document_title: Cosmic distance ladder

question_text: which two things are needed to determine a standard candle distance from earth

question_tokens: which two things are needed to determine a standard candle distance from earth

text: Cosmic distance ladder

text: Direct measurement[edit]

text: At the base of the ladder are fundamental distance measurements, in which distances are determined directly, with no physical assumptions about the nature of the object in question. The precise measurement of stellar positions is part of the discipline of astrometry.

text: Astronomical unit[edit]

text: Direct distance measurements are based upon the astronomical unit (AU), which is the distance between the Earth and the Sun. Kepler's laws provide precise ratios of the sizes of the orbits of objects orbiting the Sun, but provides no measurement of the overall scale of the orbit system. Radar is used to measure the distance between the orbits of the Earth and of a second body. From that measurement and the ratio of the two orbit sizes, the size of Earth's orbit is calculated. The Earth's orbit is known with an absolute precision of a few meters and a relative precision of a few 6989100000000000000♠1×10−11.

text: Historically, observations of transits of Venus were crucial in determining the AU; in the first half of the 20th century, observations of asteroids were also important. Presently the orbit of Earth is determined with high precision using radar measurements of distances to Venus and other nearby planets and asteroids,[1] and by tracking interplanetary spacecraft in their orbits around the Sun through the Solar System.

text: Parallax[edit]

text: The most important fundamental distance measurements come from trigonometric parallax. As the Earth orbits the Sun, the position of nearby stars will appear to shift slightly against the more distant background. These shifts are angles in an isosceles triangle, with 2 AU (the distance between the extreme positions of Earth's orbit around the Sun) making the base leg of the triangle and the distance to the star being the long equal length legs. The amount of shift is quite small, measuring 1 arcsecond for an object at 1 parsec's distance (3.26 light-years) of the nearest stars, and thereafter decreasing in angular amount as the distance increases. Astronomers usually express distances in units of parsecs (parallax arcseconds); light-years are used in popular media.

text: Because parallax becomes smaller for a greater stellar distance, useful distances can be measured only for stars which are near enough to have a parallax larger than a few times the precision of the measurement. Parallax measurements typically have an accuracy measured in milliarcseconds.[2] In the 1990s, for example, the Hipparcos mission obtained parallaxes for over a hundred thousand stars with a precision of about a milliarcsecond,[3] providing useful distances for stars out to a few hundred parsecs. The Hubble telescope WFC3 now has the potential to provide a precision of 20 to 40 microarcseconds, enabling reliable distance measurements up to 5,000 parsecs (16,000 ly) for small numbers of stars.[4][5] In 2018, Data Release 2 from the Gaia space mission provides similarly accurate distances to most stars brighter than 15th magnitude.[6]

text: Stars have a velocity relative to the Sun that causes proper motion (transverse across the sky) and radial velocity (motion toward or away from the Sun). The former is determined by plotting the changing position of the stars over many years, while the latter comes from measuring the Doppler shift of the star's spectrum caused by motion along the line of sight. For a group of stars with the same spectral class and a similar magnitude range, a mean parallax can be derived from statistical analysis of the proper motions relative to their radial velocities. This statistical parallax method is useful for measuring the distances of bright stars beyond 50 parsecs and giant variable stars, including Cepheids and the RR Lyrae variables.[7]

text: The motion of the Sun through space provides a longer baseline that will increase the accuracy of parallax measurements, known as secular parallax. For stars in the Milky Way disk, this corresponds to a mean baseline of 4 AU per year, while for halo stars the baseline is 40 AU per year. After several decades, the baseline can be orders of magnitude greater than the Earth–Sun baseline used for traditional parallax. However, secular parallax introduces a higher level of uncertainty because the relative velocity of observed stars is an additional unknown. When applied to samples of multiple stars, the uncertainty can be reduced; the uncertainty is inversely proportional to the square root of the sample size.[10]

text: Moving cluster parallax is a technique where the motions of individual stars in a nearby star cluster can be used to find the distance to the cluster. Only open clusters are near enough for this technique to be useful. In particular the distance obtained for the Hyades has historically been an important step in the distance ladder.

text: Other individual objects can have fundamental distance estimates made for them under special circumstances. If the expansion of a gas cloud, like a supernova remnant or planetary nebula, can be observed over time, then an expansion parallax distance to that cloud can be estimated. Those measurements however suffer from uncertainties in the deviation of the object from sphericity. Binary stars which are both visual and spectroscopic binaries also can have their distance estimated by similar means, and don't suffer from the above geometric uncertainty. The common characteristic to these methods is that a measurement of angular motion is combined with a measurement of the absolute velocity (usually obtained via the Doppler effect). The distance estimate comes from computing how far the object must be to make its observed absolute velocity appear with the observed angular motion.

text: Expansion parallaxes in particular can give fundamental distance estimates for objects that are very far, because supernova ejecta have large expansion velocities and large sizes (compared to stars). Further, they can be observed with radio interferometers which can measure very small angular motions. These combine to provide fundamental distance estimates to supernovae in other galaxies.[11] Though valuable, such cases are quite rare, so they serve as important consistency checks on the distance ladder rather than workhorse steps by themselves.

text: Standard candles[edit]

text: Almost all astronomical objects used as physical distance indicators belong to a class that has a known brightness. By comparing this known luminosity to an object's observed brightness, the distance to the object can be computed using the inverse-square law. These objects of known brightness are termed standard candles.

text: The brightness of an object can be expressed in terms of its absolute magnitude. This quantity is derived from the logarithm of its luminosity as seen from a distance of 10 parsecs. The apparent magnitude, the magnitude as seen by the observer (an instrument called a bolometer is used), can be measured and used with the absolute magnitude to calculate the distance D to the object in kiloparsecs (where 1 kpc equals 1000 parsecs) as follows:

text: or

text: where m the apparent magnitude and M the absolute magnitude. For this to be accurate, both magnitudes must be in the same frequency band and there can be no relative motion in the radial direction.

text: Some means of correcting for interstellar extinction, which also makes objects appear fainter and more red, is needed, especially if the object lies within a dusty or gaseous region.[12] The difference between an object's absolute and apparent magnitudes is called its distance modulus, and astronomical distances, especially intergalactic ones, are sometimes tabulated in this way.

text: Problems[edit]

text: Two problems exist for any class of standard candle. The principal one is calibration, that is the determination of exactly what the absolute magnitude of the candle is. This includes defining the class well enough that members can be recognized, and finding enough members of that class with well-known distances to allow their true absolute magnitude to be determined with enough accuracy. The second problem lies in recognizing members of the class, and not mistakenly using a standard candle calibration on an object which does not belong to the class. At extreme distances, which is where one most wishes to use a distance indicator, this recognition problem can be quite serious.

text: A significant issue with standard candles is the recurring question of how standard they are. For example, all observations seem to indicate that Type Ia supernovae that are of known distance have the same brightness (corrected by the shape of the light curve). The basis for this closeness in brightness is discussed below; however, the possibility exists that the distant Type Ia supernovae have different properties than nearby Type Ia supernovae. The use of Type Ia supernovae is crucial in determining the correct cosmological model. If indeed the properties of Type Ia supernovae are different at large distances, i.e. if the extrapolation of their calibration to arbitrary distances is not valid, ignoring this variation can dangerously bias the reconstruction of the cosmological parameters, in particular the reconstruction of the matter density parameter.[13][clarification needed]

text: That this is not merely a philosophical issue can be seen from the history of distance measurements using Cepheid variables. In the 1950s, Walter Baade discovered that the nearby Cepheid variables used to calibrate the standard candle were of a different type than the ones used to measure distances to nearby galaxies. The nearby Cepheid variables were population I stars with much higher metal content than the distant population II stars. As a result, the population II stars were actually much brighter than believed, and when corrected, this had the effect of doubling the distances to the globular clusters, the nearby galaxies, and the diameter of the Milky Way.

text: Standard siren[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2017)

text: Gravitational waves originating from the inspiral phase of compact binary systems, such as neutron stars or black holes, have the useful property that both the amplitude and shape of the emitted gravitational radiation depend strongly on the chirp mass of the system. By observing the waveform, the chirp mass can be computed, and thus the amplitude. Further, gravitational waves are not subject to extinction due to an absorbing intervening medium. (They are subject to gravitational lensing, however.) Thus, such a gravitational wave source is a "standard siren" of known loudness.[14]

text: The ratio of the source and received amplitudes allows the distance to be computed. Therefore, a standard siren can be used as a distance indicator on a cosmic scale. When the collision can be observed optically as well (as in the case of a kilonova), the Doppler shift can be measured and the Hubble constant computed.[15]

text: Standard ruler[edit]

text: Another class of physical distance indicator is the standard ruler. In 2008, galaxy diameters have been proposed as a possible standard ruler for cosmological parameter determination.[16] The method exploits regularity in baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) in the early universe: while small structures occur at all scales, acoustic oscillations in the primordial plasma did not exceed a certain length. The inhomogeneities in the plasma were then organized by gravity into galaxy filaments and voids. Consequently, cosmic voids are not expected to exceed a maximum size determined by the size of the BAOs that gave rise to them. The method requires an extensive galaxy survey in order to make this scale visible. The WiggleZ Dark Energy Survey was able to resolve this scale for detecting the expansion effect of dark energy.

text: Light echos can be also used as standard rulers.

text: Galactic distance indicators[edit]

text: With few exceptions, distances based on direct measurements are available only out to about a thousand parsecs, which is a modest portion of our own Galaxy. For distances beyond that, measures depend upon physical assumptions, that is, the assertion that one recognizes the object in question, and the class of objects is homogeneous enough that its members can be used for meaningful estimation of distance.

text: Physical distance indicators, used on progressively larger distance scales, include:

text:
Dynamical parallax, uses orbital parameters of visual binaries to measure the mass of the system, and hence use the mass–luminosity relation to determine the luminosity

Eclipsing binaries — In the last decade, measurement of eclipsing binaries' fundamental parameters has become possible with 8-meter class telescopes. This makes it feasible to use them as indicators of distance. Recently, they have been used to give direct distance estimates to the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), Andromeda Galaxy and Triangulum Galaxy. Eclipsing binaries offer a direct method to gauge the distance to galaxies to a new improved 5% level of accuracy which is feasible with current technology to a distance of around 3 Mpc (3 million parsecs).[17]

RR Lyrae variables — used for measuring distances within the galaxy and in nearby globular clusters.
The following four indicators all use stars in the old stellar populations (Population II):[18]

Tip of the red-giant branch (TRGB) distance indicator.
Planetary nebula luminosity function (PNLF)
Globular cluster luminosity function (GCLF)
Surface brightness fluctuation (SBF)

In galactic astronomy, X-ray bursts (thermonuclear flashes on the surface of a neutron star) are used as standard candles. Observations of X-ray burst sometimes show X-ray spectra indicating radius expansion. Therefore, the X-ray flux at the peak of the burst should correspond to Eddington luminosity, which can be calculated once the mass of the neutron star is known (1.5 solar masses is a commonly used assumption). This method allows distance determination of some low-mass X-ray binaries. Low-mass X-ray binaries are very faint in the optical, making their distances extremely difficult to determine.
Interstellar masers can be used to derive distances to galactic and some extragalactic objects that have maser emission.
Cepheids and novae
The Tully–Fisher relation
The Faber–Jackson relation
Type Ia supernovae that have a very well-determined maximum absolute magnitude as a function of the shape of their light curve and are useful in determining extragalactic distances up to a few hundred Mpc.[19] A notable exception is SN 2003fg, the "Champagne Supernova", a Type Ia supernova of unusual nature.
Redshifts and Hubble's law

text: Main sequence fitting[edit]

text: When the absolute magnitude for a group of stars is plotted against the spectral classification of the star, in a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, evolutionary patterns are found that relate to the mass, age and composition of the star. In particular, during their hydrogen burning period, stars lie along a curve in the diagram called the main sequence. By measuring these properties from a star's spectrum, the position of a main sequence star on the H–R diagram can be determined, and thereby the star's absolute magnitude estimated. A comparison of this value with the apparent magnitude allows the approximate distance to be determined, after correcting for interstellar extinction of the luminosity because of gas and dust.

text: In a gravitationally-bound star cluster such as the Hyades, the stars formed at approximately the same age and lie at the same distance. This allows relatively accurate main sequence fitting, providing both age and distance determination.

text: Extragalactic distance scale[edit]

text:
Extragalactic distance indicators[20]

Method
Uncertainty for Single Galaxy (mag)
Distance to Virgo Cluster (Mpc)
Range (Mpc)

Classical Cepheids
0.16
15–25
29

Novae
0.4
21.1 ± 3.9
20

Planetary Nebula Luminosity Function
0.3
15.4 ± 1.1
50

Globular Cluster Luminosity Function
0.4
18.8 ± 3.8
50

Surface Brightness Fluctuations
0.3
15.9 ± 0.9
50

D–σ relation
0.5
16.8 ± 2.4
> 100

Type Ia Supernovae
0.10
19.4 ± 5.0
> 1000

text: The extragalactic distance scale is a series of techniques used today by astronomers to determine the distance of cosmological bodies beyond our own galaxy, which are not easily obtained with traditional methods. Some procedures utilize properties of these objects, such as stars, globular clusters, nebulae, and galaxies as a whole. Other methods are based more on the statistics and probabilities of things such as entire galaxy clusters.

text: Wilson–Bappu effect[edit]

text: Discovered in 1956 by Olin Wilson and M.K. Vainu Bappu, the Wilson–Bappu effect utilizes the effect known as spectroscopic parallax. Many stars have features in their spectra, such as the calcium K-line, that indicate their absolute magnitude. The distance to the star can then be calculated from its apparent magnitude using the distance modulus.

text: There are major limitations to this method for finding stellar distances. The calibration of the spectral line strengths has limited accuracy and it requires a correction for interstellar extinction. Though in theory this method has the ability to provide reliable distance calculations to stars up to 7 megaparsecs (Mpc), it is generally only used for stars at hundreds of kiloparsecs (kpc).

text: Classical Cepheids[edit]

text: Beyond the reach of the Wilson–Bappu effect, the next method relies on the period-luminosity relation of classical Cepheid variable stars. The following relation can be used to calculate the distance to Galactic and extragalactic classical Cepheids:

text: Several problems complicate the use of Cepheids as standard candles and are actively debated, chief among them are: the nature and linearity of the period-luminosity relation in various passbands and the impact of metallicity on both the zero-point and slope of those relations, and the effects of photometric contamination (blending) and a changing (typically unknown) extinction law on Cepheid distances.[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]

text: These unresolved matters have resulted in cited values for the Hubble constant ranging between 60 km/s/Mpc and 80 km/s/Mpc. Resolving this discrepancy is one of the foremost problems in astronomy since the cosmological parameters of the Universe may be constrained by supplying a precise value of the Hubble constant.[32][33]

text: Cepheid variable stars were the key instrument in Edwin Hubble's 1923 conclusion that M31 (Andromeda) was an external galaxy, as opposed to a smaller nebula within the Milky Way. He was able to calculate the distance of M31 to 285 Kpc, today's value being 770 Kpc.

text: As detected thus far, NGC 3370, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Leo, contains the farthest Cepheids yet found at a distance of 29 Mpc. Cepheid variable stars are in no way perfect distance markers: at nearby galaxies they have an error of about 7% and up to a 15% error for the most distant.

text: Supernovae[edit]

text: There are several different methods for which supernovae can be used to measure extragalactic distances.

text: Measuring a supernova's photosphere[edit]

text: We can assume that a supernova expands in a spherically symmetric manner. If the supernova is close enough such that we can measure the angular extent, θ(t), of its photosphere, we can use the equation

text: where ω is angular velocity, θ is angular extent. In order to get an accurate measurement, it is necessary to make two observations separated by time Δt. Subsequently, we can use

text: where d is the distance to the supernova, Vej is the supernova's ejecta's radial velocity (it can be assumed that Vej equals Vθ if spherically symmetric).

text: This method works only if the supernova is close enough to be able to measure accurately the photosphere. Similarly, the expanding shell of gas is in fact not perfectly spherical nor a perfect blackbody. Also interstellar extinction can hinder the accurate measurements of the photosphere. This problem is further exacerbated by core-collapse supernova. All of these factors contribute to the distance error of up to 25%.

text: Type Ia light curves[edit]

text:
Type Ia supernovae are some of the best ways to determine extragalactic distances. Ia's occur when a binary white dwarf star begins to accrete matter from its companion star. As the white dwarf gains matter, eventually it reaches its Chandrasekhar limit of

1.4

M

⊙

{\displaystyle 1.4M_{\odot }}

.

text: Once reached, the star becomes unstable and undergoes a runaway nuclear fusion reaction. Because all Type Ia supernovae explode at about the same mass, their absolute magnitudes are all the same. This makes them very useful as standard candles. All Type Ia supernovae have a standard blue and visual magnitude of

text: Therefore, when observing a Type Ia supernova, if it is possible to determine what its peak magnitude was, then its distance can be calculated. It is not intrinsically necessary to capture the supernova directly at its peak magnitude; using the multicolor light curve shape method (MLCS), the shape of the light curve (taken at any reasonable time after the initial explosion) is compared to a family of parameterized curves that will determine the absolute magnitude at the maximum brightness. This method also takes into effect interstellar extinction/dimming from dust and gas.

text: Similarly, the stretch method fits the particular supernovae magnitude light curves to a template light curve. This template, as opposed to being several light curves at different wavelengths (MLCS) is just a single light curve that has been stretched (or compressed) in time. By using this Stretch Factor, the peak magnitude can be determined.[citation needed]

text: Using Type Ia supernovae is one of the most accurate methods, particularly since supernova explosions can be visible at great distances (their luminosities rival that of the galaxy in which they are situated), much farther than Cepheid Variables (500 times farther). Much time has been devoted to the refining of this method. The current uncertainty approaches a mere 5%, corresponding to an uncertainty of just 0.1 magnitudes.

text: Novae in distance determinations[edit]

text: Novae can be used in much the same way as supernovae to derive extragalactic distances. There is a direct relation between a nova's max magnitude and the time for its visible light to decline by two magnitudes. This relation is shown to be:

text:
Where

x
˙

{\displaystyle {\dot {x}}}

 is the time derivative of the nova's mag, describing the average rate of decline over the first 2 magnitudes.

text: After novae fade, they are about as bright as the most luminous Cepheid variable stars, therefore both these techniques have about the same max distance: ~ 20 Mpc. The error in this method produces an uncertainty in magnitude of about ±0.4

text: Globular cluster luminosity function[edit]

text: Based on the method of comparing the luminosities of globular clusters (located in galactic halos) from distant galaxies to that of the Virgo Cluster, the globular cluster luminosity function carries an uncertainty of distance of about 20% (or 0.4 magnitudes).

text: US astronomer William Alvin Baum first attempted to use globular clusters to measure distant elliptical galaxies. He compared the brightest globular clusters in Virgo A galaxy with those in Andromeda, assuming the luminosities of the clusters were the same in both. Knowing the distance to Andromeda, Baum has assumed a direct correlation and estimated Virgo A's distance.

text: Baum used just a single globular cluster, but individual formations are often poor standard candles. Canadian astronomer René Racine assumed the use of the globular cluster luminosity function (GCLF) would lead to a better approximation. The number of globular clusters as a function of magnitude is given by:

text: where m0 is the turnover magnitude, M0 is the magnitude of the Virgo cluster, and sigma is the dispersion ~ 1.4 mag.

text: It is important to remember that it is assumed that globular clusters all have roughly the same luminosities within the universe. There is no universal globular cluster luminosity function that applies to all galaxies.

text: Planetary nebula luminosity function[edit]

text: Like the GCLF method, a similar numerical analysis can be used for planetary nebulae (note the use of more than one!) within far off galaxies. The planetary nebula luminosity function (PNLF) was first proposed in the late 1970s by Holland Cole and David Jenner. They suggested that all planetary nebulae might all have similar maximum intrinsic brightness, now calculated to be M = −4.53. This would therefore make them potential standard candles for determining extragalactic distances.

text: Astronomer George Howard Jacoby and his colleagues later proposed that the PNLF function equaled:

text: Where N(M) is number of planetary nebula, having absolute magnitude M. M* is equal to the nebula with the brightest magnitude.

text: Surface brightness fluctuation method[edit]

text: The following method deals with the overall inherent properties of galaxies. These methods, though with varying error percentages, have the ability to make distance estimates beyond 100 Mpc, though it is usually applied more locally.

text: The surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) method takes advantage of the use of CCD cameras on telescopes. Because of spatial fluctuations in a galaxy's surface brightness, some pixels on these cameras will pick up more stars than others. However, as distance increases the picture will become increasingly smoother. Analysis of this describes a magnitude of the pixel-to-pixel variation, which is directly related to a galaxy's distance.

text: D–σ relation[edit]

text: The D–σ relation, used in elliptical galaxies, relates the angular diameter (D) of the galaxy to its velocity dispersion. It is important to describe exactly what D represents, in order to understand this method. It is, more precisely, the galaxy's angular diameter out to the surface brightness level of 20.75 B-mag arcsec−2. This surface brightness is independent of the galaxy's actual distance from us. Instead, D is inversely proportional to the galaxy's distance, represented as d. Thus, this relation does not employ standard candles. Rather, D provides a standard ruler. This relation between D and σ is

text: Where C is a constant which depends on the distance to the galaxy clusters.[citation needed]

text: This method has the potential to become one of the strongest methods of galactic distance calculators, perhaps exceeding the range of even the Tully–Fisher method. As of today, however, elliptical galaxies aren't bright enough to provide a calibration for this method through the use of techniques such as Cepheids. Instead, calibration is done using more crude methods.

text: Overlap and scaling[edit]

text: A succession of distance indicators, which is the distance ladder, is needed for determining distances to other galaxies. The reason is that objects bright enough to be recognized and measured at such distances are so rare that few or none are present nearby, so there are too few examples close enough with reliable trigonometric parallax to calibrate the indicator. For example, Cepheid variables, one of the best indicators for nearby spiral galaxies, cannot yet be satisfactorily calibrated by parallax alone, though the Gaia space mission is expected to solve that specific problem. The situation is further complicated by the fact that different stellar populations generally do not have all types of stars in them. Cepheids in particular are massive stars, with short lifetimes, so they will only be found in places where stars have very recently been formed. Consequently, because elliptical galaxies usually have long ceased to have large-scale star formation, they will not have Cepheids. Instead, distance indicators whose origins are in an older stellar population (like novae and RR Lyrae variables) must be used. However, RR Lyrae variables are less luminous than Cepheids, and novae are unpredictable and an intensive monitoring program—and luck during that program—is needed to gather enough novae in the target galaxy for a good distance estimate.

text: Because the more distant steps of the cosmic distance ladder depend upon the nearer ones, the more distant steps include the effects of errors in the nearer steps, both systematic and statistical ones. The result of these propagating errors means that distances in astronomy are rarely known to the same level of precision as measurements in the other sciences, and that the precision necessarily is poorer for more distant types of object.

text: Another concern, especially for the very brightest standard candles, is their "standardness": how homogeneous the objects are in their true absolute magnitude. For some of these different standard candles, the homogeneity is based on theories about the formation and evolution of stars and galaxies, and is thus also subject to uncertainties in those aspects. For the most luminous of distance indicators, the Type Ia supernovae, this homogeneity is known to be poor[34][clarification needed]; however, no other class of object is bright enough to be detected at such large distances, so the class is useful simply because there is no real alternative.

text: The observational result of Hubble's Law, the proportional relationship between distance and the speed with which a galaxy is moving away from us (usually referred to as redshift) is a product of the cosmic distance ladder. Edwin Hubble observed that fainter galaxies are more redshifted. Finding the value of the Hubble constant was the result of decades of work by many astronomers, both in amassing the measurements of galaxy redshifts and in calibrating the steps of the distance ladder. Hubble's Law is the primary means we have for estimating the distances of quasars and distant galaxies in which individual distance indicators cannot be seen.


document_title: Live by the sword, die by the sword

question_text: who said those who live by the sword die by the sword

root

text: Live by the sword, die by the sword

text: Biblical[edit]

text: The saying appears in the Latin Bible in the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 26, verse 52.[1] an unnamed follower of Jesus draws his sword and cuts off the ear of a servant of the high priest. Jesus then says to him: Converte gladium tuum in locum suum. Omnes enim, qui acceperint gladium, gladio peribunt. ("Return your sword to its place, for all who will take up the sword, will die by the sword.") The phrase in the Greek original version of the Gospel is πάντες γὰρ οἱ λαβόντες μάχαιραν ἐν μαχαίρῃ ἀπολοῦνται.[2]

tag: p

text: Note that the Latin version refers to the weapon as a gladius, while the Greek version refers to it as a makhaira.[citation needed]

text: Interpretations[edit]

text: A common modern interpretation[3] means "those who live by violence will die by violence", suggesting nonviolence or pacifism as an alternative.

text: The Biblical quotation has been interpreted as an instruction for Christian pacifism.[4]

text: References in popular culture[edit]

text: The saying is paraphrased in the slogan "live by the bomb, die by the bomb" used in The White House Peace Vigil protest.

tag: ul

text: The Saxon song To Live By the Sword appears on the album Lionheart (2004).

text: Lyrics by rapper Lil Wayne in the song God Bless Amerika appears on the album I Am Not a Human Being II (2013)[5]

text: "Here we live by the sword and die by the sword, Heard police was lookin' for me, I’mma hide by a broad"

text: On 4 February 2013, Ron Paul referenced the proverb in a tweet about Chris Kyle's murder.[citation needed]


document_title: Cytoskeleton

question_text: the smallest of the cytoskeleton elements is the

text: Cytoskeleton

text: History[edit]

text: In 1903, Nikolai K. Koltsov proposed that the shape of cells was determined by a network of tubules that he termed the cytoskeleton. The concept of a protein mosaic that dynamically coordinated cytoplasmic biochemistry was proposed by Rudolph Peters in 1929 [8] while the term (cytosquelette, in French) was first introduced by French embryologist Paul Wintrebert in 1931.[9] When the cytoskeleton was first introduced, it was thought to be a uninteresting gel-like substance that help organelles stay in place. [10]

text: Eukaryotic cytoskeleton[edit]

text: Eukaryotic cells contain three main kinds of cytoskeletal filaments: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Each cytoskeletal filament type is formed by polymerization of a distinct type of protein subunit and has its own characteristic shape and intracellular distribution. Microfilaments are polymers of the protein actin and are 7 nm in diameter. Microtubules are composed of tubulin and are 25 nm in diameter. Intermediate filaments are composed of various proteins, depending on the type of cell in which they are found; they are normally 8-12 nm in diameter.[1] The cytoskeleton provides the cell with structure and shape, and by excluding macromolecules from some of the cytosol, it adds to the level of macromolecular crowding in this compartment.[11] Cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with cellular membranes.[12] A number of small-molecule cytoskeletal drugs have been discovered that interact with actin and microtubules. These compounds have proven useful in studying the cytoskeleton and several have clinical applications.

text: All filaments interact with accessory proteins that regulate and link the filaments to other cell compounds and each other. The accessory proteins are essential for controlled assembly of cytoskeletal filaments in particular locations, and they include motor proteins.[13]

text: Microfilaments (actin filaments)[edit]

text: Microfilaments are composed of linear polymers of G-actin proteins, and generate force when the growing (plus) end of the filament pushes against a barrier, such as the cell membrane. They also act as tracks for the movement of myosin molecules that affix to the microfilament and "walk" along them. Myosin motoring along F-actin filaments generates contractile forces in so-called actomyosin fibers, both in muscle as well as most non-muscle cell types.[14] Actin structures are controlled by the Rho family of small GTP-binding proteins such as Rho itself for contractile acto-myosin filaments ("stress fibers"), Rac for lamellipodia and Cdc42 for filopodia.

text: Intermediate filaments[edit]

text: Intermediate filaments are a part of the cytoskeleton of many eukaryotic cells. These filaments, averaging 10 nanometers in diameter, are more stable (strongly bound) than actin filaments, and heterogeneous constituents of the cytoskeleton. Like actin filaments, they function in the maintenance of cell-shape by bearing tension (microtubules, by contrast, resist compression but can also bear tension during mitosis and during the positioning of the centrosome). Intermediate filaments organize the internal tridimensional structure of the cell, anchoring organelles and serving as structural components of the nuclear lamina. They also participate in some cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions. Nuclear lamina exist in all animals and all tissues. Some animals like the fruit fly do not have any cytoplasmic intermediate filaments. In those animals that express cytoplasmic intermediate filaments, these are tissue specific.[6]

text: Different intermediate filaments are:

text:
made of vimentins. Vimentin intermediate filaments are in general present in mesenchymal cells.
made of keratin. Keratin is present in general in epithelial cells.
neurofilaments of neural cells.
made of lamin, giving structural support to the nuclear envelope.
made of desmin, play an important role in structural and mechanical support of muscle cells.[15]

text: Microtubules[edit]

text: Microtubules are hollow cylinders about 23 nm in diameter (lumen = approximately 15 nm in diameter), most commonly comprising 13 protofilaments that, in turn, are polymers of alpha and beta tubulin. They have a very dynamic behavior, binding GTP for polymerization. They are commonly organized by the centrosome.

text: In nine triplet sets (star-shaped), they form the centrioles, and in nine doublets oriented about two additional microtubules (wheel-shaped), they form cilia and flagella. The latter formation is commonly referred to as a "9+2" arrangement, wherein each doublet is connected to another by the protein dynein. As both flagella and cilia are structural components of the cell, and are maintained by microtubules, they can be considered part of the cytoskeleton.

text: They play key roles in:

text:
intracellular transport (associated with dyneins and kinesins, they transport organelles like mitochondria or vesicles).
the axoneme of cilia and flagella.
the mitotic spindle.
synthesis of the cell wall in plants.

text: In addition to the roles described above, Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose have proposed that microtubules function in consciousness[16].

text: Comparison[edit]

text:
Cytoskeleton type[17]
Diameter (nm)[18]
Structure
Subunit examples[17]

Microfilaments
    6
 double helix
 actin

Intermediate filaments
   10
 two anti-parallel helices/dimers, forming tetramers

vimentin (mesenchyme)
glial fibrillary acidic protein (glial cells)
neurofilament proteins (neuronal processes)
keratins (epithelial cells)
nuclear lamins

Microtubules
   23
 protofilaments, in turn consisting of tubulin subunits in complex with stathmin[19]
 α- and β-tubulin

tag: table

text: Septins[edit]

text: Septins are a group of the highly conserved GTP binding proteins found in eukaryotes. Different septins form protein complexes with each other. These can assemble to filaments and rings. Therefore, septins can be considered part of the cytoskeleton.[20] The function of septins in cells include serving as a localized attachment site for other proteins, and preventing the diffusion of certain molecules from one cell compartment to another.[20] In yeast cells, they build scaffolding to provide structural support during cell division and compartmentalize parts of the cell. Recent research in human cells suggests that septins build cages around bacterial pathogens, immobilizing the harmful microbes and preventing them from invading other cells.[21]

text: Spectrin[edit]

text: Spectrin is a cytoskeletal protein that lines the intracellular side of the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells. Spectrin forms pentagonal or hexagonal arrangements, forming a scaffolding and playing an important role in maintenance of plasma membrane integrity and cytoskeletal structure.[22]

text: Yeast cytoskeleton[edit]

text: In budding yeast (an important model organism), actin forms cortical patches, actin cables, and a cytokinetic ring and the cap. Cortical patches are discrete actin bodies on the membrane and are vital for endocytosis, especially the recycling of glucan synthase which is important for cell wall synthesis. Actin cables are bundles of actin filaments and are involved in the transport of vesicles towards the cap (which contains a number of different proteins to polarize cell growth) and in the positioning of mitochondria. The cytokinetic ring forms and constricts around the site of cell division.[23]

text: Prokaryotic cytoskeleton[edit]

text: The cytoskeleton was once thought to be a feature only of eukaryotic cells, but homologues to all the major proteins of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton have been found in prokaryotes.[24] Although the evolutionary relationships are so distant that they are not obvious from protein sequence comparisons alone, the similarity of their three-dimensional structures and similar functions in maintaining cell shape and polarity provides strong evidence that the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cytoskeletons are truly homologous.[25] However, some structures in the bacterial cytoskeleton may not have been identified as of yet.[14][26]

text: FtsZ[edit]

text: FtsZ was the first protein of the prokaryotic cytoskeleton to be identified. Like tubulin, FtsZ forms filaments in the presence of guanosine triphosphate (GTP), but these filaments do not group into tubules. During cell division, FtsZ is the first protein to move to the division site, and is essential for recruiting other proteins that synthesize the new cell wall between the dividing cells.

text: MreB and ParM[edit]

text: Prokaryotic actin-like proteins, such as MreB, are involved in the maintenance of cell shape. All non-spherical bacteria have genes encoding actin-like proteins, and these proteins form a helical network beneath the cell membrane that guides the proteins involved in cell wall biosynthesis.[27]

text: Some plasmids encode a separate system that involves an actin-like protein ParM. Filaments of ParM exhibit dynamic instability, and may partition plasmid DNA into the dividing daughter cells by a mechanism analogous to that used by microtubules during eukaryotic mitosis.[14][28]

text: Crescentin[edit]

text: The bacterium Caulobacter crescentus contains a third protein, crescentin, that is related to the intermediate filaments of eukaryotic cells. Crescentin is also involved in maintaining cell shape, such as helical and vibrioid forms of bacteria, but the mechanism by which it does this is currently unclear.[29] Additionally, curvature could be described by the displacement of crescentic filaments,after the disruption of peptidoglycan synthesis.[30]

text: Common features and differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes[edit]

text: By definition, the cytoskeleton is composed of proteins that can form longitudinal arrays (fibres) in all organisms. These filament forming proteins have been classified into 4 classes. Tubulin-like, actin-like, Walker A cytoskeletal ATPases (WACA-proteins), and intermediate filaments.[4][14]

text: Tubulin-like proteins are tubulin in eukaryotes and FtsZ, TubZ, RepX in prokaryotes. Actin-like proteins are actin in eukaryotes and MreB, FtsA in prokaryotes. An example of a WACA-proteins, which are mostly found in prokaryotes, is MinD. Examples for intermediate filaments, which have almost exclusively been found in animals (i.e. eukaryotes) are the lamins, keratins, vimentin, neurofilaments, and desmin.[4]

text: Although tubulin-like proteins share some amino acid sequence similarity, their equivalence in protein-fold and the similarity in the GTP binding site is more striking. The same holds true for the actin-like proteins and their structure and ATP binding domain.[4][14]

text: Cytoskeletal proteins are usually correlated with cell shape, DNA segregation and cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Which proteins fulfill which task is very different. For example, DNA segregation in all eukaryotes happens through use of tubulin, but in prokaryotes either WACA proteins, actin-like or tubulin-like proteins can be used. Cell division is mediated in eukaryotes by actin, but in prokaryotes usually by tubulin-like (often FtsZ-ring) proteins and sometimes (Crenarchaeota) ESCRT-III, which in eukaryotes still has a role in the last step of division.[4]


document_title: The Great Gatsby (2013 film)

question_text: who played daisy in the great gatsby remake

text: The Great Gatsby (2013 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1931, Nick Carraway, a World War I veteran, is receiving treatment for alcoholism at a psychiatric hospital. He talks about Jay Gatsby, the most hopeful man he had ever met. Nick's doctor suggests that he writes his thoughts down, since writing is Nick's passion. In the summer of 1922, Nick moves from the Midwest to New York after abandoning writing. He rents a small house in the North Shore village of West Egg, next to the mansion of Gatsby, a mysterious business magnate who often holds extravagant parties. One day, while Nick has dinner with his cousin, Daisy Buchanan, and her husband, Tom, he is introduced to Jordan Baker by Daisy, who hopes to make a match between them. When Nick returns home, he sees Gatsby standing on the dock, reaching towards the green light coming from the Buchanan dock.

text: Jordan tells Nick that Tom has a mistress who lives in the "valley of ashes", an industrial dumping site between West Egg and The City. Nick and Tom visit the valley and stop at a garage owned by George Wilson and his wife, Myrtle, Tom's mistress. Later, Nick receives an invitation to one of Gatsby's parties. Upon arrival, Nick learns he is the only one to receive an invitation and none of the guests have ever met Gatsby. Nick encounters Jordan, and both meet Gatsby. Gatsby offers Nick a ride to town for lunch. On the way, Gatsby tells Nick he is an Oxford graduate and war hero from a wealthy Midwestern family. They go to a speakeasy, where Gatsby introduces Nick to his business partner, Meyer Wolfsheim.

text: Jordan tells Nick that Gatsby had a relationship with Daisy years ago and is still in love with her, and that Gatsby threw parties in the hopes that Daisy would attend. Gatsby asks Nick to invite Daisy to tea. After an awkward reunion, Gatsby and Daisy begin an affair. Gatsby is dismayed when Daisy wants to run away with him and wants her to get a divorce. He asks Nick and Jordan to accompany him to the Buchanan home, where he and Daisy plan to tell Tom that Daisy is leaving him. During the luncheon, Tom becomes suspicious of Gatsby and Daisy, but Daisy stops Gatsby from revealing anything to Tom and suggests they all go to the Plaza Hotel. Tom drives Nick and Jordan in Gatsby's car, while Gatsby drives Daisy in Tom's car. Tom stops for gas at George's garage, where George tells him that he and Myrtle are moving and that he suspects Myrtle is unfaithful.

text: At the Plaza, Gatsby tells Tom of his affair with Daisy. Tom accuses Gatsby of having never attended Oxford and having made his fortune through bootlegging with mobsters. Daisy says she loves Gatsby but cannot bring herself to say she never loved Tom. Eventually, both Gatsby and Daisy leave. After fighting with George over her infidelity, Myrtle runs into the street and is fatally struck by Gatsby's car after mistaking it for Tom's. After learning about Myrtle's death, Tom tells George that the car belongs to Gatsby and that he suspects Gatsby was Myrtle's lover. Nick deduces Daisy was the driver, though Gatsby intends to take the blame. Nick overhears Daisy accepting Tom's promise to take care of everything, but he does not tell Gatsby. Gatsby admits to Nick that he was born penniless; his real name is James Gatz, and he had asked Daisy to wait for him until he had made something of himself.

text: The next day, Gatsby hears the phone ringing and thinks it's Daisy. Before he can answer it, he is shot and killed by George, who then commits suicide. Nick is the only person other than reporters to attend Gatsby's funeral, as Daisy and Tom are leaving New York. The media paints Gatsby as Myrtle's lover and killer. Disgusted with both the city and its inhabitants, Nick leaves after taking a final walk through Gatsby's deserted mansion and reflecting on Gatsby's ability to hope. In the sanatorium, Nick finishes typing his memoir, titling it The Great Gatsby.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Leonardo DiCaprio as Jay Gatsby, a famous billionaire who hosts wild parties at his house in the hope that Daisy will show up.
Tobey Maguire as Nick Carraway, a would-be writer who is also Gatsby’s neighbor and friend. He is the narrator of this movie.
Carey Mulligan as Daisy Buchanan, Gatsby’s former lover and Tom’s wife.
Emily Foreman as Pamela "Pammy" Buchanan
Joel Edgerton as Tom Buchanan, Upper class socialite who hates Gatsby because of his new money status and relationship with Daisy
Elizabeth Debicki as Jordan Baker, Athlete and Daisy's best friend
Isla Fisher as Myrtle Wilson, Tom's mistress and ambitious social climber
Jason Clarke as George Wilson, owner of garage in Valley of Ashes
Amitabh Bachchan as Meyer Wolfsheim, a gambler who met Gatsby in 1919.
Jack Thompson as Dr. Walter Perkins
Adelaide Clemens as Catherine
Callan McAuliffe as Young Jay Gatsby
Richard Carter as Herzog
Max Cullen as Owl Eyes
Heather Mitchell as Daisy's mother
Gus Murray as Teddy Barton
Steve Bisley as Dan Cody
Vince Colosimo as Michaelis
Felix Williamson as Henri
Kate Mulvany as Mrs. Mckee
Eden Falk as Chester Mckee
Nick Jantz as Robert Stellenbosh
iOTA as Trimalchio
Brendan Maclean as Ewing Klipspringer
Kahlia and Karinna Greksa as The Twins
Blake Hatton as Rowdy Boy #1

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Prior to this version, there had already been an opera and numerous other dramatic adaptations of F. Scott Fitzgerald's acclaimed 1925 novel of the same name.[9] In December 2008, Variety reported that this film adaptation was to be made with Baz Luhrmann as director.

text: Luhrmann stated that he planned it to be more up-to-date due to its theme of criticizing the often irresponsible lifestyles of wealthy people.[10] To commit to the project, in September 2010 Luhrmann moved with his family from Australia to Chelsea in Lower Manhattan, where he had intended to film The Great Gatsby.[11] While Luhrmann was at the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2011, he told The Hollywood Reporter that he had been workshopping The Great Gatsby in 3D, though he had not yet decided whether to shoot in the format.[12] In late January 2011, Luhrmann showed doubt about staying on board with the project,[13] before deciding to stay.

text: In 2010, it was reported that the film was being set up by Sony Pictures Entertainment[14] but by 2011, Warner Bros. was close to acquiring a deal to finance and take worldwide distribution of The Great Gatsby.[15]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Luhrmann said the results from the movie's workshop process of auditioning actors for roles in The Great Gatsby had been "very encouraging" to him. Leonardo DiCaprio was cast first, in the title role of Jay Gatsby. It is the second time Luhrmann and DiCaprio worked together; DiCaprio costarred in Luhrmann's Romeo + Juliet (1996). Tobey Maguire was cast to play Nick Carraway.[16] Reports linked Amanda Seyfried to the lead role of Daisy Buchanan, in October 2010.[17] The next month Deadline Hollywood reported that Luhrmann had been auditioning numerous actresses, including Keira Knightley, Rebecca Hall, Amanda Seyfried, Blake Lively, Abbie Cornish, Michelle Williams and Scarlett Johansson, as well as considering Natalie Portman, for Daisy.[14] Soon afterward, with her commitment to Cameron Crowe's We Bought a Zoo(2011), Johansson pulled out.[18]

text: On November 15, Luhrmann announced that Carey Mulligan had been cast to play Daisy after reading for the part on 2 November in New York.[16] She got the role shortly after Luhrmann showed her audition footage to Sony Pictures Entertainment executives Amy Pascal and Doug Belgrad, who were impressed by the actress' command of the character.[16] Mulligan burst into tears after learning of her casting via a phone call from Luhrmann, who informed her of his decision while she was on the red carpet at an event in New York. Luhrmann said: "I was privileged to explore the character with some of the world's most talented actresses, each one bringing their own particular interpretation, all of which were legitimate and exciting. However, specific to this particular production of The Great Gatsby, I was thrilled to pick up the phone an hour ago to the young Oscar-nominated British actress Carey Mulligan and say to her: 'Hello, Daisy Buchanan.'"[16]

text: In April, Ben Affleck was in talks about playing the role of Tom Buchanan but had to pass due to a scheduling conflict with Argo (2012).[19] Several weeks later, Affleck was replaced by Joel Edgerton.[20] Bradley Cooper had previously lobbied for the part[20] and Luke Evans was a major contender.[21] Isla Fisher was cast to play Myrtle Wilson.[22] Australian newcomer Elizabeth Debicki won the part of Jordan Baker, right after graduating from Victorian College of the Arts.[23][24]

text: While casting for the supporting role of Jordan, the filmmaker said the character must be "as thoroughly examined as Daisy, for this production, for this time", adding, "It's like Olivier's Hamlet was the right Hamlet for his time. Who would Hamlet be today? Same with a Jordan or a Daisy".[25] In June 2011, Jason Clarke was cast as George B. Wilson.[26] Indian actor Amitabh Bachchan makes a cameo appearance as Meyer Wolfshiem; this was his first Hollywood role.[27]

text: Filming[edit]

text: The Great Gatsby was planned to be filmed in the New York City area where the novel is set, starting in June 2011.[11] The director instead opted to shoot principal photography in Sydney. Filming began on September 5, 2011, at Fox Studios Australia and finished on December 22, 2011, with additional shots filmed in January 2012.[29][30] The film was shot with Red Epic digital cameras and Zeiss Ultra Prime lenses.[31] The "Valley of Ashes", the desolate land located between West Egg and New York was shot in Balmain, New South Wales and Manly Business School in Manly–known as Saint Patrick's Seminary–doubled as Gatsby's mansion. Nick's house was located in Centennial Park.[28]

text: Sets[edit]

text: In creating the background scenery for the world depicted in the film, designer Catherine Martin stated that the team styled the interior sets of Jay Gatsby's mansion with gilded opulence, in a style that blended establishment taste with Art Deco.[32] The long-destroyed Beacon Towers, thought by scholars to have partially inspired Fitzgerald's Jay Gatsby estate, was used as a main inspiration for Gatsby's home in the film.[32][33] The filming for the exterior of Jay Gatsby's mansion was the college building of the International College of Management, Sydney,[34] Some inspiration was also drawn from other Gold Coast, Long Island, mansions, including Oheka Castle and La Selva Mansion.[35] Features evoking the Long Island mansions were added in post-production.[35]

text: The inspiration for the film version of the Buchanan estate came from Old Westbury Gardens.[32] The mansion exterior was built on a soundstage, with digital enhancements added.[35] The interior sets for the Buchanan mansion were inspired by the style of Hollywood Regency.[32]

text: The home of Nick Carraway was conceived as an intimate cottage, in contrast with the grandeur of the neighboring Gatsby mansion. Objects chosen adhered to a central theme of what the designers saw as classic Long Island. The architecture conjures American Arts and Crafts, with Gustav Stickley-type furnishings inside and an Adirondack-style swing out.[35]

text: The opening scene was filmed from Rivendell Child, Adolescent and Family Unit in Concord, Sydney, only a few kilometres from Sydney 2000 Olympic Stadium.

text: Costumes[edit]

text: Many apparel designers were approached in collaboration of the film's costumes. The Great Gatsby achieved the iconic 1920s look by altering pieces from the Prada and Miu Miu fashion archives. Martin also collaborated with Brooks Brothers for the costumes worn by the male cast members and extras. Tiffany & Co. provided the jewelry for the film. Catherine Martin and Miuccia Prada were behind the wardrobe and worked closely together to create pieces with "the European flair that was emerging amongst the aristocratic East Coast crowds in the 1920s".[citation needed]

text: Costume historians of the period, however, said that the costumes were not authentic, but instead modernized the 1920s-era fashions to look more like modern fashions. Most prominently, the women were clothed to emphasize their breasts, such as Daisy's push-up bra, in contrast to the flat-chested fashions of the era. While the book was set in 1922, the movie included fashions from the entire decade of the 1920s and even the 1930s. Many of the fashions from archives were concepts from runways and fashion magazines that were never worn by women in real life. Martin says that she took the styles of the 1920s and made them sexier and was trying to interpret 1920s styles for a modern audience. Alice Jurow, of the Art Deco Society of California, said that she loved the movie, but most of their members prefer more period-perfect films. The men's costumes were more authentic, except that the pants were too tight.[36]

text: Release and marketing[edit]

text: Originally scheduled for a December 25, 2012 release, on August 6, 2012, it was reported that the film was being moved to a summer 2013 release date.[37] In September 2012, this date was confirmed to be May 10, 2013. The film opened the 66th Cannes Film Festival on May 15, 2013,[38] shortly following its wide release in RealD 3D and 2D formats.[citation needed]

text: The first trailer for The Great Gatsby was released on May 22, 2012,[39] almost a year before the film's release. Songs featured in various trailers include: "No Church in the Wild" by Jay-Z and Kanye West; a cover of U2's "Love Is Blindness" performed by Jack White; a cover of The Turtles' "Happy Together" by the band Filter; a cover of Amy Winehouse's "Back to Black" performed by André 3000 and Beyoncé; "Young and Beautiful" performed by Lana Del Rey; and two songs, "Bedroom Hymns" and "Over the Love", performed by Florence and the Machine.[40]

text: On April 15, 2013, Brooks Brothers premiered "The Gatsby Collection", a line of men's clothing, shoes and accessories "inspired by the costumes designed by Catherine Martin for Baz Luhrmann's The Great Gatsby". According to Fashion Weekly, "The looks weren't simply based on 1920s style: the new duds were designed based on the brand's actual archives [...] Brooks Brothers was one of the initial arbiters of Gatsby-era look. The actual costumes, designed by Catherine Martin, will be on display in select Brooks Brothers boutiques."[41][42]

text: On April 17, 2013, Tiffany & Co. unveiled windows at its Fifth Avenue flagship store "inspired by" Luhrmann's film and created in collaboration with Luhrmann and costumer Catherine Martin. The jewelry store also premiered "The Great Gatsby Collection" line of jewelry designed in anticipation of the film. The collection comprises 7 pieces: a brooch, a headpiece (both reportedly based on archival Tiffany designs), a necklace and four different rings, including one in platinum with a 5.25-carat diamond, priced at US$875,000.[43][44][45]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Released on May 7, the film's soundtrack is also available in a deluxe edition; a Target exclusive release also features three extra tracks.[40] The film score was executive-produced by Jay-Z[46] and The Bullitts.[47]

text: Penned by Lana Del Rey and the film's director, Baz Luhrmann, the song "Young and Beautiful" was released to contemporary hit radio as a single, and was used as the film's buzz single.[48] A snippet of the track appeared in the official trailer for the film and played during the scene where the characters portrayed by Leonardo DiCaprio and Carey Mulligan express their romantic feelings for one another.[49] Hip hop magazine Rap-Up called the single "haunting",[48] while MTV called it "somber-sounding".[49] The track performed by Florence and the Machine, "Over the Love", references the "green light" symbol from the novel in its lyrics.[46] Chris Payne of Billboard praised Beyoncé and André 3000's cover of "Back to Black", made unique with a downtempo EDM wobble.[46] The xx recorded "Together" for the film, with Jamie Smith telling MTV that the band's contribution to the soundtrack sounds like "despair",[50] and revealing that it utilizes a 60-piece orchestra.

text: Speaking of his goals for the movie's musical backdrop, Baz Luhrmann expressed his desire to blend the music of the Jazz Age, associated with the 1922 setting of the story, with a modern spin. Much like his modern twists applied in Moulin Rouge! and Romeo + Juliet, Baz uses the movie's music not as a background, but instead prominently in the foreground, which takes on a character of its own.[51]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Great Gatsby grosses $144.8 million in North America, and $208.8 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $353.6 million.[4] Calculating in all expenses, Deadline Hollywood estimated that the film made a profit of $58.6 million.[52]

text: In North America, The Great Gatsby earned US$19.4 million on its opening Friday, including US$3.25 million from Thursday night and midnight shows.[53] It went on to finish in second place, behind Iron Man 3, during its opening weekend, with US$51.1 million.[54] This was the sixth-largest opening weekend for a film that did not debut in first place,[55] the second largest opening weekend for a film starring Leonardo DiCaprio behind Inception,[56] and Luhrmann's highest-grossing movie.[57]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 49% based on 271 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "While certainly ambitious—and every bit as visually dazzling as one might expect—Baz Luhrmann's The Great Gatsby emphasizes visual splendor at the expense of its source material's vibrant heart."[58] Metacritic gives the film a score of 55 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[59] Audiences polled by the market research firm CinemaScore gave an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[53]

text: Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal felt the elaborate production designs were a misfire and likened the film to the Roaring Twenties themselves as Fitzgerald envisioned and criticized them, stating that what is "intractably wrong with the film is that there's no reality to heighten; it's a spectacle in search of a soul."[60] The Chicago Reader review felt "Luhrmann is exactly the wrong person to adapt such a delicately rendered story, and his 3D feature plays like a ghastly Roaring 20s blowout at a sorority house."[61] In The Atlantic, Christopher Orr observed that "The problem is that when the movie is entertaining it's not Gatsby, and when it's Gatsby it's not entertaining."[62]

text: The positive reviews included A. O. Scott of The New York Times, who felt the adaptation was "a lot of fun" and "less a conventional movie adaptation than a splashy, trashy opera, a wayward, lavishly theatrical celebration of the emotional and material extravagance that Fitzgerald surveyed with fascinated ambivalence"; Scott advised "the best way to enjoy the film is to put aside whatever literary agenda you are tempted to bring with you."[63] Ty Burr of The Boston Globe reserved special praise for DiCaprio's performance, saying "magnificent is the only word to describe this performance – the best movie Gatsby by far, superhuman in his charm and connections, the host of revels beyond imagining, and at his heart an insecure fraud whose hopes are pinned to a woman."[64]

text: The Scene Magazine gave the movie a "B-" rating, and praised the actors' performances, in particular saying that "the stand-out actor is Joel Edgerton as Tom Buchanan doing an excellent job of showing the character’s gruffness, despite the one-dimensionality given to him".[65] A granddaughter of Fitzgerald praised the style and music of the film.[66]

text: Tobey Maguire's role as Nick was given mixed to negative reviews from critics, with Philip French of The Guardian calling him "miscast or misdirected;"[67] Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post saying "Tobey Maguire is his usual recessive presence, barely registering as either a dynamic part of the events he describes or their watchful witness;"[68] and Elizabeth Weitzman of The New York Daily News saying despite "the wry-observational skills needed for Nick's Midwestern decency", the character is "directed toward a wide-eyed, one-note performance".[69] Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail was more positive of Maguire's character, saying "our narrator, [is] prone to his occasionally purple rhetoric. But that imposed conceit, the image of a talented depressive writing from inside the bauble of his imagination, seems to validate his inflated prose and, better yet, lets us re-appreciate its inherent poetry."[70]

text: In 2017, while promoting Mudbound, Carey Mulligan revealed in an interview that she was not a fan of her own performance for her own film, believing that the huge scale of the project overwhelmed her at the time and after completing it she decided to focus on smaller films that would be more likely to have smaller and more tightly-knit casts and crews.

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Awards

Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result

Academy Awards[71][72]
March 2, 2014
Best Production Design
Catherine Martin (Art Direction); Beverley Dunn (Set Decoration)
Won

Best Costume Design
Catherine Martin
Won

AACTA Awards
January 30, 2014
Best Film
Baz Luhrmann, Catherine Martin, Douglas Wick, Lucy Fisher, and Catherine Knapman
Won

Best Direction
Baz Luhrmann
Won

Best Adapted Screenplay
Baz Luhrmann and Craig Pearce
Won

Best Actor in a Leading Role
Leonardo DiCaprio
Won

Best Actress in a Leading Role
Carey Mulligan
Nominated

Best Actor in a Supporting Role
Joel Edgerton
Won

Best Actress in a Supporting Role
Elizabeth Debicki
Won

Isla Fisher
Nominated

Best Cinematography
Simon Duggan
Won

Best Editing
Matt Villa, Jason Ballantine, and Jonathan Redmond
Won

Best Original Music Score
Craig Armstrong
Won

Best Sound
Wayne Pashley, Jenny Ward, Fabian Sanjurjo, Steve Maslow, Phil Heywood, and Guntis Sics
Won

Best Production Design
Catherine Martin, Karen Murphy, Ian Gracie, and Beverley Dunn
Won

Best Costume Design
Catherine Martin, Silvana Azzi Heras, and Kerry Thompson
Won

AACTA International Awards
January 10, 2014
Best Supporting Actor
Joel Edgerton
Nominated

Best Direction
Baz Luhrmann
Nominated

Art Directors Guild[73]
February 8, 2014
Excellence in Production Design – Period Film
Catherine Martin
Won

British Academy Film Awards[74]
February 16, 2014
Best Costume Design
Catherine Martin
Won

Best Make-up and Hair
Maurizio Silvi, Kerry Warn
Nominated

Best Production Design
Catherine Martin, Beverley Dunn
Won

Costume Designers Guild[75]
February 22, 2014
Excellence in Period Film
Catherine Martin
Nominated

Critics' Choice Movie Awards[76]
January 16, 2014
Best Costume Design
Catherine Martin
Won

Best Production Design
Catherine Martin, Beverley Dunn
Won

Best Song
"Young and Beautiful"- Lana Del Rey
Nominated

Gay and Lesbian Entertainment Critics Association[77]
January 21, 2014
Campy Flick of the Year

Nominated

Visually Striking Film of the Year

Nominated

Empire Awards[78]
March 30, 2014
Best Female Newcomer
Elizabeth Debicki
Nominated

Grammy Awards[79]
January 26, 2014
Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media
Baz Luhrmann
Nominated

Best Song Written For Visual Media
Young and Beautiful
Music by Lana Del Rey and Rick Nowels, Lyrics by Lana Del Rey
Nominated

Best Score Soundtrack For Visual Media
Craig Armstrong
Nominated

International 3D Society's Creative Arts Awards[80]
January 28, 2014
Outstanding Live Action 3D Feature Film

Nominated

Motion Picture Sound Editors Golden Reel Awards[81][82]
February 16, 2014
Best Sound Editing: Music Score in a Feature Film
Jason Ruder
Won

Satellite Awards
February 23, 2014
Best Art Direction and Production Design
Catherine Martin (Art Direction); Beverley Dunn (Set Decoration)
Won

Best Costume Design
Catherine Martin
Nominated

Best Original Song
Young and Beautiful
Music by Lana Del Rey and Rick Nowels, Lyrics by Lana Del Rey
Won

St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association
December 14, 2013
Best Cinematography
Simon Duggan
Nominated

Best Art Direction

Won

Best Soundtrack

Nominated

Visual Effects Society Awards[83]
February 12, 2014
Outstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Feature Motion Picture
Chris Godfrey, Prue Fletcher and Joyce Cox
Nominated

Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association
December 9, 2013
Best Director
Baz Luhrmann
Nominated

Best Art Direction
Catherine Martin and Beverley Dunn
Won

Best Cinematography
Simon Duggan
Nominated

Young Artist Awards[84]
May 4, 2014
Best Supporting Young Actor in a Feature Film
Callan McAuliffe
Won


document_title: List of Philadelphia 76ers seasons

question_text: when was the last time the 76ers made the playoffs

text: List of Philadelphia 76ers seasons

text: Seasons[edit]

text:
League championships

Conference championships

Division titles

Playoff berth

text:
Season

Team

League

Conference

Finish

Division

Finish

Wins

Losses

Win%

GB

Playoffs

Awards

Syracuse Nationals

1949–50

1949–50

NBA

—

—

Eastern

1st

51

13

.797

—

Won Division Semifinals (Warriors) 2–0Won Division Finals (Knicks) 2–1Lost NBA Finals (Lakers) 4–2

1950–51

1950–51

NBA

—

—

Eastern

4th

32

34

.485

8

Won Division Semifinals (Warriors) 2–0Lost Division Finals (Knicks) 3–2

1951–52

1951–52

NBA

—

—

Eastern

1st

40

26

.606

—

Won Division Semifinals (Warriors) 2–1Lost Division Finals (Knicks) 3–1

1952–53

1952–53

NBA

—

—

Eastern

2nd

47

24

.662

0.5

Lost Division Semifinals (Celtics) 2–0

1953–54

1953–54

NBA

—

—

Eastern

T-2nd

42

30

.583

2

Won Division Finals (Celtics) 2–0Lost NBA Finals (Lakers) 4–3

1954–55

1954–55

NBA

—

—

Eastern

1st

43

29

.597

—

Won Division Finals (Celtics) 3–1Won NBA Finals (Pistons) 4–3

1955–56

1955–56

NBA

—

—

Eastern

3rd

35

37

.486

10

Won Division Semifinals (Celtics) 2–1Lost Division Finals (Warriors) 3–2

1956–57

1956–57

NBA

—

—

Eastern

2nd

38

34

.528

6

Won Division Semifinals (Warriors) 2–0Lost Division Finals (Celtics) 3–0

1957–58

1957–58

NBA

—

—

Eastern

2nd

41

31

.569

8

Lost Division Semifinals (Warriors) 2–1

1958–59

1958–59

NBA

—

—

Eastern

3rd

35

37

.486

17

Won Division Semifinals (Knicks) 2–0Lost Division Finals (Celtics) 4–3

1959–60

1959–60

NBA

—

—

Eastern

3rd

45

30

.600

14

Lost Division Semifinals (Warriors) 2–1

1960–61

1960–61

NBA

—

—

Eastern

3rd

38

41

.481

19

Won Division Semifinals (Warriors) 3–0Lost Division Finals (Celtics) 4–1

1961–62

1961–62

NBA

—

—

Eastern

3rd

41

39

.513

19

Lost Division Semifinals (Warriors) 3–2

1962–63

1962–63

NBA

—

—

Eastern

2nd

48

32

.600

10

Lost Division Semifinals (Royals) 3–2

Philadelphia 76ers

1963–64

1963–64

NBA

—

—

Eastern

3rd

34

46

.425

25

Lost Division Semifinals (Royals) 3–2

1964–65

1964–65

NBA

—

—

Eastern

3rd

40

40

.500

22

Won Division Semifinals (Royals) 3–1Lost Division Finals (Celtics) 4–3

1965–66

1965–66

NBA

—

—

Eastern

1st

55

25

.688

—

Lost Division Finals (Celtics) 4–1

Wilt Chamberlain (MVP)  Dolph Schayes (CoY)

1966–67

1966–67

NBA

—

—

Eastern

1st

68

13

.840

—

Won Division Semifinals (Royals) 3–1Won Division Finals (Celtics) 4–1Won NBA Finals (Warriors) 4–2

Wilt Chamberlain (MVP)

1967–68

1967–68

NBA

—

—

Eastern

1st

62

20

.756

—

Won Division Semifinals (Knicks) 4–2Lost Division Finals (Celtics) 4–3

Wilt Chamberlain (MVP)

1968–69

1968–69

NBA

—

—

Eastern

2nd

55

27

.671

2

Lost Division Semifinals (Celtics) 4–1

1969–70

1969–70

NBA

—

—

Eastern

4th

42

40

.512

18

Lost Division Semifinals (Bucks) 4–1

1970–71

1970–71

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic[note 2]

2nd

47

35

.573

5

Lost Conference Semifinals (Bullets) 4–3

1971–72

1971–72

NBA

Eastern

6th

Atlantic

3rd

30

52

.366

26

—

1972–73

1972–73

NBA

Eastern

8th

Atlantic

4th

9

73

.110

59

—

1973–74

1973–74

NBA

Eastern

8th

Atlantic

4th

25

57

.305

31

—

1974–75

1974–75

NBA

Eastern

7th

Atlantic

4th

34

48

.415

26

—

1975–76

1975–76

NBA

Eastern

4th

Atlantic

2nd

46

36

.561

8

Lost First Round (Braves) 2–1

1976–77

1976–77

NBA

Eastern

1st

Atlantic

1st

50

32

.610

—

Won Conference Semifinals (Celtics) 4–3Won Conference Finals (Rockets) 4–2Lost NBA Finals (Trail Blazers) 4–2

1977–78

1977–78

NBA

Eastern

1st

Atlantic

1st

55

27

.671

—

Won Conference Semifinals (Knicks) 4–0Lost Conference Finals (Bullets) 4–2

1978–79

1978–79

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

2nd

47

35

.573

7

Won First Round (Nets) 2–0Lost Conference Semifinals (Spurs) 4–3

1979–80

1979–80

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

2nd

59

23

.720

2

Won First Round (Bullets) 2–0Won Conference Semifinals (Hawks) 4–1Won Conference Finals (Celtics) 4–1Lost NBA Finals (Lakers) 4–2

1980–81

1980–81

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

2nd

62

20

.756

—

Won First Round (Pacers) 2–0Won Conference Semifinals (Bucks) 4–3Lost Conference Finals (Celtics) 4–3

Julius Erving (MVP)

1981–82

1981–82

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

2nd

58

24

.707

5

Won First Round (Hawks) 2–0Won Conference Semifinals (Bucks) 4–2Won Conference Finals (Celtics) 4–3Lost NBA Finals (Lakers) 4–2

1982–83

1982–83

NBA

Eastern

1st

Atlantic

1st

65

17

.793

—

Won Conference Semifinals (Knicks) 4–0Won Conference Finals (Bucks) 4–1Won NBA Finals (Lakers) 4–0

Moses Malone (MVP, FMVP)  Bobby Jones (SMoY)  Julius Erving (JWKC)

1983–84

1983–84

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

2nd

52

30

.634

10

Lost First Round (Nets) 3–2

1984–85

1984–85

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

2nd

58

24

.707

5

Won First Round (Bullets) 3–1Won Conference Semifinals (Bucks) 4–0Lost Conference Finals (Celtics) 4–1

1985–86

1985–86

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

2nd

54

28

.659

13

Won First Round (Bullets) 3–2Lost Conference Semifinals (Bucks) 4–3

1986–87

1986–87

NBA

Eastern

5th

Atlantic

2nd

45

37

.549

14

Lost First Round (Bucks) 3–2

1987–88

1987–88

NBA

Eastern

10th

Atlantic

4th

36

46

.439

21

—

1988–89

1988–89

NBA

Eastern

7th

Atlantic

2nd

46

36

.561

6

Lost First Round (Knicks) 3–0

1989–90

1989–90

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

1st

53

29

.646

—

Won First Round (Cavaliers) 3–2Lost Conference Semifinals (Bulls) 4–1

1990–91

1990–91

NBA

Eastern

5th

Atlantic

2nd

44

38

.537

12

Won First Round (Bucks) 3–0Lost Conference Semifinals (Bulls) 4–1

1991–92

1991–92

NBA

Eastern

10th

Atlantic

5th

35

47

.427

16

—

1992–93

1992–93

NBA

Eastern

13th

Atlantic

6th

26

56

.317

34

—

Dana Barros (MIP)

1993–94

1993–94

NBA

Eastern

11th

Atlantic

6th

25

57

.305

32

—

1994–95

1994–95

NBA

Eastern

13th

Atlantic

6th

24

58

.293

33

—

1995–96

1995–96

NBA

Eastern

15th

Atlantic

7th

18

64

.220

42

—

1996–97

1996–97

NBA

Eastern

14th

Atlantic

6th

22

60

.268

39

—

Allen Iverson (RoY)

1997–98

1997–98

NBA

Eastern

14th

Atlantic

7th

31

51

.378

24

—

1998–99[note 3][7]

1998–99

NBA

Eastern

6th

Atlantic

3rd

28

22

.560

5

Won First Round (Magic) 3–1Lost Conference Semifinals (Pacers) 4–0

1999–00

1999–00

NBA

Eastern

5th

Atlantic

3rd

49

33

.598

3

Won First Round (Hornets) 3–1Lost Conference Semifinals (Pacers) 4–2

2000–01

2000–01

NBA

Eastern

1st

Atlantic

1st

56

26

.683

—

Won First Round (Pacers) 3–1Won Conference Semifinals (Raptors) 4–3Won Conference Finals (Bucks) 4–3Lost NBA Finals (Lakers) 4–1

Allen Iverson (MVP)  Dikembe Mutombo (DPoY, JWKC)  Aaron McKie (SMoY)  Larry Brown (CoY)

2001–02

2001–02

NBA

Eastern

6th

Atlantic

4th

43

39

.524

9

Lost First Round (Celtics) 3–2

2002–03

2002–03

NBA

Eastern

4th

Atlantic

2nd

48

34

.585

1

Won First Round (Hornets) 4–2Lost Conference Semifinals (Pistons) 4–2

2003–04

2003–04

NBA

Eastern

11th

Atlantic

5th

33

49

.402

14

—

2004–05

2004–05

NBA

Eastern

7th

Atlantic

2nd

43

39

.524

2

Lost First Round (Pistons) 4–1

2005–06

2005–06

NBA

Eastern

9th

Atlantic

2nd

38

44

.463

11

—

2006–07

2006–07

NBA

Eastern

9th

Atlantic

3rd

35

47

.427

12

—

2007–08

2007–08

NBA

Eastern

7th

Atlantic

3rd

40

42

.488

26

Lost First Round (Pistons) 4–2

2008–09

2008–09

NBA

Eastern

6th

Atlantic

2nd

41

41

.500

21

Lost First Round (Magic) 4–2

2009–10

2009–10

NBA

Eastern

13th

Atlantic

4th

27

55

.329

23

—

Samuel Dalembert (JWKC)

2010–11

2010–11

NBA

Eastern

7th

Atlantic

3rd

41

41

.500

15

Lost First Round (Heat) 4–1

2011–12[note 4]

2011–12

NBA

Eastern

8th

Atlantic

3rd

35

31

.530

4

Won First Round (Bulls) 4–2Lost Conference Semifinals (Celtics) 4–3

2012–13

2012–13

NBA

Eastern

9th

Atlantic

4th

34

48

.415

20

—

2013–14

2013–14

NBA

Eastern

14th

Atlantic

5th

19

63

.232

29

—

Michael Carter-Williams (RoY)

2014–15

2014–15

NBA

Eastern

14th

Atlantic

4th

18

64

.220

31

—

2015–16

2015–16

NBA

Eastern

15th

Atlantic

5th

10

72

.122

46

—

2016–17

2016–17

NBA

Eastern

14th

Atlantic

4th

28

54

.341

25

—

2017–18

2017–18

NBA

Eastern

3rd

Atlantic

3rd

52

30

.634

7

Won First Round (Heat) 4–1Lost Conference Semifinals (Celtics) 4–1

Ben Simmons (RoY)

Regular season**
2,754
2,632
.511
47 playoff berths11 division titles3 conference titles

Playoffs

217

205

.514

9 Conference Championships3 NBA Championships

text: *Current Season

text: **Not including current season

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The 1992–93 Dallas Mavericks actually had a point differential of -15.2, and the 2011–12 Bobcats of -13.9, vis-à-vis the 1972–73 76ers -12.1 and 2015–16 76ers -10.2

Jump up ^ The Eastern Division was renamed the Eastern Conference, and split into the Atlantic and Central divisions.

Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until February 5, 1999, and all 29 teams played a shortened 50 game regular season schedule.

Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until December 25, 2011, and all 30 teams played a shortened 66 game regular season schedule.

tag: ol

text: Sources[edit]

text:
NBA History, nba.com. NBA Media Ventures, LLC. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
Philadelphia 76ers, basketball-reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
Playoff Index, basketball-reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2009-09-06.


document_title: Early 1990s recession in Australia

question_text: why were interest rates so high in 1990

question_tokens: why were interest rates so high in 1990

text: Early 1990s recession in Australia

text: Background[edit]

text: In October 1987, the international Stock Market Slump saw markets crash around the world. The crisis originated when Japan and West Germany pushed up interest rates, pressuring US rates also to rise, triggering a massive sell off of US shares. Global share prices fell an average of 25%, but Australia saw a 40% decline.[1] 17 of the 18 major OECD economies experienced a recession in the early 1990s.[2]

text: In the 1980s, Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew famously predicted that Australia was at risk of becoming the "white trash of Asia" due to high unemployment, inflationary pressures and government debt.[3] At the time of the comments, Bob Hawke was Australia's Prime Minister and he stated that the comment was "not an overstatement". The white trash quote is still used today.[4]

text: In Australia, the Australian Labor Party Government of Bob Hawke had come to power in 1983. The Hawke-Keating Government shifted the Labor Party from its traditional allegiance to economic protectionism and have moved to deregulate Australia's finance industry restructure the role of trade unions.[5]

text: Ian Macfarlane, Governor of the Reserve Bank from 1996 to 2006, has said that the financial excesses of the 1980s were of such a scale that they made the 1990s recession "inevitable", describing Australia's economy at the end of the 1980s as overstretched and vulnerable to contractionary shock. The pressure of high interest rates on businesses – many of which were "borrowed up to the hilt" – became relentless.[2]

text: The debate as to the causes or extent to which international factors and domestic government policy contributed to the severity of the 1990s recession in Australia continues. Speaking in 2006, former Reserve bank Governor Ian Macfarlane said:[2]

text: The emphasis on interest rates and deregulation at least reminds us that what we are dealing with is essentially a financial event. The recession of 1990-91was dominated by financial failure. In most cases, it was the fall in asset prices that meant that loans could not be repaid, thus transferring the distress to financial institutions.

text: Response of Hawke Government to stock market crash[edit]

text: The Hawke Labor Government initially responded to the crisis by asking the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission to defer its national wage case. Treasurer Paul Keating was advised to tighten monetary policy, but, with forthcoming by-elections and a state election in New South Wales, the Government opted to delay the potentially unpopular move, which would raise interest rates. Commodity prices dropped and the Australian dollar sharply declined. The Reserve Bank conducted a $2 billion intervention to hold the dollar at 68c but it crashed to 51c. In December 1987, Keating said that the Australian economy would weather the storm because the Hawke Government had already balanced its Budget and brought down inflation.[1]

text: The Government postponed major policy adjustments, planning a mini-Budget for May. Hawke wrote to US President Reagan calling on the US to reduce its Budget deficit. The Business Council called for wage reductions, decreased government expenditure, a lower dollar and deregulation of the labour market. Seven months into the crisis, Hawke told the State Premiers that the "savings of Australia must be freed" to go into business investment for export expansion, and funding to the states was cut. A phase out of tariff protections was continued and company tax was cut by 10% to 39%. In the May mini-Budget, payment to the states was cut by $870 million and tax cuts deferred. The Government declared cost cutting was completed.[1]

text: A surge in commodity prices began in 1986 and assisted the economy to a small 1987 surplus of $2.3 Billion. With commodity prices now over their peak, economic conditions were entering a decline, with high interest rates, a growing current account deficit, declining demand, increasing foreign debt and a wave of corporate collapses. Furthermore, the collapse of the Eastern Bloc economies, was to see wool and wheat prices decline, savaging Australia's agricultural sector.[1]

text: "The recession we had to have"[edit]

text: Treasurer Paul Keating budgeted a record $9.1 billion surplus for 1989–90, and Labor won the 1990 election, aided by the support of environmentalists. To court the green vote, environment minister Graham Richardson had placed restrictions on mining (notably uranium mining[5]) and logging which had a detrimental effect on already rising unemployment. David Barnett wrote in 1997 that Labor fiscal policy at this time "self-defeating as "with one hand it was imposing a monetary squeeze, while on the other it was encouraging spending with wage increases and tax cuts".[1]

text: By July 1990, Australia had entered severe recession.[6] Initially, the Treasurer had insisted Australia would face a "soft landing", but after receiving the September quarter accounts indicating a large contraction of 1.6 per cent, he adopted a different political strategy, instead arguing that the downturn was a necessary correction by opening a press conference in November as follows:[7][8][9]

text:
“
The first thing to say is, the accounts do show that Australia is in a recession. The most important thing about that is that this is a recession that Australia had to have – Treasurer Paul Keating, November 1990.
”

text: The remark has continued to spark debate as to the extent of Keating's responsibility for the depth of the Recession. Former Reserve Bank Governor Ian Macfarlane has said that policymakers did not "set out to have a recession in order to reduce inflation. The recession happened because of the unwinding of the excesses of the 1980s, the international recession of the early 1990s and the high interest rates". High interest rates were employed to slow the asset price boom of 1988–89. Treasurer Keating, the Reserve Bank and Treasury itself generally agreed on the need for high interest rates in 1989 and the pace of their reduction.[2]

text: The popularity of Hawke's prime ministership, along with the health of the Hawke-Keating political partnership deteriorated along with the Australian economy and Keating began to position himself for a challenge.[10] The Government promised economic recovery for 1991 and launched a series of asset sales to increase revenue. GDP sank, unemployment rose, revenue collapsed and welfare payments surged.

text: According to former Reserve Bank Governor Ian Macfarlane:

text: The recession started in the September quarter of 1990 and lasted until the September quarter of 1991. During the recession, GDP fell by 1.7 per cent, employment by 3.4 per cent and the unemployment rate rose to 10.8 per cent. Like all recessions, it was a period of disruption and economic distress. It was particularly deep in Victoria, where a disproportionate share of the financial failure occurred. Victorian employment fell by 8.5 per cent compared with a fall of 2.1 per cent for the rest of Australia.

text: Reforms were conducted between 1990 and 1991, with Australia's telecommunications opened to competition; and tariffs were reduced to five per cent, while the phasing out of textile, clothing and motor vehicle protection began.[5]

text: A slow recovery from recession began around the September quarter in 1991, though unemployment continued to rise until late 1992.[6]

text: Financial crises and collapses[edit]

text: A number of financial institutions failed around Australia, including the State Bank of Victoria, the State Bank of South Australia, the Teachers Credit Union of Western Australia, the Pyramid Building Society as well as several merchant banks, a mortgage trust, and a friendly society.[2]

text: In 1990, Victoria's Pyramid Building Society collapsed with debts in excess of $2 billion. With Victoria deeply in debt, Labor Premier John Cain resigned and Joan Kirner was elevated to the post of Premier of Victoria. Melbourne businessman Christopher Skase's business empire crashed spectacularly and he fled to Majorca in Spain. The Liberal-National Coalition, led by Jeff Kennett was swept into office in a 1992 landslide victory and commenced a wide ranging program of expenditure cuts, privatisation of public assets, and economic reform to reduced government debt and rejuvenate the economy.

text: The State Bank of South Australia, owned by the Government of South Australia, collapsed in 1991. The bank had been a beneficiary of the commercial property boom of the 1980s, but by February 1991 the Bannon Labor Government had to launch a $970 million bailout due to its bad debts, and the bank's debts soon reached $3 billion. Premier Bannon resigned after appearing at a Royal Commission into the affair.[12]

text: With Western Australia suffering at the end of the 1980s boom, the Labor Party replaced Premier Brian Burke firstly with Peter Dowding and then Carmen Lawrence; the subsequent WA Inc investigation saw Burke jailed.[13] West Australian high flying businessman Alan Bond was declared bankrupt in 1992 and jailed in 1997 for corporate fraud.[14]

text: Response of the Federal Opposition[edit]

text: The Opposition Liberal Party of Australia turned to economist John Hewson as its new leader. Hewson argued that the nation was in economic crisis. He said the Hawke-Keating government had increased the severity of the recession by initially encouraging the economy to boom post-stock crash as elections were approaching, which necessitated higher interest rates and tighter monetary policy than would otherwise have been necessary. Hewson called for a radical reform program and formulated a package which included a consumption tax policy and industrial relations reform to address the poor economic situation. The Fightback! policy was launched in November 1991. The comprehensive plan further destabilised Hawke's leadership.[15]

text: Keating Government[edit]

text: The ACTU campaigned for a wage increase. Hawke brokered an increase for waterside workers and public servants. By April 1991, unemployment was nearing 10% and rising. On 3 June, Keating challenged Hawke for the leadership of Labor, but lost the vote and became a destabilising presence on the back bench. The new treasurer, John Kerin and Deputy Prime Minister Brian Howe blamed Keating's 1990 economic policy for the poor state of the Australian economy. Industrial Relations Minister Peter Cook indicated an intention to introduce a more flexible wage system. In his July budget, Kerrin forecast a deficit of $4.7 billion.[15] In a press conference, Kerin was unable to recall what GOS—Gross Operating Surplus—stood for.[16] In December, shortly before Keating's successful second challenge against Hawke, Kerin was removed as Treasurer and appointed Minister for Transport and Communications and the Minister for Finance, Ralph Willis, became Treasurer. Hawke attributed the change to loss of confidence in communication.[17]

text: By 1992, shortly after Hawke lost office and was replaced as leader of the Labor Party and as Prime Minister by his former deputy Paul Keating, unemployment had reached 11 per cent, the highest level in Australia since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Australia had faced eight-quarters of declining economic growth. The new prime minister, Paul Keating, placed emphasis on expanding ties to Asia as a means of securing Australia's economic future and tied this to a culture agenda of reducing ties to traditional allies.[18]

text: In February 1992, the Keating Government released the One Nation policy, designed to target job creation. The government introduced the Australian National Training Authority Act 1992 and the Disability Discrimination Act 1992, which it hoped would assist the disabled to remain productive and off welfare. By the close of 1992, unemployment was still rising, but growth had improved.[18]

text: Keating called an election for March 1993. He promised company tax rate and personal income tax cuts (the "L-A-W tax cuts") and campaigned heavily against the Hewson led Opposition's proposal for a Goods and Services Tax. Despite the economic conditions, Keating led Labor to victory. With an ever rising deficit however, Keating was unable to deliver the tax cuts promised prior to the election and sought to reduce expenditure.[18]

text: In May 1994, the government launched a five-year economic plan entitled Working Nation. By the end of the year, inflation had declined, growth continued to improve and unemployment was again below 10%.[18]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: Following the early 1990s recession, Australia experienced a record period of economic growth.

text: Speaking in 2006, former Reserve Bank Governor Ian Macfarlane said that a beneficial legacy of the 1990s recession was a lasting reduction in inflation.[19]

text: The Liberal-National Coalition Government of John Howard was elected in a landslide victory in 1996. It reduced government expenditure, prioritised a return to Budget surplus and instigated industrial relations reforms to speed Australia's economic recovery. Following the 1998 Election, introduced a revised Goods and Services Tax. Inflation and interest rates lowered. Between 1996 and 2005, unemployment fell from over 8% to 5%.[20] Due in part to changes made to the way in which the rate was calculated, creating the appearance of an improvement.[citation needed][21] To strengthen the financial reporting framework for the financial sector, the Howard Government introduced the Corporations Act 2001 and Corporate Law Economic Reform Program Act 2004, following the recommendations in the Report of the HIH Insurance Royal Commission released in April 2003.[22]


document_title: NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award

question_text: who has won the most 6th man awards

question_tokens: who has won the most 6th man awards

text: NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award

text: Winners[edit]

text:
^
Denotes player who is still active in the NBA

*
Elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Player (X)
Denotes the number of times the player has received the award

text:
Season
Player
Position
Nationality
Team

1982–83
Jones, BobbyBobby Jones
Forward
 United States
Philadelphia 76ers

1983–84
McHale, KevinKevin McHale*
Forward
 United States
Boston Celtics

1984–85
McHale, KevinKevin McHale* (2)
Forward
 United States
Boston Celtics

1985–86
Walton, BillBill Walton*
Center
 United States
Boston Celtics

1986–87
Pierce, RickyRicky Pierce
Guard
 United States
Milwaukee Bucks

1987–88
Tarpley, RoyRoy Tarpley
Forward/Center
 United States
Dallas Mavericks

1988–89
Johnson, EddieEddie Johnson
Forward
 United States
Phoenix Suns

1989–90
Pierce, RickyRicky Pierce (2)
Guard
 United States
Milwaukee Bucks

1990–91
Schrempf, DetlefDetlef Schrempf
Forward
 Germany
Indiana Pacers

1991–92
Schrempf, DetlefDetlef Schrempf (2)
Forward
 Germany
Indiana Pacers

1992–93
Robinson, CliffCliff Robinson
Forward/Center
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers

1993–94
Curry, DellDell Curry
Guard
 United States
Charlotte Hornets

1994–95
Mason, AnthonyAnthony Mason
Forward
 United States
New York Knicks

1995–96
Kukoč, ToniToni Kukoč
Forward
 Croatia
Chicago Bulls

1996–97
Starks, JohnJohn Starks
Guard
 United States
New York Knicks

1997–98
Manning, DannyDanny Manning
Forward
 United States
Phoenix Suns

1998–99
Armstrong, DarrellDarrell Armstrong
Guard
 United States
Orlando Magic

1999–00
Rogers, RodneyRodney Rogers
Forward
 United States
Phoenix Suns

2000–01
McKie, AaronAaron McKie
Guard
 United States
Philadelphia 76ers

2001–02
Williamson, CorlissCorliss Williamson
Forward
 United States
Detroit Pistons

2002–03
Jackson, BobbyBobby Jackson
Guard
 United States
Sacramento Kings

2003–04
Jamison, AntawnAntawn Jamison
Forward
 United States
Dallas Mavericks

2004–05
Gordon, BenBen Gordon
Guard
 United States[a]
Chicago Bulls

2005–06
Miller, MikeMike Miller^
Forward/Guard
 United States
Memphis Grizzlies

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Barbosa, LeandroLeandro Barbosa^
Guard
 Brazil
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Ginóbili, ManuManu Ginóbili^
Guard
 Argentina
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Terry, JasonJason Terry^
Guard
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Crawford, JamalJamal Crawford^
Guard
 United States
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Odom, LamarLamar Odom
Forward
 United States
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Harden, JamesJames Harden^
Guard
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Smith, J. R.J. R. Smith^
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document_title: Love Like There's No Tomorrow

question_text: who sings love you like there's no tomorrow

question_tokens: who sings love you like there 's no tomorrow

text: Love Like There's No Tomorrow

text:
"Love Like There's No Tomorrow"

Single by Aaron Tippin with Thea Tippin

from the album Stars & Stripes

Released
December 21, 2002

Genre
Country

Length
3:43

Label
Lyric Street

Songwriter(s)
Aaron Tippin, Thea Tippin

Producer(s)
Aaron Tippin, Biff Watson, Mike Bradley

Aaron Tippin with Thea Tippin singles chronology

"If Her Lovin' Don't Kill Me"
(2002)
"Love Like There's No Tomorrow"
(2002)
"Come Friday"
(2005)

"If Her Lovin' Don't Kill Me"
(2002)
"Love Like There's No Tomorrow"
(2002)
"Come Friday"
(2005)

text: "Love Like There's Tomorrow" is a song written and recorded by American country music artist Aaron Tippin and his wife Thea Tippin. It was released in December 2002 as the third single from the album Stars & Stripes. The song reached #35 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.[1]

text: Chart performance[edit]

text:
Chart (2002-2003)
Peak
position

US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[2]
35