document_title: Third Crusade

question_text: who left england to lead the armies of the third crusade in 1189

root

text: Third Crusade

text: Background[edit]

text: Muslim unification[edit]

text: After the failure of the Second Crusade, Nur ad-Din Zangi had control of Damascus and a unified Syria. Eager to expand his power, Nur ad-Din set his sights on the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt. In 1163, Nur ad-Din sent his most trusted general, Shirkuh, on a military expedition to the Nile. Accompanying the general was his young nephew, Saladin. With Shirkuh's troops camped outside of Cairo, Egypt's sultan Shawar called on King Amalric I of Jerusalem for assistance. In response, Amalric sent an army into Egypt and attacked Shirkuh's troops at Bilbeis in 1164.

tag: p

text: In an attempt to divert Crusader attention from Egypt, Nur ad-Din attacked Antioch, resulting in a massacre of Christian soldiers and the capture of several Crusader leaders, including Bohemond III, Prince of Antioch. Nur ad-Din sent the scalps of the Christian defenders to Egypt for Shirkuh to proudly display at Bilbeis for Amalric's soldiers to see. This action prompted both Amalric and Shirkuh to lead their armies out of Egypt.

text: In 1167, Nur ad-Din again sent Shirkuh to conquer the Fatimids in Egypt. Shawar again opted to call upon Amalric to defend his territory. The combined Egyptian-Christian forces pursued Shirkuh until he retreated to Alexandria. Amalric then breached his alliance with Shawar by turning his forces on Egypt and besieging the city of Bilbeis. Shawar pleaded with his former enemy, Nur ad-Din, to save him from Amalric's treachery. Lacking the resources to maintain a prolonged siege of Cairo against the combined forces of Nur ad-Din and Shawar, Amalric retreated. This new alliance gave Nur ad-Din rule over virtually all of Syria and Egypt.

text: Saladin's conquests[edit]

text: Shawar was executed for his alliances with the Christian forces, and Shirkuh succeeded him as vizier of Egypt. In 1169, Shirkuh died unexpectedly after only weeks of rule. Shirkuh's successor was his nephew, Salah ad-Din Yusuf, commonly known as Saladin. Nur ad-Din died in 1174, leaving the new empire to his 11-year-old son, As-Salih. It was decided that the only man competent enough to uphold the jihad against the Franks was Saladin, who became sultan of Egypt and Syria and the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty.

text: Amalric also died in 1174, leaving Jerusalem to his 13-year-old son, Baldwin IV. Although Baldwin suffered from leprosy, he was an effective and active military commander, defeating Saladin at the battle of Montgisard in 1177, with support from Raynald of Châtillon, who had been released from prison in 1176. Raynald later forged an agreement with Saladin to allow free trade between Muslim and Christian territories. He also raided caravans throughout the region and expanded his piracy to the Red Sea by sending galleys to raid ships, and to assault the city of Mecca itself. These acts enraged the Muslim world, giving Raynald a reputation as the most hated man in the Middle East.

text: Baldwin IV died in 1185, and the kingdom was left to his nephew Baldwin V, whom he had crowned as co-king in 1183. Raymond III of Tripoli again served as regent. The following year, Baldwin V died before his ninth birthday, and his mother Princess Sybilla, sister of Baldwin IV, crowned herself queen and her husband, Guy of Lusignan, king. Raynald again raided a rich caravan and had its travelers thrown in prison. Saladin demanded that the prisoners and their cargo be released. The newly crowned King Guy appealed to Raynald to give in to Saladin's demands, but Raynald refused to follow the king's orders.

text: Siege of the Kingdom of Jerusalem[edit]

text: This final act of outrage by Raynald gave Saladin the opportunity he needed to take the offensive against the kingdom, and in 1187 he laid siege to the city of Tiberias. Raymond advised patience, but King Guy, acting on advice from Raynald, marched his army to the Horns of Hattin outside of Tiberias. The Frankish army, thirsty and demoralized, was destroyed in the ensuing battle, and the city would not be held again by Christians until 1229.[6]

text: King Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was offered a goblet of water because of his great thirst. Guy took a drink and then passed the goblet to Raynald. Raynald's having received the goblet from King Guy rather than Saladin meant that Saladin would not be forced to offer protection to the treacherous Raynald (it was custom that if you were personally offered a drink by the host, your life was safe). When Raynald accepted the drink from King Guy's hands, Saladin told his interpreter, "say to the King: 'it is you who have given him to drink'".[7] Afterwards, Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals. Saladin honored tradition with King Guy, who was sent to Damascus and eventually ransomed to his people, one of the few captive Crusaders to avoid execution.

text: By the end of the year, Saladin had taken Acre and Jerusalem. Pope Urban III is said to have collapsed and died upon hearing the news of the battle of Hattin.[8]

text: Preparations[edit]

text: The new pope, Gregory VIII, proclaimed that the capture of Jerusalem was punishment for the sins of Christians across Europe. The cry went up for a new crusade to the Holy Land. Henry II of England and Philip II of France ended their war with each other, and both imposed a "Saladin tithe" on their citizens to finance the venture. In Britain, Baldwin of Exeter, the archbishop of Canterbury, made a tour through Wales, convincing 3,000 men-at-arms to take up the cross, recorded in the Itinerary of Giraldus Cambrensis.

text: Barbarossa's crusade[edit]

text: The elderly Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa responded to the call immediately. He took up the Cross at Mainz Cathedral on 27 March 1188 and was the first to set out for the Holy Land in May 1189 with an army of about 100,000 men, including 20,000 knights.[2] An army of 2,000 men led by the Hungarian prince Géza, the younger brother of the king Béla III of Hungary, and Bishop Ugrin Csák also went with Barbarossa to the Holy Land.[9]

text: The Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos made a secret alliance with Saladin to impede Frederick's progress in exchange for his empire's safety. Meanwhile, the Sultanate of Rum promised Frederick safety through Anatolia, but after much raiding Frederick lost patience and on 18 May 1190, the German army sacked Iconium, the capital of the Sultanate. While crossing the Saleph River on 10 June 1190, Frederick's horse slipped, throwing him against the rocks; he then drowned in the river. After this, much of his army returned to Germany in anticipation of the upcoming Imperial election. The Emperor's son, Frederick of Swabia, led the remaining 5,000 men to Antioch. There, the Emperor's body was boiled to remove the flesh, which was interred in the Church of St. Peter; his bones were put in a bag to continue the crusade. In Antioch, however, the German army was further reduced by fever. Young Frederick had to ask the assistance of his kinsman Conrad of Montferrat to lead him safely to Acre, by way of Tyre, where his father's bones were buried.

text: The early departure of the bulk of the German army after Frederick's death inspired his son, Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, seven years later to sponsor the German Crusade of 1197.

text: King Richard and King Philip's departure[edit]

text: King Henry II of England died on 6 July 1189 after a surprise attack by his son Richard the Lionheart and King Philip II. Richard inherited the crown and immediately began raising funds for the crusade. In the meantime, some of his subjects departed in multiple waves by sea. Some of them together with contingents from the Holy Roman Empire and France conquered the Moorish city of Silves in Iberia during the summer of 1189, before continuing to the Holy Land. In April 1190, King Richard's fleet departed from Dartmouth under the command of Richard de Camville and Robert de Sablé on their way to meet their king in Marseille. Parts of this fleet helped the Portuguese monarch Sancho I defeat an Almohad counterattack against Santarém and Torres Novas, while another group ransacked Christian Lisbon, only to be routed by the Portuguese monarch.[10] Richard and Philip II met in France at Vézelay and set out together on 4 July 1190 as far as Lyon where they parted after agreeing to meet in Sicily; Richard with his retinue, said to number 800, marched to Marseille and Philip to Genoa.[11] Richard arrived in Marseille and found that his fleet had not arrived; he quickly tired of waiting for them and hiring ships, left for Sicily on 7 August, visiting several places in Italy en route and arrived in Messina on 23 September. Meanwhile, the English fleet eventually arrived in Marseille on 22 August, and finding that Richard had gone, sailed directly to Messina, arriving before him on 14 September.[12] Philip had hired a Genoese fleet to transport his army, which consisted of 650 knights, 1,300 horses, and 1,300 squires to the Holy Land by way of Sicily.[2]

text: William II of Sicily had died the previous year, and was replaced by Tancred, who imprisoned Joan of England—William's wife and King Richard's sister. Richard captured the city of Messina on 4 October 1190 and Joan was released. Richard and Philip fell out over the issue of Richard's marriage, as Richard had decided to marry Berengaria of Navarre, breaking off his long-standing betrothal to Philip's half-sister Alys. Philip left Sicily directly for the Middle East on 30 March 1191 and arrived in Tyre in mid-May; he joined the siege of Acre on 20 May. Richard did not set off from Sicily until 10 April.

text: Shortly after setting sail from Sicily, King Richard's armada of 180 ships and 39 galleys was struck by a violent storm.[13] Several ships ran aground, including one holding Joan, his new fiancée Berengaria and a large amount of treasure that had been amassed for the crusade. It was soon discovered that Isaac Dukas Comnenus of Cyprus had seized the treasure. The young women were unharmed. Richard entered Limassol on 6 May and met with Isaac, who agreed to return Richard's belongings and to send 500 of his soldiers to the Holy Land. Richard made camp at Limassol, where he received a visit from Guy of Lusignan, the King of Jerusalem, and married Berengaria, who was crowned queen. Once back at his fortress of Famagusta, Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and began issuing orders for Richard to leave the island. Isaac's arrogance prompted Richard to conquer the island within days, finally leaving on 5 June 1191.[14]

text: Siege of Acre[edit]

text: Saladin released King Guy from prison in 1189. Guy attempted to take command of the Christian forces at Tyre, but Conrad of Montferrat held power there after his successful defence of the city from Muslim attacks. Guy turned his attention to the wealthy port of Acre. He amassed an army to besiege the city and received aid from Philip's newly arrived French army. The combined armies were not enough to counter Saladin, however, whose forces besieged the besiegers. In summer 1190, in one of the numerous outbreaks of disease in the camp, Queen Sibylla and her young daughters died. Guy, although only king by right of marriage, endeavoured to retain his crown, although the rightful heir was Sibylla's half-sister Isabella. After a hastily arranged divorce from Humphrey IV of Toron, Isabella was married to Conrad of Montferrat, who claimed the kingship in her name.

text: During the winter of 1190–91, there were further outbreaks of dysentery and fever, which claimed the lives of Frederick of Swabia, Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem, and Theobald V of Blois. When the sailing season began again in spring 1191, Leopold V of Austria arrived and took command of what remained of the imperial forces. Philip of France arrived with his troops from Sicily in May. A neighboring army under Leo II of Cilician Armenia also arrived.[15]

text: Richard arrived at Acre on 8 June 1191 and immediately began supervising the construction of siege weapons to assault the city, which was captured on 12 July. Richard, Philip, and Leopold quarrelled over the spoils of the victory. Richard cast down the German standard from the city, slighting Leopold. In the struggle for the kingship of Jerusalem, Richard supported Guy, while Philip and Leopold supported Conrad, who was related to them both. It was decided that Guy would continue to rule but that Conrad would receive the crown upon his death. Frustrated with Richard (and in Philip's case, in poor health), Philip and Leopold took their armies and left the Holy Land in August. Philip left 10,000 French crusaders and 5,000 silver marks to pay them.

text: On 18 June 1191, soon after Richard's arrival at Acre, he sent a messenger to Saladin requesting a face to face meeting. Saladin refused, saying that it was customary for kings to meet each other only after a peace treaty had been agreed, and thereafter "it is not seemly for them to make war upon each other". The two therefore never met, although they did exchange gifts and Richard had a number of meetings with Al-Adil, Saladin's brother.[16] Saladin tried to negotiate with Richard for the release of the captured Muslim soldier garrison, which included their women and children. On 20 August, however, Richard thought Saladin had delayed too much and had 2,700 of the Muslim prisoners decapitated in full view of Saladin's army, which tried unsuccessfully to rescue them.[17] Saladin responded by killing all of the Christian prisoners he had captured.

text: Battle of Arsuf[edit]

text: After the capture of Acre, Richard decided to march to the city of Jaffa. Control of Jaffa was necessary before an attack on Jerusalem could be attempted. On 7 September 1191, however, Saladin attacked Richard's army at Arsuf, 30 miles (50 km) north of Jaffa. Saladin attempted to harass Richard's army into breaking its formation in order to defeat it in detail. Richard maintained his army's defensive formation, however, until the Hospitallers broke ranks to charge the right wing of Saladin's forces. Richard then ordered a general counterattack, which won the battle. Arsuf was an important victory. The Muslim army was not destroyed, despite the considerable casualties it suffered, but it did rout; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. Arsuf had dented Saladin's reputation as an invincible warrior and proved Richard's courage as soldier and his skill as a commander. Richard was able to take, defend, and hold Jaffa, a strategically crucial move toward securing Jerusalem. By depriving Saladin of the coast, Richard seriously threatened his hold on Jerusalem.[18]

text: Advances on Jerusalem, regicide, and negotiations[edit]

text: Following his victory at Arsuf, Richard took Jaffa and established his new headquarters there. He offered to begin negotiations with Saladin, who sent his brother, Al-Adil (known as 'Saphadin' to the Franks), to meet with Richard. Negotiations, which included an attempt to marry Richard's sister Joan to Al-Adil, failed, and Richard marched to Ascalon, which had been recently demolished by Saladin.[19]

text: In November 1191 the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. On 12 December Saladin was forced by pressure from his emirs to disband the greater part of his army. Learning this, Richard pushed his army forward, spending Christmas at Latrun. The army then marched to Beit Nuba, only 12 miles from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. Appallingly bad weather, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms, combined with fear that if the Crusader army besieged Jerusalem, it might be trapped by a relieving force, led to the decision to retreat back to the coast.[20]

text: Richard called on Conrad to join him on campaign, but he refused, citing Richard's alliance with King Guy. He too had been negotiating with Saladin as a defence against any attempt by Richard to wrest Tyre from him for Guy. However, in April, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem after an election by the nobles of the kingdom. Guy had received no votes at all; Richard sold him Cyprus as compensation. Before he could be crowned, Conrad was stabbed to death by two Hashshashin in the streets of Tyre. Eight days later, Richard's nephew Henry II of Champagne married Queen Isabella, who was pregnant with Conrad's child. It was strongly suspected that the king's killers had acted on instructions from Richard.

text: During the winter months, Richard's men occupied and refortified Ascalon, whose fortifications had earlier been razed by Saladin. The spring of 1192 saw continued negotiations and further skirmishing between the opposing forces. On 22 May the strategically important fortified town of Darum on the frontiers of Egypt fell to the crusaders, following five days of fierce fighting.[21] The Crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and in June it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat again, this time because of dissention amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of Egypt. The leader of the French contingent, the Duke of Burgundy, however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier; he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.[22]

text: Saladin's attempt to recapture Jaffa and the end of the Crusade[edit]

text: In July 1192, Saladin's army suddenly attacked and captured Jaffa with thousands of men, but Saladin lost control of his army due to their anger for the massacre at Acre. It is believed that Saladin even told the Crusaders to shield themselves in the Citadel until he had regained control of his army.

text: Richard had intended to return to England when he heard the news that Saladin and his army had captured Jaffa. Richard and a small force of little more than 2,000 men went to Jaffa by sea in a surprise attack. Richard's forces stormed Jaffa from their ships and the Ayyubids, who had been unprepared for a naval attack, were driven from the city. Richard freed those of the Crusader garrison who had been made prisoner, and these troops helped to reinforce the numbers of his army. Saladin's army still had numerical superiority, however, and they counter-attacked. Saladin intended a stealthy surprise attack at dawn, but his forces were discovered; he proceeded with his attack, but his men were lightly armoured and suffered heavy casualties due to the missiles of the large numbers of Crusader crossbowmen. The battle to retake Jaffa ended in complete failure for Saladin, who was forced to retreat. This battle greatly strengthened the position of the coastal Crusader states.[23]

text: On 2 September 1192, following his defeat at Jaffa, Saladin was forced to finalize a treaty with Richard providing that Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, while allowing unarmed Christian pilgrims and traders to visit the city. Ascalon was a contentious issue as it threatened communication between Saladin's dominions in Egypt and Syria; it was eventually agreed that Ascalon, with its defences demolished, be returned to Saladin's control. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192.

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: Neither side was entirely satisfied with the results of the war. Though Richard's victories had deprived the Muslims of important coastal territories and re-established a viable Frankish state in Palestine, many Christians in the Latin West felt disappointed that he had elected not to pursue the recapture of Jerusalem.[24] Likewise, many in the Islamic world felt disturbed that Saladin had failed to drive the Christians out of Syria and Palestine. Trade flourished, however, throughout the Middle East and in port cities along the Mediterranean coastline.[25]

text: Saladin's scholar and biographer Baha al-Din recounted Saladin's distress at the successes of the Crusaders:

text: 'I fear to make peace, not knowing what may become of me. Our enemy will grow strong, now that they have retained these lands. They will come forth to recover the rest of their lands and you will see every one of them ensconced on his hill-top,' meaning in his castle, 'having announced, “I shall stay put” and the Muslims will be ruined.' These were his words and it came about as he said.[26]

text: Richard was arrested and imprisoned in December 1192 by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, who suspected Richard of murdering Leopold's cousin Conrad of Montferrat. Leopold had also been offended by Richard casting down his standard from the walls of Acre. He was later transferred to the custody of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, and it took a ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand marks to obtain his release. Richard returned to England in 1194 and died of a crossbow bolt wound in 1199 at the age of 41.

text: In 1193, Saladin died of yellow fever. His heirs would quarrel over the succession and ultimately fragment his conquests.

text: Henry of Champagne was killed in an accidental fall in 1197. Queen Isabella then married for a fourth time, to Amalric of Lusignan, who had succeeded his brother Guy, positioned as King of Cyprus. After their deaths in 1205, her eldest daughter Maria of Montferrat (born after her father's murder) succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem.

text: Richard's decision not to attack Jerusalem would lead to the call for a Fourth Crusade six years after the third ended in 1192. However, Richard's victories facilitated the survival of a wealthy Crusader kingdom centred on Acre. Historian Thomas F. Madden summarises the achievements of the Third Crusade:

text: ...the Third Crusade was by almost any measure a highly successful expedition. Most of Saladin's victories in the wake of Hattin were wiped away. The Crusader kingdom was healed of its divisions, restored to its coastal cities, and secured in a peace with its greatest enemy. Although he had failed to reclaim Jerusalem, Richard had put the Christians of the Levant back on their feet again.[27]

text: Accounts of events surrounding the Third Crusade were written by the anonymous authors of the Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi (a.k.a. the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi), the Old French Continuation of William of Tyre (parts of which are attributed to Ernoul), and by Ambroise, Roger of Howden, Ralph of Diceto, and Giraldus Cambrensis.


document_title: Top Gear (series 19)

question_text: what episode is the top gear africa special

text: Top Gear (series 19)

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Total
No.
Title
Review
Features/Challenges
Guest(s)
Original air date
UK viewers
(million)[2]

147
1
Series 19, Episode 1
Pagani Huayra • Bentley Continental GT Speed
Take the Bentley Continental GT Speed to a Welsh Rally stage. • Build a car smaller than a Peel P50 (Clarkson's "P45")
Damian Lewis • Kris Meeke • The Cast of Dragons' Den (Theo Paphitis • Duncan Bannatyne • Peter Jones • Deborah Meaden)
27 January 2013 (2013-01-27)
6.65[nb 1]

Hammond tests out the latest supercar from Italy, the Pagani Huayra, while May takes to a Welsh stage of the World Rally Championship with the new Bentley Continental GT Speed, to see if it can be faster than one of the WRC cars (with the help of Kris Meeke behind the wheel). Elsewhere, Clarkson builds a smaller car than the Peel P50, the P45, and sees how good it is before putting before the 'Dragon' of Dragons' Den, and Damian Lewis takes his turn in the Kia Cee'd, around a snowy test track.

148
2
Series 19, Episode 2
None
Supercar road trip from Las Vegas, Nevada to Calexico, California: (Lexus LFA • SRT Viper • Aston Martin Vanquish)
Mick Fleetwood
3 February 2013 (2013-02-03)
6.42[nb 2]

The trio head out for a road trip across Nevada and California, each taking with them a supercar they think is the best - Clarkson believes it is the Lexus LFA, May roots for the new Aston Martin Vanquish, and Hammond seeks to show it is the SRT Viper. Starting from the Valley of Fire, the trio visit Las Vegas and the Las Vegas Motor Speedway to race their cars in drag races organised by the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, visit the Civic Musical Road, play an aerial version of Laser Quest at the Willow Springs International Motorsports Park, and head for Los Angeles where they get into trouble while doing "elevens" and "donuts" at the Sepulveda Dam. The trio conclude their trip with a race from Palm Springs to Calexico at the Mexican border, with the last presenter to arrive having to cross the border and review the country's first supercar for a later episode. Elsewhere Mick Fleetwood of Fleetwood Mac is the latest star to drive the Kia around the track.

149
3
Series 19, Episode 3
Toyota GT86 / Subaru BRZ • Shelby Mustang GT500
Epic race from Wembley to the San Siro stadium in Milan: Shelby Mustang GT500 vs. the pan-European rail network
Amy Macdonald
10 February 2013 (2013-02-10)
6.36[nb 3]

The producers have reserved a single ticket to a football match in Milan, Northern Italy, so the trio see who get it first by racing from the Wembley Stadium in London to the San Siro in Milan, although this time, the car may have a real challenge, since trains have gotten faster and Channel crossing have gotten slower since their last epic race. While Hammond and May opt to work together until Milan and then compete against each other towards the finish line, Clarkson, who is told he must not choose an expensive, high performance car for the race, sees if he can beat them in the Shelby Mustang GT500, a car named after Carroll Shelby, who was able to see the new Mustang before his death. Meanwhile, Clarkson tests out how good a sports car the Toyota GT86 is, and Amy Macdonald drives the Kia Cee'd around the test track.
Note: During the 'Epic Race to Milan' film, Clarkson paid tribute to Shelby, who died the previous year, with a small segment that detailed his early life and his involvement with the AC Cobra and the Mustang line for Ford, including the GT500.

150
4
Series 19, Episode 4
Mastretta MXT in Mexico • Hot hatchbacks: (Ford Focus ST • Renault Megane RenaultSport Cup 265 • Vauxhall Astra VXR)
Rugby match with Kia Cee'ds at Twickenham
Lewis Hamilton • Matt Le Blanc • Eric Clapton • Bruce Willis & Awards 2012
17 February 2013 (2013-02-17)
5.39[nb 4]

A trio of hot hatches hit the track to see which is best - the Vauxhall Astra VXR, the Ford Focus ST and the Renault Megane RenaultSport Cup 265. Meanwhile, the presenter who got sent to Mexico reviews the country's first supercar, the Mastretta MXT, Clarkson tests out the new Kia Cee'd in a variety of tests before competing against May in a game of "Car Rugby" at Twickenham Stadium, and Lewis Hamilton is back to see if he can be faster in the old Liana.

151
5
Series 19, Episode 5
Range Rover
Design a vehicle for the elderly ("Rover James"/Fiat Multipla) • Range Rover vs an autonomous military machine
James McAvoy
24 February 2013 (2013-02-24)
6.45[nb 5]

Clarkson and Hammond believe that elderly people would be better on the road if they had a car designed especially for them, so the pair make one out of a Fiat Multipla with many things that an elderly driver will like, before testing how well their creation fares by taking it to Christchurch, Dorset, and borrowing a few elderly ladies to tell them what they think. Meanwhile, May tests out the new Range Rover in London, before heading to the Nevada Automotive Test Centre in Nevada, to see how good it is off-road in a 10 miles (16 kilometres) race against a autonomous military machine, the TerraMax, and James McAvoy drives around the track as the latest star in the Kia Cee'd.
Note: The trio gave their thanks and respect for Richard Briers in the studio before the episode ended, who provided his voice for the Sat-Nav system of Clarkson and Hammond's creation in the 'Making a Car for Elderly People' film. He died a week before the episode's broadcast.

152
SP-Pt1
"Africa Special" Part 1
N/A
Find source of the Nile: (BMW 528i Touring • Subaru Impreza WRX Estate • Volvo 850R Estate)
N/A
3 March 2013 (2013-03-03)
7.33[nb 6]

In a two-part special, the boys head to Africa to see if they can find the source of the River Nile, each taking with them a second-hand estate cars they bought in Britain on a budget of £1,500 - Clarkson believe he can find the source with the help of his BMW 528i Touring, Hammond sees if he can find it in the sporty Subaru Impreza WRX Estate he brought along, and May wisely shows he will discover it from his Volvo 850R Estate. On an epic journey around Lake Victoria, which Victorian Explorers thought was the source of the Nile, the first part sees the trio setting off west from their starting point in Uganda towards Lake Edward, visiting Entebbe Airport, getting stuck in heavy traffic in Uganda's capital of Kampala, explore the village of Jezza in the Mpigi District, convert their cars into mobile campers, before reaching the lake and seeing if they can find a river flowing into it from Lake Kivu. When their initial theory on the source is broken after their search around Edward, the trio soon have another and begin heading towards Tanzania and the Serengeti.

153
SP-Pt2
"Africa Special" Part 2
N/A
Find source of the Nile: (BMW 528i Touring • Subaru Impreza WRX Estate • Volvo 850R Estate)
N/A
10 March 2013 (2013-03-10)
7.48[nb 7]

The trio continue on their search for the source of the River Nile, heading for Tanzania after their initial theory about it being somewhere around Lake Kivu could not be proved based on physical evidence. Now believing that the Nile's mouth is not at Alexandria but where the Mediterranean Sea meets the Atlantic Ocean, and that the source must be somewhere east of Lake Victoria, the trio are en route for the Serengeti where they believe the source will be found. In the second part, the presenters brave their way over muddy tracks and rough dirt roads, repairing their cars broken or missing parts with "procured" replacements, while heading towards Tanzania, via Rwanda. Along the way they enjoy stunning scenery, create a ferry to get across a river, cross Lake Victoria with a proper ferry, and begin making their way through the Serengeti, following a river that will lead them to the source, and encountering one more obstacle in the form of a "car-killing" road. Finally, upon making camp for the last time, the trio opt to see who will be remembered and who will be forgotten, by racing against each to see who can find the source of the Nile.
Note: For the end credits of the second part, each crew member's first name is replaced with "Dr.", with their surname followed by ", I Presume?" (e.g. "Dr. Clarkson, I Presume?", "Dr. Hammond, I presume?", etc.)

tag: table

text: Criticism and Controversy[edit]

text: Toyota GT86 and Subaru BRZ Reviews film[edit]

text: During his reviews of the Toyota GT86 and the Subaru BRZ, Jeremy Clarkson attempted to see which one he would pick through the use of the eeny meeny miny moe rhyme. Following accusations of racism made against Clarkson for use of "Slope" comment in the Burma Special, British newspaper The Daily Mirror revealed video evidence that in his use of the rhyme with the GT86 and BRZ, he was noted as mumbling the word "nigger", which was historically a part of the rhyme's earlier versions; in the aired version of the review, the word "teacher" was used instead of the racial epithet of the unaired version that surfaced. While Clarkson denied the incident at first, he eventually issued an apology following the evidence's appearance. In his apology, he stated that he was "extremely keen" to avoid using the word, and that he had to do three takes with the film, adding that he was "mortified" that he appeared to actually mumble the word and that he did everything he could to avoid it being transmitted on the show. He further proved this was the case with a note he sent to the production office, which read:[3]

text: "I didn't use the N-word here but I've just listened through my headphones and it sounds like I did. Is there another take that we could use?",

text: This incident was one of two reasons that led to the BBC ultimately giving Clarkson a "final warning" in regards to the corporation's views on racist remarks.[4]

text: Notes[edit]

text: The viewing figures shown in the Episode Table above, are a combination of the figures from the BBC Two broadcast and the BBC HD broadcast.

text:
Jump up ^ 5.47 million on BBC Two, 1.18 million on BBC HD
Jump up ^ 5.02 million on BBC Two, 1.4 million on BBC HD.
Jump up ^ 5.01 million on BBC Two, 1.35 million on BBC HD.
Jump up ^ 3.92 million on BBC Two, 1.39 million on BBC HD.
Jump up ^ 5.00 million on BBC Two, 1.45 million on BBC HD.
Jump up ^ 5.85 million on BBC Two, 1.48 million on BBC HD.
Jump up ^ 5.89 million on BBC Two, 1.59 million on BBC HD.

tag: ol


document_title: Reality

question_text: the view that everything that exists is physical is known as

text: Reality

text: Related concepts

text: World views and theories

text: A common colloquial usage would have reality mean "perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes toward reality", as in "My reality is not your reality." This is often used just as a colloquialism indicating that the parties to a conversation agree, or should agree, not to quibble over deeply different conceptions of what is real. For example, in a religious discussion between friends, one might say (attempting humor), "You might disagree, but in my reality, everyone goes to heaven."

text: Reality can be defined in a way that links it to worldviews or parts of them (conceptual frameworks): Reality is the totality of all things, structures (actual and conceptual), events (past and present) and phenomena, whether observable or not. It is what a world view (whether it be based on individual or shared human experience) ultimately attempts to describe or map.

text: Certain ideas from physics, philosophy, sociology, literary criticism, and other fields shape various theories of reality. One such belief is that there simply and literally is no reality beyond the perceptions or beliefs we each have about reality. Such attitudes are summarized in the popular statement, "Perception is reality" or "Life is how you perceive reality" or "reality is what you can get away with" (Robert Anton Wilson), and they indicate anti-realism – that is, the view that there is no objective reality, whether acknowledged explicitly or not.

text: Many of the concepts of science and philosophy are often defined culturally and socially. This idea was elaborated by Thomas Kuhn in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). The Social Construction of Reality, a book about the sociology of knowledge written by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, was published in 1966. It explained how knowledge is acquired and used for the comprehension of reality. Out of all the realities, the reality of everyday life is the most important one since our consciousness requires us to be completely aware and attentive to the experience of everyday life.

text: Western philosophy

text: Philosophy addresses two different aspects of the topic of reality: the nature of reality itself, and the relationship between the mind (as well as language and culture) and reality.

text: On the one hand, ontology is the study of being, and the central topic of the field is couched, variously, in terms of being, existence, "what is", and reality. The task in ontology is to describe the most general categories of reality and how they are interrelated. If a philosopher wanted to proffer a positive definition of the concept "reality", it would be done under this heading. As explained above, some philosophers draw a distinction between reality and existence. In fact, many analytic philosophers today tend to avoid the term "real" and "reality" in discussing ontological issues. But for those who would treat "is real" the same way they treat "exists", one of the leading questions of analytic philosophy has been whether existence (or reality) is a property of objects. It has been widely held by analytic philosophers that it is not a property at all, though this view has lost some ground in recent decades.

text: On the other hand, particularly in discussions of objectivity that have feet in both metaphysics and epistemology, philosophical discussions of "reality" often concern the ways in which reality is, or is not, in some way dependent upon (or, to use fashionable jargon, "constructed" out of) mental and cultural factors such as perceptions, beliefs, and other mental states, as well as cultural artifacts, such as religions and political movements, on up to the vague notion of a common cultural world view, or Weltanschauung.

text: The view that there is a reality independent of any beliefs, perceptions, etc., is called realism. More specifically, philosophers are given to speaking about "realism about" this and that, such as realism about universals or realism about the external world. Generally, where one can identify any class of object, the existence or essential characteristics of which is said not to depend on perceptions, beliefs, language, or any other human artifact, one can speak of "realism about" that object.

text: One can also speak of anti-realism about the same objects. Anti-realism is the latest in a long series of terms for views opposed to realism. Perhaps the first was idealism, so called because reality was said to be in the mind, or a product of our ideas. Berkeleyan idealism is the view, propounded by the Irish empiricist George Berkeley, that the objects of perception are actually ideas in the mind. In this view, one might be tempted to say that reality is a "mental construct"; this is not quite accurate, however, since, in Berkeley's view, perceptual ideas are created and coordinated by God. By the 20th century, views similar to Berkeley's were called phenomenalism. Phenomenalism differs from Berkeleyan idealism primarily in that Berkeley believed that minds, or souls, are not merely ideas nor made up of ideas, whereas varieties of phenomenalism, such as that advocated by Russell, tended to go farther to say that the mind itself is merely a collection of perceptions, memories, etc., and that there is no mind or soul over and above such mental events. Finally, anti-realism became a fashionable term for any view which held that the existence of some object depends upon the mind or cultural artifacts. The view that the so-called external world is really merely a social, or cultural, artifact, called social constructionism, is one variety of anti-realism. Cultural relativism is the view that social issues such as morality are not absolute, but at least partially cultural artifact.

text: A correspondence theory of knowledge about what exists claims that "true" knowledge of reality represents accurate correspondence of statements about and images of reality with the actual reality that the statements or images are attempting to represent. For example, the scientific method can verify that a statement is true based on the observable evidence that a thing exists. Many humans can point to the Rocky Mountains and say that this mountain range exists, and continues to exist even if no one is observing it or making statements about it.

text: Being

text: The nature of being is a perennial topic in metaphysics. For, instance Parmenides taught that reality was a single unchanging Being, whereas Heraclitus wrote that all things flow. The 20th century philosopher Heidegger thought previous philosophers have lost sight the question of Being (qua Being) in favour of the questions of beings (existing things), so that a return to the Parmenidean approach was needed. An ontological catalogue is an attempt to list the fundamental constituents of reality. The question of whether or not existence is a predicate has been discussed since the Early Modern period, not least in relation to the ontological argument for the existence of God. Existence, that something is, has been contrasted with essence, the question of what something is. Since existence without essence seems blank, it associated with nothingness by philosophers such as Hegel. Nihilism represents an extremely negative view of being, the absolute a positive one.

text: Perception

text: The question of direct or "naïve" realism, as opposed to indirect or "representational" realism, arises in the philosophy of perception and of mind out of the debate over the nature of conscious experience;[2][3] the epistemological question of whether the world we see around us is the real world itself or merely an internal perceptual copy of that world generated by neural processes in our brain. Naïve realism is known as direct realism when developed to counter indirect or representative realism, also known as epistemological dualism,[4] the philosophical position that our conscious experience is not of the real world itself but of an internal representation, a miniature virtual-reality replica of the world.

text: Timothy Leary coined the influential term Reality Tunnel, by which he means a kind of representative realism. The theory states that, with a subconscious set of mental filters formed from their beliefs and experiences, every individual interprets the same world differently, hence "Truth is in the eye of the beholder". His ideas influenced the work of his friend Robert Anton Wilson.

text: Abstract objects and mathematics

text: The status of abstract entities, particularly numbers, is a topic of discussion in mathematics.

text: In the philosophy of mathematics, the best known form of realism about numbers is Platonic realism, which grants them abstract, immaterial existence. Other forms of realism identify mathematics with the concrete physical universe.

text: Anti-realist stances include formalism and fictionalism.

text: Some approaches are selectively realistic about some mathematical objects but not others. Finitism rejects infinite quantities. Ultra-finitism accepts finite quantities up to a certain amount. Constructivism and intuitionism are realistic about objects that can be explicitly constructed, but reject the use of the principle of the excluded middle to prove existence by reductio ad absurdum.

text: The traditional debate has focused on whether an abstract (immaterial, intelligible) realm of numbers has existed in addition to the physical (sensible, concrete) world. A recent development is the mathematical universe hypothesis, the theory that only a mathematical world exists, with the finite, physical world being an illusion within it.

text: An extreme form of realism about mathematics is the mathematical multiverse hypothesis advanced by Max Tegmark. Tegmark's sole postulate is: All structures that exist mathematically also exist physically. That is, in the sense that "in those [worlds] complex enough to contain self-aware substructures [they] will subjectively perceive themselves as existing in a physically 'real' world".[5][6] The hypothesis suggests that worlds corresponding to different sets of initial conditions, physical constants, or altogether different equations should be considered real. The theory can be considered a form of Platonism in that it posits the existence of mathematical entities, but can also be considered a mathematical monism in that it denies that anything exists except mathematical objects.

text: Properties

text: The problem of universals is an ancient problem in metaphysics about whether universals exist. Universals are general or abstract qualities, characteristics, properties, kinds or relations, such as being male/female, solid/liquid/gas or a certain colour,[7] that can be predicated of individuals or particulars or that individuals or particulars can be regarded as sharing or participating in. For example, Scott, Pat, and Chris have in common the universal quality of being human or humanity.

text: The realist school claims that universals are real – they exist and are distinct from the particulars that instantiate them. There are various forms of realism. Two major forms are Platonic realism and Aristotelian realism.[8] Platonic realism is the view that universals are real entities and they exist independent of particulars. Aristotelian realism, on the other hand, is the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them.

text: Nominalism and conceptualism are the main forms of anti-realism about universals.

text: Time and space

text: A traditional realist position in ontology is that time and space have existence apart from the human mind. Idealists deny or doubt the existence of objects independent of the mind. Some anti-realists whose ontological position is that objects outside the mind do exist, nevertheless doubt the independent existence of time and space.

text: Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience. Kant denies that either space or time are substance, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds rather that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) events. Although space and time are held to be transcendentally ideal in this sense, they are also empirically real, i.e. not mere illusions.

text: Idealist writers such as J. M. E. McTaggart in The Unreality of Time have argued that time is an illusion.

text: As well as differing about the reality of time as a whole, metaphysical theories of time can differ in their ascriptions of reality to the past, present and future separately.

text:
Presentism holds that the past and future are unreal, and only an ever-changing present is real.
The block universe theory, also known as Eternalism, holds that past, present and future are all real, but the passage of time is an illusion. It is often said to have a scientific basis in relativity.
The growing block universe theory holds that past and present are real, but the future is not.

tag: ul

text: Time, and the related concepts of process and evolution are central to the system-building metaphysics of A. N. Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne.

text: Possible worlds

text: The term "possible world" goes back to Leibniz's theory of possible worlds, used to analyse necessity, possibility, and similar modal notions. Modal realism is the view, notably propounded by David Kellogg Lewis, that all possible worlds are as real as the actual world. In short: the actual world is regarded as merely one among an infinite set of logically possible worlds, some "nearer" to the actual world and some more remote. Other theorists may use the Possible World framework to express and explore problems without committing to it ontologically. Possible world theory is related to alethic logic: a proposition is necessary if it is true in all possible worlds, and possible if it is true in at least one. The many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics is a similar idea in science.

text: Theories of everything (TOE) and philosophy

text: The philosophical implications of a physical TOE are frequently debated. For example, if philosophical physicalism is true, a physical TOE will coincide with a philosophical theory of everything.

text: The "system building" style of metaphysics attempts to answer all the important questions in a coherent way, providing a complete picture of the world. Plato and Aristotle could be said to be early examples of comprehensive systems. In the early modern period (17th and 18th centuries), the system-building scope of philosophy is often linked to the rationalist method of philosophy,that is the technique of deducing the nature of the world by pure a priori reason. Examples from the early modern period include the Leibniz's Monadology, Descartes's Dualism, Spinoza's Monism. Hegel's Absolute idealism and Whitehead's Process philosophy were later systems.

text: Other philosophers do not believe its techniques can aim so high. Some scientists think a more mathematical approach than philosophy is needed for a TOE, for instance Stephen Hawking wrote in A Brief History of Time that even if we had a TOE, it would necessarily be a set of equations. He wrote, "What is it that breathes fire into the equations and makes a universe for them to describe?"[9]

text: Phenomenological reality

text: On a much broader and more subjective level,[specify] private experiences, curiosity, inquiry, and the selectivity involved in personal interpretation of events shapes reality as seen by one and only one individual[citation needed] and hence is called phenomenological. While this form of reality might be common to others as well, it could at times also be so unique to oneself as to never be experienced or agreed upon by anyone else. Much of the kind of experience deemed spiritual occurs on this level of reality.

text: Phenomenology is a philosophical method developed in the early years of the twentieth century by Edmund Husserl and a circle of followers at the universities of Göttingen and Munich in Germany. Subsequently, phenomenological themes were taken up by philosophers in France, the United States, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's work.

text: The word phenomenology comes from the Greek phainómenon, meaning "that which appears", and lógos, meaning "study". In Husserl's conception, phenomenology is primarily concerned with making the structures of consciousness, and the phenomena which appear in acts of consciousness, objects of systematic reflection and analysis. Such reflection was to take place from a highly modified "first person" viewpoint, studying phenomena not as they appear to "my" consciousness, but to any consciousness whatsoever. Husserl believed that phenomenology could thus provide a firm basis for all human knowledge, including scientific knowledge, and could establish philosophy as a "rigorous science".[10]

text: Husserl's conception of phenomenology has been criticised and developed not only by himself, but also by his student and assistant Martin Heidegger, by existentialists, such as Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Paul Sartre, and by other philosophers, such as Paul Ricoeur, Emmanuel Levinas, and Dietrich von Hildebrand.[11]

text: Skeptical hypotheses

text: Skeptical hypotheses in philosophy suggest that reality is very different from what we think it is; or at least that we cannot prove it is not. Examples include:

text:
The "Brain in a vat" hypothesis is cast in scientific terms. It supposes that one might be a disembodied brain kept alive in a vat, and fed false sensory signals, by a mad scientist. This is a premise of the film series, Matrix hypothesis.
The "Dream argument" of Descartes and Zhuangzi supposes reality to be indistinguishable from a dream.
Descarte's Evil demon is a being "as clever and deceitful as he is powerful, who has directed his entire effort to misleading me."
The five minute hypothesis (or omphalos hypothesis or Last Thursdayism) suggests that the world was created recently together with records and traces indicating a greater age.
The Matrix hypothesis or Simulated reality hypothesis suggest that we might be inside a computer simulation or virtual reality.

text: Jain philosophy

text: Jain philosophy postulates that seven tattva (truths or fundamental principles) constitute reality.[12] These seven tattva are:[13]

text:
Jīva – The soul which is characterized by consciousness.
Ajīva – The non-soul.
Asrava – Influx of karma.
Bandha – The bondage of karma.
Samvara – Obstruction of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul.
Nirjara – Shedding of karmas.
Moksha – Liberation or Salvation, i.e. the complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular soul).

text: Physical sciences

text: Scientific realism

text: Scientific realism is, at the most general level, the view that the world described by science (perhaps ideal science) is the real world, as it is, independent of what we might take it to be. Within philosophy of science, it is often framed as an answer to the question "how is the success of science to be explained?" The debate over what the success of science involves centers primarily on the status of entities that are not directly observable discussed by scientific theories. Generally, those who are scientific realists state that one can make reliable claims about these entities (viz., that they have the same ontological status) as directly observable entities, as opposed to instrumentalism. The most used and studied scientific theories today state more or less the truth.

text: Realism and locality in physics

text: Realism in the sense used by physicists does not equate to realism in metaphysics.[14] The latter is the claim that the world is mind-independent: that even if the results of a measurement do not pre-exist the act of measurement, that does not require that they are the creation of the observer. Furthermore, a mind-independent property does not have to be the value of some physical variable such as position or momentum. A property can be dispositional (or potential), i.e. it can be a tendency: in the way that glass objects tend to break, or are disposed to break, even if they do not actually break. Likewise, the mind-independent properties of quantum systems could consist of a tendency to respond to particular measurements with particular values with ascertainable probability.[15] Such an ontology would be metaphysically realistic, without being realistic in the physicist's sense of "local realism" (which would require that a single value be produced with certainty).

text: A closely related term is counterfactual definiteness (CFD), used to refer to the claim that one can meaningfully speak of the definiteness of results of measurements that have not been performed (i.e. the ability to assume the existence of objects, and properties of objects, even when they have not been measured).

text: Local realism is a significant feature of classical mechanics, of general relativity, and of electrodynamics; but quantum mechanics has shown that quantum entanglement is possible. This was rejected by Einstein, who proposed the EPR paradox, but it was subsequently quantified by Bell's inequalities.[16] If Bell's inequalities are violated, either local realism or counterfactual definiteness must be incorrect; but some physicists dispute that experiments have demonstrated Bell's violations, on the grounds that the sub-class of inhomogeneous Bell inequalities has not been tested or due to experimental limitations in the tests. Different interpretations of quantum mechanics violate different parts of local realism and/or counterfactual definiteness.

text: Role of the observer in quantum mechanics

text: The quantum mind–body problem refers to the philosophical discussions of the mind–body problem in the context of quantum mechanics. Since quantum mechanics involves quantum superpositions, which are not perceived by observers, some interpretations of quantum mechanics place conscious observers in a special position.

text: The founders of quantum mechanics debated the role of the observer, and of them, Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg believed that it was the observer that produced collapse. This point of view, which was never fully endorsed by Niels Bohr, was denounced as mystical and anti-scientific by Albert Einstein. Pauli accepted the term, and described quantum mechanics as lucid mysticism.[17]

text: Heisenberg and Bohr always described quantum mechanics in logical positivist terms. Bohr also took an active interest in the philosophical implications of quantum theories such as his complementarity, for example.[18] He believed quantum theory offers a complete description of nature, albeit one that is simply ill-suited for everyday experiences – which are better described by classical mechanics and probability. Bohr never specified a demarcation line above which objects cease to be quantum and become classical. He believed that it was not a question of physics, but one of philosophy.

text: Eugene Wigner reformulated the "Schrödinger's cat" thought experiment as "Wigner's friend" and proposed that the consciousness of an observer is the demarcation line which precipitates collapse of the wave function, independent of any realist interpretation. Commonly known as "consciousness causes collapse", this interpretation of quantum mechanics states that observation by a conscious observer is what makes the wave function collapse.

text: Multiverse

text: The multiverse is the hypothetical set of multiple possible universes (including the historical universe we consistently experience) that together comprise everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, and energy as well as the physical laws and constants that describe them. The term was coined in 1895 by the American philosopher and psychologist William James.[19] In the many-worlds interpretation (MWI), one of the mainstream interpretations of quantum mechanics, there are an infinite number of universes and every possible quantum outcome occurs in at least one universe.

text: The structure of the multiverse, the nature of each universe within it and the relationship between the various constituent universes, depend on the specific multiverse hypothesis considered. Multiverses have been hypothesized in cosmology, physics, astronomy, religion, philosophy, transpersonal psychology and fiction, particularly in science fiction and fantasy. In these contexts, parallel universes are also called "alternative universes", "quantum universes", "interpenetrating dimensions", "parallel dimensions", "parallel worlds", "alternative realities", "alternative timelines", and "dimensional planes," among others.

text: Scientific theories of everything

text: A theory of everything (TOE) is a putative theory of theoretical physics that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena, and predicts the outcome of any experiment that could be carried out in principle. The theory of everything is also called the final theory.[20] Many candidate theories of everything have been proposed by theoretical physicists during the twentieth century, but none have been confirmed experimentally. The primary problem in producing a TOE is that general relativity and quantum mechanics are hard to unify. This is one of the unsolved problems in physics.

text: Initially, the term "theory of everything" was used with an ironic connotation to refer to various overgeneralized theories. For example, a great-grandfather of Ijon Tichy, a character from a cycle of Stanisław Lem's science fiction stories of the 1960s, was known to work on the "General Theory of Everything". Physicist John Ellis[21] claims to have introduced the term into the technical literature in an article in Nature in 1986.[22] Over time, the term stuck in popularizations of quantum physics to describe a theory that would unify or explain through a single model the theories of all fundamental interactions and of all particles of nature: general relativity for gravitation, and the standard model of elementary particle physics – which includes quantum mechanics – for electromagnetism, the two nuclear interactions, and the known elementary particles.

text: Current candidates for a theory of everything include string theory, M theory, and loop quantum gravity.

text: Technology

text: Virtual reality and cyberspace

text: Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-simulated environment that can simulate physical presence in places in the real world, as well as in imaginary worlds.

text: The Virtuality Continuum is a continuous scale ranging between the completely virtual, a Virtuality, and the completely real: Reality. The reality-virtuality continuum therefore encompasses all possible variations and compositions of real and virtual objects. It has been described as a concept in new media and computer science, but in fact it could be considered a matter of anthropology. The concept was first introduced by Paul Milgram.[23]

text: The area between the two extremes, where both the real and the virtual are mixed, is the so-called Mixed reality. This in turn is said to consist of both Augmented Reality, where the virtual augments the real, and Augmented virtuality, where the real augments the virtual. Cyberspace, the world's computer systems considered as an interconnected whole, can be thought of as a virtual reality; for instance, it is portrayed as such in the cyberpunk fiction of William Gibson and others. Second life and MMORPGs such as World of Warcraft are examples of artificial environments or virtual worlds (falling some way short of full virtual reality) in cyberspace.

text: "RL" in internet culture

text: On the Internet, "real life" refers to life in the real world. It generally references life or consensus reality, in contrast to an environment seen as fiction or fantasy, such as virtual reality, lifelike experience, dreams, novels, or movies. Online, the acronym "IRL" stands for "in real life", with the meaning "not on the Internet".[24] Sociologists engaged in the study of the Internet have determined that someday, a distinction between online and real-life worlds may seem "quaint", noting that certain types of online activity, such as sexual intrigues, have already made a full transition to complete legitimacy and "reality".[25] The abbreviation "RL" stands for "real life". For example, one can speak of "meeting in RL" someone whom one has met in a chat or on an Internet forum. It may also be used to express an inability to use the Internet for a time due to "RL problems".


document_title: Transfer window

question_text: when did the transfer window start in england

text: Transfer window

text: Current schedules and exceptions[edit]

text: FIFA regulates in general that there shall be two windows, a longer one (max. twelve weeks) in the break between seasons and a shorter one (max. one month) in the middle of a season. The specific periods depend on the league's season cycle and are determined by the national football authorities.[5]

text: Most major European leagues commence in the second half of the year (e.g. August or September) and stretch over two calendar years to the first half of the next year (e.g. May), resulting in a close season window in the Summer ending in August, and a mid-season window in January.

text: The periods are different when a league runs throughout a single calendar year, as in most Nordic countries due to weather constraints, Major League Soccer due to both weather and competition from other locally popular sports (notably basketball and American football), or as the traditional season in the Southern Hemisphere. The first window generally opens from 1 March until midnight of 30 April, followed by the in-season window from 1 to 31 August.

text:
Pre-season window

Mid-season window

Associations

1 January – 31 March

14 July – 13 August

Brazil[6]

6 January – 31 March

21 July – 18 August

Japan[7]

8 January – 31 March

15 July – 11 August

Sweden[8]

12 January – 4 April

19 July – 15 August

Norway[9]

7 February – 1 May

10 July – 8 August

United States and Canada[10]

1 March – 30 April

1–31 August

Finland[11]

1 June – 18 August

1 January – 19 January

Albania[12]

1 June – 18 August

1 January – 19 January

Italy[13]

1 June – 31 August

1 January – 2 February

France,[14] Germany,[15] Spain[16]

17 May – 9 August

1 January – 31 January

England[17] [18][19]

9 June – 1 September

1 January – 1 February

Scotland[20]

11 June – 1 September

5–31 January

Turkey,[21] Denmark[22]

11 June – 2 September

3–31 January

Netherlands[23]

16 June – 8 September

25 January – 22 February

Bulgaria and Romania[24]

17 June – 6 September

28 January – 28 February

Russia[25][not in citation given]

27 July – 18 October

4 January – 2 February

Australia[26]

1 December – 31 January

1–30 June

Kenya[27]

text: Premier League clubs in England voted to end the summer window on the Thursday before the start of the season - on August 9 in 2018, instead of August 31.  Because FIFA demands the window must be open for 12 weeks, the window will open around May 17, shortly after the final games of the season on May 13. Clubs will be able to sell players until August 31 but not buy replacements after the deadline of August 9.

text: Although, in England, transfers between clubs in the same league can take place as soon as the last competitive fixtures for the season have been played, many transfers will not be completed until 1 July because many players' contracts expire on 30 June. International transfers into the English leagues (including the Premier League) cannot be made until the window has opened on 17 May. Outside the transfer window, a club may still sign players on an emergency basis, usually if they have no goalkeeper available. Special dispensation from their competition's governing body, for example the Premier League, is required. The transfer window restriction does not apply to clubs below the National League division.[17][28]

text: If the last day of a transfer window is on a weekend, the deadline can be extended to the following Monday at the request of those involved for business reasons.[29] The first shift of the deadline since its inception took place in summer 2008, when the deadline was extended by 24 hours to fall on Monday 1 September at midnight.[30][31] The transfer deadline in England was similarly extended to 5 pm 1 September 2009, due to the August Bank Holiday. The German football league announced an extension of the January 2009 deadline to 2 February.[32]

text: Free agents can be signed by a club at any time during the season, if they had been released by their previous club before the end of the transfer window.[29] A club can request to sign a player on emergency basis, e.g. if several goalkeepers are injured at the same time.[29] Outside the transfer window in England, once seven days have passed following the end of a transfer window, clubs from the English Football League (Regulation 53.3.4)[33] and (provided the player is not registered with a club from any league below the National League division) National League division[34] (Rule 6.6.4) can loan in players i) in the first half of the season, until 5.00pm on the fourth Thursday in November and ii) in the second half of the season, until 5.00pm on the fourth Thursday in March. An existing loan deal can be made permanent at any time outside the transfer window.[35]

text: The day upon which a window closes is known as transfer deadline day, and is usually one of the busiest days of the window, generating a flurry of transfers, often because a number of interdependent transfers are completed resembling a housing chain, generating much media interest.

text: Calls to end the transfer window[edit]

text: Steve Coppell, former manager of Reading in England's Premier League, and others have called for the transfer window to be scrapped in favour of the previous system, where deals could be struck throughout the season until the closing weeks.[36] Coppell said that the transfer window breeds panic and encourages "scurrilous" transfer activity adding that "I cannot see the logic in a transfer window. It brings on a fire-sale mentality, causes unrest via the media and means clubs buy too many players" adding that "The old system, where if you had a problem you could look at loans or make a short-term purchase, was far better than this system we have at the moment".[37] Former England Manager Sven-Göran Eriksson has also questioned the value of the transfer window, commenting: "You do wonder at times if it is right to have a window, it was easier when it was open all the time and perhaps fairer for the players. I am sure much of the business being done on the last day is a little bit desperate and that is not right. I think it was better before, but then I am old".[38]

text: In January 2013 Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger asked for the January transfer window to be limited to two transfers per window and claimed it is "unfair" in its current form. He cited Newcastle United transfer activity as an example.[39] The following year, Wenger hit out at Manchester United's £37m purchase of Juan Mata from rivals Chelsea. Wenger argued that the transfer was unfair because United and Chelsea had already played each other twice during the season, but United would still have to play Arsenal, and said that "the rules should be adapted more for fairness".[40] Manchester City manager Manuel Pellegrini backed the sentiment of Wenger, disagreeing that a player "can go from one team to another team in the same league at this part of the year" and also said that the winter transfer window was unbalanced in favour of big clubs, saying "a club with money can take the best players from the other teams".[41][42]

text: Former Crystal Palace manager Alan Pardew questioned why the Premier League transfer window remains open after the start of the season after Arsenal made a bid for midfielder Yohan Cabaye during his time as Newcastle United manager in August 2013.[43]

text: In January 2015, FIFPro said that the current transfer window system is "failing football and its players", one of the main issues being that players are released from clubs without explanation or compensation.[44]


document_title: List of Olympic medalists in curling

question_text: who won the gold in men's curling at the olympics

question_tokens: who won the gold in men 's curling at the olympics

text: List of Olympic medalists in curling

text: Medalists[edit]

text: Men[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1924 Chamonix
details
 Great Britain (GBR)1
William Jackson
Robin Welsh
Thomas Murray
Laurence Jackson
D. G. Astley
 Sweden (SWE)
Johan Petter Åhlén
Carl August Kronlund
Ture Ödlund
Carl Wilhelm Petersén
Carl Axel Pettersson
Erik Severin
Karl Wahlberg
Victor Wetterström
 France (FRA)
Henri Cournollet
Georges André
Armand Bénédic
Pierre Canivet
Robert Planque
Henri Aldebert

1928–1994
not included in the Olympic programme

1998 Nagano
details
 Switzerland (SUI)
Patrick Hürlimann
Patrik Lörtscher
Daniel Müller
Diego Perren
Dominic Andres
 Canada (CAN)
Mike Harris
Richard Hart
Collin Mitchell
George Karrys
Paul Savage
 Norway (NOR)
Eigil Ramsfjell
Jan Thoresen
Stig-Arne Gunnestad
Tore Torvbråten
Anthon Grimsmo

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Norway (NOR)
Pål Trulsen
Lars Vågberg
Flemming Davanger
Bent Ånund Ramsfjell
Torger Nergård
 Canada (CAN)
Kevin Martin
Don Walchuk
Carter Rycroft
Don Bartlett
Ken Tralnberg
 Switzerland (SUI)
Andreas Schwaller
Christof Schwaller
Markus Eggler
Damian Grichting
Marco Ramstein

2006 Turin
details
 Canada (CAN)
Brad Gushue
Mark Nichols
Russ Howard
Jamie Korab
Mike Adam
 Finland (FIN)
Markku Uusipaavalniemi
Wille Mäkelä
Kalle Kiiskinen
Teemu Salo
Jani Sullanmaa
 United States (USA)
Pete Fenson
Shawn Rojeski
Joseph Polo
John Shuster
Scott Baird

2010 Vancouver
details
 Canada (CAN)
Kevin Martin
John Morris
Marc Kennedy
Ben Hebert
Adam Enright
 Norway (NOR)
Thomas Ulsrud
Torger Nergård
Christoffer Svae
Håvard Vad Petersson
Thomas Løvold
 Switzerland (SUI)
Ralph Stöckli
Jan Hauser
Markus Eggler
Simon Strübin
Toni Müller

2014 Sochi
details
 Canada (CAN)
Brad Jacobs
Ryan Fry
E. J. Harnden
Ryan Harnden
Caleb Flaxey
 Great Britain (GBR)
David Murdoch
Greg Drummond
Scott Andrews
Michael Goodfellow
Tom Brewster
 Sweden (SWE)
Niklas Edin
Sebastian Kraupp
Fredrik Lindberg
Viktor Kjäll
Oskar Eriksson

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 United States (USA)
John Shuster
Tyler George
Matt Hamilton
John Landsteiner
Joe Polo
 Sweden (SWE)
Niklas Edin
Oskar Eriksson
Rasmus Wranå
Christoffer Sundgren
Henrik Leek
 Switzerland (SUI)
Benoît Schwarz
Claudio Pätz
Peter de Cruz
Valentin Tanner
Dominik Märki

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Canada
3
2
0
5

2
 Norway
1
1
1
3

3
 Great Britain
1
1
0
2

4
  Switzerland
1
0
3
4

5
 United States
1
0
1
2

6
 Sweden
0
2
1
3

7
 Finland
0
1
0
1

8
 France
0
0
1
1

Total
7
7
7
21

text: Women[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1998 Nagano
details
 Canada (CAN)
Sandra Schmirler
Jan Betker
Joan McCusker
Marcia Gudereit
Atina Ford
 Denmark (DEN)
Helena Blach Lavrsen
Margit Pörtner
Dorthe Holm
Trine Qvist
Jane Bidstrup
 Sweden (SWE)
Elisabet Gustafson
Katarina Nyberg
Louise Marmont
Elisabeth Persson
Margaretha Lindahl

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Great Britain (GBR)
Rhona Martin
Deborah Knox
Fiona MacDonald
Janice Rankin
Margaret Morton
 Switzerland (SUI)
Luzia Ebnöther
Mirjam Ott
Tanya Frei
Laurence Bidaud
Nadia Röthlisberger
 Canada (CAN)
Kelley Law
Julie Skinner
Georgina Wheatcroft
Diane Nelson
Cheryl Noble

2006 Turin
details
 Sweden (SWE)
Anette Norberg
Eva Lund
Cathrine Lindahl
Anna Svärd
Ulrika Bergman
 Switzerland (SUI)
Mirjam Ott
Binia Beeli
Valeria Spälty
Michèle Moser
Manuela Kormann
 Canada (CAN)
Shannon Kleibrink
Amy Nixon
Glenys Bakker
Christine Keshen
Sandra Jenkins

2010 Vancouver
details
 Sweden (SWE)
Anette Norberg
Eva Lund
Cathrine Lindahl
Anna Le Moine
Kajsa Bergström
 Canada (CAN)
Cheryl Bernard
Susan O'Connor
Carolyn Darbyshire
Cori Bartel
Kristie Moore
 China (CHN)
Wang Bingyu
Liu Yin
Yue Qingshuang
Zhou Yan
Liu Jinli

2014 Sochi
details
 Canada (CAN)
Jennifer Jones
Kaitlyn Lawes
Jill Officer
Dawn McEwen
Kirsten Wall
 Sweden (SWE)
Margaretha Sigfridsson
Maria Prytz
Christina Bertrup
Maria Wennerström
Agnes Knochenhauer
 Great Britain (GBR)
Eve Muirhead
Anna Sloan
Vicki Adams
Claire Hamilton
Lauren Gray

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Sweden (SWE)
Anna Hasselborg
Sara McManus
Agnes Knochenhauer
Sofia Mabergs
Jennie Wåhlin
 South Korea (KOR)
Kim Eun-jung
Kim Kyeong-ae
Kim Seon-yeong
Kim Yeong-mi
Kim Cho-hi
 Japan (JPN)
Satsuki Fujisawa
Chinami Yoshida
Yumi Suzuki
Yurika Yoshida
Mari Motohashi

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Sweden
3
1
1
5

2
 Canada
2
1
2
5

3
 Great Britain
1
0
1
2

4
  Switzerland
0
2
0
2

5
 Denmark
0
1
0
1

 South Korea
0
1
0
1

7
 China
0
0
1
1

 Japan
0
0
1
1

Total
6
6
6
18

text: Mixed doubles[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Canada (CAN)
Kaitlyn Lawes
John Morris
 Switzerland (SUI)
Jenny Perret
Martin Rios
 Norway (NOR)
Kristin Skaslien
Magnus Nedregotten

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Canada
1
0
0
1

2
  Switzerland
0
1
0
1

3
 Norway
0
0
1
1

Total
1
1
1
3

text: Notes[edit]

text: ^ The members of the 1924 British team vary depending on the source. William Jackson, Robin Welsh, Thomas Murray and Laurence Jackson are listed as the medallists by the British Olympic Association and International Society of Olympic Historians.[11][12] The Herald reports that those four are the only British curlers that played, and they received gold medals and certificates.[3] However, the IOC database omits Laurence Jackson and includes T. Aikman, D. G. Astley, W. Brown, R. Cousin and J. McLeod.[13] According to The Herald, the IOC believes that those five also received medals.[3] The World Curling Federation's list agrees with the BOA, but also lists John T. Robertson Aikman [incorrectly] as an alternate.[14]

text: Athlete medal leaders[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Morris, JohnJohn Morris
 Canada (CAN)
2010, 2018
2
0
0
2

Norberg, AnetteAnette Norberg
 Sweden (SWE)
2006, 2010
2
0
0
2

Lawes, KaitlynKaitlyn Lawes
 Canada (CAN)
2014, 2018
2
0
0
2

Lund, EvaEva Lund
 Sweden (SWE)
2006, 2010
2
0
0
2

Lindahl, CathrineCathrine Lindahl
 Sweden (SWE)
2006, 2010
2
0
0
2

Le Moine, AnnaAnna Le Moine
 Sweden (SWE)
2006, 2010
2
0
0
2

Knochenhauer, AgnesAgnes Knochenhauer
 Sweden (SWE)
2014, 2018
1
1
0
2

Martin, KevinKevin Martin
 Canada (CAN)
2002, 2010
1
1
0
2

Nergård, TorgerTorger Nergård
 Norway (NOR)
2002, 2010
1
1
0
2

Shuster, JohnJohn Shuster
 United States (USA)
2006, 2018
1
0
1
2

Polo, JoeJoe Polo
 United States (USA)
2006, 2018
1
0
1
2

Ott, MirjamMirjam Ott
 Switzerland (SUI)
2002, 2006
0
2
0
2

Edin, NiklasNiklas Edin
 Sweden (SWE)
2014, 2018
0
1
1
2

Eriksson, OskarOskar Eriksson
 Sweden (SWE)
2014, 2018
0
1
1
2


document_title: Major League Baseball wild card

question_text: when did the wild card start in mlb

question_tokens: when did the wild card start in mlb

text: Major League Baseball wild card

text: One wild card per league (1994–2011)[edit]

text: From 1969 through 1993, division leaders in each league advanced to the League Championship Series, with the winners of each LCS meeting in the World Series. However, an expanding number of teams over the years made making the playoffs increasingly difficult. The new system was instituted in 1994 (but first used in 1995 because a players strike canceled the 1994 playoffs) when Major League Baseball expanded from two to three divisions per league. In the new three-division leagues, each league had four teams in the playoffs. In addition to the three division winners, a wild-card team made the playoffs as the fourth seed. This was the team with the most wins amongst non-division winners. The wild-card matchup was played in the first round between the League leader in wins and the wild-card team, unless both teams were in the same division, which resulted in the wild card facing the second-best division winner in the league.

text: Historic anomalies[edit]

text: A "wild card" rule was used in the 1981 season after a players' strike wiped out the "middle third" of the season. The owners decided that the winners (in each division) of either "half" of the abbreviated season would make playoffs, with the caveat that if the same team won both halves then the team from the division with the second-best record from the second half would enter the playoffs as a wild card. However, the wild-card rule was not actually used since all four divisions had different first half and second-half winners.  As a result of the hastily contrived format, the Cincinnati Reds finished the regular season with the best record in all of baseball (66-42 .611) but failed to qualify for the playoffs because they finished 0.5 game behind the Dodgers in the first half and 1.5 games behind the Astros in the second half.  The Astros finished 8 games back in the first half and the Dodgers 6 back in the second.

text: Two wild cards per league (2012–present)[edit]

text:
On November 17, 2011, MLB announced that it would be adding two wild-card teams to the postseason.[1]
The two wild-card teams in each league face each other in a one-game playoff. The winner of this game advances to meet the top seed in the Division Series. The revised playoff system began with the 2012 season.[2]

text: Wild-card winners by year and by most wild-card titles[edit]

text: For each league's list of wild-card winners by year and teams with most wild-card titles, see:

text:
List of American League Wild Card winners
List of National League Wild Card winners

text: Combined postseason series record as wild-card winners[edit]

text:
Wild-card team

Series record*

World Series wins

Playoff losses

Arizona Diamondbacks

1–1

2017 NLDS

Atlanta Braves

0–2

2010 NLDS, 2012 NLWC

Baltimore Orioles

2–3

1996 ALCS, 2012 ALDS, 2016 ALWC

Boston Red Sox

6–6

2004 World Series

1998 ALDS, 1999 ALCS, 2003 ALCS, 2005 ALDS, 2008 ALCS, 2009 ALDS

Chicago Cubs

2–2

1998 NLDS, 2015 NLCS

Cincinnati Reds

0–1

2013 NLWC

Cleveland Indians

0–1

2013 ALWC

Colorado Rockies

2–4

1995 NLDS, 2007 World Series, 2009 NLDS, 2017 NLWC

Detroit Tigers

2–1

2006 World Series

Houston Astros

4–3

2004 NLCS, 2005 World Series, 2015 ALDS

Kansas City Royals

3–1

2014 World Series

Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim

3–0

2002 World Series

Los Angeles Dodgers

0–2

1996 NLDS, 2006 NLDS

Miami Marlins

6–0

1997 World Series, 2003 World Series

Milwaukee Brewers

0–1

2008 NLDS

Minnesota Twins

0–1

2017 ALWC

New York Mets

3–3

1999 NLCS, 2000 World Series, 2016 NLWC

New York Yankees

3–6

1995 ALDS, 1997 ALDS, 2007 ALDS, 2010 ALCS, 2015 ALWC, 2017 ALCS

Oakland Athletics

0–2

2001 ALDS, 2014 ALWC

Pittsburgh Pirates

1–3

2013 NLDS, 2014 NLWC, 2015 NLWC

San Francisco Giants

6–2

2014 World Series

2002 World Series, 2016 NLDS

Seattle Mariners

1–1

2000 ALCS

St. Louis Cardinals

5–2

2011 World Series

2001 NLDS, 2012 NLCS

Tampa Bay Rays

1–2

2011 ALDS, 2013 ALDS

Texas Rangers

0–1

2012 ALWC

Toronto Blue Jays

2–1

2016 ALCS

text: (*) – Counts one-game wild-card playoff in the statistics.

text: Notable wild-card team achievements[edit]

text:
The following wild-card teams have won the World Series: the Florida Marlins, in 1997 and 2003; the Anaheim Angels, in 2002; the Boston Red Sox, in 2004; the St. Louis Cardinals, in 2011; and the San Francisco Giants, in 2014. Thus, three consecutive titles, from 2002 to 2004, were won by a wild card.
A wild-card team appeared in the World Series each year from 2002 to 2007.
So far, the 2002 World Series and the 2014 World Series have been the only times when both teams were wild cards.
The Baltimore Orioles, in 1996, were the first wild-card team to win a Division Series.
The Marlins, in 1997, were the first wild-card team to reach the World Series and the first to win the World Series. By winning again in 2003, they became the first team to win the World Series twice as a wild card. The Marlins are also the only team to win the World Series without ever winning a division title.
The Red Sox have been a wild card seven times, while the New York Yankees' total is five. The Cardinals, the Houston Astros, the Colorado Rockies, and the Pittsburgh Pirates have been a wild card three times each.
The Houston Astros were the first team to have won a wild card in different leagues. NL (2004-2005) and AL (2015)
The following teams have qualified as a wild card in consecutive years: the Red Sox (1998-1999, 2003-2005, 2008-2009), the Astros (2004-2005), the New York Mets (1999-2000), the Cardinals (2011-2012), and the Pirates (2013-2015).


document_title: List of best Major League Baseball season win-loss records

question_text: mlb record for most wins in a season

question_tokens: mlb record for most wins in a season

text: Season records[edit]

text: The following teams finished the season with a .700 winning percentage or higher.

text: Since the season was expanded to 162 games in 1961, only two teams have managed a winning percentage greater than .700 (which requires 114 wins).  These two are the 1998 New York Yankees and the 2001 Seattle Mariners.

text:
NL = National League
AL = American League
AA = American Association

text:
Season

Franchise

League

Wins

Losses

Pct.

Finish

1906
Chicago Cubs
NL
116
36
.763
Lost 1906 World Series

1902
Pittsburgh Pirates
NL
103
36
.741
National League Champions

1886
Chicago White Stockings
NL
90
34
.726
National League Champions

1909
Pittsburgh Pirates
NL
110
42
.724
Won 1909 World Series

1954
Cleveland Indians
AL
111
43
.721
Lost 1954 World Series

2001
Seattle Mariners
AL
116
46
.716
Lost 2001 ALCS

1927
New York Yankees
AL
110
44
.714
Won 1927 World Series

1886
Detroit Wolverines
NL
87
36
.707
2nd place in National League

1897
Boston Beaneaters
NL
93
39
.705
Lost 1897 Temple Cup

1907
Chicago Cubs
NL
107
45
.704
Won 1907 World Series

1931
Philadelphia Athletics
AL
107
45
.704
Lost 1931 World Series

1998
New York Yankees
AL
114
48
.704
Won 1998 World Series

1887
St. Louis Browns
AA
95
40
.704
Lost 1887 World Series

1939
New York Yankees
AL
106
45
.702
Won 1939 World Series

text: Other teams[edit]

text: Prior to 1886, teams played .700 ball or better over shorter schedules, where there is much less of the "evening out" effect of a lengthier season.

text: For example, the Chicago White Stockings won the National League's first pennant in 1876 with a 52-14 record (.788), and won the 1880 NL pennant with a 67-17 record (.798), which stands as the overall percentage record between the National or the American League. The White Stockings' 1880 record would project to a record of 129-33 under the modern schedule of 162 games, while Pythagorean expectation based on the White Stockings' results (538 runs scored, 317 runs allowed) and a 162-game schedule would translate to a record of 120-42.

text: The all-time best single season record belongs to the Cincinnati Red Stockings, who posted baseball's only perfect record at 67-0 (57-0 against National Association of Base Ball Players clubs) in 1869. Their record would stretch to 81-0 across the 1870 season before losing 8-7 in eleven innings to the Brooklyn Atlantics in Brooklyn on June 14.[1][2]

text: The second-best record belongs to the 1875 Boston Red Stockings of the National Association, who finished with a record of 71-8 (.899), but the status of the National Association as a major league has long been disputed. The Red Stockings record would project to 146-16 under the modern schedule of 162 games, while Pythagorean expectation based on the Red Stockings results (831 runs scored, 343 runs allowed) and the modern 162-game schedule would translate to a record of 138-24.

text: The National Association folded at the end of 1875, and the Red Stockings, who had won the last four pennants, joined the National League for 1876, being renamed the Red Caps. The team went 39-31 for a fourth-place finish in 1876 before winning the 1877 and 1878 pennants with records of 42-18 and 41-19.

text: The third-best record belongs to the St. Louis Maroons of the 1884 Union Association, who finished with a record of 94-19 (.832), but the Union Association was quite lopsided in talent distribution (team owner Henry Lucas was also league president, an obvious conflict-of-interest situation which is now banned, and bought all the best available players for his franchise), generally disorganized (six teams played close to full schedules, another four teams folded and one relocated during the course of the season), and poorly scheduled. The Maroons' record would project to 135-27 under the modern schedule of 162 games, while Pythagorean expectation based on the Maroons' results (887 runs scored, 429 runs allowed) and a 162-game schedule would translate to a record of 131-31, but these results are of questionable merit.

text: The Union Association folded at the end of 1884, and the Maroons joined the National League for 1885. Playing against stiffer competition, they went 36-72 in 1885, and 43-79 in 1886, finishing in last and sixth in both seasons. In 1887, the Maroons relocated to Indianapolis and became the Indianapolis Hoosiers, playing three more seasons below .500 before folding.


document_title: The Death of Captain America

question_text: who takes captain america's place when he died

question_tokens: who takes captain america 's place when he died

text: The Death of Captain America

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: The Death of the Dream[edit]

text: In the aftermath of Civil War, Captain America is taken into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody where he is assassinated per the order of the Red Skull. Crossbones snipes at him while Sharon Carter (Agent 13; Cap's girlfriend), who has been brainwashed by Doctor Faustus, posing as a S.H.I.E.L.D. psychiatrist, delivers the killing shot. Overwhelmed with guilt, S.H.I.E.L.D. director Tony Stark and Black Widow hunt Captain America's murderers. Falcon, Captain America's old partner, follows his own leads to find the killers. Meanwhile, Bucky Barnes decides to kill Tony Stark, blaming him for Captain America's death.

text: The Burden of Dreams[edit]

text: After receiving a letter written by Steve Rogers telling him that the Captain America legacy should continue, and look out for Bucky, Stark shows Bucky Barnes the letter and proposes to make him the new Captain America. Bucky agrees on the condition that he can be an independent agent who doesn't answer to Stark, S.H.I.E.L.D., or the Initiative. The Red Skull fakes the death of Aleksander Lukin, whose mind he inhabits, begins using Kronas Corporation's vast holdings to economically cripple the United States, before having S.H.I.E.L.D. agents brainwashed by Doctor Faustus open fire on crowds of protesters in front of the White House. The Red Skull continues his assault by engineering a riot via the placing of Kronas security troops and utilizing drugged water in a protest on the Lincoln Monument. The Skull also kidnaps Sharon Carter, who now knows that she is pregnant with Steve Rogers' child.

text: The Man Who Bought America[edit]

text: All of the Red Skull's actions benefit his puppet politician, Gordon Wright, who quickly becomes a popular third party Presidential candidate. Once elected, Wright will lead the country directly into a police state secretly controlled by the Red Skull.

text: The Skull also plans to transfer his consciousness into Sharon's unborn child, apparently sired by Steve Rogers himself and potentially having inherited his Project Rebirth enhancements.

text: Both schemes fail because of the impatience and incompetence of the Skull's daughter — her near-fatal attack on Sharon Carter causes her to lose the baby, and she intentionally botches her pseudo-assassination of Gordon Wright by attempting to kill him in earnest. Faustus has surreptitiously tampered with Sharon's programming, allowing her to rebel, and before escaping shoots Lukin to death. Black Widow and the Falcon lead a S.H.I.E.L.D. raid at the Red Skull's compound. Most of the Skull's agents are captured. The Red Skull escapes however; his consciousness is transferred from Lukin to one of the robot bodies used by Arnim Zola.

text: Collected editions[edit]

text: The story arc is collected in three trade paperbacks and one Marvel Omnibus: –

text:
Captain America: The Death of Captain America, Vol. 1 – The Death of the Dream (ISBN 0785124233)
Captain America: The Death of Captain America, Vol. 2 – The Burden of Dreams (ISBN 0785124241)
Captain America: The Death of Captain America, Vol. 3 – The Man Who Bought America (ISBN 0785129707)
Captain America: The Death Of Captain America Omnibus (ISBN 0785138064)

text: Reception[edit]

text: Captain America #25 which depicted Steve Rogers' death was the highest selling comic of March 2007 with preorder sales of 290,514 which was double the sales of the Mighty Avengers #1 in the same period.[1] The Death of Captain America was reported in ABC News, where Bryan Robinson paralleled the events to the Post-September 11 World and Iraq.[2]

text: Novel[edit]

text: The storyline was adapted into a novel by comics writer Larry Hama in March 2014 to tie in the release of Captain America: The Winter Soldier and features Sharon Carter, Bucky Barnes. Black Widow, and Falcon as central characters.[citation needed]