document_title: College baseball

question_text: what kind of bats do they use in college baseball

text: College baseball

text: History[edit]

text: The first intercollegiate baseball game took place in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, on July 1, 1859, between squads representing Amherst College and Williams College. Amherst won, 73–32. This game was one of the last played under an earlier version of the game known as "Massachusetts rules", which prevailed in New England until the "Knickerbocker Rules" (or "New York Rules") developed in the 1840s gradually became accepted.[1] The first ever nine-man team college baseball game under the Knickerbocker Rules still in use today was played in New York on November 3, 1859 between the Fordham Rose Hill Baseball Club of St. John's College (now Fordham University) against The College of St. Francis Xavier, now known as Xavier High School.

text: Recent growth[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Traditionally, college baseball has been played in the early part of the year, with a relatively short schedule and during a time when cold (and/or rainy) weather hinders the ability for games to be played, particularly in the northern and midwestern parts of the U.S. These and other factors have historically led colleges and universities across the nation to effectively consider baseball a minor sport, both in scholarships as well as money and other points of emphasis.

text: College baseball has grown phenomenally in popularity since the 1980s, as coaches and athletic directors in warm-weather regions of the nation began to recognize the unrealized potential appeal of the sport. These coaches went out and aggressively recruited the sport to potential athletes, as well as made various upgrades to their programs; such as bigger and better stadiums, more money for staff and support salaries, and promotions.

text: As these efforts resulted in better players and overall programs, more television and print media coverage began to emerge. The ESPN family of networks greatly increased television coverage of the NCAA playoffs and the College World Series since 2003.

text: Soon, in many warm-weather regions, baseball came to be considered a major sport, approaching the level of football and basketball.[citation needed] And even non-warm weather schools started to recognize baseball's potential and began to put considerably more emphasis on it. Nebraska, Notre Dame, and Oregon State are three notable examples of cold (or rainy) weather schools with very successful programs. The first two made the College World Series when warm-weather schools placed major emphasis on baseball as well as had the advantage of playing earlier and more games because of favorable climates. Oregon State won back-to-back national championships in 2006 and 2007; at that time, archrival Oregon had been without baseball for a quarter-century, having dropped its program in 1981. Many credit the Beavers' success as a primary factor in the University of Oregon's later decision to revive baseball in 2009.[citation needed]

text: Before the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome was demolished in early 2014, Minnesota took advantage of it to play the majority of their games, including hosting a prestigious preseason tournament. With the 2010 departure of the MLB Minnesota Twins for the new Target Field, the school hoped to use the Metrodome for future Big Ten tournaments and bids on the NCAA tournament. Along with that, many smaller conferences (not in Division I) played games at the Metrodome during February in order to keep up with schools in warm-weather locations. While the Metrodome's replacement, U.S. Bank Stadium, was designed mainly for the NFL's Minnesota Vikings, it has movable seating banks that allow it to be configured for baseball.

text: For 2008 and succeeding seasons, the NCAA mandated the first ever start date for Division I baseball, thirteen weeks before the selection of the NCAA tournament field, which takes place on Memorial Day.[citation needed]

text: Collegiate rules[edit]

text: The rules of college baseball are similar to the Official Baseball Rules. Exceptions include the following:

text:
The bat may be made of wood, or a composite material that meets NCAA standards. Starting with the 2011 season, composite bats had to pass the "Bat-Ball Coefficient of Restitution" (BBCOR) test.
The designated hitter rule is used. In addition, a player may serve as both pitcher and DH at the same time and may remain in one position when removed in the other.
One or both ends of a doubleheader are sometimes seven innings in length. However, the NCAA has recently tightened the interpretation of what constitutes a regulation game, encouraging schools to play as many nine-inning games as possible. Seven-inning games may be played on the final day of a conference series, or if the two teams in a non-conference match will play two games in one day, often to make up a game that could not be played earlier in the year due to inclement weather.
A mercy rule may be in use, which terminates play when one team is ahead by 10 or more runs after seven innings (6½ innings if the home team is winning). In games that are scheduled for seven innings the rule takes effect in the fifth. This rule is not used in NCAA tournament games. Several conferences institute this rule only on Sundays or the final day of a conference series so that the visiting team can travel early. In some conferences, the mercy rule may also be used to end such games in order to start the next tournament game sooner.
There is an automatic ejection for maliciously running into a defender who is trying to tag a runner or execute a force out. An automatic double play may also be called if a player slides into a base in an attempt to take out the defensive player who is trying to throw the ball to complete a double play.
In televised games and in tournament games, instant replay may be used to determine if a slide was malicious.

text: Metal versus wood bat[edit]

text: Though a wood bat is legal in NCAA competition, players overwhelmingly prefer and use a metal bat. The metal bat was implemented in college baseball in 1975.[2] Use of a metal bat is somewhat controversial. Supporters of an aluminum or composite bat note that it can increase offensive performance, as the speed of a ball off a metal bat is generally faster than off a wood bat. Those against metal, and for wood, argue that a metal bat is not safe to use, and that a metal bat doesn't prepare players for the next level, as professional baseball uses a wood bat exclusively. In the 2011 season the NCAA changed the requirements for a metal bat, reducing the maximum allowed exit speed in a way that is said to produce a feeling more like a wood bat.[3] As a result, in 2011 there was a drop-off in overall "long" drives or home runs relative to past years.[4]

text: Draft process[edit]

text: All players resident in the U.S. and its territories, plus Canada, are eligible to be selected in Major League Baseball's Rule 4 Draft upon graduating from high school. However, once a player enrolls in a four-year college or university, he is not allowed to be drafted (or re-drafted) until completing three years of school or reaching age 21, whichever comes first. By contrast, players who enroll in junior colleges (i.e., two-year institutions) are eligible for selection at any time. The Rule 4 Draft of eligible college and high school players consists of 40 rounds.[5] Despite MLB's draft being considerably longer than that of the NFL or NBA, only about 9.1% of all NCAA senior baseball players are drafted by an MLB team.[6]

text: One of the biggest controversies with the draft and these amateur athletes is the use of agents. There have been many cases of college athletes consulting or hiring an agent prematurely in direct violation of NCAA rules. The NCAA came up with the "no agent rule" as a result of this, claiming it was to benefit the amateur athletes. The rule states that "[a]n individual shall be ineligible for participation in an intercollegiate sport if he or she has agreed (orally or in writing) to be represented by an agent for the purpose of marketing his or her athletics ability or reputation in that sport".[7][8] Representation of an agent is considered to be any direct contact with the professional team during the contract negotiations. This contact can be made many different ways, whether through direct conversation, via mail or through the telephone.[9] This rule is strongly enforced by the NCAA and has harsh consequences if broken.

text: Recruitment process[edit]

text: The recruitment process is similar to that of the Major League Draft in that a high school athlete is taking the next step in his career. The NCAA places restrictions on the coaches that are trying to convince athletes to come play for them and attend their university. College baseball programs are only allowed to offer a limited number of scholarships each year, so the process of earning a scholarship is quite competitive. Baseball is classified by the NCAA as an "equivalency" sport, meaning that limits on athletic financial aid are set to the equivalent of a fixed number of full scholarships. Division I schools are allowed the equivalent of 11.7 full scholarships;[10] Division II schools, only 9.0.[11] Schools generally choose to award multiple partial scholarships rather than exclusively full scholarships.[12] In Division I, the NCAA also limits the total number of players receiving baseball-related financial aid to 27,[10] and also requires that each of these players receive athletic aid equal to at least 25% of a full scholarship.[13] The 25% rule does not apply to schools that offer aid based solely on financial need (most notably Ivy League members),[14] and also does not apply to a player in his final year of athletic eligibility who has not previously received athletically related aid in baseball at any college.[15]

text: Before September 1 of a potential college player's 11th grade year, it is illegal for a college program to give any kind of recruiting materials to the prospect. A phone call is not even permitted to the prospect until July 1 of the student's 11th grade year.[16] Once the player is committed to the school of his choice, he must sign his letter of intent during one of several signing periods. The early signing period for a Division I baseball player is between November 8 and 15; the late signing period dates for these players are April 11 to August 1.[16]

text: Substance policies[edit]

text: The substance policies for college baseball are very strict and set by the NCAA. There is a set list of substances a college baseball player is forbidden to put in his body, and there is severe punishment for those that defy it, whether it be intentional or unintentional. There is a very long list of these substances, including alcohol, marijuana, anabolic steroids, and heroin, to name just a few. These substances fit into categories such as stimulants, anabolic steroids, diuretics, street drugs, hormones, anti-estrogens, and more.[17] Failure to pass scheduled or random drug tests can result in ineligibility.[18]

text: Attendance records[edit]

text: Top college baseball crowds of all-time[edit]

text:
Rank
Attendance
Teams
Stadium
City
Date
Note

1
40,106[19]
Houston at San Diego State
Petco Park
San Diego, California
March 11, 2004
First baseball game ever at Petco Park

2
36,056[20]
Louisiana Tech at Minnesota
Target Field
Minneapolis, Minnesota
March 27, 2010
First baseball game ever at Target Field

3
33,025[21]
Missouri at Georgia
SunTrust Park
Atlanta, Georgia
April 8, 2017
First baseball game ever at SunTrust Park

4
30,553[22]
North Carolina vs. LSU
Rosenblatt Stadium
Omaha, Nebraska
June 20, 2008
College World Series

5,6
30,355[22]
North Carolina vs. Cal State Fullerton
Oregon State vs. Rice
Rosenblatt Stadium
Omaha, Nebraska
June 21, 2006
College World Series

7,8
29,921[22]
North Carolina vs. Rice
Oregon State vs. UC Irvine
Rosenblatt Stadium
Omaha, Nebraska
June 21, 2006
College World Series

9,10
29,034[22]
North Carolina vs. Louisville
Arizona State vs. UC Irvine
Rosenblatt Stadium
Omaha, Nebraska
June 19, 2007
College World Series

text: Top 25 on-campus college baseball crowds of all-time[edit]

text:
Rank
Attendance
Teams
Stadium
City
Date
Note

1
15,586[23]
Ole Miss at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 12, 2014

2
15,078[24]
Texas A&M at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 16, 2016

3
14,991
Florida at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 22, 1989

4
14,562
Auburn at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 20, 2013

5
14,556
LSU at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 16, 1988

6
13,761
Arkansas at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 25, 1992

7
13,715
Clemson at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
June 9, 2007
NCAA Super Regionals

8
13,691[25]
Kentucky at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 8, 2017

9
13,617
Georgia at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 8, 2006

10
13,452[26]
Arizona at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
June 11, 2016
NCAA Super Regionals

11
13,324
Ole Miss at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 11, 2014

12
13,123
Ole Miss at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 15, 2000

13
13,004[27]
Florida at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 18, 2015

14
12,913[28]
Arizona at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
June 10, 2016
NCAA Super Regionals

15
12,727
South Carolina at LSU
Alex Box Stadium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
April 27, 2013

16
12,708
Auburn at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 24, 1993

17
12,620
Clemson at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
June 8, 2007
NCAA Super Regionals

18
12,589[29]
Mississippi State at Arkansas
Baum Stadium
Fayetteville, Arkansas
April 25, 2015

19
12,472
New Orleans at LSU
Alex Box Stadium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
February 14, 2014

20
12,360
Georgia at Mississippi State
Dudy Noble Field
Starkville, Mississippi
April 6, 2002

21
12,313
Alabama at LSU
Alex Box Stadium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
April 17, 2010

22
12,193
Ole Miss at LSU
Alex Box Stadium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
March 17, 2013

23
12,167[30]
Missouri State at Arkansas
Baum Stadium
Fayetteville, Arkansas
June 6, 2015
NCAA Super Regionals

24
12,164
Ole Miss at LSU
Alex Box Stadium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
March 14, 2015

25
12,153
Oklahoma at LSU
Alex Box Stadium
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
June 8, 2013
NCAA Super Regionals

text: Longest game in college baseball history[edit]

text: The longest college baseball game was played between Texas and Boston College on May 30, 2009, during the NCAA Division I Baseball Championship regional tournament at Austin, Texas. Texas – which was designated the visiting team despite playing on its home field – won the game, 3–2, in 25 innings. The game lasted seven hours three minutes.[31][32]

text: Video gaming[edit]

text: After losing its license for Major League Baseball, EA Sports released MVP 06 NCAA Baseball, the first college baseball video game. A second game, MVP 07: NCAA Baseball, was also released before the series was discontinued due to low sales.[33]


document_title: The Call of the Wild

question_text: what happens at the end of call of the wild

root

text: The Call of the Wild

text: Summary[edit]

text: The story opens with Buck, a large and powerful St. Bernard-Scotch Shepherd,[1][2] living happily in California's Santa Clara Valley as the pet of Judge Miller. He is stolen by the gardener's assistant, however, sold to fund the latter's gambling addiction, and shipped to Seattle. Put in a crate, he is starved and ill-treated. When released, he attacks the "man in the red sweater" but is badly beaten and taught to respect the "law of the club". Buck is then sold to a pair of French-Canadian dispatchers from the Canadian government, François and Perrault, who take him with them to the Klondike region of Canada. There, they train him as a sled dog. From his teammates, he quickly learns to survive cold winter nights and the pack society. A rivalry develops between Buck and the vicious, quarrelsome lead dog, Spitz. Buck eventually beats Spitz in a fight "to the death". Spitz is killed by the pack after his defeat by Buck, and Buck eventually becomes the leader of the team. The team is then sold to a "Scottish half-breed" man working the mail service. The dogs must carry heavy loads to the mining areas, and the journeys they made were tiresome and long. One of the team, a morose husky named Dave, becomes sick and eventually has to be shot to end his misery.

tag: p

text: Buck's next owners are a trio of stampeders (Hal, Charles, and a woman named Mercedes from the United States), who are inexperienced at surviving in the Northern wilderness. They struggle to control the sled and ignore warnings that the spring melt poses dangers. They overfeed the dogs and then starve them when the food runs out. On their journey they meet John Thornton, an experienced outdoorsman, who notices the dogs have been poorly treated and are in a weakened condition. He warns the trio against crossing the river, but they ignore his advice and order Buck to move on. Exhausted, starving, and sensing the danger ahead, Buck refuses and continues to lie unmoving in the snow. After Buck is beaten by Hal, Thornton recognizes him to be a remarkable dog. Disgusted by the driver's treatment of Buck, Thornton hits Hal with the butt of his axe, cuts Buck free from his traces, and tells the trio he is keeping him, much to Hal's displeasure. After some argument, the trio leaves and tries to cross the river, but as Thornton warned, the ice breaks, and the three fall into the river and drown, along with the sled and neglected dogs.

text: Buck comes to love and grow devoted to Thornton as he nurses him back to health. He saves Thornton when the man falls into a river. After Thornton takes him on trips to pan for gold, a bonanza king (someone who hit it rich in a certain area) wagers Thornton on the dog's strength and devotion. Buck wins by breaking a half-ton (1,000-pound (450 kg)) sled free of the frozen ground, pulling it 100 yards (91 m) and winning US$1,600 in gold dust. A king of the Skookum Benches offers a large sum to buy Buck, but Thornton has grown fond of him and declines.[3] While Thornton and his friends continue their search for gold, Buck explores the wilderness and socializes with a timber wolf from a local pack. One night, he returns from a log hunt to find that his beloved master and the others in the camp have been killed by a group of Yeehat natives. Buck eventually kills the natives to avenge Thornton, and he then is attacked by an entire pack of wolves. Buck wins the fight, then finds that the same timber wolf he had socialized with is in the pack he fought. Buck then follows the wolf and its pack into the forest, and answers the call of the wild. At the end of the story, Buck returns each year as the Ghost Dog of the Northland Legend, to mourn at the site of Thornton's death.

text: Background[edit]

text: California native Jack London had traveled around the United States as a hobo, returned to California to finish high school (he dropped out at age 14), and spent a year in college at Berkeley, when in 1897 he went to the Klondike by way of Alaska during the height of the Klondike Gold Rush. Later, he said of the experience: "It was in the Klondike I found myself."[4]

text: He left California in July and traveled by boat to Dyea, Alaska, where he landed and went inland. To reach the gold fields, he and his party transported their gear over the Chilkoot Pass, often carrying loads as heavy as 100 pounds (45 kg) on their backs. They were successful in staking claims to eight gold mines along the Stewart River.[5]

text: London stayed in the Klondike for almost a year, living temporarily in the frontier town of Dawson City, before moving to a nearby winter camp, where he spent the winter in a temporary shelter reading books he had brought: Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species and John Milton's Paradise Lost.[6] In the winter of 1898, Dawson City (today mostly deserted) was a city comprising about 30,000 miners, a saloon, an opera house, and a street of brothels.[7]

text: In the spring, as the annual gold stampeders began to stream in, London left. He had contracted scurvy, common in the Arctic winters where fresh produce was unavailable. When his gums began to swell he decided to return to California. With his companions, he rafted 2,000 miles (3,200 km) down the Yukon River, through portions of the wildest territory in the region, until they reached St. Michael. There, he hired himself out on a boat to earn return passage to San Francisco.[8]

text: In Alaska, London found the material that inspired him to write The Call of the Wild.[4] Dyea Beach was the primary point of arrival for miners when London traveled through there, but because its access was treacherous Skagway soon became the new arrival point for prospectors.[9] To reach the Klondike, miners had to navigate White Pass, known as "Dead Horse Pass", where horse carcasses littered the route because they could not survive the harsh and steep ascent. Horses were replaced with dogs as pack animals to transport material over the pass;[10] particularly strong dogs with thick fur were "much desired, scarce and high in price".[11]

text: London would have seen many dogs, especially prized Husky sled dogs, in Dawson City and in the winter camps situated close to the main sled route. He was friends with Marshall Latham Bond and his brother Louis Whitford Bond, the owners of a mixed St. Bernard-Scotch Collie dog about which London later wrote: "Yes, Buck is based on your dog at Dawson."[12] Beinecke Library at Yale University holds a photograph of Bond's dog, taken during London's stay in the Klondike in 1897. The depiction of the California ranch in the beginning of the story was based on the Bond family ranch.[13]

text: Publication history[edit]

text: On his return to California, London was unable to find work and relied on odd jobs such as cutting grass. He submitted a query letter to the San Francisco Bulletin proposing a story about his Alaskan adventure, but the idea was rejected because, as the editor told him, "Interest in Alaska has subsided in an amazing degree."[8] A few years later, London wrote a short story about a dog named Bâtard who, at the end of the story, kills his master. London sold the piece to Cosmopolitan Magazine, which published it in the June 1902 issue under the title "Diablo — A Dog".[14] London's biographer, Earle Labor, says that London then began work on The Call of the Wild to "redeem the species" from his dark characterization of dogs in "Bâtard". Expecting to write a short story, London explains: "I meant it to be a companion to my other dog story "Bâtard" ... but it got away from me, and instead of 4,000 words it ran 32,000 before I could call a halt."[15]

text: Written as a frontier story about the gold rush, The Call of the Wild was meant for the pulp market. It was first published in four installments in The Saturday Evening Post, which bought it for $750 in 1903.[16][17] In the same year, London sold all rights to the story for $2,000 to Macmillan, which published it in book format.[17] The book has never been out of print since that time.[17]

text: Editions[edit]

text: The first edition, by Macmillan, released in August 1903, had 10 tipped-in color plates by illustrators Philip R. Goodwin and Charles Livingston Bull, and a color frontispiece by Charles Edward Hooper; it sold for $1.50.[18][19] It is presently available with the original illustrations at the Internet Archive.[20]

tag: ul

text: Genre[edit]

text: The Call of the Wild falls into the genre of animal fiction, in which an animal is anthropomorphized and given human traits. In the story, London attributes human thoughts and insights to Buck, so much so that when the story was published he was accused of being a nature faker for attributing "unnatural" feelings to a dog.[21] Along with his contemporaries Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser, London was influenced by the naturalism of European writers such as Émile Zola, in which themes such as heredity versus environment were explored. London's use of the genre gave it a new vibrancy, according to scholar Richard Lehan.[22]

text: The story is also an example of American pastoralism—a prevailing theme in American literature—in which the mythic hero returns to nature. As with other characters of American literature, such as Rip van Winkle and Huckleberry Finn, Buck symbolizes a reaction against industrialization and social convention with a return to nature. London presents the motif simply, clearly, and powerfully in the story, a motif later echoed by 20th century American writers William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway (most notably in "Big Two-Hearted River").[23] Doctorow says of the story that it is "fervently American".[24]

text: The enduring appeal of the story, according to American literature scholar Donald Pizer, is that it is a combination of allegory, parable, and fable. The story incorporates elements of age-old animal fables, such as Aesop's Fables, in which animals speak truth, and traditional beast fables, in which the beast "substitutes wit for insight".[25] London was influenced by Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book, written a few years earlier, with its combination of parable and animal fable,[26] and by other animal stories popular in the early 20th century. In The Call of the Wild, London intensifies and adds layers of meaning that are lacking in these stories.[15]

text: As a writer London tended to skimp on form, according to biographer Labor, and neither The Call of the Wild nor White Fang "is a conventional novel".[27] The story follows the archetypal "myth of the hero"; Buck, who is the hero, takes a journey, is transformed, and achieves an apotheosis. The format of the story is divided into four distinct parts, according to Labor. In the first part, Buck experiences violence and struggles for survival; in the second part, he proves himself a leader of the pack; the third part brings him to his death (symbolically and almost literally); and in the fourth and final part, he undergoes rebirth.[28]

text: Themes[edit]

text: London's story is a tale of survival and a return to primitivism. Pizer writes that: "the strong, the shrewd, and the cunning shall prevail when ... life is bestial".[29]

text: Pizer also finds evident in the story a Christian theme of love and redemption, as shown by Buck's refusal to revert to violence until after the death of Thornton, who had won Buck's love and loyalty.[30] London, who went so far as to fight for custody of one of his own dogs, understood that loyalty between dogs (particularly working dogs) and their masters is built on trust and love.[31]

text: Writing in the "Introduction" to the Modern Library edition of The Call of the Wild, E. L. Doctorow says the theme is based on Darwin's concept of survival of the fittest. London places Buck in conflict with humans, in conflict with the other dogs, and in conflict with his environment—all of which he must challenge, survive, and conquer.[24] Buck, a domesticated dog, must call on his atavistic hereditary traits to survive; he must learn to be wild to become wild, according to Tina Gianquitto. He learns that in a world where the "club and the fang" are law, where the law of the pack rules and a good-natured dog such as Curly can be torn to pieces by pack members, that survival by whatever means is paramount.[32]

text: London also explores the question of "nature vs. nurture", according to Pizer. Buck, raised as a pet, is by heredity a wolf. The change of environment releases his innate characteristics and strengths to the point where he fights for survival and becomes leader of the pack. Furthermore, Pizer maintains that the story appeals to human nature with the theme of the strong prevailing, particularly when faced with harsh circumstances, and a return to the wild.[30]

text: The veneer of civilization is thin and fragile, writes Doctorow, and in the story London exposes the brutality at the core of humanity and the ease with which humans revert to a state of primitivism.[24] His interest in Marxism is evident in the sub-theme that humanity is motivated by materialism; and his interest in Nietzschean philosophy is shown by Buck's characterization.[24] Gianquitto writes that in Buck's characterization, London created a type of Nietschean Übermensch — in this case a dog that reaches mythic proportions.[33]

text: Doctorow sees the story as a caricature of a bildungsroman — in which a character learns and grows – in that Buck becomes progressively less civilized.[24] Gianquitto explains that Buck has evolved to the point that he is ready to join a wolf pack, which has a social structure uniquely adapted to and successful in the harsh arctic environment, unlike humans, who are weak in the harsh environment.[34]

text: Writing style[edit]

text:
Old longings nomadic leap,
 Chafing at custom’s chain;
 Again from its brumal sleep
 Wakens the ferine strain.

John Myers O'Hara, Atavism

tag: div

text: The first chapter opens with the first quatrain of John Myers O'Hara's poem, Atavism,[35] published in 1902 in The Bookman. The stanza outlines one of the main motifs of The Call of the Wild: that Buck, when removed from the "sun-kissed" Santa Clara Valley where he was raised, will revert to his wolf heritage with its innate instincts and characteristics.[36]

text: The themes are conveyed through London's use of symbolism and imagery which, according to Labor, vary in the different phases of the story. The imagery and symbolism in the first phase, to do with the journey and self-discovery, depict physical violence, with strong images of pain and blood. In the second phase fatigue becomes a dominant image and death is a dominant symbol, as Buck comes close to being killed. The third phase is a period of renewal and rebirth and takes place in the spring, before ending with the fourth phase, when Buck fully reverts to nature is placed in a vast and "weird atmosphere", a place of pure emptiness.[37]

text: The setting is allegorical. The southern lands represent the soft, materialistic world; the north symbolizes a world beyond civilization and is inherently competitive.[30] The harshness, brutality, and emptiness in Alaska reduce life to its essence, as London learned, and shows in Buck's story. Buck must defeat Spitz, the dog who symbolically tries to get ahead and take control. When Buck is sold to Charles, Hal, and Mercedes, he finds himself in a camp that is dirty. They treat their dogs badly; they are artificial interlopers in the pristine landscape. Conversely, Buck's next masters, John Thornton and his two companions, are described as "living close to the earth". They keep a clean camp, treat their animals well, and represent man's nobility in nature.[23] Unlike Buck, Thornton loses his fight with his fellow species, and not until Thornton's death does Buck revert fully to the wild and his primordial state.[38]

text: The characters too are symbolic of types. Charles, Hal and Mercedes symbolize vanity and ignorance, while Thornton and his companions represent loyalty, purity, and love.[30] Much of the imagery is stark and simple with an emphasis on images of cold, snow, ice, darkness, meat, and blood.[38]

text: London varied his prose style to reflect the action. He wrote in an over-affected style in his descriptions of Charles, Hal, and Mercedes' camp as a reflection of their intrusion in the wilderness. Conversely when describing Buck and his actions, London wrote in a style that was pared down and simple—a style that would influence and be the forebear of Hemingway's style.[23]

text: The story was written as a frontier adventure and in such a way that it worked well as a serial. As Doctorow points out, it is good episodic writing that embodies the style of magazine adventure writing popular in that period. "It leaves us with satisfaction at its outcome, a story well and truly told," he said.[24]

text: Reception and legacy[edit]

text: The Call of the Wild was enormously popular from the moment it was published. H. L. Menken wrote of London's story: "No other popular writer of his time did any better writing than you will find in Call of the Wild."[4] A reviewer for The New York Times wrote of it in 1903: "If nothing else makes Mr. London's book popular, it ought to be rendered so by the complete way in which it will satisfy the love of dog fights apparently inherent in every man."[39] The reviewer for The Atlantic Monthly wrote that it was a book: "untouched by bookishness...The making and the achievement of such a hero [Buck] constitute, not a pretty story at all, but a very powerful one."[40]

text: The book secured London a place in the canon of American literature.[33] The first printing of 10,000 copies sold out immediately; it is still one of the best known stories written by an American author, and continues to be read and taught in schools.[24][41] It has been published in 47 languages.[42] London's first success, the book secured his prospects as a writer and gained him a readership that stayed with him throughout his career.[24][33]

text: After the success of The Call of the Wild London wrote to Macmillan in 1904 proposing a second book (White Fang) in which he wanted to describe the opposite of Buck: a dog that transforms from wild to tame: "I'm going to reverse the process...Instead of devolution of decivilization ... I'm going to give the evolution, the civilization of a dog."[43]

text: The first adaptation of London's story was a silent film made in 1923.[44] The 1935 version starring Clark Gable and Loretta Young expanded John Thornton's role and was the first "talkie" to feature the story. The 1972 movie The Call of the Wild, starring Charlton Heston as John Thornton, was filmed in Finland.[45]  The Snoopy TV special What a Nightmare, Charlie Brown! is another adaptation.


document_title: The Hunt for Red October (film)

question_text: where was the hunt for red october filmed

text: The Hunt for Red October (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In November 1984, Soviet submarine captain Marko Ramius (Sean Connery) commands Red October, a new Typhoon-class nuclear missile submarine with a stealth "caterpillar drive", rendering it undetectable to passive sonar. Ramius leaves port to conduct exercises with attack submarine V. K. Konovalov, commanded by his former student Captain Tupolev (Stellan Skarsgård). Once at sea, Ramius secretly kills political officer Ivan Putin (Peter Firth) and relays false orders that they are to conduct missile drills off America's east coast.

text: The next morning, CIA analyst and former Marine, Jack Ryan (Alec Baldwin), after consulting with Vice Admiral James Greer (James Earl Jones), briefs United States government officials on Red October and the threat it poses. The US fears Ramius plans an unauthorized nuclear strike against the United States. They also learn that the bulk of the Soviet Navy has been deployed to the Atlantic. In the briefing, Ryan hypothesizes that Ramius instead plans to defect. He is ordered to rendezvous with the American attack submarine USS Dallas to prove his theory. Meanwhile, Tupolev, though unable to track Red October, guesses his former mentor's route and sets a course to intercept. The Soviet fleet's intentions are unknown to the US, although their orders are to sink Red October.

text: Due to the actions of an unknown saboteur, Red October's caterpillar drive fails during risky maneuvers through a narrow undersea canyon. Petty Officer Jones (Courtney B. Vance), a sonar technician aboard Dallas, has discovered a way to detect Red October using underwater acoustics, and plots an intercept course. Ryan arranges a hazardous mid-ocean rendezvous to board Dallas, where he attempts to persuade its captain, Commander Bart Mancuso (Scott Glenn), to contact Ramius and determine his intentions.

text: The Soviet Ambassador informs the U.S. government that Ramius is a renegade, and asks for help in sinking Red October. That order is sent to the U.S. Fleet, including Dallas, which has found the Soviet submarine. Ryan, however, is convinced that Ramius plans to defect with his officers and convinces Mancuso to contact Ramius and offer assistance. Ramius, stunned that the Americans correctly guessed his plan, accepts. He then stages a nuclear reactor "emergency", ordering his crew to abandon ship. After a U.S. frigate is spotted, Ramius submerges. Meanwhile, Ryan, Mancuso, and Jones come aboard via a rescue sub, at which point Ramius requests asylum in the United States for himself and his officers.

text: Red October is suddenly attacked by Konovalov, which has tracked them across the Atlantic. As the two Soviet subs maneuver, one of Red October's cooks, Loginov (Arana), an undercover GRU agent and the secret saboteur, opens fire. He fatally wounds first officer Vasily Borodin (Sam Neill) before retreating to the nuclear missiles bay, pursued by Ryan and Ramius. Loginov shoots Ramius, wounding him, but Ryan kills Loginov before he can detonate a missile. Meanwhile, Red October makes evasive maneuvers with a diversion provided by Dallas, causing Konovalov to be destroyed by its own fired torpedo. The crew of Red October, now rescued, watch the explosion from the deck of the U.S. frigate; unaware of the second Soviet submarine, they believe that Ramius has sacrificed himself and scuttled Red October to avoid being boarded.

text: Ryan and Ramius, their subterfuge complete, navigate Red October to the Penobscot River in Maine. Ramius admits that the reason he defected was that after he was handed the plans for Red October, a nuclear war first strike weapon, he concluded that he could never support such an action. From atop the submarine's sail deck, Ramius, pleased to have made it to America, offers Ryan a quote from Christopher Columbus. Ryan nods in agreement and offers in return, "Welcome to the New World, sir."

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sean Connery as Captain 1st Rank Marko Aleksandrovich Ramius, Commanding Officer of Red October
Alec Baldwin as Dr. Jack Ryan, CIA intelligence analyst, author, Professor of Naval History at the United States Naval Academy
Scott Glenn as Commander Bart Mancuso, Commanding Officer of USS Dallas
Sam Neill as Captain 2nd Rank Vasily Borodin, Executive Officer of Red October
James Earl Jones as Vice Admiral James Greer, CIA Deputy Director - Intelligence (DDI)
Jeffrey Jones as Skip Tyler, a former submarine commander who identifies Red October's propulsion system
Joss Ackland as Ambassador Andrei Lysenko, Soviet Ambassador to the United States
Richard Jordan as Dr. Jeffrey Pelt, National Security Advisor
Tim Curry as Dr. Yevgeniy Petrov, Medical Officer on board Red October
Peter Firth as Senior Lieutenant Ivan Putin, Political Officer of Red October
Ronald Guttman as Senior Lieutenant Melekhin, Chief Engineer of Red October
Stellan Skarsgård as Captain 2nd Rank Viktor Tupolev, Commanding Officer of V.K. Konovalov
Fred Dalton Thompson as Rear Admiral (Lower Half) Joshua Painter, Commander of the Enterprise Carrier Battle Group
Courtney B. Vance as Sonar Technician Submarines Second Class(SS) Ronald Jones, Sonar operator of USS Dallas
Michael Welden as Captain-Lieutenant Gregoriy Kamarov, Navigator of Red October
Anthony Peck as Lieutenant Commander "Tommy" Thompson, Executive Officer of USS Dallas
Daniel Davis as Captain Charlie Davenport, Commanding Officer of USS Enterprise
Tomas Arana as Cook's Assistant Igor Loginov, Red October's cook, also a GRU agent
Peter Zinner as Admiral Yuri Ilyich Padorin, Chief Political Officer of the Soviet Navy

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Producer Mace Neufeld optioned Tom Clancy's novel after reading galley proofs in February 1985. Despite the book becoming a best seller, no Hollywood studio was interested because of its content. Neufeld said, "I read some of the reports from the other studios, and the story was too complicated to understand."[3] After a year and a half he finally got a high-level executive at Paramount Pictures to read Clancy's novel and agree to develop it into a film.

text: Screenwriters Larry Ferguson and Donald Stewart worked on the screenplay while Neufeld approached the U.S. Navy for approval. They feared top secret information or technology might be revealed. However, several admirals liked Clancy's book and reasoned that the film could do for submariners what Top Gun did for the Navy's jet fighter pilots.[3] Captain Michael Sherman, director of the Navy's western regional information office in Los Angeles, suggested changes to the script that would present the Navy in a positive light.[4]

text: The Navy gave the filmmakers access to several Los Angeles-class submarines, allowing them to photograph unclassified sections of both the Chicago and Portsmouth to use in set and prop design. The Louisville was used for the scene in which Baldwin is dropped from a helicopter to the submarine. Key cast and crew members rode along in subs, including Alec Baldwin and Scott Glenn, who took an overnight trip aboard the Salt Lake City. Glenn, who played the commander of Dallas, trained by assuming the identity of a submarine captain on board the Houston (which portrayed Dallas in most scenes).[3] The sub's crew all took orders from Glenn, who was being prompted by the actual commanding officer.[3]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Some of the principal cast had previous military service which they drew on for their roles. Sean Connery had served in the Royal Navy, Scott Glenn in the United States Marine Corps and James Earl Jones in the United States Army. Baldwin and Glenn spent time on a Los Angeles-class submarine. Baldwin was trained to drive an attack submarine.[5] Some extras portraying the Dallas crew were serving submariners, including the pilot of the DSRV, Lt Cmdr George Billy, commander of the DSRV. Submariners from San Diego were cast as extras because it was easier to hire them than to train actors. Crew from USS La Jolla, including Lt Mark Draxton, took leave to participate in filming. According to an article in Sea Classics, at least two sailors from the Atlantic Fleet-based Dallas took leave and participated in the Pacific Fleet-supported filming. The crew of Houston called their month-long filming schedule the "Hunt for Red Ops." Houston made more than 40 emergency surfacing "blows" for rehearsal and for the cameras.[3]

text: Baldwin was approached in December 1988, but was not told for what role. Klaus Maria Brandauer was cast as Soviet sub commander Marko Ramius but two weeks into filming he quit due to a prior commitment.[3] The producers faxed the script to Sean Connery who, at first, declined because the script seemed implausible in portraying the Soviet Union as an ambitious naval power. He was missing the first page which set the story before Gorbachev's coming to power, when the events of the book would have seemed more plausible.[6] He arrived in L.A. on a Friday and was supposed to start filming on Monday but he requested a day to rehearse.[7] Principal photography began on April 3, 1989 with a $30 million budget.[7] The Navy lent the film crew Houston, Enterprise, two frigates (Wadsworth and Reuben James), helicopters, and a dry-dock crew.[4]

text: Filmmaker John Milius revised some of the film's script, writing a few speeches for Sean Connery and all of his Russian dialogue.[8] He was asked to rewrite the whole film but was only required to do the Russian sequences.[9] Rather than choosing between the realism of Russian dialog with subtitles, or the audience-friendly use of English (with or without Russian accents), the filmmakers compromised with a deliberate conceit. The film begins with the actors speaking Russian with English subtitles. But in an early scene, actor Peter Firth casually switches in mid-sentence to speaking in English on the word "Armageddon", which is the same spoken word in both languages. After that point, all the Soviets' dialogue is communicated in English. Connery continued using the Russian accent for the rest of the motion picture. Only towards the end of the film, at the beginning of the scene in which the Soviet and American submariners meet, do some of the actors speak in Russian again.

text: Filming[edit]

text: Filming in submarines was impractical. Instead, five soundstages on the Paramount backlot were used. Two 50-foot square platforms housing mock-ups of Red October and Dallas were built, standing on hydraulic gimbals that simulated the sub's movements. Connery recalled, "It was very claustrophobic. There were 62 people in a very confined space, 45 feet above the stage floor. It got very hot on the sets, and I'm also prone to sea sickness. The set would tilt to 45 degrees. Very disturbing."[4] The veteran actor shot for four weeks and the rest of the production shot for additional months on location in Port Angeles, Washington and the waters off Los Angeles.[4]

text: Made before sophisticated CGI became the norm in filmmaking, the film's opening sequence featured a long pull-out reveal of the immense titular Typhoon-class sub. It included a nearly full-scale, above-the-water-line mockup of the sub, constructed from two barges welded together. Each country's submarine had its own background color: Soviet submarines, such as Red October and Konovalov, had interiors in black with silver trim. American ships, such as Dallas and Enterprise, had grey interiors. However, during one scene when Dallas goes to a higher alert status it was flooded with red light. Early filming was aboard USS Reuben James in the area of the Juan de Fuca Strait and Puget Sound in March 1989. The ship operated out of U.S. Coast Guard Station Port Angeles. The SH-60B detachment from the Battlecats of HSL-43 operated out of NAS Whidbey Island, after being displaced by the filmcrew. Most underwater scenes were filmed using smoke with a model sub connected to 12 cables, giving precise, smooth control for turns. Computer effects, in their infancy, created bubbles and other effects such as particulates in the water.

text: By March 1990, just before the film's theatrical release, the Soviet Parliament removed the Communist Party from government, effectively ending the Cold War. Set during this period, there were concerns that with its end, the film would be irrelevant but Neufeld felt that it "never really represented a major problem".[7] To compensate for the change in the Soviet Union's political climate, an on-screen crawl appears at the beginning of the film stating that it takes place in 1984 during the Cold War.[7] Tony Seiniger designed the film's poster and drew inspiration from Soviet poster art, utilizing bold red, white and black graphics. According to him, the whole ad campaign was designed to have a "techno-suspense quality to it". The idea was to play up the thriller aspects and downplay the political elements.[7]

text: The film caused a minor sensation in the black projects submarine warfare technology community.[10][11] In one scene, where the USS Dallas is chasing Red October through the submarine canyon, the crew can be heard calling out that they have various "milligal anomalies". This essentially revealed the use of gravimetry as a method of silent navigation in US submarines. Thought to be a billion dollar black project, the development of a full-tensor gravity gradiometer by Bell Aerospace was a classified technology at the time. It was thought to be deployed on only a few Ohio-class submarines after it was first developed in 1973. Bell Aerospace later sold the technology to Bell Geospace for oil exploration purposes.[12] The last Typhoon-class submarine was officially laid down in 1986, under the name TK-210, but according to sources was never finished and scrapped in 1990.[13]

text: Music[edit]

text:
The Hunt for Red October (Music from the Motion Picture)

Film score by Basil Poledouris

Released
June 12, 1990

Length
29:48

Label
MCA Records

Jack Ryan soundtrack chronology

The Hunt for Red October
(1990)
Patriot Games
(1992)Patriot Games1992

tag: table

text: The musical score of The Hunt for Red October was composed and conducted by Basil Poledouris. A soundtrack album composed of ten melodies was released on June 12, 1990.[14] The album is missing some of the musical moments present in the film, including the scene where the crew of Red October sings the Soviet national hymn. The soundtrack is limited due to the fact that it was originally compiled to fit the Compact Cassette. Later, it was remastered for the CD. An expanded version was released in late 2013 by Intrada Records. It features 40 additional minutes of the score, including the so far-unreleased end titles.[15]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Hunt for Red October opened in 1,225 theaters on March 2, 1990, grossing $17 million on its opening weekend, more than half its budget.[2] The film went on to gross $122,012,643 in North America with a worldwide total of $200,512,643.[2]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received positive reviews from critics; it holds an 86% positive rating at the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 66 critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics' reviews, The Hunt for Red October received a score of 58 based on 17 reviews.[16]

text: Roger Ebert called the film "a skillful, efficient film that involves us in the clever and deceptive game being played",[17] while Gene Siskel commented on the film's technical achievement and Baldwin's convincing portrayal of Jack Ryan. Nick Schager, for Slant magazine's review, noted, "The Hunt for Red October is a thrilling edge-of-your-seat trifle that has admirably withstood the test of time."[18] In contrast however, Newsweek's David Ansen wrote, "But it's at the gut level that Red October disappoints. This smoother, impressively mounted machine is curiously ungripping. Like an overfilled kettle, it takes far too long to come to a boil."[19] Vincent Canby, writing for The New York Times, opined that "the characters, like the lethal hardware, are simply functions of the plot, which in this case seems to be a lot more complex than it really is."[20]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The Hunt for Red October was nominated and won several awards in 1991. In addition, the film was also nominated for AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills.[21]

text:
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

1991 63rd Academy Awards[22]
Best Sound Editing
Cecelia Hall, George Watters II
Won

Best Sound Mixing
Richard Bryce Goodman, Richard Overton, Kevin F. Cleary, Don J. Bassman
Nominated

Best Film Editing
Dennis Virkler, John Wright
Nominated

1991 44th British Academy Film Awards
Best Actor
Sean Connery
Nominated

Best Production Design
Terence Marsh
Nominated

Best Sound
Cecelia Hall, George Watters II, Richard Bryce Goodman, Don J. Bassman
Nominated

1991 BMI Film Music Awards
BMI Film Music Award
Basil Poledouris
Won

1991 Motion Picture Sound Editors Awards
Best Sound Editing – ADR
————
Won


document_title: BMW X1

question_text: bmw x1 sdrive front or rear wheel drive

question_tokens: bmw x1 sdrive front or rear wheel drive

text: BMW X1

text: First generation (E84; 2009–2015)[edit]

text: The E84 X1 is the first generation model and was originally presented as the BMW Concept X1 at the Paris Motor Show in 2008.[1] It is based on the same platform as the E91 3 Series Touring,[2] and features similar dimensions including the same 2,760 mm (109 in) wheelbase. It was not introduced to the United States until 2012.[3] In 2013, the E84 X1 underwent a facelift, featuring restyled exterior and interior design elements, as well as the integration of BMW EfficientDynamics on all models.[4] The original X1 sold 820,529 units.

text: Second generation (F48; 2016–present)[edit]

text: The F48 X1 is the second and current generation model. It is built upon the front-wheel drive based UKL2 platform,[5] and is available in long-wheelbase and long-wheelbase hybrid variants in China.[6] The range consists of turbocharged 3-cylinder and 4-cylinder petrol and diesel engines.[7] Base models are front-wheel drive (branded as sDrive), with all-wheel drive (xDrive) available as an option and is standard for some higher end models.[8]

text: Production and sales[edit]

text: The following are the production and sales figures for BMW X1 models:

text:
Year

Production

EU sales
US sales

2009
8,499[9]

8,925[10]

-

2010
99,990[11]

77,706[10]

2011
126,429[12]

83,086[10]

2012
147,776[13]

65,254[10]

8,947[12]

2013
161,353[14]

64,313[10]

26,512[15]

2014
156,471[16]

61,797[10]

22,808[17]

2015
120,011[18]

42,107[10]

14,420 [19]

2016
220,378[20]

95,380[10]
27,812 [21]

2017
286,743[22]

118,051[10]
30,826[23]


document_title: Christmas tree

question_text: where did the first christmas tree come from

question_tokens: where did the first christmas tree come from

text: Christmas tree

text: History[edit]

text: Possible predecessors[edit]

text: The relevance of ancient pre-Christian customs to the 16th Century German initiation of the Christmas tree custom is disputed. Resistance to the custom was often because of its confirmed Lutheran origins.[9]

text: Other sources have tried to make a connection between the first documented Christmas trees in Alsace around 1600 and pre-Christian traditions. For example, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, "The use of evergreen trees, wreaths, and garlands to symbolize eternal life was a custom of the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Hebrews. Tree worship was common among the pagan Europeans and survived their conversion to Christianity in the Scandinavian customs of decorating the house and barn with evergreens at the New Year to scare away the devil and of setting up a tree for the birds during Christmas time."[10]

text: During the Roman mid-winter festival of Saturnalia, houses were decorated with wreaths of evergreen plants, along with other antecedent customs now associated with Christmas.[11]

text: The modern Christmas tree is frequently traced to the symbolism of trees in pre-Christian winter rites, wherein Viking and Saxon worshiped trees.[11] The story of Saint Boniface cutting down Donar's Oak illustrates the pagan practices in 8th century among the Germans. A later folk version of the story adds the detail that an evergreen tree grew in place of the felled oak, telling them about how its triangular shape reminds humanity of the Trinity and how it points to heaven.[12][13]

text: Alternatively, it is identified with the "tree of paradise" of medieval mystery plays that were given on 24 December, the commemoration and name day of Adam and Eve in various countries. In such plays, a tree decorated with apples (to represent the forbidden fruit) and wafers (to represent the Eucharist and redemption) was used as a setting for the play. Like the Christmas crib, the Paradise tree was later placed in homes. The apples were replaced by round objects such as shiny red balls.[7][8][14][15][16][17]

text: Modern Christmas trees originated during the Renaissance of early modern Germany. Its 16th-century origins are sometimes associated with Protestant Christian reformer Martin Luther who is said to have first added lighted candles to an evergreen tree.[18][19][20]

text: The first recorded Christmas tree can be found on the keystone sculpture of a private home in Turckheim, Alsace (then part of Germany, today France), dating 1576.[21]

text: Georgia[edit]

text: The Georgians have their own traditional Christmas tree called Chichilaki, made from dried up hazelnut or walnut branches that are shaped to form a small coniferous tree. These pale-colored ornaments differ in height from 20 cm (7.9 in) to 3 meters (9.8 feet). Chichilakis are most common in the Guria and Samegrelo regions of Georgia near the Black Sea, but they can also be found in some stores around the capital of Tbilisi.[citation needed] Georgians believe that Chichilaki resembles the famous beard of St. Basil the Great, who is thought to visit people during Christmas similar to the Santa Claus tradition.[citation needed]

text: Poland[edit]

text: There was an old pagan custom, associated with Koliada, of suspending a branch of fir, spruce or pine called Podłaźniczka from the ceiling. The branches were decorated with apples, nuts, cookies, colored paper, stars made of straw, ribbons and colored wafers. Some people believed that the tree had magical powers that were linked with harvesting and success in the next year.

text: In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, these traditions were almost completely replaced by the German custom of decorating the Christmas tree.

text: Estonia, Latvia and Germany[edit]

text: Customs of erecting decorated trees in wintertime can be traced to Christmas celebrations in Renaissance-era guilds in Northern Germany and Livonia. The first evidence of decorated trees associated with Christmas Day are trees in guildhalls decorated with sweets to be enjoyed by the apprentices and children. In Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia), in 1441, 1442, 1510 and 1514, the Brotherhood of Blackheads erected a tree for the holidays in their guild houses in Reval (now Tallinn) and Riga. On the last night of the celebrations leading up to the holidays, the tree was taken to the Town Hall Square where the members of the brotherhood danced around it.[22]

text: A Bremen guild chronicle of 1570 reports that a small tree decorated with "apples, nuts, dates, pretzels and paper flowers" was erected in the guild-house for the benefit of the guild members' children, who collected the dainties on Christmas Day.[23] In 1584, the pastor and chronicler Balthasar Russow in his Chronica der Provinz Lyfflandt (1584) wrote of an established tradition of setting up a decorated spruce at the market square where the young men "went with a flock of maidens and women, first sang and danced there and then set the tree aflame".

text: After the Protestant Reformation, such trees are seen in the houses of upper-class Protestant families as a counterpart to the Catholic Christmas cribs. This transition from the guild hall to the bourgeois family homes in the Protestant parts of Germany ultimately gives rise to the modern tradition as it developed in the 18th and 19th centuries.

text: 18th to early 20th centuries[edit]

text: Germany[edit]

text: By the early 18th century, the custom had become common in towns of the upper Rhineland, but it had not yet spread to rural areas. Wax candles, expensive items at the time, are found in attestations from the late 18th century.

text: Along the lower Rhine, an area of Roman Catholic majority, the Christmas tree was largely regarded as a Protestant custom. As a result, it remained confined to the upper Rhineland for a relatively long period of time. The custom did eventually gain wider acceptance beginning around 1815 by way of Prussian officials who emigrated there following the Congress of Vienna.

text: In the 19th century, the Christmas tree was taken to be an expression of German culture and of Gemütlichkeit, especially among emigrants overseas.[24]

text: A decisive factor in winning general popularity was the German army's decision to place Christmas trees in its barracks and military hospitals during the Franco-Prussian War. Only at the start of the 20th century did Christmas trees appear inside churches, this time in a new brightly lit form.[25]

text: Adoption by European nobility[edit]

text: In the early 19th century, the custom became popular among the nobility and spread to royal courts as far as Russia. Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg introduced the Christmas tree to Vienna in 1816, and the custom spread across Austria in the following years. In France, the first Christmas tree was introduced in 1840 by the duchesse d'Orléans. In Denmark a Danish newspaper claims that the first attested Christmas tree was lit in 1808 by countess Wilhemine of Holsteinborg. It was the aging countess who told the story of the first Danish Christmas tree to the Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen in 1865. He had published a fairy-tale called The Fir-Tree in 1844, recounting the fate of a fir-tree being used as a Christmas tree.[26]

text: Britain[edit]

text: Although the tradition of decorating the home with evergreens was long established,[27] the custom of decorating an entire small tree was unknown in Britain until some two centuries ago. At the time of the personal union with Hanover, George III's German-born wife, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, introduced a Christmas tree at a party she gave for children in 1800.[28] The custom did not at first spread much beyond the royal family.[29] Queen Victoria as a child was familiar with it and a tree was placed in her room every Christmas. In her journal for Christmas Eve 1832, the delighted 13-year-old princess wrote:

text: "After dinner... we then went into the drawing-room near the dining-room... There were two large round tables on which were placed two trees hung with lights and sugar ornaments. All the presents being placed round the trees..."[30]

text: After Victoria's marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became even more widespread[31] as wealthier middle-class families followed the fashion. In 1842 a newspaper advert for Christmas trees makes clear their smart cachet, German origins and association with children and gift-giving.[32] An illustrated book, The Christmas Tree, describing their use and origins in detail, was on sale in December 1844.[33] On 2 January 1846 Elizabeth Fielding (née Fox Strangways) wrote from Laycock Abbey to William Henry Fox-Talbot: "Constance is extremely busy preparing the Bohemian Xmas Tree. It is made from Caroline's[34] description of those she saw in Germany".[35] In 1847 Prince Albert wrote: "I must now seek in the children an echo of what Ernest [his brother] and I were in the old time, of what we felt and thought; and their delight in the Christmas-trees is not less than ours used to be".[36] A boost to the trend was given in 1848[37] when The Illustrated London News,[38] in a report picked up by other papers,[39] described the trees in Windsor Castle in detail and showed the main tree, surrounded by the royal family, on its cover. In fewer than ten years their use in better-off homes was widespread. By 1856 a northern provincial newspaper contained an advert alluding casually to them,[40] as well as reporting the accidental death of a woman whose dress caught fire as she lit the tapers on a Christmas tree.[41] They had not yet spread down the social scale though, as a report from Berlin in 1858 contrasts the situation there where "Every family has its own" with that of Britain, where Christmas trees were still the preserve of the wealthy or the "romantic".[42]

text: Their use at public entertainments, charity bazaars and in hospitals made them increasingly familiar however, and in 1906 a charity was set up specifically to ensure even poor children in London slums 'who had never seen a Christmas tree' would enjoy one that year.[43] Anti-German sentiment after World War I briefly reduced their popularity[44] but the effect was short-lived[45] and by the mid-1920s the use of Christmas trees had spread to all classes.[46] In 1933 a restriction on the importation of foreign trees led to the 'rapid growth of a new industry' as the growing of Christmas trees within Britain became commercially viable due to the size of demand.[47] By 2013 the number of trees grown in Britain for the Christmas market was approximately 8 million[48] and their display in homes, shops and public spaces a normal part of the Christmas season.

text: North America[edit]

text: The tradition was introduced to Canada in the winter of 1781 by Brunswick soldiers stationed in the Province of Quebec to garrison the colony against American attack. General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel and his wife, the Baroness von Riedesel, held a Christmas party at Sorel, delighting their guests with a fir tree decorated with candles and fruits.[49]

text: The Christmas tree became very common in the United States in the early nineteenth century. The first image of a Christmas tree was published in 1836 as the frontispiece to The Stranger's Gift by Hermann Bokum. The first mention of the Christmas tree in American literature was in a story in the 1836 edition of The Token and Atlantic Souvenir, titled "New Year's Day," by Catherine Maria Sedgwick, where she tells the story of a German maid decorating her mistress's tree. Also, a woodcut of the British Royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, initially published in The Illustrated London News December 1848, was copied in the United States at Christmas 1850, in Godey's Lady's Book. Godey's copied it exactly, except for the removal of the Queen's tiara and Prince Albert's moustache, to remake the engraving into an American scene.[50] The republished Godey's image became the first widely circulated picture of a decorated evergreen Christmas tree in America. Art historian Karal Ann Marling called Prince Albert and Queen Victoria, shorn of their royal trappings, "the first influential American Christmas tree".[51] Folk-culture historian Alfred Lewis Shoemaker states, "In all of America there was no more important medium in spreading the Christmas tree in the decade 1850–60 than Godey's Lady's Book". The image was reprinted in 1860, and by the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become even more common in America.[50]

text: Several cities in the United States with German connections lay claim to that country's first Christmas tree: Windsor Locks, Connecticut, claims that a Hessian soldier put up a Christmas tree in 1777 while imprisoned at the Noden-Reed House,[52] while the "First Christmas Tree in America" is also claimed by Easton, Pennsylvania, where German settlers purportedly erected a Christmas tree in 1816. In his diary, Matthew Zahm of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, recorded the use of a Christmas tree in 1821, leading Lancaster to also lay claim to the first Christmas tree in America.[53] Other accounts credit Charles Follen, a German immigrant to Boston, for being the first to introduce to America the custom of decorating a Christmas tree.[54] August Imgard, a German immigrant living in Wooster, Ohio, is said to be the first to popularize the practice of decorating a tree with candy canes.[citation needed] In 1847, Imgard cut a blue spruce tree from a woods outside town, had the Wooster village tinsmith construct a star, and placed the tree in his house, decorating it with paper ornaments, gilded nuts and Kuchen.[55] German immigrant Charles Minnegerode accepted a position as a professor of humanities at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1842, where he taught Latin and Greek. Entering into the social life of the Virginia Tidewater, Minnigerode introduced the German custom of decorating an evergreen tree at Christmas at the home of law professor St. George Tucker, thereby becoming another of many influences that prompted Americans to adopt the practice at about that time.[56] An 1853 article on Christmas customs in Pennsylvania defines them as mostly "German in origin", including the Christmas tree, which is "planted in a flower pot filled with earth, and its branches are covered with presents, chiefly of confectionary, for the younger members of the family." The article distinguishes between customs in different states however, claiming that in New England generally "Christmas is not much celebrated", whereas in Pennsylvania and New York it is.[57]

text: When Edward H. Johnson was vice president of the Edison Electric Light Company, a predecessor of Con Edison, he created the first known electrically illuminated Christmas tree at his home in New York City in 1882. Johnson became the "Father of Electric Christmas Tree Lights".[58]

text: The lyrics sung in the United States to the German tune O Tannenbaum begin "O Christmas tree...", giving rise to the mistaken idea that the German word Tannenbaum (fir tree) means "Christmas tree", the German word for which is instead Weihnachtsbaum.

text:
18th to early 20th century representations

"The Christmas tree" by Winslow Homer, 1858

Christmas in the Netherlands, c. 1899

Illustration for Harper's Bazaar, published 1 January 1870.

Christmas tree depicted as Christmas card by Prang & Co. (Boston) 1880

Vera Komissarzhevskaya as Nora in Ibsen's A Doll's House (c. 1904). Photo by Elena Mrozovskaya

An Italian American family on Christmas, 1924

text: 1935 to present[edit]

text: In Russia, the Christmas tree was banned after the October Revolution[59] but then reinstated as a New-year spruce (Новогодняя ёлка, Novogodnyaya yolka) in 1935. It became a fully secular icon of the New Year holiday, for example, the crowning star was regarded not as a symbol of Bethlehem Star, but as the Red star. Decorations, such as figurines of airplanes, bicycles, space rockets, cosmonauts, and characters of Russian fairy tales, were produced. This tradition persists after the fall of the USSR, with the New Year holiday outweighing the Christmas (7 January) for a wide majority of Russian people.[60]

text: The TV special A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965) was influential on the pop culture surrounding the Christmas tree. Aluminum Christmas trees were popular during the early 1960s in the US. They were satirized in the Charlie Brown show and came to be seen as symbolizing the commercialization of Christmas. The term Charlie Brown Christmas tree, describing any poor-looking or malformed little tree, also derives from the 1965 TV special, based on the appearance of Charlie Brown's Christmas tree.[61]

text:
1935 to present

Christmas tree with presents

Christmas Tree in the cozy room at the Wisconsin Governor's mansion.

Christmas tea with Christmas Tree at an espresso shop in Eugene, Oregon

A Soviet-era (1960s) New Year tree decoration depicting a cosmonaut

Christmas Trees in church

An aluminum Christmas tree

text: Public Christmas trees[edit]

text: Since the early 20th century, it has become common in many cities, towns, and department stores to put up public Christmas trees outdoors, such as the Macy's Great Tree in Atlanta (since 1948), the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree in New York City, and the large Christmas tree at Victoria Square in Adelaide.

text: The use of fire retardant allows many indoor public areas to place real trees and be compliant with code. Licensed applicants of fire retardant solution spray the tree, tag the tree, and provide a certificate for inspection. Real trees are popular with high end visual merchandising displays around the world. Leading global retailers such as Apple often place real trees in their window displays. In 2009, Apple placed two Fraser fir trees in every one of its retail establishments.[citation needed]

text: The United States' National Christmas Tree has been lit each year since 1923 on the South Lawn of the White House. Today,[clarification needed] the lighting of the National Christmas Tree is part of what has become a major holiday event at the White House. President Jimmy Carter lit only the crowning star atop the tree in 1979 in honor of the Americans being held hostage in Iran.[62] The same was true in 1980, except that the tree was fully lit for 417 seconds, one second for each day the hostages had been in captivity.[62]

text: During most of the 1970s and 1980s, the largest decorated Christmas tree in the world was put up every year on the property of the National Enquirer in Lantana, Florida. This tradition grew into one of the most spectacular and celebrated events in the history of southern Florida, but was discontinued on the death of the paper's founder in the late 1980s.[63]

text: In some cities, a Festival of Trees is organized around the decoration and display of multiple trees as charity events.

text: The giving of Christmas trees has also often been associated with the end of hostilities. After the signing of the Armistice in 1918 the city of Manchester sent a tree, and £500 to buy chocolate and cakes, for the children of the much-bombarded town of Lille in northern France.[64] In some cases the trees represent special commemorative gifts, such as in Trafalgar Square in London, where the City of Oslo, Norway presents a tree to the people of London as a token of appreciation for the British support of Norwegian resistance during the Second World War; in Boston, where the tree is a gift from the province of Nova Scotia, in thanks for rapid deployment of supplies and rescuers to the 1917 ammunition ship explosion that leveled the city of Halifax; and in Newcastle upon Tyne, where the main civic Christmas tree is an annual gift from the city of Bergen, in thanks for the part played by soldiers from Newcastle in liberating Bergen from Nazi occupation.[65] Norway also annually gifts a Christmas tree to Washington, D.C. as a symbol of friendship between Norway and the US and as an expression of gratitude from Norway for the help received from the US during World War II.[66]

text:
Public Christmas trees

Christmas tree in Milano, Italy, 2008

Christmas tree in Vaticano, 2007

Christmas tree in Salerno old town, Italy, 2008.

Trafalgar Square Christmas tree

Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree

Christmas tree on the Römerberg in Frankfurt (2008)

in Lisbon (2005), at 75 metres (246 feet) the tallest Christmas tree in Europe.

Boston's Christmas Tree.

An Árbol navideño luminoso in Madrid (2011)

Christmas tree in Warsaw

Christmas tree in South Coast Plaza, California

Christmas tree in Stockholm at NK shopping mall

Christmas trees in Ocean Terminal, Harbour City, Hong Kong

text: Chrismon trees[edit]

text: A "Chrismon tree" is a Christmas tree decorated with explicitly Christian symbols in white and gold.[67][68] First introduced by North American Lutherans in 1957,[69] the practice has rapidly spread to other Christian denominations,[70] including Anglicans,[71] Catholics,[72] Methodists,[73] and the Reformed.[74]

text: "Chrismon" (plural "Chrismons") was adopted for the type of Christmas decoration and explained as a portmanteau of "CHRISt-MONOgram" (a Christogram).[75][76]

text: Customs and traditions[edit]

text: Setting up and taking down[edit]

text:
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text: Both setting up and taking down a Christmas tree are associated with specific dates. Traditionally, Christmas trees were not brought in and decorated until Christmas Eve (24 December)[citation needed] or, in the traditions celebrating Christmas Eve rather than the first day of Christmas, 23 December, and then removed the day after Twelfth Night (5 January); to have a tree up before or after these dates was even considered bad luck,[citation needed] and that to avoid bad luck from affecting the house's residents, the tree must be left up until after the following Twelfth Night passes.

text: In many areas, it has become customary to set up one's Christmas tree at the beginning of the Advent season.[77] Some families in the U.S. and Canada will put up a Christmas tree a week prior to American Thanksgiving (the fourth Thursday of November), and Christmas decorations can show up even earlier in retail stores, often the day after Halloween (31 October). In Canada many families wait until after Remembrance Day, as to show respect to fallen soldiers. Some households do not put up the tree until the second week of December, and leave it up until 6 January (Epiphany). In Germany, traditionally the tree is put up on 24 December and taken down on 7 January, though many start one or two weeks earlier, and in Roman Catholic homes the tree may be kept until February 2 (Candlemas).[why?][citation needed]

text: In Italy and Argentina, along with many countries in Latin America, the Christmas tree is put up on 8 December (Immaculate Conception day) and left up until 6 January. In Australia, the Christmas tree is usually put up on 1 December, which occurs about a 2 weeks before the school summer holidays (except for South Australia, where most people put up their tree after in late November following the completion of the Adelaide Christmas Pageant, a time frame that has started to filter into other states as the official time Christmas decorations and in store Santa Claus start to appear) and is left up until it is taken down.[citation needed] Some traditions suggest that Christmas trees may be kept up until no later than 2 February, the feast of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (Candlemas), when the Christmas season effectively closes.[78] Superstitions say that it is a bad sign if Christmas greenery is not removed by Candlemas Eve.[79]

text: Decoration[edit]

text: Christmas ornaments are decorations (usually made of glass, metal, wood, or ceramics) that are used to decorate a Christmas tree. The first decorated trees were adorned with apples, white candy canes and pastries in the shapes of stars, hearts and flowers. Glass baubles were first made in Lauscha, Germany, and also garlands of glass beads and tin figures that could be hung on trees. The popularity of these decorations grew into the production of glass figures made by highly skilled artisans with clay molds.

text: Tinsel and several types of garland or ribbon are commonly used to decorate a Christmas tree. Silvered saran-based tinsel was introduced later. Delicate mold-blown and painted colored glass Christmas ornaments were a specialty of the glass factories in the Thuringian Forest, especially in Lauscha in the late 19th century, and have since become a large industry, complete with famous-name designers. Baubles are another common decoration, consisting of small hollow glass or plastic spheres coated with a thin metallic layer to make them reflective, with a further coating of a thin pigmented polymer in order to provide coloration. Lighting with electric lights (Christmas lights or, in the United Kingdom, fairy lights) is commonly done. A tree-topper, sometimes an angel but more frequently a star, completes the decoration.

text: In the late 1800s, home-made white Christmas trees were made by wrapping strips of cotton batting around leafless branches creating the appearance of a snow-laden tree. In the 1940s and 1950s, popularized by Hollywood films in the late 1930s, flocking was very popular on the West Coast of the United States. There were home flocking kits that could be used with vacuum cleaners. In the 1980s some trees were sprayed with fluffy white flocking to simulate snow.

text:
Decorations

A transparent Christmas bauble

A golden bauble decorating a Christmas tree

Christmas baubles

A snowman-shaped decoration painted as a baseball

A toy bear Christmas decoration.

Fabergé egg as a Christmas decoration.

Christmas decorations

Red ornamented Christmas bauble

Christmas baubles

text: Production[edit]

text: Each year, 33 to 36 million Christmas trees are produced in America, and 50 to 60 million are produced in Europe. In 1998, there were about 15,000 growers in America (a third of them "choose and cut" farms). In that same year, it was estimated that Americans spent $1.5 billion on Christmas trees.[80]

text: Natural trees[edit]

text: The most commonly used species are fir (Abies), which have the benefit of not shedding their needles when they dry out, as well as retaining good foliage color and scent; but species in other genera are also used.

text: In northern Europe most commonly used are:

text:
Norway spruce Picea abies (the original tree, generally the cheapest)
Silver fir Abies alba
Nordmann fir Abies nordmanniana
Noble fir Abies procera
Serbian spruce Picea omorika
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris
Stone pine Pinus pinea (as small table-top trees)
Swiss pine Pinus cembra

text: In North America, Central America and South America most commonly used are:

text:
Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii
Balsam fir Abies balsamea
Fraser Fir Abies fraseri
Grand fir Abies grandis
Guatemalan fir Abies guatemalensis
Noble fir Abies procera
Red fir Abies magnifica
White fir Abies concolor
Pinyon pine Pinus edulis
Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris
Stone pine Pinus pinea (as small table-top trees)
Norfolk Island pine Araucaria heterophylla

text: Several other species are used to a lesser extent. Less-traditional conifers are sometimes used, such as giant sequoia, Leyland cypress, Monterey cypress and eastern juniper. Various types of spruce tree are also used for Christmas trees (including the blue spruce and, less commonly, the white spruce); but spruces begin to lose their needles rapidly upon being cut, and spruce needles are often sharp, making decorating uncomfortable. Virginia pine is still available on some tree farms in the southeastern United States; however, its winter color is faded. The long-needled eastern white pine is also used there, though it is an unpopular Christmas tree in most parts of the country, owing also to its faded winter coloration and limp branches, making decorating difficult with all but the lightest ornaments. Norfolk Island pine is sometimes used, particularly in Oceania, and in Australia, some species of the genera Casuarina and Allocasuarina are also occasionally used as Christmas trees. But, by far, the most common tree is the Monterey pine. Adenanthos sericeus or Albany woolly bush is commonly sold in southern Australia as a potted living Christmas tree. Hemlock species are generally considered unsuitable as Christmas trees due to their poor needle retention and inability to support the weight of lights and ornaments.

text: Some trees, frequently referred to as "living Christmas trees", are sold live with roots and soil, often from a plant nursery, to be stored at nurseries in planters or planted later outdoors and enjoyed (and often decorated) for years or decades. Others are produced in a container and sometimes as topiary for a porch or patio. However, when done improperly, the combination of root loss caused by digging, and the indoor environment of high temperature and low humidity is very detrimental to the tree's health; additionally, the warmth of an indoor climate will bring the tree out of its natural winter dormancy, leaving it little protection when put back outside into a cold outdoor climate. Often Christmas trees are a large attraction for living animals, including mice and spiders. Thus, the survival rate of these trees is low.[81] However, when done properly, replanting provides higher survival rates.[82]

text: European tradition prefers the open aspect of naturally grown, unsheared trees, while in North America (outside western areas where trees are often wild-harvested on public lands)[83] there is a preference for close-sheared trees with denser foliage, but less space to hang decorations.

text: In the past, Christmas trees were often harvested from wild forests, but now almost all are commercially grown on tree farms. Almost all Christmas trees in the United States are grown on Christmas tree farms where they are cut after about ten years of growth and new trees planted. According to the United States Department of Agriculture's agriculture census for 2007, 21,537 farms were producing conifers for the cut Christmas tree market in America, 5,717.09 square kilometres (1,412,724 acres) were planted in Christmas trees.[84]

text: The life cycle of a Christmas tree from the seed to a 2-metre (7 ft) tree takes, depending on species and treatment in cultivation, between 8 and 12 years. First, the seed is extracted from cones harvested from older trees. These seeds are then usually grown in nurseries and then sold to Christmas tree farms at an age of 3–4 years. The remaining development of the tree greatly depends on the climate, soil quality, as well as the cultivation and how the trees are tended by the Christmas tree farmer.[85]

text: Artificial trees[edit]

text: The first artificial Christmas trees were developed in Germany during the 19th century,[86][87] though earlier examples exist.[88] These "trees" were made using goose feathers that were dyed green.,[86] as one response by Germans to continued deforestation.[87] Feather Christmas trees ranged widely in size, from a small 2-inch (51 mm) tree to a large 98-inch (2,500 mm) tree sold in department stores during the 1920s.[89] Often, the tree branches were tipped with artificial red berries which acted as candle holders.[90]

text: Over the years, other styles of artificial Christmas trees have evolved and become popular. In 1930, the U.S.-based Addis Brush Company created the first artificial Christmas tree made from brush bristles.[91] Another type of artificial tree is the aluminum Christmas tree,[87] first manufactured in Chicago in 1958,[92] and later in Manitowoc, Wisconsin, where the majority of the trees were produced.[93] Most modern artificial Christmas trees are made from plastic recycled from used packaging materials, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[87] Approximately 10% of artificial Christmas trees are using virgin suspension PVC resin; despite being plastic most artificial trees are not recyclable or biodegradable.[94]

text: Other trends have developed in the early 2000s as well. Optical fiber Christmas trees come in two major varieties; one resembles a traditional Christmas tree.[95] One Dallas-based company offers "holographic mylar" trees in many hues.[88] Tree-shaped objects made from such materials as cardboard,[96] glass,[97] ceramic or other materials can be found in use as tabletop decorations. Upside-down artificial Christmas trees became popular for a short time and were originally introduced as a marketing gimmick; they allowed consumers to get closer to ornaments for sale in retail stores and opened up floor space for more products.[98] Artificial trees became increasingly popular during the late 20th century.[87] Users of artificial Christmas trees assert that they are more convenient, and, because they are reusable, much cheaper than their natural alternative.[87] They are also considered much safer[99] as natural trees can be a significant fire hazard. Between 2001 and 2007 artificial Christmas tree sales in the U.S. jumped from 7.3 million to 17.4 million.[100] Currently it is estimated that around 58% of Christmas trees used in the United States are artificial while numbers in the United Kingdom are indicated to be around 66%.[101]

text:
Artificial trees

A tree with fibre optic lights

Christmas tree and presents Athens, Greece

White Christmas tree

Spanish artificial Christmas tree

A chrismon tree (St. Alban's Anglican Cathedral, Oviedo, Florida)

An artificial Aluminum Christmas tree

Artificial tree

text: Environmental issues[edit]

text: The debate about the environmental impact of artificial trees is ongoing. Generally, natural tree growers contend that artificial trees are more environmentally harmful than their natural counterparts.[100] However, trade groups such as the American Christmas Tree Association, continue to refute that artificial trees are more harmful to the environment, and maintain that the PVC used in Christmas trees has excellent recyclable properties.[102]

text: Live trees are typically grown as a crop and replanted in rotation after cutting, often providing suitable habitat for wildlife.[citation needed] Alternately, live trees can be donated to livestock farmers of such animals like goats who find that such trees uncontaminated by chemical additives are excellent fodder.[103] In some cases management of Christmas tree crops can result in poor habitat since it sometimes involves heavy input of pesticides.[104] Concerns have been raised about people cutting down old and rare conifers, such as the Keteleeria evelyniana, for Christmas trees.

text: Real or cut trees are used only for a short time, but can be recycled and used as mulch, wildlife habitat, or used to prevent erosion.[105][106][107] Real trees are carbon-neutral, they emit no more carbon dioxide by being cut down and disposed of than they absorb while growing.[108] However, emissions can occur from farming activities and transportation. An independent life-cycle assessment study, conducted by a firm of experts in sustainable development, states that a natural tree will generate 3.1 kg (6.8 lb) of greenhouse gases every year (based on purchasing 5 km (3.1 miles) from home) whereas the artificial tree will produce 48.3 kg (106 lb) over its lifetime.[109] Some people use living Christmas or potted trees for several seasons, providing a longer life cycle for each tree. Living Christmas trees can be purchased or rented from local market growers. Rentals are picked up after the holidays, while purchased trees can be planted by the owner after use or donated to local tree adoption or urban reforestation services.[110]

text: Most artificial trees are made of recycled PVC rigid sheets using tin stabilizer in the recent years. In the past, lead was often used as a stabilizer in PVC, but is now banned by Chinese laws.[citation needed] The use of lead stabilizer in Chinese imported trees has been an issue of concern among politicians and scientists over recent years. A 2004 study found that while in general artificial trees pose little health risk from lead contamination, there do exist "worst-case scenarios" where major health risks to young children exist.[111] A 2008 United States Environmental Protection Agency report found that as the PVC in artificial Christmas trees aged it began to degrade.[112] The report determined that of the 50 million artificial trees in the United States approximately 20 million were 9 or more years old, the point where dangerous lead contamination levels are reached.[112] A professional study on the life-cycle assessment of both real and artificial Christmas trees revealed that one must use an artificial Christmas tree at least 20 years to leave an environmental footprint as small as the natural Christmas tree.[109]

text: Religious issues[edit]

text: The Christmas tree was first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer, Martin Bucer.[113][114] In the United States, these "German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; the Moravians put lighted candles on those trees."[115][116] When decorating the Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing the Star of Bethlehem, a fact recorded by The School Journal in 1897.[2][117] Professor David Albert Jones of Oxford University writes that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus.[3]

text: Under the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other religious holidays—were prohibited as a result of the Soviet anti-religious campaign.[118][119][120] The League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, among them being the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an anti-religious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement.[121] With the Christmas tree being prohibited in accordance with Soviet anti-religious legislation, people supplanted the former Christmas custom with New Year's trees.[120][122] In 1935 the tree was brought back as New Year tree and became a secular, not a religious holiday.

text: Pope John Paul II introduced the Christmas tree custom to the Vatican in 1982. Although at first disapproved of by some as out of place at the centre of the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican Christmas Tree has become an integral part of the Vatican Christmas celebrations,[123] and in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI spoke of it as part of the normal Christmas decorations in Catholic homes.[124] In 2004, Pope John Paul called the Christmas tree a symbol of Christ. This very ancient custom, he said, exalts the value of life, as in winter what is evergreen becomes a sign of undying life, and it reminds Christians of the "tree of life" of Genesis 2:9, an image of Christ, the supreme gift of God to humanity.[125] In the previous year he said: "Beside the crib, the Christmas tree, with its twinkling lights, reminds us that with the birth of Jesus the tree of life has blossomed anew in the desert of humanity. The crib and the tree: precious symbols, which hand down in time the true meaning of Christmas."[126] The Catholic Church's official Book of Blessings has a service for the blessing of the Christmas tree in a home.[127] Likewise the Protestant Episcopal Church in The Anglican Family Prayer Book, which has the imprimatur of The Rt. Rev. Catherine S. Roskam of the Anglican Communion, has long had a ritual titled Blessing of a Christmas Tree, as well as Blessing of a Crèche, for use in the church and the home.[128]

text: In 2006, the Seattle–Tacoma International Airport removed all of its Christmas trees in the middle of the night rather than allow a rabbi to put up a menorah near the largest tree display. Officials feared that one display would open the door for other religious displays,[129] and, in 2007, they opted to display a grove of birches in polyethylene terephthalate snow rather than religious symbols or Christmas trees.[129] In 2005, the city of Boston renamed the spruce tree used to decorate the Boston Common a "Holiday Tree" rather than a "Christmas Tree".[130] The name change drew a poor response from the public and it was reversed after the city was threatened with several lawsuits.[131] At the Bilbao airport 2005 displayed a Christmas tree and a Santa Claus and Christmas elf alongside the Basque Olentzero, as a way of syncretising traditions in Northern Spain.

text: Chrismon trees are a variety developed in 1957 by a Lutheran laywoman in Virginia, as a specifically religious version appropriate for a church's Christmas celebrations, although most Christian churches continue to display the traditional Christmas tree in their sanctuaries during Christmastide.[132]


document_title: Pharmacies in the United States

question_text: how many retail pharmacies are there in the us

text: Pharmacies in the United States

text: There are approximately 67,000 pharmacies in the United States. Almost half (33,000) are located within drug stores, grocery stores, hospitals, department stores, medical clinics, surgery clinics, universities, nursing homes, prisons, and other facilities. The remaining pharmacies are considered to be independent or privately owned. The top 25 pharmacy chain stores represent about 28,000 pharmacy locations in the U.S. and employ about 46,000 on-staff pharmacists. California has 5,560 pharmacies, the most of any state. Texas, New York, Florida and Pennsylvania round out the top five states for pharmacy locations.[1]

text: Pharmacy chains[edit]

text: The table below shows the top 25 pharmacy chains in the United States per state ranked by the number of pharmacist in each location, according to the National Pharmacy Market Summary done by SK&A 2010 [2]

text: Top 25 pharmacy chains ranked by the number of pharmacists

text:
Rank
Pharmacy Chains
City
State
Pharmacists
Store(s)

1
CVS Corporation
Woonsocket
RI
24,000
9,700

2
Walgreens
Deerfield
IL
10,578
8,232

3
Walmart Stores Inc
Bentonville
AR
6,358
3,646

4
Rite Aid Corporation
Camp Hill
PA
5,523
4,608

5
Kroger Company
Cincinnati
OH
1,866
1,156

6
Target Corporation now CVS Pharmacy
Minneapolis
MN
1,436
1,672

7
Kaiser Permanente (HMO)
Oakland
CA
1,298
290

8
Sears Holdings Corporation
Hoffman Estates
IL
1,169
1,002

9
Medicine Shoppe International
Earth City
MO
943
564

10
Dominick's Finer Foods
Pleasanton
CA
888
719

11
Publix Pharmacies
Lakeland
FL
835
710

12
Costco Pharmacies
Issaquah
WA
589
323

13
Hy-Vee Inc
West Des Moines
IA
563
202

14
Winn-Dixie Pharmacies
Jacksonville
FL
461
390

15
Giant Eagle Pharmacy
Pittsburgh
PA
403
187

16
Meijer Pharmacies
Grand Rapids
MI
344
167

17
Cardinal Health Inc
Houston
TX
320
131

18
H E Butt Drug Stores
San Antonio
TX
315
191

19
Fred's Inc.
Memphis
TN
315
259

20
Stop & Shop Supermarket Co
Quincy
MA
303
235

21
Giant Food Stores Llc
Carlisle
PA
297
204

22
Shopko Stores Inc
Green Bay
WI
288
131

23
Fred Meyer Pharmacy Division
Portland
OR
276
127

24
Smith's Food & Drug Centers Inc
Salt Lake City
UT
268
132

25
Shoprite Supermarkets Inc
Keasbey
NJ
236
153