document_title: Plankton

question_text: n which marine zone would you find the majority of plankton

root

text: Plankton

text: Terminology[edit]

text: The name plankton is derived from the Greek adjective πλαγκτός (planktos), meaning errant, and by extension, wanderer or drifter,[3] and was coined by Victor Hensen in 1887.[4][5] While some forms are capable of independent movement and can swim hundreds of meters vertically in a single day (a behavior called diel vertical migration), their horizontal position is primarily determined by the surrounding water movement, and plankton typically flow with ocean currents. This is in contrast to nekton organisms, such as fish, squid and marine mammals, which can swim against the ambient flow and control their position in the environment.

tag: p

text: Within the plankton, holoplankton spend their entire life cycle as plankton (e.g. most algae, copepods, salps, and some jellyfish). By contrast, meroplankton are only planktic for part of their lives (usually the larval stage), and then graduate to either a nektic (swimming) or benthic (sea floor) existence. Examples of meroplankton include the larvae of sea urchins, starfish, crustaceans, marine worms, and most fish.[6]

text: The amount and distribution of plankton depends on available nutrients, the state of water and a large amount of other plankton.[7]

text: The study of plankton is termed planktology and a planktonic individual is referred to as a plankter.[8] The adjective planktonic is widely used in both the scientific and popular literature, and is a generally accepted term. However, from the standpoint of prescriptive grammar, the less commonly used planktic is more strictly the correct adjective. When deriving English words from their Greek or Latin roots, the gender-specific ending (in this case "-on," which indicates the word is neuter) is normally dropped, using only the root of the word in the derivation.[9]

text: Trophic groups[edit]

text: Plankton are primarily divided into broad functional (or trophic level) groups:

text:
Phytoplankton (from Greek phyton, or plant), autotrophic prokaryotic or eukaryotic algae that live near the water surface where there is sufficient light to support photosynthesis. Among the more important groups are the diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and coccolithophores.
Zooplankton (from Greek zoon, or animal), small protozoans or metazoans (e.g. crustaceans and other animals) that feed on other plankton. Some of the eggs and larvae of larger nektonic animals, such as fish, crustaceans, and annelids, are included here.
Bacterioplankton, bacteria and archaea, which play an important role in remineralising organic material down the water column (note that prokaryotic phytoplankton are also bacterioplankton).
Mycoplankton, fungi and fungus-like organisms, which, like bacterioplankton, are also significant in remineralisation and nutrient cycling.[10]

tag: ul

text: This scheme divides the plankton community into broad producer, consumer and recycler groups. However, determining the trophic level of many plankton is not always straightforward. For example, although most dinoflagellates are either photosynthetic producers or heterotrophic consumers, many species perform both roles. In this mixed trophic strategy — known as mixotrophy — organisms act as both producers and consumers, either at the same time or switching between modes of nutrition in response to ambient conditions. For instance, relying on photosynthesis for growth when nutrients and light are abundant, but switching to predation when growing conditions are poor. Recognition of the importance of mixotrophy as an ecological strategy is increasing,[11] as well as the wider role this may play in marine biogeochemistry.[12]

text: Size groups[edit]

text: Plankton are also often described in terms of size.[13] Usually the following divisions are used:

text:
Group

Size range(ESD)

Examples

Megaplankton
> 20 cm
metazoans; e.g. jellyfish; ctenophores; salps and pyrosomes (pelagic Tunicata); Cephalopoda; Amphipoda

Macroplankton
2→20 cm
metazoans; e.g. Pteropods; Chaetognaths; Euphausiacea (krill); Medusae; ctenophores; salps, doliolids and pyrosomes (pelagic Tunicata); Cephalopoda; Janthinidae (one family of gastropods); Amphipoda

Mesoplankton
0.2→20 mm
metazoans; e.g. copepods; Medusae; Cladocera; Ostracoda; Chaetognaths; Pteropods; Tunicata; Heteropoda

Microplankton
20→200 µm
large eukaryotic protists; most phytoplankton; Protozoa Foraminifera; tintinnids; other ciliates; Rotifera; juvenile metazoans - Crustacea (copepod nauplii)

Nanoplankton
2→20 µm
small eukaryotic protists; Small Diatoms; Small Flagellates; Pyrrophyta; Chrysophyta; Chlorophyta; Xanthophyta

Picoplankton
0.2→2 µm
small eukaryotic protists; bacteria; Chrysophyta

Femtoplankton
< 0.2 µm
marine viruses

tag: table

text: However, some of these terms may be used with very different boundaries, especially on the larger end. The existence and importance of nano- and even smaller plankton was only discovered during the 1980s, but they are thought to make up the largest proportion of all plankton in number and diversity.

text:
The microplankton and smaller groups are microorganisms and operate at low Reynolds numbers, where the viscosity of water is much more important than its mass or inertia.
[14]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Plankton inhabit oceans, seas, lakes, ponds. Local abundance varies horizontally, vertically and seasonally. The primary cause of this variability is the availability of light. All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see chemosynthesis), confining primary production to surface waters, and to geographical regions and seasons having abundant light.

text: A secondary variable is nutrient availability. Although large areas of the tropical and sub-tropical oceans have abundant light, they experience relatively low primary production because they offer limited nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and silicate. This results from large-scale ocean circulation and water column stratification. In such regions, primary production usually occurs at greater depth, although at a reduced level (because of reduced light).

text: Despite significant macronutrient concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called HNLC regions).[15] The micronutrient iron is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of phytoplankton blooms.[16] Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface.  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive, arid land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e.g., the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where trade winds bring dust from the Sahara Desert in north Africa).

text: While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column. At depths where no primary production occurs, zooplankton and bacterioplankton instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above. This flux of sinking material, so-called marine snow, can be especially high following the termination of spring blooms.

text: Ecological significance[edit]

text: Food chain[edit]

text: Aside from representing the bottom few levels of a food chain that supports commercially important fisheries, plankton ecosystems play a role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important chemical elements, including the ocean's carbon cycle.[17]

text: Carbon cycle[edit]

text: Primarily by grazing on phytoplankton, zooplankton  provide carbon to the planktic foodweb, either respiring it to provide metabolic energy, or upon death as biomass or detritus. Organic material tends to be denser than seawater, so it sinks into open ocean ecosystems away from the coastlines, transporting carbon along with it. This process, called the biological pump, is one reason that oceans constitute the largest carbon sink on Earth. However, it has been shown to be influenced by increments of temperature.[18][19][20][21]

text: It might be possible to increase the ocean's uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) generated through human activities by increasing plankton production through seeding, primarily with the micronutrient iron. However, this technique may not be practical at a large scale. Ocean oxygen depletion and resultant methane production (caused by the excess production remineralising at depth) is one potential drawback.[22][23]

text: Oxygen production[edit]

text: Phytoplankton absorb energy from the Sun and nutrients from the water to produce their own nourishment or energy. In the process of photosynthesis, phytoplankton release molecular oxygen (O2) into the water as a waste biproduct. It is estimated that about 50% of the world's oxygen is produced via phytoplankton photosynthesis.[24] The rest is produced via photosynthesis on land by plants.[24] Furthermore, phytoplankton photosynthesis has controlled the atmospheric CO2/O2 balance since the early Precambrian Eon.[25]

text: Biomass variability[edit]

text: The growth of phytoplankton populations is dependent on light levels and nutrient availability.  The chief factor limiting growth varies from region to region in the world's oceans.  On a broad scale, growth of phytoplankton in the oligotrophic tropical and subtropical gyres is generally limited by nutrient supply, while light often limits phytoplankton growth in subarctic gyres.  Environmental variability at multiple scales influences the nutrient and light available for phytoplankton, and as these organisms form the base of the marine food web, this variability in phytoplankton growth influences higher trophic levels.  For example, at interannual scales phytoplankton levels temporarily plummet during El Niño periods, influencing populations of zooplankton, fishes, sea birds, and marine mammals.

text: The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research.  Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important impacts on future phytoplankton productivity.[26]  Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant.

text: Freshly hatched fish larvae are also plankton for a few days, as long as it takes before they can swim against currents.

text:
An amphipod: an exoskeletoned animal with curved body, with two long and two short antennae.

A copepod (Calanoida sp.) from Antarctica ca. 12 mm long, photo of translucent ovoid animal with two long antennae

Antarctic krill, probably the largest biomass of a single species on the planet

Northern krill: the mid gut is red. It feeds on zooplankton

Tomopteris is a genus of marine planktonic polychaete

Siphonophora – the "conveyor belt" of the upgrowing larvae and the ovarium can be seen

Sea foam can be produced by plankton, photo of many, differently sized bubbles with image of photographer

Herring larva imaged in situ in the typical oblique swimming position with the remains of the yolk and the long gut visible in the transparent animal

Eel larva drifting with the gulf stream

Icefish larvae from Antarctica have no haemoglobin

Microzooplankton, the major grazers of the plankton: Dinoflagellates (spindle-shaped 'Gyrodinium', spiny-globe 'Protoperidinium') and a tintinnid ciliate (hairy-topped cell in a shell, 'Favella'). From the Thau Lagoon of Sète, France

text: Importance to fish[edit]

text: Zooplankton are the initial prey item for almost all fish larvae as they switch from their yolk sacs to external feeding. Fish rely on the density and distribution of zooplankton to match that of new larvae, which can otherwise starve.  Natural factors (e.g., current variations) and man-made factors (e.g. river dams) can strongly affect zooplankton, which can in turn strongly affect larval survival, and therefore breeding success.

text: The importance of both phytoplankton and zooplankton is also well-recognized in extensive and semi-intensive pond fish farming. Plankton population based pond management strategies for fish rearing have been practised by traditional fish farmers for decades, illustrating the importance of plankton even in man-made environments.


document_title: Management

question_text: what is the first level of management in a company

text: Management

text: Definitions[edit]

text: Views on the definition and scope of management include:

text:
According to Henri Fayol, "to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate and to control."[1]
Fredmund Malik defines it as "the transformation of resources into utility."
Management included as one of the factors of production – along with machines, materials and money.
Ghislain Deslandes defines it as “a vulnerable force, under pressure to achieve results and endowed with the triple power of constraint, imitation and imagination, operating on subjective, interpersonal, institutional and environmental levels”.[2]
Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the basic task of management as twofold: marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a central strategic marketing issue). Peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood[by whom?] as two different branches of business administration knowledge.

text: Theoretical scope[edit]

text: Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and manipulation[3] of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise.[citation needed] This implies effective communication: an enterprise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome.[citation needed] As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment. From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management is an essential function to improve one's life and relationships.[citation needed] Management is therefore everywhere[citation needed] and it has a wider range of application.[clarification needed] Based on this, management must have humans. Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through enterprise or independent pursuit.[citation needed] Plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans, meeting goals.[citation needed] This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)[4][page needed] considers management to consist of six functions:

text:
forecasting
planning
organizing
commanding
coordinating
controlling

tag: ol

text: In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done through people".[5] She described management as philosophy.[6][need quotation to verify]

text: Critics[which?], however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely,[7] suggesting the difficulty of defining management without circularity, the shifting nature of definitions[citation needed] and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or of a class.

text: One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness.[citation needed] Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as "business schools". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the broader term "management".

text: English-speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation.[8] Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term "labor" – referring to those being managed.[9]

text: But in the present era[when?] the concept of management is identified[by whom?] in the wide areas[which?] and its frontiers have been pushed to a broader range.[citation needed] Apart from profitable organizations even non-profitable organizations (NGOs) apply management concepts. The concept and its uses are not constrained[by whom?]. Management on the whole is the process of planning, organizing, coordinating, leading and controlling.

text: Nature of work[edit]

text: In profitable organizations, management's primary function is the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing great employment opportunities for employees. In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management and governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.

text: In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United States political appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor.

text: History[edit]

text: Some see management (by definition) as late-modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Hindu numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.

text: Also, Machiavelli wrote about how to make organisations efficient and effective. The principles that Machiavelli set forth in Discourses (1531) can be adapted to apply the management of organisations today:

text:
An organisation is more stable if members have the right to express their differences and solve their conflicts within it.
While one person can begin an organisation, "it is lasting when it is left in the care of many and when many desire to maintain it."
A weak manager can follow a strong one, but not another weak one, and maintain authority.
A manager seeking to change an established organization "should retain at least a shadow of the ancient customs."[10]

text: With the changing workplaces of industrial revolutions in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly-popular factories.[11]

text: Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The English verb "manage" comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle, especially tools or a horse), which derives from the two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to act). The French word for housekeeping, ménagerie, derived from ménager ("to keep house"; compare ménage for "household"), also encompasses taking care of domestic animals. Ménagerie is the French translation of Xenophon's famous book Oeconomicus[12] (Greek: Οἰκονομικός) on household matters and husbandry. The French word mesnagement (or ménagement) influenced the semantic development of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.[13]

text: Early writing[edit]

text: Management (according to some definitions) has existed for millennia, and several writers have produced background works that have contributed to modern management theories.[14][need quotation to verify] Some theorists have cited ancient military texts as providing lessons for civilian managers. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in his 6th century BC work The Art of War recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.[14] The writings of influential Chinese Legalist philosopher Shen Buhai may be considered[by whom?] to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration.[15]

text: Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced "mirrors for princes" books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern. Plato described job specialization in 350 B.C., and Alfarabi listed several leadership traits in A.D. 900.[16] Other examples include the Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300 BCE), and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli (c. 1515).[17]

text: Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations discussed efficient organization of work through division of labour.[17] Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.[17][need quotation to verify]

text: 19th century[edit]

text: Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production.

text: Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century.[18]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Lillian Gilbreth's Psychology of Management (1914),[19] Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management-textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first management consultant of the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance.

text: The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management. Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the "administrator" as bureaucrat[20]), Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.

text: Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

text: H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-mathematics science of operations research, initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision-problems, and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.

text: Some of the more recent[update] developments include the Theory of Constraints, management by objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development, as well as group-management theories such as Cog's Ladder.

text: As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management.

text: Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches,[citation needed] namely:

text:
financial management
human resource management
information technology management (responsible for management information systems)
marketing management
operations management and production management
strategic management

text: 21st century[edit]

text: In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management.[citation needed]

text: Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.

text: Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business-ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.

text: As one consequence, workplace democracy (sometimes referred to as Workers' self-management) has become both more common and advocated to a greater extent, in some places distributing all management functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management embraces to some degree a democratic principle—in that in the long term, the majority of workers must support management. Otherwise, they leave to find other work or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace as de facto organization structure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control is evident in the way that recent layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels. In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses after laying off lower-level workers.[21]

text: According to leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, a contemporary senior management team will almost inevitably have some personality disorders.[22]

text: Topics[edit]

text: Basics[edit]

text: According to Fayol, management operates through five basic functions: planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, and controlling.

text:
Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating plans for action (deciding in advance).
Organizing (or staffing): Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place.[23]
Coordinating: Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be accomplished.
Commanding (or leading): Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.
Controlling: Checking progress against plans.

text: Basic roles[edit]

text:
Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees
Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information
Decision: roles that require decision-making

text: Skills[edit]

text: Management skills include:

text:
political: used to build a power base and to establish connections
conceptual: used to analyze complex situations
interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate
diagnostic: ability to visualize appropriate responses to a situation
leadership: ability to lead and to provide guidance to a specific group
technical: expertise in one's particular functional area.

text: Implementation of policies and strategies[edit]

text:
All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.
Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.
A plan of action must be devised for each department.
Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
Top-level managers should carry out regular progress assessments.
The business requires team spirit and a good environment.
The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analyzed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.
A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.

text: Policies and strategies in the planning process[edit]

text:
They give mid and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization.
A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.
Mid and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategies.

text: Levels[edit]

text: Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. First-line managers are the lowest level of management and manage the work of nonmanagerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products. First-line managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management between the first-line level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager. Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or chairman of the board.

text: These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid. Each level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.[citation needed]

text: Top[edit]

text: The top or senior layer of management consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors and executive directors), president, vice-president, CEOs and other members of the C-level executives. Different organizations have various members in their C-suite, which may include a Chief Financial Officer, Chief Technology Officer, and so on. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the entire organization. They set a "tone at the top" and develop strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the overall direction of the organization. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources. Senior managers are accountable to the shareholders, the general public and to public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations. Some members of the senior management may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make speeches to introduce new strategies or appear in marketing.

text: The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization, although this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size and culture of the organization. These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and typically insured under directors and officers liability insurance. Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions,[24] and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager (Chief Executive Officer or CEO). The CEO typically hires other positions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) has increased.[25] In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs were "mentoring skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO.[26] The board may also have certain employees (e.g., internal auditors) report to them or directly hire independent contractors; for example, the board (through the audit committee) typically selects the auditor.

text: Helpful skills of top management vary by the type of organization but typically include[27] a broad understanding of competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including: instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules; appointment of middle level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication.

text: Middle[edit]

text: Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to the top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define and discuss information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level managers towards better performance.

text: Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management, or may be categorized as non-management operate, liable to the policy of the specific organization. Efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization, since they bridge the gap between top level and bottom level staffs.

text: Their functions include:

text:
Design and implement effective group and inter-group work and information systems.
Define and monitor group-level performance indicators.
Diagnose and resolve problems within and among work groups.
Design and implement reward systems that support cooperative behavior. They also make decision and share ideas with top managers.

text: Lower[edit]

text: Lower managers include supervisors, section leaders, forepersons and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees' tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators. First-level or "front line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some types of work, front line managers may also do some of the same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in some restaurants, the front line managers will also serve customers during a very busy period of the day.

text: Front-line managers typically provide:

text:
Training for new employees
Basic supervision
Motivation
Performance feedback and guidance

text: Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within the organization.

text: Training[edit]

text: Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas and certificates in management, generally within their colleges of business, business schools or faculty of management but also in other related departments. In the 2010s, there has been an increase in online management education and training in the form of electronic educational technology ( also called e-learning). Online education has increased the accessibility of management training to people who do not live near a college or university, or who cannot afford to travel to a city where such training is available.

text: While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in the profession (e.g., law, medicine, engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of Law, Doctor of Medicine and Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not complete a degree include Steve Jobs, Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg. However, many managers and executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as a Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree. Some major organizations, including companies, not-for-profit organizations and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive positions to hold at minimum Bachelor's degree in a field related to administration or management, or in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree.

text: United States of America[edit]

text: Undergraduate[edit]

text: At the undergraduate level, the most common business program is the Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). A B.Com. is typically a four-year program that includes courses that give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas. There are many other undergraduate degrees that include the study of management, such as Bachelor of Arts degrees with a major in business administration or management and Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in the government jobs. Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study.

text: Graduate[edit]

text: At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as entrepreneurship, human resources, international business, organizational behavior, organizational theory, strategic management,[28] accounting, corporate finance, entertainment, global management, healthcare management, investment management, sustainability and real estate. A Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the most popular professional master's degree and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBAs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors. There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business, such as the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts in Public Administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the Master of Health Administration, for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector.

text: Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in the field of business and management. Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in research methods, statistical analysis and writing academic papers that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior consultants and/or professors in business administration or management. There are three main types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (D.M.), the Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.), and the Ph.D. in Business Administration or Management. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management are available with many specializations.

text: Good practices[edit]

text: While management trends can change so fast, the long term trend in management has been defined by a market embracing diversity and a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the workplace, by offering increased flexibility in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers. Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker support and more charismatic leadership styles.[29] Human resources finds itself increasingly working with management in a training capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure) of management actions with employees.[30]


document_title: E Company, 506th Infantry Regiment (United States)

question_text: where did easy company land on d day

question_tokens: where did easy company land on d day

text: History[edit]

text: The 506th PIR was an experimental airborne regiment created in 1942 at Camp Toccoa, Georgia. E Company missions were to involve being parachuted from C-47 transport airplanes into hostile territory.

text: Major Richard Winters described the original organization of E Company as follows:

text: "[Easy] company included three rifle platoons and a headquarters section. Each platoon contained three twelve-man rifle squads and a six-man mortar team squad. Easy also had one machine gun attached to each of its rifle squads, and a 60mm mortar in each mortar team."[1]

text: Before attending paratrooper training, the unit had to perform the standard battle drills and physical training that comes with being in the parachute infantry. One of the exercises was the regular running of Currahee, a large, steep hill. The phrase "3 miles up, 3 miles down" was derived from this run. E Company, while training at Toccoa, was under the command of Herbert Sobel, who was known for his extreme strictness.

text: Also as part of their physical training, the members of E Company performed formation runs in three-four column running groups. This innovative type of training was adopted by the Army in the 1960s.[citation needed]

text: Missions[edit]

text: Operation Overlord (D-Day)[edit]

text: For Operation Overlord, E Company's mission was to capture the entrances to and clear any obstacles around "Causeway 2", a pre-selected route off Utah Beach for the Allied forces landing from the sea a few hours later. The company departed from Upottery airbase in Devon, England, and dropped over the Cotentin Peninsula of Normandy, France in the early hours of the morning of 6 June 1944.

text: After assembling on the ground, the men of E Company disabled a battery of four German heavy guns on D-Day that threatened forces coming along Causeway 2. A town in France called Carentan was crucial for American soldiers to capture because it would link Omaha and Utah beaches together so the soldiers could move equipment through. The Germans knew that so they wanted to keep the town out of allied hands. In one of Donald Malarkey's articles he stated that Lieutenant Winters made him mortar sergeant of second platoon. E Company, along with Dog and Fox Companies, were walking down the road to Carentan when they came to an intersection and one or two German machine gun teams suddenly started firing on them. Mortars and tanks soon joined the fight. The American soldiers all jumped into ditches for cover. Winters saw this and as Malarkey states, Winters "got hotter than I've ever seen him." It was a fast attack, at the end of which Malarkey states that he could hear moans and groans of wounded soldiers and occasional gun shots. Also at the end of the battle Winters was slightly wounded in his lower right leg by a ricocheting bullet fragment. The Germans mounted a counterattack, but 2nd battalion held onto Carentan. By the time the company was pulled off the line, they had taken 65 casualties including 24 KIA, 17 of which including their CO and 1stSgt, who were killed on D-day when their plane was shot down.[2]

text: Eindhoven, the Netherlands[edit]

text: E Company was assigned to support the British forces around Eindhoven, by defending the roads and bridges, so that the British armored divisions could advance into Arnhem and force a crossing over the major bridge across the Rhine River in September 1944. The story of the ill-fated Operation Market Garden is told in the book A Bridge Too Far by Cornelius Ryan.

text: E Company landed on its designated drop zone in the Sonsche Forest, north west of Son and marched down the road into Son behind the 2nd Battalion's other two companies. When the 2nd Battalion reached the Son Bridge they were met by enemy harassing fire whilst the bridge was destroyed by the Germans. After the Regiment's engineers constructed a makeshift crossing, E and the rest of the 506th moved out for Eindhoven. These events were omitted from the Band of Brothers series, with E having been portrayed as landing in the Netherlands and then marching into Eindhoven to join up with the British Army advancing from the south.

text: On 19 September, the company departed for Helmond accompanied by six Cromwell tanks of the British 11th Armoured Division.[3] Their advance was halted by the German 107th Panzer Brigade outside Nuenen and they were forced to retreat to Tongelre.[3] During the days following the link up, E Company successfully defended the towns of Veghel and Uden until XXX Corps infantry took up the task of defending the area. As Market Garden progressed, the company and the rest of the 101st joined the 82nd Airborne on "the island" north of Nijmegen.

text: At the conclusion of Market Garden, the company relieved the British 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division in Zetten.[4] On 5 October 1944, 1st platoon fought in the battle of "the island" that lay between the Lower Rhine and the Waal river. Along with a platoon from Fox Company and support from the Royal Artillery, they routed two Waffen-SS companies on 5 October 1944.[5] Colonel Sink issued a general order citing the company's 1st platoon for gallantry in action, describing their attack a "daring act and skillful maneuver against a numerically superior force".[6]

text: E Company was involved in the rescue of over 100 British troops trapped outside Arnhem. Operation Pegasus was a military operation carried out on the Lower Rhine near the village of Renkum, close to Arnhem in the Netherlands. Overnight on 22–23 October 1944, the Allies evacuated a large group of men trapped in German occupied territory who had been in hiding since the Battle of Arnhem. On the south bank of a Dutch river, Canadian engineers and a patrol of E Company observed the signal and immediately launched their boats, but the British were some 500-800m upriver of the crossing point. Upon reaching the north bank E Company established a small perimeter while men headed east to locate the evaders.[7] The men quickly moved downstream and in the next 90 minutes all of them were evacuated,[citation needed] with the exception of a Russian who was captured by the Germans.[citation needed] The Germans opened fire sporadically and some mortar rounds fell near the crossing, but the fire was inaccurate.[citation needed] Once on the other side the escapees were led to a farmhouse for refreshments, before being driven to Nijmegen where Dobie had arranged a party and champagne.[citation needed] The men were later flown back to the UK, rejoining the men who had escaped in Operation Berlin. Nine members of E company were killed in action in Holland with at least 40 wounded.

text: Battle of the Bulge[edit]

text: During December 1944 and January 1945, E Company and the rest of the 101st Airborne Division fought in Belgium in the Battle of the Bulge. The 101st was in France in December when the Germans launched their offensive in the Ardennes. They were told to hold the vital cross-roads at Bastogne and were soon encircled by the Germans. E Company fought in cold weather under German artillery fire without winter clothing and with limited rations and ammunition.

text: Between the days of 1 to 13 January, the company took control of the Bois Jacques woods in Belgium, between the town of Foy and Bizory. E Company was assigned to capture the town of Foy.

text: Division Headquarters ordered the attack to begin at 0900 hours. During the assault, newly appointed company commander Lieutenant Norman Dike led E Company forward, then ordered 1st platoon (led by Lieutenant Jack Foley) to the left and lost contact with them. Dike ordered the remainder of the company to take cover after coming under fire. With the unit unable to proceed, he was informed by his subordinates that they would get killed if they didn't advance into the town, as they were now unprotected from enemy fire. At the same time, Captain Richard Winters, former company commander and now battalion executive officer, radioed to Dike, telling him the same thing. Dike ordered 1st platoon on a flanking mission around the town,[8] and then found cover and froze, ignoring Winters' orders. As Carwood Lipton, first sergeant at the time, later put it: "He fell apart."

text: According to Clancy Lyall, Dike stopped because he had been wounded in the right shoulder (which Lyall saw), not because he had panicked.

text: In either case, Dike was immediately relieved by First Lieutenant Ronald Speirs under orders from Captain Winters. To countermand Dike's previous orders, Speirs himself ran through the town and German lines (as 1st platoon had no radio), linked up with the Item Company soldiers and relayed the order.[9] Having completed this, he then ran back through the German-occupied town. Carwood Lipton later stated that "the Germans were so shocked at seeing an American soldier running through their lines - they forgot to shoot!"[10] Speirs was reassigned as commanding officer of E Company and remained in that position for the rest of the war.[11]

text: With the capture of Foy, the Allies defeated the German line in Bastogne. Afterward, E Company and the rest of the 506th PIR moved into Germany. The 101st Airborne Division was awarded a unit citation for holding the line at Bastogne. E Company suffered 82 casualties including 15 killed in action.[citation needed]

text: Occupation duties[edit]

text: Toward the end of the war, E Company was assigned to occupation duty in Germany, specifically to Berchtesgaden, which was home to Adolf Hitler’s famous Eagle's Nest. Following Berchtesgaden, the company moved into Austria for further occupation duty. The company mostly attended to various patrols, awaiting the end of the war.

text: Post-war[edit]

text: E Company and the rest of the 506th PIR was disbanded in November 1945 and reactivated in 1954 as a training unit. Under the Combat Arms Regimental System and U.S. Army Regimental System, the lineage of E Company is inactive, but the 2nd Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment, a unit that officially traces its lineage to the World War II B Company, 506th PIR maintains an unofficial link to E Company's heritage.[12]

text: Notable personnel[edit]

text: One hundred forty men formed the original E Company in Camp Toccoa, Georgia. Three hundred sixty-six men are listed as having belonged to the company by the war's end, due to transfers and replacements. Forty-nine men of E Company were killed in action.[13]

text: Senior officers[edit]

text:
Major General Maxwell D. Taylor (101st Airborne Division CO) (26 August 1901 – 19 April 1987)
Brigadier General Anthony C. McAuliffe (101st Airborne Division Artillery Officer, later acting 101st Airborne Division CO) (2 July 1898 – 11 August 1975)
Colonel Robert Frederick Sink (506th Regiment CO) (3 April 1905 – 13 December 1965)
Major Richard D. Winters (2nd Battalion XO, later permanent 2nd Battalion CO) (21 January 1918 – 2 January 2011)

text: Company commanders[edit]

text:
Captain Herbert M. Sobel (26 January 1912 – 30 September 1987)
Major Richard D. Winters (21 January 1918 – 2 January 2011)
First Lieutenant Frederick Theodore "Moose" Heyliger (23 June 1916 – 3 November 2001)
First Lieutenant Norman S. Dike (19 May 1918 – 23 June 1989)
Captain Ronald Speirs (20 April 1920 – 11 April 2007)

text: Junior officers[edit]

text:
Captain Lewis Nixon (30 September 1918 – 11 January 1995)
First Lieutenant Lynn Compton (31 December 1921 – 25 February 2012)
First Lieutenant Edward D. Shames (b. 13 June 1922)
Second Lieutenant Robert B. Brewer (1924 – 5 December 1996)
Second Lieutenant Carwood Lipton (30 January 1920 – 16 December 2001)

text: Non-commissioned officers[edit]

text:
Technical Sergeant Donald Malarkey (30 July 1921 – 30 September 2017)
Technical Sergeant Amos J. Taylor (28 September 1920 – 24 August 2011)
Staff Sergeant William Guarnere (28 April 1923 – 8 March 2014) (served as a platoon leader as Staff Sergeant, before demotion)
Staff Sergeant Earl McClung (27 April 1923 – 27 November 2013)
Staff Sergeant Darrell Powers (13 March 1923 – 17 June 2009)
Staff Sergeant Denver Randleman (20 November 1920 – 26 June 2003)
Staff Sergeant Myron N. Ranney (11 November 1922 – 22 September 1988)
Sergeant Clancy Lyall (14 October 1925 – 19 March 2012)
Sergeant Eugene Roe (17 October 1922 – 30 December 1998)
Sergeant Wayne A. Sisk (4 March 1922 – 13 July 1999)
Sergeant Robert Burr Smith (2 May 1924 – 7 January 1983)
Sergeant Robert Wynn (10 July 1921 – 18 March 2000)
Corporal Walter Gordon (15 April 1920 – 19 April 1997)
Corporal Forrest Guth (6 February 1921 – 8 August 2009)
Corporal Joseph Liebgott (17 May 1915 – 28 June 1992)
Corporal Dewitt Lowrey (22 April 1922 – 8 July 2015)
Technician Fifth Grade John McGrath (12 December 1919 – 24 April 2012)

text: Junior Enlisted men[edit]

text:
Private First Class Edward Heffron (16 May 1923 – 1 December 2013)
Private First Class Edward Tipper (b. 3 August 1921 – 1 February 2017)
Private First Class David Kenyon Webster (2 June 1922 – 9 September 1961)
Private Albert Blithe (25 June 1923 – 17 December 1967)


document_title: List of most followed users on Instagram

question_text: who is the second most followed person on instagram

text: Top users

text: All-time

text:
Rank
Account name
Owner
Followers (millions)
Profession
Country

1.
@instagram[2]
Instagram
226
Social media platform
 United States

2.
@selenagomez[3]
Selena Gomez
128
Musician and actress

3.
@arianagrande[4]
Ariana Grande
114

4.
@cristiano[5]
Cristiano Ronaldo
112
Footballer
 Portugal

5.
@beyonce[6]
Beyoncé
107
Musician
 United States

6.
@taylorswift[7]
Taylor Swift
104
Musician and Actress

7.
@kimkardashian[8]
Kim Kardashian
103
Reality TV personality

8.
@kyliejenner[9]
Kylie Jenner
98.4

9.
@therock[10]
Dwayne Johnson
94.2
Actor, professional wrestler

10.
@justinbieber[11]
Justin Bieber
92
Musician
 Canada

11.
@kendalljenner[12]
Kendall Jenner
83.8
Model
 United States

12.
@nickiminaj[13]
Nicki Minaj
83.5
Musician
 Trinidad and Tobago

13.
@neymarjr[14]
Neymar
82.2
Footballer
 Brazil

14.
@natgeo[15]
National Geographic
81.7
Magazine
 United States

15.
@leomessi[16]
Lionel Messi
81
Footballer
 Argentina

16.
@nike[17]
Nike
74.6
Sportswear Multinational corporation
 United States

17.
@mileycyrus[18]
Miley Cyrus
72.1
Musician and actress

18.
@khloekardashian[19]
Khloé Kardashian
69.3
Reality TV personality

19.
@jlo[20]
Jennifer Lopez
69.2
Musician and actress

20.
@katyperry[21]
Katy Perry
67.6
Musician

21.
@ddlovato[22]
Demi Lovato
61.2
Musician and actress

22.
@kourtneykardash[23]
Kourtney Kardashian
58.8
Reality TV personality

23.
@victoriassecret[24]
Victoria's Secret
57.1
Lingerie Retailer

24.
@badgalriri[25]
Rihanna
57.1
Musician
 Barbados

25.
@kevinhart4real[26]
Kevin Hart
54.7
Comedian
 United States

26.
@realmadrid[27]
Real Madrid C.F.
53
Football club
 Spain

27.
@fcbarcelona[28]
FC Barcelona
52.4

28.
@theellenshow[29]
The Ellen Show
48.1
Comedian
 United States

29.
@justintimberlake[30]
Justin Timberlake
46.2
Musician and actor

30.
@zendaya[31]
Zendaya
44.7
Actress

31.
@vindiesel[32]
Vin Diesel
44.1
Actor

32.
@shakira[33]
Shakira
42.7
Musician
 Colombia

33.
@9gag[34]
9GAG
42
Social media platform
 Hong Kong

34.
@caradelevingne[35]
Cara Delevingne
40.6
Model and actress
 United Kingdom

35.
@davidbeckham[36]
David Beckham
40.3
Footballer

36.
@chrisbrownofficial[37]
Chris Brown
40.2
Musician
 United States

37.
@emmawatson[38]
Emma Watson
40
Actress
 United Kingdom

38.
@champagnepapi[39]
Drake
37.9
Musician
 Canada

39.
@gigihadid[40]
Gigi Hadid
35.9
Model
 United States

40.
@jamesrodriguez10[41]
James Rodríguez
33.2
Footballer
 Colombia

41.
@kingjames[42]
LeBron James
32.9
Basketballer
 United States

42.
@garethbale11[43]
Gareth Bale
31.4
Footballer
 United Kingdom

43.
@zacefron[44]
Zac Efron
30.6
Actor
 United States

44.
@adele[45]
Adele
30.2
Musician
 United Kingdom

45.
@nikefootball[46]
Nike
30.2
Sportswear Multinational corporation
 United States

46.
@maluma[47]
Maluma
28.7
Musician
 Colombia

47.
@iamzlatanibrahimovic[48]
Zlatan Ibrahimović
28
Footballer
 Sweden

48.
@nasa[49]
NASA
27.7
Government space agency
 United States

49.
@vanessahudgens[50]
Vanessa Hudgens
27
Actress and musician

50.
@ronaldinho[51]
Ronaldinho
26.6
Footballer
 Brazil

As of October 4, 2017

text: By country

text:
Rank
Country
Account name
Owner
Followers (millions)
Profession

1.
 United States
@instagram[2]
Instagram
226
Social media platform

2.
 Portugal
@cristiano[5]
Cristiano Ronaldo
112
Footballer

3.
 Canada
@justinbieber[11]
Justin Bieber
92
Musician

4.
 Trinidad and Tobago
@nickiminaj[13]
Nicki Minaj
83.5

5.
 Brazil
@neymarjr[14]
Neymar
82.2
Footballer

6.
 Argentina
@leomessi[16]
Lionel Messi
81

7.
 Barbados
@badgalriri[25]
Rihanna
57.1
Musician

8.
 Spain
@realmadrid[27]
Real Madrid C.F.
53
Football club

9.
 Colombia
@shakira[33]
Shakira
42.7
Musician

10.
 Hong Kong
@9gag[34]
9GAG
42
Social media platform

11.
 United Kingdom
@caradelevingne[35]
Cara Delevingne
40.6
Model

12.
 Sweden
@iamzlatanibrahimovic[48]
Zlatan Ibrahimović
28
Footballer

13.
 Uruguay
@luissuarez9[52]
Luis Suárez
24.7

14.
 France
@chanelofficial[53]
Chanel
24.2
Clothing Retailer

15.
 Germany
@adidasfootball[54]
Adidas
22.7
Sportswear Multinational corporation

16.
 Indonesia
@ayutingting92[55]
Ayu Ting Ting
22
Musician

17.
 Ireland
@thenotoriousmma[56]
Conor McGregor
20.4
Mixed Martial Artist

18.
 India
@deepikapadukone[57]
Deepika Padukone
19.8
Actress

19.
 Italy
@gucci[58]
Gucci
17.8
Fashion line

As of October 4, 2017


document_title: Free India Centre

question_text: who had founded free india centres in rome and paris

text: Free India Centre

text: The Free India Centre (German: Zentrale Freies Indien) was the European branch of the Provisional Government of Free India, the provisional government of the Azad Hind movement for Indian independence led by Subhas Chandra Bose. It was founded by Bose when he was in Berlin in 1942, and headed by A. C. N. Nambiar.

text: Its responsibilities included managing relations with the European Axis powers, supporting and recruiting volunteers for the Indian Legion, running Azad Hind Radio, and preparing for the much larger provisional government that was formed in southeast Asia with Japanese support. While its main base was in Berlin, it also had branch offices in Paris and in Italy. On its establishment in Berlin, the Free India Centre was essentially given the status of a diplomatic mission by Germany. It had an office at No. 2A Lichtensteiner Allee in Tiergarten, although its activities were for some time mostly conducted in hotels or Bose's eventual house on Sophienstrasse in Charlottenburg.[1]