document_title: Currency swap

question_text: an agreement to exchange two currencies is called a(n)

question_tokens: an agreement to exchange two currencies is called a ( n )

text: Currency swap

text: General Description[edit]

text: [1][2]A cross-currency swap's (XCS's) effective description is a derivative contract, agreed between two counterparties, which specifies the nature of an exchange of payments benchmarked against two interest rate indexes denominated in two different currencies. It also specifies an initial exchange of notional currency in each different currency and the terms of that repayment of notional currency over the life of the swap.

text: The most common XCS, and that traded in interbank markets, is a mark-to-market (MTM) XCS, whereby notional exchanges are regularly made throughout the life of the swap according to FX rate fluctuations. This is done to maintain a swap whose MTM value remains neutral and does not become either a large asset or liability (due to FX rate fluctuations) throughout its life.

text: The more unconventional, but simpler to define, non-MTM XCS includes an upfront notional exchange of currencies with a re-exchange of that same notional at maturity of the XCS.

text: The floating index referenced in each currency is commonly the 3-month tenor interbank offered rate (IBOR) in the appropriate currency, for example LIBOR in USD, GBP, EURIBOR in EUR or STIBOR in SEK.

text: Each series of payments (either denominated in the first currency or the second) is termed a 'leg', so a typical XCS has two legs, composed separately of interest payments and notional exchanges. To completely determine any XCS a number of parameters must be specified for each leg; the notional principal amount (or varying notional schedule including exchanges), the start and end dates and date scheduling, the chosen floating interest rate indexes and tenors, and day count conventions for interest calculations.

text: The pricing element of a XCS is what is known as the basis spread, which is the agreed amount chosen to be added (or reduced in the case of a negative spread) to one leg of the swap. Usually this is the domestic leg, or non-USD leg. For example a EUR/USD XCS would have the basis spread attached to the EUR denominated leg.

text: XCSs are over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives.

text:
A cashflows diagram of EUR100mm EUR/USD non-MTM XCS with initial EURUSD FX fixing of 1.200.

A cashflows diagram of EUR

N

{\displaystyle N}

 mm EUR/USD MTM XCS with initial EURUSD FX fixing of

f

0

{\displaystyle f_{0}}

.

text: Extended Description[edit]

text: As OTC instruments, cross-currency swaps (XCSs) can be customised in a number of ways and can be structured to meet the specific needs of the counterparties. For example; payment dates could be irregular, the notional of the swap could be amortized over time, reset dates (or fixing dates) of the floating rate could be irregular, mandatory break clauses may be inserted into the contract, FX notional payments and FX rates may be manually specified etc.

text: Additionally it is not a requirement for swaps to have two floating legs. This leads to the naming convention of different types of XCS:

text:
(Floating v Floating) Cross-Currency Swaps: are the normal, interbank traded products.
(Fixed v Floating) Cross-Currency Swaps: are a common customization of the benchmark product, often synthesized or hedged by market-makers by trading a float v float XCS and a standard interest rate swap (IRS) to convert the floating leg to a fixed leg.
(Fixed v Fixed) Cross-Currency Swaps: a less common customization, again synthesized by market makers trading two IRSs in each currency and a float v float XCS.
Mark-to-Market or Non Mark-to-Market: the MTM element and notional exchanges are usually standard (in interbank markets) but the customization to exclude this is available.
Non-deliverable Cross-Currency Swap (NDXCS or NDS): similar to a regular XCS, except that payments in one of the currencies are settled in another currency using the prevailing FX spot rate. NDS are usually used in emerging markets where the currency is illiquid, subject to exchange restrictions, or even non-convertible. This associates with quantos.
Embedded options: exotic customization options exist potentially with FX options at the maturity of the trade, or swaptions.[3]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Currency swaps have many uses, some are itemized:

text:
To secure cheaper debt (by borrowing at the best available rate regardless of currency and then swapping for debt in desired currency using a back-to-back-loan).
To hedge against (reduce exposure to) forward exchange rate fluctuations.
To defend against financial turmoil by allowing a country beset by a liquidity crisis to borrow money from others with its own currency, see Central bank liquidity swap.

text: Additionally, cross-currency swaps are an integral component in modern financial markets as they are the bridge needed for assessment of yields on a standardised USD basis. For this reason there are also used as the construction tool in creating collateralized discount curves for valuing a future cashflow in a given currency but collateralized with another currency. Given the importance of collateral to the financial system at large, cross-currency swaps are important as a hedging instrument to insure against material collateral mismatches and devaluation.

text: Hedging example one[edit]

text: For instance, a US-based company needing to borrow Swiss francs, and a Swiss-based company needing to borrow a similar present value in US dollars, could both reduce their exposure to exchange rate fluctuations by arranging either of the following:

text:
If the companies have already borrowed in the currencies each needs the principal in, then exposure is reduced by swapping cash flows only, so that each company's finance cost is in that company's domestic currency.
Alternatively, the companies could borrow in their own domestic currencies (and may well each have comparative advantage when doing so), and then get the principal in the currency they desire with a principal-only swap.

text: Hedging example two[edit]

text: Suppose the British Petroleum Company plans to issue five-year bonds worth £100 million at 7.5% interest, but actually needs an equivalent amount in dollars, $150 million (current $/£ rate is $1.50/£), to finance its new refining facility in the U.S. Also, suppose that the Piper Shoe Company, a U. S. company, plans to issue $150 million in bonds at 10%, with a maturity of five years, but it really needs £100 million to set up its distribution center in London. To meet each other's needs, suppose that both companies go to a swap bank that sets up the following agreements:

text: Agreement 1:

text: The British Petroleum Company will issue 5-year £100 million bonds paying 7.5% interest. It will then deliver the £100 million to the swap bank who will pass it on to the U.S. Piper Company to finance the construction of its British distribution center. The Piper Company will issue 5-year $150 million bonds paying 10% interest. The Piper Company will then pass the $150 million to swap bank that will pass it on to the British Petroleum Company who will use the funds to finance the construction of its U.S. refinery.

text: Agreement 2:

text: The British company, with its U.S. asset (refinery), will pay the 10% interest on $150 million ($15 million) to the swap bank who will pass it on to the American company so it can pay its U.S. bondholders. The American company, with its British asset (distribution center), will pay the 7.5% interest on £100 million ((.075)( £100m) = £7.5 million), to the swap bank who will pass it on to the British company so it can pay its British bondholders.

text: Agreement 3:

text: At maturity, the British company will pay $150 million to the swap bank who will pass it on to the American company so it can pay its U.S. bondholders. At maturity, the American company will pay £100 million to the swap bank who will pass it on to the British company so it can pay its British bondholders.

text: Valuation and Pricing[edit]

text: It is well recognized[4][5] that traditional "textbook" theory does not price cross currency (basis) swaps correctly, because it assumes the funding cost in each currency to be equal to its floating rate, thus always giving a zero cross currency spread. This is clearly contrary to what is observed in the market. In reality, market participants have different levels of access to funds in different currencies and therefore their funding costs are not always equal to LIBOR.

text: An approach to work around this is to select one currency as the funding currency (e.g. USD), and select one curve in this currency as the discount curve (e.g. USD interest rate swap curve against 3M LIBOR). Cashflows in the funding currency are discounted on this curve. Cashflows in any other currency are first swapped into the funding currency via a cross currency swap and then discounted.[5]

text: Risks[edit]

text: XCSs expose users to many different types of financial risk.[1]

text: Predominantly they expose the user to market risks. The value of a XCS will change as market interest rates, FX rates, and XCS rates rise and fall. In market terminology this is often referred to as delta and basis risks. Other specific types of market risk that interest rate swaps have exposure to are single currency basis risks (where various IBOR tenor indexes can deviate from one another) and reset risks (where the publication of specific tenor IBOR indexes are subject to daily fluctuation). XCSs also exhibit gamma risk whereby their delta risk, basis risks or FX exposures, increase or decrease as market interest rates fluctuate.

text: Uncollateralised XCSs (that are those executed bilaterally without a credit support annex (CSA) in place) expose the trading counterparties to funding risks and credit risks. Funding risks because the value of the swap might deviate to become so negative that it is unaffordable and cannot be funded. Credit risks because the respective counterparty, for whom the value of the swap is positive, will be concerned about the opposing counterparty defaulting on its obligations.

text: Collateralised XCSs expose the users to collateral risks. Depending upon the terms of the CSA, the type of posted collateral that is permitted might become more or less expensive due to other extraneous market movements. Credit and funding risks still exist for collateralised trades but to a much lesser extent.

text: Due to regulations set out in the Basel III Regulatory Frameworks trading interest rate derivatives commands a capital usage. Dependent upon their specific nature XCSs might command more capital usage and this can deviate with market movements. Thus capital risks are another concern for users.

text: Reputation risks also exist. The mis-selling of swaps, over-exposure of municipalities to derivative contracts, and IBOR manipulation are examples of high-profile cases where trading interest rate swaps has led to a loss of reputation and fines by regulators.

text: Hedging XCSs can be complicated and relies on numerical processes of well designed risk models to suggest reliable benchmark trades that mitigate all market risks. The other, aforementioned risks must be hedged using other systematic processes.

text: Market-Making[edit]

text: The market-making of XCSs is an involved process involving multiple tasks; curve construction with reference to interbank markets, individual derivative contract pricing, risk management of credit, cash and capital. The cross disciplines required include quantitative analysis and mathematical expertise, disciplined and organized approach towards profits and losses, and coherent psychological and subjective assessment of financial market information and price-taker analysis. The time sensitive nature of markets also creates a pressurized environment. Many tools and techniques have been designed to improve efficiency of market-making in a drive to efficiency and consistency.[1]

text: Trivia[edit]

text: In the 1990s Goldman Sachs and other US banks offered Mexico, currency swaps and loans using Mexican oil reserves as collateral and as a means of payment.

text: The collateral of Mexican oil was valued at $23.00 per barrel.

text: In May 2011, Charles Munger of Berkshire Hathaway Inc. accused international investment banks of facilitating market abuse by national governments. For example, "Goldman Sachs helped Greece raise $1 billion of off- balance-sheet funding in 2002 through a currency swap, allowing the government to hide debt."[6] Greece had previously succeeded in getting clearance to join the euro on 1 January 2001, in time for the physical launch in 2002, by faking its deficit figures.[7]

text: Currency swaps were originally conceived in the 1970s to circumvent foreign exchange controls in the United Kingdom. At that time, UK companies had to pay a premium to borrow in US Dollars. To avoid this, UK companies set up back-to-back loan agreements with US companies wishing to borrow Sterling.[8] While such restrictions on currency exchange have since become rare, savings are still available from back-to-back loans due to comparative advantage.

text: The first formal currency swap, as opposed to the then used parallel loans structure, was transacted by Citicorp International Bank for a $US100,000,000 10 year US Dollar Sterling swap between Mobil Oil Corporation and General Electric Corporation Ltd (UK). The concept of the interest rate swap was developed by the Citicorp International Swap unit but cross-currency interest rate swaps were introduced by the World Bank in 1981 to obtain Swiss francs and German marks by exchanging cash flows with IBM. This deal was brokered by Salomon Brothers with a notional amount of $210 million and a term of over ten years.[9]

text: During the global financial crisis of 2008, the currency swap transaction structure was used by the United States Federal Reserve System to establish central bank liquidity swaps. In these, the Federal Reserve and the central bank of a developed[10] or stable emerging[11] economy agree to exchange domestic currencies at the current prevailing market exchange rate & agree to reverse the swap at the same exchange rate at a fixed future date. The aim of central bank liquidity swaps is "to provide liquidity in U.S. dollars to overseas markets."[12] While central bank liquidity swaps and currency swaps are structurally the same, currency swaps are commercial transactions driven by comparative advantage, while central bank liquidity swaps are emergency loans of US Dollars to overseas markets, and it is currently unknown whether or not they will be beneficial for the Dollar or the US in the long-term.[13]

text: The People's Republic of China has multiple year currency swap agreements of the Renminbi with Argentina, Belarus, Brazil, Hong Kong, Iceland, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, United Kingdom and Uzbekistan that perform a similar function to central bank liquidity swaps.[14][15][16][17][18]

text: South Korea and Indonesia signed a won-rupiah currency swap deal worth US$10 billion in October, 2013. The two nations can exchange up to 10.7 trillion won or 115 trillion rupiah for three years. The three-year currency swap could be renewed if both sides agree at the time of expiration. It is anticipated to promote bilateral trade and strengthen financial cooperation for the economic development of the two countries. The arrangement also ensures the settlement of trade in local currency between the two countries even in times of financial stress to support regional financial stability. As of 2013, South Korea imported goods worth $13.2 billion from Indonesia, while its exports reached $11.6 billion.


document_title: Bird vision

question_text: why do birds have eyes on either side of their head

root

text: Bird vision

text: Extraocular anatomy[edit]

text: The eye of a bird most closely resembles that of the reptiles. Unlike the mammalian eye, it is not spherical, and the flatter shape enables more of its visual field to be in focus. A circle of bony plates, the sclerotic ring, surrounds the eye and holds it rigid, but an improvement over the reptilian eye, also found in mammals, is that the lens is pushed further forward, increasing the size of the image on the retina.[2]

tag: p

text: Most birds cannot move their eyes, although there are exceptions, such as the great cormorant.[3] Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field, useful for detecting predators, while those with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate distances when hunting.[4] The American woodcock probably has the largest visual field of any bird, 360° in the horizontal plane, and 180° in the vertical plane.[5]

text: The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third concealed eyelid that sweeps horizontally across the eye like a windscreen wiper.[6] The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds when they are under water.[7] When sleeping, the lower eyelid rises to cover the eye in most birds, with the exception of the horned owls where the upper eyelid is mobile.[8]

text: The eye is also cleaned by tear secretions from the lachrymal gland and protected by an oily substance from the Harderian glands which coats the cornea and prevents dryness. The eye of a bird is larger compared to the size of the animal than for any other group of animals, although much of it is concealed in its skull. The ostrich has the largest eye of any land vertebrate, with an axial length of 50 mm (2 in), twice that of the human eye.[1]

text: Bird eye size is broadly related to body mass. A study of five orders (parrots, pigeons, petrels, raptors and owls) showed that eye mass is proportional to body mass, but as expected from their habits and visual ecology, raptors and owls have relatively large eyes for their body mass.[9]

text: Behavioural studies show that many avian species focus on distant objects preferentially with their lateral and monocular field of vision, and birds will orientate themselves sideways to maximise visual resolution. For a pigeon, resolution is twice as good with sideways monocular vision than forward binocular vision, whereas for humans the converse is true.[1]

text: The performance of the eye in low light levels depends on the distance between the lens and the retina, and small birds are effectively forced to be diurnal because their eyes are not large enough to give adequate night vision. Although many species migrate at night, they often collide with even brightly lit objects like lighthouses or oil platforms. Birds of prey are diurnal because, although their eyes are large, they are optimised to give maximum spatial resolution rather than light gathering, so they also do not function well in poor light.[10] Many birds have an asymmetry in the eye's structure which enables them to keep the horizon and a significant part of the ground in focus simultaneously. The cost of this adaptation is that they have myopia in the lower part of their visual field.[1]

text: Birds with relatively large eyes compared to their body mass, such as common redstarts and European robins sing earlier at dawn than birds of the same size and smaller body mass. However, if birds have the same eye size but different body masses, the larger species sings later than the smaller. This may be because the smaller bird has to start the day earlier because of weight loss overnight.[11] Overnight weight loss for small birds is typically 5-10% and may be over 15% on cold winter nights.[11] In one study, robins put on more mass in their dusk feeding when nights were cold.[12]

text: Nocturnal birds have eyes optimised for visual sensitivity, with large corneas relative to the eye's length, whereas diurnal birds have longer eyes relative to the corneal diameter to give greater visual acuity. Information about the activities of extinct species can be deduced from measurements of the sclerotic ring and orbit depth. For the latter measurement to be made, the fossil must have retained its three-dimensional shape, so activity pattern cannot be determined with confidence from flattened specimens like Archaeopteryx, which has a complete sclerotic ring but no orbit depth measurement.[13]

text: Anatomy of the eye[edit]

text: The main structures of the bird eye are similar to those of other vertebrates. The outer layer of the eye consists of the transparent cornea at the front, and two layers of sclera — a tough white collagen fibre layer which surrounds the rest of the eye and supports and protects the eye as a whole. The eye is divided internally by the lens into two main segments: the anterior segment and the posterior segment. The anterior chamber is filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humour, and the posterior chamber contains the vitreous humour, a clear jelly-like substance.

text: The lens is a transparent convex or 'lens' shaped body with a harder outer layer and a softer inner layer. It focuses the light on the retina. The shape of the lens can be altered by ciliary muscles which are directly attached to lens capsule by means of the zonular fibres. In addition to these muscles, some birds also have a second set, Crampton's muscles, that can change the shape of the cornea, thus giving birds a greater range of accommodation than is possible for mammals. This accommodation can be rapid in some diving water birds such as in the mergansers. The iris is a coloured muscularly operated diaphragm in front of the lens which controls the amount of light entering the eye. At the centre of the iris is the pupil, the variable circular area through which the light passes into the eye.[2][14]

text: The retina is a relatively smooth curved multi-layered structure containing the photosensitive rod and cone cells with the associated neurons and blood vessels. The density of the photoreceptors is critical in determining the maximum attainable visual acuity. Humans have about 200,000 receptors per mm2, but the house sparrow has  400,000 and the common buzzard 1,000,000. The photoreceptors are not all individually connected to the optic nerve, and the ratio of nerve ganglia to receptors is important in determining resolution. This is very high for birds; the white wagtail has 100,000 ganglion cells to 120,000 photoreceptors.[2]

text: Rods are more sensitive to light, but give no colour information, whereas the less sensitive cones enable colour vision. In diurnal birds, 80% of the receptors may be cones (90% in some swifts) whereas nocturnal owls have almost all rods. As with other vertebrates except placental mammals, some of the cones may be double cones. These can amount to 50% of all cones in some species.[15]

text: Towards the centre of the retina is the fovea (or the less specialised, area centralis) which has a greater density of receptors and is the area of greatest forward visual acuity, i.e. sharpest, clearest detection of objects. In 54% of birds, including birds of prey, kingfishers, hummingbirds and swallows, there is second fovea for enhanced sideways viewing. The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres which carry messages from the eye to the relevant parts of the brain and vice versa. Like mammals, birds have a small blind spot without photoreceptors at the optic disc, under which the optic nerve and blood vessels join the eye.[2]

text: The pecten is a poorly understood body consisting of folded tissue which projects from the retina. It is well supplied with blood vessels and appears to keep the retina supplied with nutrients,[1] and may also shade the retina from dazzling light or aid in detecting moving objects.[2] Pecten oculi is abundantly filled with melanin granules which have been proposed to absorb stray light entering the bird eye to reduce background glare. Slight warming of pecten oculi due to absorption of light by melanin granules has been proposed enhance metabolic rate of pecten that is suggested to help increase secretion of nutrients into vitreous, eventually to be absorbed by avascular retina of birds for improved nutrition.[16] Exra-high enzymic activity of alkaline phosphatase in pecten oculi has been proposed to support high secretory activity of pecten to supplement nutrition of retina.[17]

text: The choroid is a layer situated behind the retina which contains many small arteries and veins. These provide arterial blood to the retina and drain venous blood. The choroid contains melanin, a pigment which gives the inner eye its dark colour, helping to prevent disruptive reflections.

text: Light perception[edit]

text: There are two sorts of light receptors in a bird's eye, rods and cones. Rods, which contain the visual pigment rhodopsin are better for night vision because they are sensitive to small quantities of light. Cones detect specific colours (or wavelengths) of light, so they are more important to colour-orientated animals such as birds.[20] Most birds are tetrachromatic, possessing four types of cone cells each with a distinctive maximal absorption peak. In some birds, the maximal absorption peak of the cone cell responsible for the shortest wavelength extends to the ultraviolet (UV) range, making them UV-sensitive.[21] In addition to that, the cones at bird's retina are arranged in a characteristic form of spatial distribution, known as hyperuniform distribution, which maximizes its light and color absorption. This form of spatial distributions are only observed as a result of some optimization process, which in this case can be described in terms of bird's evolutionary history.[22]

text: The four spectrally distinct cone pigments are derived from the protein opsin, linked to a small molecule called retinal, which is closely related to vitamin A. When the pigment absorbs light the retinal changes shape and alters the membrane potential of the cone cell affecting neurons in the ganglia layer of the retina. Each neuron in the ganglion layer may process information from a number of photoreceptor cells, and may in turn trigger a nerve impulse to relay information along the optic nerve for further processing in specialised visual centres in the brain. The more intense a light, the more photons are absorbed by the visual pigments; the greater the excitation of each cone, and the brighter the light appears.[20]

text: By far the most abundant cone pigment in every bird species examined is the long-wavelength form of iodopsin, which absorbs at wavelengths near 570 nm. This is roughly the spectral region occupied by the red- and green-sensitive pigments in the primate retina, and this visual pigment dominates the colour sensitivity of birds.[23] In penguins, this pigment appears to have shifted its absorption peak to 543 nm, presumably an adaptation to a blue aquatic environment.[24]

text: The information conveyed by a single cone is limited: by itself, the cell cannot tell the brain which wavelength of light caused its excitation. A visual pigment may absorb two wavelengths equally, but even though their photons are of different energies, the cone cannot tell them apart, because they both cause the retinal to change shape and thus trigger the same impulse. For the brain to see colour, it must compare the responses of two or more classes of cones containing different visual pigments, so the four pigments in birds give increased discrimination.[20]

text: Each cone of a bird or reptile contains a coloured oil droplet; these no longer exist in mammals. The droplets, which contain high concentrations of carotenoids, are placed so that light passes through them before reaching the visual pigment. They act as filters, removing some wavelengths and narrowing the absorption spectra of the pigments. This reduces the response overlap between pigments and increases the number of colours that a bird can discern.[20] Six types of cone oil droplets have been identified; five of these have carotenoid mixtures that absorb at different wavelengths and intensities, and the sixth type has no pigments.[25] The cone pigments with the lowest maximal absorption peak, including those that are UV-sensitive, possess the 'clear' or 'transparent' type of oil droplets with little spectral tuning effect.[26]

text: The colours and distributions of retinal oil droplets vary considerably among species, and is more dependent on the ecological niche utilised (hunter, fisher, herbivore) than genetic relationships. As examples, diurnal hunters like the barn swallow and birds of prey have few coloured droplets, whereas the surface fishing common tern has a large number of red and yellow droplets in the dorsal retina. The evidence suggests that oil droplets respond to natural selection faster than the cone's visual pigments.[23] Even within the range of wavelengths that are visible to humans, passerine birds can detect colour differences that humans do not register. This finer discrimination, together with the ability to see ultraviolet light, means that many species show sexual dichromatism that is visible to birds but not humans.[27]

text: Migratory songbirds use the Earth's magnetic field, stars, the Sun, and other unknown cues to determine their migratory direction. An American study suggested that migratory Savannah sparrows used polarised light from an area of sky near the horizon to recalibrate their magnetic navigation system at both sunrise and sunset. This suggested that skylight polarisation patterns are the primary calibration reference for all migratory songbirds.[28] However, it appears that birds may be responding to secondary indicators of the angle of polarisation, and may not be actually capable of directly detecting polarisation direction in the absence of these cues.[29]

text: Ultraviolet sensitivity[edit]

text: Many species of birds are tetrachromatic, with dedicated cone cells for perceiving wavelengths in the ultraviolet and violet regions of the light spectrum. These cells contain a combination of short wave sensitive (SWS1) opsins, SWS1-like opsins (SWS2), and long-wave filtering carotenoid pigments[30] for selectively filtering and receiving light between 300 and 400 nm. There are two types of short wave color vision in birds: violet sensitive (VS) and ultraviolet sensitive (UVS).[31] Single nucleotide substitutions in the SWS1 opsin sequence are responsible blue-shifting the spectral sensitivity of the opsin from violet sensitive (λmax = 400) to ultraviolet sensitive (λmax = 310-360).[32] This is the proposed evolutionary mechanism by which ultraviolet vision originally arose. The major clades of birds that have UVS vision are Palaeognathae (ratites and tinamous), Charadriiformes (shorebirds, gulls, and alcids), Trogoniformes (trogons), Psittaciformes (parrots), and Passeriformes (perching birds, representing more than half of all avian species).[33]

text: UVS vision can be useful for courtship. Birds that do not exhibit sexual dichromatism in visible wavelengths are sometimes distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers.[34][35] Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers.[36] Male blue grosbeaks with the brightest and most UV-shifted blue in their plumage are larger, hold the most extensive territories with abundant prey, and feed their offspring more frequently than other males.[20]

text: The bill's appearance is important in the interactions of the blackbird. Although the UV component seems unimportant in interactions between territory-holding males, where the degree of orange is the main factor, the female responds more strongly to males with bills with good UV-reflectiveness.[37]

text: UVS is also demonstrated to serve functions in foraging,[38] prey identification,[39] and frugivory. Similar advantages afforded to trichromatic primates over dichromatic primates in frugivory[40] are generally considered to exist in birds. The waxy surfaces of many fruits and berries reflect UV light that advertise their presence to UVS birds.[20] Common kestrels be able to locate the trails of voles with vision; these small rodents lay scent trails of urine and feces that reflect UV light, making them visible to the kestrels.[39] However, this view has been challenged by the finding of low UV sensitivity in raptors and weak UV reflection of mammal urine.[41]

text: While tetrachromatic vision is not exclusive to birds (insects, reptiles, and crustaceans are also sensitive to short wavelengths), some predators of UVS birds cannot see ultraviolet light. This raises the possibility that ultraviolet vision gives birds a channel in which they can privately signal, thereby remaining inconspicuous to predators.[42] However, recent evidence does not appear to support this hypothesis.[43]

text: Perception[edit]

text: Contrast sensitivity[edit]

text: Contrast (or more precisely Michelson-contrast) is defined as the difference in luminance between two stimulus areas, divided by the sum of luminance of the two. Contrast sensitivity is the inverse of the smallest contrast that can be detected; a contrast sensitivity of 100 means that the smallest contrast that can be detected is 1%. Birds have comparably lower contrast sensitivity than mammals. Humans have been shown to detect contrasts as low as 0.5-1%[44] whereas most birds tested require ca. 10% contrast to show a behavioural response.[45][46][47] A contrast sensitivity function describes an animal's ability to detect the contrast of grating patterns of different spatial frequency (i.e. different detail). For stationary viewing experiments the contrast sensitivity is highest at a medium spatial frequency and lower for higher and lower spatial frequencies.[48]

text: Movement[edit]

text: Birds can resolve rapid movements better than humans, for whom flickering at a rate greater than 50 light pulse cycles per second appears as continuous movement. Humans cannot therefore distinguish individual flashes of a fluorescent light bulb oscillating at 60 light pulse cycles per second, but budgerigars and chickens have flicker or light pulse cycles per second thresholds of more than 100 light pulse cycles per second.[citation needed] A Cooper's hawk can pursue agile prey through woodland and avoid branches and other objects at high speed; to humans such a chase would appear as a blur.[5]

text: Birds can also detect slow moving objects. The movement of the sun and the constellations across the sky is imperceptible to humans, but detected by birds. The ability to detect these movements allows migrating birds to properly orient themselves.[5]

text: To obtain steady images while flying or when perched on a swaying branch, birds hold the head as steady as possible with compensating reflexes. Maintaining a steady image is especially relevant for birds of prey.[5] Because the image can be centered on the deep fovea of only one eye at a time, most falcons when diving use a spiral path to approach their prey after they have locked on to a target individual. The alternative of turning the head for a better view slows down the dive by increasing drag while spiralling does not reduce speeds significantly.[49][50]

text: Edges and shapes[edit]

text: When an object is partially blocked by another, humans unconsciously tend to make up for it and complete the shapes (See Amodal perception). It has however been demonstrated that pigeons do not complete occluded shapes.[51] A study based on altering the grey level of a perch that was coloured differently from the background showed that budgerigars do not detect edges based on colours.[52]

text: Magnetic fields[edit]

text: The perception of magnetic fields by migratory birds has been suggested to be light dependent.[53] Birds move their head to detect the orientation of the magnetic field,[54] and studies on the neural pathways have suggested that birds may be able to "see" the magnetic fields.[55] The right eye of a migratory bird contains photoreceptive proteins called cryptochromes. Light excites these molecules to produce unpaired electrons that interact with the Earth's magnetic field, thus providing directional information.[56][57]

text: Variations across bird groups[edit]

text: Diurnal birds of prey[edit]

text: The visual ability of birds of prey is legendary, and the keenness of their eyesight is due to a variety of factors. Raptors have large eyes for their size, 1.4 times greater than the average for birds of the same weight,[9] and the eye is tube-shaped to produce a larger retinal image. The resolving power of an eye depends both on the optics, large eyes with large apertures suffers less from diffraction and can have larger retinal images due to a long focal length, and on the density of receptor spacing. The retina has a large number of receptors per square millimeter, which determines the degree of visual acuity. The more receptors an animal has, the higher its ability to distinguish individual objects at a distance, especially when, as in raptors, each receptor is typically attached to a single ganglion.[1] Many raptors have foveas with far more rods and cones than the human fovea (65,000/mm2 in American kestrel, 38,000 in humans) and this provides these birds with spectacular long distance vision.[citation needed] It is proposed that the shape of the deep central fovea of raptors can create a telephoto optical system,[58] increasing the size of the retinal image in the fovea and thereby increasing the spatial resolution. Behavioural studies show that some large eyed raptors (Wedge-tailed eagle, Old world vultures) and have ca 2 times higher spatial resolution than humans, but many medium and small sized raptors have comparable or lower spatial resolution.[59][60][61][62][63][64]

text: The forward-facing eyes of a bird of prey give binocular vision, which is assisted by a double fovea.[2] The raptor's adaptations for optimum visual resolution (an American kestrel can see a 2–mm insect from the top of an 18–m tree) has a disadvantage in that its vision is poor in low light level, and it must roost at night.[1] Raptors may have to pursue mobile prey in the lower part of their visual field, and therefore do not have the lower field myopia adaptation demonstrated by many other birds.[1] Scavenging birds like vultures do not need such sharp vision, so a condor has only a single fovea with about 35,000 receptors mm2. Vultures, however have high physiological activity of many important enzymes to suit their distant clarity of vision.[66][citation needed] Southern Caracara also only have a single fovea as this species forages on the ground for carrion and insects. However, they do have a higher degree of binocular overlap than other falcons, potentially to enable the caracara to manipulate objects, such as rocks, whilst foraging.[67]

text: Like other birds investigated raptors do also have coloured oil droplets in their cones.[61][62][68] The generally brown, grey and white plumage of this group, and the absence of colour displays in courtship suggests that colour is relatively unimportant to these birds.[2]

text: In most raptors a prominent eye ridge and its feathers extends above and in front of the eye. This "eyebrow" gives birds of prey their distinctive stare. The ridge physically protects the eye from wind, dust, and debris and shields it from excessive glare. The osprey lacks this ridge, although the arrangement of the feathers above its eyes serves a similar function; it also possesses dark feathers in front of the eye which probably serve to reduce the glare from the water surface when the bird is hunting for its staple diet of fish.[5]

text: Nocturnal birds[edit]

text: Owls have very large eyes for their size, 2.2 times greater than the average for birds of the same weight,[9] and positioned at the front of the head. The eyes have a field overlap of 50–70%, giving better binocular vision than for diurnal birds of prey (overlap 30–50%).[69] The tawny owl's retina has about 56,000 light-sensitive rods per square millimetre (36 million per square inch); although earlier claims that it could see in the infrared part of the spectrum have been dismissed.[70]

text: Adaptations to night vision include the large size of the eye, its tubular shape, large numbers of closely packed retinal rods, and an absence of cones, since cone cells are not sensitive enough for a low-photon nighttime environment. There are few coloured oil droplets, which would reduce the light intensity, but the retina contains a reflective layer, the tapetum lucidum. This increases the amount of light each photosensitive cell receives, allowing the bird to see better in low light conditions.[2] Owls normally have only one fovea, and that is poorly developed except in diurnal hunters like the short-eared owl.[69]

text: Besides owls, bat hawks, frogmouths and nightjars also display good night vision. Some bird species nest deep in cave systems which are too dark for vision, and find their way to the nest with a simple form of  echolocation. The  oilbird is the only nocturnal bird to echolocate,[71] but several Aerodramus swiftlets also utilise this technique, with one species, Atiu swiftlet, also using echolocation outside its caves.[72][73]

text: Water birds[edit]

text: Seabirds such as terns and gulls that feed at the surface or plunge for food have red oil droplets in the cones of their retinas. This improves contrast and sharpens distance vision, especially in hazy conditions.[2] Birds that have to look through an air/water interface have more deeply coloured carotenoid pigments in the oil droplets than other species.[23]

text: This helps them to locate shoals of fish, although it is uncertain whether they are sighting the phytoplankton on which the fish feed, or other feeding birds.[74]

text: Birds that fish by stealth from above the water have to correct for refraction particularly when the fish are observed at an angle. Reef herons and little egrets appear to be able to make the corrections needed when capturing fish and are more successful in catching fish when strikes are made at an acute angle and this higher success may be due to the inability of the fish to detect their predators.[75] Other studies indicate that egrets work within a preferred angle of strike and that the probability of misses increase when the angle becomes too far from the vertical leading to an increased difference between the apparent and real depth of prey.[76]

text: Birds that pursue fish under water like auks and divers have far fewer red oil droplets,[2] but they have special flexible lenses and use the nictitating membrane as an additional lens. This allows greater optical accommodation for good vision in air and water.[7] Cormorants have a greater range of visual accommodation, at 50 dioptres, than any other bird, but the kingfishers are considered to have the best all-round (air and water) vision.[2]

text: Tubenosed seabirds, which come ashore only to breed and spend most of their life wandering close to the surface of the oceans, have a long narrow area of visual sensitivity on the retina[1] This region, the area giganto cellularis, has been found in the Manx shearwater, Kerguelen petrel, great shearwater, broad-billed prion and common diving-petrel. It is characterised by the presence of ganglion cells which are regularly arrayed and larger than those found in the rest of the retina, and morphologically appear similar to the cells of the retina in cats. The location and cellular morphology of this novel area suggests a function in the detection of items in a small binocular field projecting below and around the bill. It is not concerned primarily with high spatial resolution, but may assist in the detection of prey near the sea surface as a bird flies low over it.[77]

text: The Manx shearwater, like many other seabirds, visits its breeding colonies at night to reduce the chances of attack by aerial predators. Two aspects of its optical structure suggest that the eye of this species is adapted to vision at night. In the shearwater's eyes the lens does most of the bending of light necessary to produce a focused image on the retina. The cornea, the outer covering of the eye, is relative flat and so of low refractive power. In a diurnal bird like the pigeon, the reverse is true; the cornea is highly curved and is the principal refractive component. The ratio of refraction by the lens to that by the cornea is 1.6 for the shearwater and 0.4 for the pigeon; the figure for the shearwater is consistent with that for a range of nocturnal birds and mammals.[78]

text: The shorter focal length of shearwater eyes give them a smaller, but brighter, image than is the case for pigeons, so the latter has sharper daytime vision. Although the Manx shearwater has adaptations for night vision, the effect is small, and it is likely that these birds also use smell and hearing to locate their nests.[78]

text: It used to be thought that penguins were far-sighted on land. Although the cornea is flat and adapted to swimming underwater, the lens is very strong and can compensate for the reduced corneal focusing when out of water.[69] Almost the opposite solution is used by the hooded merganser which can bulge part of the lens through the iris when submerged.[69]


document_title: Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter

question_text: who wrote funkier than a mosquito's tweeter

question_tokens: who wrote funkier than a mosquito 's tweeter

text: Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter

text:
Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter
Compilation album by Ike & Tina TurnerReleased
July 2, 2002Recorded
1969 to 1974Genre
Pop, R&B, FunkLabel
EMIProducer
Ike Turner

tag: table

text: Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllmusic[1]

text: Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter is a 2002 compilation album by Ike & Tina Turner.  The songs were originally recorded from 1969 to 1974 [2] from the albums Come Together (1969), Working Together (1970), Nuff Said (1971), Let Me Touch Your Mind (1972) and Feel Good (1972).

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
"Funkier Than a Mosquito's Tweeter" (Alline Bullock) - 2:36
"What You Don't See (Is Better Yet)" (Calvin Lane, Turner, Turner, Leon Ware) - 3:16
"I Wanna Jump" (Turner) - 2:33
"I'm Just Not Ready for Love" (Turner) - 2:15 (The Ikettes)
"Young and Dumb" (Turner) - 2:52
"The Game of Love" (Renut) - 2:48
"Whole Lotta Love" (John Bonham, Willie Dixon, John Paul Jones, Jimmy Page, Robert Plant) - 4:42 (Tina Turner solo)
"I Love Baby" (Calvin Lane, Philip Reese, Turner) - 2:22
"Up on the Roof" (Gerry Goffin, Carole King) - 2:57
"Too Much Woman (For a Hen Pecked Man)" (Turner) - 2:35
"Baby, What You Want Me to Do" (Bullock) - 3:29
"(Long as I Can) Get You When I Want You" (George Jackson, Raymond Moore) - 2:24
"Bolic" (Turner) - 2:30
"Tell the Truth" (Turner, Leon Ware) - 2:54
"The Chopper" - (Turner) - 2:38
"I Want to Take You Higher" (Sylvester Stewart) - 2:53
"Doin' It" (Turner) - 2:43
"Can't You Hear Me Calling" (Turner, Leon Ware) - 2:27
"I Like It" (Turner) - 1:59
"Popcorn" (Turner) - 3:09
"Help Him" (Turner) - 3:43

tag: ol


document_title: Magic: The Gathering rules

question_text: how many cards do you draw per turn in magic

question_tokens: how many cards do you draw per turn in magic

text: Magic: The Gathering rules

text: Beginning and ending the game[edit]

text: Each player uses their own deck to play the game. In most formats, a deck must have a minimum of 40 cards; there is no maximum deck size. With basic lands, most people stick to 17-24 depending on deck size, if people have cards that cost large amounts of mana they add more lands to their deck. Some gameplay formats have exceptions or additional limitations to the above rules. In tournaments, players may be allowed the use of a sideboard containing up to 15 cards. Sideboard cards can be swapped for cards in the main deck in between games against the same opponent.

text: At the beginning of a game, each player shuffles his or her deck. Players then decide who will start, using any mutually agreeable method (flipping a coin, for example). Each player then draws seven cards from his or her library to form his or her starting hand. In turn order, each player may then decide to mulligan; that player shuffles his or her hand and library together and draws a new hand of one fewer card. A player can do this all the way down to a zero-card hand if he or she wishes, drawing one fewer card each time. In multiplayer games, players can mulligan for free one time, drawing seven cards a second time. Any further mulligans draw one card fewer each time, as normal.

text: A player wins the game by eliminating all opponents. Players typically begin the game with 20 life and lose when any of the following conditions are met:

text:
That player has 0 or fewer life
That player is required to draw a card but has no cards left in his or her library
That player has 10 or more poison counters (although cards that apply poison are not printed frequently)
That player concedes
Specific cards may also dictate (or prevent) other ways of winning or losing the game

tag: ul

text: Zones[edit]

text: At any given time, every card is located in one of the following "zones":

text: Library: The portion of the player's deck that is kept face down and is normally in random order (shuffled). When drawing a card, it is always the top card of the library. This is often erroneously referred to as a player's deck. However, the rules of Magic state that all cards in play (on the battlefield), in a player's hand, in the graveyard, exiled by any means, and even in the sideboard technically make up the player's "deck".

text: Hand: A player's hand of cards that can be played. They are kept hidden from other players. If a player has more than seven cards in hand at the end of his or her turn, any extras must be discarded.

text: Battlefield: The zone where permanents (see Types of cards) are placed and stay until otherwise removed. Unlike other zones, the battlefield is shared by all players.

text: Graveyard: A player's discard pile. When a card on the battlefield is destroyed, a card is discarded from hand, or after a single-use card is used, it is put in its owner's graveyard. These cards are face up, and can be examined by any player at any time.

text: The stack: This is the place for spells and abilities that have been cast or played, but have not yet resolved. While there are any spells or abilities on the stack, no player may play any spells that are not instants or allowed to be played as instants. This zone is also shared by all players. See the stack. Playing a land does not use the stack.

text: Exile: Cards that have been exiled by specific effects are put here. Unless a card says otherwise, cards in this zone are face-up. Comparatively few cards and abilities affect cards in the exile zone.

text: Command: Used mainly in some variant formats of play, cards that have a special status or abilities within the game are kept here. Examples are the "scheme" cards used in Archenemy or "plane" cards used for a Planechase game. Cards in the Command Zone can be affected by virtually nothing that affects cards in the other zones.

text: Paying costs[edit]

text: Tapping and untapping[edit]

text: Some spells or abilities require the player to tap a permanent as part of their cost. To indicate that a card in play has been tapped, it is turned sideways. An ability or spell that requires tapping cannot be used if the permanent is already tapped. Furthermore, a tapped creature cannot be declared as an attacker or blocker.

text: Instead of a cost, tapping can also be the effect of a spell or ability. In such a case, it makes no difference if that permanent was already tapped. A creature that attacks also gets tapped, unless it has vigilance, but a defending creature does not. Unless stated otherwise, tapping does not stop continuous abilities (e.g. enchantments or equipments) or triggered abilities from taking effect, nor does it disallow the use of abilities that do not require tapping.

text: At the beginning of each player's turn, that player untaps all cards he or she controls (unless otherwise stated by a card's effect) and can be tapped again as normal.

text: Mana[edit]

text: When a player uses an ability that produces mana, that mana is put in his or her "mana pool". There are five colors of mana: white, blue, black, red and green. Mana can also be colorless.

text: Mana in the mana pool can be used to pay costs. For example, a player plays a Swamp, then taps that swamp to add 1 black mana to his mana pool. Then, he uses that mana to cast Dark Ritual. Dark Ritual adds 3 black mana to that player's mana pool. He then uses two black mana to cast Night's Whisper, which costs 1 generic and 1 black mana (1B). The player has now used two of the three black mana in his mana pool. The one left over is "floating", meaning it can be used any time during the remainder of the phase.

text: Mana costs and colors[edit]

text: Most cards other than lands have a mana cost. This is the amount of mana that must be spent to cast that card as a spell. Each mana symbol in the top right corner of the card represents one mana of that color that must be paid. A number in a gray circle next to the mana symbols represents how much additional generic mana must be paid; this additional mana can be of any color or colorless. For example, the cards Underworld Dreams, Hypnotic Specter, Warpath Ghoul and Whispersilk Cloak all cost three mana. However, the first card requires three black mana, while the last can be paid for with three mana of any color or combination of colors. The middle two cards require two and one mana, respectively, that must be black; the remainder can be any color. Note that the first three cards are black, but Whispersilk Cloak is colorless.

text: Some cards may require their owner to pay mana of two or more colors. These cards are multicolored. Some multicolored cards also use hybrid mana, which can be paid with one of two different colors. For example, the card Golgari Guildmage can be cast by spending either two black, two green, or one black and one green mana. Some cards have costs which can be paid with any color of mana, but are cheaper when a color requirement is met. For example, Beseech the Queen costs either three black mana, two black and two other, one black and four other, or six mana of any color. In all cases, a card's color is determined by the mana symbols in its cost, and not by the specific mana used to cast it.

text: Abilities[edit]

text: There are four general categories of abilities:

text: Spell abilities are abilities that are followed as instructions while an instant or sorcery spell is resolving. Any text on an instant or sorcery spell is a spell ability unless it's an activated ability, a triggered ability, or a static ability that fits the criteria described in rule 112.6.

text: Activated abilities have a cost and an effect. They are written as "[Cost]: [Effect.] [Activation instructions (if any).]" A player may activate such an ability whenever he or she has priority. Doing so puts it on the stack, where it remains until it's countered, it resolves, or it otherwise leaves the stack. See rule 602, "Activating Activated Abilities".

text: Triggered abilities have a trigger condition and an effect. They are written as "[Trigger condition], [effect]", and begin with the word "when", "whenever", or "at". Whenever the trigger event occurs, the ability is put on the stack the next time a player would receive priority and stays there until it's countered, it resolves, or it otherwise leaves the stack. See rule 603, "Handling Triggered Abilities".

text: Static abilities are written as statements. They're simply true, and do not use the stack. Static abilities create continuous effects which are active while the permanent with the ability is on the battlefield and has the ability, or while the object with the ability is in the appropriate zone. See rule 604, "Handling Static Abilities".

text: Types of cards[edit]

text: All objects that remain on the battlefield are called permanents. Types of permanents include lands, creatures, enchantments, artifacts, and planeswalkers. In contrast, sorceries and instants go to the graveyard immediately after they are used.

text: Lands[edit]

text: Land cards tap to produce mana that is used to cast spells and activate abilities. They cost no mana to play; however, a player may play no more than one land per turn, and only during the main phase of his or her own turn. There are six types of basic lands (Mountain, Plains, Forest, Island, Swamp, and Wastes), one for each color (plus Wastes for colorless). These lands can each be tapped to produce one mana of the appropriate color. Other lands are non-basic and may produce other combinations or amounts of mana, or may have other abilities. Lands are not spells and cannot be countered. Playing a land does not use the stack and therefore occurs immediately, with no way for any player to stop it. Players are allowed to have any number of basic lands in a deck, but nonbasic lands follow the usual restriction of four copies of any one card per deck.

text: Creatures[edit]

text: Creatures represent people or beasts that are summoned to the battlefield to attack opposing creatures or players and defend their controller from the attacks of enemy creatures. They normally cannot attack or use an ability with the "tap symbol" on the first turn they enter the battlefield. This is known as "summoning sickness". A creature with summoning sickness can block opposing creatures. Creatures have two values that represent their strength in combat, printed on the lower right-hand corner of the card. The first number is the creature's power, the amount of damage it deals in combat. The second number is its toughness; if it receives that much damage in a single turn, the creature is not destroyed but is still placed in the graveyard.

text: Creatures usually have at least one creature type, located after the word "creature" in the type line. Creature types are simply markers and have no inherent abilities; for example, having the Bird type does not automatically give a creature the "flying" ability. Some non-creature cards have the "Tribal" type, which allows them to have creature types without being creatures themselves.

text: Enchantments[edit]

text: Enchantments represent persistent magical effects; they are spells that remain on the battlefield and alter some aspect of the game.

text: Some enchantments are attached to other cards on the battlefield (often creatures); these are known as Auras. They describe what they can be attached to in their "Enchant <something>" ability. For example, an Aura with "Enchant green creature" can only be attached to a green creature. If the card an Aura is attached to leaves the battlefield, or stops matching the Enchant ability, the Aura goes to the graveyard.

text: Early in Magic, there was a subset of enchantments known as "World Enchantments" that effected all players equally (for example, forcing them to play with their top card of their library revealed). Such enchantments no longer need to carry the "World" designations. Later, Tribal Enchantments (Enchantments with creature types) were introduced, as were Curses, enchantments that targeted one player specifically.

text: Artifacts[edit]

text: Artifacts represent magical items, animated constructs, pieces of equipment, or other objects and devices. Like enchantments, artifacts remain on the battlefield until something removes them. Many artifacts are also creatures; artifact creatures may attack and block as other creatures, and are affected by things that affect creatures.

text: Some artifacts are Equipment. Equipment cards enter the battlefield just like any other artifact, but may be attached to creatures using their Equip ability. This ability may only be used at the same time a player would be able to play a sorcery (i.e. only during the main phase of the player who controls it). The player who controls the Equipment pays the Equip cost and attaches it to a creature he or she also controls, unattaching it from any creature it was already attached to. In this way, the Equipment may be "unequipped" from a creature by paying the Equip cost and moving it to another creature. However, it may not be "unequipped" by choosing no creature; if for any reason the Equip ability cannot move the Equipment, it remains attached to its current creature. Like Auras, if control of the equipped creature changes, control of the Equipment does not change, nor is it unequipped. Unlike Auras, if an equipped creature is destroyed or otherwise leaves the battlefield, the Equipment stays on the battlefield unattached to anything; its controller can still attach it to a different creature by activating the Equip ability again. You can only equip equipment to creatures you control.

text: Planeswalkers[edit]

text: Planeswalkers are extremely powerful spellcasters that can be called upon for aid. According to Magic lore, the player is a "planeswalker", a wizard of extraordinary power who can travel ("walk") between different realms or universes ("planes"); as such, planeswalker cards are meant to represent scaled-down versions of other players, with their decks represented by the card's abilities, and originally were designed to move through a roster of effects without player control, as though they had a mind of their own.[1] Each planeswalker has a planeswalker type, which is a truncated version of his or her name. Only one version of a planeswalker card may be on the battlefield at one time. If two or more copies of the same planeswalker card are on the battlefield, their owner chooses one and the other is put into the owner's graveyards, though the rule was changed in Magic 2014 allowing two or more planeswalkers with the same type to exist on the battlefield if not controlled by the same player. Starting with Ixalan,all planeswalkers past, present, and future gained the supertype legendary and became subject to the "legend rule". Thus, if a player controls more than one legendary planeswalker with the same name, that player chooses one and puts the other into their owner's graveyard.[2]

text: Planeswalkers' abilities are based on their loyalty, which is tracked with counters. The number printed in the lower right corner indicates how many loyalty counters the planeswalker enters the battlefield with. Planeswalkers' loyalty abilities each have a positive or negative loyalty cost; this is how many counters must be added (if positive) or removed (if negative) to activate that ability. Abilities with negative loyalty costs may only be activated if there are enough loyalty counters to remove. Regardless of the loyalty costs, a single planeswalker may only use one loyalty ability once per turn, and only on its controller's turn during his or her main phase.[3]

text: Note that planeswalkers are neither creatures nor players, so most spells and abilities cannot target them directly. There are, however, two ways to deal damage to a planeswalker. If a player uses any spell or ability that would deal damage to an opponent, the player may instead choose to deal the damage to one of that opponent's planeswalkers. Additionally, if a player attacks an opponent who controls a planeswalker, the player may declare any or all of the attacking creatures to be attacking the planeswalker instead. Those creatures may be blocked normally, but if not blocked deal damage to the planeswalker instead of the player. Whenever damage is dealt to a planeswalker, that many loyalty counters are removed from it. A planeswalker with no loyalty counters, either through use of its abilities or through damage, is put into the player's graveyard.

text: Sorceries and instants[edit]

text: Sorceries and instants both represent one-shot or short-term magical spells. They never enter the battlefield. Instead, they take effect and then are immediately put into their owner's graveyard.

text: Sorceries and instants differ only in when they can be cast. Sorceries may only be cast during the player's own main phase, and only when the stack is empty. Instants, on the other hand, can be cast at any time, including during other players' turns and while another spell or ability is waiting to resolve (see timing and the stack).

text: In sets released prior to 1999, a third type of one-shot spell card existed called Interrupts. Interrupts functioned similar to instants but altered how the stack was resolved. Interrupts received an errata which stated that, from that point forward, interrupts were treated exactly the same as instants.[4]

text: Parts of a turn[edit]

text: Beginning phase[edit]

text: The beginning phase is composed of three parts, or "steps". The first thing a player does is untap all cards he or she controls in the "untap step". Then, any abilities that trigger on the "upkeep step" happen. Starting with the player of the current turn. These often include cards that require mana payments every turn. Then the player draws a card in the "draw step". In two-player games, the player who takes the first turn does not draw a card for that turn.

text: No player receives priority during the untap step, meaning that no cards or abilities can be played at that time. During the upkeep and draw steps, however, players can cast instants and activate abilities as normal.

text: First main phase[edit]

text: The main phase occurs immediately after the draw phase. During the main phase, a player may play any card from his or her hand unless that card specifies otherwise, and as long as he or she has the mana to pay its casting cost. This means creature, planeswalker, sorcery, instant, land, enchantment, and artifact cards are all acceptable to play. This is a player's chance to bring something onto the field.

text: Usually, players will start their main phase by playing a land. Then, as long as they have the mana to pay the casting cost, they will play any number of cards from their hand, reading the card's name so that other players may hear.

text: Once a player is ready to attack, he or she may end their main phase by declaring that the combat phase has started, or by simply attacking with their creatures.

text: Combat phase[edit]

text: The combat phase is split into four steps. It represents a point in the magical duel where the active player sends his or her creatures to attack the opposing player, in the hopes of doing damage to the player or the player's creatures. Aside from instants, activated abilities, and spells that are specifically noted as being able to be played at any time (i.e., creatures with flash), players may not cast spells during combat. Multiple creatures may attack one or more creatures on the opponent's team.

text: Beginning of combat[edit]

text: No specific actions take place at the beginning of combat step. This step mainly exists to allow players to cast spells and activate abilities that may alter how combat progresses. As the most common example, only untapped creatures may attack, so the defending player may cast instants or activate abilities that will tap a creature, preventing it from attacking.

text: Declare attackers[edit]

text: The player whose turn it is declares which creatures he or she controls will attack. In most cases, creatures that are tapped, or that entered the battlefield this turn (i.e., creatures with summoning sickness) may not attack. Attacking causes a creature to become tapped. Both players are given a chance to cast instants and activate abilities after attackers have been declared.

text: Declare blockers[edit]

text: After the attacking player declares attackers, the defending player chooses which creatures he or she will block with. A creature must be untapped in order for it to block. Unlike attacking, the act of blocking does not cause the blocking creatures to tap, and creatures with summoning sickness can block. Each creature can only block a single attacker, but the defending player may choose to block an attacking creature with more than one creature. Both players are given a chance to cast instants and activate abilities after blockers have been declared. If the blocker decides to combine defenses, the attacker gets to decide how attack points are distributed between the combined cards.

text: End of combat[edit]

text: Like the beginning of combat, nothing normally happens during this. Then the phase ends.

text: Second main phase[edit]

text: After the combat phase there is another main phase. The second main phase is identical to the first, except you can not put down land unless you did not in your first main phase.

text: Ending phase[edit]

text: The ending phase has two steps: "end step" and "cleanup". During the end step, abilities that trigger "at the beginning of the end step" go on the stack. This is the last chance players have to cast instants or activate abilities this turn.

text: During the cleanup step, the active player discards down to his or her maximum hand size(usually 7 (seven)), then simultaneously, all damage marked on permanents is removed and all "until end of turn" and "this turn" effects end. The game then checks for any state based actions that need to be performed or if any triggered abilities are waiting to be put on to the stack, if there are, all state based actions are performed and then all triggered abilities are put on to the stack and the active player gets priority. once the stack is empty and all players pass priority, a new cleanup step begins. If there are no triggered abilities put onto the stack during the cleanup step, no player receives priority during the cleanup step, so no spells can be cast and no activated abilities can be activated.

text: Timing and the stack[edit]

text: The most versatile aspect of Magic is that after most spells and abilities are cast or activated, but before they actually take effect ("resolve"), all players get a chance to "respond" to them. This means they can cast a different spell or activate another ability that will resolve first, often either invalidating or reinforcing the effect of the first spell. The mechanism that accomplishes this is called "the stack". It is where spells and abilities go to wait for any responses that may get played.

text: Spells that are permanents that end up on the battlefield; sorcery spells; and abilities that say "activate this ability only any time you could cast a sorcery" cannot be cast or activated as responses. They can only be cast or activated when the stack is empty, only on the turn of whoever casts or activates them, and only in a main phase. In contrast, activated abilities, instant spells, and spells that have the ability flash can be played on anybody's turn and in most steps of the game, go on the stack "on top of" anything that is already there, and will resolve first. Many players refer to this difference as "speed", but that is a misleading term, because neither is "faster" than the other; the only difference is when they can be played.

text: Playing lands, most abilities that produce mana, and certain other special actions do not use the stack; they bypass the rules below and take effect immediately.

text: The stack[edit]

text: When a player casts a spell or activates an ability, it does not immediately take effect. Instead, it is placed on the stack. That player then receives priority again, which gives him or her a chance to respond to it with spells or abilities. Each new spell or ability is put on top of the stack in turn, with the newest on top and the oldest at the bottom. A player with priority can add as many spells or abilities to the stack as he or she can pay for, but is not required to; if a player declines to respond to the latest spell or ability, he or she "passes priority" to the next player in turn order.

text: When all players have passed priority in succession, the top-most spell or ability on the stack resolves. If it was a sorcery, instant, or ability, the player carries out the instructions; if it would create a permanent, it enters the battlefield. Every time a spell or ability finishes resolving, players (starting with the player whose turn it is) can once again add more to the stack; if they don't, the new top-most spell or ability will resolve.

text: When the stack is empty, the player whose turn it is gets priority first. If all players pass priority while the stack is empty, the game proceeds to the next step or phase of the turn.

text: Example[edit]

text: Tom is attacking Norman with a Hill Giant, a 3/3 creature (meaning it has 3 power and 3 toughness). Norman chooses to block with his Grizzly Bears, a weaker 2/2 creature. If nothing else happened, the Hill Giant would deal 3 damage to the Grizzly Bears and kill them, while the Bears would deal 2 damage to the Giant, making Hill Giant "the winner".

text: However, Norman decides to cast his Giant Growth spell to give +3/+3 to his Grizzly Bears before combat damage is dealt. He taps a Forest to pay for the spell, and puts Giant Growth on the stack. Tom, who does not want to give the Grizzly Bears a chance to grow to 5/5 and kill his Hill Giant, responds by casting Shock targeting the Grizzly Bears. He taps one Mountain to pay for the spell, and puts Shock on the stack on top of Giant Growth. If Norman had no other spells, then Tom's Shock would resolve first and deal 2 damage to the Grizzly Bears, killing them. His Giant Growth would then go to the graveyard with no effect because the Bears would no longer be on the battlefield and would thus be an illegal target. Fortunately for Norman, he has another spell to cast. He taps a Plains and casts Mending Hands targeting his Grizzly Bears. Now Mending Hands is on top of the stack, with Shock and then Giant Growth beneath it.

text: Since both players are out of spells to cast, the top spell on the stack resolves. Mending Hands creates a "damage prevention shield" that will prevent up to 4 points of damage to Norman's Bears, and is put into Norman's graveyard after it resolves. Neither player chooses to cast anything else at this point, so Tom's Shock resolves. It attempts to deal 2 damage to Grizzly Bears, but Norman's Mending Hands prevents the damage, and Shock is put into Tom's graveyard. Finally, Norman's Giant Growth resolves and makes Grizzly Bears a 5/5 creature until end of turn. Giant Growth then goes to Norman's graveyard.

text: Once combat damage is dealt, the now 5/5 Grizzly Bears deal 5 damage to the Hill Giant and easily kills it. Hill Giant attempts to deal 3 damage to the Grizzly Bears, but the remainder of Norman's damage prevention shield prevents a further 2 damage (totaling 4 damage) and Grizzly Bears only takes 1 damage.

text: When Tom's turn ends, the single point of damage is removed from the Grizzly Bears, and the Giant Growth effect wears off at the same time. As Norman's turn begins, his Grizzly Bears are undamaged and 2/2.

text: Countering[edit]

text: Certain spells (and abilities) allow a player to counter other spells (or abilities). These spells must be cast while the spells they will affect are still on the stack. If a spell is countered, it is moved from the stack to its owner's graveyard when counterspell resolves. It does not resolve, and has no effect unless the card states otherwise. If the spell would create a permanent, it never enters the battlefield. Some spells state that they cannot be countered.

text: There is one other way for a spell to be "countered". If the spell targets something (such as Giant Growth or Shock), then the target must be legal both when the spell is cast and when it resolves. A spell can't be cast without a legal target; if the target becomes illegal while the spell is on the stack, then the spell is countered by the game rules (for having an illegal target) just before it would start to resolve. If a spell is countered this way, then no part of the spell — even a non-targeting part of the spell's effect — takes place. This is referred to as 'Countered Upon Resolution' (formerly "Fizzling").

text: Countered upon resolution[edit]

text: When certain spells and abilities allow a player to target other spells, abilities, or permanents, if the spell or ability is responded to in a way that makes the targeted spell, ability, or permanent illegal, the targeting spell will be countered upon resolution (this used to be referred to as "fizzling") and no effects of the countered spell will resolve.

text: If a spell has multiple targets, then all of them must be legal for it to be cast, and all must be made illegal for the spell to be countered. For example, the card Reckless Spite destroys two target nonblack creatures, but its controller will lose 5 life. If there is only one legal target for Reckless Spite, then it cannot be cast. If it is initially cast on two legal targets, but one legal target becomes an illegal target before Reckless Spite resolves (for example, if an instant is cast that grants shroud to that creature) the other will still be destroyed and Reckless Spite's caster will lose 5 life. If it is initially cast on two legal targets, and both targets are both made illegal targets before Reckless Spite resolves, then the entire spell is countered.

text: Keyword abilities[edit]

text: Some cards have abilities that are not fully explained on the card. These are known as "keyword" abilities, and consist of a word or phrase whose meaning is defined by the rules. Keyword abilities are usually given reminder text in the set in which they are introduced. There are over forty such abilities. In most cases, multiple instances of the same keyword on an object have no additional effect.

text: Some of the most notable keyword abilities include flying (a creature can't be blocked except by other creatures with flying or reach), haste (a creature can attack and tap on the first turn it is summoned), and protection (the card can't be damaged, enchanted, blocked, or targeted by cards bearing the indicated attribute), or (basic land type)walk (the card is unblockable if the opponent controls a land of that type (Example: If an attacking creature has islandwalk and the blocking opponent controls an island, said creature would be unblockable).


document_title: National Prosecuting Authority

question_text: who appoints the national director of public prosecutions

text: National Prosecuting Authority

text: Structure[edit]

text: On a national level, the NPA is headed by the National Director of Public Prosecutions (NDPP). The NDPP is appointed by the President of South Africa for a term of 10 years.[1][2]

text: The NDPP is supported by a chief executive officer, a position which was filled by Marion Sparg from 2000 to 2007, and by four Deputy National Directors. Every seat of the High Court of South Africa is served by a Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP), who acts as the prosecution authority for such Court's jurisdictional area. Further support comes from Special Directors and Investigating Directors.

text: Business units[edit]

text: The NPA comprises various core business units:

text:
The National Prosecution Service (NPS) is composed of the various DPP offices (and their subordinates) and are responsible for the day to day criminal prosecutions. State Advocates (attached to the office of the DPP) prosecute matters in the Superior Courts, whilst Public Prosecutors (attached to various Magistrate's Courts), prosecute matters in the Lower Courts.
The Directorate of Special Operations (DSO or Scorpions) was launched on 1 September 1999, in Cape Town, as a step towards putting in place the necessary machinery to eradicate organised crime in South Africa. It was the birth of what is envisaged to become a world-class law enforcement agency. The DSO was later disbanded in July 2009 and the investigative capacity transferred to the South African Police Service
The Asset Forfeiture Unit (AFU) was established in May 1999, to give effect to certain provisions in the Prevention of Organised Crime Act (Act 121 of 1998) allowing for the criminal or civil seizure (and subsequent forfeiture to the State) of assets belonging to perpetrators of crime. Once forfeited, these assets are realised and are utilised to compensate the victims of crime and/or are ploughed back into law enforcement.
Sexual Offences and Community Affairs (SOCA) was established in October 1999, with the main objective of eradicating all forms of gender-based violence against women and children. The Unit comprises four sections, namely the Sexual Offences Section; the Domestic Violence Section; the Maintenance Section; and the Child Justice Section.
The Specialised Commercial Crime Unit (SCCU) was established with the focal objective of prosecuting serious economic offences, such as Fraud and related offences.
The Witness Protection Unit (WPU) essentially provides support services to vulnerable and intimidated witnesses and related persons in any judicial proceedings in the Criminal Justice System. The unit also provides assistance and co-operation to other countries, Tribunals and Special Courts, in the field of Witness Protection. The functions and duties of the WPU are classified "SECRET" in terms of the Witness Protection Act.
The Priority Crimes Litigation Unit (PCLU) was created by Presidential proclamation on 23 March 2003. In terms of its mandate, it is to manage and direct investigations and prosecutions relating to: criminal prosecutions arising from the Rome Statute; crimes against the State, including national and international terrorism; matters emanating from the Truth and Reconciliation (TRC) process and contraventions of The Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act (Act No 15 of 1998), the Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act (Act No 87 of 1993), The National Conventional Arms Control Act (Act No 41 of 2002), The Nuclear Energy Act (Act No 46 of 1999) and The Intelligence Services Act (Act No 65 of 2002).
The Integrity Management Unit (IMU) is a relatively new unit, tasked to continually assess, prevent, monitor, evaluate and maintain the NPA's integrity so that it is not in any way compromised. The IMU is further tasked to have complete oversight of the reactive systems and processes in instances where there has been a compromise of the organisation’s integrity.
Corporate Services (CS) is tasked to focus on servicing customer needs and to concentrate resources to provide low cost, high quality corporate service support to multiple business partners within the NPA.

text: Leadership[edit]

text: Controversial extraordinary changes in NPA leadership have been attributed to political interference.[1][2][3][4][5] In June 2014 former NPA prosecutor Glynnis Breytenbach, a Member of Parliament for the Democratic Alliance (DA) and Shadow Minister of Justice,[6][7] called for an end to ongoing political interference that has compromised the integrity of the NPA.[8][9]

text: The first NDPP, Bulelani Ngcuka, was appointed in 1998 and resigned in 2004.[5] He was succeeded by Vusi Pikoli (2005–2007), Mokotedi Mpshe (acting NDPP),[10][11] Menzi Simelane (2009–2012), Nomgcobo Jiba (acting NDPP),[10] and Mxolisi Nxasana appointed with effect from 1 October 2013.[1][5][12] On 5 July 2014, President Zuma announced an inquiry to determine whether Nxasana is fit and proper to hold office in terms of section 12(6)(a)(iv) of the National Prosecuting Authority Act, 1998.[2][5][13] On 11 May 2015, the inquiry was terminated, but unconfirmed reports suggested that Nxasana has agreed to resign his post.[14] On 31 May 2015 it was announced that Nxasana was stepping down as the National Director of Public Prosecutions.[15] He was paid out the value of the remainder of his 10-year-contract amounting to R17 million.[16] On 16 June 2015, Shaun Abrahams was appointed as the National Director of Public Prosecutions.[17]

text: List of Directors[edit]

text:
Bulelani Ngcuka (1998 -2004)
Vusi Pikoli (2005–2007)
Mokotedi Mpshe (acting NDPP)
Menzi Simelane (2009–2012)
Nomgcobo Jiba (acting NDPP)
Mxolisi Nxasana (1 October 2013 - 11 May 2015)
Shaun Abrahams (2015 - )

text: Suspension of Vusi Pikoli[edit]

text: On 23 September 2007 President Thabo Mbeki suspended the then NDPP Vusi Pikoli.[18] Following Pikoli’s suspension, President Mbeki established a Commission of Enquiry headed by Dr Frene Ginwala (Ginwala Commission) in terms of section 12(6) of the National Prosecuting Act 32 of 1998 to determine the fitness of Pikoli to hold office of National Director. In the Report of the Enquiry into the Fitness of Advocate VP Pikoli to Hold the Office of the NDPP, the Ginwala Commission made a number of recommendations including that “Pikoli should be restored to his position and be sensitized to the broader responsibilities of his office and in particular to enhance his understanding of the security environment in which that office should function”.[19] One scholar has observed that despite the Ginwala Commission’s recommendations, Advocate Pikoli was removed from office by President Kgalema Montlante on 8 December 2008.[20] Mhango, who has written on the subject, notes that Montlante was later prevented by the judiciary in Pikoli v President and Others[21] to appoint a permanent NDPP until the legalities regarding the removal of Pikoli had been sorted in the courts.[22]

text: On 27 September 2007 the South African Broadcasting Corporation claimed that a warrant was issued on 10 September by the NPA for the arrest of the head of the South African Police and Interpol, Jackie Selebi. According to SABC the warrant was secured by Pikoli, before Pikoli was suspended by the country's President Mbeki.[23] [24] President Mbeki suspended NPA Head Vusi Pikoli, allegedly because of "an irretrievable breakdown" in the relationship between Pikoli and Justice Minister Brigitte Mabandla. However, journalists at the Mail and Guardian claim to have solid information supporting the widespread suspicion that President Mbeki suspended Pikoli as part of a bid to shield Police Commissioner Selebi.[25]

text: DA leader Helen Zille said that the suspension of Pikoli was a "serious development" that needed further explanation: "The country needs to know why Pikoli has been suspended."[26] Human Sciences Research Council political commentator Adam Habib said:[27]

text:
“
If the president suspended Mr Pikoli on the grounds that he had issued a warrant for the commissioner's arrest, then it suggests that an invasion is being made into an independent institution's operations. Intervening in the operations of the National Prosecuting Authority constitutes a violation of our Constitution.
”

text: Application to suspend Shaun Abrahams[edit]

text: The application to suspend Shaun Abrahams was struck off the roll.


document_title: British Classic Races

question_text: winner of the fillies triple crown in 1985 crossword

text: British Classic Races

text: Races[edit]

text: The five British Classics are:

text:
Race
Date
Distance
Course
First Run

2,000 Guineas Stakes
Late April / early May
1 mile (1,609 m)
Newmarket
1809

1,000 Guineas Stakes
Late April / early May
1 mile (1,609 m)
Newmarket
1814

Epsom Oaks
Early June
1 mile 4 furlongs 10 yd (2,423 m)
Epsom Downs
1779

Epsom Derby
First Saturday in June
1 mile 4 furlongs 10 yd (2,423 m)
Epsom Downs
1780

St. Leger Stakes
September
1 mile 6 furlongs 132 yd (2,937 m)
Doncaster
1776

text: It is common to think of them as taking place in three legs.

text: The first leg is made up of the Newmarket Classics – 1,000 Guineas and 2,000 Guineas. Given that the 1,000 Guineas is restricted to fillies, this is regarded as the fillies' classic and the 2,000, which is open to both sexes, as the colts' classic, although it is theoretically possible for a filly to compete in both.

text: The second leg is made up of The Derby and/or Oaks, both ridden over 1 1/2 miles at Epsom in early June. The Oaks is regarded as the fillies' classic, the Derby as the colts', although, as with the Guineas, a filly could theoretically contest both.

text: The final leg is the St. Leger, held over 1 mile 6 1/2 furlongs at Doncaster and is open to both sexes.

text: The variety of distances and racecourses faced in the Classics make them particularly challenging as a series to even the best horses. It is rare for a horse to possess both the speed and stamina to compete across all these distances, making the Triple Crown a particularly notable achievement. In fact, in the modern era, it is rare for any attempt on the Triple Crown to be made.

text: History[edit]

text: Although the oldest race in the series, the St Leger, was first run 1776, the races were not designated 'classics' until 1815,[2] shortly after the first running of the 1,000 Guineas.

text: Multiple classic winners[edit]

text: (see also Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing)

text: In 1902 Sceptre became the only racehorse to win four British Classic Races outright, winning both Guineas, the Oaks and the St Leger. Previously, in 1868, Formosa won the same four races but dead-heated in the 2,000 Guineas.[3]

text: Fifteen horses have won the standard Triple Crown (2,000 Guineas – Derby – St Leger), the last being Nijinsky in 1970.

text: In addition to Sceptre and Formosa above, eight horses have won the fillies' Triple Crown (1,000 Guineas – Oaks – St Leger), the last being Oh So Sharp in 1985.

text: Many horses have won two classics, some of whom have gone on to attempt the Triple Crown, losing in the last leg at Doncaster. The most recent example of this was the Aidan O'Brien trained Camelot, who having won 2,000 Guineas and Derby, finished second in the St Leger in 2012.

text: Records[edit]

text: Most wins as a horse

text: Sceptre – 4 wins (1902)

text: Most wins as a jockey

text: Lester Piggott – 30 wins (1954–1992)


document_title: Asif Ghafoor

question_text: who is newly appointed dg ispr of pakistan army

text: Asif Ghafoor

text:
Major General
Asif Ghafoor
HI(M)

Director-General Inter-Services Public Relations

Incumbent

Assumed office
15 December 2016

President
Mamnoon Hussain

Prime Minister
Shahid Khaqan Abbasi

Preceded by
Lt Gen Asim Saleem Bajwa

Personal details

Awards
 Hilal-i-Imtiaz (Military)

Military service

Allegiance
 Pakistan

Service/branch
 Pakistan Army

Rank
 Major General

text: Major General Asif Ghafoor is a Pakistani two-star general who is the current director-general of the Inter-Services Public Relations (ISPR), the media wing of the Pakistan Armed Forces. Previously, he commanding a division in Swat.[1][2][3]

text: Ghafoor was a part of the artillery regiment and also served in the military operations directorate.[1] His brother Tariq Ghafoor also served as a major-general in the army.[4]


question_text: who has scored the most goals ever in the premier league

text: Since the Premier League's formation at the start of the 1992–93 season, 28 players have managed to accrue 100 or more goals in the competition.

text: During the 1995–96 season, Alan Shearer became the first player to score 100 Premier League goals, and holds the record for the fewest games taken to reach 100, doing so in 124 appearances. He also holds the record for most goals scored in the Premier League.[1][2] After Shearer, Harry Kane is the second-fastest to 100 goals, doing so in 141 games.[3]

text: Players[edit]

text:
List of Premier League players with 100 or more goals
As of 27 August 2018. Sources:[4][5]

Rank

Nat.

Player

Premier League club(s)

Goals

Played

Ratio

1

 England

Alan Shearer

Blackburn Rovers, Newcastle United

260

441

0.59

2

 England

Wayne Rooney

Everton, Manchester United

208

494

0.42

3

 England

Andy Cole

Newcastle United, Manchester United, Blackburn Rovers, Fulham, Manchester City, Portsmouth

187

414

0.45

4

 England

Frank Lampard

West Ham United, Chelsea, Manchester City

177

609

0.29

5

 France

Thierry Henry

Arsenal

175

258

0.68

6

 England

Robbie Fowler

Liverpool, Leeds United, Manchester City

163

379

0.43

7

 England

Jermain Defoe

West Ham United, Portsmouth, Tottenham Hotspur, Sunderland, Bournemouth

162

491

0.33

8

 England

Michael Owen

Liverpool, Newcastle United, Manchester United, Stoke City

150

326

0.46

9

 England

Les Ferdinand

Queens Park Rangers, Newcastle United, Tottenham Hotspur, West Ham United, Leicester City, Bolton Wanderers

149

351

0.42

10

 England

Teddy Sheringham

Nottingham Forest, Tottenham Hotspur, Manchester United, Portsmouth, West Ham United

146

418

0.35

 Argentina

Sergio Agüero

Manchester City

208

0.70

12

 Netherlands

Robin van Persie

Arsenal, Manchester United

144

280

0.51

13

 Netherlands

Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink

Leeds United, Chelsea, Middlesbrough, Charlton Athletic

127

288

0.44

14

 Republic of Ireland

Robbie Keane

Coventry City, Leeds United, Tottenham Hotspur, Liverpool, West Ham United, Aston Villa

126

349

0.36

15

 France

Nicolas Anelka

Arsenal, Liverpool, Manchester City, Bolton Wanderers, Chelsea, West Bromwich Albion

125

364

0.34

16

 Trinidad and Tobago

Dwight Yorke

Aston Villa, Manchester United, Blackburn Rovers, Birmingham City, Sunderland

123

375

0.33

17

 England

Steven Gerrard

Liverpool

120

504

0.24

18

 England

Ian Wright

Arsenal, West Ham United

113

213

0.53

19

 England

Dion Dublin

Manchester United, Coventry City, Aston Villa

111

312

0.36

20

 England

Emile Heskey

Leicester City, Liverpool, Birmingham City, Wigan Athletic, Aston Villa

110

516

0.21

 England

Harry Kane

Tottenham Hotspur, Norwich City

156

0.71

22

 Wales

Ryan Giggs

Manchester United

109

632

0.17

23

 England

Peter Crouch

Aston Villa, Southampton, Liverpool, Portsmouth, Tottenham Hotspur, Stoke City

108

462

0.23

23

 England

Paul Scholes

Manchester United

107

499

0.21

25

 England

Darren Bent

Ipswich Town, Charlton Athletic, Tottenham Hotspur, Sunderland, Aston Villa, Fulham

106

276

0.38

26

 Ivory Coast

Didier Drogba

Chelsea

104

254

0.41

27

 Belgium

Romelu Lukaku

Chelsea, West Bromwich Albion, Everton, Manchester United

102

221

0.46

28

 England

Matt Le Tissier

Southampton

100

270

0.37

Italics show players still playing professional football; Bold shows players still playing in the Premier League.[4]