document_title: Wig

question_text: when did mens wigs go out of fashion

question_tokens: when did mens wigs go out of fashion

text: Wig

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient use[edit]

text: In Egyptian society men and women commonly had clean shaven or close cropped hair and often wore wigs.[3][4] The ancient Egyptians created the wig to shield shaved, hairless heads from the sun. They also wore the wigs on top of their hair using beeswax and resin to keep the wigs in place. Wealthy Egyptian would wear elaborate wigs and scented cones of animal fat on top of their wigs.[3] Other ancient cultures, including the Assyrians,[5] Phoenicians, Jews in ancient Israel,[6] Greeks and Romans, also used wigs as an everyday fashion.

text: In China, the popularization of the wig started from Spring and Autumn period.[7][citation needed]

text: In Japan, the upper classes wearing wigs started from before Nara period.[citation needed]

text: In Korea, gache were popular among women during Goryeo dynasty until it was banned in the late 18th century.[citation needed]

text: 16th and 17th centuries[edit]

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the use of wigs fell into disuse in the West for a thousand years until they were revived in the 16th century as a means of compensating for hair loss or improving one's personal appearance.[8] They also served a practical purpose: the unhygienic conditions of the time meant that hair attracted head lice, a problem that could be much reduced if natural hair were shaved and replaced with a more easily de-loused artificial hairpiece.[9] Fur hoods were also used in a similar preventive fashion.

text: Royal patronage was crucial to the revival of the wig.[10] Queen Elizabeth I of England famously wore a red wig, tightly and elaborately curled in a "Roman" style, while among men King Louis XIII of France (1601–1643) started to pioneer wig-wearing in 1624 when he had prematurely begun to bald.[11] This fashion was largely promoted by his son and successor Louis XIV of France (1638–1715), which contributed to its spread in European and European-influenced countries.

text: Perukes or periwigs for men were introduced into the English-speaking world with other French styles when Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, following a lengthy exile in France. These wigs were shoulder-length or longer, imitating the long hair that had become fashionable among men since the 1620s.  Their use soon became popular in the English court. The London diarist Samuel Pepys recorded the day in 1665 that a barber had shaved his head and that he tried on his new periwig for the first time, but in a year of plague he was uneasy about wearing it:[12]

text: "3rd September 1665: Up, and put on my coloured silk suit, very fine, and my new periwig, bought a good while since, but darst not wear it because the plague was in Westminster when I bought it. And it is a wonder what will be the fashion after the plague is done as to periwigs, for nobody will dare to buy any haire for fear of the infection? That it had been cut off the heads of people dead of the plague."

text: Wigs were not without other drawbacks, as Pepys noted on March 27, 1663:

text: "I did go to the Swan; and there sent for Jervas my old periwig-maker and he did bring me a periwig; but it was full of nits, so as I was troubled to see it (it being his old fault) and did send him to make it clean."

text: With wigs virtually obligatory garb for men with social rank, wigmakers gained considerable prestige. A wigmakers' guild was established in France in 1665, a development soon copied elsewhere in Europe. Their job was a skilled one as 17th century wigs were extraordinarily elaborate, covering the back and shoulders and flowing down the chest; not surprisingly, they were also extremely heavy and often uncomfortable to wear. Such wigs were expensive to produce. The best examples were made from natural human hair. The hair of horses and goats was often used as a cheaper alternative.[13]

text: 18th century[edit]

text: In the 18th century, men's wigs were powdered to give them their distinctive white or off-white color. Women in the 18th century did not wear wigs, but wore a coiffure supplemented by artificial hair or hair from other sources. Women mainly powdered their hair grey, or blue-ish grey, and from the 1770s onwards never bright white like men. Wig powder was made from finely ground starch that was scented with orange flower, lavender, or orris root. Wig powder was occasionally colored violet, blue, pink or yellow, but was most often used as off-white.[14]

text: Powdered wigs (men) and powdered natural hair with supplemental hairpieces (women) became essential for full dress occasions and continued in use until almost the end of the 18th century.  The elaborate form of wigs worn at the coronation of George III in 1761 was lampooned by William Hogarth in his engraving Five Orders of Periwigs.  Powdering wigs and extensions was messy and inconvenient, and the development of the naturally white or off-white powderless wig (made of horsehair) for men made the retention of wigs in everyday court dress a practical possibility. By the 1780s, young men were setting a fashion trend by lightly powdering their natural hair, as women had already done from the 1770s onwards. After 1790, both wigs and powder were reserved for older, more conservative men, and were in use by ladies being presented at court. After 1790, English women seldom powdered their hair.

text: In 1795, the British government levied a tax on hair powder of one guinea per year. This tax effectively caused the demise of both the fashion for wigs and powder. Granville Leveson-Gower, in Paris during the winter of 1796, at the height of the Thermidorian Directory, noted "The word citoyen seemed but very little in use, and hair powder being very common, the appearance of the people was less democratic than in England."[15]

text: Among women in the French court of Versailles in the mid-to-late 18th century, large, elaborate and often themed wigs (such as the stereotypical "boat poufs") were in vogue for women. These combed-up hair extensions were often very heavy, weighted down with pomades, powders, and other ornamentation. In the late 18th century these coiffures (along with many other indulgences in court life) became symbolic of the decadence of the French nobility, and for that reason quickly became out of fashion from the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789.

text: During the 18th century, men's wigs became smaller and more formal with several professions adopting them as part of their official costumes. This tradition survives in a few legal systems. They are routinely worn in various countries of the Commonwealth. Until 1823, bishops of the Church of England and Church of Ireland wore ceremonial wigs.  The wigs worn by barristers are in the style favoured in the late eighteenth century.  Judges' wigs, in everyday use as court dress, are short like barristers' wigs (although in a slightly different style), but for ceremonial occasions judges and also senior barristers (QCs) wear full-bottomed wigs.[16]

text: 19th and 20th centuries[edit]

text: The wearing of wigs as a symbol of social status was largely abandoned in the newly created United States and France by the start of the 19th century. In the United States, only four presidents from John Adams to James Monroe wore curly powdered wigs tied in a queue according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century.[17] Unlike them, the first president George Washington never wore a wig; instead, he powdered, curled and tied in a queue his own long hair.[18]

text: The latest-born notable person to be portrayed wearing a powdered wig tied in a queue according to this old fashion was Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia (born in 1779, portrayed in 1795).[19][20]

text: Women's wigs developed in a somewhat different way. They were worn from the 18th century onwards, although at first only surreptitiously.  Full wigs in the 19th and early 20th century were not fashionable. They were often worn by old ladies who had lost their hair.[citation needed]  In the film Mr. Skeffington (1944), when Bette Davis has to wear a wig after a bout of diphtheria, it is a moment of pathos and a symbol of her frailty.[citation needed]

text:
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century hairdressers in England and France did a brisk business supplying postiches, or pre-made small wiglets, curls, and false buns to be incorporated into the hairstyle.  The use of postiches did not diminish even as women's hair grew shorter in the decade between 1910 and 1920, but they seem to have gone out of fashion during the 1920s.[21]
In the 1960s a new type of synthetic wig was developed using a modacrylic fiber which made wigs more affordable.  Reid-Meredith was a pioneer in the sales of these types of wigs.[22]

text: Military wigs[edit]

text: From the late 17th to early 19th centuries, European armies wore uniforms more or less imitating the civilian fashions of the time, but with militarized additions. As part of that uniform, officers wore wigs more suited to the drawing rooms of Europe than its battlefields. The late 17th century saw officers wearing full-bottomed natural-coloured wigs, but the civilian change to shorter, powdered styles with pigtails in the early 18th century saw officers adopting similar styles. The elaborate, oversized court-styles of the late 18th century were not followed by armies in the field however, as they were impractical to withstand the rigours of military life and simpler wigs were worn.

text: While officers normally wore their own hair short under a powdered wig, the rank and file of the infantry was not afforded such luxury. Instead of wigs, the men grew their hair long and according to the prevailing fashion in a nation's army, hair was either allowed to grow long with simple modeling, as in the French army of the 1740s, or else was elaborately coiffured as in Prussian and British armies. In the case of British soldiers of the 1740s, contemporary artwork suggests that they cut their hair short, which was not the case. Instead, the men used tallow or other fat to grease the hair, which was then fashioned into pigtails and tied back into the scalp hair to give the impression of short hair.[23] It was then liberally dusted with powdered chalk to give the impression of a powdered wig. Later in the century, hair was likewise tied back, greased and powdered, but false hair pigtails were adopted, kept in a tubular queue and tied back with ribbons to the soldier's own hair. The overall effect was that of a wig with a long tail and bow.  The Prussian army took personal hairstyles to an extreme during the time of Frederick The Great, each soldier commonly having a long pigtail hanging down the back nearly to waist level.

text: By contrast, in the 1780s Russian General Potemkin abhorred the tight uniforms and uncomfortable wigs and powdered coiffures worn by his soldiers and instigated a complete revision of both. Along with comfortable, practical, well-fitting uniforms, his reforms introduced neat, natural hairstyles for all, with no wigs, powder and grease, or hair-tying evident.

text: Formal military hairstyles lasted until beyond the end of the 18th century and it was the French Revolution which spelled the end of wigs and powdered, greased hairstyles in modern, Western armies. Powdered hair and pigtails made a brief return during Napoleon's reign, being worn by infantry of his Foot Grenadiers and Foot Chasseurs of the Old Guard and the Horse Grenadiers of the Guard.

text: Merkin[edit]

text: A merkin is a pubic wig often worn as a decorative item or for theatrical and fashion purposes. They are sometimes viewed as erotic and some designs are meant for entertainment or as a form of comedy.

text: Current usage[edit]

text: Official use[edit]

text: In Britain, most Commonwealth nations, and the Republic of Ireland special wigs are also worn by barristers, judges, and certain parliamentary and municipal or civic officials as a symbol of the office. Hong Kong barristers and judges continue to wear wigs as part of court dress as an influence from their former jurisdiction of the Commonwealth of Nations. In July 2007, judges in New South Wales, Australia voted to discontinue the wearing of wigs in the NSW Court of Appeal.[24] New Zealand lawyers and judges have ceased to wear wigs except for special ceremonial occasions such as openings of Parliament or the calling of newly qualified barristers to the bar. In Canada lawyers and judges do not wear wigs.

text: Entertainment[edit]

text: A number of celebrities, including Donna Summer, Dolly Parton, Sia Furler, Katy Perry, Melanie Martinez, Lady Gaga, Diana Ross & The Supremes, Tina Turner and Raquel Welch have popularized wigs. Cher has worn all kinds of wigs in the last 40 years- from blonde to black, and curly to straight. They may also be worn for fun as part of fancy dress (costume wearing), when they can be of outlandish color or made from tinsel. They are quite common at Halloween, when "rubber wigs" (solid bald cap-like hats, shaped like hair), are sold at some stores.

text: Wigs are used in film, theater, and television. In the Japanese film and television genre Jidaigeki, wigs are used extensively to alter appearance to reflect the Edo period when most stories take place. Only a few actors starring in big-budgeted films and television series will grow their hair so that it may be cut to the appropriate hair style, and forgo using a wig.

text: Jewish religion[edit]

text: Jewish law requires married women to cover their hair for reasons of modesty (tznius).  Some women wear wigs, known as sheitels, for this purpose. Orthodox Jewish women such as the Ultra-Orthodox Haredi and Hasidic Jewish women will often wear human-hair wigs. Modern Orthodox Jewish women will usually wear a hat, but exposing the bottom of their hair.

text: One rabbi said that it is preferable for a married Jewish woman to expose her hair than to don a wig, for the wig actually increases attraction in the public domain and encourages the notion that Halakha is both irrational and intellectually dishonest.[25] Another, who also spoke strongly against the wearing of wigs, said specifically

text: Most Orthodox women cover their hair,[27] whether with wigs, hats or scarves. The rejection by some rabbis of wigs is not recent:

text: "... in the 1600s, when French women began wearing wigs to cover their hair. Rabbis rejected this practice, both because it resembled the contemporary non-Jewish style and because it was immodest, in their eyes, for a woman to sport a beautiful head of hair, even if it was a wig."[28]

text: Other options include

text:
wearing a covered wig, called a Shpitzel[29]
a covering, typically cloth, called a Tichel
another non-hair (and looser) head covering, called a Snood
a short wig mostly covered by a Tichel, but with (wig) "hair" showing on the forehead, sometimes also showing from the back, called a Frisette.[30]

text: Convenience[edit]

text: Wigs are worn by some people on a daily or occasional basis in everyday life.  This is sometimes done for reasons of convenience, since wigs can be styled ahead of time. They are also worn by individuals who are experiencing hair loss due to medical reasons (most commonly cancer patients who are undergoing chemotherapy, or those who are suffering from alopecia areata).

text: Some men who crossdress as women wear wigs in different styles to make their hair seem more feminine.

text: Image gallery[edit]

text: Manufacture[edit]

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, wig makers were called perruquiers, There are two methods of attaching hair to wigs.  The first and oldest is to weave the root ends of the hair onto a stretch of three silk threads to form a sort of fringe called a "weft".  The wefts are then sewn to a foundation made of net or other material.[31]  In modern times, the wefts can also be made (a warp is the vertical thread of a weave, the weft is the horizontal thread) with a specially adapted sewing machine, reducing the amount of hand labour involved.  In the 19th century another method came into use.  A small hook called a "ventilating needle" or "knotting needle", similar to the tambour hooks used for decorating fabric with chain-stitch embroidery at that period, is used to knot a few strands of hair at a time directly to a suitable foundation material. This newer method produces a lighter and more natural looking wig.  High quality custom wigs, and those used for film and theatrical productions are usually done this way.  It is also possible to combine the two techniques, using weft for the main part of the wig and ventilating hair at the edges and partings to give a fine finish.

text: Measurement[edit]

text: Making custom wigs starts with measuring the subject's head.  The natural hair is arranged in flat curls against the head as the various measurements are taken.  It is often helpful to make a pattern from layers of transparent adhesive tape applied over a piece of plastic wrap, on which the natural hairline can be traced accurately.  These measurements are then transferred to the "block", a wooden or cork-stuffed canvas form the same size and shape as the client's head.[32][33]

text: Foundation[edit]

text: Depending on the style of the wig, a foundation is made of net or other material, different sizes and textures of mesh being used for different parts of the wig.  The edges and other places might be trimmed and reinforced with a narrow ribbon called "galloon".  Sometimes flesh colored silk or synthetic material is applied where it will show through the hair at crown and partings, and small bones or elastic are inserted to make the wig fit securely. Theatrical, and some fine custom wigs have a fine, flesh colored net called "hair lace" at the front which is very inconspicuous in wear and allows the hair to look as if it is coming directly from the skin underneath.  These are usually referred to as "lace front wigs".[34]

text: Hair preparation[edit]

text: Natural hair, either human or from an animal such as a goat or yak, must be carefully sorted so that the direction of growth is maintained, root to root, and point to point.  Because of the scale-like structure of the cuticle of a hair shaft, if some hairs get turned the wrong way, they will ride backwards against their neighbors and cause tangles and matting.  The highest quality of hair has never been bleached or colored, and has been carefully sorted to ensure the direction is correct.  This process is called "turning".  For less expensive wigs, this labour-intensive sorting process is substituted by "processing" the hair.  It is treated with a strong base solution which partially dissolves the cuticle leaving the strands smooth. It is then bleached and dyed to the required shade and given a synthetic resin finish which partially restores the strength and luster of the now damaged hair.  Synthetic fiber, of course, is simply manufactured in the required colors, and has no direction.

text: The wigmaker will choose the type, length and colors of hair required by the design of the wig and blend them by pulling the hair through the upright teeth of a brush-like tool called a "hackle" which also removes tangles and any short or broken strands.  The hair is placed on one of a pair of short-bristled brushes called "drawing brushes" with the root ends extending over one edge; the edge facing the wigmaker (or properly called, boardworker), and the second brush is pressed down on top of it so that a few strands can be withdrawn at a time, leaving the rest undisturbed.[34]

text: Adding the hair[edit]

text: Weft structured wigs can have the wefts sewn to the foundation by hand, while it is on the block or, as is common with mass-produced wigs, sewn to a ready-made base by skilled sewing machine operators. Ventilated (hand knotted) wigs have the hair knotted directly to the foundation, a few strands at a time while the foundation is fastened to the block. With the hair folded over the finger, the wigmaker pulls a loop of hair under the mesh, and then moves the hook forward to catch both sides of the loop. The ends are pulled through the loop and the knot is tightened for a "single knot", or a second loop is pulled through the first before finishing for a "double knot". Typically, the bulkier but more secure double knot is used over the majority of the wig and the less obvious single knot at the edges and parting areas. A skilled wigmaker will consider the number of strands of hair used and the direction of each knot to give the most natural effect possible.[35]

text: It takes generally six heads of hair to make a full human hair wig.[citation needed]

text: Styling[edit]

text: At this point, the hair on the wig is all the same length.  The wig must be styled into the desired form in much the same manner as a regular stylist.[33]

text: Fitting[edit]

text: The subject's natural hair is again knotted tightly against the head and the wig is applied.  Any remaining superfluous wiglace is trimmed away.  Hairpins can be used to secure the lace to the hair and occasionally, skin-safe adhesives are used to adhere the wig against bald skin and to better hide any exposed lace.  Finishing touches are done to the hair styling to achieve the desired effect.[33]

text: Types of human hair wigs[edit]

text: There are two basic kinds of hair wigs: The traditional machine stitched weft wig and the hand tied lace wig.[36] The machine stitched wigs are still the most widely worn wigs today. The hair is sewn on a stretch weft material and come with back straps for adjusting to various head sizes. These wigs are typically pre-styled and lack any kind of realistic expectations.

text: Lace wigs are quickly becoming one of the most sought-after wigs among wig wearers. The illusion of hair growing from the scalp is the feature that makes this wig the best of the best when it comes to wearing fake hair. These wigs are made with a French or Swiss lace material base. They are made as a full lace or partial lace front with a stretch weft back.  Each hair strand is individually stitched into a lace material which creates the natural look of hair at the base. This is where the term "hand tied" originates.

text: Hair type is the distinguishing factor in human hair wigs.  Four main types of hair are used in manufacturing: Chinese or "Malaysian", Indian, Indonesian or "Brazilian", and Caucasian or "European". The majority of human hair wigs are made of Chinese or Indian hair, while European hair is considered the most expensive and rare, as most donors are from Russia or Northern Europe, where there is a smaller portion of hair donors to the market.

text: Remy human hair is considered to be the best quality of human hair because the cuticles are kept intact and not stripped away. The preserved cuticles are also aligned in a unidirectional manner, which decreases tangling and matting.[37]  It has been carefully separated after collecting from the hair donor to ensure all the cuticles are of the same length.

text: Notable wig designers[edit]

text:
Willy Clarkson, who created wigs for London's West End theatre productions
Nina Lawson, ran the Metropolitan Opera wig department from 1956 to 1987.
Paul Huntley, working from New York, originally from London[38]
Peter Owen, Bristol, United Kingdom[39]
Peter King, Bristol, United Kingdom[40]
Terry Jarvis, London, United Kingdom[41]


document_title: Pony Express

question_text: what kind of horses were used in the pony express

question_tokens: what kind of horses were used in the pony express

root

text: Pony Express

text: Inception and founding[edit]

text: The idea of a fast mail route to the Pacific coast was prompted largely by California's newfound prominence and its rapidly growing population. After gold was discovered there in 1848, thousands of prospectors, investors and businessmen made their way to California, at that time a new territory of the U.S. By 1850, California entered the Union as a free state. By 1860, the population had grown to 380,000.[3] The demand for a faster way to get mail and other communications to and from this westernmost state became even greater as the American Civil War approached.

tag: p

text: In the late 1850s, William Russell, Alexander Majors, and William Waddell were the three founders of the Pony Express. They were already in the freighting and drayage business. At the peak of the operations, they employed 6,000 men, owned 75,000 oxen, thousands of wagons, and warehouses plus a sawmill, a meatpacking plant, a bank and an insurance company.[4]

text: Russell was a prominent businessman, well respected among his peers and the community.[citation needed] Waddell was co-owner of the firm Morehead, Waddell & Co. After Morehead was bought out and retired, Waddell merged his company with Russell's, changing the name to Waddell & Russell. In 1855 they took on a new partner, Alexander Majors, and founded the company of Russell, Majors & Waddell.[5] They held government contracts for delivering army supplies to the western frontier, and Russell had a similar idea for contracts with the U.S. Government for fast mail delivery.[6]

text: By utilizing a short route and using mounted riders rather than traditional stagecoaches, they proposed to establish a fast mail service between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California, with letters delivered in 10 days, a duration many said was impossible. The initial price was set at $5 per 1⁄2 ounce (14 g), then $2.50, and by July 1861 to $1. The founders of the Pony Express hoped to win an exclusive government mail contract, but that did not come about.

text: Russell, Majors, and Waddell organized and put together the Pony Express in two months in the winter of 1860. The undertaking assembled 120 riders, 184 stations, 400 horses, and several hundred personnel during January and February 1861.[7]

text: Alexander Majors was a religious man and resolved "by the help of God" to overcome all difficulties. He presented each rider with a special edition Bible and required this oath,[8][9] which they were also required to sign.[10]

text: "I, ..., do hereby swear, before the Great and Living God, that during my engagement, and while I am an employee of Russell, Majors, and Waddell, I will, under no circumstances, use profane language, that I will drink no intoxicating liquors, that I will not quarrel or fight with any other employee of the firm, and that in every respect I will conduct myself honestly, be faithful to my duties, and so direct all my acts as to win the confidence of my employers, so help me God."

text: The Pony Express demonstrated that a unified transcontinental system of communications could be established and operated year-round. When replaced by the telegraph, the Pony Express quickly became romanticized and became part of the lore of the American West. Its reliance on the ability and endurance of individual young, hardy riders and fast horses was seen as evidence of rugged American individualism of the Frontier times.

text: From 1866 until 1889, the Pony Express logo was used by stagecoach and freight company Wells Fargo, which provided secure mail service. The United States Postal Service (USPS) used "Pony Express" as a trademark for postal services in the US.[13] Freight Link international courier services, based in Russia, adopted the Pony Express trademark and a logo similar to that of the USPS.[14]

text: Operation[edit]

text: In 1860, there were about 157 Pony Express stations that were about 10 miles (16 km) apart along the Pony Express route.[7] At each station stop the express rider would change to a fresh horse, taking only the mail pouch called a mochila (from the Spanish for pouch or backpack) with him.

text: The employers stressed the importance of the pouch. They often said that, if it came to be, the horse and rider should perish before the mochila did. The mochila was thrown over the saddle and held in place by the weight of the rider sitting on it. Each corner had a cantina, or pocket. Bundles of mail were placed in these cantinas, which were padlocked for safety. The mochila could hold 20 pounds (9 kg) of mail along with the 20 pounds (9 kg) of material carried on the horse.[16] Eventually, everything except one revolver and a water sack was removed, allowing for a total of 165 pounds (75 kg) on the horse's back. Riders, who could not weigh over 125 pounds (57 kg), changed about every 75–100 miles (120–160 km), and rode day and night. In emergencies, a given rider might ride two stages back to back, over 20 hours on a quickly moving horse.

text: It is unknown if riders tried crossing the Sierra Nevada in winter, but they certainly crossed central Nevada. By 1860 there was a telegraph station in Carson City, Nevada. The riders received $100 a month as pay. A comparable wage for unskilled labor at the time was about $0.43–$1 per day.

text: Alexander Majors, one of the founders of the Pony Express, had acquired more than 400 horses for the project. He selected horses from around the west, paying an average of $200.[17] These averaged about 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) high and averaged 900 pounds (410 kg)[18] each; thus, the name pony was appropriate, even if not strictly correct in all cases.

text: Pony Express route[edit]

text: The approximately 1,900-mile-long (3,100 km) route[19] roughly followed the Oregon and California Trails to Fort Bridger in Wyoming, and then the Mormon Trail (known as the Hastings Cutoff) to Salt Lake City, Utah. From there it followed the Central Nevada Route to Carson City, Nevada before passing over the Sierra into Sacramento, California.[20]

text: The route started at St. Joseph, Missouri on the Missouri River, it then followed what is modern-day U.S. Highway 36 (US 36 the Pony Express Highway) to Marysville, Kansas, where it turned northwest following Little Blue River to Fort Kearny in Nebraska. Through Nebraska it followed the Great Platte River Road, cutting through Gothenburg, Nebraska, clipping the edge of Colorado at Julesburg, Colorado, and passing Courthouse Rock, Chimney Rock, and Scotts Bluff, before arriving at Fort Laramie in Wyoming. From there it followed the Sweetwater River, passing Independence Rock, Devil's Gate, and Split Rock, to Fort Caspar, through South Pass to Fort Bridger and then down to Salt Lake City. From Salt Lake City it generally followed the Central Nevada Route blazed by Captain James H. Simpson of the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1859. This route roughly follows today's US 50 across Nevada and Utah. It crossed the Great Basin, the Utah-Nevada Desert, and the Sierra Nevada near Lake Tahoe before arriving in Sacramento. Mail was then sent via steamer down the Sacramento River to San Francisco. On a few instances when the steamer was missed, riders took the mail via horseback to Oakland, California.

text: Stations[edit]

text: There were 184 stations along the long and arduous route used by the Pony Express. The stations and station keepers were essential to the successful, timely and smooth operation of the Pony Express mail system. The stations were often fashioned out of existing structures, several of them located in military forts, while others were built anew in remote areas where living conditions were very basic.[21] The route was divided up into five divisions.[22] To maintain the rigid schedule, 157 relay stations were located from 5 to 25 miles (8 to 40 km) apart as the terrain would allow for. At each swing station, riders would exchange their tired mounts for fresh ones, while "home stations" provided room and board for the riders between runs. This technique allowed the mail to be whisked across the continent in record time. Each rider rode about 75 miles (120 km) per day.[23]

text:
[show]
Pony Express Stations

Division One: Stations between St. Joseph and Fort Kearney
Missouri:
1. St. Joseph Station
Kansas:
2. Troy Station
3. Lewis Station
4. Kennekuk (Kinnekuk) Station
5. Kickapoo, Goteschall Station
6. Log Chain Station
7. Seneca Station
8. Ash Point, Laramie Creek Station
9. Guittard Station (aka Gantard's, Guttard)
10. Marysville Station
11. Cottonwood, Hollenberg Station
12. Atchison Station
13. Lancaster Station
Nebraska:
14. Rock House Station
15. Rock Creek Station
16. Virginia City
17. Big Sandy Station
18. Millersville, Thompson's Station
19. Kiowa Station
20. Little Blue, Oak Grove Station
21. Liberty Farm Station
22. Spring Ranch, Lone Tree Station
23. Thirty-two Mile Creek Station
24. Sand Hill, Summit Station
25. Hook's, Kearney, Valley Station
26. Fort Kearney

Division Two: Stations between Fort Kearney and Horseshoe Creek
Nebraska (continued):
27. Seventeen Mile, Platte Station
28. Garden Station
29. Plum Creek Station
30. Willow Island, Willow Bend Station
31. Cold Water, Midway Ranch Station
32. Gilman's Station
33. Machette's Station (Gothenburg)
34. Cottonwood Springs Station
35. Cold Springs Station
36. Fremont Springs Station
37. O'Fallon's Bluff, Dansey's/Elkhorn Station
38. Alkali Lake Station
39. Gill's, Sand Hill Station

Pony Express Marker along the South Platte River in western Nebraska on US 30 (Lincoln Hwy)

40. Diamond Springs Station
41. Beauvais Ranch Station
Colorado:
42. Frontz's/South Platte Station
43. Julesburg Station
Nebraska (continued):
44. Nine Mile Station
45. Pole Creek No. 2 Station
46. Pole Creek No. 3 Station
47. Midway Station
48. Mud Springs Station
49. Court House (Rock) Station
50. Chimney Rock Station
51. Ficklin's Springs Station
52. Scott's Bluff(s) Station
53. Horse Creek Station
Wyoming:
54. Cold Springs, Spring Ranch/Torrington Station
55. Verdling's, Bordeaux, Bedeau's Ranch/Fort Benard Station
56. Fort Laramie Station
57. Nine Mile, Sand Point, Ward's, Central Star Station
58. Cottonwood Station
59. Horseshoe Creek, Horseshoe Station

Division Three: Stations between Horseshoe Creek and Salt Lake City
Wyoming (continued) :
60. Elk Horn Station
61. La Bonte Station
62. Bed Tick Station
63. Lapierelle/La Prele Station
64. Box Elder (Creek) Station
65. Deer Creek Station
66. Little Muddy Station
67. Bridger Station
68. Platte Bridge/North Platte Station
69. Red Butte (s) Station
70. Willow Springs Station
71. Horse, Greesewood Creek Station
72. Sweetwater Station
73. Devil's Gate Station
74. Plant's, Plante Station
75. Split Rock Station
76. Three Crossings Station
77. Ice Slough, Ice Springs Station
78. Warm Springs Station
79. Rocky Ridge, St. Mary's Station
80. Rock Creek Station
81. Upper Sweetwater, South Pass Station
82. Pacific Springs Station
83. Dry Sandy Station
84. Little Sandy Creek Station
85. Big Sandy Station
86. Big Timber Station
87. Green River Station (crossing Station)
88. Michael Martin's Station
89. Ham's Fork Station
90. Church Buttes Station
91. Millersville Station
92. Fort Bridger
93. Muddy Creek Station
94. Quaking Asp, Aspen, Springs Station
95. Bear River Station
Utah:
96. The Needles, Needle Rock(s) Station
97. (Head of) Echo Canyon Station
98. Halfway Station
99. Weber Station
100. Brimville Emergency Station
101. Carson House Station
102. East Canyon Station
103. Wheaton Springs Station
104. Mountain Dell/Dale Station
105. Salt Lake City Station

Division Four: Stations between Salt Lake City and Robert's Creek
Utah (continued):
106. Trader's Rest, Traveler's Rest Station
107. Rockwell's Station
108. Dugout, Joe's Dugout Station
109. Camp Floyd, Fairfield Station
110. Pass, East Rush Valley Station
111. Rush Valley, Faust's Station
112. Point Lookout, Lookout Pass Station
113. Government Creek Station
114. Simpson's Springs, Egan's Springs Station
115. River Bed Station
116. Dugway Station
117. Black Rock Station
118. Fish Springs Station
119. Boyd's Station
120. Willow Springs Station
121. Willow Creek Station
122. Canyon, Burnt Station
123. Deep Creek Station
Nevada:
124. Prairie Gate, Eight Mile Station
125. Antelope Springs Station
126. Spring Valley Station
127. Schell Creek Station
128. Egan's Canyon, Egan's Station
129. Bates', Butte Station
130. Mountain Spring(s) Station
131. Ruby Valley Station
132. Jacob's Well Station
133. Diamond Springs Station
134. Sulphur Springs Station
135. Robert's Creek Station

Division Five: Stations between Roberts Creek and Sacramento
Nevada (continued): 136. Camp Station, Grub(b)s Well Station
137. Dry Creek Station
138. Simpson Park Station
139. Reese River, Jacob's Spring Station
140. Dry Wells Station
141. Smith's Creek Station
142. Castle Rock Station
143. Edward's Creek Station
144. Cold Springs, East Gate Station
145. Middle Gate Station
146. West Gate Station
147. Sand Springs Station
148. Sand Hill Station
149. Carson Sink Station
150. Williams Station
151. Desert, Hooten Wells Station
152. Buckland's Station
153. Fort Churchill Station
154. Fairview Station
155. Mountain Well Station
156. Stillwater Station
157. Old River Station
158. Bisby's Station
159. Nevada Station
160. Ragtown Station
161. Desert Wells Station
162. Miller's, Reed's Station
163. Dayton Station
164. Carson City Station
165. Genoa Station
166. Friday's, Lakeside Station
California:
167. Woodford's Station
168. Fountain Place Station
169. Yank's Station
170. Strawberry Station
171. Webster's, Sugar Loaf House Station
172. Moss/Moore, Riverton Station
173. Sportsman's Hall Station
174. Placerville Station
175. El Dorado, Nevada House/Mud Springs Station
176. Mormon Tavern, Sunrise House Station
177. Fifteen Mile House Station
178. Five Mile House Station
179. Pleasant Grove House Station
180. Duroc Station
181. Folsom Station
182. Sacramento Station
183. Benicia, Martinez, and Oakland Stations
184. San Francisco Station

tag: table

text: First journeys[edit]

text: Westbound[edit]

text: The first Westbound Pony Express trip left St. Joseph on April 3, 1860 and arrived ten days later in San Francisco, California, on April 14. These letters were sent under cover from the East to St. Joseph, and never directly entered the U.S. mail system. Today there is only a single letter known to exist from the inaugural westbound trip from St. Joseph, Missouri to San Francisco, California.[24] The mailing depicted below is on a pre-stamped (embossed) envelope, first issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1855, used five years later here.[25]

text: The messenger delivering the mochila from New York and Washington, DC, missed a connection in Detroit and arrived in Hannibal, Missouri, two hours late. The railroad cleared the track and dispatched a special locomotive called Missouri with a one-car train to make the 206-mile (332 km) trek across the state in a record 4 hours 51 minutes, an average of 40 miles per hour (64 km/h).[26] It arrived at Olive and 8th Street, a few blocks from the company's new headquarters in a hotel at Patee House at 12th and Penn Street and the company's nearby stables on Penn Street. The first pouch contained 49 letters, five private telegrams, and some papers for San Francisco and intermediate points.[27]

text: St. Joseph Mayor M. Jeff Thompson, William H. Russell, and Alexander Majors gave speeches before the mochila was handed off. The ride began at about 7:15 p.m. The St. Joseph Gazette was the only newspaper included in the bag.

text: The identity of the first rider has long been in dispute. The St. Joseph Weekly West (April 4, 1860) reported Johnson William Richardson was the first rider.[28] Johnny Fry is credited in some sources as the rider. Nonetheless, the first westbound rider carried the pouch across the Missouri River ferry to Elwood, Kansas. The first horse-ridden leg of the Express was only about 1⁄2 mile (800 m) from the Express stables/railroad area to the Missouri River ferry at the foot of Jules Street. Reports indicated that horse and rider crossed the river. In later rides, the courier crossed the river without a horse and picked up his mount at a stable on the other side.

text: The first westbound mochila reached its destination, San Francisco, on April 14, at 1:00 a.m.[29]

text: Eastbound[edit]

text: The first eastbound Pony Express trip left San Francisco, California, on April 3, 1860 and arrived at its destination ten days later in St. Joseph, Missouri. From St. Joseph, letters were placed in the U.S. mails for delivery to eastern destinations. There are only two letters known to exist from the inaugural eastbound trip from San Francisco to St. Joseph.[30]

text: Mail[edit]

text: As the Pony Express Mail service existed only briefly in 1860 and 1861, there are consequently very few surviving examples of Pony Express mail. Also, contributing to the scarcity of surviving Pony Express mail is that the cost to send a 1⁄2-ounce (14 g) letter was $5.00[31] at the beginning, (about $130.00 to today's standards). By the end period of the Pony Express, the price had dropped to $1.00 per  1⁄2 ounce but even that was considered expensive (equivalent to $27 in 2016[32]) just to mail one letter. As this mail service was also a frontier enterprise, removed from the general population in the east, along with the largely unaffordable rates, there are consequently few pieces of surviving Pony Express mail in the hands of collectors and museums. There are only 250 known examples of Pony Express mail.[24]

text: Postmarks[edit]

text: Various postmarks were added to mail to be carried by the Pony Express at the point of departure.

text: Fastest mail service[edit]

text: William Russell, senior partner of 'Russell, Majors, and Waddell' and one of the biggest investors in the Pony Express, used the 1860 presidential election as a way to promote the Pony Express and how fast it could deliver the U.S. Mail. Prior to the election, Russell hired extra riders to ensure that fresh riders and relay horses were available along the route. On November 7, 1860, a Pony Express rider departed Fort Kearny, Nebraska Territory (the end of the eastern telegraph line) with the election results. Riders sped along the route, over snow-covered trails and into Fort Churchill, Nevada Territory (the end of the western telegraph line). California's newspapers received word of Lincoln's election only seven days and 17 hours after the East Coast papers, an unrivaled feat at the time.[34]

text: Attacks[edit]

text: The Paiute War was a minor series of raids and ambushes initiated by the Paiute Indian tribe in Nevada, which resulted in the disruption of mail services of the Pony Express. It took place from May through June 1860, though sporadic violence continued for a period afterward. In the brief history that the Pony Express operated only once did the mail not go through. After completing eight weekly trips from both Sacramento and Saint Joseph, the Pony Express was forced to suspend mail services because of the outbreak of the Paiute Indian War in May 1860.

text: Approximately 6,000 Paiutes in Nevada had suffered during a winter of fierce blizzards that year. By spring, the whole tribe was ready to embark on a war, except for the Paiute chief named Numaga. For three days Numaga fasted and argued for peace.[36] Meanwhile, a raiding party attacked Williams Station, a Pony Express station located on the Carson River near present-day Lake Lahontan. One account says the raid was a deliberate attempt to provoke war. Another says the raiders had heard that men at the station had kidnapped two Paiute women, and fighting broke out when they went to investigate and free the women. Either way, the war party killed five men and the station was burned.[37]

text: During the following weeks, other isolated incidents occurred when whites in Paiute country were ambushed and killed. The Pony Express was a special target. Seven other express stations were also attacked; some 16 employees were killed and approximately 150 express horses were either stolen or driven off. The Paiute war cost the Pony Express company about $75,000 in livestock and station equipment, not to mention the loss of life. In June of that year, the Paiute uprising had been ended through the intervention of U.S. government troops, after which four delayed mail shipments from the East were finally brought to San Francisco on June 25, 1860.[38]

text: During this brief war, one Pony Express mailing, which left San Francisco on July 21, 1860, did not immediately reach its destination. That mail pouch (mochila) did not reach St. Joseph and subsequently New York until almost two years later.

text: Famous riders[edit]

text: In 1860, riding for the Pony Express was difficult work — riders had to be tough and lightweight. A famous advertisement allegedly read:

text: The Pony Express had an estimated 80 riders who were traveling east or west along various points of the route at any given time. In addition, there were also about 400 other employees, including station keepers, stock tenders and route superintendents. Many young men applied for jobs with the Pony Express, ready to face the dangers and the challenges that sometimes lay along the delivery route. Waddell and Majors could have easily hired them at a much lesser rate, but instead paid them a handsome sum for that time of one hundred dollars a month.[40] Famous American author Mark Twain, who saw the Pony Express in action first hand, described the riders in his travel memoir Roughing It as: "... usually a little bit of a man". Though the riders were small, lightweight, generally teenage boys, their untarnished record proved them to be heroes of the American West for the much needed and dangerous service they provided for the nation.[23] Establishing a complete list of riders is virtually impossible. There was no official list of riders kept by the express company and the scarcity of newspapers along the route contributed to the absence of this information. When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, the Pony Express was forgotten about almost entirely, and consequently there was not much interest in pursuing and searching out this information for many years following, by which time much of it had simply vanished in the course of everyday affairs.[41] A partial list of riders has been compiled in Raymond and Nancy Settle's 1972 book Saddles & Spurs.[42]

text: First riders[edit]

text: The identity of the first westbound rider to depart St. Joseph has been disputed, but currently most historians have narrowed it down to either Johnny Fry or Billy Richardson.[28][43][44][7] Both Expressmen were hired at St. Joseph for A. E. Lewis' Division which ran from St. Joseph to Seneca, Kansas, a distance of 80 miles (130 km). They covered at an average speed of 12 1⁄2 miles per hour (20 km/h), including all stops.[45] Before the mail pouch was delivered to the first rider on April 3, 1860, time was taken out for ceremonies and several speeches. First, Mayor M. Jeff Thompson gave a brief speech on the significance of the event for St. Joseph. Then William H. Russell and Alexander Majors addressed the gala crowd about how the Pony Express was just a "precursor" to the construction of a transcontinental railroad. At the conclusion of all the speeches, approximately 7:15 p.m., Russell turned the mail pouch over to the first rider. A cannon fired, the large assembled crowd cheered, and the rider dashed to the landing at the foot of Jules Street where the ferry boat Denver, under a full head of steam, alerted by the signal cannon, waited to carry the horse and rider across the Missouri River to Elwood, Kansas Territory.[46][47] On April 9 at 6:45 p.m., the first rider from the east reached Salt Lake City, Utah. Then, on April 12, the mail pouch reached Carson City, Nevada at 2:30 p.m. The riders raced over the Sierra Nevada Mountains, through Placerville, California and on to Sacramento. Around midnight on April 14, 1860, the first mail pouch was delivered via the Pony Express to San Francisco. Bringing with it was a letter of congratulations from President Buchanan to California Governor Downey along with other official government communications, newspapers from New York, Chicago, and St. Louis, along with other important mail to banks and commercial houses in San Francisco. In all, 85 pieces of mail were delivered on this first trip.[48]

text: James Randall is credited as the first eastbound rider from the San Francisco Alta telegraph office since he was on the steamship Antelope to go to Sacramento.[49] Mail for the Pony Express left San Francisco at 4:00 pm, carried by horse and rider to the waterfront, and then on by steamboat to Sacramento where it was picked up by the Pony Express rider. At 2:45 a.m., William (Sam) Hamilton was the first Pony Express rider to begin the journey from Sacramento. He rode all the way to Sportsman Hall Station where he gave his mochila filled with mail to Warren Upson.[50] A California Registered Historical Landmark plaque at the site reads:

text: This was the site of Sportsman's Hall, also known as the Twelve-Mile House. The hotel operated in the late 1850's and 1860's by John and James Blair. A stopping place for stages and teams of the Comstock, it became a relay station of the central overland Pony Express. Here, at 7:40 a.m., April 4, 1860, Pony rider William (Sam) Hamilton, riding in from Placerville, handed the Express mail to Warren Upson who, two minutes later, sped on his way eastward.

text: William Cody[edit]

text: Probably more than any other rider in the Pony Express, William Cody (better known as Buffalo Bill) epitomizes the legend and the folklore, be it fact or fiction, of the Pony Express.[51][52] Numerous stories have been told of young Cody's adventures as a Pony Express rider. At the age of 15 Cody was on his way west to California when he met Pony Express agents along the way and signed on with the company. Cody helped in the construction of several way-stations. Thereafter, he was employed as a rider and was given a short 45-mile (72 km) delivery run from the township of Julesburg which lay to the west. After some months he was transferred to Slade's Division in Wyoming where he made the longest non-stop ride from Red Buttes Station to Rocky Ridge Station and back when he found that his relief rider had been killed. The distance of 322 miles (518 km) over one of the most dangerous sections of the entire trail was completed in 21 hours and 40 minutes, and 21 horses were required to complete this section.[23] On one occasion when carrying mail he unintentionally ran into an Indian war party but managed to escape. Cody was present for many significant chapters in early western history, including the gold rush, the building of the railroads and cattle herding on the Great Plains. A career as a scout for the Army under General Phillip Sheridan following the Civil War earned him his nickname and established his notoriety as a frontiersman.[53][54][55]

text: Robert Haslam[edit]

text: Robert Haslam (Pony Bob) was among the most brave, resourceful, and best-known riders of the Pony Express. He was born January 1840 in London, England, and came to the United States as a teenager. Haslam was hired by Bolivar Roberts, helped build the stations, and was given the mail run from Friday's Station at Lake Tahoe to Buckland's Station near Fort Churchill, 75 miles (121 km) to the east.

text: His greatest ride, 120 miles (190 km) in 8 hours and 20 minutes while wounded, was an important contribution to the fastest trip ever made by the Pony Express. The mail carried Lincoln's inaugural address. Indian problems in 1860 led to Pony Bob Haslam's record-breaking ride. He had received the eastbound mail (probably the May 10 mail from San Francisco) at Friday's Station. When he reached Buckland's Station his relief rider was so badly frightened over the Indian threat that he refused to take the mail. Haslam agreed to take the mail all the way to Smith's Creek for a total distance of 190 miles (310 km) without a rest. After a rest of nine hours, he retraced his route with the westbound mail where, at Cold Springs, he found that Indians had raided the place, killing the station keeper and running off all of the stock. On the ride he was shot through the jaw with an Indian arrow, losing three teeth.[56] Finally, he reached Buckland's Station, making the 380-mile (610 km) round trip the longest on record.[23]

text: Pony Bob continued to work as a rider for Wells Fargo and Company after the Civil War, scouted for the U.S. Army well into his fifties, and later accompanied his good friend Buffalo Bill Cody on a diplomatic mission to negotiate the surrender of Chief Sitting Bull in December 1890. He drifted in and out of public mention but eventually died in Chicago during the winter of 1912 (age 72) in deep poverty after suffering a stroke. Buffalo Bill paid for his friend's headstone at Mount Greenwood Cemetery (111 Street and Sacramento) on Chicago's far south side.[57]

text: Jack Keetley[edit]

text: Jack Keetley was hired by A. E. Lewis for his Division at the age of nineteen, and put on the run from Marysville to Big Sandy. He was one of those who rode for the Pony Express during the entire nineteen months of its existence.

text: Jack Keetley's longest ride, upon which he doubled back for another rider, ended at Seneca where he was taken from the saddle sound asleep. He had ridden 340 miles (550 km) in thirty-one hours without stopping to rest or eat.[58][59] After the Pony Express was disbanded, Keetley went to Salt Lake City where he engaged in mining. He died there on October 12, 1912 where he was also buried.[60]

text: In 1907, Keetley wrote the following letter (excerpt):

text: Alex Carlyle was the first man to ride the Pony Express out of St. Joe. He was a nephew of the superintendent of the stage line to Denver, called the "Pike's Peak Express." The superintendent's name was Ben Ficklin. Carlyle was a consumptive, and could not stand the hardships, and retired after about two months trial, and died within about six months after retiring. John Frye was the second rider, and I was the third, and Gus Cliff was the fourth.

text: Billy Tate[edit]

text: Billy Tate was a 14-year-old Pony Express rider who rode the express trail in Nevada near Ruby Valley. During the Paiute uprising of 1860 he was chased by a band of Paiute Indians on horseback and was forced to retreat into the hills behind some big rocks where he killed seven of his assailants in a shoot-out before being killed himself. His body was found riddled with arrows but was not scalped, a sign that the Paiutes honored their enemy.[61]

text: Horses[edit]

text: An estimated 400 horses in total were used by the Pony Express to deliver the mail. Horses were selected for swiftness and endurance. On the east end of Pony Express route the horses were usually selected from U.S. Cavalry units. At the west end of the Pony Express route in California, W.W. Finney purchased 100 head of short coupled stock called "California Horses"' while A.B. Miller purchased another 200 native ponies in and around the Great Salt Lake Valley. The horses were ridden quickly between stations, an average distance of 15 miles (24 km), and then were relieved and a fresh horse would be exchanged for the one that just arrived from its strenuous run.

text: During his route of 80 to 100 miles (130 to 160 km), a Pony Express rider would change horses 8 to 10 times. The horses were ridden at a fast trot, canter or gallop, around 10 to 15 miles per hour (16 to 24 km/h) and at times they were driven to full gallop at speeds up to 25 miles per hour (40 km/h). Horses of the Pony Express were purchased in Missouri, Iowa, California, and some western U.S. territories.

text: The various types of horse ridden by riders of the Pony Express included Morgans and thoroughbreds which were often used on the eastern end of the trail. Mustangs were often used on the western (more rugged) end of the mail route. [62]

text: Saddle[edit]

text: In 1844, years before the Pony Express came to St. Joseph, Israel Landis opened a small saddle and harness shop there. His business expanded as the town grew, and when the Pony Express came to town Landis was the ideal candidate to produce saddles for the newly founded Pony Express. Because Pony Express riders rode their horses at a quick pace over a distance of 10 miles (16 km) or more between stations, every consideration was made to reduce the overall weight the horse had to carry. To help reduce this load, special lightweight saddles were designed and crafted. Using less leather and fewer metallic and wood components they fashioned a saddle that was similar in design to the regular stock saddle generally in use in the West at that time.[63]

text: The mail pouch was a separate component to the saddle that made the Pony Express unique. Standard mail pouches for horses were never employed because of their size and shape, as it was time consuming detaching and attaching it from one saddle to the other, causing undue delay in changing mounts. With many stops to make, the delayed time at each station would accumulate to appreciable proportions. To get around this difficulty, a mochila, or covering of leather, was thrown over the saddle. The saddle horn and cantle projected through holes which were specially cut to size in the mochila. Attached to the broad leather skirt of the mochila were four cantinas, or box-shaped hard leather compartments, where letters were carried on the journey.[63]

text: Closing[edit]

text: During its brief time in operation, the Pony Express delivered approximately 35,000 letters between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California.[64] Although the Pony Express proved that the central/northern mail route was viable, Russell, Majors and Waddell did not get the contract to deliver mail over the route. The contract was instead awarded to Jeremy Dehut in March 1861, who had taken over the southern Congressionally favored Butterfield Overland Mail Stage Line. The so-called 'Stagecoach King', Ben Holladay, acquired the Russell, Majors and Waddell stations for his stagecoaches.

text: Shortly after the contract was awarded, the start of the American Civil War caused the stage line to cease operation. From March 1861, the Pony Express ran mail only between Salt Lake City and Sacramento. The Pony Express announced its closure on October 26, 1861, two days after the transcontinental telegraph reached Salt Lake City and connected Omaha, Nebraska, and Sacramento, California. Other telegraph lines connected points along the line and other cities on the east and west coasts.[65]

text: Despite the subsidy, the Pony Express was a financial failure. It grossed $90,000 and lost $200,000.[66]

text: In 1866, after the Civil War was over, Holladay sold the Pony Express assets along with the remnants of the Butterfield Stage to Wells Fargo for $1.5 million.

text: Commemorations[edit]

text: In 1869, the United States Post Office issued the first U.S. Postage stamp to depict an actual historic event, and the subject that was chosen was the Pony Express. Until then only the faces of George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson were found on the face of U.S. Postage.[67] Sometimes mistaken for an actual stamp used by the Pony Express, the 'Pony Express Stamp' issue was released in 1869 (8 years after the Pony Express service had ended) to honor the men who rode the long and sometimes dangerous journeys and to commemorate the service they provided for the nation. In 1940 and 1960 commemorative stamps were issued for the 80th and 100th anniversaries of the Pony Express respectively.

text:
Pony Express Rider, Issue of 1869

Pony Express 80th Anniversary, Issue of 1940

Pony Express 100th anniversary, Issue of 1960

text: National Pony Express Association (NPEA) is a non-profit, volunteer-led historical organization. Its purpose is to preserve the original Pony Express trail and to continue the memory and importance of Pony Express in American history in partnership with the National Park Service, Pony Express Trail Association, and the Oregon-California Trails Association.

text: April 3, 2010 was the Pony Express' 150th anniversary. Located in St. Joseph, Missouri, the Patee House Museum, which was the Pony Express' headquarters, hosted events celebrating the anniversary.[68]

text: Historical research[edit]

text: The foundation of accountable Pony Express history rests in the few tangible areas where records, papers, letters and mailings have yielded the most historical evidence. Until the 1950s most of what was known about the short-lived Pony Express was the product of a few accounts, hearsay and folklore, generally true in their overall aspects, but lacking in verification in many areas for those who wanted to explore the history surrounding the founders, the various riders and station keepers or who were interested in stations or Forts along the Pony Express route.

text: The most complete books on the Pony Express are The Story of the Pony Express and Saddles and Spurs by Raymond & Mary Settle and Roy Bloss. Settle's account is unique as he was the first writer and historical researcher to make use of Pony Express founder William B. Waddell's papers, now in a collection at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California. Mr. Settle wrote in the mid-1950s. Mr. Bloss was a writer for the Pony Express Centennial. While Settle's work was published generally without his annotations and notes, the writer's background here is unique and Settle does have an excellent bibliography. When Settle prepared to publish his well-researched account he had a good volume of footnotes, citations prepared, but the editors chose not to use most of them. Instead, they opted for a less expensive approach to print and publish and released an accurate, but simplified account. Settle was not pleased with this new and sudden development, as he put much time and effort into the annotations. Yet, the account Settle wrote was and is a definitive one and is considered the best account on the history of the Pony Express amongst many historians.[69]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Wells Fargo used the Pony Express logo for its guard and armored car service. The logo continued to be used when other companies took over the security business into the 1990s. Since 2001, the Pony Express logo is no longer used for security businesses since the business has been sold.[70]

text: The United States Postal Service has trademarked "Pony Express" along with "Air Mail."[71]

text: The Pony Express route has been designated the Pony Express National Historic Trail. Approximately 120 historic sites along the trail may eventually be open to the public, including 50 stations or station ruins.[72]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The continued remembrance and popularity of the Pony Express can be linked to Buffalo Bill Cody, his autobiographies, and his Wild West Show. The first book dedicated solely to the Pony Express was not published until 1900.[73] However, in his first autobiography, published in 1879, Cody claims to have been an Express rider.[74][75] While this claim has recently come under dispute,[73] his show became the "primary keeper of the pony legend" when it premiered as a scene in the Wild West Show.[73]

text: Film[edit]

text:
The Pony Express (1925)[76]
Frontier Pony Express (1939)[77]
Pony Post (1940)[78]
Plainsman and the Lady (1946)[79]
Pony Express (1953)[80]
Last of the Pony Riders (1953)[81]
The Pony Express Rider (1976)[82]
Days of the Pony Express (2008)
Spirit of the Pony Express (2012)[83]

tag: ul

text: Television[edit]

text:
The Range Rider (1951–1953) season 1 episode "The Last of the Pony Express"[84]
Pony Express (1959–1960) [85]
Bonanza (1959–1973) season 7 two-part episode "Ride the Wind"[86][87]
The Young Riders (1989–1992)
Into the West (2005)


document_title: Australia at the Commonwealth Games

question_text: how many gold medals has australia won commonwealth games 2018

text: Australia at the Commonwealth Games

text: List of Games Host Nation Bids[edit]

text: Games Staged[edit]

text: Australia has hosted the Commonwealth Games on four occasions but have only won once via an international vote. That vote was for the host of the 2018 games, won by the Gold Coast.

text: Sydney 1938 was simply awarded.

text: Perth 1962 was a contest between Adelaide and Perth which Adelaide originally won at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia. Adelaide first won 13 votes to Perth's 3. Two years later that was overturned by the Australian Commonwealth Games Association prior to the 1958 British Empire Games in Cardiff, Wales. A New Vote awarded Perth with a 9 to 7 vote.

text: Brisbane 1982 was awarded after Lagos, Nigeria; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and Birmingham, England all withdrew prior to the Bid vote that took place in Montreal, Quebec, Canada during the 1976 Summer Olympics.

text: Melbourne 2006 was awarded to the city after Wellington, New Zealand withdrew their bid prior to the Bid Lodgement Deadline.

text:
Year
Host City, State
Years Between

2018 Commonwealth Games
Gold Coast, Queensland
12

2006 Commonwealth Games
Melbourne, Victoria
24

1982 Commonwealth Games
Brisbane, Queensland
20

1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Perth, Western Australia
24

1938 British Empire Games
Sydney, New South Wales
-

text: Failed bid Results[edit]

text:
Year
Australian Candidate City
Winning City
Vote Tally

1974 Commonwealth Games
Melbourne
Christchurch
2-36

1998 Commonwealth Games
Adelaide
Kuala Lumpur
25-40

text: Medals[edit]

text: Overall Medal Tally[edit]

text: Positions are calculated by the number of gold medals earned, then the number of silvers is taken into consideration and then the number of bronze.

text: Figures from Commonwealth Games Foundation website.[2] Those represented in bold are the highest scoring medal tally for each individual medal.

text: The 2006 Games saw the highest overall medal tally, including the highest number of silver and bronze medals. The 1994 Games remains the Games with the highest number of gold medals won for Australia.

text:
Total

 Australia
936
768
713
2427

text: Games Summary[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Rank
Competitors
Officials
Flag Bearer Opening
Flag Bearer Closing

 1930 Hamilton
3
4
1
8
5
9
2
Bobby Pearce

 1934 London
8
4
2
14
3
17
2
Noel Ryan

 1938 Sydney
25
19
22
66
1
158
11
Edgar 'Dunc Gray

 1950 Auckland
34
27
19
80
1
148
20
Mervyn Wood

 1954 Vancouver
20
11
17
48
2
78
13
Dick Garrard

 1958 Cardiff
27
22
17
66
2
105
14
Ivan Lund

 1962 Perth
38
36
31
105
1
208
30
Tony Madigan

 1966 Kingston
23
28
22
73
2
101
23
David Dickson

 1970 Edinburgh
36
24
22
82
1
107
25
Pam Kilborn
Michael Wenden[3]

 1974 Christchurch
29
28
25
82
1
168
34
Michael Wenden

 1978 Edmonton
24
33
27
84
3
148
42
Remo Sansonetti and
Salvatore Sansonetti
Tracey Wickham[4]

 1982 Brisbane
39
39
29
107
1
208
54
Rick Mitchell
Lisa Curry

 1986 Edinburgh
40
46
35
121
3
235
69
Michael Turtur
Gael Martin[5]

 1990 Auckland
52
54
56
162
1
247
68
Lisa Curry-Kenny
Phillip Adams

 1994 Victoria
87
52
42
181
1
241
92
Ian Hale
Gary Neiwand

 1998 Kuala Lumpur
80
61
57
198
1
311
130
Kieren Perkins
Susan O'Neill

 2002 Manchester
82
62
63
207
1
355
131
Damian Brown
Ian Thorpe

 2006 Melbourne
84
69
68
221
1
425
168
Jane Saville
Leisel Jones

 2010 Delhi
74
56
49
179
1
368
179
Sharelle McMahon
Alicia Coutts

 2014 Glasgow
49
42
46
137
2
409
184
Anna Meares
Mark Knowles

 2018 Gold Coast
80
59
59
198
1

Mark Knowles
Kurt Fearnley

 2022 Birmingham
Future event

Total
936
768
713
2427
1[6]

[7][8]

text: Overall Medal Tally by Sport[edit]

text: Overall total of medals achieved for each individual Commonwealth Games sporting area from 1930-2006.

text:
Sport
 Gold
 Silver
 Bronze
Total

Archery
1
0
2
3

Athletics
159
136
111
406

Badminton
2
1
9
12

Basketball
2
0
0
2

Boxing
11
14
28
53

Cricket
0
1
0
1

Cycling
78
50
34
162

Diving
27
31
26
84

Fencing
3
15
11
29

Gymnastics
38
28
36
102

Hockey
5
0
1
6

Judo
2
3
9
14

Lawn Bowls
6
18
7
31

Netball
3
2
0
5

Rowing
16
10
8
34

Rugby 7's
0
1
1
2

Shooting
52
44
32
128

Squash
4
5
9
18

Swimming
241
167
150
558

Table Tennis
0
3
2
5

Tennis
3
3
2
8

Tenpin Bowling
5
1
1
7

Triathlon
0
1
1
2

Waterpolo
1
0
0
1

Weightlifting
53
46
40
139

Wrestling
14
22
15
51

text: Progressive Medal Tally[edit]

text:
Commonwealth Games Progressive Medal Tally

Year

 Gold
 Silver
 Bronze
Total

2018

932
778
709
2419

2014

852
716
650
2218

2010

803
673
604
2080

2006

729
618
555
1902

2002

645
549
487
1681

1998

564
488
424
1476

1994

485
427
367
1279

1990

398
375
325
1098

1986

346
321
269
936

1982

306
275
234
815

1978

267
236
205
708

1974

243
203
178
624

1970

214
175
153
542

1966

178
151
131
460

1962

155
123
109
387

1958

117
87
78
282

1954

90
65
61
216

1950

70
54
44
168

1938

36
27
25
88

1934

11
8
3
22

1930

3
4
1
8

text: Numbers of athletes and sports[edit]

text: This list shows the total number of athletes, male and female, and the total sports they were selected to compete in.

text:
Year
Athletes
Male
Female
Sports

2006
426
220
206
18

2002
371

1998
320

1994
250

1990
248

1986
235

1982
210

1978
148

1974

1970

1966

1962

1958

1954

1950

1938

1934

1930

text: Team & Individual Competitor Achievements[edit]

text: Notable Achievements[edit]

text: Represented at most Games[edit]

text:
Arthur Tunstall has represented Australia as an official at 8 Commonwealth Games (1962, 66, 70, 74, 78, 86, 90, 94).
Donald Stockins has represented Australia as an official at 8 Commonwealth Games (1974, 78, 82, 86, 90, 94, 98, 2002).
Shooter Bruce Quick has represented at 7 Commonwealth Games 1990, 1998, 2002,2006,2010,2014 and 2018
Shooter Phillip Adams has competed in 6 Commonwealth Games (1982, 86, 90, 94, 98, 2002).

text: Best Individual Medal Achievements[edit]

text: Most gold medals won[edit]

text:
Swimmer Susie O'Neill won 10 gold medals at three successive Games (1990, 94, 98).
Swimmer Ian Thorpe won 10 gold medals at two successive Games (1998, 2002).
Swimmer Leisel Jones won 10 gold medals at three successive Games (2002, 06, 10).

text: Most gold medals won at a single Games[edit]

text:
Swimmer Susie O'Neill won 6 gold medals at the 1998 Games.
Swimmer Ian Thorpe won 6 gold medals at the 2002 Games.

text: Most medals won by a competitor[edit]

text:
Shooter Phillip Adams has won 18 medals (7 gold, 9 silver, 2 bronze) at five Games (1982, 86, 90, 94, 2002).
Swimmer Susie O'Neill has won 15 medals (10 gold, 5 silver) at three Games (1990, 94, 98).
Shooter Bruce Quick has won 14 medals ( 1 Gold, 9 Silver and 4 Bronze) at 6 games ( 1990,1998,2002,2006,2010 and 2014).

text: Oldest gold medal winner[edit]

text: Dorothy Roche, was 61 years and 10 months old when she won a gold medal in the women's fours in Bowls at the 1990 Games.

text: Youngest gold medal winner[edit]

text: Jenny Turrall, was 13 years, 8 months old when she won a gold medal in the 400m freestyle at Christchurch, New Zealand in 1974.[9] Jenny Turrall also won Silver medals in the 200m Freestyle, 800m Freestyle and the 4x100 Freestyle Relay -women at the 1974 Christchurch Games.[10]

text: Winning Streaks[edit]

text: Australia has won gold in the following events for each consecutive Games since the beginning of each individual streak.

text:
Swimming, Men's 4 × 200 m (13 Games - 1954, 58, 62, 66, 70, 74, 78, 82, 86, 90, 94, 98, 2002)
Swimming, Men's 4 × 100 m (6 Games - 1982, 86, 90, 94, 98, 2002)
Swimming, Women's 4 × 100 m Medley (6 Games - 1990, 94, 98, 2002, 06, 10)
Men's Hockey (4 Games - 1998, 2002, 06, 10)

text: Australian Records Achieved at Commonwealth Games[edit]

text: Record Types listed follow this Key:

text:
WR: World Record
CR: Commonwealth Record
AR: Australian Record
GR: Games Record

text: Record Summary[edit]

text: This list shows a summary of known Australian records and totals for each year and overall. A world record also covers all other records (Commonwealth, Australian and Games) but is not included in each individual tally. This also goes for each other section overlapping. The hierarchy is defined by the record key.

text:
Year
WR
CR
AR
GR
Total

2006

2002
6

44
50

1998

20
20

1994

29
29

1990

7
7

1986

6
6

1982

2
2

1978

1
1

1974

1
1

1970

3
3

1966

14
14

1962

5
5

1958

0
0

1954

3
3

1950

2
2

1938

0
0

1934

2
2

1930

0
0

Total
6

139
145

text:
6 World Records were set during these Games.
44 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 2002 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

WR
Cycling
4,000 m Team Pursuit (Qualifying)
Team: Graeme Brown, Peter Dawson, Mark Renshaw, Luke Roberts
4:04.034

WR
Cycling
4,000 m Team Pursuit
Team: Graeme Brown, Peter Dawson, Mark Renshaw, Luke Roberts
3:59.583

WR
Swimming
50 m Freestyle Multi Disability (Heat)
James Austin
27.48

WR
Swimming
100 m Freestyle Multi Disability (Heat)
James Austin
1:00.21

WR
Swimming
100 m Freestyle Multi Disability (Final)
James Austin
1:00.27

WR
Swimming
400 m Freestyle
Ian Thorpe
3:40.08

GR
Athletics
Men's 20 km Walk
Nathan Deakes
1:25.35 (hours)

GR
Athletics
Women's 20 km Walk
Jane Saville
1:36.34 (hours)

GR
Athletics
Women's 4 × 400 m Relay
Australia
3:25.63 (mins)

GR
Athletics
Men's 50 km Walk
Nathan Deakes
3:52.40 (hours)

GR
Athletics
Women's Marathon
Kerryn McCann
2:30.05 (hours)

GR
Athletics
Women's Pole Vault
Tatiana Grigorieva
4.35 (meters)

GR
Athletics
Men's Shot Put
Justin Anlezark
20.91 (meters)

GR
Cycling
Men's 20 km Scratch Race
Graeme Brown
24:14.660 (mins)

GR
Cycling
Women's 25 km Points Race
Katherine Bates
37 (points)

GR
Cycling
Men's 4000 m Individual Pursuit
Bradley "Brad" McGee
4:16.358 (mins)

GR
Cycling
Women's 500 m Time Trial
Kerrie Meares
35.084 (seconds)

GR
Cycling
Men's Road Race (187.2 km)
Stuart O'Grady
4:43:17 (hours)

GR
Cycling
Men's Road Time Trial (46.8 km)
Cadel Evans
1:00:53.50 (hours)

GR
Cycling
Men's Team Sprint
Australia
44.506 (seconds)

GR
Shooting
Women's 25 m Standard Pistol (Ind)
Lalita Yauhleuskaya
686.8 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's 25 m Standard Pistol (Team)
Australia
1150 (points)

GR
Shooting
Men's 50 m Free Rifle-3 Position (Team)
Australia
2297 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's 50 m Rifle Prone (Ind)
Kim Frazer
588 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Skeet (Ind)
Lauryn Ogilvie
93 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Skeet (Team)
Australia
95 (points)

GR
Shooting
Men's Trap (Team)
Australia
187 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Trap (Team)
Australia
90 (points)

GR
Swimming
Men's 100 m Backstroke
Matt Welsh
0:54.72 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 100 m Butterfly
Geoff Huegill
0:52.36 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Women's 100 m Butterfly
Petria Thomas
0:58.57 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 100 m Freestyle
Ian Thorpe
48.73 (seconds)

GR
Swimming
Men's 100 m Multi Disability Freestyle
Ben Austin
(mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 200 m Butterfly
Justin Norris
1:56.95 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 200 m Freestyle
Ian Thorpe
1:44.71 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 400 m Freestyle
Ian Thorpe
3:40.08 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 400 m Individual Medley
Justin Norris
4:16.95 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 4 × 100 m Freestyle Relay
Australia
3:16.42 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Women's 4 × 100 m Freestyle Relay
Australia
3:40.41 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 4 × 100 m Medley Relay
Australia
3:36.05 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Women's 4 × 100 m Medley Relay
Australia
4:03.70 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 4 × 200 m Freestyle Relay
Australia
7:11.69 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 50 m Backstroke
Matt Welsh
25.65 (seconds)

GR
Swimming
Women's 50 m Backstroke
Dyana Calub
28.98 (seconds)

GR
Swimming
Men's 50 m Butterfly
Geoff Huegill
23.57 (seconds)

GR
Swimming
Women's 50 m Butterfly
Petria Thomas
26.66 (seconds)

GR
Swimming
Men's 50 m Multi Disability Freestyle
Ben Austin
(seconds)

GR
Weightlifting
Women's 75 kg+ Snatch
Caroline Pileggi
100.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 77 kg Snatch
Damian Brown
147.5 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 94 kg Snatch
Alex Karapetyn
167.5 (kg)

text: 20 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1998 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Women's 10 km Road Walk
Jane Saville
43:57 (mins)

GR
Cycling
Men's 184 km Road Race
Jay Sweet
4:31:56 (hours)

GR
Cycling
Women's 24 km Points Race
Alayna Burns
34 (points)

GR
Cycling
Women's Road Race (28 km)
Anna Wilson
37:34 (mins)

GR
Cycling
Men's Sprint
Darryn Hill
10.533 (seconds)

GR
Shooting
Women's Air Pistol (Ind)
Annemarie Forder
480.6 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Air Pistol (Team)
Australia
748 (points)

GR
Shooting
Men's Smallbore Rifle 3 Position (Ind)
Timothy Lowndes
1235.3 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Smallbore Sport Rifle 3 Position (Ind)
Susan McCready
667.3 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Smallbore Sport Rifle Prone (Team)
Australia
1174 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Sport Pistol (Team)
Australia
1140 (points)

GR
Swimming
Women's 200 m Butterfly
Susie O'Neill
2:06.60 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 200 m Individual Medley
Matthew Dunn
2:00.26 (mins)

GR
Tenpin Bowling
Women's Doubles
Australia
3678 (points)

GR
Tenpin Bowling
Mixed Doubles
Australia
3605 (points)

GR
Tenpin Bowling
Women's Singles
Cara Honeychurch
6406 (points)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 77 kg Clean and Jerk
Damian Brown
187.5 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 77 kg Combined
Damian Brown
327.5 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 94 kg Clean and Jerk
Kiril Kounev
205.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 94 kg Combined
Kiril Kounev
370.0 (kg)

text: 29 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1994 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Men's Marathon Wheelchair
Paul Wiggins
1:37.33 (hours)

GR
Cycling
Men's 10 Mile
Stuart O'Grady
18:50.520 (mins)

GR
Cycling
Men's 100 km Team Time Trial
Australia
1:53:19.13 (hours)

GR
Cycling
Women's 25 km Team Time Trial
Australia
1:04:03.20 (mins)

GR
Cycling
Men's 4000 m Team Pursuit
Australia
4:10.485 (mins)

GR
Cycling
Men's 40 km Points Race
Brett Aitken
38 (points)

GR
Cycling
Women's Road Race
Kathryn "Kathy" Watt
2:48:04.73 (seconds)

GR
Shooting
Fullbore Rifle Queens Prize - Open (Pair)
Australia
593 (points)

GR
Shooting
Men's Running Target (Ind)
Bryan Wilson
657.9 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Smallbore Rifle Prone (Team)
Australia
1160 (points)

GR
Shooting
Women's Sport Pistol (Ind)
Christine Trefry
679.4 (points)

GR
Swimming
Women's 100 m Breaststroke
Samantha Riley
1:08.02 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Women's 100 m Freestyle S9
Melissa Carlton
1:09.61 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 1500 m Freestyle
Kieren Perkins
14:41.66 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Women's 200 m Breaststroke
Samantha Riley
2:25.53 (mins)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 108 kg + Clean and Jerk
Stefan Botev
200.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 108 kg + Combined
Stefan Botev
360.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 108 kg + Snatch
Steven Kettner
165.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 108 kg Clean and Jerk
Nicu Vlad
220.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 108 kg Combined
Nicu Vlad
405.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 108 kg Snatch
Nicu Vlad
185.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 64 kg Combined
Sevdalin Marinov
277.5 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 76 kg Clean and Jerk
Damian Brown
182.5 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 83 kg Clean and Jerk
Kiril Kounev
200.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 83 kg Combined
Kiril Kounev
352.5 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 83 kg Snatch
Kiril Kounev
152.5 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 91 kg Clean and Jerk
Harvey Goodman
200.0 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 91 kg Combined
Harvey Goodman
362.5 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 91 kg Snatch
Harvey Goodman
162.5 (kg)

text: 7 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1990 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Men's Hammer Throw
Sean Carlin
75.66 (meters)

GR
Athletics
Women's Heptathlon
Jane Flemming
6695 (points)

GR
Cycling
Men's 50 km Points Race
Robert Burns
81 (points)

GR
Cycling
Women's Road Race (72 km)
Kathryn "Kathy" Watt
1:55:11.60 (hours)

GR
Shooting
Men's 50 m/Free Pistol (Team)
Australia
1106 (points)

GR
Swimming
Women's 400 m Individual Medley
Hayley Lewis
4:42.65 (mins)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 75 kg Clean and Jerk
Ronald Laycock
177.5 (kg)

text: 6 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1986 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Men's 30 km Road Walk
Simon Francis Baker
2:07.47 (hours)

GR
Athletics
Women's Shot Put
Gael Martin (née Mulhall)
19.00 (meters)

GR
Rowing
Men's Eight Oared Shell
Australia
5:44.42 (mins)

GR
Rowing
Women's Eight Oared Shell
Australia
6:43.69 (mins)

GR
Rowing
Men's Lightweight Single Sculls
Peter Antonie
7:16.43 (mins)

GR
Rowing
Women's Lightweight Single Sculls
Adair Ferguson
7:45.49 (mins)

text: 2 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1978 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Cycling
Men's Road Race (117 miles)
Phillip Anderson
4:22:34.41 (hours)

GR
Swimming
Women's 800 m Freestyle
Tracey Wickham
8:24.62 (mins)

text: 1 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1974 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Cycling
Men's Road Race (114 miles)
Clyde Sefton
5:07:16.87 (hours)

text: 3 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1970 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Men's 20 Mile Walk
Noel Freeman
2:33:33 (hours)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 110 kg + Combined
Raymond Rigby
500 (kg)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 52 kg Combined
George Vasiliades
290 (kg)

text: 14 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1966 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Women's 100 Yard Dash
Dianne Burge
10.6 (seconds)

GR Athletics Men's 100 Yard Dash Michael Van Der Velde 10.1 (seconds)

GR
Athletics
Women's 440 Yard Run/Quarter Mile
Judith Pollock
53.0 (seconds)

GR
Athletics
Women's 4x110 Yard Relay
Australia
45.3 (seconds)

GR
Athletics
Men's 880 Yard Run/Half-Mile
Noel Clough
1:46.9 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 110 Yards Breaststroke
Ian O'Brien
1:08.2 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 110 Yards Freestyle
Michael Wenden
54.0 (seconds)

GR
Swimming
Men's 220 Yard Backstroke
Peter Reynolds
2:12.0 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 220 Yards Breaststroke
Ian O'Brien
2:29.3 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 440 Yards Freestyle
Robert Windle
4:15.0 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Women's 440 Yards Freestyle
Kathryn Wainwright
4:38.8 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 440 Yards Freestyle Relay
Australia
3:35.6 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 440 Yards Individual Medley
Peter Reynolds
4:50.8 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 880 Yards Freestyle Relay
Australia
7:59.5 (mins)

GR
Weightlifting
Men's 82.5 kg Combined
George Vakakis
925.5 (pounds)

text: 5 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1962 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Women's 880 Yard Run/Half-Mile
Dixie Willis
2:03.7 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 110 Yards Butterfly
Kevin Berry
0:59.5 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Women's 110 Yards Freestyle
Dawn Fraser
0:59.5 (seconds)

GR
Swimming
Men's 1650 Yards Freestyle
Murray Rose
17:18.1 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Men's 220 Yards Butterfly
Kevin Berry
2:10.8 (mins)

text: 3 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1958 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Women's 220 Yard Dash
Marlene Mathews-Willard
23.6 (seconds)

GR
Athletics
Women's 80 m H
Norma Thrower
10.7 (seconds)

GR
Rowing
Men's Singles Sculls
Stuart MacKenzie
7:20.1 (mins)

text: 2 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1950 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Athletics
Women's 440 yard relay
Australia
47.9 (seconds)

GR
Athletics
Women's 660 Yard Relay
Australia
1:13.4 (mins)

text: 2 Commonwealth Games Records were set in the 1934 Games.

text:
Type
Sport
Discipline
Athlete/Team
Record
Margin

GR
Swimming
Men's 1500 Yards Freestyle
Noel Ryan
18:25.4 (mins)

GR
Swimming
Women's 200 Yards Breaststroke
Clare Dennis
2:50.2 (mins)


document_title: Membrane protein

question_text: what are the different classes of membrane proteins

text: Membrane protein

text: Function[edit]

text: Membrane proteins perform a variety of functions vital to the survival of organisms:[7]

text:
Membrane receptor proteins relay signals between the cell's internal and external environments.
Transport proteins move molecules and ions across the membrane. They can be categorized according to the Transporter Classification database.
Membrane enzymes may have many activities, such as oxidoreductase, transferase or hydrolase.[8]
Cell adhesion molecules allow cells to identify each other and interact. For example, proteins involved in immune response.

text: Integral membrane proteins[edit]

text: Integral membrane proteins are permanently attached to the membrane. Such proteins can be separated from the biological membranes only using detergents, nonpolar solvents, or sometimes denaturing agents. One such example of this type of protein which has not been functionally characterized yet is SMIM23. They can be classified according to their relationship with the bilayer:

text:
Integral polytopic proteins, also known as "transmembrane proteins", are integral membrane proteins that span across the membrane at least once. These proteins may have different transmembrane topology.[9][10] These proteins have one of two structural architectures:

helix bundle proteins, which are present in all types of biological membranes;
beta barrel proteins, which are found only in outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria, and outer membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts.[11]

Integral monotopic proteins are integral membrane proteins that are attached to only one side of the membrane and do not span the whole way across.

text: Peripheral membrane proteins[edit]

text: Peripheral membrane proteins are temporarily attached either to the lipid bilayer or to integral proteins by a combination of hydrophobic, electrostatic, and other non-covalent interactions. Peripheral proteins dissociate following treatment with a polar reagent, such as a solution with an elevated pH or high salt concentrations.

text: Integral and peripheral proteins may be post-translationally modified, with added fatty acid or prenyl chains, or GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol), which may be anchored in the lipid bilayer.

text: Polypeptide toxins[edit]

text: Polypeptide toxins and many antibacterial peptides, such as colicins or hemolysins, and certain proteins involved in apoptosis, are sometimes considered a separate category. These proteins are water-soluble but can aggregate and associate irreversibly with the lipid bilayer and become reversibly or irreversibly membrane-associated.

text: In genomes[edit]

text: A large fraction of all proteins are thought to be membrane proteins. For instance, about 1000 of the ~4200 proteins of E. coli are thought to be membrane proteins.[12] The membrane localization has been confirmed for more than 600 of them experimentally.[12] The localization of proteins in membranes can be predicted very reliably using hydrophobicity analyses of protein sequences, i.e. the localization of hydrophobic amino acid sequences.