown nearly two years after the end of the war. His father, Ned Yuma, the sheriff, had been killed by a gang that took control of the town. Dan Blocker of "Bonanza" fame plays the gang leader. This episode is when Yuma gets his father's shotgun.

text: The third episode, entitled "Yellow Hair" has Yuma captured by the historical Kiowa chief Satanta, played by native Mexican Rodolfo Acosta, whose fictional adopted white daughter is played by Carol Nugent, Nick Adams' wife.[7]

text: The 25th episode, "Fair Game," gained attention at the end of 2015 because it appears to be a principal source for Quentin Tarantino's feature The Hateful Eight, including a female prisoner (Patricia Medina) and a couple of significant plot twists.

text: Several place names mentioned throughout the episodes clearly place the action in post-Civil War Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Forts noted in episodes, such as Fort Griffin and Fort Concho, were actual frontier Texas outposts of the late 1860s and are now state historic sites. In a first-season episode, Yuma encounters rag-tag rebel CSA soldiers in the corrupt mining town of La Paz, Arizona. The actual town of La Paz was the seat of Yuma County between 1862 and 1870; it stood in the Confederate Arizona Territory which existed briefly during the Civil War. Nothing remains of La Paz but crumbling foundations and a historical marker.

text: In "Vicious Circle", Yuma identifies the Confederate unit he served in as the 3rd Texas, but he does not indicate the branch of service. Other episodes show saddlebags stenciled with CSA and an old uniform jacket with yellow collar and cuffs, indicating his regiment was likely the 3rd Texas Cavalry.

text: After the show's original run on ABC finished in June 1961, it was picked up by NBC and rerun as a summer replacement series from June to September 1962.

text: Theme song[edit]

text: The show’s theme song, "The Rebel" alias "The Ballad of Johnny Yuma", was composed by Richard Markowitz, with lyrics by Andrew J. Fenady. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.[8] It was recorded by Johnny Cash, but it was not released as a single until April 1961, in June, shortly before the show went off the air. Nick Adams recorded the theme, which was released on Mercury Records (#71607) by March 1960. During syndication, the theme song was replaced by the DeWolfe Music Library instrumental track "Dodge City" by Jack Trombey.

text: Popular culture[edit]

text: Two episodes of the sitcom Seinfeld referenced the first line of The Rebel theme song. In the episode "The Heart Attack", Jerry retorts to Kramer that Johnny Yuma is a Rebel. The Rebel was also a 1966 Allan Sherman song from the album Allan Sherman Live!; and later, in 1994, it was applied to the compilation album My Son, the Greatest.

text: DVD release[edit]

text: On August 18, 2015, Timeless Media Group released The Rebel- The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time.[9] The 11-disc set contained all 76 episodes of the series as well as bonus features.


document_title: Food energy

question_text: where is the energy released from when food is metabolized

text: Food energy

text: Overview[edit]

text: Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of food energy to sustain their metabolism and to drive their muscles. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. (Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins comprise ninety percent of the dry weight of foods.[2]) Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as from organic acids, polyols, and ethanol present in the diet.[3] Some diet components that provide little or no food energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol and insoluble fiber, may still be necessary to health and survival for other reasons. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down (they are used by the body in the form in which they are absorbed) and so cannot be used for energy. Fiber cannot be completely digested by most animals, including humans, who can only extract 2 kcal/g of food energy. Ruminants can extract nearly 4 kcal/g from fiber because of the bacteria in their rumens.

text: Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules (J) or in its multiples; the kilojoule (kJ) is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still widely used in food-related contexts, is the calorie; more precisely, the "food calorie", "large calorie" or kilocalorie (kcal or Cal), equal to 4184 joules. (Contrast the "small calorie" (cal), equal to 1/1000 of a food calorie, that is often used in chemistry and in physics.) Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie ("kcal") and kilojoule ("kJ") appear on nutrition labels. In many countries, only one of the units is displayed; in Canada and the United States labels spell out the unit as "calorie" or as "Calorie".

text: Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of food energy per gram, 37 and 29 kJ/g (8.8 and 6.9 kcal/g), respectively. Proteins and most carbohydrates both have about 17 kJ/g (4 kcal/g).[4] The differing energy density of foods (fat, alcohols, carbohydrates and proteins) lies mainly in their varying proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms: For food of elemental composition CcHhOoNn, the heat of combustion underlying the food energy is 100 kcal/g (c + 0.3 h − 0.5 o)/(12 c + h + 16 o + 14 n) to a good approximation (±3%).[1] Carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols (including sugar alcohols) and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g (2.4 kcal/g) and 13 kJ/g (3.1 kcal/g) respectively.[5]

text: Measure[edit]

text: Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using (say) the Gibbs free energy of combustion, or the amount of ATP generated by metabolizing the food. However, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. Conventional food energy is based on heats of combustion in a bomb calorimeter and corrections that take into consideration the efficiency of digestion and absorption and the production of urea and other substances in the urine. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century[6] (see Atwater system for more detail). Based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids.[6] The system was later improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the United States Department of Agriculture, who derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors for different foods were proposed.[7]

text: Here is worth to mention, that Calorie = 1000 calories. Pronunciation is the same for both "calories". This is an old problem that can no longer be fixed, as it would confuse over 500 million people. The calorie is a metric measure. Grocers and others in the US decided that writing that a slice of bread is 80,000 calories was too cumbersome (and it implies too much precision), so they started using Calories (which are actually kilocalories). Kilocalories (Calories) or kilojoules are always used for food, while "calories" is considered archaic (scientists in the US and most other countries use joules and newtons). Dieticians and the US government have begun to use kJoules or kcal instead of Calories. In countries that have converted completely to the metric system, Joules and Kilojoules are usually used.

text: Nutrition labels[edit]

text: Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, to help consumers control their energy intake.[8] In the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In the United States, the equivalent mandatory labels display only "Calories" (kilocalories),[9] often as a substitute for the name of the quantity being measured, food energy; an additional kilojoules figure is optional and is rarely used. In Australia and New Zealand, the food energy must be stated in kilojoules (and optionally in kilocalories as well), and other nutritional energy information is similarly conveyed in kilojoules.[10][11] The energy available from the respiration of food is usually given on labels for 100 g, for a typical serving size (according to the manufacturer), and/or for the entire pack contents.[citation needed]

text: The amount of food energy associated with a particular food could be measured by completely burning the dried food in a bomb calorimeter, a method known as direct calorimetry.[12] However, the values given on food labels are not determined in this way. The reason for this is that direct calorimetry also burns the dietary fiber, and so does not allow for fecal losses; thus direct calorimetry would give systematic overestimates of the amount of fuel that actually enters the blood through digestion. What are used instead are standardized chemical tests or an analysis of the recipe using reference tables for common ingredients[13] to estimate the product's digestible constituents (protein, carbohydrate, fat, etc.). These results are then converted into an equivalent energy value based on the following standardized table of energy densities.[5][14] However "energy density" is a misleading term for it once again assumes that energy is IN the particular food, whereas it simply means that "high density" food needs more oxygen during respiration, leading to greater transfer of energy.[1][15]

text: Note that the following standardized table of energy densities[14] is an approximation and the value in kJ/g does not convert exactly to kcal/g using a conversion factor.

text: The use of such a simple system has been criticized for not taking into consideration other factors pertaining to the influence of different foods on obesity.[6]

text:
Food component

Energy density[16]

kJ/g

kcal/g

Fat

37

9

Ethanol (drinking alcohol)

29

7

Proteins

17

4

Carbohydrates

17

4

Organic acids

13

3

Polyols (sugar alcohols, sweeteners)

10

2.4

Fiber

8

2

text: All the other nutrients in food are noncaloric and are thus not counted.

text: Recommended daily intake[edit]

text:
Increased mental activity has been linked with moderately increased brain energy consumption.[17]
Older people and those with sedentary lifestyles require less energy; children and physically active people require more.

text: According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average minimum energy requirement per person per day is about 7,500 kJ (1,800 kcal).[18]

text: Recommendations in the United States are 2,600 and 2,000 kcal (10,900 and 8,400 kJ) for men and women (respectively) between 31 and 35, at a physical activity level equivalent to walking about 2 to 5 km (1 1⁄2 to 3 mi) per day at 5 to 6 km/h (3 to 4 mph) in addition to the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life.[19] French guidance suggests roughly the same levels.[20]

text: For young children, estimated caloric needs range from 1,000 to 2,000 calories per day. The recommended caloric intake for older children and adolescents, on the other hand, varies greatly from 1,400 to 3,200 calories per day. Boys in general require higher caloric intake than girls.[19]

text: Recognizing that people of different age and gender groups have varying daily activity levels, Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council recommends no single daily energy intake but instead prescribes an appropriate recommendation for each age and gender group.[21] Notwithstanding, nutrition labels on Australian food products typically recommend the average daily energy intake of 2,100 kcal (8,800 kJ).

text: Energy usage in the human body[edit]

text: The human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.

text: The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into mechanical (physical) power depends on the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage (e.g., which muscles are used, whether the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low: only 18 to 26% of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy.[22] This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from the respiration of food, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20%, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal (18 kJ) per hour. For example, a manufacturer of rowing equipment shows calories released from 'burning' food as four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal (1,300 kJ) per hour,[23] which amounts to about 20% efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. It can take up to 20 hours of little physical output (e.g., walking) to "burn off" 4,000 kcal (17,000 kJ)[24] more than a body would otherwise consume. For reference, each kilogram of body fat is roughly equivalent to 32,300 kilojoules or 7,700 kilocalories of food energy (i.e., 3,500 kilocalories per pound).[25]

text: Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates.[citation needed]


document_title: The Ranch (TV series)

question_text: who plays the pipeline engineer on the ranch

text: The Ranch (TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Ashton Kutcher as Colt Bennett, a former high school and college football star who returns to his hometown after a fifteen-year absence for a tryout, but ultimately helps his father and older brother on their family ranch. Colt is frequently the butt of jokes from his father and brother, particularly when it comes to his ranching skills (or lack thereof) and his disappointing pro football career. He is a heavy drinker and has a penchant for not using common sense, but he seems to have a heart of gold and tries to do right by others. Based on his various T-shirts and dialogue throughout the first season, it's implied that Colt has played for the Barcelona Dragons, San Jose SaberCats, Spokane Shock, Orlando Predators, Nebraska Danger, Iowa Barnstormers, Minnesota Axemen and Philadelphia Soul. Dialogue also states that he was a member of teams in Canada, notably the fictional Saskatoon Cold ("Like the Miami Heat... only cold") and Alaska, as well as that he was in the practice squad of the Buffalo Bills. He also states in the first episode he was the back up of the back up of the back up for Florida State and won the championship in 1999.
Danny Masterson as Jameson “Rooster” Bennett, Colt's older brother. He has lived and worked on the ranch since Colt left to follow his football career, at times showing a bitter attitude for the burden of responsibility this caused him. Despite living in Colt's shadow he is far more competent on the ranch as well as a more level headed thinker. He has however been just as irresponsible as Colt, drinking too much and sleeping around. (seasons 1 - 3)
Debra Winger as Margaret "Maggie" Bennett, owner of Maggie's, and Colt and Rooster's mother. Maggie is divorced from Beau and lives in a trailer behind the bar she owns. Much more lighthearted and caring than Beau, her company and advice is often sought out by the boys on how to deal with problems, especially those concerning their father. Maggie is something of a hippie and is an avid marijuana smoker.
Elisha Cuthbert as Abigail "Abby" Phillips, a Garrison High School history teacher and Colt's high school and current girlfriend. Abby was in a five-year relationship with Kenny and was briefly engaged to him, but ultimately she broke it off and hooked back up with Colt. (recurring, season 1; main cast, season 2 - present)
Sam Elliott as Beau Bennett, Maggie's ex-husband, and Colt and Rooster's father. A Vietnam War veteran, he has worked the ranch since returning from the war and taking it over after his father died. Beau is difficult to get along with, perpetually annoyed with everyone and everything. He detests many modern amenities and is easily angered by his sons' antics. Beau appears to be a Republican with a special affinity for Ronald Reagan but at times seems to despise all politicians regardless of affiliation.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Barry Corbin as Dale Rivers, a hearing-impaired veterinarian and close friend of Beau's
Grady Lee Richmond as Hank, a regular Maggie's patron
Bret Harrison as Kenneth "Kenny" Ballard, a Courtyard by Marriott manager and Abby's ex-fiancé
Megyn Price as Mary Roth, a Cracker Barrel waitress and Rooster's older girlfriend
Kelli Goss as Heather Roth, Mary's younger daughter and Colt's ex-girlfriend, was pregnant with their child.
Molly McCook as Darlene Roth, Mary's older daughter
Kathy Baker as Joanne, a Cracker Barrel waitress, Mary's friend, and potential new love interest for Beau
Ethan Suplee as "Beer Pong Billy" Tompkins, a police officer and high school friend of Colt and Rooster's
Aimee Teegarden as Nikki, Heather's friend and Billy's fiancée
Chasty Ballesteros as Tanya Showers, a sexy weather reporter and Kenny's current girlfriend
Laura Vallejo as Maria, a Maggie's waitress
Sharon Lawrence as Brenda Sanders, a widowed hairdresser who befriended Beau when he and Maggie separated
Maggie Lawson as Jen the engineer, who wants to build a pipeline underneath the Bennett Ranch.

text: Special Guests[edit]

text:
Jon Cryer as Bill Jensen, a loan officer and former high school football referee
Wilmer Valderrama as Umberto, a former Iron River ranch hand, former employee of Neumann's Hill at the My Little Pony Ranch. He is Rooster and Colt's friend. Currently deported.
Martin Mull as Jerry, Maggie's sometimes acid-tripping attorney
John Amos as Ed Bishop, a longtime family friend of the Bennetts and a Neumann's Hill employee
Thomas F. Wilson as Coach Fitzgerald, the Garrison High School head football coach
Debra Jo Rupp as Janice Phillips, Abby's mother (Season 2)
Jim Beaver as Chuck Phillips, Abby's father, who like Janice is disdainful of Abby's relationship with Colt (Season 2)
Conchata Ferrell as Shirley (Season 2)
Lou Diamond Phillips as Clint, a traveling musician attracted to Maggie (Season 2)
Kurtwood Smith as Sam Peterson, neighbor of the Iron River Ranch (Season 2)

text: Cameos[edit]

text:
Joe Firstman
Pearl Charles
Kurt Neumann
Bukka Allen
Sam Hawksley
Thomas Rhett

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally released

1
20
10
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

10
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

2
20
10
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

10
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

Part 1

1
1
"Back Where I Come From"
David Trainer
Don Reo & Jim Patterson
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

When Colt Bennett returns home from Canada to try out for a semipro Denver team, he learns that his family's ranch has fallen on hard times.

2
2
"Some People Change"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Colt runs into an ex at Maggie's bar and reminisces with Rooster over a bottle of whiskey. Getting back in Beau's good graces is a losing battle.

3
3
"The Boys of Fall"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jamie Rhonheimer
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

When his inflated ego lands him in hot water, Colt realizes he's not the big man on campus anymore. Beau's doctor makes him trade in steak for salad.

4
4
"Got a Little Crazy"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Nikki Schiefelbein
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Colt smooths things over with Abby. When Maggie drags Beau to the Marriott for a romantic evening, the guys have some fun back at the house.

5
5
"American Kids"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Rooster and Colt's long-simmering rivalry comes to a head on the first day of hunting season. But their bickering has an upside for Beau and Maggie.

6
6
"Better as a Memory"
David Trainer
Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Abby gets a taste of her own medicine after a hazy night of drinking. Beau warms to the idea of mending fences with Maggie.

7
7
"I Can't Go There"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Colt figures out what he wants from Heather. A sick calf gives Beau an excuse to avoid dealing with his feelings -- and creates some unexpected bonds.

8
8
"Til It's Gone"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Matt Ross
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

The ranch's dwindling finances drive a wedge between Beau and the boys, and Colt goes behind his father's back to ask Maggie for help.

9
9
"There Goes My Life"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Max Searle & Nathan Chetty
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Heather sets up Rooster with her sister, but Colt's afraid he'll ruin a good thing. Maggie and Beau air their dirty laundry at marriage counseling.

10
10
"Down the Road"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Colt and Rooster worry when Beau has a change of heart about the calves. But that's just the beginning of the surprises that await the Bennett clan.

Part 2

11
1
"Gone as a Girl Can Get"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

An angry Beau clears Maggie's things out of the house. Colt tries to sort out his feelings for Abby and Heather.

12
2
"Living and Living Well"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Colt struggles to keep his relationship with Abby under wraps. The boys make a big purchase and try to sell Beau on a business opportunity.

13
3
"Sittin' on the Fence"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Steve Tompkins
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Beau's depressed over Maggie, so Mary tries to fix him up with a friend. Colt wonders when Abby's going to follow through on her promise.

14
4
"Let's Fall to Pieces Together"
David Trainer
Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Steve Leff
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

While Rooster tries to broker peace between Beau and Maggie, Colt apologizes to Heather -- but his timing couldn't be worse.

15
5
"I Know She Still Loves Me"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Jeff Lowell & Max Searle
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Beau and Maggie come to a decision about their relationship, but they don't see eye to eye on the ranch. The boys take Kenny out drinking.

16
6
"Easy Come, Easy Go"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Rooster and Colt try to prove themselves to Beau, but he doesn't have much faith in them. Colt gets jealous when he sees Abby and Kenny together.

17
7
"I've Come to Expect It from You"
David Trainer
Story by : Jim Patterson & Jamie Rhonheimer
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Colt plans a special date with Abby. Rooster vents his frustrations to Maggie, while Joanne gives Beau some sage advice.

18
8
"The Cowboy Rides Away"
David Trainer
Story by : Nikki Schiefelbein & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Steve Leff
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Beau tries to make amends with the boys, but it may be too little, too late. A job offer drives a wedge between Rooster and Colt.

19
9
"Leavin's Been Comin' (For a Long, Long Time)"
David Trainer
Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Steve Tompkins
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Maggie stands up for Rooster when Beau kicks him out of the house. Meanwhile, Colt is torn between his brother and his father.

20
10
"Merry Christmas (Wherever You Are)"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Colt realizes what he wants for his future, Beau and Maggie find some closure, and the gang celebrates Christmas at the bar.

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

Part 3

21
1
"My Next Thirty Years"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

After Heather drops a bombshell, a visit from Abby's parents is the last thing Colt needs -- and they all end up at church together on Christmas Eve.

22
2
"Things Change"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Heather makes a decision about the pregnancy. Mary reads Rooster the riot act for keeping it a secret, and Colt struggles with how to tell Abby.

23
3
"Take Me Away from Here"
David Trainer
Story by : Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Max Searle & Steve Leff
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

After a heart-to-heart with Maggie, Colt steps up and supports Heather. Meanwhile, the tension between Rooster and Beau takes a toll on Maggie.

24
4
"She'll Have You Back"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Nikki Schiefelbein
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Abby agrees to give Colt a chance, but her father isn't as forgiving. Beau and Rooster go to a cattle auction. Maggie thinks about selling the bar.

25
5
"My Best Friend"
David Trainer
Story by : Ashton Kutcher & Carla Filisha
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jamie Rhonheimer
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

The guys wind up in hot water after an ice fishing trip. Beau takes Brenda out to dinner, but Maggie's not far from his mind.

26
6
"Find Out Who Your Friends Are"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Max Williger
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Emotions run high when Abby and Heather fight, leaving Colt caught in the middle. Rooster faces the consequences of blowing off work.

27
7
"One of Those Nights"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jason Zumwalt
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

During a snowstorm, Colt and Abby head out of town, Beau and Joanne get cozy at the ranch, and Maggie meets a charming stranger.

28
8
"I Didn't Ask and She Didn't Say"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Bryce VanKooten & William Vallery
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Colt gets possessive when Heather starts dating a teacher. Abby gives Beau relationship advice. Maggie has a business proposition for Rooster.

29
9
"Last Dollar (Fly Away)"
David Trainer
Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

As Heather's medical bills roll in, Colt realizes how expensive it is having a baby. A surprise visitor at the bar sweeps Maggie off her feet.

30
10
"Can't Really Be Gone"
David Trainer
Story by : Jim Patterson & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Colt's new responsibilities keep him away from Abby. After a memorable night, Maggie ponders what she wants for her future.

Part 4

31
1
"Learning to Live Again"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Colt wants to buy Sam Peterson's ranch -- with or without his family's blessing. Colt and Heather have a heart-to-heart about their loss.

32
2
"Wrapped Up in You"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Wondering if he's ready to marry Abby, Colt seeks romantic advice from an unlikely source: Beau. Rooster hires a flaky new waitress.

33
3
"Rodeo and Juliet"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Carla Filisha & Steve Leff
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Beau ponders a lucrative business offer. Rooster runs afoul of the liquor board. Colt tries to make peace with Abby's Dad.

34
4
"Much Too Young (To Feel this Old)"
David Trainer
Story by : Jim Patterson & Matt Ross
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Colt and Abby start planning their wedding, but they don't see eye to eye. Joanne confesses she still has feelings for Beau.

35
5
"More Than a Memory"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jeff Lowell
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Abby moves in with Colt and Beau when she learns she's losing her job. Rooster and Jen the engineer bond over getting dumped.

36
6
"When You Come Back to Me Again"
David Trainer
Story by : Bryce VanKooten & William Vallery
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Back in town, Maggie frets about how Rooster's been running the bar. Abby considers a career change.

37
7
"Do What You Gotta Do"
David Trainer
Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

A job opportunity in Denver threatens to drive a wedge between Colt and Abby. Maggie pushes back about the pipeline.

38
8
"Big Money"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jeff Lowell & Nikki Schiefelbein
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Maggie takes a stand that lands her in hot water. Colt and Rooster come up with a plan to buy the Peterson ranch, but they need Beau's buy-in.

39
9
"Ain't Goin' Down ('Til the Sun Comes Up)"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Beau shrugs off the doctor's orders and resists the family's efforts to help him. Meanwhile, Colt lashes out at Maggie.

40
10
"If Tomorrow Never Comes"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Beau leaves the boys hanging about the Peterson ranch. Rooster takes Jen on a date. Colt and Abby fight about their future.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Ranch has been met with mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the series an approval rating of 56% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A formulaic set-up and predictable plotting are elevated by The Ranch's surprising sensitivity and strong performances."[14] Metacritic gave the series a score of 56 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[15]

text: Writing for Slate in a positive review, television critic Willa Paskin wrote of the show, "The Ranch is a red-state sitcom, though it takes place in the swing state of Colorado, and is good enough to be watched by people of any political affiliation" and "The goodness sneaks up on you."[16] Los Angeles Times wrote: "[Elliott and Winger's] scenes together, as restrained as they are, are the show's most emotionally resonant. You will want to check them out."[17]


document_title: Sergeant at Arms of the United States House of Representatives

question_text: who announces president at state of the union

text: Duties[edit]

text:
This article is part of a series on the

United States House
of Representatives

History of the United States
House of Representatives

Members

Current members

(by seniority
by age
non-voting)

Former members

Hill committees

(DCCC
NRCC)

Congressional districts

Speaker of the United States
House of Representatives (list)

Party leaders
Democratic Caucus
Republican Conference

Politics and procedure

Committee of the Whole

Closed session (list)
Saxbe fix

Committees (list)
Procedures

Origination Clause
Quorum call

Unanimous consent
Salaries

Apportionment (Huntington–Hill method)

Redistricting
Gerrymandering

Articles of impeachment

Self-executing rule
Rules suspension

General ticket
Plural district

Places

United States Capitol

House office buildings

(Cannon
Ford
Longworth
Rayburn)

v
t
e

text: As the chief law enforcement officer of the House, the Sergeant at Arms is responsible for security in the House wing of the United States Capitol, the House office buildings, and on adjacent grounds. Under the direction of the Speaker of the House or other presiding officer, the Sergeant at Arms plays an integral role in maintaining order and decorum in the House chamber.

text: The Sergeant at Arms is also responsible for ensuring the safety and security of members of Congress, congressional staff, visiting dignitaries, and tourists. Toward this mission, the Sergeant at Arms works in concert with the Senate Sergeant at Arms, and the Architect of the Capitol. These three officials, along with the Chief of the Capitol Police in an ex officio status, comprise the Capitol Police Board.

text: Through custom and precedent, the Sergeant at Arms performs a number of protocol and ceremonial duties. Among these duties are to lead formal processions at ceremonies such as presidential inaugurations, joint sessions of Congress (such as the State of the Union address, prior to 2007), formal addresses to the Congress, greeting and escorting visiting foreign dignitaries, and to supervise congressional funeral arrangements. In this capacity, the Sergeant at Arms is most famous for announcing the arrival of the President, a responsibility that he took over from the Doorkeeper of the United States House of Representatives when the latter position was abolished in 1995. Custom dictates that he announce the arrival of the Supreme Court, the President's cabinet, and finally the President by saying, "Mister (or Madam) Speaker, the President of the United States!"

text: For daily sessions of the House, the Sergeant at Arms carries the silver and ebony Mace of the United States House of Representatives in front of the speaker in procession to the rostrum. When the House is in session, the mace stands on a pedestal to the speaker's own right. When the body resolves itself into a Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, the Sergeant at Arms moves the mace to a lowered position, more or less out of sight. In accordance with the Rules of the House, on the rare occasions when a Member becomes unruly, the Sergeant at Arms, on order of the Speaker, lifts the mace from its pedestal and presents it before the offenders, thereby restoring order.

text: The Sergeant at Arms also performs administrative services in support of the Members, staff, and visitors associated with the security and other operations of the House.

text: If a quorum is not present, those Representatives who are present may vote to order the Sergeant at Arms to try to round up absent Representatives.

text: Capitol Guide Board[edit]

text: In addition to served on the Capitol Police Board, the Sergeant at Arms served with the Senate Sergeant at Arms and the Architect of the Capitol on the Capitol Guide Board. This board oversaw the Capitol Guide Service, which provided tours of the Capitol to visitors and special services to tourists.

text: Deputy Sergeants at Arms[edit]

text: The Deputy Sergeants at Arms act as assistants to the Sergeant at Arms. The Sergeant at Arms has the duty of making the important decisions under his/her power, while the Deputy Sergeant at Arms often executes the decisions. The Deputy Sergeants at Arms serving under Paul Irving is Timothy Blodgett.

text: List of Sergeants at Arms[edit]

text:
Sergeant at Arms
State or Territory
Term of Service

Joseph Wheaton
Rhode Island
May 12, 1789 – October 27, 1807

Thomas Dunn
Maryland
October 27, 1807 – December 5, 1824

John O. Dunn
District of Columbia
December 6, 1824 – December 3, 1833

Thomas Beverly Randolph
Virginia
December 3, 1833 – December 15, 1835

Roderick Dorsey
Maryland
December 15, 1835 – June 8, 1841

Eleazor M. Townsend
Connecticut
June 8, 1841 – December 7, 1843

Newton Lane
Kentucky
December 7, 1843 – December 8, 1847

Nathan Sargent
Vermont
December 8, 1847 – January 15, 1850

Adam J. Glossbrenner
Pennsylvania
January 15, 1850 – February 3, 1860

Henry William Hoffman
Maryland
February 3, 1860 – July 5, 1861

Edward Ball
Ohio
July 5, 1861 – December 8, 1863

Nehemiah G. Ordway
New Hampshire
December 8, 1863 – December 6, 1875

John G. Thompson
Ohio
December 6, 1875 – December 5, 1881

George W. Hooker
Vermont
December 5, 1881 – December 4, 1883

John P. Leedom
Ohio
December 4, 1883 – December 2, 1889

Adoniram J. Holmes
Iowa
December 2, 1889 – December 8, 1891

Samuel S. Yoder
Ohio
December 8, 1891 – August 7, 1893

Herman W. Snow
Illinois
August 7, 1893 – December 2, 1895

Benjamin F. Russell
Missouri
December 2, 1895 – December 4, 1899

Henry Casson
Wisconsin
December 4, 1899 – April 4, 1911

Uriah S. Jackson
Indiana
April 4, 1911 – June 22, 1913

Charles F. Riddell
Indiana
July 18, 1912 – April 7, 1913

Robert B. Gordon
Ohio
April 7, 1913 – May 19, 1919

Joseph G. Rogers
Pennsylvania
May 19, 1919 – December 7, 1931

Kenneth Romney
Montana
December 7, 1931 – January 3, 1947

William F. Russell
Pennsylvania
January 3, 1947 – January 3, 1949

Joseph H. Callahan
Kentucky
January 3, 1949 – January 3, 1953

William F. Russell
Pennsylvania
January 3, 1953 – July 7, 1953

Lyle O. Snader
Illinois
July 8, 1953 – September 15, 1953

William R. Bonsell
Pennsylvania
September 15, 1953 – January 5, 1955

Zeake W. Johnson Jr.
Tennessee
January 5, 1955 – September 30, 1972

Kenneth R. Harding
Virginia
October 1, 1972 – February 29, 1980

Benjamin J. Guthrie
Virginia
March 1, 1980 – January 3, 1983

Jack Russ
Maryland
January 3, 1983 – March 12, 1992

Werner Brandt
Virginia
March 12, 1992 – January 4, 1995

Wilson Livingood
Virginia
January 4, 1995 – January 17, 2012

Paul D. Irving
Florida
January 17, 2012 – present


document_title: Lysosome

question_text: what reactions are performed by hydrolytic enzymes in the lysosome

text: Lysosome

text: Discovery[edit]

text: Christian de Duve, the chairman of the Laboratory of Physiological Chemistry at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium, had been studying the mechanism of action of a pancreatic hormone insulin in liver cells. By 1949, he and his team had focused on the enzyme called glucose 6-phosphatase, which is the first crucial enzyme in sugar metabolism and the target of insulin. They already suspected that this enzyme played a key role in regulating blood sugar levels. However, even after a series of experiments, they failed to purify and isolate the enzyme from the cellular extracts. Therefore, they tried a more arduous procedure of cell fractionation, by which cellular components are separated based on their sizes using centrifugation.

text: They succeeded in detecting the enzyme activity from the microsomal fraction. This was the crucial step in the serendipitous discovery of lysosomes. To estimate this enzyme activity, they used that of standardised enzyme acid phosphatase, and found that the activity was only 10% of the expected value. One day, the enzyme activity of purified cell fractions which had been refrigerated for five days was measured. Surprisingly, the enzyme activity was increased to normal of that of the fresh sample. The result was the same no matter how many times they repeated the estimation, and led to the conclusion that a membrane-like barrier limited the accessibility of the enzyme to its substrate, and that the enzymes were able to diffuse after a few days (and react with their substrate). They described this membrane-like barrier as a "saclike structure surrounded by a membrane and containing acid phosphatase."[10]

text: It became clear that this enzyme from the cell fraction came from a membranous fractions, which were definitely cell organelles, and in 1955 De Duve named them "lysosomes" to reflect their digestive properties.[11] The same year, Alex B. Novikoff from the University of Vermont visited de Duve's laboratory, and successfully obtained the first electron micrographs of the new organelle. Using a staining method for acid phosphatase, de Duve and Novikoff confirmed the location of the hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes using light and electron microscopic studies.[12][13] de Duve won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 for this discovery.

text: Originally, De Duve had termed the organelles the "suicide bags" or "suicide sacs" of the cells, for their hypothesized role in apoptosis.[14] However, it has since been concluded that they only play a minor role in cell death.[15]

text: Function and structure[edit]

text: Lysosomes contain a variety of enzymes, enabling the cell to break down various biomolecules it engulfs, including peptides, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. The enzymes responsible for this hydrolysis require an acidic environment for optimal activity.

text: In addition to being able to break down polymers, lysosomes are capable of fusing with other organelles & digesting large structures or cellular debris; through cooperation with phagosomes, they are able to conduct autophagy, clearing out damaged structures. Similarly, they are able to break-down virus particles or bacteria in phagocytosis of macrophages.

text: The size of lysosomes varies from 0.1 μm to 1.2 μm.[16] With a pH ranging from 4.5 to 5.0, the interior of the lysosomes is acidic compared to the slightly basic cytosol (pH 7.2). The lysosomal membrane protects the cytosol, and therefore the rest of the cell, from the degradative enzymes within the lysosome. The cell is additionally protected from any lysosomal acid hydrolases that drain into the cytosol, as these enzymes are pH-sensitive and do not function well or at all in the alkaline environment of the cytosol. This ensures that cytosolic molecules and organelles are not destroyed in case there is leakage of the hydrolytic enzymes from the lysosome.

text: The lysosome maintains its pH differential by pumping in protons (H+ ions) from the cytosol across the membrane via proton pumps and chloride ion channels. Vacuolar H+-ATPases are responsible for transport of protons, while the counter transport of chloride ions is performed by ClC-7 Cl−/H+ antiporter. In this way a steady acidic environment is maintained.[17][18]

text: It sources its versatile capacity for degradation by import of enzymes with specificity for different substrates; cathepsins are the major class of hydrolytic enzymes, while lysosomal alpha-glucosidase (GAA) is responsible for carbohydrates, and ACP2 is necessary to release phosphate groups of phospholipids.

text: Formation[edit]

text: Many components of animal cells are recycled by transferring them inside or embedded in sections of membrane. For instance, in endocytosis (more specifically, macropinocytosis), a portion of the cell's plasma membrane pinches off to form a vesicle that will eventually fuse with an organelle within the cell. Without active replenishment, the plasma membrane would continuously decrease in size. It is thought that lysosomes participate in this dynamic membrane exchange system and are formed by a gradual maturation process from endosomes.[19][20]

text: The production of lysosomal proteins suggests one method of lysosome sustainment. Lysosomal protein genes are transcribed in the nucleus. mRNA transcripts exit the nucleus into the cytosol, where they are translated by ribosomes. The nascent peptide chains are translocated into the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where they are modified. Upon exiting the endoplasmic reticulum and entering the Golgi apparatus via vesicular transport, a specific lysosomal tag, mannose 6-phosphate, is added to the peptides. The presence of these tags allow for binding to mannose 6-phosphate receptors in the Golgi apparatus, a phenomenon that is crucial for proper packaging into vesicles destined for the lysosomal system.[21]

text: Upon leaving the Golgi apparatus, the lysosomal enzyme-filled vesicle fuses with a late endosome, a relatively acidic organelle with an approximate pH of 5.5. This acidic environment causes dissociation of the lysosomal enzymes from the mannose 6-phosphate receptors. The enzymes are packed into vesicles for further transport to established lysosomes.[21] The late endosome itself can eventually grow into a mature lysosome, as evidenced by the transport of endosomal membrane components from the lysosomes back to the endosomes.[19]

text: Pathogen entry[edit]

text: As the endpoint of endocytosis, the lysosome also acts as a safeguard in preventing pathogens from being able to reach the cytoplasm before being degraded. Pathogens often hijack endocytotic pathways such as pinocytosis in order to gain entry into the cell. The lysosome prevents easy entry into the cell by hydrolyzing the biomolecules of pathogens necessary for their replication strategies; reduced Lysosomal activity results in an increase in viral infectivity, including HIV.[22] In addition, AB5 toxins such as cholera hijack the endosomal pathway while evading lysosomal degradation.[22]

text: Disease[edit]

text: Lysosomes are responsible for a group of genetically inherited disorders called lysosomal storage diseases (LSD). They are a type of inborn errors of metabolism caused by malfunction of one of the enzymes. The rate of incidence is estimated to be 1 in 5,000 live births, and the true figure expected to be higher as many cases are likely to be undiagnosed or misdiagnosed. The primary cause is deficiency of an acidic hydrolase (a hydrolase which functions best in acidic environments). Other conditions are due to defects in lysosomal membrane proteins that fail to transport the enzyme, non-enzymatic soluble lysosomal proteins. The initial effect of such disorders is accumulation of specific macromolecules or monomeric compounds inside the endosomal–autophagic–lysosomal system.[8] This results in abnormal signaling pathways, calcium homeostasis, lipid biosynthesis and degradation and intracellular trafficking, ultimately leading to pathogenetic disorders. The organs most affected are brain, viscera, bone and cartilage.[23][24]

text: There is no direct medical treatment to cure LSDs.[25] The most common LSD is Gaucher's disease, which is due to deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase. Consequently, the enzyme substrate, the fatty acid glucosylceramide accumulates, particularly in white blood cells, which in turn affects spleen, liver, kidneys, lungs, brain and bone marrow. The disease is characterized by bruises, fatigue, anaemia, low blood platelets, osteoporosis, and enlargement of the liver and spleen.[26][27]

text: Metachromatic leukodystrophy is another lysosomal storage disease that also affects sphingolipid metabolism.

text: Lysosomotropism[edit]

text: Weak bases with lipophilic properties accumulate in acidic intracellular compartments like lysosomes. While the plasma and lysosomal membranes are permeable for neutral and uncharged species of weak bases, the charged protonated species of weak bases do not permeate biomembranes and accumulate within lysosomes. The concentration within lysosomes may reach levels 100 to 1000 fold higher than extracellular concentrations. This phenomenon is called "lysosomotropism"[28] or "acid trapping". The amount of accumulation of lysosomotropic compounds may be estimated using a cell-based mathematical model.[29]

text: A significant part of the clinically approved drugs are lipophilic weak bases with lysosomotropic properties. This explains a number of pharmacological properties of these drugs, such as high tissue-to-blood concentration gradients or long tissue elimination half-lifes; these properties have been found for drugs such as haloperidol,[30] levomepromazine,[31] and amantadine.[32] However, high tissue concentrations and long elimination half-lives are explained also by lipophilicity and absorption of drugs to fatty tissue structures. Important lysosomal enzymes, such as acid sphingomyelinase, may be inhibited by lysosomally accumulated drugs.[33][34] Such compounds are termed FIASMAs (functional inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase)[35] and include for example fluoxetine, sertraline, or amitriptyline.

text: Ambroxol is a lysosomotropic drug of clinical use to treat conditions of productive cough for its mucolytic action. Ambroxol triggers the exocytosis of lysosomes via neutralization of lysosomal pH and calcium release from acidic calcium stores.[36] Presumably for this reason, Ambroxol was also found to improve cellular function in some disease of lysosomal origin such as Parkinson's or lysosomal storage disease.[37][38]

text: Controversy in botany[edit]

text: By scientific convention, the term lysosome is applied to those vesicular organelles only in animals, and vacuoles to plants, fungi and algae. Discoveries in plant cells since the 1970s started to challenge this definition. Plant vacuoles are found to be much more diverse in structure and function than previously thought.[39][40] Some vacuoles contain their own hydrolytic enzymes and perform the classic lysosomal activity, which is autophagy.[41][42][43] These vacuoles are therefore seen as fulfilling the role of the animal lysosome. Based on de Duve's description that "only when considered as part of a system involved directly or indirectly in intracellular digestion does the term lysosome describe a physiological unit", some botanists strongly argued that these vacuoles are lysosomes.[44] However, this is not universally accepted as the vacuoles are strictly not similar to lysosomes, such as in their specific enzymes and lack of phagocytic functions.[45] Vacuoles do not have catabolic activity and do not undergo exocytosis as lysosomes do.[46]

text: Etymology and pronunciation[edit]

text: The word lysosome (/ˈlaɪsoʊsoʊm/, /ˈlaɪzəzoʊm/) is New Latin that uses the combining forms lyso- (referring to lysis and derived from the Latin lysis, meaning "to loosen", via Ancient Greek λύσις [lúsis]), and -some, from soma, "body", yielding "body that lyses" or "lytic body". The adjectival form is lysosomal. The forms *lyosome and *lyosomal are much rarer; they use the lyo- form of the prefix but are often treated by readers and editors as mere unthinking replications of typos, which has no doubt been true as often as not.