document_title: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre

question_text: when did the original texas chainsaw massacre movie come out

text: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre

text: Plot

text: Sally Hardesty (Marilyn Burns) and her paraplegic brother, Franklin (Paul A. Partain), travel with three friends, Jerry (Allen Danziger), Kirk (William Vail), and Pam (Teri McMinn), to visit the grave of the Hardestys' grandfather to investigate reports of vandalism and grave robbing. Afterwards, they decide to visit the old Hardesty family homestead. Along the way, they pick up a hitchhiker (Edwin Neal) who talks about his family who worked at the old slaughterhouse. He borrows Franklin's pocket-knife and cuts himself, then takes a Polaroid picture of the others and demands money for it. When they refuse to pay, he burns the photo and slashes Franklin's arm with a straight razor. The group forces him out of the van and drive on. They stop at a gas station to refuel, but the proprietor (Jim Siedow) tells them that the pumps are empty.

text: They continue toward the homestead, intending to return to the gas station once it has received a fuel delivery. When they arrive, Franklin tells Kirk and Pam about a local swimming-hole and the couple head off to find it. They find the swimming-hole dried up but hear a generator running in the distance. They stumble upon a nearby house. Kirk calls out, asking for gas, while Pam waits on a swing in the yard. After Kirk receives no answer, he enters through the unlocked door, whereupon Leatherface (Gunnar Hansen) appears and kills him with a hammer. Pam enters soon after and trips into a room filled with furniture made from human bones. She attempts to flee, but Leatherface catches her and impales her on a meathook, making her watch as he butchers Kirk with a chainsaw. Jerry heads out to look for Pam and Kirk at sunset. He finds the couple's blanket outside the nearby house. He investigates and finds Pam, still alive, inside a freezer. Before he can react, Leatherface kills him and stuffs Pam back into the freezer.

text: With darkness falling, Sally and Franklin set out to find their friends. As they near the neighboring house and call out, Leatherface lunges from the darkness and kills Franklin with a chainsaw. Sally runs toward the house and finds the desiccated remains of an elderly couple in an upstairs room. She escapes from Leatherface by jumping through a second-floor window and flees to the gas station. Leatherface disappears into the night. The proprietor calms her with offers of help but then ties her up, gags her and forces her into his truck. He drives to the house, arriving at the same time as the hitchhiker, now revealed as Leatherface's brother. When the pair bring Sally inside, the hitchhiker recognizes her and taunts her.

text: The men torment the bound and gagged Sally while Leatherface, now dressed as a woman, serves dinner. Leatherface and the hitchhiker bring Grandpa (John Dugan), one of the desiccated bodies seen earlier, down from upstairs. He is revealed to be alive when he sucks blood from a cut in Sally's finger. During the night, they decide that Grandpa, the best killer in the old slaughterhouse, should kill Sally. He tries to hit her with a hammer but is too weak. In the ensuing confusion, she breaks free, leaps through a window, and flees to the road. Leatherface and the hitchhiker give chase, but the latter is run over and killed by a passing semi-trailer truck. Armed with his chainsaw, Leatherface attacks the truck when the driver stops to help; the driver knocks down Leatherface with a pipe wrench, causing the chainsaw to cut his leg. The driver flees, and Sally escapes in the back of a passing pickup truck as Leatherface dances maniacally in the road with his chainsaw.

text: Production

text: Development

text: The concept for The Texas Chain Saw Massacre arose in the early 1970s while Tobe Hooper was working as an assistant film director at the University of Texas at Austin and as a documentary cameraman.[3] He had already developed a story involving the elements of isolation, the woods, and darkness.[4] He credited the graphic coverage of violence by San Antonio news outlets as one inspiration for the film[5] and based elements of the plot on serial killer Ed Gein in 1950s Wisconsin;[6] Gein inspired other horror films such as Psycho (1960) and The Silence of the Lambs (1991).[7][8][9][10] During development, Hooper used the working titles of Headcheese and Leatherface.[11][12]

text:
I definitely studied Gein... but I also noticed a murder case in Houston at the time, a serial murderer you probably remember named Elmer Wayne Henley. He was a young man who recruited victims for an older homosexual man. I saw some news report where Elmer Wayne... said, "I did these crimes, and I'm gonna stand up and take it like a man." Well, that struck me as interesting, that he had this conventional morality at that point. He wanted it known that, now that he was caught, he would do the right thing. So this kind of moral schizophrenia is something I tried to build into the characters.

— Kim Henkel[13][14]

tag: div

text: Hooper has cited changes in the cultural and political landscape as central influences on the film. His intentional misinformation, that the "film you are about to see is true", was a response to being "lied to by the government about things that were going on all over the world", including Watergate, the 1973 oil crisis, and "the massacres and atrocities in the Vietnam War".[5] The "lack of sentimentality and the brutality of things" that Hooper noticed while watching the local news, whose graphic coverage was epitomized by "showing brains spilled all over the road", led to his belief that "man was the real monster here, just wearing a different face, so I put a literal mask on the monster in my film".[8] The idea of using a chainsaw as the murder weapon came to Hooper while he was in the hardware section of a busy store, contemplating how to speed his way through the crowd.[9]

text: Hooper and Kim Henkel cowrote the screenplay and formed Vortex, Inc.[15] with Henkel as president and Hooper as vice president.[16] They asked Bill Parsley, a friend of Hooper, to provide funding. Parsley formed a company named MAB, Inc. through which he invested $60,000 in the production. In return, MAB owned 50% of the film and its profits.[17] Production manager Ron Bozman told most of the cast and crew that he would have to defer part of their salaries until after it was sold to a distributor. Vortex made the idea more attractive by awarding them a share of its potential profits, ranging from 0.25 to 6%, similar to mortgage points. The cast and crew were not informed that Vortex owned only 50%, which meant their points were worth half of the assumed value.[16][18]

text: Casting

text: Many of the cast members at the time were relatively unknown actors—Texans who had played roles in commercials, television, and stage shows, as well as performers whom Hooper knew personally, such as Allen Danziger and Jim Siedow.[19][20][21] Involvement in the film propelled some of them into the motion picture industry. The lead role of Sally was given to Marilyn Burns, who had appeared previously on stage and served on the film commission board at UT Austin while studying there.[20] Teri McMinn was a student who worked with local theater companies, including the Dallas Theater Center.[20] Henkel called McMinn to come in for a reading after he spotted her picture in the Austin American-Statesman.[22] For her last call-back he requested that she wear short shorts, which proved to be the most comfortable of all the cast members' costumes.[20]

text: Icelandic-American actor Gunnar Hansen was selected for the role of Leatherface.[23] He regarded Leatherface as being mentally retarded and having never learned to speak properly. To research his character in preparation for his role, Hansen visited a special needs school and watched how the students moved and spoke.[9][24] John Larroquette performed the narration in the opening credits.[25]

text: Filming

text: The primary filming location was an early 1900s farmhouse located on Quick Hill Road near Round Rock, Texas, where the La Frontera development is now located.[26] The small budget and concerns over high-cost equipment rentals meant the crew filmed seven days a week, up to 16 hours a day. The environment was humid[18][27] and the cast and crew found conditions tough; temperatures peaked at 110°F (43 °C) on July 26.[28] Hansen later recalled, "It was 95, 100 degrees every day during filming. They wouldn't wash my costume because they were worried that the laundry might lose it, or that it would change color. They didn't have enough money for a second costume. So I wore that [mask] 12 to 16 hours a day, seven days a week, for a month."[29]

text: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was mainly shot using an Eclair NPR 16mm camera[11][30] with fine-grain, low-speed film that required four times more light than modern digital cameras.[31] Most of the filming took place in the farmhouse, which was filled with furniture constructed from animal bones and a latex material used as upholstery to give the appearance of human skin.[32] The house was not cooled, and there was little ventilation. The crew covered its walls with drops of animal blood obtained from a local slaughterhouse.[5] Art director Robert A. Burns drove around the countryside and collected the remains of cattle and other animals in various stages of decomposition, with which he littered the floors of the house.[32]

text: The special effects were simple and limited by the budget.[33] The on-screen blood was real in some cases,[34] such as the scene in which Leatherface feeds "Grandpa". The crew had difficulty getting the stage blood to come out of its tube, so instead Burns's index finger was cut with a razor.[35] Burns's costume was so drenched with stage blood that it was "virtually solid" by the last day of shooting.[20] The scene in which Leatherface decapitates Kirk with a chainsaw worried actor William Vail (Kirk). After telling Vail to stay still lest he really be killed, Hansen brought the running chainsaw to within 3 inches (8 cm) of Vail's face.[30] A real hammer was used for the climactic scene at the end, with some takes also featuring a mock-up. However, the actor playing Grandpa was aiming for the floor rather than his victim's head.[36] Still, the shoot was somewhat dangerous, with Hooper noting at the wrap party that all cast members had obtained some level of injury. He stated that "everyone hated me by the end of the production" and that "it just took years for them to kind of cool off."[36][37]

text: Post-production

text: The production exceeded its original $60,000 budget during editing.[38] Sources differ on the film's final cost, offering figures between $93,000 and $300,000.[23][39][40][41] A film production group, Pie in the Sky, provided $23,532 in exchange for 19% of Vortex.[42] This left Henkel, Hooper and the rest of the cast and crew with a 40.5% stake.[16] Warren Skaaren, then head of the Texas Film Commission, helped secure the distribution deal with Bryanston Pictures.[17] David Foster, producer of the 1982 horror film The Thing, arranged for a private screening for some of Bryanston Pictures' West Coast executives, and received 1.5% of Vortex's profits and a deferred fee of $500.[16]

text: On August 28, 1974, Louis Peraino of Bryanston agreed to distribute the film worldwide, from which Bozman and Skaaren would receive $225,000 and 35% of the profits. Years later Bozman stated, "We made a deal with the devil, [sigh], and I guess that, in a way, we got what we deserved."[16] They signed the contract with Bryanston and, after the investors recouped their money (with interest),—and after Skaaren, the lawyers, and the accountants were paid—only $8,100 was left to be divided among the 20 cast and crew members.[16] Eventually the producers sued Bryanston for failing to pay them their full percentage of the box office profits. A court judgment instructed Bryanston to pay the filmmakers $500,000, but by then the company had declared bankruptcy. In 1983 New Line Cinema acquired the distribution rights from Bryanston and gave the producers a larger share of the profits.[43]

text: Release

text: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre premiered in Austin, Texas on October 1, 1974, almost a year after filming concluded. It screened nationally in the United States as a Saturday afternoon matinée and its false marketing as a "true story" helped it attract a broad audience.[44][45] For eight years after 1976, it was annually reissued to first-run theaters, promoted by full-page ads.[46] The film eventually grossed more than $30 million in the United States and Canada[47] ($14.4 million in rentals), making it the 12th highest-grossing film initially released in 1974, despite its minuscule budget.[48] Among independent films, it was overtaken in 1978 by John Carpenter's Halloween, which grossed $47 million.[49]

text:
The film which you are about to see is an account of the tragedy which befell a group of five youths, in particular Sally Hardesty and her invalid brother, Franklin. [...]

— The opening crawl falsely suggests that the film is based on true events, a conceit that contributed to its success.

text: Hooper reportedly hoped that the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) would give the complete, uncut release print a "PG" rating due to its minimal amount of visible gore.[50][51][52] Instead, it was originally rated "X". After several minutes were cut, it was resubmitted to the MPAA and received an "R" rating. A distributor apparently restored the offending material, and at least one theater presented the full version under an "R".[53] In San Francisco, cinema-goers walked out of theaters in disgust[54] and, in February 1976, two theaters in Ottawa, Canada, were advised by local police to withdraw the film lest they face morality charges.[55]

text: After its initial British release, including a one-year theatrical run in London,[56] The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was initially banned on the advice of British Board of Film Censors (BBFC) Secretary Stephen Murphy, and subsequently by his successor, James Ferman.[57][58] While the British ban was in force the word "chainsaw" itself was barred from movie titles, forcing imitators to rename their films.[59] In 1998, despite the BBFC ban, Camden London Borough Council granted the film a license.[60] The following year the BBFC passed The Texas Chain Saw Massacre for release with an 18 certificate (indicating that it should not be seen or purchased by a person under 18),[61] and it was broadcast a year later on Channel 4.[62][63]

text: The Australian censors refused to classify the 83-minute version of the film in June 1975;[64] the board similarly refused classification of a 77-minute print in December that year.[65] In 1981, an 83-minute version submitted by Greater Union Organization Film Distributors was again refused registration.[66] It was later submitted by Filmways Australia and approved for an "R" rating in 1984.[67][68] It was banned for periods in many other countries, including Brazil, Chile, Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Singapore, Sweden and West Germany.[69][70][71]

text: Reception

text: Critical response

text: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre received a mixed reaction upon its initial release. Linda Gross of the Los Angeles Times called it "despicable" and described Henkel and Hooper as more concerned with creating a realistic atmosphere than with its "plastic script".[72] Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times said it was "as violent and gruesome and blood-soaked as the title promises", yet praised its acting and technical execution.[73][74] Patrick Taggart of the Austin American-Statesman hailed it as the most important horror film since George A. Romero's Night of the Living Dead (1968).[75] Variety found the picture to be well-made, despite what it called the "heavy doses of gore".[76] John McCarty of Cinefantastique stated that the house featured in the film made the Bates motel "look positively pleasant by comparison".[77] Revisiting the film in his 1976 article "Fashions in Pornography" for Harper's Magazine, Stephen Koch found its sadistic violence to be extreme and unimaginative.[78]

text:
Horror and exploitation films almost always turn a profit if they're brought in at the right price. So they provide a good starting place for ambitious would-be filmmakers who can't get more conventional projects off the ground. The Texas Chainsaw Massacre belongs in a select company (with Night of the Living Dead and Last House on the Left) of films that are really a lot better than the genre requires. Not, however, that you'd necessarily enjoy seeing it.

— Roger Ebert, writing for the Chicago Sun-Times[73]

text: Critics later frequently praised both the film's aesthetic quality and its power. Observing that it managed to be "horrifying without being a bloodbath (you'll see more gore in a Steven Seagal film)", Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle called it "a backwoods masterpiece of fear and loathing".[79] TV Guide thought it was "intelligent" in its "bloodless depiction of violence",[80] while Anton Bitel felt the fact that it was banned in the United Kingdom was a tribute to its artistry. He pointed out how the quiet sense of foreboding at the beginning of the film grows, until the viewer experiences "a punishing assault on the senses".[81] In Hick Flicks: The Rise and Fall of Redneck Cinema, Scott Von Doviak commended its effective use of daylight shots, unusual among horror films, such as the sight of a corpse draped over a tombstone in the opening sequence.[82] Mike Emery of The Austin Chronicle praised the film's "subtle touches"—such as radio broadcasts heard in the background describing grisly murders around Texas—and said that what made it so dreadful was that it never strayed too far from potential reality.[83]

text: It has often been described as one of the scariest films of all time.[84] Rex Reed called it the most terrifying film he had ever seen.[85] Empire described it as "the most purely horrifying horror movie ever made" and called it "never less than totally committed to scaring you witless".[86] Reminiscing about his first viewing of the film, horror director Wes Craven recalled wondering "what kind of Mansonite crazoid" could have created such a thing.[87] It is a work of "cataclysmic terror", in the words of horror novelist Stephen King, who declared, "I would happily testify to its redeeming social merit in any court in the country."[88] Critic Robin Wood found it one of the few horror films to possess "the authentic quality of nightmare".[89] Based on 56 reviews published since 2000, the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 88% of critics gave it a positive review, with an average score of 7.9 out of 10.[90]

text: Cultural impact

text: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre is considered one of the greatest—and most controversial—of horror films,[91][92] and a major influence on the genre.[41][93] In 1999 Richard Zoglin of Time commented that it had "set a new standard for slasher films".[94] The Times listed it as one of the 50 most controversial films of all time.[95] Tony Magistrale believes the film paved the way for horror to be used as a vehicle for social commentary.[96] Describing it as "cheap, grubby and out of control", Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times declared that it "both defines and entirely supersedes the very notion of the exploitation picture".[97] In his book Dark Romance: Sexuality in the Horror Film, David Hogan called it "the most affecting gore thriller of all and, in a broader view, among the most effective horror films ever made ... the driving force of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre is something far more horrible than aberrant sexuality: total insanity."[98][99] According to Bill Nichols, it "achieves the force of authentic art, profoundly disturbing, intensely personal, yet at the same time far more than personal".[100] Leonard Wolf praised the film as "...an exquisite work of art" and compared it to a Greek tragedy, noting the lack of onscreen violence.[101]

text: Leatherface has gained a reputation as a significant character in the horror genre,[102][103] responsible for establishing the use of conventional tools as murder weapons and the image of a large, silent killer devoid of personality.[104][105] Christopher Null of Filmcritic.com said, "In our collective consciousness, Leatherface and his chainsaw have become as iconic as Freddy and his razors or Jason and his hockey mask."[106] Don Sumner called The Texas Chain Saw Massacre a classic that not only introduced a new villain to the horror pantheon but also influenced an entire generation of filmmakers.[107] According to Rebecca Ascher-Walsh of Entertainment Weekly, it laid the foundations for future horror franchises such as Halloween, The Evil Dead, and The Blair Witch Project.[108] Ridley Scott cited it as an inspiration for his 1979 film Alien.[109][110] French director Alexandre Aja credited it as an early influence on his career.[111] Horror filmmaker and heavy metal musician Rob Zombie sees it as a major influence on his art, most notably his 2003 film House of 1000 Corpses.[112]

text: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was selected for the 1975 Cannes Film Festival Directors' Fortnight[56] and London Film Festival.[48] In 1976, it won the Special Jury Prize at the Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival in France.[113] Entertainment Weekly ranked the film sixth on its 2003 list of "The Top 50 Cult Films".[114] In a 2005 Total Film poll, it was selected as the greatest horror film of all time.[91][115] It was named among Time's top 25 horror films in 2007.[116] In 2008 the film ranked number 199 on Empire magazine's list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time".[117] Empire also ranked it 46th in its list of the 50 greatest independent films.[118] In a 2010 Total Film poll, it was again selected as the greatest horror film; the judging panel included veteran horror directors such as John Carpenter, Wes Craven, and George A. Romero.[119] In 2010, as well, The Guardian ranked it number 14 on its list of the top 25 horror films.[120] The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was inducted into the Horror Hall of Fame in 1990, with director Hooper accepting the award,[121] and it is part of the permanent collection of New York City's Museum of Modern Art.[41] In 2012, the film was named by critics in the British Film Institute's Sight & Sound magazine as one of the 250 greatest films.[122]

text: Themes and analysis

text: The underlying themes of the film have been the subject of extensive critical discussion; critics and scholars have interpreted it as a paradigmatic exploitation film in which female protagonists are subjected to brutal, sadistic violence.[123][124] Stephen Prince comments that the horror is "born of the torment of the young woman subjected to imprisonment and abuse amid decaying arms... and mobiles made of human bones and teeth."[125] As with many horror films, it focuses on the "final girl" trope—the heroine and inevitable lone survivor who somehow escapes the horror that befalls the other characters:[126][127] Sally Hardesty is wounded and tortured, yet manages to survive with the help of a male truck driver.[128] Critics argue that even in exploitation films in which the ratio of male and female deaths is roughly equal, the images that linger will be of the violence committed against the female characters.[126][129][130] The specific case of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre provides support for this argument: three men are killed in quick fashion, but one woman is brutally slaughtered—hung on a meathook—and the surviving woman endures physical and mental torture.[131] In 1977, critic Mary Mackey described the meathook scene as probably the most brutal onscreen female death in any commercially distributed film.[132] She placed it in a lineage of violent films that depict women as weak and incapable of protecting themselves.[132]

text: In one study, a group of men were shown five films depicting differing levels of violence against women.[133] On first viewing The Texas Chain Saw Massacre they experienced symptoms of depression and anxiety; however, upon subsequent viewing they found the violence against women less offensive and more enjoyable.[131] Another study, investigating gender-specific perceptions of slasher films, involved 30 male and 30 female university students.[134] One male participant described the screaming, especially Sally's, as the "most freaky thing" in the film.[134]

text: According to Jesse Stommel of Bright Lights Film Journal, the lack of explicit violence in the film forces viewers to question their own fascination with violence that they play a central role in imagining.[135] Nonetheless—citing its feverish camera moves, repeated bursts of light, and auditory pandemonium—Stommel asserts that it involves the audience primarily on a sensory rather than an intellectual level.[135]

text:
Hooper's apocalyptic landscape is... a desert wasteland of dissolution where once vibrant myth is desiccated. The ideas and iconography of Cooper, Bret Harte and Francis Parkman are now transmogrified into yards of dying cattle, abandoned gasoline stations, defiled graveyards, crumbling mansions, and a ramshackle farmhouse of psychotic killers. The Texas Chainsaw Massacre [is]... recognizable as a statement about the dead end of American experience.

— Christopher Sharrett[136]

text: Critic Christopher Sharrett argues that since Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960) and The Birds (1963), the American horror film has been defined by the questions it poses "about the fundamental validity of the American civilizing process",[137] concerns amplified during the 1970s by the "delegitimation of authority in the wake of Vietnam and Watergate".[138] "If Psycho began an exploration of a new sense of absurdity in contemporary life, of the collapse of causality and the diseased underbelly of American Gothic", he writes, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre "carries this exploration to a logical conclusion, addressing many of the issues of Hitchcock's film while refusing comforting closure".[139]

text: Robin Wood characterizes Leatherface and his family as victims of industrial capitalism, their jobs as slaughterhouse workers having been rendered obsolete by technological advances.[140] He states that the picture "brings to focus a spirit of negativity... that seems to lie not far below the surface of the modern collective consciousness".[141] Naomi Merritt explores the film's representation of "cannibalistic capitalism" in relation to Georges Bataille's theory of taboo and transgression.[142] She elaborates on Wood's analysis, stating that the Sawyer family's values "reflect, or correspond to, established and interdependent American institutions... but their embodiment of these social units is perverted and transgressive."[143]

text: In Kim Newman's view, Hooper's presentation of the Sawyer family during the dinner scene parodies a typical American sitcom family: the gas station owner is the bread-winning father figure; the killer Leatherface is depicted as a bourgeois housewife; the hitchhiker acts as the rebellious teenager.[144] Isabel Cristina Pinedo, author of Recreational Terror: Women and the Pleasures of Horror Film Viewing, states, "The horror genre must keep terror and comedy in tension if it is to successfully tread the thin line that separates it from terrorism and parody ... this delicate balance is struck in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre in which the decaying corpse of Grandpa not only incorporates horrific and humorous effects, but actually uses one to exacerbate the other."[145]

text: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre has also been described as "the ultimate pro-vegetarian film" due to its animal rights themes. In a video essay, film critic Rob Ager describes the irony in humans being slaughtered for meat, putting humans in the position of being slaughtered like farm animals. Director Tobe Hooper gave up meat while making the film, and said "In a way I thought the heart of the film was about meat; it’s about the chain of life and killing sentient beings."[146][147]

text: Post-release

text: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre has appeared on various home video formats. In the US, it was first released on videotape and CED in the early 1980s by Wizard Video and Vestron Video.[148][149] The British Board of Film Classification had long since refused a certification for the uncut theatrical version and in 1984 they also refused to certify it for home video, amid a moral panic surrounding "video nasties".[150] After the retirement of BBFC Director James Ferman in 1999, the board passed the film uncut for theatrical and video distribution with an 18 certificate, almost 25 years after the original release.[151] The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was initially released on DVD in October 1998 in the United States,[152] May 2000 in the United Kingdom[153] and 2001 in Australia.

text: In 2005 the film received a 2K scan and full restoration from the original 16mm A/B rolls,[154] which was subsequently released on DVD and Blu-ray. In 2014 an additional, even more extensive 4K restoration, using the original 16mm A/B reversal rolls, was carried out.[155] After a screening in the Directors' Fortnight section of the 2014 Cannes Film Festival,[156] this was also released on DVD and Blu-ray worldwide. Dark Sky Films' US 40th Anniversary Edition was nominated for Best DVD/BD Special Edition Release at the 2015 Saturn Awards.[157]

text: In 1982, shortly after The Texas Chain Saw Massacre established itself as a success on US home video, Wizard Video released a mass-market video game adaptation for the Atari 2600.[158] In the game, the player assumes the role of Leatherface and attempts to murder trespassers while avoiding obstacles such as fences and cow skulls.[158] As one of the first horror-themed video games, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre caused controversy when it was first released due to its violent nature; it sold poorly as a result, because many game stores refused to stock it.[159][160]

text: The film has been followed by seven other films to date, including sequels, prequels and remakes. The first sequel, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 (1986), was considerably more graphic and violent than the original and was banned in Australia for 20 years before it was released on DVD in a revised special edition in October 2006.[161] Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III (1990) was the second sequel to appear, though Hooper did not return to direct due to scheduling conflicts with another film, Spontaneous Combustion.[162] Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation, starring Renée Zellweger and Matthew McConaughey, was released in 1995. While briefly acknowledging the events of the preceding two sequels, its plot makes it a virtual remake of the 1974 original.[163] A straight remake, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, was released by Platinum Dunes and New Line Cinema in 2003.[164] It was followed by a prequel, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning, in 2006. A seventh film, Texas Chainsaw 3D, was released on January 4, 2013.[164] It is a direct sequel to the original 1974 film, with no relation to the 2003 or 2006 films.[165][166] The 2017 prequel, Leatherface will be released exclusively to DirecTV on September 21, 2017, before receiving a wider release on Video on demand and in limited theaters, simultaneously, in North America on October 20, 2017.

text: The Academy Film Archive houses the Texas Chain Saw Massacre collection, which contains over 50 items in a collection representing many original elements of the film.[167]

text: Notes

text: Jump up ^ While the original theatrical release poster and many references to the film render its title as The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, the official spelling is The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, per the film's opening credits. This is also the title under which the film is registered with the U.S. Copyright Office.[2]

tag: ol


document_title: List of largest lakes of the United States by area

question_text: what is the 6th largest lake in the us

question_tokens: what is the 6th largest lake in the us

root

text: The following is a list of the largest 100 lakes of the United States by normal surface area.  The top twenty lakes in size are as listed by the National Atlas of the United States, a publication of the United States Department of the Interior.  The area given is the normal or average area of the lake. The area of some lakes fluctuates substantially.  For those lakes partially in Canada or Mexico the area given for the lake is the total area, not just the part of the lake in the United States. Of the top 100 lakes, 55 are man-made and 45 are natural. Three lakes in the top 100 are primarily salt water.

tag: p

text:
Rank

Name

U.S. states/Canadian provinces/Mexican states

Area

Type

Notes

1

Lake Superior

Michigan-Minnesota-Wisconsin-Ontario

31,700 sq mi

82,103 km2

natural

[1]

2

Lake Huron

Michigan-Ontario

23,000 sq mi

59,570 km2

natural

[2]

3

Lake Michigan

Illinois-Indiana-Michigan-Wisconsin

22,300 sq mi

57,757 km2

natural

[3]

4

Lake Erie

Michigan-New York-Ohio-Ontario-Pennsylvania

9,910 sq mi

25,667 km2

natural

[4]

5

Lake Ontario

New York-Ontario

7,340 sq mi

19,011 km2

natural

[5]

6

Great Salt Lake

Utah

2,117 sq mi

5,483 km2

natural

salt[6]

7

Lake of the Woods

Manitoba-Minnesota-Ontario

1,679 sq mi

4,349 km2

natural

8

Iliamna Lake

Alaska

1,014 sq mi

2,626 km2

natural

9

Lake Oahe

North Dakota-South Dakota

685 sq mi

1,774 km2

man-made

[7]

10

Lake Okeechobee

Florida

662 sq mi

1,715 km2

natural

[8]

11

Lake Pontchartrain

Louisiana

631 sq mi

1,634 km2

natural

salt [9]

12

Lake Sakakawea

North Dakota

520 sq mi

1,347 km2

man-made

13

Lake Champlain

New York-Vermont-Quebec

490 sq mi

1,269 km2

natural

14

Becharof Lake

Alaska

453 sq mi

1,173 km2

natural

15

Lake St. Clair

Michigan - Ontario

440 sq mi

1,140 km2

natural

16

Red Lake

Minnesota

427 sq mi

1,106 km2

natural

[10]

17

Selawik Lake

Alaska

404 sq mi

1,046 km2

natural

18

Fort Peck Lake

Montana

393 sq mi

1,018 km2

man-made

19

Salton Sea

California

347 sq mi

899 km2

man-made

salt[11]

20

Rainy Lake

Minnesota-Ontario

345 sq mi

894 km2

natural

21

Devils Lake

North Dakota

300 sq mi

777 km2

natural

[12][13][14][15]

22

Toledo Bend Reservoir

Louisiana-Texas

284 sq mi

736 km2

man-made

23

Lake Powell

Arizona-Utah

251 sq mi

650 km2

man-made

24

Kentucky Lake

Kentucky-Tennessee

250 sq mi

647 km2

man-made

25

Lake Mead

Arizona-Nevada

247 sq mi

640 km2

man-made

26

Naknek Lake

Alaska

242 sq mi

627 km2

natural

27

Lake Winnebago

Wisconsin

215 sq mi

557 km2

natural

28

Mille Lacs Lake

Minnesota

207 sq mi

536 km2

natural

29

Flathead Lake

Montana

192 sq mi

497 km2

natural

30

Lake Tahoe

California-Nevada

191 sq mi

495 km2

natural

31

Pyramid Lake

Nevada

183 sq mi

474 km2

natural

32

Sam Rayburn Reservoir

Texas

179 sq mi

464 km2

man-made

33

Eufaula Lake

Oklahoma

169 sq mi

438 km2

man-made

34

Lake Marion

South Carolina

165 sq mi

427 km2

man-made

35

Leech Lake

Minnesota

161 sq mi

417 km2

natural

36

Utah Lake

Utah

151 sq mi

391 km2

natural

37

Lake Francis Case

South Dakota

149 sq mi

386 km2

man-made

38

Lake Pend Oreille

Idaho

148 sq mi

383 km2

natural

39

Lake Texoma

Oklahoma-Texas

139 sq mi

360 km2

man-made

40

Yellowstone Lake

Wyoming

136 sq mi

352 km2

natural

41

Falcon Lake

Tamaulipas-Texas

131 sq mi

339 km2

natural

42

Lake Livingston

Texas

130 sq mi

337 km2

man-made

43

Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake

Washington

128 sq mi

332 km2

man-made

44

Lake Clark

Alaska

120 sq mi

311 km2

natural

45

Moosehead Lake

Maine

117 sq mi

303 km2

natural

46

Lake Strom Thurmond

Georgia-South Carolina

111 sq mi

287 km2

man-made

47

Bear Lake

Idaho-Utah

109 sq mi

282 km2

natural

48

Lake Guntersville

Alabama

108 sq mi

280 km2

man-made

49

Lake St. Francis

New York-Ontario-Quebec

105 sq mi

272 km2

man-made

[16]

50

Wheeler Lake

Alabama

105 sq mi

272 km2

man-made

51

Amistad Lake

Coahuila-Texas

102 sq mi

264 km2

man-made

52

Klamath Lake

Oregon

96 sq mi

249 km2

natural

53

Lake Moultrie

South Carolina

94 sq mi

243 km2

man-made

54

Lake Winnibigoshish

Minnesota

91 sq mi

236 km2

natural

55

Lake Barkley

Kentucky-Tennessee

91 sq mi

236 km2

man-made

56

Lake Sharpe

South Dakota

89 sq mi

231 km2

man-made

57

American Falls Reservoir

Idaho

88 sq mi

228 km2

man-made

58

Lake Hartwell

Georgia-South Carolina

87 sq mi

225 km2

man-made

59

Truman Reservoir

Missouri

87 sq mi

225 km2

man-made

60

Lake of the Ozarks

Missouri

86 sq mi

223 km2

man-made

61

Oneida Lake

New York

80 sq mi

207 km2

natural

62

Lake Cumberland

Kentucky

79 sq mi

205 km2

man-made

63

Kerr Lake

North Carolina-Virginia

78 sq mi

202 km2

man-made

64

Calcasieu Lake

Louisiana

77 sq mi

199 km2

natural

65

Lake Murray

South Carolina

75 sq mi

194 km2

man-made

66

Grand Lake o' the Cherokees

Oklahoma

73 sq mi

189 km2

man-made

67

Lake Koocanusa

British Columbia–Montana

73 sq mi

189 km2

man-made

68

Lake Winnipesaukee

New Hampshire

71 sq mi

184 km2

natural

69

Bull Shoals Lake

Arkansas-Missouri

71 sq mi

184 km2

man-made

70

Walter F. George Lake

Alabama-Georgia

71 sq mi

184 km2

man-made

71

Lake Martin

Alabama

69 sq mi

179 km2

man-made

72

Clear Lake

California

68 sq mi

176 km2

natural

73

Robert S. Kerr Lake

Oklahoma

68 sq mi

176 km2

man-made

74

Seneca Lake

New York

68 sq mi

176 km2

natural

75

Pickwick Lake

Alabama-Mississippi-Tennessee

67 sq mi

174 km2

man-made

76

Table Rock Lake

Arkansas-Missouri

67 sq mi

174 km2

man-made

77

Cayuga Lake

New York

67 sq mi

174 km2

natural

78

Flaming Gorge Reservoir

Utah-Wyoming

66 sq mi

171 km2

man-made

79

Lake Vermilion

Minnesota

63 sq mi

163 km2

natural

80

Lake Ouachita

Arkansas

63 sq mi

163 km2

man-made

81

Lake Mattamuskeet

North Carolina

63 sq mi

163 km2

natural

82

Watts Bar Lake

Tennessee

61 sq mi

158 km2

man-made

83

Lake Wallula

Oregon-Washington

61 sq mi

158 km2

man-made

84

Lake Lanier

Georgia

59 sq mi

153 km2

man-made

85

Lake Seminole

Florida-Georgia

58 sq mi

150 km2

man-made

86

Lake Tawakoni

Texas

57 sq mi

148 km2

man-made

87

Elephant Butte Lake

New Mexico

57 sq mi

148 km2

man-made

88

Chickamauga Lake

Tennessee

57 sq mi

148 km2

man-made

89

Grenada Lake

Mississippi

55 sq mi

142 km2

man-made

90

Lake Kissimmee

Florida

55 sq mi

142 km2

natural

91

Lake Dardanelle

Arkansas

54 sq mi

140 km2

man-made

92

Norris Lake

Tennessee

53 sq mi

137 km2

man-made

93

Canyon Ferry Lake

Montana

53 sq mi

137 km2

man-made

94

Lake Chelan

Washington

52 sq mi

135 km2

natural

95

Cedar Creek Lake

Texas

51 sq mi

132 km2

man-made

96

Lake Norman

North Carolina

51 sq mi

132 km2

man-made

97

Sardis Lake

Mississippi

51 sq mi

132 km2

man-made

98

Walker Lake (Nevada)

Nevada

50 sq mi

129 km2

natural

99

Lake McConaughy

Nebraska

56 sq mi

145 km2

man-made

100

Lake George

New York

56 sq mi

145 km2

natural

tag: table

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ One of the Great Lakes; considered the largest lake in the United States by the National Atlas of the United States.

Jump up ^ Although it forms one a single hydrological unit with Lake Michigan (their surfaces are at the same elevation and the water flows in either direction in the channel separating them), they are generally considered distinct lakes, and Lake Michigan is generally considered the largest lake entirely within the United States, as Lake Huron and Lake Superior are binational (shared with Canada).

Jump up ^ One of the Great Lakes.

Jump up ^ One of the Great Lakes.

Jump up ^ One of the Great Lakes.

Jump up ^ If Lake Michigan and Lake Huron are considered the same lake, the largest lake entirely within the United States. Also the largest salt lake in the United States.

Jump up ^ Largest man-made lake (reservoir) by surface area in the United States.

Jump up ^ Largest lake in the South

Jump up ^ Often considered an estuary rather than a lake

Jump up ^ includes both Upper and Lower Red Lake

Jump up ^ highly variable in area

Jump up ^ The area of Devils Lake was taken from the summer 2011 record peak of 1,454.4 ft (443.3 m) MSL.  Devils Lake has experienced severe flooding and has risen more than 31 feet (9.4 m) since 1993. Area has increased by 4 times.

Jump up ^ Devils Lake Elevation-Volume Table

Jump up ^ USGS Devils Lake Flood History

Jump up ^ National Weather Service Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service (NWS AHPS) for Devils Lake at Creel Bay

Jump up ^ Part of St. Lawrence Seaway


document_title: Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul (film)

question_text: who plays the mom in diary of a wimpy kid long haul

text: Plot[edit]

text: One year after the previous film, while at the Corny's family restaurant, the Heffley family — consists of Greg, Rodrick, Frank, and Manny — plans to attend Meemaw's 90th birthday. However, after Greg rescues his younger brother Manny, who got stuck inside a tube in the play area, Greg ends up in a ball pit with a diaper stuck on his hand, startled him. He subsequently becomes infamous after the people around him record him and post the footage on the internet, leading Greg to be dubbed as "Diaper Hands".

text: Later, at the Heffley residence, Greg learns that Player Expo is taking place not very far from Meemaw's house in Indianapolis. Greg's gaming star, Mac Digby, will be attending, and Greg hopes to meet him and get in one of his videos so he will gain popularity. He plans to sneak off from the road trip to attend the Expo without parents' knowledge, however. The Heffley family hits the road, where their devices are immediately confiscated by Susan, who wants the road trip to be "absolutely technology-free."

text: After arriving at a motel, Greg discreetly gets into the Sienna to retrieve his phone and plans to use it. Later, when Greg and Rodrick are relaxing in the hot tub, Rodrick hears a notification from Greg's phone and discovers his plans to go to Player Expo. Greg discourages Rodrick from telling Susan, saying that they had a rock band video game tournament there that Rodrick could participate in. Liking the idea, Rodrick opts to go with Greg to the Expo.

text: Greg later encounters a family, whom he nicknames "the Beardos" due to the father's long beard, after being annoyed by a loud noise created by the Beardo siblings, who are playing with a cart, and storms out of the room in his underwear. He confronts them but Brandi, the eldest sibling, rolls the trolley into their Sienna, leaving a huge scratch. Just as Mr. Beardo comes out of his motel room, Brandi blames Greg for the damage and Mr. Beardo goes after him but he escapes. The next morning, Greg realizes he slept in the Beardos hotel room, but is able to escape.

text: The next day, the Heffleys attend a county fair where Manny wins a pig. Mr. Beardo and his family notices Greg and begins chasing after him but manages to outrun yet again. Back on the road, the Heffleys, unable to take care of the pig, drop it off at the petting zoo, much to Manny's dismay, but not before Greg reroutes the GPS to the Player Expo convention. Checking at the hotel room, Greg and Rodrick sneak out to go to Player Expo. However, after Frank and Susan see their sons on live television, they go to get the boys themselves.

text: Upon Greg sees Mac Digby participating in a video game competition, Greg instructs Rodrick to record him going up on stage with Mac so his popularity will boost, but the attempt fails when Susan storms into the stage and inadvertently reveals that he is Diaper Hands to the public. Susan opens up to Greg and says that all she wanted was a nice road trip that would bring the family closer together, and she accuses Greg of not caring. Infuriated, Greg snaps back at Susan, saying that she doesn't care about what he loves, which is why he had to sneak out to the Expo in the first place. Hurt by her son's words, Susan hands her phone to Greg because she doesn't care anymore.

text: After encountering the Beardos and other obstacles on the road, the Heffleys celebrate happily at Meemaw's. Returning home, Manny manages to get the pig back. At the end, Greg explains that although the road trip wasn't perfect, he still wouldn't change a thing.

text: He says that Manny was allowed to keep his pig as a pet, Rodrick was able to get a Toyota Sienna 2018 Limited AWD, and Dad was able to explain having time off from work to bond with family. Greg expresses excitement for where they'll be going next year, but Susan steps in to say they will be flying.

text: In a mid-credits scene, two girls take selfies with Greg, who they recognize as Diaper Hands.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jason Drucker as Greg Heffley
Alicia Silverstone as Susan Heffley, Greg's mother
Tom Everett Scott as Frank Heffley, Greg's father
Charlie Wright as Rodrick Heffley, Greg's older brother
Owen Asztalos as Rowley Jefferson, Greg's best friend
Wyatt and Dylan Walters as Manny Heffley, Greg's little brother[6]
Joshua Hoover as Mac Digby, a popular internet gamer who Greg idolizes
Christopher A. Coppola as Mr. Beardo, the main antagonist of the film
Kimberli Lincoln as Mrs. Beardo, Mr. Beardo's wife
Mira Silverman as Brandi Beardo, Mr. Beardo's rude and spoiled daughter who blamed Greg for damaging their VW Bus
Mimi Gould as Meemaw, Susan's grandmother and Greg's great-grandmother

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In 2012, the series' third entry, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days was described as the last live action film in the franchise.[7][8] In August 2012, while doing press for the film, author Jeff Kinney and actors Zachary Gordon and Robert Capron each indicated that there were no plans for a fourth movie, but did not dismiss the possibility entirely.[7][8][9]

text: Kinney replied to inquiries regarding the possibility of another sequel, stating, "At present, we don’t have a fourth film in development, but you never know!"[9] When describing the likelihood of starring in another film in the series, Gordon explained, "Dog Days most likely will be the last movie. The main problem is [the cast] is getting older. You can't stop it. There's no way to temporarily stop us from changing and growing up. You know, that's the problem because the characters are supposed to be timeless."[7]

text: In March 2013, Gordon stated in a Spreecast live stream that there would not be a fourth live action film. Previously, Kinney had indicated that instead of making a live action film of the third novel, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Last Straw, instead he would like to see Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Cabin Fever adapted into an animated film, stating in an interview, "I hope that it gets made into an animated movie. but I'd really like to see it turn into an animated television special."

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was released on May 17, 2017, in the Philippines, May 19, 2017, in the United States, and May 20, 2017, in the United Kingdom.[5]

text: Trailer reaction[edit]

text: On February 23, 2017, a theatrical poster and teaser trailer were released, and the following month, the official trailer was released. Both trailers received negative feedback from fans for its recasting of the main characters. Many took to social media to further express their outrage and began using the hashtag "#NotMyRodrick", which eventually became a widespread meme. Other hashtags included "#NotMyHeffleys" and "#NotMyRowley".[10]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film opened in about 3,174 theaters, the second biggest opening for a Diary of a Wimpy Kid film, after Dog Days, The Long Haul grossed $20.7 million in the United States and Canada and $19.3 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $40.1 million , against a production budget of $22 million.[3] It was the lowest grossing film of the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series.[11]

text: In North America, the film was initially projected to gross around $12 million from 3,129 theaters during its opening weekend.[4] However, after grossing $2 million on its first day, projections were lowered to $7 million. It ended up finishing with $7.1 million, placing 6th at the box office and marking the lowest opening of the franchise.[12]

text: When the film was released in the United Kingdom, it opened on #2, behind Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales with £1,444,092.[13]

text: The film has grossed over $2.6 million in the United States through home video sales.[14]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 20% based on 66 reviews and an average rating of 4.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "With an all-new cast but the same juvenile humor, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul finds the franchise still stuck in arrested – and largely unfunny – development."[15] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 39 out of 100 based on 16 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[16] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, down from the first three films' "A-".[17]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul was released on Digital HD from Amazon Video and iTunes on August 1, 2017, and on Blu-ray and DVD on August 8, 2017 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.[18][19]


document_title: Sympathetic trunk

question_text: what nerve structure is just lateral to the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae

text: Sympathetic trunk

text: Structure[edit]

text: The sympathetic trunk lies just lateral to the vertebral bodies for the entire length of the vertebral column. It interacts with the anterior rami of spinal nerves by way of rami communicantes. The sympathetic trunk permits preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system to ascend to spinal levels superior to T1 and descend to spinal levels inferior to L2/3.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

text: The superior end of it is continued upward through the carotid canal into the skull, and forms a plexus on the internal carotid artery; the inferior part travels in front of the coccyx, where it converges with the other trunk at a structure known as the ganglion impar.

text: Along the length of the sympathetic trunk are sympathetic ganglia known as paravertebral ganglia.

text: The sympathetic trunk (yellow) can be seen just lateral to the vertebral column.

text: Function[edit]

text: The sympathetic trunk is a fundamental part of the sympathetic nervous system, and part of the autonomic nervous system. It allows nerve fibres to travel to spinal nerves that are superior and inferior to the one in which they originated. Also, a number of nerves, such as most of the splanchnic nerves, arise directly from the trunks.

text:
Autonomic nervous supply to organs in the human body edit

Organ
Nerves[8]
Spinal column origin[8]

stomach

PS: anterior and posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10

duodenum

PS: vagus nerves
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10

jejunum and ileum

PS: posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T5, T6, T7, T8, T9

spleen

S: greater splanchnic nerves

T6, T7, T8

gallbladder and liver

PS: vagus nerve
S: celiac plexus
right phrenic nerve

T6, T7, T8, T9

colon

PS: vagus nerves and pelvic splanchnic nerves
S: lesser and least splanchnic nerves

T10, T11, T12 (proximal colon)
L1, L2, L3, (distal colon)

pancreatic head

PS: vagus nerves
S: thoracic splanchnic nerves

T8, T9

vermiform appendix

nerves to superior mesenteric plexus

T10

kidneys and ureters

PS: vagus nerve
S: thoracic and lumbar splanchnic nerves

T11, T12

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
The formation of the spinal nerve from the dorsal and ventral roots.

Dissection of side wall of pelvis showing sacral and pudendal plexuses.

Sacral plexus of the right side.

Diagram of efferent sympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic connections of the ciliary and superior cervical ganglia.

Sacral sympathetic


document_title: Governor of California

question_text: how many terms can governor of california serve

text: Governor of California

text: Gubernatorial elections, oath, and term of office[edit]

text: Governors are elected by popular ballot and serve terms of four years, with a limit of two terms, if served after November 6, 1990.[2] Governors take the following oath:

text: I (Governor) do solemnly swear that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of California against all enemies foreign and domestic, that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of California, that I take this obligation freely without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties upon which I am about to enter.

text: Governors take office on the first Monday after January 1 after their election.

text: Gubernatorial removal[edit]

text: There are two methods available to remove a governor before the expiration of the gubernatorial term of office.

text: Impeachment and removal by the legislature[edit]

text: The governor can be impeached for "misconduct in office" by the State Assembly and removed by a two-thirds vote of the State Senate.

text: Recall by the voters[edit]

text: Petitions signed by California state voters equal in number to 12% of the last vote for the office of governor (with signatures from each of 5 counties equal in number to 1% of the last vote for governor in the county) can launch a gubernatorial recall election. The voters can then vote on whether or not to recall the incumbent governor, and on the same ballot they can vote a potential replacement. If a majority of the voters in the election vote to recall the governor, then the person who gains a plurality of the votes in the replacement race will become governor.

text: The 2003 California recall began with a petition drive that successfully forced sitting Democratic Governor Gray Davis into a special recall election. It marked the first time in the history of California that a governor faced a recall election. He was subsequently voted out of office, becoming the second governor in the history of the United States to be recalled after Lynn Frazier of North Dakota in 1921. He was replaced by Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger.

text: Relationship with Lieutenant Governor of California[edit]

text: The Lieutenant Governor of California is separately elected during the same election, not jointly as the running mate of the gubernatorial candidate. California has had a governor and a lieutenant governor of different parties 26 of the past 31 years. This occasionally becomes significant, since the California Constitution provides that all the powers of the governor fall to the lieutenant governor whenever the governor is not in the state of California, with the lieutenant governor often signing or vetoing legislation, or making political appointments, whenever the governor leaves the state. The lieutenant governor is also the President of the California State Senate. In practice, there is a gentlemen's agreement for the Lieutenant Governor not to perform more than perfunctory duties while the Governor is away from the state. This agreement was violated when Mike Curb was in office, as he signed several executive orders at odds with the Brown administration when Brown was out of the state. Court rulings have upheld the lieutenant governor's right to perform the duties and assume all of the prerogatives of governor while the governor is out of the state.[3]

text: Gubernatorial facts[edit]

text: Age and longevity[edit]

text:
Peter Burnett had the longest post-governorship, 44 years. He left office in 1851 and died in 1895.
Excluding governors who died in office, Robert Waterman had the shortest post-governorship. He died on April 12, 1891, a short three months and four days after the expiration of his term.
Sworn in at the age of 30, J. Neely Johnson was the youngest governor from 1856 to 1858.
Sworn in at the age of 72, Jerry Brown became the oldest governor in 2011.
Earl Warren was the only governor to serve more than two consecutive terms in office (1943–1953).

Jerry Brown previously served as governor for eight years (1975–1983) and returned to office 28 years later to serve as the incumbent governor (since 2011).

Milton Latham served the shortest term in office of five days (January 9–14, 1860).
Of the 38 governors who held office, seven of them were born in California (six of them after statehood):

One (Romualdo Pacheco) was born in Santa Barbara.
Four (George Pardee, James Rolph, Pat Brown, and Jerry Brown) were born in San Francisco.
One (Hiram Johnson) was born in Sacramento.
One (Earl Warren) was born in Los Angeles.

Two governors were not born in the United States:

John G. Downey was born in Ireland.
Arnold Schwarzenegger was born in Austria.

Only two governors have died in office:

Washington Bartlett on September 12, 1887
James Rolph on June 2, 1934

Ronald Reagan had the longest life-span of any governor, 93 years.
J. Neely Johnson had the shortest life-span of any governor, 47 years.
Both governors who died in office, Washington Bartlett in 1887 and James Rolph in 1934, served as Mayor of San Francisco shortly before becoming governor.
Two governors are related:

Pat Brown (1959–1967) was the father of twice-governor Jerry Brown (1975–1983, 2011 to present).

text: Transition events[edit]

text: 6th Governor (1860)

text:
Five governors have resigned:

Peter Burnett in 1851 "as a result of certain personal prejudices" in favor of slavery[4]
Milton Latham in 1860 to become a United States Senator
Newton Booth in 1875 to become a United States Senator
Hiram Johnson in 1917 to become a United States Senator
Earl Warren in 1953 to become Chief Justice of the United States

One governor has been recalled:

Gray Davis in 2003

Seven governors took office without being elected to the governor's seat, having been elected as lieutenant governor and then ascending from that position:

Four of them did not run to succeed themselves, and were never elected governor:

John McDougal in 1851
John G. Downey in 1860
Romualdo Pacheco in 1875
Robert Waterman in 1887

The other three later ran for governor, and were elected to succeed themselves as governor:

William Stephens in 1917
Frank Merriam in 1934
Goodwin Knight in 1953

One governor has served two terms, and was elected to a non-consecutive third term (followed by a fourth term):

Jerry Brown in 2010 (Brown is the only living former governor of California who was elected to two terms before term limits were enacted on November 6, 1990)

text: Presidential campaigns[edit]

text:
33rd Governor (1967–1975)
40th President of the United States (1981–1989)

text:
One former governor of California won his party's nomination and was elected President of the United States:

Ronald Reagan in 1980 and 1984 (Republican)

Five governors actively sought the nomination of their party, but were unsuccessful:

Hiram Johnson in 1920 and 1924 (Republican)
Pat Brown in 1960 (Democratic)
Jerry Brown in 1976, 1980 and 1992 (Democratic)
Ronald Reagan in 1968 and 1976 (Republican)
Pete Wilson in 1996 (Republican)

Two governors were nominated for Vice President, but their ticket lost the election:

Hiram Johnson (Ran with Theodore Roosevelt, Progressive, 1912)
Earl Warren (Ran with Thomas Dewey, Republican, 1948)

Two governors did not run for president, but were under serious consideration by their party's nominee during their governorship to be their running mate for the office of Vice President, but were not chosen:

George Deukmejian (George H.W. Bush, Republican, 1988) declined being considered because of his vast ideological differences with Lieutenant Governor Leo McCarthy, who would have become governor if Deukmejian accepted the nomination and was elected to the Vice Presidency.[5]
Gray Davis (Al Gore, Democratic, 2000)

One unsuccessful candidate for governor of California was elected President of the United States:

Former Vice President Richard Nixon was the Republican nominee for Governor of California in 1962, and lost to Democrat Pat Brown. Nixon later was elected president in 1968 and reelected in 1972 (Republican).


document_title: Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle

question_text: who plays the bad guy in the new jumanji movie

text: Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1996, in Brantford, New Hampshire, about a year after the events of the previous film, teenager Alex Vreeke receives the Jumanji board game, found by his father on a beach after it was thrown over a bridge by Alan Parrish and Sarah Whittle decades prior. When Alex claims to himself that board games are boring, the game, seeing Alex's interest in video games, magically transforms into a video game cartridge which catches Alex's attention the next morning. As he plays it, he is teleported into the game.

text: Twenty years later in 2016, four students in Brantford High School are placed in detention together: Bethany Walker, who disrespected a teacher during her English class over a phone call; Martha Kaply, who refused to participate in P.E. class, making it worse by insulting her instructor; and Spencer Gilpin, who was caught writing essays for his former friend, Anthony "Fridge" Johnson, who is also in detention for the plagiarism and has been kicked off the football team. As punishment, their principal orders them to clean out the school basement while "thinking about what to do with their one life". While cleaning the four find Jumanji, a multiplayer action-adventure video game. After being unable to select one of the playable characters, they each select an avatar. When Spencer hits Start, the four are sucked into the game.

text: They find themselves in a jungle each now in the forms of their game avatars. Spencer is a tough, muscular explorer named Dr. Smolder Bravestone, Fridge is a short zoologist named Franklin "Mouse" Finbar, (whom he had selected upon misreading the name as "Moose"), Martha is a gorgeous commando and martial arts expert named Ruby Roundhouse, and Bethany is an overweight male cartographer named Professor Sheldon "Shelly" Oberon. They soon realize that they are in the game and each have three lives. If they lose all three, Spencer concludes they die for real. Each of them also have special skills and weaknesses.

text: They learn from Nigel, an NPC guide, that the big-game hunter, Russel Van Pelt, wants to obtain a jewel, the "Jaguar's Eye," allowing him to manipulate Jumanji's animals. To escape the game, the players must return it to an enormous jaguar statue and call out "Jumanji" (the latter is the only remnant of Jumanji's board game origins). Along the way the group begins to lose lives through various means when completing game levels of increasing difficulty. The group starts working together to obtain a clue from a snake at a bazaar but are cornered by Van Pelt's men. They are rescued by Alex, the fifth player, whose avatar is a pilot named Jefferson "Seaplane" McDonough. Alex, thinking he'd only been in the game for a few months, learns of his twenty-year absence. Recuperating in a tree house built by previous player Alan Parrish, the main character from Jumanji, the newcomers vow to help him return home. Working together, the group breaks into a transportation shed, commandeering a helicopter to fly to the jaguar statue and return the jewel. Upon landing Alex loses his last life after a mosquito bites him, but Bethany performs CPR in time and saves him by transferring one of her lives to him.

text: Arriving at the statue the players find themselves facing Van Pelt's forces and predatory guards, a pack of jaguars. Using their resources and teamwork, the players distract the villains while Spencer returns the jewel to the statue, and they all call out the game's name. The game ends with all the players on one life each (upon the game ending Van Pelt disintegrates into rats), and Nigel allows the players to revert to their former selves and return to the real world, though Alex does not appear with them. On their way home they discover that the Vreeke household – once the neglected home of Alex's father "Old Man" Vreeke – has been restored. An adult Alex appears; he returned to 1996, and history was changed. He is now married and has named his eldest daughter after Bethany out of gratitude for saving his life.

text: Spencer and Fridge reconcile, Bethany becomes a better person and makes plans to go backpacking for another adventurous encounter, Martha starts dating Spencer, and the teens are now friends after their experiences in the game. The four hear Jumanji's drumbeats, but they take the game behind the school and destroy it with a bowling ball they found in detention to prevent anyone from playing it again.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Alex Wolff as Spencer Gilpin, a nerdy gamer at Brantford High School who goes to detention with Fridge, Martha, and Bethany, for writing Fridge's homework for him; he discovers the Jumanji video game. He later becomes Martha's love interest. He is credited as "Young Spencer".

Dwayne Johnson as Dr. Smolder Bravestone, an archaeologist and explorer who is Spencer's avatar. Bravestone's strengths are stamina, courage, reflexes, climbing, smoldering intensity, and boomerang throwing. Being the archetypically masculine, intelligent, and courageous video game hero of the story, he apparently has no weaknesses. He is credited as "Spencer".

Madison Iseman as Bethany Walker, a pretty and popular but narcissistic and self-centered teenage girl at Brantford High School who goes to detention with Spencer, Fridge, and Martha, after talking on her phone during a quiz and displaying an arrogant contempt towards her class in the process. She is credited as "Young Bethany".

Jack Black as Professor Sheldon "Shelly" Oberon, a cartographer, cryptographer, archaeologist and paleontologist who is Bethany's avatar after mistaking the character's name ("Shelly")for that of a woman. Though Oberon's strengths are his fields of expertise, because of his state of being as "an overweight, middle-aged man", he lacks in endurance. He/she is credited as "Bethany".

Ser'Darius Blain as Anthony "Fridge" Johnson, a Brantford High School football jock who lacks confidence to succeed academically and goes to detention with Spencer, Martha, and Bethany for having Spencer write his essays for him and is also kicked off his football team. He is credited as "Young Fridge".

Kevin Hart as Franklin "Mouse" Finbar, a zoologist and weapons specialist who is Fridge's avatar due to the game's font causing Fridge to misread the character's nickname as "Moose". Finbar's status as weapons specialist makes him Bravestone's weapon valet (having everything Bravestone needs in his signature backpack). He is nicknamed "Mouse" for his short stature (degrading his speed and strength); Fridge uses this in the climax of the film to rendezvous with the others on the back of an elephant that was charging at him earlier. Cake makes him explode and lose a life. He is credited as "Fridge".

Morgan Turner as Martha Kaply, a teenage girl at Brantford High School who goes to detention with Spencer, Fridge, and Bethany, for objecting to physical education class and disregarding her teacher. She later becomes Spencer's love-interest. She is credited as "Young Martha".

Karen Gillan as Ruby Roundhouse, a commando, martial artist, and dance fighter who is Martha's avatar (after Marthat was peer-pressured into playing with the others). Roundhouse is proficient in karate, tai chi, jujutsu and dance fighting. Similar to Bravestone, Roundhouse is the archetypically intelligent, athletic, beautiful, and scantily clad video game heroine of the story, with her only weakness being venom, such as that found in various animals in the game. She is credited as "Martha".

Mason Guccione as Alex Vreeke, a teenage boy who played, and was trapped inside, the Jumanji video game for 20 years. He is credited as "Young Alex".

Colin Hanks as Adult Alex Vreeke
Nick Jonas as Jefferson "Seaplane" McDonough, Alex Vreeke's avatar. McDonough is a mysterious guide, adventurer, and pilot in the game, who waits for and joins the other avatars as they attempt to escape Jumanji. McDonough's strengths are piloting and making margaritas that "Mouse"/"Fridge" takes a liking to. His only weakness is mosquito bites, which is bad for him and all the more ironic since the jungle, being a tropical one, is teeming with mosquitoes. He is credited as "Alex".[9] During his twenty-year absence, he lives in a treehouse built and once occupied by Alan Parrish (previously portrayed by Robin Williams and Adam Hann-Byrd in the 1995 film Jumanji).

text: Jumanji[edit]

text:
Bobby Cannavale as Russel Van Pelt, a corrupt explorer seeking to control the "Jaguar's Eye", whose power he is demonically possessed by. He is the boss of the film's video game scenario; Jonathan Hyde played a different version of Van Pelt in the 1995 film.
NPCs in the game include:

Rhys Darby as Nigel Billingsley, the main guide in the game.
William Tokarsky as an NPC food trader at the place of his name in the credits: Bread/Cake vendor.
Rohan Chand as the boy at Bazaar, a young NPC guide who leads Spencer, Fridge, Martha, and Bethany to the black mamba's basket, which has the next clue.

text: Reality[edit]

text:
Marc Evan Jackson as Principal Bentley, the principal who makes Spencer, Bethany, Fridge, and Martha clean up the basement as part of their detention.
Sean Buxton as Alex's Father / Jogger

Tim Matheson as Older Alex's Father (Old Man Vreeke, uncredited)

Maribeth Monroe as Bethany Walker's English instructor
Missi Pyle as Coach Webb, Martha Kaply's physical education instructor

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In July 2012, rumors emerged that a remake of the film Jumanji was being developed. In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Columbia Pictures president Doug Belgrad said: "We're going to try and reimagine Jumanji and update it for the present."[10] On August 1, 2012, it was confirmed that Matthew Tolmach would produce the new version, alongside William Teitler, who produced the original film.[11]

text: In August 2015, Sony Pictures Entertainment announced that they had scheduled the film for a December 25, 2016 release.[12] Internet reception to this was negative, with some posters remarking that the announcement came too soon after the death of Robin Williams, who portrayed Alan Parrish from the original film, and had died in August 2014.[13][14] The news was heavily criticized by Bradley Pierce, who played Peter Shepherd in the original Jumanji, as well as by E! News, which stated that they felt that the remake was "unnecessary and kind of insulting".[15][16] On October 23, 2015, Scott Rosenberg was hired to rewrite the script for the film, whose production was a high priority for the studio.[17] On January 14, 2016, Deadline reported that Jake Kasdan had been hired to direct, from a script by Rosenberg and Jeff Pinkner, based on a draft by original writers Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers.[18]

text: On April 15, 2016, Variety reported that Dwayne Johnson and Kevin Hart were in early talks to star in the film, though both actors had other projects to shoot, which might have created schedule conflicts.[19] Later in April, Johnson confirmed his casting through his Instagram account.[20] In July 2016, it was reported that Nick Jonas had joined the film's cast, along with the confirmed casting of Johnson, Hart, and Jack Black.[21] In August 2016, Johnson clarified that the film would not be a reboot, but a continuation of the 1995 film,[22] while Karen Gillan was also announced as having been cast.[23] On September 20, 2016, Ser'Darius Blain and Madison Iseman were cast in the film, with Blain playing Anthony "Fridge" Johnson and Iseman playing Bethany. Following them, on September 22, 2016, Rhys Darby, Morgan Turner, and Alex Wolff joined the cast, with Darby playing Nigel, Turner playing Martha, and Wolff playing Spencer.[24][25][26] In November 2016, Bobby Cannavale announced his casting in the film,[27] and in December 2016, Tim Matheson also joined the cast, playing Old Man Vreeke.[28]

text: James Newton Howard was originally attached to compose the film's score;[29] after the film's release date was pushed back half a year, he was replaced by Henry Jackman.[1]

text: In March 2017, during CinemaCon, it was announced that the complete title of the film is Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. The plot was revealed to involve teenagers cleaning out a school's basement who find a vintage video game version of Jumanji, and get sucked into the jungle setting of the first film. While many fans theorized whether the film was a sequel or a reboot, the second trailer, which was released on September 20, 2017, revealed that the film takes place over twenty years after the events of the first.

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography began on September 19, 2016, in Honolulu, Hawaii,[19][30] primarily taking place in the Kualoa Ranch private nature reserve.[31] The film was then wrapped on December 8, 2016, in Atlanta, Georgia.[32]

text: Release[edit]

text: In August 2015, Sony set the film a release date of December 25, 2016.[33] As filming did not start until September 2016, the release was pushed back a year to July 28, 2017, and then to December 20, 2017.[2]

text: On November 29, 2017, it was announced Amazon Prime members in the United States would have early access to movie tickets for a single December 8, 2017, screening of the film, at select Regal, National Amusements, ArcLight Cinemas and AMC theaters.[34] The screenings ended up selling out at 1,200 theaters and making $1.9 million.[35] The film was released in IMAX 2D on January 12, 2018, for its first time in IMAX in the United States.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of February 25, 2018[update], Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle has grossed $387.3 million in the United States and Canada and $533.7 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $921 million.[4]

text: In the United States and Canada, the film was released on December 20, 2017 alongside The Greatest Showman and was projected to gross around $60 million from 3,765 theaters in its six-day opening weekend with the studio predicting a more conservative $45 million debut.[36][37] The film took in $7.2 million on its first day and $7.6 million on its second day. Over the three-day weekend, the film grossed $36.2 million (for a six-day total of $71.9 million), finishing second at the box office behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi.[5] During its second weekend, the film increased to $50.1 million, again finishing in second place at the box office.[38] The weekend-to-weekend increase of 38.4% marked the 4th-largest ever for a film playing in over 3,000 theaters; fellow 2017 Christmas release The Greatest Showman coincidently set record for best hold the same weekend.[39][40] The film dethroned Star Wars: The Last Jedi for the top spot the following weekend, declining just 28.1% to $36 million[41] and finished first again the following week with $28.1 million (and a total of $35.2 million over the four-day MLK weekend).[42] Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle also remained at the top of the box office for its third weekend with $19.5 million.[43]

text: Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle again topped the charts the following week with $20 million, despite two new releases in 12 Strong and Den of Thieves.[44] The following week it continued to hold well, dropping just 16% to $16.4 million, albeit finished second behind newcomer Maze Runner: The Death Cure,[45] and would regain the top spot once again the following weekend with $11.1 million to The Death Cure's $10.6 million.[46]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 76% based on 180 reviews, and an average rating of 6.1/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle uses a charming cast and a humorous twist to offer an undemanding yet solidly entertaining update on its source material."[47] On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average, the film has a normalized score of 58 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[48] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, while comScore reported filmgoers gave an 84% overall positive score.[5]

text: Dave White of TheWrap praised the cast and called the film a pleasant surprise saying "Jumanji: Welcome to The Jungle is the Christmas tentpole release that aims to please and succeeds, a funny family entertainment product that subverts more expectations than it was obligated to contractually".[49] David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C" and called it unnecessary but mildly amusing: "Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle is further proof that even the stalest whiff of brand recognition has become preferable to originality. Only part of the blame for that belongs to the studios but after cannibalizing themselves for much of the last 20 years, Hollywood has clearly eaten their way down to the crumbs".[50]

text: Writing for Variety, Owen Gleiberman was critical of the film saying "Excitement! Suspense! Childlike innocence! Ingeniously staged action set pieces! These are a few of the things you will not find, anywhere, in Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle... It's supposed to be a board game come to life but really, it's just a bored game".[51]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: Dwayne Johnson, Jack Black and Nick Jonas discussed in interviews what a possible Jumanji 3 would be about, including the possibility of the film exploring the origins of the titular game. Karen Gillan has also said that the alternate ending for Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle would have left the door open for another installment.[52][53][54][55] In February 2018, it was announced that Kasdan would return to direct the sequel, with Rosenberg and Pinkner again writing the script.with also Kirsten Dunst, Bradley Pierce and Bonnie Hunt reprising their roles from the first film. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumanji ref>https://www.thewrap.com/jumanji-sequel-director-writers-talks-return/</ref> Johnson, Hart, Black and Gillan will reprise their roles.[56]


document_title: The Concept of Law

question_text: who said law is the command of sovereign

text: The Concept of Law

text: Background[edit]

text: The Concept of Law emerged from a set of lectures Hart delivered in 1952. The lectures were preceded by Hart's Holmes lecture, Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals at Harvard Law School. The book developed a sophisticated view of legal positivism.

text: Among the ideas developed in the book are:

text:
A critique of John Austin's theory that law is the command of the sovereign backed by sanction.
A distinction between primary and secondary legal rules, where a primary rule governs conduct and a secondary rule allows the creation, alteration, or extinction of primary rules.
A distinction between the internal and external points of view of law and rules, close to (and influenced by) Max Weber's distinction between the sociological and the legal perspectives of law.
The idea of the rule of recognition, a social rule that differentiated between those norms that have the authority of law and those that do not. Hart viewed the rule of recognition as an evolution from Hans Kelsen's "Grundnorm", or "basic norm".
A reply to Ronald Dworkin, who criticized legal positivism in general and especially Hart's account of law in Taking Rights Seriously (1977), A Matter of Principle (1985) and Law's Empire (1986).

text: Austin's "Command theory"[edit]

text: The starting point for the discussion is Hart's dissatisfaction with John Austin's "Command Theory": a jurisprudential concept that holds that law is command backed by threat and is meant to be ubiquitous in its application. Hart likens Austin's theory to the role of a gunman in a bank and tries to establish the differences between the gunman's orders and those made by law. (For instance, the gunman forces us to obey but we may not feel inclined to obey him. Presumably, obedience to the law comes with a different feeling.)

text: Hart identifies three such important differences: content, origin, and range. In terms of content, not all laws are imperative or coercive. Some are facilitative, allowing us to create contracts and other legal relations.

text: Austin believed that every legal system had to have a sovereign who creates the law (origin) while remaining unaffected by it (range), such as the bank scene's gunman, who is the only source of commands and who is not subject to other's commands. Hart argues that this is an inaccurate description of law, noting that laws may have several sources and legislators are very often subject to the laws they create.

text: Social habits, rules, and laws[edit]

text: Hart draws a distinction between a social habit (which people follow habitually but where breaking the habit does not bring about opprobrium - going to the cinema on Thursday for example) and a social rule (where breaking the rule is seen as wrong - neglecting to take off one's hat upon entering a church, for example). We feel in some sense bound by social rules and laws frequently appear to be types of social rule.

text: There are two perspectives to this: the external aspect, which is the independently observable fact that people do tend to obey the rule with regularity, and the internal aspect which is the feeling by an individual of being in some sense obligated to follow the rule, otherwise known as the critical reflective attitude. It is from this internal sense that the law acquires its normative quality. The obedience by the populace of a rule is called efficacy. No law can be said to be efficacious unless followed by the majority of the populace. Though an average citizen in a modern state with a developed legal system may feel the internal aspect and be compelled to follow the laws, it is more important for the officials of the society/peoples to have the internal aspect since it is up to them to follow the constitutional provisions which, if they wish, could ignore without accountability. Yet, the officials must use the internal aspect and accept the standards as guiding their behaviour in addition to also guiding the behaviour of other officials.

text: But laws are more than rules of conduct. Laws can be divided up into two sorts: primary rules (rules of conduct) and secondary rules (rules addressed to officials and which set out to affect the operation of primary rules). Secondary rules deal with three problems: first the problem of uncertainty about what the law is (the secondary rule for this dilemma is called the rule of recognition and states the criteria of validity of a law), second the problem of rigidity of rules (which requires rules of change allowing laws to be varied), and third the problem of how to resolve legal disputes (from which rules of adjudication arise). A legal system is "the union of primary and secondary rules."

text: Lastly, Hart lets us know that laws are much broader in scope than coercive orders, contrary to the "command theory" of Austin. Frequently laws are enabling and so allow citizens to carry out authoritative acts such as the making of wills or contracts which have legal effect.