document_title: United States Pacific Fleet

question_text: when was the pacific fleet moved to pearl harbor

text: United States Pacific Fleet

text: Origins[edit]

text: A Pacific Fleet was created in 1907 when the Asiatic Squadron and the Pacific Squadron were combined. In 1910, the ships of the First Squadron were organized back into a separate Asiatic Fleet. The General Order 94 of 6 December 1922 organized the United States Fleet, with the Battle Fleet as the Pacific presence. Until May 1940, the Battle Fleet was stationed on the west coast of the United States (primarily at San Diego). During the summer of that year, as part of the U.S. response to Japanese expansionism, it was instructed to take an "advanced" position at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Long term basing at Pearl Harbor was so strongly opposed by the commander, Admiral James O. Richardson, that he personally protested in Washington. Political considerations were thought sufficiently important that he was relieved by Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, who was in command at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor.

text: The Pacific Fleet was formally recreated on 1 February 1941. On that day General Order 143 split the United States Fleet into separate Atlantic, Pacific, and Asiatic Fleets.

text: Composition of the Pacific Fleet in December 1941[edit]

text: On 7 December, the Fleet consisted of the Battle Force, Scouting Force, Base Force, Amphibious Force (ComPhibPac),[1] Cruiser Force (COMCRUPAC), Destroyer Force (COMDESPAC), and the Submarine Force (COMSUBPAC).[2] Also in Hawaii was the Fourteenth Naval District, commanded by Rear Admiral Claude C. Bloch.

text: The Battle Force consisted of Battleships, Battle Force, made up of three Battleship Divisions:

text:
Battleship Division 1

USS Pennsylvania
USS Arizona
USS Nevada

Battleship Division 2

USS Tennessee
USS California
USS Oklahoma

Battleship Division 3

USS Colorado
USS Maryland
USS West Virginia

text: These nine battleships were intended to counterbalance the ten battleships of the Imperial Japanese Navy. At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Pennsylvania was in dry dock undergoing maintenance, and Colorado was in the midst of a refit at Bremerton Navy Yard, Washington. Arizona was mated with Nevada and Oklahoma at that time.

text: Other components of the Battle Force included Aircraft, Battle Force, with Carrier Division One and Carrier Division Two, plus Cruiser Divisions 4, 5, and 6, as well as Destroyers, Battle Force.:[3]

text:
Carrier Division 1

USS Saratoga
USS Lexington

Carrier Division 2

USS Enterprise

Cruiser Division 4

USS Chicago
USS Portland
USS Indianapolis

Cruiser Division 5

USS Salt Lake City
USS Northampton
USS Chester

Cruiser Division 6

USS Astoria
USS Minneapolis
USS New Orleans
USS San Francisco

text: When the attack took place, all three carriers were absent - Saratoga was in San Diego collecting her air group following a major refit, Enterprise was en route back to Hawaii following a mission to deliver aircraft to Wake Island, while Lexington had just departed on a similar mission to Midway.

text: The Scouting Force included Cruiser Division Three, Cruiser Division Nine and Submarines, Scouting Force.[4]

text:
Cruiser Division 3

USS Trenton
USS Richmond
USS Concord

Cruiser Division 9

USS Honolulu
USS Boise
USS Phoenix
USS St. Louis
USS Helena

text: The Amphibious Force was formally known as Commander, Amphibious Forces, Pacific Fleet (ComPhibPac). On 7 December 1941 the Amphibious Force comprised the Army's 3rd Infantry Division at Fort Lewis, under Army operational control, the 2nd Marine Division, the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing, the 2nd Defense Battalion (see Marine defense battalions), and a depot.[5] One of PhibPac's subordinate commands during World War II was Transports, Amphibious Force, Pacific Fleet, or TransPhibPac. The commander of TransPhibPac was known as ComTransPhibPac.

text: In December 1941, the fleet consisted of nine battleships, three aircraft carriers, 12 heavy cruisers, eight light cruisers, 50 destroyers, 33 submarines, and 100 patrol bombers.[citation needed] This was approximately the fleet's strength at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. That day, the Japanese Combined Fleet carried out the attack on Pearl Harbor, drawing the United States into World War II in the Pacific. The Pacific Fleet's Battle Line took the brunt of the attack, with two battleships destroyed, two salvageable but requiring lengthy reconstruction, and four more lightly to moderately damaged, forcing the U.S. Navy to rely primarily on aircraft carriers and submarines for many months afterward.

text: Subsequently Pacific Fleet engagements during World War II included the Battle of Guam, the Marshalls-Gilberts raids, the Doolittle Raid, the Solomon Islands campaign, the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, the Battle of Leyte Gulf, and the Battle of Okinawa. More minor battles included the Battle of Dutch Harbor. The Submarine Force began a sustained campaign of commerce raiding against Japan's merchant marine, beginning the very first day of the war, which ultimately claimed 1,314 ships totalling about 5.3 million tons (by the imperfect postwar reckoning of the Joint Army-Navy Assessment Committee, JANAC).[6] The West Loch disaster occurred at Pearl Harbor on 21 May 1944.

text: Post 1945[edit]

text: The Pacific Fleet took part in Operation Magic Carpet, the return of U.S. servicemen, after the end of the Second World War. The organization of the Pacific Fleet in January 1947 is shown in Hal M. Friedman's Arguing over the American Lake: Bureaucracy and Rivalry in the U.S. Pacific, 1945-1947.[7]

text: Since 1950 the Pacific Fleet has been involved in the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the two Taiwan Straits Crises, and a number of other operations including the Mayaguez Incident of 1975, as well as post-Vietnam related operations such as Operation New Arrivals. The RIMPAC exercise series began in 1971.

text: On 7 March 1984, the Secretaries of Transportation and Navy signed a Memorandum of Agreement which created the Maritime Defense Zones (MDZ).[8] The Pacific MDZ is an echelon three Navy command under the Commander U.S. Pacific Fleet. The Pacific MDZ has responsibility for coastal defense up to 200 nautical miles around the U.S. West Coast, Alaska, Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii during times of hostility. On 1 October 1990, Commander U.S. Naval Forces Alaska (COMUSNAVAK) was established as the Naval Component Commander to Commander, Alaskan Command (COMALCOM). Since its inception, COMUSNAVAK has grown to become responsible for coordinating all Navy activity in the Alaska and Aleutian area, for detailed planning and coordination for the Naval portion of the Joint and Combined Exercise Northern Edge, and coordinates high-visibility U.S. Navy ship visits throughout Alaska in support of public relations and recruiting initiatives.

text: The very large PACEX '89 in the North Pacific involved the USN, Canadian Navy, Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force, and ROK Navy. At the end of Exercise PACEX '89 a 54 ship formation was assembled for photos. It included the flagship, USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19), the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) Battle Group, the USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70) Battle Group, two battleship surface action groups formed around the USS New Jersey (BB-62) and USS Missouri (BB-63), and a Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force task force.[citation needed]

text: Other operations undertaken since include participation in the Alaskan Oil Spill Joint Task Force, including participation of Commander, Amphibious Group Three, as deputy CJTF. This was the defence response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill of March 1989. Also, the Pacific Fleet was involved in Joint Task Force Philippines during the December 1989 coup attempt there, which involved two carrier battle groups, USS Midway and USS Enterprise-with their associated air wings operating in the Philippine Sea, chopped to JTF Philippines. During the operations, the carriers maintained deck alerts and 24-hour coverage of Manila with E-2C aircraft.[9]

text: Around September 10, 1990,[10] USS Princeton (CG-59) and the USS Reuben James (FFG-57) visited Vladivostok. This marked the first United States Navy visit to the Soviet Union's Pacific port of Vladivostok since before World War II. Before the visit was completed, the crew received word that their Pacific cruise was canceled. They returned to Long Beach and joined the USS Ranger Battle Group preparing to deploy to the Persian Gulf.

text: During Operation Fiery Vigil in June 1991, the following vessels participated in the sealift phase of the evacuation: the Lincoln battle group (COMCARGRU 3 embarked): USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72), USS Long Beach (CGN-9), USS Lake Champlain (CG-57), USS Merrill (DD-976), USS Gary (FFG-51), USS Ingraham (FFG-61), USS Roanoke (AOR-7), Amphibious Ready Group Alpha (COMPHIBRON 3 embarked): USS Peleliu (LHA-5), USS Cleveland (LPD-7), USS Comstock (LSD-45), USS Bristol County (LST-1198), and a large number of other vessels: USS Midway (CV-41), USS Curts (FFG-38), USS Rodney M. Davis (FFG-60), USS Thach (FFG-43), USS Arkansas (CGN-41), USS McClusky (FFG-41), USS St. Louis (LKA-116), USS San Bernardino (LST-1189), MV 1st Lt Lummus, MV American Condor, USS Niagara Falls (AFS-3), USNS Ponchatoula (T-AO-148), USNS Passumpsic (T-AO-107), USNS Hassayampa, USS Haleakala (AE-25), USNS Spica (T-AFS-9), USS Cape Cod (AD-43). (CNA, 1994, 113) Further operations included JTF Marianas (August–September 1992) and JTF Hawaii (September–October 1992).

text: Other contingency operation after 1991 included Operation Sea Angel (Bangladesh relief) (led by Commander III Marine Expeditionary Force), Operation Eastern Exit, and involvement in the Somali Civil War - 'Restore Hope'. During 'Restore Hope,' Navy command arrangements underwent a number of changes during the operation. At the start, the principal naval forces were the Ranger battle group (with Commander, Carrier Group One embarked on USS Ranger (CV-61) as Commander, Naval Forces), the Kitty Hawk battle group, an amphibious task unit including USS Tripoli (LPH-10), USS Juneau (LPD-10), USS Rushmore (LSD-47), and MV Lummus, and three ships from MPSRON TWO (MV Anderson, MV Bonnyman, and MV Phillips). Other events led to the departure of the carriers and, as a result, Commander, Naval Forces responsibilities devolved first to Commander, Carrier Group Three, on Kitty Hawk, and thence to Commander, Amphibious Group Three. Finally Commander, Amphibious Squadron 3 became COMNAVFOR on 15 January with the departure of COMPHIGRU THREE after the completion of the MPF offload. (CNA, 1994, 168)

text: In 1995 Pacific Fleet surface ships were reshuffled.[11] Effective Oct. 1, 1995 the U.S. Pacific Fleet's surface ships were to be reorganized into six core battle groups and eight destroyer squadrons. Permanent core battle groups were to include a battle group commander, aircraft carrier, carrier air wing and at least two cruisers.

text:
Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group 1/USS Constellation Battle Group: USS Lake Erie (CG-70) and USS Chosin
ComCruDesGru 3/USS Carl Vinson Battle Group: USS Shiloh (CG-67), USS California (CGN-36) and USS Arkansas (CGN-41)
ComCruDesGru 5/USS Kitty Hawk Battle Group: USS Cowpens (CG-63) and USS Antietam (CG-54)
Commander Carrier Group 7 (ComCarGru 7)/USS Nimitz Battle Group: USS Port Royal (CG-73) and USS Lake Champlain (CG-57)
ComCar Gru 3/USS Abraham Lincoln Battle Group: USS Princeton (CG-59) and USS Chancellorsville (CG-62)
Commander Carrier Group Five/USS Independence Battle Group: USS Bunker Hill (CG-52) and USS Mobile Bay (CG-53)

text: Commander, Naval Surface Forces Pacific probably directed ..

text:
Destroyer Squadron 1: USS Copeland (FFG-25), USS George Philip (FFG-12), USS John A. Moore (FFG-19), USS Lewis B. Puller (FFG-23), USS Mahlon S. Tisdale (FFG-27), USS Sides (FFG-14), USS Wadsworth (FFG-9) and USS Reid (FFG-30)
Destroyer Squadron 5: USS Cushing (DD-985), USS John S. McCain (DDG-56), USS Ingersoll (DD-990), USS Crommelin (FFG-37), USS Reuben James (FFG-57)
Destroyer Squadron 7: USS Elliot (DD-967), USS Curtis Wilbur (DDG-54), USS Merrill (DD-976), USS John Paul Jones (DDG-53) and USS Harry W. Hill (DD-986)
Destroyer Squadron 9: USS Paul F. Foster (DD-964), USS David R. Ray (DD-971), USS Callaghan (DDG-994), USS Chandler (DDG-996), USS Ford (FFG-54) and USS Ingraham (FFG-61)
Destroyer Squadron 15: USS Fife (DD-991), USS Hewitt (DD-966), USS O'Brien (DD-975), USS Curts (FFG-38), USS McClusky (FFG-41), USS Rodney M. Davis (FFG-60) and USS Thach (FFG-43)
Destroyer Squadron 21: USS Kinkaid (DD-965), USS Stethem (DDG-63), USS Benfold (DDG-65), USS Valley Forge (CG-50), USS Jarrett (FFG-33) and USS Rentz (FFG-46)
Destroyer Squadron 23: USS Oldendorf (DD-972), USS John Young (DD-973), USS Fitzgerald (DDG-62), USS Vincennes (CG-49), USS Gary (FFG-51) and USS Vandegrift (FFG-48)
Destroyer Squadron 31: USS Fletcher (DD-992), USS Leftwich (DD-984), USS Halsey (DDG-97) and USS Paul Hamilton (DDG-60)

text: In 1996 two carrier battle groups were sent to the Taiwan area during the Third Taiwan Straits Crisis. Later ships of the Pacific Fleet, notably the Ticonderoga-class cruiser USS Mobile Bay (CG-53) provided support to the entry of INTERFET in East Timor in 1999.

text: Between 25–27 March 2006, Carrier Strike Group Nine participated in a series of anti-submarine warfare exercises (ASW) in Hawaiian waters while en route to the U.S. Seventh Fleet's area of responsibility. In addition to the strike group, the exercise also included the nuclear-powered attack submarines Seawolf, Cheyenne, Greeneville, Tucson, and Pasadena, as well as land-based P-3 Orion aircraft from Commander Patrol and Reconnaissance Wing 2 and associated patrol squadrons VP-4, VP-9, and VP-47.[12][13]

text: As of 2011, the Pacific Fleet has authority of:

text:
numbered Third and Seventh Fleets
Naval Air Force, Pacific
Commander, Naval Surface Forces Pacific;[14]
Naval Submarine Force, Pacific

text: Naval shore commands PACFLT has authority of are:

text:
Commander Naval Forces Korea
Commander Naval Forces Japan
Commander Naval Forces Marianas

text: See List of units of the United States Navy

text: Commanders[edit]


document_title: Patent

question_text: where do i go to get a patent

question_tokens: where do i go to get a patent

root

text: Patent

text: Definition[edit]

text: The word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means "to lay open" (i.e., to make available for public inspection). More directly, it is a shortened version of the term letters patent, which was an open document or instrument issued by a monarch or government granting exclusive rights to a person, predating the modern patent system. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright.

tag: p

text: In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the right granted to anyone who invents any new, useful, and non-obvious process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter. Some other types of intellectual property rights are also called patents in some jurisdictions: industrial design rights are called design patents in the US,[6] plant breeders' rights are sometimes called plant patents,[7] and utility models and Gebrauchsmuster are sometimes called petty patents or innovation patents.

text: The additional qualification utility patent is sometimes used (primarily in the US) to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents and software patents.

text: History[edit]

text: Although there is some evidence that some form of patent rights was recognized in Ancient Greece in the Greek city of Sybaris,[8][9] the first statutory patent system is generally regarded to be the Venetian Patent Statute of 1450. Patents were systematically granted in Venice as of 1450, where they issued a decree by which new and inventive devices had to be communicated to the Republic in order to obtain legal protection against potential infringers. The period of protection was 10 years.[10] These were mostly in the field of glass making. As Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries.[11]

text: The English patent system evolved from its early medieval origins into the first modern patent system that recognised intellectual property in order to stimulate invention; this was the crucial legal foundation upon which the Industrial Revolution could emerge and flourish.[12] By the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies.[13] After public outcry, King James I of England (VI of Scotland) was forced to revoke all existing monopolies and declare that they were only to be used for "projects of new invention". This was incorporated into the Statute of Monopolies (1624) in which Parliament restricted the Crown's power explicitly so that the King could only issue letters patent to the inventors or introducers of original inventions for a fixed number of years. The Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere.

text: Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a slow process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access.[14] Legal battles around the 1796 patent taken out by James Watt for his steam engine, established the principles that patents could be issued for improvements of an already existing machine and that ideas or principles without specific practical application could also legally be patented.[15] Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of intellectual property right, rather than simply the obtaining of economic privilege.

text: The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand and Australia. In the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colony's legislature. In 1641, Samuel Winslow was granted the first patent in North America by the Massachusetts General Court for a new process for making salt.[16]

text: The modern French patent system was created during the Revolution in 1791.[18] Patents were granted without examination since inventor's right was considered as a natural one. Patent costs were very high (from 500 to 1,500 francs). Importation patents protected new devices coming from foreign countries. The patent law was revised in 1844 - patent cost was lowered and importation patents were abolished.

text: The first Patent Act of the U.S. Congress was passed on April 10, 1790, titled "An Act to promote the progress of useful Arts".[19] The first patent was granted on July 31, 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for a method of producing potash (potassium carbonate). A revised patent law was passed in 1793, and in 1836 a major revision to the patent law was passed. The 1836 law instituted a significantly more rigorous application process, including the establishment of an examination system. Between 1790 and 1836 about ten thousand patents were granted. By the Civil War about 80,000 patents had been granted.[20]

text: Law[edit]

text:
Intellectual property and Intellectual rights law

Primary rights

Copyright
Patent
Trademark
Trade dress
Trade secret
Geographical indication

Sui generis rights

Authors' rights
Database right
Indigenous intellectual property
Industrial design right
Integrated circuit layout design protection
Moral rights
Plant breeders' rights
Related rights
Supplementary protection certificate
Utility model

Related topics

Abandonware
Anti-copyright
Bioprospecting
Limitations and exceptions to copyright

(Fair dealing
Fair use
Right to quote)

Orphan works
Public domain
Societal views

Outline of intellectual property

v
t
e

tag: table

text: Effects[edit]

text: A patent does not give a right to make or use or sell an invention.[21] Rather, a patent provides, from a legal standpoint, the right to exclude others[21] from making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the patented invention for the term of the patent, which is usually 20 years from the filing date[5] subject to the payment of maintenance fees. From an economic and practical standpoint however, a patent is better and perhaps more precisely regarded as conferring upon its proprietor "a right to try to exclude by asserting the patent in court", for many granted patents turn out to be invalid once their proprietors attempt to assert them in court.[3] A patent is a limited property right the government gives inventors in exchange for their agreement to share details of their inventions with the public. Like any other property right, it may be sold, licensed, mortgaged, assigned or transferred, given away, or simply abandoned.

text: A patent, being an exclusionary right, does not necessarily give the patent owner the right to exploit the invention subject to the patent. For example, many inventions are improvements of prior inventions that may still be covered by someone else's patent.[21] If an inventor obtains a patent on improvements to an existing invention which is still under patent, they can only legally use the improved invention if the patent holder of the original invention gives permission, which they may refuse.

text: Some countries have "working provisions" that require the invention be exploited in the jurisdiction it covers. Consequences of not working an invention vary from one country to another, ranging from revocation of the patent rights to the awarding of a compulsory license awarded by the courts to a party wishing to exploit a patented invention. The patentee has the opportunity to challenge the revocation or license, but is usually required to provide evidence that the reasonable requirements of the public have been met by the working of invention.

text: Challenges[edit]

text: In most jurisdictions, there are ways for third parties to challenge the validity of an allowed or issued patent at the national patent office; these are called opposition proceedings. It is also possible to challenge the validity of a patent in court. In either case, the challenging party tries to prove that the patent should never have been granted. There are several grounds for challenges: the claimed subject matter is not patentable subject matter at all; the claimed subject matter was actually not new, or was obvious to experts in the field, at the time the application was filed; or that some kind of fraud was committed during prosecution with regard to listing of inventors, representations about when discoveries were made, etc. Patents can be found to be invalid in whole or in part for any of these reasons.[22][23]

text: Infringement[edit]

text: Patent infringement occurs when a third party, without authorization from the patentee, makes, uses, or sells a patented invention. Patents, however, are enforced on a nation by nation basis. The making of an item in China, for example, that would infringe a U.S. patent, would not constitute infringement under US patent law unless the item were imported into the US.[24]

text: Enforcement[edit]

text: Patents can generally only be enforced through civil lawsuits (for example, for a U.S. patent, by an action for patent infringement in a United States federal court), although some countries (such as France and Austria) have criminal penalties for wanton infringement.[25] Typically, the patent owner seeks monetary compensation for past infringement, and seeks an injunction that prohibits the defendant from engaging in future acts of infringement. To prove infringement, the patent owner must establish that the accused infringer practises all the requirements of at least one of the claims of the patent. (In many jurisdictions the scope of the patent may not be limited to what is literally stated in the claims, for example due to the doctrine of equivalents).

text: An accused infringer has the right to challenge the validity of the patent allegedly being infringed in a counterclaim. A patent can be found invalid on grounds described in the relevant patent laws, which vary between countries. Often, the grounds are a subset of requirements for patentability in the relevant country. Although an infringer is generally free to rely on any available ground of invalidity (such as a prior publication, for example), some countries have sanctions to prevent the same validity questions being relitigated. An example is the UK Certificate of contested validity.

text: Patent licensing agreements are contracts in which the patent owner (the licencor) agrees to grant the licensee the right to make, use, sell, and/or import the claimed invention, usually in return for a royalty or other compensation. It is common for companies engaged in complex technical fields to enter into multiple license agreements associated with the production of a single product. Moreover, it is equally common for competitors in such fields to license patents to each other under cross-licensing agreements in order to share the benefits of using each other's patented inventions.

text: Ownership[edit]

text: In most countries, both natural persons and corporate entities may apply for a patent. In the United States, however, only the inventor(s) may apply for a patent although it may be assigned to a corporate entity subsequently[26] and inventors may be required to assign inventions to their employers under an employment contract. In most European countries, ownership of an invention may pass from the inventor to their employer by rule of law if the invention was made in the course of the inventor's normal or specifically assigned employment duties, where an invention might reasonably be expected to result from carrying out those duties, or if the inventor had a special obligation to further the interests of the employer's company.[27]

text: The inventors, their successors or their assignees become the proprietors of the patent when and if it is granted. If a patent is granted to more than one proprietor, the laws of the country in question and any agreement between the proprietors may affect the extent to which each proprietor can exploit the patent. For example, in some countries, each proprietor may freely license or assign their rights in the patent to another person while the law in other countries prohibits such actions without the permission of the other proprietor(s).

text: The ability to assign ownership rights increases the liquidity of a patent as property. Inventors can obtain patents and then sell them to third parties.[28] The third parties then own the patents and have the same rights to prevent others from exploiting the claimed inventions, as if they had originally made the inventions themselves.

text: Governing laws[edit]

text: The grant and enforcement of patents are governed by national laws, and also by international treaties, where those treaties have been given effect in national laws. Patents are granted by national or regional patent offices.[29] A given patent is therefore only useful for protecting an invention in the country in which that patent is granted. In other words, patent law is territorial in nature. When a patent application is published, the invention disclosed in the application becomes prior art and enters the public domain (if not protected by other patents) in countries where a patent applicant does not seek protection, the application thus generally becoming prior art against anyone (including the applicant) who might seek patent protection for the invention in those countries.

text: Commonly, a nation forms a patent office with responsibility for operating that nation's patent system, within the relevant patent laws. The patent office generally has responsibility for the grant of patents, with infringement being the remit of national courts.

text: The authority for patent statutes in different countries varies. In the UK, substantive patent law is contained in the Patents Act 1977 as amended.[30] In the United States, the Constitution empowers Congress to make laws to "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts..." The laws Congress passed are codified in Title 35 of the United States Code and created the United States Patent and Trademark Office.

text: There is a trend towards global harmonization of patent laws, with the World Trade Organization (WTO) being particularly active in this area. The TRIPS Agreement has been largely successful in providing a forum for nations to agree on an aligned set of patent laws. Conformity with the TRIPS agreement is a requirement of admission to the WTO and so compliance is seen by many nations as important. This has also led to many developing nations, which may historically have developed different laws to aid their development, enforcing patents laws in line with global practice.

text: In addition, there are international treaty procedures, such as the procedures under the European Patent Convention (EPC) [constituting the European Patent Organisation (EPOrg)], that centralize some portion of the filing and examination procedure. Similar arrangements exist among the member states of ARIPO and OAPI, the analogous treaties among African countries, and the nine CIS member states that have formed the Eurasian Patent Organization. A key international convention relating to patents is the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, initially signed in 1883. The Paris Convention sets out a range of basic rules relating to patents, and although the convention does not have direct legal effect in all national jurisdictions, the principles of the convention are incorporated into all notable current patent systems. The most significant aspect of the convention is the provision of the right to claim priority: filing an application in any one member state of the Paris Convention preserves the right for one year to file in any other member state, and receive the benefit of the original filing date. Another key treaty is the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), administered by WIPO and covering more than 140 countries. The Patent Cooperation Treaty provides a unified procedure for filing patent applications to protect inventions in each of its contracting states. A patent application filed under the PCT is called an international application, or PCT application.

text: Application and prosecution[edit]

text: A patent is requested by filing a written application at the relevant patent office. The person or company filing the application is referred to as "the applicant". The applicant may be the inventor or its assignee. The application contains a description of how to make and use the invention that must provide sufficient detail for a person skilled in the art (i.e., the relevant area of technology) to make and use the invention. In some countries there are requirements for providing specific information such as the usefulness of the invention, the best mode of performing the invention known to the inventor, or the technical problem or problems solved by the invention. Drawings illustrating the invention may also be provided.

text: The application also includes one or more claims that define what a patent covers or the "scope of protection".

text: After filing, an application is often referred to as "patent pending". While this term does not confer legal protection, and a patent cannot be enforced until granted, it serves to provide warning to potential infringers that if the patent is issued, they may be liable for damages.[31][32][33]

text: Once filed, a patent application is "prosecuted". A patent examiner reviews the patent application to determine if it meets the patentability requirements of that country. If the application does not comply, objections are communicated to the applicant or their patent agent or attorney through an Office action, to which the applicant may respond. The number of Office actions and responses that may occur vary from country to country, but eventually a final rejection is sent by the patent office, or the patent application is granted, which after the payment of additional fees, leads to an issued, enforceable patent. In some jurisdictions, there are opportunities for third parties to bring an opposition proceeding between grant and issuance, or post-issuance.

text: Once granted the patent is subject in most countries to renewal fees to keep the patent in force. These fees are generally payable on a yearly basis. Some countries or regional patent offices (e.g. the European Patent Office) also require annual renewal fees to be paid for a patent application before it is granted.

text: Costs[edit]

text: The costs of preparing and filing a patent application, prosecuting it until grant and maintaining the patent vary from one jurisdiction to another, and may also be dependent upon the type and complexity of the invention, and on the type of patent.

text: The European Patent Office estimated in 2005 that the average cost of obtaining a European patent (via a Euro-direct application, i.e. not based on a PCT application) and maintaining the patent for a 10-year term was around €32,000.[34] Since the London Agreement entered into force on May 1, 2008, this estimation is however no longer up-to-date, since fewer translations are required.

text: In the United States, in 2000 the cost of obtaining a patent (patent prosecution) was estimated to be from $10,000 to $30,000 per patent.[35] When patent litigation is involved (which in year 1999 happened in about 1,600 cases compared to 153,000 patents issued in the same year[35]), costs increase significantly: although 95% of patent litigation cases are settled out of court,[36] those that reach the courts have legal costs on the order of a million dollars per case, not including associated business costs.[37]

text: Alternatives[edit]

text: A defensive publication is the act of publishing a detailed description of a new invention without patenting it, so as to establish prior art and public identification as the creator/originator of an invention, although a defensive publication can also be anonymous. A defensive publication prevents others from later being able to patent the invention.

text: A trade secret is information that is intentionally kept confidential and that provides a competitive advantage to its possessor. Trade secrets are protected by non-disclosure agreement and labour law, each of which prevents information leaks such as breaches of confidentiality and industrial espionage. Compared to patents, the advantages of trade secrets are that the value of a trade secret continues until it is made public,[38] whereas a patent is only in force for a specified time, after which others may freely copy the invention; does not require payment of fees to governmental agencies or filing paperwork;[38] has an immediate effect;[38] and does not require any disclosure of information to the public.[38] The key disadvantage of a trade secret is its vulnerability to reverse engineering.[39]

text: Benefits[edit]

text: Primary incentives embodied in the patent system include incentives to invent in the first place; to disclose the invention once made; to invest the sums necessary to experiment, produce and market the invention; and to design around and improve upon earlier patents.[40]

text:
Patents provide incentives for economically efficient research and development (R&D).[41] A study conducted annually by the IPTS shows that the 2,000 largest global companies invested more than 430 billion euros in 2008[42] in their R&D departments. If the investments can be considered as inputs of R&D, real products and patents are the outputs. Based on these groups, a project named Corporate Invention Board, had measured and analyzed the patent portfolios to produce an original picture[43] of their technological profiles. Supporters of patents argue that without patent protection, R&D spending would be significantly less or eliminated altogether, limiting the possibility of technological advances or breakthroughs.[citation needed] Corporations would be much more conservative about the R&D investments they made, as third parties would be free to exploit any developments. This second justification is closely related to the basic ideas underlying traditional property rights.[40][specify] Specifically, "[t]he patent internalizes the externality by giving the [inventor] a property right over its invention."[44] A 2008 study by Yi Quan of Kellogg School of Management showed that countries instituting patent protection on pharmaceuticals did not necessarily have an increase in domestic pharmaceutical innovation. Only countries with "higher levels of economic development, educational attainment, and economic freedom" showed an increase. There also appeared to be an optimal level of patent protection that increased domestic innovation.[45]
In accordance with the original definition of the term "patent", patents are intended to facilitate and encourage disclosure of innovations into the public domain for the common good. Thus patenting can be viewed as contributing to open hardware after an embargo period (usually of 20 years). If inventors did not have the legal protection of patents, in many cases, they might prefer or tend to keep their inventions secret (e.g. keep trade secrets).[46] Awarding patents generally makes the details of new technology publicly available, for exploitation by anyone after the patent expires, or for further improvement by other inventors. Furthermore, when a patent's term has expired, the public record ensures that the patentee's invention is not lost to humanity.[40][specify]
In many industries (especially those with high fixed costs and either low marginal costs or low reverse engineering costs — computer processors, and pharmaceuticals for example), once an invention exists, the cost of commercialization (testing, tooling up a factory, developing a market, etc.) is far more than the initial conception cost. (For example, the internal rule of thumb at several computer companies in the 1980s was that post-R&D costs were 7-to-1.)[citation needed]

tag: ol

text: One effect of modern patent usage is that a small-time inventor, who can afford both the patenting process and the defense of the patent,[47] can use the exclusive right status to become a licensor. This allows the inventor to accumulate capital from licensing the invention and may allow innovation to occur because he or she may choose not to manage a manufacturing buildup for the invention. Thus the inventor's time and energy can be spent on pure innovation, allowing others to concentrate on manufacturability.[48]

text: Another effect of modern patent usage is to both enable and incentivize competitors to design around (or to "invent around" according to R S Praveen Raj) the patented invention.[49] This may promote healthy competition among manufacturers, resulting in gradual improvements of the technology base.[50] This may help augment national economies and confer better living standards to the citizens. The 1970 Indian Patent Act[51] allowed the Indian pharmaceutical industry to develop local technological capabilities in this industry. This act coincided with the transformation of India from a bulk importer of pharmaceutical drugs to a leading exporter.[citation needed] The rapid evolution of Indian pharmaceutical industry since the mid-1970s highlights the fact that the design of the patent act was instrumental in building local capabilities even in a developing country like India.[52]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Legal scholars, economists, activists, policymakers, industries, and trade organizations have held differing views on patents and engaged in contentious debates on the subject. Critical perspectives emerged in the nineteenth century that were especially based on the principles of free trade.[53]:262–263 Contemporary criticisms have echoed those arguments, claiming that patents block innovation and waste resources (e.g. with patent-related overheads) that could otherwise be used productively to improve technology.[54][55][56] These and other research findings that patents decreased innovation because of the following mechanisms:

text:
Low quality, already known or obvious patents hamper innovation and commercialization.[57][58][59]
Blocking the use of fundamental knowledge with patents creates a "tragedy of the anticommons, where future innovations can not take place outside of a single firm in an entire field.[60]
Patents weaken the public domain and innovation that comes from it.[61]
Patent thickets, or "an overlapping set of patent rights", in particular slow innovation.[62][63]
Broad patents prevent companies from commercializing products and hurt innovation.[64] In the worst case, such broad patents are held by non-practicing entities (patent trolls), which do not contribute to innovation.[65][66] Enforcement by patent trolls of poor quality patents [67] has led to criticism of the patent office as well as the system itself.[68] For example, in 2011, United States business entities incurred $29 billion in direct costs because of patent trolls.[69] Lawsuits brought by "patent assertion companies" made up 61% of all patent cases in 2012, according to the Santa Clara University School of Law.[70]
Patents apply a "one size fits all" model to industries with differing needs,[71] that is especially unproductive for the software industry.[72]
Rent-seeking by owners of pharmaceutical patents have also been a particular focus of criticism, as the high prices they enable puts life-saving drugs out of reach of many people.[73]

tag: ul

text: Boldrin and Levine conclude "Our preferred policy solution is to abolish patents entirely and to find other legislative instruments, less open to lobbying and rent seeking, to foster innovation when there is clear evidence that laissez-faire undersupplies it."[74][75] Abolishing patents may be politically challenging in some countries[citation needed], however, as the primary economic theories supporting patent law hold that inventors and innovators need patents to recoup the costs associated with research, inventing, and commercializing;[41] this reasoning is weakened if the new technologies decrease these costs.[76] A 2016 paper argued for substantial weakening of patents because current technologies (e.g. 3D printing, cloud computing, synthetic biology, etc.) have reduced the cost of innovation.[76]

text: Debates over the usefulness of patents for their primary objective are part of a larger discourse on intellectual property protection, which also reflects differing perspectives on copyright.

text: Anti-patent initiatives[edit]

text:
The Patent Busting Project is an Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) initiative challenging patents that the organization claims are illegitimate and suppress innovation or limit online expression. The initiative launched in 2004 and involves two phases: documenting the damage caused by these patents[citation needed], and submitting challenges to the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO).[77][78]
Patent critic, Joseph Stiglitz has proposed Prizes as an alternative to patents in order to further advance solutions to global problems such as AIDS.[79][80]
In 2012, Stack Exchange launched Ask Patents, a forum for crowdsourcing prior art to invalidate patents.[81]
Several authors have argued for developing defensive prior art to prevent patenting based on obviousness using lists [82] or algorithms.[83] For example, a Professor of Law at the University of North Carolina School of Law, has demonstrated a method to protect DNA research.,[82] which could apply to other technology. Chin wrote an algorithm to generate 11 million "obvious" nucleotide sequences to count as prior art and his algorithmic approach has already[84] proven effective at anticipating prior art against oligonucleotide composition claims filed since his publication of the list and has been cited by the U.S. patent office a number of times.[85] More recently, Joshua Pearce developed an open-source algorithm for identifying prior art for 3D printing materials to make such materials obvious by patent standards.[83] As the 3-D printing community is already grappling with legal issues,[86] this development was hotly debated in the technical press.[87][88][89] Chin made the same algorithem-based obvious argument in DNA probes.[85]
Google and other technology companies founded the LOT Network in 2014 to combat patent assertion entities by cross-licensing patents, thereby preventing legal action by such entities.[90]


document_title: Lagos State Ministry of Education

question_text: who is the lagos state commissioner of education

text: Lagos State Ministry of Education

text:
Lagos State Ministry of Education

Ministry overview

Jurisdiction
Government of Lagos State

Headquarters
State Government Secretariat, Alausa, Lagos State, Nigeria

Ministry executive

Dr. Idiat Adebule, Commissioner

text: The Lagos State Ministry of Education is the state government ministry charged with the responsibility to plan, devise and implement the state policies on Education.[1][2]


document_title: Adam's Bridge

question_text: who built the ram setu bridge to reach lanka

text: Adam's Bridge

text: Name

text: The bridge was first mentioned in the ancient Indian Sanskrit epic Ramayana of Valmiki.[4] The name Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu (Sanskrit; setu: bridge) refers to the bridge built by the Vanara (ape men) army of Rama in Hindu theology with instructions from Nala,[5] which he used to reach Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from the Rakshasa king, Ravana.[4] The Ramayana attributes the building of this bridge to Rama in verse 2-22-76, naming it as Setubandhanam, a name that persists until today.[6]

text: The sea separating India and Sri Lanka is called Sethusamudram meaning "Sea of the Bridge". Maps prepared by a Dutch cartographer in 1747, available at the Thanjavur Saraswathi Mahal Library show this area as Ramancoil, a colloquial form of the Tamil Raman Kovil (or Rama's Temple).[7] Another map of Mughal India prepared by J. Rennel in 1788 retrieved from the same library called this area as "the area of the Rama Temple", referring to the temple dedicated to Rama at Rameswaram.[8] Many other maps in Schwartzberg's historical atlas[9][10] and other sources such as travel texts by Marco Polo call this area by various names such as Sethubandha and Sethubandha Rameswaram.[11][12][13][14][15]

text: The western world first encountered it in "historical works in the 9th century" by Ibn Khordadbeh in his Book of Roads and Kingdoms (c. 850), referring to it is Set Bandhai or "Bridge of the Sea".[16] Later, Alberuni described it. The earliest map that calls this area by the name Adam's bridge was prepared by a British cartographer in 1804.[2][4][17] Some early Islamic sources refer to a mountain in Sri Lanka as Adam's Peak, where Adam supposedly fell to earth and describes Adam as crossing from Sri Lanka to India on what became known as Adam's Bridge.[18]

text: Location

text: The bridge starts as a chain of shoals from the Dhanushkodi tip of India's Pamban Island and ends at Sri Lanka's Mannar Island. Pamban Island is semi-connected to the Indian mainland by 2 km long Pamban Bridge. Mannar Island is connected to mainland Sri Lanka by a causeway. The border between India and Sri Lanka is said to pass across one of the shoals constituting one of the shortest land borders in the world.[19] Ramasetu and neighbouring areas like Rameswaram, Dhanushkodi, Devipattinam and Thirupullani are mentioned in the context of various legends in Ramayana.[20][21][22]

text: Transportation and navigation

text: Pamban Island (Tamil Nadu, India) with its small port of Rameswaram is about 2 km from mainland India. The Pamban Bridge crossing the Pamban channel links Pamban Island with mainland India. It refers to both: a road bridge and a cantilever railway bridge. Small boats would go below the 2,065-metre-long (6,775 ft) road bridge, and the railway bridge would open up.

text: The problem in navigation exists because big ships cannot travel in the shallow waters of the Pamban channel. Dredging in this channel would cost more than dredging a channel in the Rama Setu area, where the waters are comparatively deep and less earth would have to be dredged. Hence, in 2005, the Government of India approved a multi-million dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project that aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Bay cutting across Rama Setu.[23] Various organizations have opposed the project based on religious, economic and environmental grounds and have sought the implementation of one of the alternative alignments considered during the earlier stages of the discussion.

text: A ferry service linked Dhanushkodi in India with Talaimannar in Sri Lanka. The service was part of the Indo-Ceylon Railway service during the British Rule. One could buy a railway ticket from Chennai to Colombo, whereby people travelled by rail from Chennai to Pamban island, go by ferry to Talaimannar, and then go again by rail to Colombo. In 1964, a cyclone completely destroyed Dhanushkodi, as a train was about to enter the station. The tracks and the pier were heavily damaged along the shores of Palk Bay and Palk Strait. Dhanushkodi was not rebuilt and the train then finished its journey at Rameswaram. There was a small ferry service from there to Talaimannar, but it was suspended around 1982 because of the fighting between Sri Lankan government forces and the separatist LTTE.

text: Geological evolution

text: Considerable diversity of opinion and confusion exists about the nature and origin of this structure. In the 19th century, two major theories were prominent in explaining the structure. One considered it to be formed by the process of accretion and rising of the land, while the other surmised that it was established by the breaking away of Sri Lanka from the Indian mainland.[24] The friable calcareous ridges later broke into large rectangular blocks, which perhaps gave rise to the belief that the causeway is an artificial construction.[25]

text: According to V. Ram Mohan of the Centre of Natural Hazards and Disaster Studies of the University of Madras, "reconstruction of the geological evolution of the island chain is a challenging task and has to be carried out based on circumstantial evidence".[26] The lack of comprehensive field studies explains many of the uncertainties regarding the nature and origin of Adam's Bridge, which mostly consists of a series of parallel ledges of sandstone and conglomerates that are hard at the surface and grow coarse and soft as they descend to sandy banks.[27]

text: Studies have variously described the structure as a chain of shoals, coral reefs, a ridge formed in the region owing to thinning of the earth's crust, a double tombolo,[28] a sand spit, or barrier islands. One account mentions that this landform was formerly the world's largest tombolo that split into a chain of shoals by a slight rise in mean sea level a few thousand years ago.[29]

text: Based on satellite remote sensing data, but without actual field verification, the Marine and Water Resources Group of the Space Application Centre (SAC) of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) concludes that Adam's Bridge comprises 103 small patch reefs lying in a linear pattern.[27] The feature consists of the reef crest (flattened, emergent, especially during low tides, or nearly emergent segment of a reef), sand cays (accumulations of loose coral sands and beach rock) and intermittent deep channels. The coral reefs are variously designated by other studies as ribbon and atoll reefs.[30]

text: The geological process that gave rise to this structure has been attributed in one study to crustal down warping, block faulting, and mantle plume activity[31] while another theory attributes it to continuous sand deposition and the natural process of sedimentation leading to the formation of a chain of barrier islands related to rising sea levels.[30] Another theory affirms that the origin and linearity of Adam's Bridge might be due to the old shoreline (implying that the two landmasses of India and Sri Lanka were once connected)from which shoreline coral reefs developed.

text: Another study attributes the origin of the structure to longshore drifting currents which moved in an anticlockwise direction in the north and clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar. The sand could have been dumped in a linear pattern along the current shadow zone between Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar with the later accumulation of corals over these linear sand bodies.[32] In a diametrically opposing view, another group of geologists propose a crustal thinning theory, block faulting and a ridge formed in the region owing to thinning and asserts that development of this ridge augmented the coral growth in the area and inturn coral cover acted as a `sand trapper'.[30]

text: The tombolo model affirms a constant sediment source and a high unidirectional or bi-directional (monsoonal) longshore current.[citation needed] One study tentatively concludes that there is insufficient evidence to indicate eustatic emergence and that the raised reef in southern India probably results from a local uplift.[33] Other studies also conclude that during periods of lowered sea level over the last 100,000 years, Adam's Bridge has provided an intermittent land connection between India and Sri Lanka, which according to famous ornithologists Sidney Dillon Ripley and Bruce Beehler supports the vicariance model for speciation in some birds of the Indian Subcontinent.[34]

text: Age

text: The studies under "Project Rameswaram" of the Geological Survey of India (GSI), which included dating of corals, indicate Rameswaram Island evolved beginning 125,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of samples in this study suggests the domain between Rameswaram and Talaimannar may have been exposed sometime between 7,000 and 18,000 years ago.[30] Thermoluminescence dating by GSI concludes that the sand dunes between Dhanushkodi and Adam's Bridge started forming about 500–600 years ago.[30]

text: An investigation by the Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS) of Bharathidasan University, Tiruchi, led by Professor S.M. Ramasamy dates the structure to 3,500 years.[35] In the same study, carbon dating of some ancient beaches between Thiruthuraipoondi and Kodiyakarai shows the Thiruthuraipoondi beach dates back to 6,000 years and Kodiyakarai around 1,100 years ago. Another study suggests that the appearance of the reefs and other evidence indicate their recency, and a coral sample gives a radiocarbon age of 4,020±160 years BP.[30]

text: Early surveys and dredging efforts

text: Due to shallow waters, Adam's bridge presents a formidable hindrance to navigation through the Palk Strait. Though trade across the India-Sri Lanka divide has been active since at least the first millennium BC, it was limited to small boats and dinghies. Larger ocean-going vessels from the West have had to navigate around Sri Lanka to reach India's eastern coast.[36] Eminent British geographer Major James Rennell, who surveyed the region as a young officer in the late 18th century, suggested that a "navigable passage could be maintained by dredging the strait of Ramisseram  [sic]". However, little notice was given to his proposal, perhaps because it came from "so young and unknown an officer", and the idea got revived only 60 years later.

text: In 1823, Sir Arthur Cotton (then an Ensign), was assigned to survey the Pamban channel, which separates the Indian mainland from the island of Rameswaram and forms the first link of Adam's Bridge. Geological evidence indicates that a land connection bridged this in the past, and some temple records suggest that violent storms broke the link in 1480. Cotton suggested that the channel could be dredged to enable passage of ships, but nothing was done until 1828 when Major Sim directed the blasting and removal of some rocks.[37][38]

text: A more detailed marine survey of Adam's Bridge was undertaken in 1837 by Lieutenants F. T. Powell, Ethersey, Grieve, and Christopher along with draughtsman Felix Jones, and operations to dredge the channel were recommenced the next year.[37][39] However, these and subsequent efforts in the 19th century did not succeed in keeping the passage navigable for any vessels except those with a light draft.[2]

text: Sethusamudram shipping canal project

text: The government of India constituted nine committees before independence, and five committees since then, to suggest alignments for a Sethusamudram canal project. Most of them suggested land-based passages across Rameswaram island, and none recommended alignment across Adam's Bridge.[40] The Sethusamudram project committee in 1956 also strongly recommended to the Union government to use land passages instead of cutting Adam's Bridge because of the several advantages of land passage.[41]

text: In 2005, the Government of India approved a multi-million dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project that aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Strait by dredging the shallow ocean floor near Dhanushkodi. The channel is expected to cut over 400 km (nearly 30 hours of shipping time) off the voyage around the island of Sri Lanka. This proposed channel's current alignment requires dredging through Adam's Bridge.

text: Indian political parties including the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)) and some Hindu organisations oppose dredging through the shoal on religious grounds. The contention is that Adam's Bridge is identified popularly as the causeway described in the Ramayana. The political parties and organizations suggest alternate alignment for the channel that avoids damage to Adam's Bridge.[42][43] The then state and central governments opposed such changes, with the Union Shipping Minister T. R Baalu, who belongs to the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and a strong supporter of the project maintaining that the current proposal was economically viable and environmentally sustainable and that there were no other alternatives.[44][45][46]

text: Opposition to dredging through this causeway also stems from concerns over its impact on the area's ecology and marine wealth, potential loss of thorium deposits in the area, and increased risk of damage due to tsunamis.[47] Some organisations completely oppose this project on economic and environmental grounds and claim that proper scientific studies were not conducted before undertaking this project.[48]

text: Disputed origins

text: Certain historical inscriptions, old travel guides, old dictionary references and some old maps have been cited to support a religious and geographical belief that this is an ancient man-made bridge. In the Hindu epic, Ramayana, the bridge was created by Rama and Lakshmana with the assistance of Hanuman and the Vanara army to reach Lanka to find Rama's wife Sita who had been kidnapped by Ravana. In 2007, the Sri Lankan Tourism Development Authority sought to promote religious tourism from Hindu pilgrims in India by including the phenomenon as one of the points on its "Ramayana Trail", celebrating the legend of Prince Rama. Some Sri Lankan historians have condemned the undertaking as "a gross distortion of Sri Lankan history".[49] Vaishnava News Network and some other U.S.-based news services claimed to have found the remains of the bridge built by Rama and his Vanara army as narrated in Ramayana.[citation needed] Based on a study of 2002 NASA satellite images, they contended it was not a natural formation, but a human-made structure.[50] NASA distanced itself from the claims saying that the images reveal nothing more than a 30-km-long, naturally occurring chain of sandbanks.[51] It also clarified that "The images reproduced on the websites may well be ours, but their interpretation is certainly not ours. [...] Remote sensing images or photographs from orbit cannot provide direct information about the origin or age of a chain of islands, and certainly, cannot determine whether humans were involved in producing any of the patterns seen."[51]

text: In 2003, a team led by Professor S.M. Ramasamy, Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS), Bharathidasan University, Tiruchi said that the land/beaches between Ramanathapuram and Pamban were formed due to the longshore drifting currents. About 3,500 years ago, the currents moved in an anti-clockwise direction in the north and clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar. The team suggested that "as the carbon dating of the beaches roughly matches the dates of Ramayana, its link to the epic needs to be explored".[52] A former director of the Geological Survey of India, S. Badrinarayanan, said that such a natural formation would be impossible due to the presence of a loose sand layer under corals for the entire stretch. Corals typically form above rocks.[53][54] He suggests that a thorough analysis was not conducted by the Geological Survey of India before undertaking the SSCP project.

text: The Archaeological Survey of India and the government of India informed the Supreme Court of India in a 2007 affidavit that there was no historical proof of the bridge being built by Rama.[55] In a 2008 court case, a spokesman for the government stated the bridge was destroyed by Rama according to the scriptures,[56] this claim has been rejected by other observers.[57] In connection with the canal project, the Madras High Court in its verdict stated that the Rama Sethu is a man-made structure.[58]

text: In 2007, a publication of the National Remote Sensing Agency said that the structure "may be man-made".[59] The report from the Archaeological Survey of India found no evidence for it being man-made.[60]


document_title: Little Witch Academia: Chamber of Time

question_text: when does little witch academia chamber of time take place

text: Little Witch Academia: Chamber of Time

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: The side-scrolling action game lets players control the anime's protagonist, witch-in-training Akko, accompanied by her friends Sucy, Lotte, Amanda, Constanze, Jasmika and Diana, as she explores her magical academy.[2] There are two distinct game modes: a 3D  adventure-style exploration of the school, and a 2.5D action mode involving the exploration of magical labyrinths with three characters.

text: A limited edition with additional material, including an audio drama and an artbook, was released in Japan.[3] The game features animated cutscenes by Studio Trigger, the creators of the anime series. Scores from the series' original soundtrack are included in the game as well.[4]

text: Plot[edit]

text: It's the first day of summer vacation at the Luna Nova Magic Academy, but after getting into trouble once again, Akko is sentenced by Professor Finnelan to clean up the school's library. While working on the library, Akko discovers a hidden door leading to a secret place called the "Holorogium Chamber" where she finds a magic door leading to a mysterious world. In the next day, Akko and her friends Sucy and Lotte find out that the previous day is repeating itself continuously, and certain that it is related to the Holorogium Chamber being unsealed, with assistance from Diana, Amanda, Jasmika and Constanze, they try several ways to seal the chamber and return the flux of time to normal with no success.

text: After running away of options, Akko meets and befriends Molly McIntyre and discovers that she is a witch whose powers were sealed 200 years ago in the Holorogium Chamber, and with the chamber unsealed, she regained her memories and powers. Assisted by Professor Ursula, Akko and her friends locate and defeat Molly inside the chamber and learn from her that she once was a young witch who had no talent with magic and no friends, and used the powers of the Holorogium Chamber to repeat time over and over again as she practiced her magic to increase her abilities, but despite that, she failed to make new friends and after attempting to repeat the entire year using her powers, she transformed herself into a monster, which was sealed by the teachers at the time, and since then she attended the school year after year for centuries, always forgetting the events of the previous year.

text: After the Holorogium Chamber is sealed again, Akko finishes her task of cleaning up the library with help from her friends, and finally begins enjoying her summer vacation with the others. In the post-credits, Akko rejoices that Molly, now free from the curse, is also enjoying life with her own friends.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The PS4 version of the game received a score of 60 out of 100 on Metacritic, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[5]

text: Destructoid's reviewer noted that while the "characters, story, script and voice-acting are fantastic", the game was a "disappointment" because of the unexciting and unnecessarily complicated and laborious gameplay.[6] IGN Japan rated the game 81 out of 100, commenting that "if you can live with average gameplay there is plenty to enjoy here".[7]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ Known in Japan as Little Witch Academia: Toki no Mahō to Nana Fushigi (リトルウィッチアカデミア 時の魔法と七不思議)


document_title: Timeline of the UK electricity supply industry

question_text: when did we get electricity in the uk

question_tokens: when did we get electricity in the uk

text: The following is a list of major events in the history of the United Kingdom's electricity supply industry.

text:
Year
Event

1882
The Electric Lighting Act 1882 (repealed 1989) — allowed the setting up of supply systems by persons, companies or local authorities

1888
The Electric Lighting Act 1888 (repealed 1989) — amendment to 1882 Act making the setting up of a supply company easier.

1891
London Electric Supply Corporation (LESCo) opened Deptford Power Station, UK's first AC power system, designed by Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti.

1899
The Electric Lighting (Clauses) Act 1899 (repealed 1989)

1901
Newcastle upon Tyne Electric Supply Company (NESCo) opened Neptune Bank Power Station, the first in the UK to supply three-phase electric power.

1909
The Electric Lighting Act 1909 (repealed 1989). Regulated planning consent for building power stations.

1919
Williamson Report and Birchenough Report leads to the Electricity (Supply) Act 1919[1](repealed 1989). Established Electricity Commission[citation needed] and appointed Electricity Commissioners

1922
The Electricity (Supply) Act 1922 (repealed 1989)

1926
Weir Report leads to the Electricity (Supply) Act 1926 (repealed 1989) — created Central Electricity Board and the National Grid operating at 132 kV (50 Hz)

1933
The 132 kV National Grid started operating as interconnected set of regional grids.

1936
The Electricity Supply (Meters) Act 1936 (repealed 1989)

1938
The 132 kV National Grid became integrated.

1943
The Hydro-Electric Development (Scotland) Act 1943 (repealed 1989)

1947
The Electricity Act 1947 (repealed 1989). It merged 625 electricity companies to be vested in twelve area electricity boards and the generation and 132 kV National Grid were vested with the British Electricity Authority.

1954
The Electricity Reorganisation (Scotland) Act 1954 (repealed 1989)

1955
British Electricity Authority becomes the Central Electricity Authority. The Scottish area boards are merged into South of Scotland Electricity Board and the North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board.

1957
The Electricity Act 1957 (repealed 1989). The Central Electricity Authority was dissolved and replaced by Central Electricity Generating Board and the Electricity Council.

1958
The new chairman of the Central Electricity Generating Board Christopher Hinton, Baron Hinton of Bankside begins the procurement of the new 2000 MW power stations and 400kV grid system

1961
The Electricity (Amendment) Act 1961 (repealed 1989)

1963
The Electricity and Gas Act 1963 (repealed 1989)

1965
Introduction of the first phase of the 400kV Supergrid from West Burton power stations, Nottinghamshire to Sundon in Bedfordshire

1968
The Gas and Electricity Act 1968 (repealed 1989)

1969
The first of the new 2000 MW Generating Units are officially opened by the Ministry of Power (United Kingdom) Roy Mason at West Burton power stations

1972
The Electricity Act 1972 (repealed 1989)

1978
Economy 7 introduced.

1979
The Electricity (Scotland) Act 1979 (repealed 1989)

1989
The Electricity Act 1989 provides for the privatisation of the electricity industry in Great Britain

1990
Beginning of the privatization of the Central Electricity Generating Board. The assets of the CEGB are broken up into three new companies: Powergen, National Power and National Grid Company. Later, the nuclear component within National Power was removed and vested in another state-owned company called Nuclear Electric.

1991
Scottish industry privatised

1992
Electricity supply in Northern Ireland privatised. Premier Power formed.

1993
Supply industry in Northern Ireland privatised.

1995
Major assets of Nuclear Electric and Scottish Nuclear were merged the UK's eight most advanced nuclear plants, forming a new private company, British Energy.

2000
The Utilities Act 2000 placed responsibility on generators to allow for connecting distributed energy sources to grid.[clarification needed]

2001
The Central Electricity Generating Board (Dissolution) Order 2001. CEGB formally wound up.

2007
From 1 November Northern Ireland generators must sell their electricity into the Single Electricity Market, an all-island market with the Republic of Ireland from which suppliers purchase electricity at a single market rate.

2009
After becoming the UK's largest electricity generation company, British Energy is bought by Électricité de France (EDF), a stated owned company.[2]


document_title: Griffon Bruxellois

question_text: breed of dog on as good as it gets

question_tokens: breed of dog on as good as it gets

text: Griffon Bruxellois

text: History[edit]

text: The three variations of this dog, the Brussels Griffon (Griffon Bruxellois), the Belgian Griffon (Griffon Belge), and the Petit Brabançon, all descend from an old type of dog called a Smousje, a rough coated, small terrier-like dog kept in stables to eliminate rodents,[1] similar to the Dutch Smoushond. The little wire-haired dog in the foreground of the Jan van Eyck painting The Arnolfini Marriage is thought to be an early form of this breed. In Belgium coachmen were fond of their alert little Griffons d’Ecurie (wiry coated stable dogs) and in the 19th century, they bred their Griffons with imported toy dogs. Breeding with the Pug and King Charles Spaniel brought about the current breed type, but also brought the short black coat that led to the Petits Brabançon, which was originally a fault in the breed. The spaniels also brought the rich red and black and tan colour of the modern Griffon Bruxellois and Griffon Belge.[2]

text: The Griffon Bruxellois grew in popularity in the late 19th century with both workers and noblemen in Belgium. The first Griffon Bruxellois was registered in 1883 in the first volume Belgium's kennel club studbook, the Livre des Origines Saint-Hubert (LOSH).[1] The popularity of the breed was increased by the interest of Queen Marie Henriette, a dog enthusiast who visited the annual dog shows in Belgium religiously, often with her daughter, and became a breeder and booster of Griffon Bruxellois, giving them international fame and popularity. Many dogs were exported to other countries, leading to Griffon Bruxellois clubs in England (1897)[3] and Brussels Griffon clubs in the U.S. (1945.)[4]

text: The First World War and Second World War proved to be a disastrous time for the breed. War time is difficult on any dog breed, and the recovering numbers after the First World War were set back by increased vigilance in breeding away from faults such as webbed toes. By the end of the Second World War, Belgium had almost no native Griffon Bruxellois left, and it was only through the vigilance of dedicated breeders (in the U.K. particularly) that the breed survived at all.

text: The breed has never been numerous or popular, but had a brief vogue in the late 1950s, and now is generally an uncommon breed. There has been a recent increase in interest in the United States due to the appearance of a Griffon in the movie, As Good as It Gets, and also because of a general increase in interest in toy dogs.

text: Description[edit]

text: The Brussels Griffon is typically a small breed with a sturdy frame. The average adult Griffon stands from 9 to 11 inches (230–280 mm) tall, and weighs 8 to 10 pounds (4–5 kg).[5] They have domed heads, short noses, and an underbite. Their human-like facial features are often likened to that of an Ewok.[6]

text: The Griffon comes in two coat variants, wiry/rough and smooth coat. Their hair (not fur) can be red, black and tan, or black and reddish in color. The short hair Griffon requires little grooming while the wiry/rough coat Griffon requires weekly grooming attention.[6]

text: Temperament[edit]

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text: The Griffon Bruxellois is known to have a huge heart, and a strong desire to snuggle and be with its master. They display a visible air of self-importance. A Griffon should not be shy or aggressive, but they are very emotionally sensitive, and because of this, should be socialized carefully at a young age. Griffons should also be alert, inquisitive and interested in their surroundings.

text: Griffons tend to bond with one human more than others. In fact, Griffons are very good with children provided they are not teased. They are not very patient but do love to play. Griffons tend to get along well with other animals in the house, including cats, ferrets, and other dogs. However, they can get into trouble because they have no concept of their own relative size and may attempt to dominate dogs much larger than themselves.

text:
A brown Griffon Bruxellois with beard

Griffon Belge

Petit Brabançon

Brussels Griffon

text: Health[edit]

text: Griffons have relatively few inherited health problems, but should still be tested for congenital defects, the most serious of which are Syringomyelia (SM) and Chiari-like malformation (CM).[7][8] The typical life span of a Griffon is somewhere in the range of 10 to 15 years.[9]

text: Birthing[edit]

text: Griffons usually have no trouble whelping on their own, but sometimes complications can necessitate a Caesarean section. The size of a litter is typically 1-3 puppies. The size of the litter often determines the extent of these complications. Litters of six are not unheard of. When they are born, the puppies only weigh a few ounces (about 100 grams) and are small enough to fit in the palm of an adult's hand. They can get leg and heart problems from an early age.

text: Cleft palate[edit]

text: One issue that is typically fatal for the puppies is having a cleft palate. It results in the puppy not receiving nourishment from the mother and eventually starvation. It is uncommon but, depending on the size of the cleft, it is possible for the puppy to survive whereas it becomes older surgery can be done to close the hole.

text: Eyes[edit]

text: Most have large eyes that may require rechecks from a veterinarian.

text:
Lacerations - Lacerations are a common issue amongst the breed. Because the Griffons have such large eyes and a short snout, there is very little there to protect their vision from foreign bodies. If a laceration is left untreated it can result in blindness.
Cataracts - As with most breeds, cataracts are a common problem as the dog ages. For many breeders it is a disappointment that the cataracts typically develop long after the dog has already been bred.[10]
Lens Luxations - Lens luxations can be fairly common in the breed and result in secondary glaucoma[10]
Glaucoma - Glaucoma can also be a common issue amongst Griffons owing to the breed's facial features and eye size.[10]

text: Heat Stroke[edit]

text: Although Griffons have a shortened snout, heat stroke is not a major concern for them as it is with other flat-faced breeds. The breed's shortened muzzle may cause respiratory problems in extreme heat, but overall they tolerate both hot and cold weather well. As with any breed, owners must use common sense and not leave them outdoors without protection from the elements or subject them to rigorous exercise during extreme temperatures, so let them in your house for cool air and some water.

text: Syringomyelia[edit]

text: Syringomyelia (SM) is a condition affecting the brain and spine, causing symptoms ranging from mild discomfort to severe pain and partial paralysis. Syringomyelia is characterised by fluid filled cavities within the spinal cord. SM occurs secondary to obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) especially if that obstruction is at the foramen magnum. To date the condition has been also reported in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels, King Charles Spaniels, Yorkshire Terriers, Maltese Terriers, Chihuahuas, Miniature Dachshunds, Miniature/Toy Poodles, Bichon Frisé, Pugs, Shih Tzus, Pomeranians, Boston Terriers, French Bulldogs, a Pekingese, a Miniature Pinscher, mixbreeds, and a couple of cats.

text: Not all dogs with SM have clinical signs. The presence of signs is correlated to the width of the syrinx and extent of spinal cord dorsal horn damage. Syrinxes can progressively expand and a dog which is asymptomatic in early life may eventually experience pain.

text: Griffon Bruxellois in popular culture[edit]

text:
The American impressionist painter Mary Cassatt kept Brussels Griffons and frequently portrayed them in her paintings.[11]
In the film As Good as It Gets (1997), as Verdell, played by six Brussels Griffons, named Timer, Sprout, Debbie, Billy, Parfait, and Jill the star[12]
In the film Gosford Park, as William McCordle's dog.
In the film Sweet November, as Sara's dog Ernie
In the sitcom Spin City, as Carter's suicidal dog Rags, played by a smooth-coated Petit Brabançon named Wesley
In the film Teaching Mrs. Tingle, as Mrs. Tingle's dog.
Monkey, owned by record label owner and deejay Sarah Lewitinn and named "Best Dog Owned by a Club Personality" by The Village Voice[13][14]
Tazzie owned by Stanley Dangerfield, appearing on the television show The Good Companions[15]
In the film First Wives Club owned by Diane Keaton's character.
In the sitcom "Mike and Molly" Mikes mom's dog, Jim is a Brussels Griffon mixed with a Chihuahua.
The Southern California craft brewery "The Bruery" brewed a sour brown ale called Griffon Bruxellois.
The makeup for the Ewok characters in the film Return of the Jedi (1983) in the Star Wars universe was developed by make-up artist Stuart Freeborn, who built them from designs by visual effects director Joe Johnston using the image of the Griffon Bruxellois, a dog breed which George Lucas owned.[16][17]


document_title: Sermon on the Mount

question_text: where was the sermon on the mount given

question_tokens: where was the sermon on the mount given

text: Sermon on the Mount

text: Background and setting[edit]

text: The Sermon on the Mount is the longest piece of teaching from Jesus in the New Testament, and occupies chapters 5, 6 and 7 of the Gospel of Matthew. The Sermon has been one of the most widely quoted elements of the Canonical Gospels.[3]

text: This is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew, the other four being Matthew 10, Matthew 13 (1–53), Matthew 18 and the Olivet discourse in Matthew 24.[4][5][6]

text: The Sermon is set early in the Ministry of Jesus, after he has been baptized by John the Baptist in chapter 3 of Matthew's Gospel and gathered his first disciples in chapter 4.

text: Before this episode, Jesus had been "all about Galilee" preaching, as in Matthew 4:23, and "great crowds followed him" from all around the area. The setting for the sermon is given in Matthew 5:1-2. Jesus sees the multitudes, goes up into the mountain, is followed by his disciples, and begins to preach. The sermon is brought to its close by Matthew 8:1, which reports that Jesus "came down from the mountain followed by great multitudes".

text: Components[edit]

text: While the issue of the exact theological structure and composition of the Sermon on the Mount is subject to debate among scholars, specific components within it, each associated with particular teachings, can be identified.[7][8]

text: Matthew 5:3–12 discusses the Beatitudes. These describe the character of the people of the Kingdom of Heaven, expressed as "blessings".[9] The Greek word most versions of the Gospel render as "blessed," can also be translated "happy". (See Matthew 5:3–12 of Young's Literal Translation for an example.) In Matthew, there are eight (or nine) blessings, while in Luke there are four, followed by four woes.[9]

text: In almost all cases the phrases used in the Beatitudes are familiar from an Old Testament context, but in the sermon Jesus gives them new meaning.[10] Together, the Beatitudes present a new set of ideals that focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction; they echo the highest ideals of Jesus' teachings on spirituality and compassion.[10]

text: In Christian teachings, the Works of Mercy, which have corporal and spiritual components, have resonated with the theme of the Beatitude for mercy.[11] These teachings emphasize that these acts of mercy provide both temporal and spiritual benefits.[12]

text: Matthew 5:13–16 presents the metaphors of salt and light. This completes the profile of God's people presented in the beatitudes, and acts as the introduction to the next section.

text: There are two parts in this section, using the terms "salt of the earth" and Light of the World to refer to the disciples –  implying their value. Elsewhere, in John 8:12, Jesus applies Light of the World to himself.[13]

text: Jesus preaches about hell and what hell is like: "But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his brother "Raca (fool)" shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire." Matthew 5:22 KJV [14]

text: The longest discourse in the Sermon is Matthew 5:17–48, traditionally referred to as the Antitheses or Matthew's Antitheses though Gundry disputes that title.[15] In the discourse, Jesus fulfills and reinterprets the Old Covenant and in particular its Ten Commandments, contrasting with what "you have heard" from others. For example, he advises turning the other cheek, and to love your enemies, in contrast to taking an eye for an eye. According to most interpretations of Matthew 5:17, 18, 19, and 20, and most Christian views of the Old Covenant, these new interpretations of the Law and Prophets are not opposed to the Old Testament, which was the position of Marcion, but form Jesus' new teachings which bring about salvation, and hence must be adhered to, as emphasized in Matthew 7:24–27 towards the end of the sermon.[16]

text: In Matthew 6 Jesus condemns doing what would normally be "good works" simply for recognition and not from the heart, such as those of alms (6:1–4), prayer (6:5–15), and fasting (6:16–18). The discourse goes on to condemn the superficiality of materialism and call the disciples not to worry about material needs, but to "seek" God's kingdom first. Within the discourse on ostentation, Matthew presents an example of correct prayer. Luke places this in a different context. The Lord's prayer (6:9–13) contains parallels to 1 Chronicles 29:10–18.[17][18]

text: The first part of Matthew 7, i.e. Matthew 7:1–6 deals with judging. Jesus condemns those who judge others before first judging themselves: "Judge not, that ye be not judged."

text: In the last part in Matthew 7:7–29 Jesus concludes the sermon by warning against false prophets, and emphasizing that humans are unable to do right ("bear fruit") apart from God.

text: Teachings and theology[edit]

text: The teachings of the Sermon on the Mount have been a key element of Christian ethics, and for centuries the sermon has acted as a fundamental recipe for the conduct of the followers of Jesus.[19] Various religious and moral thinkers (e.g. Tolstoy and Gandhi) have admired its message, and it has been one of the main sources of Christian pacifism.[1][20]

text: In the 5th century, Saint Augustine began his book Our Lord's Sermon on the Mount by stating:

text: The last verse of chapter 5 of Matthew (5:48) is a focal point of the sermon that summarizes its teachings by advising the disciples to seek perfection."[21] The Greek word telios used to refer to perfection also implies an end, or destination, advising the disciples to seek the path towards perfection and the Kingdom of God.[21] It teaches that God's children are those who act like God.[22]

text: The teachings of the sermon are often referred to as the Ethics of the Kingdom: they place a high level of emphasis on "purity of the heart" and embody the basic standard of Christian righteousness.[23]

text: Theological structure[edit]

text: The issue of the theological structure and composition of the Sermon on the Mount remains unresolved.[7][8][24] One group of theologians ranging from Saint Augustine in the 5th century to Michael Goulder in the 20th century, see the Beatitudes as the central element of the Sermon.[7] Others such as Bornkamm see the Sermon arranged around the Lord's prayer, while Daniel Patte, closely followed by Ulrich Luz, see a chiastic structure in the sermon.[7][8] Dale Allison and Glen Stassen have proposed a structure based on triads.[8][24][25] Jack Kingsbury and Hans Dieter Betz see the sermon as composed of theological themes, e.g. righteousness or way of life.[7]

text: Analysis and interpretation[edit]

text: Interpretations[edit]

text: The high ethical standards of the sermon have been interpreted in a wide variety of ways by different Christian groups and Craig S. Keener states that at least 36 different interpretations regarding the message of the Sermon exist, which he divides into 8 categories of views:[26]

text:
The predominant medieval view, "reserving a higher ethic for clergy, especially in monastic orders" [27]
Luther's view that it represents an impossible demand like the Law of Moses
The Anabaptist literal view which directly applies the teachings[28]
The Social Gospel view
The Christian existentialism view
Schweitzer's view of an imminent eschatology referring to an interim ethic
Dispensational eschatology which refers to a future Kingdom of God
Inaugurated eschatology in which the Sermon's ethics remain a goal to be approached, yet realized later

text: Anabaptist groups would hold the Sermon on the Mount to be the primary section of the Gospels that gives direction to how a Christian should live. For example, Matthew 6:24 says "No man can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon." For this reason, certain Anabaptist groups such as the Bruderhof[29] and Hutterites share all their possessions.[30]

text: Comparison with the Sermon on the Plain[edit]

text: While Matthew groups Jesus' teachings into sets of similar material, the same material is scattered when found in Luke.[1] The Sermon on the Mount may be compared with the similar but more succinct Sermon on the Plain as recounted by the Gospel of Luke (6:17–49), which occurs at the same moment in Luke's narrative, and also features Jesus heading up a mountain, but giving the sermon on the way down at a level spot. Some scholars believe that they are the same sermon, while others hold that Jesus frequently preached similar themes in different places.[31]

text: Comparison with Buddhist teachings[edit]

text: Although modern parallels between the teachings of Jesus such as the Sermon on the Mount and some Buddhist teachings[which?] have been drawn (by the 14th Dalai Lama[32] for example) these comparisons emerged after missionary contacts in the 19th century, and there is no historically reliable evidence of contacts between Buddhism and Jesus during his life.[33] Modern scholarship has almost unanimously agreed that claims of the travels of Jesus to Tibet, Kashmir or India (see Unknown years of Jesus) and the influence of Buddhism on his teachings are without historical basis.[34][35]

text: According to the Perennial Philosophy[edit]

text: According to perennialist author Frithjof Schuon, the message of the Sermon is a perfect synthesis of the whole Christian tradition. The text has the largest number of perennial and universal doctrines, and spiritual advice of all Scripture. Much of what the Bible readers remembers from it derives from the Sermon. Source of spiritual and moral instructions, the Sermon on the Mount is regarded by the Perennial Philosophy "as the quintessence itself of religion".[36] Perennialism considers the injunctions of the Sermon on the Mount as belonging to the esoteric dimension of Christianity.