document_title: History of education in England

question_text: when did education become free in the uk

question_tokens: when did education become free in the uk

root

text: History of education in England

text: Medieval period[edit]

text: Prior to the arrival of Augustine of Canterbury in England in 597 education was an oral affair, or followed the Roman model in diaspora and integrated families.[2]

tag: p

text: The earliest known organised schools in England were connected to the church. Augustine established a church in Canterbury (which later became St Augustine's Abbey) in 598, which included a school for the study of religious texts, and in 604 this was joined by another school at what is now Rochester Cathedral. Further schools were established throughout the British Isles in the seventh and eighth centuries, generally following one of two forms: grammar schools to teach Latin, and song schools to train singers for cathedral choirs.[3]

text: During the Middle Ages, schools were established to teach Latin grammar to the sons of the aristocracy destined for priesthood or monastic work with the ministry of government or the law. Two universities were established in affiliation with the church: the University of Oxford, followed by the University of Cambridge, to assist in the further training of the Catholic Christian clergy. A reformed system of "free grammar schools" was established in the reign of Edward VI; these too provided routes towards priesthood.  Apprenticeship was the main way for youths to enter practical occupations.

text: The Protestant Reformation had a major influence on education and literacy in England, as it encouraged the reading of the Bible in English ("the vernacular").[citation needed]. However, the availability of Bibles printed in English had spurred the reformation and can be seen as a more reliable cause of that change.

text: Early modern period[edit]

text: Independent schools have a long history in England; some were set up before the tenth century. The oldest is King's School, Canterbury, which was founded in 597. Many were charity schools. A group of these schools, much later, invoked the name "public school" to indicate that they were open to the public regardless of religious beliefs.

text: In Tudor England, Edward VI reorganised grammar schools and instituted new ones so that there was a national system of "free grammar schools." In theory these were open to all, offering free tuition to those who could not afford to pay fees. The vast majority of poor children did not attend these schools since their labour was economically critical to their families.

text: In 1562 the Statute of Artificers and Apprentices was passed to regulate and protect the apprenticeship system, forbidding anyone from practising a trade or craft without first serving a 7-year period as an apprentice to a master.[4] Guilds controlled many trades and used apprenticeships to control entry. (In practice sons of Freemen, members of the guilds, could negotiate shorter terms of training).[5]

text: Following the Act of Uniformity in 1662, religious dissenters set up academies to educate students of dissenting families, who did not wish to subscribe to the articles of the established Church of England. Some of these 'dissenting academies' still survive, the oldest being Bristol Baptist College. Several Oxford colleges (Harris Manchester, Mansfield, and Regent's Park) are also descendents of this movement.

text: From 1692, 'parish' apprenticeships under the Elizabethan Poor Law came to be used as a way of providing for poor, illegitimate and orphaned children of both sexes alongside the regular system of skilled apprenticeships, which tended to provide for boys from slightly more affluent backgrounds. These parish apprenticeships, which could be created with the assent of two Justices of the Peace, supplied apprentices for occupations of lower status such as farm labouring, brickmaking and menial household service.[6]

text: Until as late as the nineteenth century, all university fellows and many schoolmasters were expected or required to be in holy orders.

text: Schoolmistresses typically taught the three Rs (reading, writing and 'rithmetic) in dame schools, charity schools, or informal village schools.

text: Historian David Mitch argues that private philanthropy was a major source of funding by the 1640s, and in that regard England was distinctive among modern nations. The endowments were permanent, and were still active in the 19th century.  In addition to the landed elites in gentry, merchants and clergy Were generous in supporting educational philanthropy. The national system that was developed in the last two thirds of the 19th century incorporated the earlier endowments philanthropies.[7]

text: Eighteenth century[edit]

text: In the early years of the Industrial Revolution entrepreneurs began to resist the restrictions of the apprenticeship system,[8] and a legal ruling established that the Statute of Apprentices did not apply to trades that were not in existence when it was passed in 1563, thus excluding many new 18th century industries.[4]

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge founded many charity schools for poor students in the 7 to 11 age group. These schools were the basis for the development of modern concepts of primary and secondary education. The Society also was an early provider of teacher education.[9]

text: Sunday School Movement[edit]

text: Robert Raikes initiated the Sunday School Movement, having inherited a publishing business from his father and become proprietor of the Gloucester Journal in 1757. The movement started with a school for boys in the slums.  Raikes had been involved with those incarcerated at the county Poor Law (part of the jail at that time); he believed that "vice" would be better prevented than cured, with schooling as the best intervention.  The best available time was Sunday, as the boys were often working in the factories the other six days. The best available teachers were lay people.  The textbook was the Bible. The original curriculum started with teaching children to read and then having them learn the catechism, reasoning that reading comprehension acquired through Bible study could be transferred to secular studies.[10][11]

text: Raikes used his newspaper to publicize the schools and bore most of the cost in the early years.  The movement began in July 1780 in the home of a Mrs. Meredith. Only boys attended, and she heard the lessons of the older boys who coached the younger. Later, girls also attended. Within two years, several schools opened in and around Gloucester.  Raikes published an account on 3 November 1783 of Sunday School in his paper, and later word of the work spread through the Gentleman's Magazine, and in 1784, a letter to the Arminian Magazine.

text: The original schedule for the schools, as written by Raikes was "The children were to come after ten in the morning, and stay till twelve; they were then to go home and return at one; and after reading a lesson, they were to be conducted to Church.  After Church, they were to be employed in repeating the catechism till after five, and then dismissed, with an injunction to go home without making a noise."[12]

text: Nineteenth century[edit]

text: In the 19th century the Church of England sponsored most formal education until the government established  free, compulsory education towards the end of that century. University College London was established as the first secular college in England, open to students of all religions (or none), followed by King's College London; the two institutions formed the University of London. Durham University was also established in the early nineteenth century. Towards the end of the century, the "redbrick" universities, new public universities, were founded.

text: Since the establishment of Bedford College (London), Girton College (Cambridge) and Somerville College (Oxford) in the 19th century, women also can obtain a university degree.

text: National schools and British Schools[edit]

text: Prior to the nineteenth century, there were few schools. Most of those that existed were run by church authorities and stressed religious education.[13]  The Church of England resisted early attempts for the state to provide secular education.[14]  In 1811, the Anglican National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church in England and Wales was established.  The schools founded by the National Society were called National Schools. Most of the surviving schools were eventually absorbed into the state system under the Butler Act (1944), and to this day many state schools, most of them primary schools, maintain a link to the Church of England, reflecting their historic origins. The Protestant non-conformist, non-denominational, or "British schools" were founded by  Society for Promoting the Lancasterian System for the Education of the Poor, an organisation formed in 1808 by Joseph Fox, William Allen and Samuel Whitbread and supported by several evangelical and non-conformist Christians.[15]

text: In 1814, compulsory apprenticeship by indenture was abolished.  By 1831, Sunday School in Great Britain was ministering weekly to 1,250,000 children, approximately 25% of the population.  As these schools preceded the first state funding of schools for the common public, they are sometimes seen as a forerunner to the current English school system.

text: Ragged schools[edit]

text: In 1818, John Pounds, known as the crippled cobbler, set up a school and began teaching poor children reading, writing, and arithmetic without charging fees.[16]

text: In 1820, Samuel Wilderspin opened the first infant school in Spitalfields.

text: After John Pounds' death in 1839 Thomas Guthrie wrote Plea for Ragged Schools and started a ragged school in Edinburgh, another one was started in Aberdeen. In 1844 Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury formed the 'Ragged School Union' dedicated to the free education of destitute children and over the next eight years over 200 free schools for poor children were established in Britain.[16] with some 300,000 children passing through the London Ragged Schools alone between 1844 and 1881.[17]

text: Government involvements[edit]

text:
In August 1833, Parliament voted sums of money each year for the construction of schools for poor children, the first time the state had become involved with education in England and Wales  (whereas a programme for universal education in Scotland had been initiated in the seventeenth century). A meeting in Manchester in 1837, chaired by Mark Philips, led to the creation of the Lancashire Public Schools' Association. The association proposed that non-denominational schools should be funded from local taxes.
Also  1837, the Whig former Lord Chancellor Henry Brougham presented a bill for public education.[18]

text: In 1839 government grants for the construction and maintenance of schools were switched to voluntary bodies, and became conditional on a satisfactory inspection.

text: In 1840 the Grammar Schools Act expanded the Grammar School curriculum from classical studies to include science and literature.  In 1861 the Royal Commission on the state of popular education in England, chaired by the Duke of Newcastle, reported "The number of children whose names ought [in summer 1858 in England and Wales] to have been on the school books, in order that all might receive some education, was 2,655,767.  The number we found to be actually on the books was 2,535,462, thus leaving 120,305 children without any school instruction whatever."[19]

text: In fee-paying public schools, which served the upper-class, important reforms were initiated by Thomas Arnold in Rugby. They redefined standards of masculinity, putting a heavy emphasis on sports and teamwork.[20][21]

text: Robert Lowe (1811-1892), a powerful Liberal politician who worked closely with Prime Minister Gladstone, was a key reformer.  He agreed with the consensus against too much centralization in English education, but wanted to improve educational standards,  and prevent the waste of public money on inefficient teaching, especially in church schools.  He introduced a revised code in 1861; future grants would be allocated not by the subjective judgment of inspectors but rather on the basis of the number of students passing an examination in reading, writing, and arithmetic. It was known as ‘payment by results’.  The code ended the favouritism often shown by inspectors; it came under attack by schoolteachers, inspectors, and Anglican and dissenting opponents of state activity.[22][23]

text: The Forster Act of 1870[edit]

text: It had been deduced from census data that out of 4.3 million children of primary school age in England & Wales, 1 million were in purely voluntary schools and 1.3 million were in state aided schools, but 2 million had no access to schools whatsoever.[24]

text: William Forster's Elementary Education Act 1870[25] required partially state-funded board schools to be set up to provide elementary (primary, in modern parlance) education in areas where existing provision was inadequate. Board schools were managed by elected school boards. The schools remained fee-charging, but poor parents could be exempted. The previous government grant scheme established in 1833 ended on 31 December 1870.[26]

text: Section 74 of the Act empowered school boards to, if they wished, make local byelaws making attendance compulsory between the ages of 5 and 13 but exempting any child aged over 10 who had reached the expected standard (which varied by board). Other exceptions included illness, if children worked, or lived too far from a school.[27]

text: Two measures in the Act became, for religious reasons, matters of controversy within the governing Liberal Party. Firstly, nonconformists objected to their children being taught Anglican doctrine. As a compromise, Cowper-Temple (pronounced "Cooper-Temple"), a Liberal MP, proposed that religious teaching in the new state schools be non-denominational, in practice restricted to learning the Bible and a few hymns: this became the famous Cowper-Temple clause (Section 14 of the Act). Section 7 also gave parents the right to withdraw their children from any religious instruction provided in board schools, and to withdraw their children to attend any other religious instruction of their choice.[28]

text: Secondly, Section 25 gave school boards the power to, if they chose, pay the fees of poor children attending voluntary (ie. church) schools. Although few school boards actually did so, the provision caused great anger among nonconformists, who saw this as local ratepayers’ money being spent on Church of England schools. A large conference was held at Manchester in 1872 to lead resistance to the section, and one of the campaigners was the Birmingham politician Joseph Chamberlain, who emerged as a national figure for the first time. The resulting splits (some education campaigners, including Chamberlain, stood for Parliament as independent candidates) helped to cost the Liberals the 1874 election.[29]

text: Compulsory and free primary education: 1880s and 1890s[edit]

text: The "Sandon Act" (Act of 1876) imposed a legal duty on parents to ensure that their children were educated. The Elementary Education Act 1880 (the "Mundella Act") required school boards to enforce compulsory attendance from 5 to 10 years, and permitted them to set a standard which children were required to reach before they could be employed.[30] Poorer families were often tempted to send their children to work if the opportunity to earn an extra income was available.  Attendance officers often visited the homes of children who failed to attend school, which often proved to be ineffective.  Children who were employed were required to have a certificate to show they had reached the educational standard.  Employers of these children who were unable to show this were penalised.[31]

text: The  1891 Elementary Education Act provided for the state payment of school fees up to ten shillings per head, making primary education effectively free.

text: The  Elementary Education (School Attendance) Act 1893 raised the school leaving age to 11.  The Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act of the same year extended compulsory education to blind and deaf children, and made provision for the creation of special schools.[31][32]

text: The Voluntary Schools Act 1897  provided grants to public elementary schools not funded by school boards (typically Church schools).

text: Another act in 1899 raised the school leaving age up to 12 years of age;  it was later raised to 13.[31][33]

text: In the late Victorian period grammar schools were reorganised and their curriculum was modernised, although Latin was still taught.[clarification needed][citation needed]

text: Funding of technical colleges[edit]

text: In 1889, the "Technical Institutes Act" was passed. According to D. Evans, "It gave powers to the County Councils and the Urban Sanitary Authorities to levy a penny tax to support technical and manual instruction.  The curricula in technical institutions also had to be approved by the Science and Art Department.  In the following year the Local Taxation Act introduced the 'whiskey tax', which made extra money available for technical instruction."[34]

text: From April 1900 higher elementary schools were recognised, providing education from the age of 10 to 15.

text: Balfour and Local Education Authorities[edit]

text: Balfour Act of 1902[edit]

text: The controversial Conservative Education Act 1902 (also 'Balfour's Act') made radical changes to the entire educational system of England and Wales. It weakened the divide between schools run by the 2,568 school boards and the 14,000 church schools, administered primarily by the Church of England, which educated about a third of children. Local Education Authorities were established, which were able to set local tax rates, and the school boards were disbanded. Funds were provided for denominational religious instruction in voluntary elementary schools, owned primarily by the Church of England and Roman Catholics. The law was extended in 1903 to cover London.[35]

text: G. R. Searle, like nearly all historians, argues the Act was a short-term political disaster for the Conservative Party because it outraged Methodists, Baptists and other nonconformists. It subsidised the religions they rejected. However Searle argues it was a long-term success. The Church schools now had some financing from local ratepayers and had to meet uniform standards. It led to a rapid growth of secondary schools, with over 1000 opening by 1914, including 349 for girls. Eventually (in 1944), the Anglican schools were effectively nationalised. Grammar schools also became funded by the LEA. The act was of particular significance as it allowed for all schools, including denominational schools, to be funded through rates (local taxation), and ended the role of locally elected school boards that often attracted women, non-conformists and labour union men.[36] The Liberals came to power in 1906, but their attempt to repeal the act was blocked by the House of Lords, setting up a major constitutional confrontation.[37]

text: In the long run the Nonconformist schools practically vanished. In 1902 the Methodists operated 738 schools, but these rapidly declined throughout the 20th century. Only 28 remained in 1996.[38]

text: The Fisher Act of 1918[edit]

text: The Fisher Education Act 1918 made secondary education compulsory up to age 14 and gave responsibility for secondary schools to the state.  Under the Act, many higher elementary schools and endowed grammar schools sought to become state funded central schools or secondary schools. However, most children attended primary (elementary) school until age 14, rather than going to a separate school for secondary education.

text: The year 1918  saw the introduction of the Education Act 1918, commonly also known as the "Fisher Act" as it was devised by Herbert Fisher. The act enforced compulsory education from 5–14 years, but also included provision for compulsory part-time education for all 14- to 18-year-olds. There were also plans for expansion in tertiary education, by raising the participation age to 18. This was dropped because of the cuts in public spending after World War I. This is the first act which starting planning provisions for young people to remain in education until the age of 18.[39] The 1918 act was not immediately implemented, instead waiting until an act in 1921 before coming into effect.[40]

text: After the passing of the 1929 Local Government Act, Poor Law schools became state funded elementary schools. The concept of junior technical schools was introduced in the 1930s to provide vocational education at secondary level, but few were ever opened.

text: Spens and Norwood reports[edit]

text: In 1937 historian G.A.N. Lowndes identified a "Silent Social Revolution" in England and Wales since 1895 that could be credited to the expansion of public education:

text: A report of 1938 of a committee chaired by Will Spens, a former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, recommended that entry to schools would be based on intelligence testing. This was followed by the Norwood Report of 1943 which advocated the "Tripartite System" of secondary education which was introduced in the late 1940s.

text: 1944: Butler[edit]

text: The Education Act of 1944 was an answer to surging social and educational demands created by the war and the widespread demands for social reform. The Education Act 1944, relating to England and Wales, was authored by Conservative Rab Butler and known as "the Butler Act", defined the modern split between primary education and secondary education at age 11.

text: The Butler Act was also an historic compromise between church and state. Three new categories of schools were created. The first were Voluntary Controlled schools whose costs were met by the State, and would be controlled by the local education authority. The school kept the title deeds to the land, but taught an agreed religious education syllabus. These schools were favoured by the Anglicans: over half their schools chose this status, and were soon effectively absorbed into the state system. The second were Voluntary Aided schools, which retained greater influence over school admission policies, staffing and curriculum, and which were preferred by the Roman Catholics and by some Anglican schools. They would have all of their running costs met by the State, but their capital costs would only be 50% state funded (later increased to 75% by the Education Act 1959, and now 90%).[42] The third were Direct Grant Schools: former independent schools, often town grammar schools and predominantly in the north of England, who accepted a state grant in return for providing free education to many students but still charging for others. The state had little control on syllabus or admissions policy. The schools kept their title deeds.[citation needed]

text: The elite system of public schools was practically unchanged; Butler assembled a committee which produced the Fleming Report of July 1944, recommending that places at public schools be made available to state-funded scholarships, but its recommendations were not implemented.[43]

text: The school leaving age was raised to 15 under the Butler Act, with an aspiration to raise it in time to 16, although this did not take place until the early 1970s (see below). The Act also recommended compulsory part-time education for all young people until the age of 18, but this provision was dropped so as not to overburden the post-war spending budget (as had happened similarly with the Act of 1918).[39]

text: Changes in government approaches towards education meant that it was no longer regarded adequate for a child to leave education aged 14, as that is the age when they were seen to really understand and appreciate the value of education, as well as being the period when adolescence was at its height. It was beginning to be seen as the worst age for a sudden switch from education to employment, with the additional year in schooling to only provide benefits for the children when they leave. Although there were concerns about the effects of having less labour from these children, it was hoped that the outcome of a larger quantity of more qualified, skilled workers would eliminate the deficit problem from the loss of unskilled labour.[44]

text: The 1944 Act took effect in 1947 when the Labour Party was in power and it adopted the Tripartite System, consisting of grammar schools, secondary modern schools and secondary technical schools. It rejected the comprehensive school proposals favoured by a few in the Labour Party as more equalitarian.[45]   Under the tripartite model, students who passed an exam were able to attend a prestigious grammar school. Those who did not pass the selection test attended secondary modern schools or technical schools.

text: The new law was widely praised by Conservatives because it honoured religion and social hierarchy, by Labour because it opened new opportunities for the working class, and by the general public because it ended the fees they had to pay.[46][47]  The act became a permanent part of the Post-war consensus supported by the three major parties.[48][49]

text: However, selection of academical gifted children to attend grammar school became increasingly controversial in the 1960s.  Critics on the left attacked grammar schools as elitist because a student had to pass a test at age 11 to get in.[50] Defenders argued that grammar schools allow pupils to obtain a good education through merit rather than through family income.  No changes were made. In some areas, notably that of the London County Council, comprehensive schools had been introduced. They had no entrance test and were open to all children living in the school catchment area. However, despite tentative support for 'multilateralism' in secondaries, and a desire to raise the standard of secondary moderns to that of private institutions, from Minister for Education Ellen Wilkinson, the majority of Labour MPs were more concerned with implementing the 1944 Act; her successor George Tomlinson saw this through, although the secondary technicals remained underdeveloped.[51]

text: Circular 10/65 and comprehensive education[edit]

text: In 1965 the Labour government required all local education authorities to formulate proposals to move away from selection at eleven, replacing the tripartite system with comprehensive schools. This was done by the minister Tony Crosland by means of Circular 10/65 and withholding funding from any school that sought to retain selection. This circular was vehemently opposed by the grammar school lobby. Some counties procrastinated and retained the Tripartite System in all but a few experimental areas. Those authorities have locally administered selection tests.

text: The Circular also requested consultation between LEAs and the partially state-funded direct grant grammar schools on their participation in a comprehensive system, but little movement occurred.  The 1970 report of the Public Schools Commission chaired by David Donnison recommended that the schools choose between becoming voluntary aided comprehensives and full independence.  This was finally put into effect by the Direct Grant Grammar Schools (Cessation of Grant) Regulations 1975.  Some schools (almost all Catholic) became fully state-funded, while the majority became independent fee-paying schools.[52]

text: In 1964, preparations had begun to raise the school leaving age to 16 to be enforced from 1 September 1973 onwards. As well as raising the school leaving age in 1973, the year also saw the introduction of the Education (Work Experience) Act, allowing LEAs to organise work experience for the additional final year school students.[53] In some counties around the country, these changes also led to the introduction of Middle schools in 1968,[53] where students were kept at primary or junior school for an additional year, meaning that the number of students in secondary schools within these areas remained virtually constant through the change.[54] As of  2007[update], there are now fewer than 400 middle schools across England, situated in just 22 Local Education Authorities.[54]

text: ROSLA[edit]

text: This increased the legal leaving age from 15 to 16, and for one year, 1973, there were no school leavers as the students by law, had to complete an additional year of education.[31]

text: Many secondary schools were unable to accommodate the new 5th year students. The solution to the problem was to construct a new building (often referred to as "ROSLA Buildings" or "ROSLA Blocks") for the schools  that needed to extend their capacity.[54] This provided them space to cope with the new cohort of ROSLA students. The ROSLA Buildings were delivered to schools in self assembly packs and were not intended to stand long-term, though some have proven to have stood much longer than was initially planned.[54] Some are still standing now.[55]

text: Primary schools[edit]

text: The 1967 Plowden Report advocated a more child-centred approach to primary education, and also supported the introduction of middle schools. While many of the report's recommendations were never implemented, primary schools began to move away from rote learning in the late 1960s and 1970s.[56]

text: Apprenticeships[edit]

text: High technology industry (Aerospace, Nuclear, Oil & Gas, Automotive, Power Generation and Distribution etc.) trained its professional engineers via the advanced apprenticeship system of learning - usually a 5-year process. The higher Apprenticeship framework in the 1950s, 60s and 70s was designed to allow young people (16 years) an alternative path to A Levels to achieve an academic qualification at level 4 or 5 NVQ.   The Higher Apprenticeship Framework was open to young people who had a minimum of 4 GCE "O" Levels to enroll in an Ordinary National Certificate or Diploma or a City & Guilds technician course.  For advanced engineering apprenticeships "O" Levels had to include Mathematics, Physics, and English language. The advanced apprenticeship framework's purpose was to provide a supply of young people seeking to enter work-based learning via apprenticeships by offering structured high value learning and transferable skills and knowledge. These apprenticeships were enabled by linking industry with local technical colleges and professional Engineering Institutions.[citation needed]

text: The Advanced Apprenticeship Framework offered clear pathways and outcomes that addressed the issues facing the industry.  This system was in place since the 1950s.  The system provided young people with an alternative to staying in full-time education post- 16/18 to gain pure academic qualifications without work-based learning.  The Advanced Apprenticeships of the 1950s, 60s and 70s provided the necessary preparation towards Engineering Technician. Technician Engineer or Chartered Engineer registration. Apprentices undertook a variety of job roles in numerous technical functions to assist the work of engineers, in the design, development, manufacture and maintenance of production system.[citation needed]

text: In modern times, apprenticeship became less important, especially as employment in heavy industry and artisan trades has declined since the 1980s. Traditional apprenticeships reached their lowest point in the 1980s: by that time, training programmes were rare and people who were apprentices learned mainly by example.[citation needed]

text: Conservative governments, from 1979 to 1997[edit]

text: Following the 1979 General Election, the Conservative Party regained power under Margaret Thatcher. In the early period it made two main changes:

text:
New Vocationalism was expanded (Labour had made some small efforts beforehand, but the Conservatives expanded it considerably).  This was seen as an effort to reduce the high youth unemployment, which was regarded as one of the causes of the sporadic rioting at the end of the seventies. The Youth Opportunities Programme was the main scheme, offered to 16- to 18-year-olds. It had been introduced in 1978 under the Labour government of James Callaghan, was expanded in 1980 under the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher, and ran until 1983 when it was replaced by the Youth Training Scheme.
The Assisted Places Scheme was introduced in 1980, whereby gifted children who could not afford to go to fee-paying schools would be given free places in those schools if they could pass the school's entrance exam.

tag: ol

text: In 1986, National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) were introduced, in an attempt to revitalise vocational training. Still, by 1990, apprenticeship took up only two-thirds of one percent of total employment.[citation needed]

text: The Education Reform Act of 1988[edit]

text: The 1988 Education Reform Act made considerable changes to the education system.  These changes were aimed at creating a 'market' in education with schools competing with each other for 'customers' (pupils). The theory was that "bad" schools would lose pupils to the "good" schools and either have to improve, reduce in capacity or close.[57][58]

text: The reforms included the following:

text:
The National Curriculum was introduced, which made it compulsory for schools to teach certain subjects and syllabuses. Previously the choice of subjects had been up to the school.
National curriculum assessments were introduced at the Key Stages 1 to 4 (ages 7, 11, 14 and 16 respectively) through what were formerly called Standard Assessment Tests (SATS). At Key Stage 4 (age 16), the assessments were made from the GCSE exam.
Formula funding was introduced, which meant that the more children a school could attract to it, the more money the school would receive.
Open enrolment and choice for parents was brought back, so that parents could choose or influence which school their children went to.
Schools could, if enough of their pupils' parents agreed, opt out of local government control, becoming grant maintained schools and receiving funding direct from central government. The government offered more money than the school would get usually from the local authority as an enticement. This was seen as a political move given that, often, local authorities were not run by the governing Conservative Party whereas central government was.
Religious education was reformed; Chapter 1 of the law required that the majority of collective worship be "wholly or mainly of a broadly Christian character".[59]

tag: ul

text: Apprenticeship reform[edit]

text: In 1994, the government introduced Modern Apprenticeships (since renamed 'Apprenticeships'), based on frameworks devised by Sector Skills Councils.  These frameworks contain a number of separately certified elements:

text:
a knowledge-based element, typically certified through a qualification known as a 'Technical Certificate';
a competence-based element, typically certified through an NVQ; and
Key Skills (literacy and numeracy).[60]

text: Education Act 1996[edit]

text: Between 1976 and 1997, the minimum school leaving arrangements were:

text:
A child whose sixteenth birthday falls in the period 1 September to 31 January inclusive, may leave compulsory schooling at the end of the Spring term (the following Easter).
A child whose sixteenth birthday falls in the period 1 February to 31 August, may leave on the Friday before the last Monday in May.

text: Under section 8(4) of the Education Act 1996, a new single school leaving date was set for 1998 and all subsequent years thereafter. This was set as the last Friday in June in the school year which the child reaches the age of 16.[61]

text: Under section 7 of the Act, it was made an obligation for parents to ensure a full-time education for their children either at school or "otherwise" which formalised the status of home education.

text: Labour, from 1997 to 2010[edit]

text: During the 1997 General Election, the Labour party mantra was "Education, Education, Education", a reference to their conference slogan. Winning the election returned them to power, but New Labour's political ideology meant that many of the changes introduced by the Conservatives during their time in power remained intact.

text: They began changing the structure of the school and higher education systems. The following changes took place:

text:
The previous Labour focus on the comprehensive system was shifted to a focus on tailoring education to each child's ability.  Critics see this as reminiscent of the original intentions of the Tripartite system.
Grant-maintained status was abolished, with GM schools being given the choice of rejoining the local authority as a maintained community school, or becoming a foundation school.

text: The Government-run Eleven-Plus exam selection exam has now[when?] been abolished in the UK, and no longer do all children sit for it as used to be the case.  However, voluntary selection tests are still conducted in certain areas of the UK, where some of the original grammar schools have been retained.  These areas include: Northern Ireland and some English counties and districts including Devon, Dorset, Kent, Buckinghamshire, Essex, Birmingham, Trafford, Wiltshire, North Yorkshire, Calderdale, Kirklees, Wirral, Warwickshire, Gloucestershire, Lincolnshire and some London boroughs such as Bexley, Kingston-upon-Thames and Redbridge.  There have been various so far unsuccessful attempts by campaigners to abolish all remaining grammar schools.  The remaining grammar schools are now thus still selective, typically taking the top 10-25% of those from the local catchment area.  Some of the still-existing grammar schools in the United Kingdom can trace their history back to earlier than the sixteenth century.

text:
Labour expanded a policy started by the Conservatives of creating specialist schools. This new type of secondary school teaches the National Curriculum subjects plus a few specialist branches of knowledge (e.g. business studies) not found in most other schools.  These schools are allowed to select 10% of their pupils.
Numbers: In 1997 there were 196 of these schools. In August 2002 there were 1000. By 2006 the plan was to have 2000, and the goal was to make all secondary schools specialist eventually.
The Beacon Schools programme was established in England in 1998. Its aim was to identify high performing schools, in order to help them form partnerships with each other and to provide examples of effective practice for other schools. The programme was replaced in August 2005 with more broadly based programmes; the Leading Edge Partnership programme (for secondary schools) and Primary Strategy Learning Networks (PSLNs) (at the primary level).[62]
A new grade of Advanced Skills Teacher was created, with the intention that highly skilled teachers would be paid more if they accepted new posts with outreach duties beyond their own schools.
City Academies were introduced. These are new schools, built on the site of, or taking over from existing failing schools. A city academy is an independent school within the state system. It is outside the control of the local education authority and set up with substantial funding from interested third parties, which might be businesses, charities or private individuals.
Education Action Zones were introduced, which are deprived areas run by an action forum of people within that area with the intention of making that area's schools better.
Vocational qualifications were renamed/restructured as follows:
GNVQs became Vocational GCSEs and AVCEs.
NVQs scope expanded so that a degree-equivalent NVQ was possible.
The New Deal was introduced, which made advisors available to long-term unemployed (in the UK this is defined as being unemployed for more than 6 months) to give help and money to those who want to go back into Education.
Introduced Literacy and Numeracy Hours into schools, and set targets for literacy and numeracy.
Set Truancy targets.
Set a maximum class size of 30 for 5-7 year olds.
Introduced the EMA, (Education Maintenance Allowance), which is paid to those between 16 and 18 as an enticement to remain in full-time education and get A-Levels/AVCEs.
A Performance Threshold was introduced in 2000 to allow experienced teachers access to  higher rates of pay on meeting a set of performance standards, including a standard of pupil attainment. The performance-related pay changes have been bitterly opposed by teaching unions, most notably the National Union of Teachers which challenged the Threshold scheme by legal action.
Introduced Curriculum 2000, which reformed the Further Education system into the current structure of AS levels, A2 levels and Key Skills.
Abolished the Assisted Places Scheme.
A report was commissioned, led by the former chief-inspector of schools, Mike Tomlinson, into reform of the curriculum and qualifications structure for 14- to 19-year-olds.  The report was published on 18 October 2004 and recommended the introduction of a diploma that would bring together both vocational and academic qualifications and ensure that all pupils had a basic set of core skills.  It is proposed that the current qualifications would evolve into this diploma over the next decade, whether the government will follow the recommendations is yet to be seen — the Conservative Party have already introduced alternative proposals to return to norm-referencing in A-levels rather than the current system of criterion-referencing.
In 2003 a green paper entitled Every Child Matters was published. It built on existing plans to strengthen children's services and focused on four key areas:
Increasing the focus on supporting families and carers as the most critical influence on children's lives
Ensuring necessary intervention takes place before children reach crisis point and protecting children from falling through the net
Addressing the underlying problems identified in the report into the death of Victoria Climbié - weak accountability and poor integration
Ensuring that the people working with children are valued, rewarded and trained

text: In January 2007 Education Secretary Alan Johnson announced plans to extend the school leaving age in England to eighteen by 2013. This would raise the leaving age for the first time since the last raise in 1972, when compulsory education was extended until sixteen. This change will include training such as apprenticeships and work based training rather than exclusively offering continued academic learning.[63]

text: Reports were published in November 2006 to suggest that England's Education Secretary Alan Johnson was exploring ways to raise the school leaving age in England and Wales to 18, pointing to the decline in unskilled jobs and the need for young people to be equipped for modern day employment.[54]

text: Cameron ministry 2010 – 2016[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2013)

tag: table

text: The Academies Act 2010, one of the first government bills introduced in the Conservative – Liberal Democrat coalition government, allowed publicly funded schools in England to become academies, still publicly funded but with a vastly increased degree of autonomy in issues such as setting teachers' wages and diverging from the National Curriculum.[64]

text: The Education Act 2011 made changes to many areas of educational policy, including the power of school staff to discipline students, the manner in which newly trained teachers are supervised, the regulation of qualifications, the administration of local authority maintained schools, academies, the provision of post-16 education, including vocational apprenticeships, and student finance for higher education. It abolished the General Teaching Council for England, the Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency and the Training and Development Agency for Schools and other  bodies.

text: In 2008, a new law was passed (the Education and Skills Act 2008). This affected education mainly from 2013 onward as it said that by 2013, all young people in England have to stay on in education or training at least part-time until they are 17 years old. It also said that by 2015, all young people will have to stay on in education or training at least part-time, until they are 18 years old.

text: This means that post-2015, all young people were now required to participate in education or training through either full-time education or training, including school, college and home education; work-based learning, such as an apprenticeship; or part-time education or training or volunteering more than 20 hours a week.[65]

text: Academic qualifications[edit]

text: Alongside vocational qualifications such as GNVQs and BTECs, there have been numerous examinations and qualifications in secondary education in England.

text:
Period

Taken at age 16

Taken at age 18

Interwar period

School Certificate

Higher School Certificate

Scholarship Level - for university entrants; high performance would be rewarded by a state scholarship

Post-Butler

GCE Ordinary Level

GCE Advanced Level

1960s-1980s

Certificate of Secondary Education exams covered both academic and vocational subjects and were an alternative to O Levels

In 1962 state scholarships were scrapped and the exams became known as Special Papers or S Levels, which top A Level students could take to support their university application

1980s-2000

General Certificate of Secondary Education

Advanced Supplementary Levels were taken alongside A Levels as a standalone qualification

Curriculum 2000

Advanced Subsidiary Levels formed the first year of an A Level qualification. Students who then completed the A2 year were awarded the full A Level

Advanced Extension Awards were an additional qualification for the most able A Level students

2010s reforms

New-style GCSEs were phased in between 2017 and 2019, using a numerical grading system and replacing the modular system with exams at the end of the two-year course

AS Levels became a standalone qualification as part of an overhaul of A Levels, with the modular system replaced by exams at the end of the two-year A Level course

The introduction of the A* grade for A Levels in 2010 allowed for differentiation between the top A Level students, and so all AEAs except for Mathematics were phased out


document_title: Retired Boxer

question_text: who sings true love will find you in the end

text: Retired Boxer

text:
Retired Boxer

Studio album by Daniel Johnston

Released
January 1, 1985

Recorded
December 1984

Label
Stress Records

Daniel Johnston chronology

Hi, How Are You
(1983)Hi, How Are You1983
Retired Boxer
(1984)
Respect
(1985)Respect1985

text: Retired Boxer is the seventh self-released music cassette album by singer-songwriter Daniel Johnston, recorded in 1984.[1] His song "True Love Will Find You in the End" has become one of his best-known songs,[2] covered by many other artists, beginning with The Reivers in 1987 (and later included on the 2002 reissue of their album Saturday). Beck recorded a cover of the song which appeared on the Daniel Johnston tribute album, The Late Great Daniel Johnston: Discovered Covered. Wilco also recorded a version of this song as a B-Side to their 1999 song "A Shot In The Arm". Basia Bulat has performed the song frequently in concert.[3] Matthew Good recorded a version of the same song for his 2007 album Hospital Music, as well as Mates of State on their 2010 album Crushes (The Covers Mixtape). The song was also used in a 2012 commercial for a men's hair care product.[4]

text: The nine songs on the album are done in Daniel's confessional piano ballad style that had been exemplified on his eight previous cassette albums. This album, like those before it was recorded with a consumer grade tape player. Evidence of this is found in the warbling tape hiss and distortion along with Daniel's pitched up voice, all of which are easily recognizable traits of lo-fidelity recordings.

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All songs written by Daniel Johnston.

text:
"I'll Do Anything but Break Dance for Ya, Darling" - 6:02
"Bye Bye Barbie" - 1:18
"Fighting with Myself" - 2:28
"Too Young to Die" - 3:47
"This Song" - 1:19
"Feels Good" - 4:18
"Oh No" - 3:58
"Strange Boy" - 5:01
"True Love Will Find You in the End" - 1:54


document_title: List of Major League Baseball longest winning streaks

question_text: who holds the most consecutive wins in mlb

text: Key[edit]

text:
^
Denotes streaks that contain unofficial tie(s) not included in the win totals

**
Denotes streaks that spanned over two seasons

Denotes streaks that are currently in progress

*
Denotes season in which team won the World Series

text: Game streaks[edit]

text: Regular season[edit]

text: This list contains the top 30 streaks consisting entirely of regular-season games.

text:
Rank
Games
Team
Season(s)
Season
record(s)
Date
Score
Opponent
Date
Score
Opponent

Beginning (first victory)
End (first defeat)

1
26^
New York Giants
1916
86–66
000000001916-09-07-0000September 7, 1916
4–1
Brooklyn Robins
000000001916-09-30-0000September 30, 1916
3–8
Boston Braves

2
22
Cleveland Indians
2017
102–60
000000002017-08-24-0000August 24, 2017
13–6
Boston Red Sox
000000002017-09-15-0000September 15, 2017
3–4
Kansas City Royals

7000200000000000000♠3 (tie)
21^
Chicago White Stockings
1880
67–17
000000001880-06-02-0000June 2, 1880
5–4
Boston Braves
000000001880-07-10-0000July 10, 1880
0–2
Cleveland Spiders

7000200000000000000♠3 (tie)
21
Chicago Cubs
1935
100–54
000000001935-09-04-0000September 4, 1935
8–2
Philadelphia Phillies
000000001935-09-28-0000September 28, 1935
5–7 (11)
St. Louis Cardinals

7000500000000000000♠5 (tie)
20
St. Louis Maroons
1884
94–19
000000001884-04-20-0000April 20, 1884
7–2
Chicago/Pittsburgh
000000001884-05-24-0000May 24, 1884
1–8
Boston Reds

7000500000000000000♠5 (tie)
20
Providence Grays
1884
84–28
000000001884-08-07-0000August 7, 1884
4–2
New York Giants
000000001884-09-09-0000September 9, 1884
0–2
Buffalo Bisons

7000500000000000000♠5 (tie)
20
Oakland Athletics
2002
103–59
000000002002-08-13-0000August 13, 2002
5–4
Toronto Blue Jays
000000002002-09-06-0000September 6, 2002
0–6
Minnesota Twins

7000800000000000000♠8 (tie)
19^
Chicago White Sox
1906*
93–58
000000001906-08-02-0000August 2, 1906
3–0
Boston Americans
000000001906-08-25-0000August 25, 1906
4–5
Washington Senators

7000800000000000000♠8 (tie)
19
New York Yankees
1947*
97–57
000000001947-06-29-0000June 29, 1947
3–1
Washington Senators
000000001947-07-18-0000July 18, 1947
0–8
Detroit Tigers

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
18
Chicago White Stockings
1885
87–25
000000001885-06-01-0000June 1, 1885
6–0
Detroit Wolverines
000000001885-06-25-0000June 25, 1885
0–2
Philadelphia Phillies

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
18^
Boston Beaneaters
1891
87–51
000000001891-09-16-0000September 16, 1891
7–2
Chicago Colts
000000001891-10-03-0000October 3, 1891
3–5
Philadelphia Phillies

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
18
New York Giants
1904
106–47
000000001904-06-16-0000June 16, 1904
4–3
St. Louis Cardinals
000000001904-07-04-0000July 4, 1904
5–6
Philadelphia Phillies

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
18
New York Yankees
1953*
99–52
000000001953-05-27-0000May 27, 1953
3–1
Washington Senators
000000001953-06-16-0000June 16, 1953
1–3
St. Louis Browns

7001140000000000000♠14 (tie)
17
St. Louis Browns
18851
79–33
000000001885-05-05-0000May 5, 1885
12–4
Louisville Colonels
000000001885-06-02-0000June 2, 1885
1–7
Baltimore Orioles

7001140000000000000♠14 (tie)
17
Boston Beaneaters
1897
93–39
000000001897-05-31-0000May 31, 1897
25–5
St. Louis Cardinals
000000001897-06-22-0000June 22, 1897
4–7
Brooklyn Bridegrooms

7001140000000000000♠14 (tie)
17
New York Giants
1907
82–71
000000001907-04-25-0000April 25, 1907
6–3
Philadelphia Phillies
000000001907-05-20-0000May 20, 1907
4–6
St. Louis Cardinals

7001140000000000000♠14 (tie)
17
Washington Senators
1912
91–61
000000001912-05-30-0000May 30, 1912
5–0
Boston Red Sox
000000001912-06-19-0000June 19, 1912
1–2
Philadelphia Athletics

7001140000000000000♠14 (tie)
17
New York Giants
1916
86–66
000000001916-05-09-0000May 9, 1916
13–5
Pittsburgh Pirates
000000001916-05-30-0000May 30, 1916
1–5
Philadelphia Phillies

7001140000000000000♠14 (tie)
17
Philadelphia Athletics
1931
107–45
000000001931-05-05-0000May 5, 1931
4–1
Boston Red Sox
000000001931-05-26-0000May 26, 1931
2–6
New York Yankees

7001140000000000000♠14 (tie)
17
Pittsburgh Pirates**
1937
1938
86–68
86–64
000000001937-09-24-0000September 24, 1937
8–2
Cincinnati Reds
000000001938-04-26-0000April 26, 1938
3–5 (10)
Chicago Cubs

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
St. Louis Maroons
1884
94–19
000000001884-08-26-0000August 26, 1884
5–4
Chicago/Pittsburgh
000000001884-09-18-0000September 18, 1884
2–4
Washington Nationals

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16^
Philadelphia Quakers
1887
75–48
000000001887-09-15-0000September 15, 1887
8–4
Indianapolis Hoosiers
000000001888-04-20-0000April 20, 1888
3–4
Boston Beaneaters

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
Philadelphia Phillies
1890
78–53
000000001890-07-08-0000July 8, 1890
9–4
Cincinnati Reds
000000001890-07-28-0000July 28, 1890
4–12
Chicago Colts

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
Philadelphia Phillies
1892
87–66
000000001892-06-10-0000June 10, 1892
7–1
Cleveland Spiders
000000001892-06-29-0000June 29, 1892
1–9
Boston Beaneaters

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
Pittsburgh Pirates
1909*
110–42
000000001909-09-09-0000September 9, 1909
3–1
Cincinnati Reds
000000001909-09-27-0000September 27, 1909
7–8
New York Giants

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
New York Giants
1912
103–48
000000001912-06-19-0000June 19, 1912
6–5
Boston Braves
000000001912-07-04-0000July 4, 1912
4–10
Brooklyn Dodgers

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
New York Yankees
1926
91–63
000000001926-05-10-0000May 10, 1926
13–9
Detroit Tigers
000000001926-05-28-0000May 28, 1926
1–2
Philadelphia Athletics

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
New York Giants
1951
98–59
000000001951-08-12-0000August 12, 1951
3–2
Philadelphia Phillies
000000001951-08-28-0000August 28, 1951
0–2
Pittsburgh Pirates

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
Kansas City Royals
1977
102–60
000000001977-08-31-0000August 31, 1977
5–4
Texas Rangers
000000001977-09-16-0000September 16, 1977
1–4
Seattle Mariners

7001210000000000000♠21 (tie)
16
Milwaukee Brewers**
1986
1987
77–84
91–71
000000001986-10-03-0000October 3, 1986
4–1
Toronto Blue Jays
000000001987-04-21-0000April 21, 1987
1–7
Chicago White Sox

text: National Association[edit]

text:
Rank
Games
Team
Season(s)
Season
record(s)
Date
Score
Opponent
Date
Score
Opponent

Beginning (first victory)
End (first defeat)

7000100000000000000♠1
26^
Boston Red Stockings
1875
71–8
000000001875-04-19-0000April 19, 1875
6–0
New Haven Elm Citys
000000001875-06-05-0000June 5, 1875
4–5
St. Louis Brown Stockings

7000200000000000000♠2
18
Boston Red Stockings
1872
39–8
000000001872-05-07-0000May 7, 1872
23–3
Brooklyn Atlantics
000000001872-07-20-0000July 20, 1872
10–17
Troy Trojans

7000300000000000000♠3 (tie)
15
Hartford Dark Blues**
1874
1875
16–37
54–28
000000001874-10-27-0000October 27, 1874
10–3
Philadelphia Whites
000000001875-05-18-0000May 18, 1875
5–10
Boston Red Stockings

7000300000000000000♠3 (tie)
15
Boston Red Stockings
1875
71–8
000000001875-09-06-0000September 6, 1875
9–4
Philadelphia Whites
000000001875-10-29-0000October 29, 1875
8–9
Hartford Dark Blues

text: 1Denotes season in which team won a pennant in the American Association

text: Postseason[edit]

text: This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of postseason games.

text:
Rank

Games
Team
Beginning (first victory)
End (first defeat)

7000100000000000000♠1 (tie)
12
New York Yankees
1927–28, 1932
000000001927-10-05-0000October 5, 1927
5–4
Pittsburgh Pirates
000000001936-09-30-0000September 30, 1936
1–6
New York Giants

7000100000000000000♠1 (tie)
12
New York Yankees
1998–99
000000001998-10-10-0000October 10, 1998
4–0
Cleveland Indians
000000001999-10-16-0000October 16, 1999
1–13
Boston Red Sox

7000300000000000000♠3
11
Kansas City Royals
1985, 2014
000000001985-10-24-0000October 24, 1985
6–1
St. Louis Cardinals
000000002014-10-21-0000October 21, 2014
1–7
San Francisco Giants

7000400000000000000♠4 (tie)
10
New York Yankees
1937–39, 1941
000000001937-10-10-0000October 10, 1937
4–2
New York Giants
000000001941-10-02-0000October 2, 1941
2–3
Brooklyn Dodgers

7000400000000000000♠4 (tie)
10
Oakland Athletics
1989–90
000000001989-10-07-0000October 7, 1989
6–5
Toronto Blue Jays
000000001990-10-16-0000October 16, 1990
0–7
Cincinnati Reds

7000400000000000000♠4 (tie)
10
San Francisco Giants
2012, 2014
000000002012-10-19-0000October 19, 2012
5–0
St. Louis Cardinals
000000002014-10-06-0000October 6, 2014
1–4
Washington Nationals

7000700000000000000♠7
9
Boston Red Sox
2007–08
000000002007-10-18-0000October 18, 2007
7–1
Cleveland Indians
000000002008-10-05-0000October 5, 2008
4–5 (12)
Los Angeles Angels

7000800000000000000♠8 (tie)
8
Cincinnati Reds
1975–76
000000001975-10-22-0000October 22, 1975
4–3
Boston Red Sox
000000001979-10-12-0000October 12, 1979
2–5 (11)
Pittsburgh Pirates

7000800000000000000♠8 (tie)
8
Cincinnati Reds
1990, 1995
000000001990-10-12-0000October 12, 1990
2–1
Pittsburgh Pirates
000000001995-10-10-0000October 10, 1995
1–2 (11)
Atlanta Braves

7000800000000000000♠8 (tie)
8
Boston Red Sox
2004
000000002004-10-17-0000October 17, 2004
6–4 (12)
New York Yankees
000000002005-10-04-0000October 4, 2005
2–14
Chicago White Sox

7000800000000000000♠8 (tie)
8
Chicago White Sox
2005
000000002005-10-12-0000October 12, 2005
2–1
Los Angeles Angels
000000002008-10-02-0000October 2, 2008
4–6
Tampa Bay Rays

text: World Series[edit]

text: This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of World Series games.

text:
Rank
Games
Team
Series
Date
Score
Opponent
Date
Score
Opponent

Beginning (first victory)
End (first defeat)

7000100000000000000♠1
14
New York Yankees
1996, 1998–2000
000000001996-10-22-0000October 22, 1996
5–2
Atlanta Braves
000000002000-10-24-0000October 24, 2000
2–4
New York Mets

7000200000000000000♠2
12
New York Yankees
1927–28, 1932
000000001927-10-05-0000October 5, 1927
13–6
Pittsburgh Pirates
000000001936-09-30-0000September 30, 1936
1–6
New York Giants

7000300000000000000♠3
10
New York Yankees
1937–39, 1941
000000001937-10-10-0000October 10, 1937
3–2
New York Giants
000000001941-10-02-0000October 2, 1941
2–3
Brooklyn Dodgers

4(tie)
9
Cincinnati Reds
1975–76, 1990
October 22, 1975
4–3
Boston Red Sox

4(tie)
9
Boston Red Sox
2004, 2007, 2013
000000002004-10-23-0000October 23, 2004
8–1
St. Louis Cardinals
000000002013-10-24-0000October 24, 2013
2–4
St. Louis Cardinals

7000500000000000000♠5(tie)
7
New York Yankees
1949–50
000000001949-10-07-0000October 7, 1949
5–2
Brooklyn Dodgers
000000001951-10-04-0000October 4, 1951
1–5
New York Giants

7000500000000000000♠5(tie)
7
San Francisco Giants
2010, 2012, 2014
000000002010-10-31-0000October 31, 2010
7–1
Texas Rangers
000000002014-10-22-0000October 22, 2014
2–7
Kansas City Royals

7000700000000000000♠7(tie)
6
Chicago Cubs
1907–08
000000001907-10-09-0000October 9, 1907
6–1
Detroit Tigers
000000001908-10-12-0000October 12, 1908
3–8
Detroit Tigers

7000700000000000000♠7(tie)
6
Los Angeles Dodgers
1981, 1988
000000001981-10-23-0000October 23, 1981
6–0
New York Yankees
000000001988-10-18-0000October 18, 1988
1–2
Oakland Athletics

7000700000000000000♠7(tie)
6
New York Yankees
1978, 1981
000000001978-10-13-0000October 13, 1978
3–0
Los Angeles Dodgers
000000001981-10-23-0000October 23, 1981
4–5
Los Angeles Dodgers

7001100000000000000♠10(tie)
5
Baltimore Orioles
1966, 1969
000000001966-10-05-0000October 5, 1966
4–1
Los Angeles Dodgers
000000001969-10-12-0000October 12, 1969
1–2
New York Mets

7001100000000000000♠10(tie)
5
Boston Americans
1903, 1912
000000001903-10-07-0000October 7, 1903
11–2
Pittsburg Pirates
000000001912-10-09-0000October 9, 1912
6–6
(tie)

New York Giants

000000001912-10-10-0000October 10, 1912
1–2

7001100000000000000♠10(tie)
5
Boston Braves
1912, 1914
000000001912-10-16-0000October 16, 1912
3–1
Philadelphia Athletics
000000001915-10-08-0000October 8, 1915
1–3
Philadelphia Phillies

7001100000000000000♠10(tie)
5
Boston Red Sox
1915–16
000000001915-10-09-0000October 9, 1915
6–5
Brooklyn Robins
000000001916-10-07-0000October 7, 1916
5–6
Boston Red Sox

7001100000000000000♠10(tie)
5
Los Angeles Dodgers
1959, 1963
000000001959-10-08-0000October 8, 1959
2–1
Chicago White Sox
000000001965-10-06-0000October 6, 1965
2–8
Minnesota Twins

7001100000000000000♠10(tie)
5
New York Yankees
1943, 1947
000000001943-10-07-0000October 7, 1943
10–3
St. Louis Cardinals
000000001947-10-02-0000October 2, 1947
8–9
Brooklyn Dodgers

text: Regular season and postseason[edit]

text: This list includes streaks that involve both regular season games and games which occurred in the postseason.

text:
Rank
Total games
Playoff games
Team
Season(s)
Season
record(s)
Date
Score
Opponent
Date
Score
Opponent

Beginning (first victory)
End (first defeat)

7000100000000000000♠1
17
6
Baltimore Orioles
1970
108–54
000000001970-09-20-0000September 20, 1970
7–0
Cleveland Indians
000000001970-10-14-0000October 14, 1970
5–6
Cincinnati Reds

7000200000000000000♠2
16
5
Baltimore Orioles
1971
101–57
000000001971-09-19-0000September 19, 1971
8–1
Detroit Tigers
000000001971-10-12-0000October 12, 1971
1–5
Pittsburgh Pirates

7000300000000000000♠3
12
4
New York Yankees
1927
1928
110–44
101–53
000000001927-09-27-0000September 27, 1927
7–4
Philadelphia Athletics
000000001928-04-19-0000April 19, 1928
6–7
Boston Red Sox

7000400000000000000♠4 (tie)
11
4
New York Yankees
1932
1933
107–47
91–59
000000001932-09-28-0000September 28, 1932
12–6
Chicago Cubs
000000001933-04-23-0000April 23, 1933
4–5
Washington Senators

7000400000000000000♠4 (tie)
11
4
New York Yankees
1998
114–48
000000001998-09-22-0000September 22, 1998
10–4
Cleveland Indians
000000001998-10-07-0000October 7, 1998
1–4 (12)
Cleveland Indians

7000600000000000000♠6 (tie)
10
1
Baltimore Orioles
1974
91–71
000000001974-09-22-0000September 22, 1974
7–2
Boston Red Sox
000000001974-10-06-0000October 6, 1974
0–5
Oakland Athletics

7000600000000000000♠6 (tie)
10
7
Cincinnati Reds
1976
1977
102–60
88–74
000000001976-10-03-0000October 3, 1976
11–1
Atlanta Braves
000000001977-04-09-0000April 9, 1977
3–6
San Diego Padres

7000600000000000000♠6 (tie)
10
3
Atlanta Braves
1998
106–56
000000001998-09-19-0000September 19, 1998
5–0
Arizona Diamondbacks
000000001998-10-07-0000October 7, 1998
2–3 (10)
San Diego Padres

7000600000000000000♠6 (tie)
10
7
Colorado Rockies
2007
90–73
000000002007-09-29-0000September 29, 2007
11–1
Arizona Diamondbacks
000000002007-10-24-0000October 24, 2007
1–13
Boston Red Sox

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
9
4
New York Giants^
1922
1923
93–61
95–58
000000001922-10-01-0000October 1, 1922
3–0
Boston Braves
000000001923-04-20-0000April 20, 1923
2–9
Boston Braves

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
9
3
Detroit Tigers
1984
1985
104–58
84–77
000000001984-10-12-0000October 12, 1984
5–2
San Diego Padres
000000001985-04-17-0000April 17, 1985
0–2
Milwaukee Brewers

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
9
1
San Francisco Giants
2002
95–66
000000002002-09-20-0000September 20, 2002
5–1
Milwaukee Brewers
000000002002-10-03-0000October 3, 2002
3–7
Atlanta Braves

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
9
8
Chicago White Sox
2005
2006
99–63
90–72
000000002005-10-12-0000October 12, 2005
2–1
Los Angeles Angels
000000002006-04-04-0000April 4, 2006
2–8
Cleveland Indians

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
9
8
Kansas City Royals
2014
89–73
000000002014-09-28-0000September 28, 2014
6–4
Chicago White Sox
000000002014-10-21-0000October 21, 2014
1–7
San Francisco Giants

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
9
1
Chicago Cubs
2015
97–65
000000002015-09-27-0000September 27, 2015
4–0
Pittsburgh Pirates
000000002015-10-09-0000October 9, 2015
0–4
St. Louis Cardinals

7001100000000000000♠10 (tie)
9
6
Cleveland Indians
2016
94–67
000000002016-09-30-0000September 30, 2016
7–2
Kansas City Royals
000000002016-10-18-0000October 18, 2016
1–5
Toronto Blue Jays

text: Series streaks[edit]

text: Postseason[edit]

text: This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of postseason series. For the purpose of this list, one-game wild card matchups, such as the 2012 Cardinals' win, and the Giants' wild card wins in 2014 and 2016, are counted.

text:
Rank

Series
Team
Beginning (first victory)
End (first defeat)

7000100000000000000♠1 (tie)
11
New York Yankees
1998–2001
1998 ALDS
3–0
Texas Rangers
2001 WS
3–4
Arizona Diamondbacks

7000200000000000000♠1 (tie)
11
San Francisco Giants
2010, 2012, 2014, 2016
2010 NLDS
3–1
Atlanta Braves
2016 NLDS
1–3
Chicago Cubs

7000300000000000000♠3
8
New York Yankees
1927–28, 1932, 1936–39, 1941
1927 WS
4–0
Pittsburgh Pirates
1942 WS
1–4
St. Louis Cardinals

7000400000000000000♠4
7
New York Yankees
1943, 1947, 1949–53
1943 WS
4–1
St. Louis Cardinals
1955 WS
3–4
Brooklyn Dodgers

7000500000000000000♠5 (tie)
6
Oakland Athletics
1972–74
1972 ALCS
3–2
Detroit Tigers
1975 ALCS
0–3
Boston Red Sox

7000500000000000000♠5 (tie)
6
Florida Marlins*
1997, 2003
1997 NLDS
3–0
San Francisco Giants

7000700000000000000♠7 (tie)
5
Boston Red Sox
1903, 1912, 1915–16, 1918
1903 WS
5–3
Pittsburgh Pirates
1946 WS
3–4
St. Louis Cardinals

7000700000000000000♠7 (tie)
5
Atlanta Braves
1995–96
1995 NLDS
3–1
Colorado Rockies
1996 WS
2–4
New York Yankees

7000700000000000000♠7 (tie)
5
Minnesota Twins
1987, 1991, 2002
1987 ALCS
4–1
Detroit Tigers
2002 ALCS
1–4
Anaheim Angels

7000700000000000000♠7 (tie)
5
Philadelphia Phillies
2008–09
2008 NLDS
3–1
Milwaukee Brewers
2009 WS
2–4
New York Yankees

7000700000000000000♠7 (tie)
5
St. Louis Cardinals
2011–12
2011 NLDS
3–2
Philadelphia Phillies
2012 NLCS
3–4
San Francisco Giants


document_title: One Day at a Time

question_text: one day at a time who is schneider

question_tokens: one day at a time who is schneider

text: One Day at a Time

text: Background[edit]

text: The series was created by Whitney Blake and Allan Manings, a husband-and-wife writing duo who were both actors in the 1950s and 1960s. The series was based on Whitney Blake's own life as a single mother, raising her three children (including future actress Meredith Baxter) after her divorce from her first husband.[1]

text: Plot[edit]

text: Ann Romano, a divorced mother, moves from their home in Logansport, Indiana, to Indianapolis with her daughters, the rebellious Julie and the wisecracking Barbara. Ann frequently struggles with maintaining her role as mother while affording her daughters the freedom she never had as a young woman.  Ann begins dating her divorce lawyer, David Kane (Richard Masur).  They become engaged and call it off on their wedding day, when David says he wants kids, but Ann does not.  Dwayne Schneider, the building's quirky superintendent (most often referred to only by his last name), provides usually unwanted advice to the tenants.

text: After David takes a job in Los Angeles, the focus squarely rests on Ann's dilemmas as a single mother and career woman, as well as the girls' growing pains, with Schneider becoming a more welcomed part of the family. Ann's strained relationship with her ex-husband Ed slowly mends, as does the girls' relationship with his new wife, Vickie. Julie and Barbara advance through high school and into the working world, and Julie eventually marries flight attendant Max Horvath. Alex, the orphaned son of Ann's deceased boyfriend, moves in, changing the dynamics in the female-dominated apartment. Later in the series run, Julie gives birth to a daughter, "Little Annie" Horvath, Barbara marries dental student Mark Royer, and Ann's mother Katherine moves nearby.

text: In the penultimate episode, Ann decides to take a job in London, leaving her daughters in Indianapolis to raise families of their own. In the series finale, Schneider also leaves town, moving to Florida to take care of his niece and nephew.

text: Production[edit]

text: For its entire run, the series was taped in Hollywood before a studio audience. Originally, it was taped at CBS Television City. Shortly after its premiere, the series began taping at Metromedia Square, where it remained until 1982. From 1982 to 1984, the series was taped at Universal Studios.

text: Like many sitcoms developed by Norman Lear, One Day at a Time often tackled serious issues in life and relationships, particularly those related to second-wave feminism. Stories depicting such events as weddings, births, and other important milestones frequently stretched over two-, three-, and four-part episodes.

text: Theme song and opening credits[edit]

text: The theme song for One Day at a Time, "This is It", was composed by Brill Building songwriter Jeff Barry and his wife Nancy Barry, and performed by recording artist Polly Cutter. The opening credits were originally seen over a filmed sequence showing Ann, Julie, and Barbara excitedly moving into their new home. Later, the opening credits sequence mostly consisted of clips of each cast member taken from previous episodes.

text: Casting[edit]

text: Actors Bonnie Franklin, Pat Harrington, Jr., and Valerie Bertinelli were the only cast members to remain with the series throughout its entire run. Lead actress Mackenzie Phillips was fired after the fifth season due to growing problems with substance abuse. She later returned in a frequent recurring role. Original cast member Richard Masur was written out early in the second season, but returned as a guest star in the sixth-season finale.

text: After Masur's departure, the producers tried going in a different direction. Instead of Ann Romano being romantically involved with a man, it was decided to give Ann a comedic foil. For that role, producer Lear chose actress and comedienne Mary Louise Wilson, who had just completed a successful run on Broadway as Tessie Tura in a revival of Gypsy starring Angela Lansbury. Wilson was signed to play Ginny Wroblicki, a cocktail waitress who moves into Schneider's apartment building, and immediately becomes Ann's best friend and confidante. The shows' ratings began to decline soon after Wilson's arrival, as the character of Ginny Wroblicki proved to be unpopular with viewers. According to her memoir, My First Hundred Years in Show Business, prior to being cast as Ginny, Wilson had never seen One Day at a Time and immediately sat down and watched an episode one night in her apartment. She did not find the sitcom funny at all and was not given a script until the first read-through of her first episode. Wilson also did not get along with Franklin, "who took her role as arbiter over moral issues very seriously" and who considered herself "our foremost authority on Broadway". She also thought that Harrington's character of Schneider was not funny at all, although she liked Harrington himself, and found him hilarious offscreen. Wilson wrote that "aside from Lear, nobody thought I was funny...To make matters worse, each character, according to the show's formula, had to have a 'serious' moral dilemma at some point, and I was given some problem about an illegitimate child to work out in these increasingly sentimental scenes that made my bowels shrink." At the end of the second season of One Day at a Time, Wilson begged her agent to ask Lear to release her from her contract. Wilson later admitted, "I felt terribly wrong to be so miserable. I knew this was the kind of break actors longed for." Wilson was also unaccustomed to working on a sitcom with four cameras in front of a live audience where "you said your line when the red light on the camera went on...and there follows a pause longer than the river Styx before the light on camera four goes on" at which the character you're speaking to says the next line. After the meeting with her agent, Wilson impulsively changed her mind and agreed to stay with the series, but it was too late. Her agent had already informed Norman Lear of Wilson's unhappiness and she was released from the show after appearing in 14 episodes. The character of Ginny Wroblicki was never seen, referred to, or heard from again[2] except in a fifth-season episode ("Retrospective") made up mainly of clips from earlier in the series.

text: For the next two seasons, the central cast of Ann, Julie, Barbara, and Schneider was supplemented by recurring characters, including William Kirby Cullen as Julie's boyfriend Chuck Butterfield, Howard Morton and K Callan as Chuck's parents, John Putch as Barbara's awkward friend Bob Morton, Scott Colomby as Barbara's boyfriend Cliff Randall, and John Hillerman and Charles Siebert as Ann's bosses, Mr. Connors and Mr. Davenport, respectively. Dick O'Neill and Nedra Volz made three appearances together as Orville and Emily, residents of the retirement home where the main characters put on a semiregular variety show. Joseph Campanella also made several appearances as Ann's ex-husband and the girls' father, Ed Cooper.

text: Michael Lembeck joined the series as Julie's husband, Max, in the fifth season, but he was written out as a consequence of Phillips' firing (but later returned in season seven along with Philips).  A steady stream of regulars was added in the ensuing seasons, including Ron Rifkin as Ann's boyfriend, Nick; Glenn Scarpelli as Nick's son, Alex; and Boyd Gaines as Barbara's boyfriend, later husband, Mark. Shelley Fabares, who had previously guest-starred as Ann's rival co-worker Francine Webster, appeared more frequently, eventually becoming a regular. Nanette Fabray, who played Ann's mother, also made more frequent appearances before becoming a regular cast member in the final season. Howard Hesseman joined the series for a short time as Mark's father, Sam, who would become Ann's second husband.

text: Notable guest stars throughout the series run include Norman Alden, Robby Benson, Carla Borelli, Charlie Brill, Dennis Burkley, Jack Dodson, Elinor Donahue, David Dukes, Greg Evigan, Conchata Ferrell, Corey Feldman, Alice Ghostley, Lee Grant, Mark Hamill, Jim Hutton, Terry Kiser, Richard Kline, Christopher Knight, Jay Leno, Robert Mandan, Robert Morse, Denise Nicholas, J. Pat O'Malley, Jo Ann Pflug, Eve Plumb, Susan Richardson, William Schallert, Gretchen Corbett, Suzanne Somers, Ellen Travolta, Dick Van Patten, and Keenan Wynn.

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Actor

Character

Seasons

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Bonnie Franklin

Ann Romano

Main

Mackenzie Phillips

Julie Cooper Horvath

Main

Recurring

Richard Masur

David Kane

Main

Guest

Valerie Bertinelli

Barbara Cooper Royer

Main

Pat Harrington Jr.

Dwayne Schneider

Main

Mary Louise Wilson

Ginny Wroblicki

Main

Michael Lembeck

Max Horvath

Main

Recurring

Main

Ron Rifkin

Nick Handris

Main

Glenn Scarpelli

Alex Handris

Main

Boyd Gaines

Mark Royer

Recurring

Main

Shelley Fabares

Francine Webster

Guest

Guest

Recurring

Main

Recurring

Nanette Fabray

Katherine Romano

Guest

Recurring

Main

Howard Hesseman

Sam Royer

Recurring

Main

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedNielsen ratings[3]First airedLast airedRankRatingTied with115December 16, 1975 (1975-12-16)March 30, 1976 (1976-03-30)1223.1N/A224September 28, 1976 (1976-09-28)March 22, 1977 (1977-03-22)823.4The ABC Sunday Night MovieBaretta324September 27, 1977 (1977-09-27)April 3, 1978 (1978-04-03)1023.0N/A426September 18, 1978 (1978-09-18)April 14, 1979 (1979-04-14)1821.6N/A526September 30, 1979 (1979-09-30)April 13, 1980 (1980-04-13)1023.0N/A621November 9, 1980 (1980-11-09)May 10, 1981 (1981-05-10)1122.0N/A725October 11, 1981 (1981-10-11)May 16, 1982 (1982-05-16)1022.0N/A826September 26, 1982 (1982-09-26)May 23, 1983 (1983-05-23)1619.1N/A922October 2, 1983 (1983-10-02)May 28, 1984 (1984-05-28)4415.9[4]N/A

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: One Day at a Time was best known in the 1980s as a staple of the CBS Sunday-night lineup, one of the most successful in TV history, along with Archie Bunker's Place, Alice, and The Jeffersons.

text: The series consistently ranked among the top twenty (if not the top ten) programs in the ratings. However, the network moved the show around on the prime time schedule eleven times. By the end of the 1982–83 season, viewership was beginning to slip and the series ended season eight ranking at No. 16. At this time, Bonnie Franklin and Valerie Bertinelli were anxious to move on, but agreed to do a ninth (and final) season. (Although both were offered contracts for two more seasons: a ninth and a tenth according to Bertinelli in her autobiography Losing It: And Gaining My Life Back One Pound at a Time.)

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text:
1981, 1982: Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film to Valerie Bertinelli
1982: Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series to Alan Rafkin[5]
1984: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor – Comedy Series to Pat Harrington[6]

text: Syndication[edit]

text: CBS aired daytime reruns of the show for three years. From September 17, 1979, to February 1, 1980, it aired on the daytime schedule at 3:30 pm Eastern time; with the cancellation of Love of Life to accommodate the expansion of The Young and the Restless to one hour, it was moved on February 4, 1980, to 4 pm Eastern due to Guiding Light moving to 3 pm. On September 28, 1981, it moved to 10 am Eastern time, and on September 20, 1982, it was replaced by The $25,000 Pyramid.

text: Soon after, the show entered off-network syndication, airing on local stations around the country, and nationally on WGN, TBS, and the E! Network.

text: Logo TV started airing episodes in April 2017.

text: As of July 23, 2017, the series airs Sunday nights on the digital broadcast network Antenna TV.[7] It also can be seen on the satellite service FeTV.

text: Cast reunions[edit]

text: The One Day at a Time Reunion was a 60-minute CBS retrospective special which aired on Tuesday February 22, 2005, at 9:00 pm ET, reuniting Bonnie Franklin, Mackenzie Phillips, Valerie Bertinelli, and Pat Harrington to reminisce about the series and their characters. Regular cast members Richard Masur, Shelley Fabares, Nanette Fabray, Michael Lembeck, and Glenn Scarpelli shared their feelings about their time on the show in separate interviews. The special was included as a bonus on One Day at a Time: The Complete First Season DVD set.

text: On February 26, 2008, Franklin, Phillips, Bertinelli, and Harrington reunited once again to talk about life on the set, Phillips' drug problems, and the show's theme song on NBC's Today Show as part of a week-long segment titled "Together Again: TV's Greatest Casts Reunited".

text: Bertinelli, Harrington, and (on tape) Franklin appeared on the September 10, 2008, episode of Rachael Ray to celebrate Ray's 40th birthday.

text: In 2011, Franklin reunited again with Bertinelli on an episode of Hot in Cleveland which marked one of Franklin's last acting roles before her death in 2013. Mackenzie Phillips and Pat Harrington Jr. also made individual cameos on the series.

text: One Day at a Time was awarded the Innovation Award on the 2012 TV Land Award show on April 29. Accepting the award were Valerie Bertinelli, Bonnie Franklin, Pat Harrington Jr., Richard Masur, Mackenzie Phillips, and Glenn Scarpelli.

text: Home media[edit]

text: On April 24, 2007, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first season of One Day at a Time on DVD in Region 1.

text: On September 7, 2017, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series and released One Day at a Time - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 on December 5, 2017.[8] Season 2 was released on March 27, 2018.[9] Season 3 was released on June 12, 2018.[10]

text:
DVD Name

Ep #

Release Date

The Complete First Season

15

April 24, 2007

The Complete Second Season

24

March 27, 2018

The Complete Third Season

24

June 12, 2018

The Complete Series

209

December 5, 2017

text: Remake[edit]

text: Gloria Calderon Kellett and Mike Royce developed a new version of the series, with a Latino cast, for Netflix, beginning in 2017. The ensemble is led by Justina Machado, with Rita Moreno, Stephen Tobolowsky, Isabella Gomez, Marcel Ruiz, and Todd Grinnell in supporting roles. Pam Fryman directed the pilot episode.[11][12][13][14][15]


document_title: Echium plantagineum in Australia

question_text: when was paterson's curse introduced to australia

question_tokens: when was paterson 's curse introduced to australia

text: Echium plantagineum in Australia

text: History[edit]

text: In the 1880s, it was introduced to Australia, probably both as an accidental contaminant of pasture seed and as an ornamental plant. Reportedly, both names for the plant derive from Jane Paterson or Patterson, an early settler of the country near Albury. She brought the first seeds from Europe to beautify a garden, and then could only watch helplessly as the weed infested previously productive pastures for many miles around.

text: Paterson's curse is now a dominant broadleaf pasture weed through much of New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania and also infests native grasslands, heathlands, and woodlands.

text: Description[edit]

text: Appearance[edit]

text: The plant has hairy, dark green, broadly oval rosette leaves to 30 cm long. The several seeding stems grow to 120 cm in height and develop branches with age. Flowers develop in clusters; they are purple, tubular and 2–3 cm long with five petals. It has a fleshy taproot with smaller laterals.

text: Growth[edit]

text: Although generally an autumn-germinating, spring-flowering annual, Paterson's curse has become highly adaptable to Australian erratic rainfall events, and given suitable rainfall, some plants germinate at any time of year, but the plant never survives for more than one year. It is a very prolific seed producer; heavy infestations can yield up to 30 000 seeds/m2. Paterson's curse can germinate under a wide variety of temperature conditions, tolerates dry periods well, and responds vigorously to fertiliser. If cut by a lawnmower, it quickly recovers and sends out new shoots and flowers.

text: The plant disperses by movement of seeds — on the wool or fur of animals, the alimentary tracts of grazing animals or birds, movement in water, and most importantly as a contaminant of hay or grain. This is most noticeable in times of drought, when considerable movement of fodder and livestock occurs.

text: It can rapidly establish a large population on disturbed ground and competes vigorously with both smaller plants and the seedlings of regenerating overstorey species. Its spread has been greatly aided by human-induced habitat degradation, particularly the removal of perennial grasses through overgrazing by sheep and cattle and the introduction of the rabbit. Paterson's curse is rarely able to establish itself in habitats where the native vegetation is healthy and undisturbed.

text: Control[edit]

text: Chemical[edit]

text: Control of the plant is carried out by hand (for small infestations) or with any of a variety of herbicides, and must be continued over many years to reduce the seedbank. (Most seeds germinate in the first year, but some survive for as long as five years before germinating.) In the longer term, perennial grasses (which do not need to regenerate from seed each year) can outcompete Paterson's curse, and any increase in perennial cover produces a direct decrease in it. However, the annual cost in control measures and lost production in Australia was estimated (in a 1985 study by the Industries Assistance Commission) to be over $30 million, compared to $2 million per year in benefits.

text: Biological[edit]

text: The Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) has carried out research on numerous classical biological control solutions, and of the 100-odd insects found feeding on Paterson's curse in the Mediterranean, judged six safe to release in Australia without endangering crops or native plants. The leaf-mining moth Dialectica scalariella, the crown weevil Mogulones larvatus, root weevil Mogulones geographicus, and flea beetle Longitarsus echii are now currently widely distributed in southern Australia and can be found easily on most large Paterson's curse plants encountered. The crown weevil and flea beetle are proving highly effective. While the CSIRO is cautiously optimistic, biological control agents are expected to take many years to be fully effective. The most recent economic analysis, however, suggests that biological control has already brought nearly $1.2 B in benefits to Australia by reducing the amount of Paterson's curse in pastures. Investment into the biological control of Paterson's curse has already reaped a benefit cost ratio of 52:1.[1]

text: Toxicity[edit]

text: E. plantagineum contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids and is poisonous.[2] When eaten in large quantities, it causes reduced livestock weight or even (in severe cases) death. Paterson's curse can kill horses[3] and irritate the udders of dairy cows and the skin of humans. After the 2003 Canberra bushfires, over 40 horses were recorded as put down after eating the weed.[4]


document_title: Three-point field goal

question_text: when was the three point line invented in college basketball

text: Three-point field goal

text: History[edit]

text: The three-point line was first tested at the collegiate level in a 1945 NCAA game between Columbia and Fordham but it was not kept as a rule. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three-point line was a radius of 25 feet (7.62 m) from the baskets, except along the sides.[2] The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963–64 season.

text: The three-point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association after its introduction in the 1967–68 season. ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three-pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans."[3] During the 1970s, the ABA used the three-point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the National Basketball Association (NBA).

text: In the 1979–80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three-point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick.[4] Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979. Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets also made one on the same day.

text: The sport's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three-point line in 1984, at a distance of 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in).

text: The NCAA's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three-point rule, adopting a 22-foot (6.71 m) line for the 1980–81 season.[5][6] Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina University was the first to score a three-point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980.[6][7][8] Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three-pointer. The line was as close as 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) in the Atlantic Coast Conference, and as far away as 22 feet in the Big Sky Conference.[9] Used in conference play, it was adopted by the NCAA for the 1986–87 men's season at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m), and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in 1987.[10] In the same 1986–87 season, the NCAA adopted the three-pointer in women's basketball on an experimental basis, using the same 19 ft 9 in distance, and made its use mandatory beginning in 1987–88.[11] In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men's three-point distance to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m), with the rule coming into effect at the beginning of the 2008–09 season.[12] The NCAA women's three-point distance was moved to match the men's distance in 2011–12.[11] American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) line nationally in 1987, a year after the NCAA.[13] The NCAA used the FIBA three-point line (see below) in the 2018 National Invitation Tournament.[14]

text: During the 1994–95, 1995–96, and 1996–97 seasons, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) (22 ft (6.71 m) at the corners) to a uniform 22 ft (6.71 m) around the basket. From the 1997–98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of 23 ft 9 in (22 ft at the corners, with a 3 inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all-time leader in career made three-pointers with 2,973.[15]

text: In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased by 50 cm (19.69 in) to 6.75 m (22 ft 1 3⁄4 in), with the change being phased in beginning in October 2010. In December 2012, the WNBA announced that it would be using FIBA's distance, too, as of the 2013 season. The NBA has discussed adding a four-point line, according to president Rod Thorn.[16]

text: In the NBA, three-point field goals have become increasingly more frequent along the years, with effectiveness increasing slightly. The 1979-80 season had an average 2.2 three-point goals per game and 6.6 attempts (28% effectiveness). The 1989-90 season had an average 4.8 three-point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35% effectiveness). The 2009-10 season had an average 6.4 three-point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36% effectiveness). The 2016-17 season had an average 9.7 three-point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36% effectiveness).[17]

text: Rule specifications[edit]

text: A three-point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three-point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three-point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three-point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than 2 feet (0.61 m) from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180° around the basket, then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline (5 feet 3 inches or 1.60 metres). The distance of the three-point line to the center of the hoop varies by level:

text:
Arc radius
Minimum distance from sidelines

National Basketball Association
23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m)
3 feet (0.91 m)
[18]

FIBA (also used by WNBA)
6.75 meters (22 ft 2 in)
0.90 meters (2 ft 11 in)
[19]

National Collegiate Athletic Association
20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m)
4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m)
[20]

American high school basketball
19 feet 9 inches (6.02 m)
5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m)
[21]

text: A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air.

text: An official raises his/her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he/she raises his/her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three-point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA,[22] WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to occur immediately following a shot; play can continue and the officials can adjust the scoring later in the game, after reviewing the video. However, in late game situations, play may be paused pending a review.

text: If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three-pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free-throw attempts. If a player completes a three-pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free-throw for a possible 4-point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three-pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5-point play.

text: Related concepts[edit]

text: Major League Lacrosse features a two-point line which forms a 15-yard (14 m) arc around the front of the goal. Shots taken from behind this line count for two points, as opposed to the standard one point.

text: In gridiron football, a standard field goal is worth three points; various professional and semi-pro leagues have experimented with four-point field goals. NFL Europe and the Stars Football League adopted a rule similar to basketball's three-point line in which an additional point was awarded for longer field goals; in both leagues any field goal of 50 yards (46 m) or more was worth four points. The Arena Football League awards four points for any successful drop kicked field goal (like the three-point shot, the drop kick is more challenging than a standard place kick, as the bounce of the ball makes a kick less predictable, and arena football also uses narrower goal posts for all kicks than the outdoor game does).

text: During the existence of the World Hockey Association in the 1970s, there were proposals for two-point hockey goals for shots taken beyond an established distance (one proposal was a 44-foot (13.4m) arc, which would have intersected the faceoff circles), but this proposal gained little support and faded after the WHA merged with the NHL. It was widely believed that long-distance shots in hockey had little direct relation to skill (usually resulting more from goalies' vision being screened or obscured), plus with the lower scoring intrinsic to the sport a two-point goal was seen as disruptive of the structure of the game.

text: The Super Goal is a similar concept in Australian rules football, in which a 50-meter (55 yd) arc determines the value of a goal; within the arc, it is the usual 6 points, but 9 points are scored for a "super goal" scored from outside the arc. To date the super goal is only used in pre-season games and not in the season proper.[23]

text: The National Professional Soccer League II, which awarded two points for all goals except those on the power play, also used a three-point line, drawn 45 feet (14 m) from the goal. It has since been adopted by some other indoor soccer leagues.