document_title: Organic chemistry

question_text: what determines the properties of organic compounds (points 3)

question_tokens: what determines the properties of organic compounds ( points 3 )

text: Organic chemistry

text: History

text: Before the nineteenth century, chemists generally believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were endowed with a vital force that distinguished them from inorganic compounds. According to the concept of vitalism (vital force theory), organic matter was endowed with a "vital force".[4]  During the first half of the nineteenth century,  some of the first systematic studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkalis. He separated the different acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap.  Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from  organic sources), producing new compounds, without "vital force". In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler produced the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine, from inorganic starting materials (the salts potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate), in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis.  Although Wöhler  himself was cautious about claiming he had disproved vitalism, this was the first time a substance thought to be organic was synthesized in the laboratory without biological (organic) starting materials. The event is now generally accepted as indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism.[5]

tag: p

text: In 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine accidentally produced the organic dye now known as Perkin's mauve. His discovery, made widely known through its  financial success,  greatly increased interest in organic chemistry.[6]

text: A crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently in 1858 by both Friedrich August Kekulé and Archibald Scott Couper.[7] Both researchers suggested that tetravalent carbon atoms could link to each other to form a carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions.

text: The era of the pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when the manufacturing of acetylsalicylic acid—more commonly referred to as aspirin—in Germany was started by Bayer.[8] By 1910 Paul Ehrlich and his laboratory group began developing arsenic-based arsphenamine, (Salvarsan), as the first effective medicinal treatment of syphilis, and thereby initiated the medical practice of chemotherapy. Ehrlich popularized the concepts of "magic bullet" drugs and of systematically improving drug therapies.[9][10] His laboratory made decisive contributions to developing antiserum for diphtheria and standardizing therapeutic serums.[11]

text: Early examples of organic reactions and applications were often found because of a combination of luck and preparation for unexpected observations. The latter half of the 19th century however witnessed systematic studies of organic compounds. The development of synthetic indigo is illustrative. The production of indigo from plant sources dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons by 1914 thanks to the synthetic methods developed by Adolf von Baeyer. In 2002, 17,000 tons of synthetic indigo were produced from petrochemicals.[13]

text: In the early part of the 20th century, polymers and enzymes were shown to be large organic molecules, and petroleum was shown to be of biological origin.

text: The multiple-step synthesis of complex organic compounds is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of complex natural compounds increased in complexity to glucose and terpineol. For example, cholesterol-related compounds have opened ways to synthesize complex human hormones and their modified derivatives. Since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increased to include molecules of high complexity such as lysergic acid and vitamin B12.[14]

text: The discovery of petroleum and the development of the petrochemical industry spurred the development of organic chemistry. Converting individual petroleum compounds into different types of compounds by various chemical processes led to organic reactions enabling a broad range of  industrial and commercial products including, among (many) others: plastics, synthetic rubber, organic adhesives, and various property-modifying petroleum additives and catalysts.

text: The majority of chemical compounds occurring in biological organisms are in fact carbon compounds, so the association between organic chemistry and biochemistry is so close that biochemistry might be regarded as in essence a branch of organic chemistry. Although the history of biochemistry might be taken to span some four centuries, fundamental understanding of the field only began to develop in the late 19th century and the actual term biochemistry was coined around the start of 20th century. Research in the field increased throughout the twentieth century, without any indication of slackening in the rate of increase, as may be verified by inspection of abstraction and indexing services such as BIOSIS Previews and Biological Abstracts, which began in the 1920s as a single annual volume, but has grown so drastically that by the end of the 20th century it was only available to the everyday user as an online electronic database.[15]

text: Characterization

text: Since organic compounds often exist as mixtures, a variety of techniques have also been developed to assess purity, especially important being chromatography techniques such as HPLC and gas chromatography.  Traditional methods of separation include distillation, crystallization, and solvent extraction.

text: Organic compounds were traditionally characterized by a variety of chemical tests, called "wet methods", but such tests have been largely displaced by spectroscopic or other computer-intensive methods of analysis.[16]  Listed in approximate order of utility, the chief analytical methods are:

text:
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the most commonly used technique, often permitting complete assignment of atom connectivity and even stereochemistry using correlation spectroscopy.  The principal constituent atoms of organic chemistry – hydrogen and carbon – exist naturally with NMR-responsive isotopes, respectively 1H and 13C.
Elemental analysis: A destructive method used to determine the elemental composition of a molecule.  See also mass spectrometry, below.
Mass spectrometry indicates the molecular weight of a compound and, from the fragmentation patterns, its structure.  High resolution mass spectrometry can usually identify the exact formula of a compound and is used in lieu of elemental analysis.  In former times, mass spectrometry was restricted to neutral molecules exhibiting some volatility, but advanced ionization techniques allow one to obtain the "mass spec" of virtually any organic compound.
Crystallography can be useful for determining molecular geometry when a single crystal of the material is available.  Highly efficient hardware and software allows a structure to be determined within hours of obtaining a suitable crystal.

text: Traditional spectroscopic methods such as infrared spectroscopy, optical rotation, and UV/VIS spectroscopy provide relatively nonspecific structural information but remain in use for specific classes of compounds. Traditionally refractive index and density were also important for substance identification.

text: Properties

text: Physical properties of organic compounds typically of interest include both quantitative and qualitative features.  Quantitative information includes melting point, boiling point, and index of refraction. Qualitative properties include odor, consistency, solubility, and color.

text: Melting and boiling properties

text: Organic compounds typically melt and many boil. In contrast, while inorganic materials generally can be melted, many do not boil, tending instead to degrade.  In earlier times, the melting point (m.p.) and boiling point (b.p.) provided crucial information on the purity and identity of organic compounds.  The melting and boiling points correlate with the polarity of the molecules and their molecular weight.  Some organic compounds, especially symmetrical ones, sublime, that is they evaporate without melting.  A well-known example of a sublimable organic compound is para-dichlorobenzene, the odiferous constituent of modern mothballs.  Organic compounds are usually not very stable at temperatures above 300 °C, although some exceptions exist.

text: Solubility

text: Neutral organic compounds tend to be hydrophobic; that is, they are less soluble in water than in organic solvents.  Exceptions include organic compounds that contain ionizable (which can be converted in ions) groups as well as low molecular weight alcohols, amines, and carboxylic acids where hydrogen bonding occurs.  Organic compounds tend to dissolve in organic solvents.  Solvents can be either pure substances like ether or ethyl alcohol, or mixtures, such as the paraffinic solvents such as the various petroleum ethers and white spirits, or the range of pure or mixed aromatic solvents obtained from petroleum or tar fractions by physical separation or by chemical conversion. Solubility in the different solvents depends upon the solvent type and on the functional groups if present in the solution.

text: Solid state properties

text: Various specialized properties of molecular crystals and organic polymers with conjugated systems are of interest depending on applications, e.g. thermo-mechanical and electro-mechanical such as piezoelectricity, electrical conductivity (see conductive polymers and organic semiconductors), and electro-optical (e.g. non-linear optics) properties.  For historical reasons, such properties are mainly the subjects of the areas of polymer science and materials science.

text: Nomenclature

text: The names of organic compounds are either systematic, following logically from a set of rules, or nonsystematic, following various traditions. Systematic nomenclature is stipulated by specifications from IUPAC.  Systematic nomenclature starts with the name for a parent structure within the molecule of interest.  This parent name is then modified by prefixes, suffixes, and numbers to unambiguously convey the structure. Given that millions of organic compounds are known, rigorous use of systematic names can be cumbersome.  Thus, IUPAC recommendations are more closely followed for simple compounds, but not complex molecules.  To use the systematic naming, one must know the structures and names of the parent structures.  Parent structures include unsubstituted hydrocarbons, heterocycles, and monofunctionalized derivatives thereof.

text:
Nonsystematic nomenclature is simpler and unambiguous, at least to organic chemists.  Nonsystematic names do not indicate the structure of the compound. They are common for complex molecules, which includes most natural products.  Thus, the informally named lysergic acid diethylamide is systematically named
(6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo-[4,3-fg] quinoline-9-carboxamide.

text: With the increased use of computing, other naming methods have evolved that are intended to be interpreted by machines.  Two popular formats are SMILES and InChI.

text: Structural drawings

text: Organic molecules are described more commonly by drawings or structural formulas, combinations of drawings and chemical symbols.  The line-angle formula is simple and unambiguous.  In this system, the endpoints and intersections of each line represent one carbon, and hydrogen atoms can either be notated explicitly or assumed to be present as implied by tetravalent carbon.

text: History

text: By 1880 an explosion in the number of chemical compounds being discovered occurred assisted by new synthetic and analytical techniques. Grignard described the situation as "chaos le plus complet" as due to the lack of convention it was possible to have multiple names for the same compound. This led to the creation of the Geneva rules in 1892.[17]

text: Classification of organic compounds

text: Functional groups

text: The concept of functional groups is central in organic chemistry, both as a means to classify structures and for predicting properties.  A functional group is a molecular module, and the reactivity of that functional group is assumed, within limits, to be the same in a variety of molecules. Functional groups can have decisive influence on the chemical and physical properties of organic compounds. Molecules are classified on the basis of their functional groups. Alcohols, for example, all have the subunit C-O-H. All alcohols tend to be somewhat hydrophilic, usually form esters, and usually can be converted to the corresponding halides.  Most functional groups feature heteroatoms (atoms other than C and H). Organic compounds are classified according to functional groups, alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines, etc.[18]

text: Aliphatic compounds

text: The aliphatic hydrocarbons are subdivided into three groups of homologous series according to their state of saturation:

text:
alkanes (paraffins): aliphatic hydrocarbons without any double or triple bonds, i.e. just C-C, C-H single bonds
alkenes (olefins): aliphatic hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds, i.e. di-olefins (dienes) or poly-olefins.
alkynes (acetylenes): aliphatic hydrocarbons which have one or more triple bonds.

text: The rest of the group is classed according to the functional groups present.  Such compounds can be "straight-chain", branched-chain or cyclic.  The degree of branching affects characteristics, such as the octane number or cetane number in petroleum chemistry.

text: Both saturated (alicyclic) compounds and unsaturated compounds exist as cyclic derivatives. The most stable rings contain five or six carbon atoms, but large rings (macrocycles) and smaller rings are common. The smallest cycloalkane family is the three-membered cyclopropane ((CH2)3). Saturated cyclic compounds contain single bonds only, whereas aromatic rings have an alternating (or conjugated) double bond. Cycloalkanes do not contain multiple bonds, whereas the cycloalkenes and the cycloalkynes do.

text: Aromatic compounds

text: Aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double bonds. This means that every carbon atom in the ring is sp2 hybridized, allowing for added stability. The most important example is benzene, the structure of which was formulated by Kekulé who first proposed the delocalization or resonance principle for explaining its structure.  For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer.  Particular instability (antiaromaticity) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi electrons.

text: Heterocyclic compounds

text: The characteristics of the cyclic hydrocarbons are again altered if heteroatoms are present, which can exist as either substituents attached externally to the ring (exocyclic) or as a member of the ring itself (endocyclic). In the case of the latter, the ring is termed a heterocycle.  Pyridine and furan are examples of aromatic heterocycles while piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are the corresponding alicyclic heterocycles. The heteroatom of heterocyclic molecules is generally oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen, with the latter being particularly common in biochemical systems.

text: Heterocycles are commonly found in a wide range of products including aniline dyes and medicines. Additionally, they are prevalent in a wide range of biochemical compounds such as alkaloids, vitamins, steroids, and nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, RNA).

text: Rings can fuse with other rings on an edge to give polycyclic compounds. The purine nucleoside bases are notable polycyclic aromatic heterocycles.  Rings can also fuse on a "corner" such that one atom (almost always carbon) has two bonds going to one ring and two to another.  Such compounds are termed spiro and are important in a number of natural products.

text: Polymers

text: One important property of carbon is that it readily forms chains, or networks, that are linked by carbon-carbon (carbon-to-carbon) bonds. The linking process is called polymerization, while the chains, or networks, are called polymers. The source compound is called a monomer.

text: Two main groups of polymers exist: synthetic polymers and biopolymers. Synthetic polymers are artificially manufactured, and are commonly referred to as industrial polymers.[19] Biopolymers occur within a respectfully natural environment, or without human intervention.

text: Since the invention of the first synthetic polymer product, bakelite, synthetic polymer products have frequently been invented.[citation needed]

text: Common synthetic organic polymers are polyethylene (polythene), polypropylene, nylon, teflon (PTFE), polystyrene, polyesters,  polymethylmethacrylate (called perspex and plexiglas), and polyvinylchloride (PVC).[citation needed]

text: Both synthetic and natural rubber are polymers.[citation needed]

text: Varieties of each synthetic polymer product may exist, for purposes of a specific use. Changing the conditions of polymerization alters the chemical composition of the product and its properties. These alterations include the chain length, or branching, or the tacticity.[citation needed]

text: With a single monomer as a start, the product is a homopolymer.[citation needed]

text: Secondary component(s) may be added to create a heteropolymer (co-polymer) and the degree of clustering of the different components can also be controlled.[citation needed]

text: Physical characteristics, such as hardness, density, mechanical or tensile strength, abrasion resistance, heat resistance, transparency, colour, etc. will depend on the final composition.[citation needed]

text: Biomolecules

text: Biomolecular chemistry is a major category within organic chemistry which is frequently studied by biochemists. Many complex multi-functional group molecules are important in living organisms. Some are long-chain biopolymers, and these include peptides, DNA, RNA and the polysaccharides such as starches in animals and celluloses in plants. The other main classes are amino acids (monomer building blocks of peptides and proteins), carbohydrates (which includes the polysaccharides), the nucleic acids (which include DNA and RNA as polymers), and the lipids. In addition, animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates which assist in energy production through the Krebs cycle, and produces isoprene, the most common hydrocarbon in animals. Isoprenes in animals form the important steroid structural (cholesterol) and steroid hormone compounds; and in plants form terpenes, terpenoids, some alkaloids, and a class of hydrocarbons called biopolymer polyisoprenoids present in the latex of various species of plants, which is the basis for making rubber.

text: Small molecules

text: In pharmacology, an important group of organic compounds is small molecules, also referred to as 'small organic compounds'. In this context, a small molecule is a small organic compound that is biologically active, but is not a polymer. In practice, small molecules have a molar mass less than approximately 1000 g/mol.

text: Fullerenes

text: Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes, carbon compounds with spheroidal and tubular structures, have stimulated much research into the related field of materials science. The first fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Sir Harold W. Kroto of the United Kingdom and by Richard E. Smalley and Robert F. Curl, Jr., of the United States. Using a laser to vaporize graphite rods in an atmosphere of helium gas, these chemists and their assistants obtained cagelike molecules composed of 60 carbon atoms (C60) joined together by single and double bonds to form a hollow sphere with 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces—a design that resembles a football, or soccer ball. In 1996 the trio was awarded the Nobel Prize for their pioneering efforts. The C60 molecule was named buckminsterfullerene (or, more simply, the buckyball) after the American architect R. Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic dome is constructed on the same structural principles.

text: Others

text: Organic compounds containing bonds of carbon to nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens are not normally grouped separately. Others are sometimes put into major groups within organic chemistry and discussed under titles such as organosulfur chemistry, organometallic chemistry, organophosphorus chemistry and organosilicon chemistry.

text: Organic reactions

text: Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. Many of these reactions are associated with functional groups. The general theory of these reactions involves careful analysis of such properties as the electron affinity of key atoms, bond strengths and steric hindrance. These factors can determine the relative stability of short-lived reactive intermediates, which usually directly determine the path of the reaction.

text: The basic reaction types are: addition reactions, elimination reactions, substitution reactions, pericyclic reactions, rearrangement reactions and redox reactions. An example of a common reaction is a substitution reaction written as:

text: where X is some functional group and Nu is a nucleophile.

text: The number of possible organic reactions is basically infinite. However, certain general patterns are observed that can be used to describe many common or useful reactions. Each reaction has a stepwise reaction mechanism that explains how it happens in sequence—although the detailed description of steps is not always clear from a list of reactants alone.

text: The stepwise course of any given reaction mechanism can be represented using  arrow pushing techniques in which curved arrows are used to track the movement of electrons as starting materials transition through intermediates to final products.

text: Organic synthesis

text: Synthetic organic chemistry is an applied science as it borders engineering, the "design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes". Organic synthesis of a novel compound is a problem solving task, where a synthesis is designed for a target molecule by selecting optimal reactions from optimal starting materials. Complex compounds can have tens of reaction steps that sequentially build the desired molecule. The synthesis proceeds by utilizing the reactivity of the functional groups in the molecule. For example, a carbonyl compound can be used as a nucleophile by converting it into an enolate, or as an electrophile; the combination of the two is called the aldol reaction. Designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting the actual synthesis in the laboratory. The scientific practice of creating novel synthetic routes for complex molecules is called total synthesis.

text: Strategies to design a synthesis include retrosynthesis, popularized by E.J. Corey, which starts with the target molecule and splices it to pieces according to known reactions. The pieces, or the proposed precursors, receive the same treatment, until available and ideally inexpensive starting materials are reached. Then, the retrosynthesis is written in the opposite direction to give the synthesis. A "synthetic tree" can be constructed, because each compound and also each precursor has multiple syntheses.


document_title: Dollar sign

question_text: where did the us dollar sign come from

question_tokens: where did the us dollar sign come from

root

text: Dollar sign

text: Origin[edit]

text: Pillars of Hercules[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: A common hypothesis holds that the sign derives from the symbolic representation of the Pillars of Hercules – this representation can either have a banner separately around each pillar, or as in the Spanish coat of arms, a banner curling between them.

text: In 1492, Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted the symbol of the Pillars of Hercules and added the Latin warning Non plus ultra meaning "nothing further beyond", indicating "this is the end of the (known) world". But when Christopher Columbus came to America, the legend was changed to Plus ultra, meaning "further beyond". The Pillars of Hercules wrapped in a banner thus became a symbol of the New World. The link between this symbol and the dollar sign is more clearly seen in Spanish coins of the period - which show two pillars, each with a separate banner, rather than one banner spanning both pillars. In this example the right-hand pillar clearly resembles the dollar sign, and additionally directly relates to the use of money.

text: The symbol was adopted by Charles V and was part of his coat of arms representing Spain's American possessions. The symbol was later stamped on coins minted in gold and silver. The coin, also known as Spanish dollar, was the first global currency used in the entire world since the Spanish Empire was the first global Empire. These coins, depicting the pillars over two hemispheres and a small "S"-shaped ribbon around each, were spread throughout America, Europe and Asia. According to this, traders wrote signs that, instead of saying Spanish dollar (piece of eight, real de a ocho in Spanish or peso duro), had this symbol made by hand, and this in turn evolved into a simple S with two vertical bars. When the US gained their independence from Great Britain, they created the American dollar, but in its early decades they continued to use the Spanish dollar, which was more trusted in all markets.

text: The United States, even after independence, was still using the pound sterling as currency. This is attested in state legislation of the early 1780s, referring to pounds[1] and pence,[2] which pre-dated the US Constitution and federal legislation.

text: Given the origin of this theory – related to Spanish (and Portuguese) colonisation of the Americas – it is likely that the cifrão or peso signs share the same origin, and that the double stroke usage is merely a stylistic variant, rather than a distinct character.

text: Alternative origin hypotheses[edit]

text: The sign is first attested in Spanish American, American, Canadian, Mexican and other British business correspondence in the 1770s, referring to the Spanish American peso,[3][4] also known as "Spanish dollar" or "piece of eight" in North America, which provided the model for the currency that the United States adopted in 1792 and the larger coins of the new Spanish American republics such as the Mexican peso, Peruvian eight-real and Bolivian eight-sol coins.

text: This explanation holds that the sign evolved out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation "pˢ" for pesos. A study of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p, developing into a close equivalent to the "$" mark.[5][6][7][8][9] A variation, though less plausible, of this hypothesis derives the sign from a combination of the Greek character "psi" (ψ) and "S".[10]

text: Other hypotheses[edit]

text: There are a number of other hypotheses about the origin of the symbol, some with a measure of academic acceptance, others the symbolic equivalent of false etymologies.[11]

text: Among the various hypotheses, the simplest one is that the barred S is actually a typo modified 8, from its obvious link with the pieces of eight, the popular name of the Spanish dollar. The added (single or double) bar should be the same commonly used to distinguish a letter dedicated to a currency value, like £.

text: Kingdom of Sicily Denari minted by Manfred of Hohenstaufen in the Kingdom of Sicily between 1258 and 1266 had what can be construed as an early dollar symbol. These coins were widely circulated outside Europe due to the Crusades, including the Crusade that targeted Tunis.

text: Drawn with two vertical lines[edit]

text: Several alternative hypotheses relate specifically to the dollar sign drawn with two vertical lines.

text: From "U.S."[edit]

text: A dollar sign with two vertical lines could have started off as a monogram of 'USA', used on money bags issued by the United States Mint. The letters U and S superimposed resemble the historical double-stroke dollar sign : the bottom of the 'U' disappears into the bottom curve of the 'S', leaving two vertical lines. It is postulated from the papers of Dr. James Alton James, a professor of history at Northwestern University from 1897 to 1935, that the symbol with two strokes was an adapted design of the patriot Robert Morris in 1778.[12] Robert Morris was such a zealous patriot – known as the "Financier of the Revolution in the West" – that conjecture does not overstep its bounds in purporting this hypothesis as viable.[13] A similar idea claims that the letters U and S would stand for unit of silver, referencing pieces of eight again, but that is unlikely since one would expect it to be in Spanish instead.

text: German thaler[edit]

text: Another hypothesis is that it derives from the symbol used on a German Thaler. According to Ovason (2004), on one type of thaler one side showed a crucifix while the other showed a serpent hanging from a cross, the letters NU near the serpent's head, and on the other side of the cross the number 21. This refers to the Bible, Numbers, Chapter 21 (see Nehushtan).

text: A similar symbol, constructed by superposition of "S" and "I" or "J", was used to denote German Joachimsthaler ("S" and "J" standing for St. Joachim who gave his name to the place where the first thalers were minted). It was known in the English-speaking world by the 17th century, appearing in 1686 edition of An Introduction to Merchants' Accounts by John Collins.[14]

text: Later history[edit]

text: Robert Morris was the first to use that symbol in official documents and in official communications with Oliver Pollock. The US Dollar was directly based on the Spanish Milled Dollar when, in the Coinage Act of 1792, the first Mint Act, its value was fixed (per the U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 8, clause 1 power of the United States Congress "To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures") as being "of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current, and to contain three hundred and seventy-one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure, or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver".

text: According to a plaque in St Andrews, Scotland, the dollar sign was first cast into type at a foundry in Philadelphia, United States in 1797 by the Scottish immigrants John Baine, Archibald Binney and James Ronaldson.

text: The dollar sign did not appear on U.S. coinage until February 2007,[citation needed] when it was used on the reverse of a $1 coin authorized by the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005.[15]

text: The dollar sign appears as early as 1847 on the $100 Mexican War notes and the reverse of the 1869 $1000 United States note.[16][17] The dollar sign also appears on the reverse of the 1934 $100,000[18] note.

text: In Japanese and Korean, the Han character 弗 has been repurposed to represent the dollar sign due to its visual similarity.

text: Use in computer software[edit]

text: The dollar sign is one of the few symbols that are almost universally present in computer character sets but rarely needed in its literal meaning within computer software. As a result, the character has been used on computers for many purposes unrelated to money. Its uses in programming languages have often influenced or provoked its uses in operating systems, and applications.

text: Encoding[edit]

text: The dollar sign "$" has Unicode code point U+0024 (inherited from Latin-1).

text: U+0024  $  Dollar sign (HTML $) ($ in HTML5[19])

tag: ul

text: There are no separate characters for one and two line variants. This is typeface-dependent.

text: There are also three other codepoints that originate from other East Asian standards: the Taiwanese small form variant, the CJK fullwidth form, and the Japanese emoji. The glyphs for these codepoints are typically larger or smaller than the primary codepoint, but the difference is mostly aesthetic or typographic, and the meanings of the symbols are the same.

text:
U+FE69  ﹩  Small dollar sign (HTML ﹩)
U+FF04  ＄  Fullwidth dollar sign (HTML ＄)
U+1F4B2  💲  Heavy dollar sign (HTML 💲)

text: However, for usage as the special character in various computing applications (see following sections), U+0024 is typically the only code that is recognized.

text: Programming languages[edit]

text:
$ was used for defining string variables in older versions of the BASIC language ("$" was often pronounced "string" instead of "dollar" in this use).
$ is used for defining hexadecimal constants in Pascal-like languages such as Delphi, and in some variants of assembly language.
$ is prefixed to names to define variables in the PHP language and the AutoIt automation script language, scalar variables in the Perl language (see sigil (computer programming)), and global variables in the Ruby language. In Perl programming this includes scalar elements of arrays $array[7] and hashes $hash{foo}.
In most shell scripting languages, $ is used for interpolating (substitution of) environment variables, special variables, arithmetic computations and special characters, and for performing translation of localised strings. Christopher Stratchey's GPM, the inspiration for the Multics shell, used the non-ASCII symbol § for macro expansion.[citation needed]
$ is used in the ALGOL 68 language to delimit transput format regions.
$ is used in the TeX typesetting language to delimit mathematical regions.
In many versions of FORTRAN 66, $ could be used as an alternative to a quotation mark for delimiting strings.
In PL/M, $ can be used to put a visible separation between words in compound identifiers. For example, 'Some$Name' refers to the same thing as 'SomeName'.
In Haskell, $ is used as a function application operator.
In several JavaScript frameworks such as Prototype.js and jQuery, $ is a common utility class, and is often referred to as the buck.
In JavaScript from ES6 onward it is used inside template literals to insert the value of a variable. For example, if var word = such then `as ${word}` would equal 'as such'
In ASP.NET, the dollar sign used in a tag in the web page indicates an expression will follow it. The expression that follows is .NET language-agnostic, as it will work with c#, vb.net, or any CLR supported language.
In Erlang, the dollar sign precedes character literals. The dollar sign as a character can be written $$.
In COBOL the $ sign is used in the Picture clause to depict a floating currency symbol as the left most character. The default symbol is $ however if the CURRENCY= or CURRENCY SIGN clause is specified, any single symbol can be used.
In some assembly languages like MIPS, the $ sign is used to represent registers.
In Honeywell 6000 series assembler, the $ sign, when used as an address, meant the address of the instruction in which it appeared.
In CMS-2, the $ sign is used as a statement terminator.

text: Operating systems[edit]

text:
In CP/M and subsequently in all versions of DOS (86-DOS, MS-DOS, PC DOS, more) and derivatives, $ is used as a string terminator (Int 21h with AH=09h).

$ is used by the prompt command to insert special sequences into the DOS command prompt string.

In Microsoft Windows, $ is appended to the share name to hide a shared folder or resource. For example, "\\server\share" will be visible to other computers on a network, while "\\server\share$" will be accessible only by explicit reference. Hiding a shared folder or resource will not alter its access permissions but may render it unaccessible to programs or other functions which rely on its visibility. Most administrative shares are hidden in this way.
In Unix-like systems the $ is often part of the command prompt, depending on the user's shell and environment settings. For example, the default environment settings for the bash shell specify $ as part of the command prompt.

The using history expansion !$ (same as !!1$ and !-1$) means the last argument of the previous command in bash: !-2$ expands to the last argument of the penultimate command, !5$ expands into the last argument of the fifth command and so on. For example:

text:
In the LDAP directory access protocol, $ is used as a line separator in various standard entry attributes such as postalAddress.
In the UNIVAC EXEC 8 operating system, "$" meant "system." It was appended to entities such as the names of system files, the "sender" name in messages sent by the operator, and the default names of system-created files (like compiler output) when no specific name was specified (e.g., TPF$, NAME$, etc.)
In RISC OS, $ is used in System Variables to separate the application name from the variables specific to that application - for example Draw$Dir specifies the directory where the !Draw application is located. It is also used to refer to the root directory of a file system.

text: Applications[edit]

text:
Microsoft Excel[20] and other spreadsheet software use the dollar sign ($) to denote an absolute cell reference.
$ matches the end of a line or string in sed, grep, and POSIX and Perl regular expressions, and, as a result:
$ signifies the end of a line or the file in text editors ed, ex, vi, pico and derivatives.

text: Currencies that use the dollar or peso sign[edit]

text: In addition to those countries of the world that use dollars or pesos, a number of other countries use the $ symbol to denote their currencies, including:

text:
Nicaraguan córdoba (usually written as C$)
Samoan tālā (a transliteration of the word dollar)
Tongan paʻanga

text: An exception is the Philippine peso, whose sign is written as ₱.

text: The dollar sign is also still sometimes used to represent the Malaysian ringgit (which replaced the local dollar), though its official use to represent the currency has been discontinued since 1993.

text: Some currencies use the cifrão (), similar to the dollar sign, but always with two strokes:

text:
Brazilian real
Cape Verde escudo
Portuguese escudo (defunct)

text: In Mexico and other peso-using countries, the cifrão is used as a dollar sign when a document uses both pesos and dollars at the same time, to avoid confusion, but when the dollar sign is used alone (not in conjunction with the cifrão), it is usually represented as US $ (United States dollars) or by its ISO 4217 code "USD". Example: US $5 or 5 USD (five US dollars).[citation needed]

text: However, in Argentina, the $ sign is always used for pesos, and if they want to indicate dollars, they always write U$S 5 or US$5 (5 US dollars).

text: In the United States, Mexico, Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Pacific Island nations, and English-speaking Canada, the dollar or peso symbol precedes the number. Five dollars or pesos is written and printed as $5, whereas five cents is written as 5¢. In French-speaking Canada, the dollar symbol usually appears after the number (5$), although it sometimes appears in front of it.

text: Other uses[edit]

text: The dollar sign is also used in library cataloging to represent subsections.[citation needed]

text: Also, it is used derisively to indicate greed or excess money such as in "Micro$oft", "George Luca$", "Lar$ Ulrich", "Di$ney", "Chel$ea" and "GW$"; or supposed overt Americanization as in "$ky". The dollar sign is also used intentionally to stylize names such as A$AP Rocky, Ke$ha and Ty Dolla $ign or words such as ¥€$. In 1872, Ambrose Bierce referred to the California Governor as $tealand Landford.[21]

text: In Scrabble notation, a dollar sign is placed after a word to indicate that it is valid according to the North American word lists, but not according to the British word lists.[22]


document_title: Battles of Saratoga

question_text: who became allies with america after the battle of saratoga

text: Battles of Saratoga

text: Background

text: The American Revolutionary War was approaching the two-year point, and the British changed their plans. They decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what they believed to be the more Loyalist middle and southern colonies. The British command devised a plan to divide the colonies with a three-way pincer movement in 1777.[10] The western pincer under the command of Barry St. Leger was to progress from Ontario through western New York, following the Mohawk River,[11] and the southern pincer was to progress up the Hudson River valley from New York City.[12] The northern pincer was to proceed southward from Montreal, and the three forces were to meet in the vicinity of Albany, New York, severing New England from the other colonies.[13]

text: British situation

text: British General John Burgoyne moved south from the province of Quebec in June 1777 to gain control of the upper Hudson River valley. His campaign had become bogged down in difficulties following a victory at Fort Ticonderoga.[13] Elements of the army had reached the upper Hudson as early as the end of July, but logistical and supply difficulties delayed the main army at Fort Edward. One attempt to alleviate these difficulties failed when nearly 1,000 men were killed or captured at the August 16 Battle of Bennington.[14] Furthermore, news reached Burgoyne on August 28 that St. Leger's expedition down the Mohawk River valley had turned back after the failed Siege of Fort Stanwix.[15]

text: General William Howe had taken his army from New York City by sea on a campaign to capture Philadelphia instead of moving north to meet Burgoyne.[16] Most of Burgoyne's Indian support had fled following the loss at Bennington, and his situation was becoming difficult.[17] He needed to reach defensible winter quarters, requiring either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany, and he decided to advance. He then deliberately cut communications to the north so that he would not need to maintain a chain of heavily fortified outposts between his position and Ticonderoga, and he decided to cross the Hudson River while he was in a relatively strong position.[18] He ordered Baron Riedesel, who commanded the rear of the army, to abandon outposts from Skenesboro south, and then had the army cross the Hudson just north of Saratoga between September 13 and 15.[19]

text: American situation

text: The Continental Army had been in a slow retreat since Burgoyne's capture of Ticonderoga early in July, under the command of Major General Philip Schuyler, and was encamped south of Stillwater, New York. On August 19, Major General Horatio Gates assumed command from Schuyler, whose political fortunes had fallen over the loss of Ticonderoga and the ensuing retreat.[20] Gates and Schuyler were from very different backgrounds and did not get along with each other; they had previously argued over command issues in the army's Northern Department.[21] The army was growing in size because of increased militia turnout following calls by state governors, the success at Bennington, and widespread outrage over the slaying of Jane McCrea, the fiancée of a Loyalist in Burgoyne's army by Indians under Burgoyne's command.[22]

text: General George Washington's strategic decisions also improved the situation for Gates' army. Washington was most concerned about the movements of General Howe. He was aware that Burgoyne was also moving, and he took some risks in July. He sent aid north in the form of Major General Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Major General Benjamin Lincoln, a Massachusetts man noted for his influence with the New England militia.[23] He ordered 750 men from Israel Putnam's forces defending the New York highlands to join Gates' army in August, before he was certain that Howe had indeed sailed south. He also sent some of the best forces from his own army: Colonel Daniel Morgan and the newly formed Provisional Rifle Corps, which comprised about 500 specially selected riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, chosen for their sharpshooting ability.[24] This unit came to be known as Morgan's Riflemen.

text: On September 7, Gates ordered his army to march north. A site was selected for its defensive potential that was known as Bemis Heights, just north of Stillwater and about 10 miles (16 km) south of Saratoga; the army spent about a week constructing defensive works designed by Polish engineer Tadeusz Kościuszko. The heights had a clear view of the area and commanded the only road to Albany, where it passed through a defile between the heights and the Hudson River. To the west of the heights lay more heavily forested bluffs that would present a significant challenge to any heavily equipped army.[25]

text: First Saratoga: Battle of Freeman's Farm (September 19)

text: Prelude

text: Moving cautiously, since the departure of his Native American support had deprived him of reliable reports on the American position, Burgoyne advanced to the south after crossing the Hudson.[26] On September 18 the vanguard of his army had reached a position just north of Saratoga, about 4 miles (6.4 km) from the American defensive line, and skirmishes occurred between American scouting parties and the leading elements of his army.[27]

text: The American camp had become a bed of festering intrigue ever since Arnold's return from Fort Stanwix. While he and Gates had previously been on reasonably good terms in spite of their prickly egos, Arnold managed to turn Gates against him by taking on officers friendly to Schuyler as staff, dragging him into the ongoing feud between the two.[28] These conditions had not yet reached a boil on September 19, but the day's events contributed to the situation. Gates had assigned the left wing of the defenses to Arnold, and assumed command himself of the right, which was nominally assigned to General Lincoln, whom Gates had detached in August with some troops to harass the British positions behind Burgoyne's army.[29]

text: Both Burgoyne and Arnold understood the importance of the American left, and the need to control the heights there. After the morning fog lifted around 10 am, Burgoyne ordered the army to advance in three columns. Baron Riedesel led the left column, consisting of the German troops and the 47th Foot, on the river road, bringing the main artillery and guarding supplies and the boats on the river. General James Inglis Hamilton commanded the center column, consisting of the 9th, 20th, 21st, and 62nd regiments, which would attack the heights, and General Simon Fraser led the right wing with the 24th Regiment and the light infantry and grenadier companies, to turn the American left flank by negotiating the heavily wooded high ground north and west of Bemis Heights.[30]

text: Arnold also realized such a flanking maneuver was likely, and petitioned Gates for permission to move his forces from the heights to meet potential movements, where the American skill at woodlands combat would be at an advantage.[31] Gates, whose preferred strategy was to sit and wait for the expected frontal assault, grudgingly permitted a reconnaissance in force consisting of Daniel Morgan's men and Henry Dearborn's light infantry.[32] When Morgan's men reached an open field northwest of Bemis Heights belonging to Loyalist John Freeman, they spotted British advance troops in the field. Fraser's column was slightly delayed and had not yet reached the field, while Hamilton's column had also made its way across a ravine and was approaching the field from the east through dense forest and difficult terrain. Riedesel's force, while it was on the road, was delayed by obstacles thrown down by the Americans. The sound of gunfire to the west prompted Riedesel to send some of his artillery down a track in that direction. The troops Morgan's men saw were an advance company from Hamilton's column.[33]

text: Battle

text: Morgan placed marksmen at strategic positions, who then picked off virtually every officer in the advance company. Morgan and his men then charged, unaware that they were headed directly for Burgoyne's main army. While they succeeded in driving back the advance company, Fraser's leading edge arrived just in time to attack Morgan's left, scattering his men back into the woods.[34] James Wilkinson, who had ridden forward to observe the fire, returned to the American camp for reinforcements. As the British company fell back toward the main column, the leading edge of that column opened fire, killing a number of their own men.[35]

text: There was then a lull in the fighting around 1:00 pm as Hamilton's men began to form up on the north side of the field, and American reinforcements began to arrive from the south. Learning that Morgan was in trouble, Gates ordered out two more regiments (1st and 3rd New Hampshire) to support him,[36] with additional regiments (2nd New York, 4th New York, the 1st Canadian, and Connecticut militia) from the brigade of Enoch Poor to follow.[37] Burgoyne arrayed Hamilton's men with the 21st on the right, the 20th on the left, and the 62nd in the center, with the 9th held in reserve.[38]

text: The battle then went through phases alternating between intense fighting and breaks in the action. Morgan's men had regrouped in the woods, and picked off officers and artillerymen. They were so effective at reducing the latter that the Americans several times gained brief control of British field pieces, only to lose them in the next British charge. At one point it was believed that Burgoyne himself had been taken down by a sharpshooter; it was instead one of Burgoyne's aides, riding a richly dressed horse, who was the victim. The center of the British line was very nearly broken at one point, and only the intervention of General Phillips, leading the 20th, made it possible for the 62nd to reform.[39] In Roger Lamb's memoir, (a British soldier present at the battle), he wrote ''In this battle an unusual number of officers fell, as our army abounded with young men of respectability at this time, who after several years of general peace anterior to the American revolution, were attracted to the profession of arms. Three sulbalterns (officers) of the 20th regiment on this occasion, the oldest of whom did not exceed the age of seventeen years, were buried together''[40]

text: The final stroke of the battle belonged to the British. Around 3 pm, Riedesel sent a messenger to Burgoyne for instructions. He returned two hours later with orders to guard the baggage train, but also to send as many men as he could spare toward the American right flank. In a calculated risk, Riedesel left 500 men to guard the vital supply train and marched off toward the action with the rest of his column. Two of his companies advanced on the double and opened vicious fire on the American right,[41] and Fraser's force threatened to turn the American left flank. In response to the latter threat, Arnold requested more forces, and Gates allowed him to dispatch Ebenezer Learned's brigade (2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts). (If Arnold had been on the field, these forces might have instead faced the larger danger posed by Riedesel's force.)[42] Fortunately for the American right, darkness set in, bringing an end to the battle. The Americans retreated back to their defenses, leaving the British on the field.[7]

text: Burgoyne had gained the field of battle, but suffered nearly 600 casualties. Most of these were to Hamilton's center column, where the 62nd was reduced to the size of a single company, and three quarters of the artillerymen were killed or wounded.[43] American losses were nearly 300 killed and seriously wounded.[44]

text: It has been widely recounted in histories of this battle that General Arnold was on the field, directing some of the action. However, John Luzader, a former park historian at the Saratoga National Historical Park, carefully documents the evolution of this story and believes it is without foundation in contemporary materials, and that Arnold remained at Gates' headquarters, receiving news and dispatching orders through messengers.[45][46] Arnold biographer James Kirby Martin, however, disagrees with Luzader, arguing that Arnold played a more active role at Freeman's Farm by directing patriot troops into position and possibly leading some charges before being ordered back to headquarters by Gates.[47]

text: Interlude

text:
… an attack or even menace of an attack on Fort Montgomery must be of great use ...

Burgoyne to Clinton, September 23, 1777[48]

tag: div

text: Burgoyne's council discussed whether to attack the next day, and a decision was reached to delay further action at least one day, to September 21. The army moved to consolidate the position closer to the American line while some men collected their dead. The attack on the 21st was called off when Burgoyne received a letter dated September 12 from Henry Clinton, who was commanding the British garrison in New York City. Clinton suggested that he could "make a push at [Fort] Montgomery in about ten days." (Fort Montgomery was an American post on the Hudson River, in the New York Highlands south of West Point). If Clinton left New York on September 22, "about ten days" after he wrote the letter, he still could not hope to arrive in the vicinity of Saratoga before the end of the month. Burgoyne, running low on men and food, was still in a very difficult position, but he decided to wait in the hope that Clinton would arrive to save his army.[49] Burgoyne wrote to Clinton on September 23, requesting some sort of assistance or diversion to draw Gates' army away.[48] Clinton sailed from New York on October 3, and captured Forts Montgomery and Clinton on October 6.[50] The furthest north any of his troops reached was Clermont, where they raided the estate of the prominent Patriot Livingston family on October 16.[51]

text: Unknown to either side at Saratoga, General Lincoln and Colonel John Brown had staged an attack against the British position at Fort Ticonderoga. Lincoln had collected 2,000 men at Bennington by early September.[52] Brown and a detachment of 500 men captured poorly defended positions between Ticonderoga and Lake George, and then spent several days ineffectually bombarding the fort. These men, and some of the prisoners they freed along the way, were back in the American camp by September 29.[53][54]

text: In the American camp, the mutual resentment between Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold finally exploded into open hostility. Gates quickly reported the action of September 19 to the Congress and Governor George Clinton of New York, but he failed to mention Arnold at all. The field commanders and men universally credited Arnold for their success. Almost all the troops involved were from Arnold's command and Arnold was the one directing the battle while Gates sat in his tent. Arnold protested, and the dispute escalated into a shouting match that ended with Gates relieving Arnold of his command and giving it to Benjamin Lincoln. Arnold asked for a transfer to Washington's command, which Gates granted, but instead of leaving he remained in his tent.[55] There is no documentary evidence for a commonly recounted anecdote that a petition signed by line officers convinced Arnold to stay in camp.[56]

text: During this period there were almost daily clashes between pickets and patrols of the two armies. Morgan's sharpshooters, familiar with the strategy and tactics of woodland warfare, constantly harassed British patrols on the western flank.[57]

text: As September passed into October it became clear that Clinton was not coming to help Burgoyne, who put the army on short rations on October 3.[58] The next day, Burgoyne called a war council in which several options were discussed, but no conclusive decisions were made. When the council resumed the next day, Riedesel proposed retreat, in which he was supported by Fraser. Burgoyne refused to consider it, insisting that retreat would be disgraceful. They finally agreed to conduct an assault on the American left flank with two thousand men, more than one-third of the army, on October 7.[59] The army he was attacking, however, had grown in the interval. In addition to the return of Lincoln's detachment, militiamen and supplies continued to pour into the American camp, including critical increases in ammunition, which had been severely depleted in the first battle.[60] The army Burgoyne faced on October 7 was more than 12,000 men strong[2] and was led by a man who knew how much trouble Burgoyne was in. Gates had received consistent intelligence from the stream of deserters leaving the British lines and had also intercepted Clinton's response to Burgoyne's plea for help.[61]

text: Second Saratoga: Battle of Bemis Heights (October 7)

text: British foray

text: While Burgoyne's troop strength was nominally higher, he likely had only about 5,000 effective, battle-ready troops on October 7, as losses from the earlier battles in the campaign and desertions following the September 19 battle had reduced his forces.[62] General Riedesel advised that the army retreat. Burgoyne decided to reconnoiter the American left flank to see if an attack was possible. As an escort, the generals took Fraser's Advanced Corps, with light troops and the 24th Foot on the right and the combined British grenadiers on the left, and a force drawn from all the German regiments in the army in the center. There were eight British cannon under Major Williams and two Hesse-Hanau cannon under Captain Pausch.[63] Leaving their camp between 10 and 11 am, they advanced about three-quarters of a mile (1 km) to Barber's wheat field on a rise above Mill Brook, where they stopped to observe the American position. While the field afforded some room for artillery to work, the flanks were dangerously close to the surrounding woods.[64]

text: Gates, following the removal of Arnold from the field command, assumed command of the American left and gave the right to General Lincoln. When American scouts brought news of Burgoyne's movement to Gates, he ordered Morgan's riflemen out to the far left, with Poor's men (1st, 2nd, and 3rd New Hampshire on the left; the 2nd and 4th New York Regiments) on the right, and Learned's (1st New York, 1st Canadian, 2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts Regiments, plus militia companies) in the center. A force of 1,200 New York militia under Brigadier General Abraham Ten Broeck was held in reserve behind Learned's line.[65] In all, more than 8,000 Americans took the field that day,[66] including about 1,400 men from Lincoln's command that were deployed when the action became particularly fierce.[67]

text: The opening fire came between 2 and 2:30 pm from the British grenadiers. Poor's men held their fire, and the terrain made the British shooting largely ineffective. When Major Acland led the British grenadiers in a bayonet charge, the Americans finally began shooting at close range. Acland fell, shot in both legs, and many of the grenadiers also went down. Their column was a total rout, and Poor's men advanced to take Acland and Williams prisoner and capture their artillery.[68] On the American left, things were also not going well for the British. Morgan's men swept aside the Canadians and Native Americans to engage Fraser's regulars. Although slightly outnumbered, Morgan managed to break up several British attempts to move west.[68] While General Fraser was mortally wounded in this phase of the battle,[69] a frequently told story claiming it to be the work of Timothy Murphy, one of Morgan's men, appears to be a 19th-century fabrication.[70] The fall of Fraser and the arrival of Ten Broeck's large militia brigade (which roughly equaled the entire British reconnaissance force in size), broke the British will, and they began a disorganized retreat toward their entrenchments. Burgoyne was also very nearly killed by one of Morgan's marksmen; three shots hit his horse, hat, and waistcoat.[71]

text: The first phase of the battle lasted about one hour and cost Burgoyne nearly 400 men, including the capture of most of the grenadiers' command, and six of the ten field pieces brought to the action.[71]

text: American attack

text: At this point, the Americans were joined by an unexpected participant. General Arnold, who was "betraying great agitation and wrath" in the American camp, and may have been drinking, rode out to join the action.[72][73] Gates immediately sent Major Armstrong after him with orders to return; Armstrong did not catch up with Arnold until the action was effectively over.[73] (A letter, written by a witness to proceedings in the camp, suggests that Arnold did in fact have authorization from Gates to engage in this action.)[74]

text: The defenses on the right side of the British camp were anchored by two redoubts. The outermost one was defended by about 300 men under the command of the Hessian Heinrich von Breymann, while the other was under the command of Lord Balcarres. A small contingent of Canadians occupied the ground between these two fortifications. Most of the retreating force headed for Balcarres' position, as Breymann's was slightly north and further away from the early action.[75]

text: Arnold led the American chase, and then led Poor's men in an attack on the Balcarres redoubt. Balcarres had set up his defenses well, and the redoubt was held, in action so fierce that Burgoyne afterwards wrote, "A more determined perseverance than they showed … is not in any officer's experience".[76] Seeing that the advance was checked, and that Learned was preparing to attack the Breymann redoubt, Arnold moved toward that action, recklessly riding between the lines and remarkably emerging unhurt. He led the charge of Learned's men through the gap between the redoubts, which exposed the rear of Breymann's position, where Morgan's men had circled around from the far side.[77] In furious battle, the redoubt was taken and Breymann was killed.[78] Arnold's horse was hit in one of the final volleys, and Arnold's leg was broken by both shot and the falling horse. Major Armstrong finally caught up with Arnold to officially order him back to headquarters; he was carried back in a litter.[79]

text: The capture of Breymann's redoubt exposed the British camp, but darkness was setting in. An attempt by some Germans to retake the redoubt ended in capture as darkness fell and an unreliable guide led them to the American line.[80]

text: Aftermath

text: Burgoyne's failed campaign, as may be seen by the titles of some of the books that cover it in detail, marked a major turning point in the war.[81] After the battle, he withdrew his men 10–15 miles north, near present-day Schuylerville, New York. General Burgoyne returned to England and was never given another commanding position in the British Army.[82]

text: Armies and casualties

text: Burgoyne lost 1,000 men in the two battles, leaving him outnumbered by roughly 3 to 1; American losses came to about 500 killed and wounded. Burgoyne had also lost several of his most effective leaders, his attempts to capture the American position had failed, and his forward line was now breached. That night he lit fires at his remaining forward positions and withdrew under the cover of darkness. On the morning of October 8, he was back in the fortified positions he had held on September 16. By October 13 he was surrounded at Saratoga, and on October 17 he surrendered his army. The remnants of his expedition retreated from Ticonderoga back to Quebec.

text: The British learned that the Americans would fight bravely and effectively. Said one British officer:

text: The courage and obstinacy with which the Americans fought were the astonishment of everyone, and we now became fully convinced that they are not that contemptible enemy we had hitherto imagined them, incapable of standing a regular engagement and that they would only fight behind strong and powerful works.[83]

text: In recognition of his contribution to the battles at Saratoga, General Arnold had his seniority restored (he had lost it after being passed over for promotion earlier in 1777).[84] His leg wound left Arnold bedridden for five months.[85] Later, while still unfit for field service but serving as military governor of Philadelphia, Arnold entered into treasonous correspondence with the British. He received command of the fort at West Point and plotted to hand it over to the British, only to flee into the British lines when the capture of his contact John Andre led to the exposure of the plot. Arnold went on to serve under William Phillips, the commander of Burgoyne's right wing, in a 1781 expedition into Virginia.[86]

text: Although he left the direction of the battle to subordinates, General Gates received a great deal of credit as the commanding general for the greatest American victory of the war to date. He may have conspired with others to replace George Washington as the commander-in-chief.[87] Instead, he received the command of the main American army in the South. He led it to a disastrous defeat at the 1780 Battle of Camden, where he was at the forefront of a panicked retreat.[88][89] Gates never commanded troops in the field again.

text: In response to Burgoyne's surrender, Congress declared December 18, 1777, as a national day "for solemn Thanksgiving and praise"; it was the nation's first official observance of a holiday with that name.[90][91]

text: French aid

text: Once news of Burgoyne's surrender reached France, King Louis XVI decided to enter into negotiations with the Americans that resulted in a formal Franco-American alliance and French entry into the war. This moved the conflict onto a global stage.[92] As a consequence, Britain was forced to divert resources used to fight the war in North America to theaters in the West Indies and Europe, and rely on what turned out to be the chimera of Loyalist support in its North American operations.[93] Being defeated by the British in the French and Indian War more than a decade earlier, France found an opportunity of revenge by aiding the colonists throughout the Revolutionary War. Prior to the Battle of Saratoga, France didn't fully aid the colonists. However, after the Battles of Saratoga were conclusively won by the colonists, France realized that the Americans had the hope of winning the war, and began fully aiding the colonists by sending soldiers, donations, loans, military arms, and supplies.[94]

text: Legacy

text: The battlefield and the site of Burgoyne's surrender have been preserved, and are now administered by the National Park Service as the Saratoga National Historical Park, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The park preserves a number of the buildings in the area and contains a variety of monuments.[95] The Saratoga Monument obelisk has four niches, three of which hold statues of American commanders: Gates and Schuyler and of Colonel Daniel Morgan. The fourth niche, where Arnold's statue would go, is empty.[96] A more dramatic memorial to Arnold's heroism, that does not name him, is the Boot Monument. Donated by Civil War General John Watts de Peyster, it shows a boot with spurs and the stars of a major general. It stands at the spot where Arnold was shot on October 7 charging Breymann's redoubt and is dedicated to "the most brilliant soldier of the Continental Army".[97]

text: Six Army National Guard units (101st Eng Bn,[98] 102nd Inf,[99] 125th QM Co,[100] 181st Inf,[101] 182nd Inf[102] and 192nd MP Bn[103]) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Saratoga. There are now only thirty units in the U.S. Army with lineages that go back to the colonial era.

text: There are a number of ships named after the battles including USS Saratoga (1842), USS Saratoga (CV-3), and USS Saratoga (CV-60)[104]

text:
Saratoga Monument obelisk

View of the battlefield from the visitor center of Saratoga National Historic Park

Benjamin Franklin honored the victory in Saratoga by commissioning and designing an Augustin Dupré medallion. It was minted in Paris in 1783.[105]

The Surrender of General Burgoyne depicted on a 1927 US Postage Stamp


document_title: The Great Outdoors (film)

question_text: where did they go in the great outdoors

question_tokens: where did they go in the great outdoors

text: The Great Outdoors (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Chicagoan Chester "Chet" Ripley, his wife, Connie, and their two sons, Buckley "Buck" and Ben, are on vacation at a lake resort in Pechoggin, Wisconsin during the summer. All is going as planned until Connie's sister, Kate, Kate's investment broker husband, Roman Craig, and their twin daughters, Mara and Cara, crash the vacation.

text: Ghost stories at the family BBQ include one of a man-eating grizzly bear that Chet met face-to-face when he was younger. Chet says that while he and Connie were honeymooning at the same lake, he was attacked by a giant grizzly bear. When he fired at it with a shotgun, the buckshot shaved the hair off the top of the bear's head and from that day on, it was known as the "Bald-Headed Bear" of Clare County.

text: After Roman pulls Chet around the lake on an impromptu water ski ride with his rented speedboat, tensions between the families erupt. Chet is ready to pack up and go home, even as his teenage son Buck tries to romance a local girl, Cammie. The budding romance goes well until Chet is challenged to eat the Old 96'er (a 96-ounce steak) at a family dinner which causes Buck to break the date. Buck tries to apologize to Cammie for being late, but Cammie refuses to speak to him.

text: Connie and Kate bond at a local bar when the conversation drifts to Kate's challenges of being wealthy. Later, just at the peak of tension between families, it emerges that Roman has made a bad investment and is broke. He has not told Kate and was planning to hit up Chet for the cash.

text: Later, during a thunderstorm, the twins wander off and fall into a mine shaft. Chet and Roman find them, but the claustrophobic Roman is reluctant to descend into the tiny mine shaft. After some encouragement from Chet, Roman summons up all his courage, while Chet goes in search of a rope to pull them out. Upon realizing that the mine is stocked with old dynamite, Roman takes his daughters and climbs out of the shaft on his own.

text: When Chet returns with the rope, he is horrified to discover the "Bald-Headed Bear" lurking in the mine. It chases him back to his house, smashes through the door, and rampages through the house. Wally, the cabin owner, bursts in with a loaded shotgun while Roman tries to hold off the animal with a fire poker and an oar. Chet takes the gun and shoots the bear, blowing the fur off its backside. Roaring, the bear runs out of the house.

text: The next morning, the two families part on good terms. Unbeknownst to Chet, Connie has invited Roman's family to stay with them until they can get back on their feet. Cammie and Buck make up and end their summer romance, as Buck and his family head back to Chicago.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Dan Aykroyd as Roman Craig
John Candy as Chester "Chet" Ripley
Stephanie Faracy as Connie Ripley
Annette Bening as Kate "Katie" Craig
Robert Prosky as Wally
Chris Young as Buckley "Buck" Ripley
Ian Giatti as Ben "Benny" Ripley
Hillary and Rebecca Gordon as Cara and Mara Craig
Lucy Deakins as Cammie

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: The film was shot on location in Bass Lake, California, a small resort town near Yosemite National Park over three weeks in October 1987.[1]

text: Ducey's Bass Lake Lodge, a rustic 1940s resort in Bass Lake, was featured as Wally and Juanita’s Perk’s Pine Lodge. The Loon’s Nest vacation cabin, built as a set, was designed to match the style of Ducey’s existing cabins.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Great Outdoors earned a mixed response from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 40% based on 15 reviews.[2]

text: Janet Maslin of The New York Times reported that the film did not have enough collective energy to light a campfire in her review.[3] Kevin Thomas of The Los Angeles Times called the film as "a crass, blah comedy about summer vacation perils" and said he was surprised the film got made at all. He described the credits sequence where Aykroyd dances to Wilson Pickett's "Land of a 1,000 Dances" as the only genuine fun and energy in the entire film.[4] "Imagine that it's raining cats and dogs and you're locked in a north woods cabin for weeks with the people you like least, and you'll pretty much have a feel for what it's like to sit through this movie," said Hal Hinson of The Washington Post.[5]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film grossed $6,121,115 in its opening weekend and ended up with a North American domestic box office gross of $41,455,230, and a worldwide gross of $43,455,230.[6][7]

text: Reboot[edit]

text: On April 27, 2017, Universal Pictures has Kevin Hart starring in a reboot of the film with Michael De Luca producing.[8]


document_title: Triple point

question_text: what three forms of ice are present at the triple point marked o

text: Triple point

text: Triple point of water[edit]

text: Gas–liquid–solid triple point[edit]

text: The single combination of pressure and temperature at which liquid water, solid ice, and water vapor can coexist in a stable equilibrium occurs at exactly 273.16 K (0.01 °C; 32.02 °F) and a partial vapor pressure of 611.657 pascals (6.11657 mbar; 0.00603659 atm).[4][5] At that point, it is possible to change all of the substance to ice, water, or vapor by making arbitrarily small changes in pressure and temperature. Even if the total pressure of a system is well above the triple point of water, provided that the partial pressure of the water vapor is 611.657 pascals, then the system can still be brought to the triple point of water. Strictly speaking, the surfaces separating the different phases should also be perfectly flat, to negate the effects of surface tension.

text: The gas–liquid–solid triple point of water corresponds to the minimum pressure at which liquid water can exist. At pressures below the triple point (as in outer space), solid ice when heated at constant pressure is converted directly into water vapor in a process known as sublimation. Above the triple point, solid ice when heated at constant pressure first melts to form liquid water, and then evaporates or boils to form vapor at a higher temperature.

text: For most substances the gas–liquid–solid triple point is also the minimum temperature at which the liquid can exist. For water, however, this is not true because the melting point of ordinary ice decreases as a function of pressure, as shown by the dotted green line in the phase diagram. At temperatures just below the triple point, compression at constant temperature transforms water vapor first to solid and then to liquid (water ice has lower density than liquid water, so increasing pressure leads to a liquefaction).

text: The triple point pressure of water was used during the Mariner 9 mission to Mars as a reference point to define "sea level". More recent missions use laser altimetry and gravity measurements instead of pressure to define elevation on Mars.[6]

text: High pressure phases[edit]

text: At high pressures, water has a complex phase diagram with 15 known phases of ice and several triple points including ten whose coordinates are shown in the diagram. For example, the triple point at 251 K (−22 °C) and 210 MPa (2070 atm) corresponds to the conditions for the coexistence of ice Ih (ordinary ice), ice III and liquid water, all at equilibrium. There are also triple points for the coexistence of three solid phases, for example ice II, ice V and ice VI at 218 K (−55 °C) and 620 MPa (6120 atm).

text: For those high-pressure forms of ice which can exist in equilibrium with liquid, the diagram shows that melting points increase with pressure. At temperatures above 273 K (0 °C), increasing the pressure on water vapor results first in liquid water and then a high-pressure form of ice. In the range 251–273 K, ice I is formed first, followed by liquid water and then ice III or ice V, followed by other still denser high-pressure forms.

text: Triple point cells[edit]

text: Triple point cells are used in the calibration of thermometers. For exacting work, triple point cells are typically filled with a highly pure chemical substance such as hydrogen, argon, mercury, or water (depending on the desired temperature). The purity of these substances can be such that only one part in a million is a contaminant, called "six nines" because it is 99.9999% pure. When it is a water-based cell, a special isotopic composition called VSMOW is used because it is very pure and produces temperatures that are more comparable from lab to lab. Triple point cells are so effective at achieving highly precise, reproducible temperatures, an international calibration standard for thermometers called ITS–90 relies upon triple point cells of hydrogen, neon, oxygen, argon, mercury, and water for delineating six of its defined temperature points.

text: Table of triple points[edit]

text: This table lists the gas–liquid–solid triple points of several substances. Unless otherwise noted, the data come from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now NIST, National Institute of Standards and Technology).[7]

text:
Substance
T [K] (°C)
p [kPa]* (atm)

Acetylene
0192.4 !192.4 K (−80.7 °C)
7002120000000000000♠ 120 kPa (1.2 atm)

Ammonia
0195.40 !195.40 K (−77.75 °C)
7000607590000000000♠ 6.076 kPa (0.05997 atm)

Argon
0083.81 !83.81 K (−189.34 °C)
7001689000000000000♠ 68.9 kPa (0.680 atm)

Arsenic
1090 !1,090 K (820 °C)
7003362800000000000♠ 3,628 kPa (35.81 atm)

Butane[8]
0134.6 !134.6 K (−138.6 °C)
6996700000000000000♠ 7 × 10−4 kPa

Carbon (graphite)
4765 !4,765 K (4,492 °C)
7004101320000000000♠ 10,132 kPa (100.00 atm)

Carbon dioxide
0216.55 !216.55 K (−56.60 °C)
7002517000000000000♠ 517 kPa (5.10 atm)

Carbon monoxide
0068.10 !68.10 K (−205.05 °C)
7001153700000000000♠ 15.37 kPa (0.1517 atm)

Chloroform[9]
0175.43 !175.43 K (−97.72 °C)
6999870000000000000♠ 0.870 kPa (0.00859 atm)

Deuterium
0018.63 !18.63 K (−254.52 °C)
7001171000000000000♠ 17.1 kPa (0.169 atm)

Ethane
0089.89 !89.89 K (−183.26 °C)
6996800000000000000♠ 8 × 10−4 kPa

Ethanol[10]
0150 !150 K (−123 °C)
6993429990000099999♠ 4.3 × 10−7 kPa

Ethylene
0104.0 !104.0 K (−169.2 °C)
6999120000000000000♠ 0.12 kPa (0.0012 atm)

Formic acid[11]
0281.40 !281.40 K (8.25 °C)
7000220000000000000♠ 2.2 kPa (0.022 atm)

Helium-4 (lambda point)[12]
0002.18 !2.1768 K (−270.9732 °C)
7000500000000000000♠ 5.048 kPa (0.04982 atm)

Helium-4 (hcp−bcc−He-II)[13]
0001.46 !1.463 K (−271.687 °C)
7003263800000000000♠ 26.036 kPa (0.25696 atm)

Helium-4 (bcc−He-I−He-II)[13]
0001.77 !1.762 K (−271.388 °C)
7003300000000000000♠ 29.725 kPa (0.29336 atm)

Helium-4 (hcp−bcc−He-I)[13]
0001.77 !1.772 K (−271.378 °C)
7003304000000000000♠ 30.016 kPa (0.29623 atm)

Hexafluoroethane[14]
0173.08 !173.08 K (−100.07 °C)
7001266000000000000♠ 26.60 kPa (0.2625 atm)

Hydrogen
0013.84 !13.84 K (−259.31 °C)
7000704000000000000♠ 7.04 kPa (0.0695 atm)

Hydrogen chloride
0158.96 !158.96 K (−114.19 °C)
7001139000000000000♠ 13.9 kPa (0.137 atm)

Iodine[15]
0386.65 !386.65 K (113.50 °C)
7001120700000000000♠ 12.07 kPa (0.1191 atm)

Isobutane[16]
0113.55 !113.55 K (−159.60 °C)
6995194810000000000♠ 1.9481 × 10−5 kPa

Krypton
0115.76 !115.76 K (−157.39 °C)
7001741200000000000♠ 74.12 kPa (0.7315 atm)

Mercury
0234.2 !234.2 K (−39.0 °C)
6993165009999999999♠ 1.65 × 10−7 kPa

Methane
0090.68 !90.68 K (−182.47 °C)
7001117000000000000♠ 11.7 kPa (0.115 atm)

Neon
0024.57 !24.57 K (−248.58 °C)
7001432000000000000♠ 43.2 kPa (0.426 atm)

Nitric oxide
0109.50 !109.50 K (−163.65 °C)
7001219200000000000♠ 21.92 kPa (0.2163 atm)

Nitrogen
0063.18 !63.18 K (−209.97 °C)
7001126000000000000♠ 12.6 kPa (0.124 atm)

Nitrous oxide
0182.34 !182.34 K (−90.81 °C)
7001878500000000000♠ 87.85 kPa (0.8670 atm)

Oxygen
0054.36 !54.36 K (−218.79 °C)
6999152000000000000♠ 0.152 kPa (0.00150 atm)

Palladium
1825 !1,825 K (1,552 °C)
6997350000000000000♠ 3.5 × 10−3 kPa

Platinum
2045 !2,045 K (1,772 °C)
6996200000000000000♠ 2.0 × 10−4 kPa

Radon
202 !202 K (−71 °C)
7001700000000000000♠ 70 kPa (0.69 atm)

(mono)Silane[17]
0088.48 !88.48 K (−184.67 °C)
7001117000000000000♠ 0.00019644 bar (0.00019387 atm)

Sulfur dioxide
0197.69 !197.69 K (−75.46 °C)
7000167000000000000♠ 1.67 kPa (0.0165 atm)

Titanium
1941 !1,941 K (1,668 °C)
6997530000000000000♠ 5.3 × 10−3 kPa

Uranium hexafluoride
0337.17 !337.17 K (64.02 °C)
7002151690000000000♠ 151.7 kPa (1.497 atm)

Water[4][5]
0273.16 !273.16 K (0.01 °C)
6999611657000000000♠ 0.611657 kPa (0.00603659 atm)

Xenon
0161.3 !161.3 K (−111.8 °C)
7001815000000000000♠ 81.5 kPa (0.804 atm)

Zinc
0692.65 !692.65 K (419.50 °C)
6998650000000000000♠ 0.065 kPa (0.00064 atm)

text: * Note: for comparison, typical atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa (1 atm).


document_title: A Star Is Born (2018 soundtrack)

question_text: i'll never love again a star is born writer

question_tokens: i 'll never love again a star is born writer

text: A Star Is Born (2018 soundtrack)

text: Background and development[edit]

text: In March 2015, Warner Bros. announced that Bradley Cooper was in talks to make his directorial debut with A Star Is Born, the fourth remake of the 1937 film of the same name.[2] Lady Gaga was officially attached to the film in August 2016, with the studio green-lighting the project to begin production in early 2017.[3] Cooper plays Jackson Maine, "a veteran country singer who discovers and eventually falls in love with a struggling singer-songwriter named Ally, played by Gaga."[4] Gaga "helped inform Cooper's performance as a musician".[5]

text: Cooper spent two-and-a-half years prepping for the film and determining what kind of musician his character would be. He worked with a number of musicians and vocal coach Roger Love.[6] Cooper said, "by the end he just kind of started developing into his own sort of creation. If I had another year of prep, it would have been complete rock, but now it's some sort of hybrid."[6]

text: Writing and recording[edit]

text: Cooper described the soundtrack "an evolution, like the story."[7] Gaga and Cooper were writing songs for the soundtrack during filming, leading to "so many different incarnations of each song."[7] Cooper added that "the music really became a character in the movie. There is no lyric that's ever in any point of the movie that doesn't have exactly to do with where one of them is or hopes to be or regrets being. That was our launching pad and then it was just about discovering what songs fit in the right places."[7] Jason Isbell wrote a song for Cooper's character, which became "the sword with which a lot of the music spawned from [Cooper]". Isbell sent the song through Dave Cobb, a Nashville-based producer with whom Cooper had been collaborating.[8]

text: Cooper approached Lukas Nelson (son of country music singer Willie Nelson) after seeing him perform at Desert Trip in October 2016 and asked him to work on the film as a music consultant.[9] Nelson said he began "writing songs for the movie, just for the heck of it, and sending them over to the producer, and they started liking them. Then Lady Gaga came by and I met her and we clicked. We became good friends, and we started writing together."[10] Gaga, in turn, provided backing vocals on two tracks on Nelson's self-titled album released in 2017.[11] Nelson and his band, Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real, appear in the film as Cooper's backing band.[6]

text: Gaga reunited with producer Mark Ronson and songwriter Hillary Lindsey, who had both contributed to her previous studio album Joanne (2016).[6] She worked with recurring collaborator DJ White Shadow on the soundtrack's more pop-oriented numbers performed by her character Ally. Much of the album was recorded live on set, at Gaga's insistence.[1][6]

text: Music and lyrics[edit]

text: Billboard described the soundtrack as "integral to the plotline", adding that "many of the lyrics are about wanting and longing for change, but noting the struggle. Some express the great love and beautiful bond the booze-addled rock star (Jackson Maine, played by Cooper) and neophyte singer-songwriter (Ally, played by Lady Gaga) have for each other", and concluding that "the music stands up, movie or no movie. They are timeless, emotional, gritty and earnest. They sound like songs written by artists who, quite frankly, are supremely messed up but hit to the core of the listener."[12]

text: Release[edit]

text: The soundtrack's track list and release date were announced on August 30, 2018.[4] Interscope Records tweeted that the album "features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film."[13] Its track "Shallow" was released on September 27 as the album's lead single.[14]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Professional ratingsAggregate scoresSourceRatingMetacritic78/100[15]Review scoresSourceRatingAllMusic[16]The Daily Telegraph[17]The Guardian[18]NME[19]Pitchfork7.4/10[20]Rolling Stone[21]Slant Magazine[22]

text: The soundtrack received positive response from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album has an average score of 78, based on 8 reviews, indicating  "generally favorable reviews".[15] In a positive review, The Washington Post called the soundtrack a "five-star marvel" and stated that it is a possible contender to win a Grammy Award.[23] Ben Beaumont-Thomas of The Guardian gave the album a positive review, acknowledging "Bradley Cooper shows he can sing as well as act and direct", but that "it is Lady Gaga’s pop prowess that lifts each track, be it spectacular piano ballads or heart-rending duets"[18]

text: In a positive review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, writing for AllMusic, said "All the songs make sense narratively and on their own, so they hold together well and would amount to a first-rate soundtrack", but criticized the dialogue included in the album.[16] Rolling Stone's Brittany Spanos gave the soundtrack four stars out of a possible five, saying "The music Gaga helps write for this stretch in Ally’s career...is gorgeous--romantic without being trite and powerful."[21] Nick Reilly of NME complimented the album's "emotionally charged songs that feel entirely appropriate for this heartfelt tale of doomed romance", adding that the album is "one of the best Hollywood soundtracks of recent years."[19]

text: Writing for The Daily Telegraph, Neil McCormick gave the album a moderately positive review, saying the soundtrack was enjoyable, but criticized the "slightly awkward journey from rock balladry to slickly superficial pop" and stated that "there is also a weird disconnect as the soundtrack shifts gear to anodyne modern pop".[17] Jeremy Winograd of Slant Magazine, in a mixed review, was critical of the album, saying "There’s undoubtedly a strong 10-song album lodged at the core of A Star Is Born, but unlike the film, wherein an outsized sense of sentimentality is rendered affecting by the more grounded performances, there’s not nearly enough substance here to justify all the bombast."[22]

text: Commercial performance[edit]

text: A Star Is Born opened atop the US Billboard 200 with 231,000 album-equivalent units, including 162,000 pure album sales. It had the biggest overall sales week for a soundtrack in over three years, and is Gaga's fifth US number-one album as well as Cooper's first. Gaga extended her record as the female artist with the most chart-topping albums during the 2010s, breaking her tie with Taylor Swift. Beside its pure album sales, A Star Is Born earned 37,000 in stream-equivalent units and 32,000 from track-equivalent units.[24] The soundtrack spent a second week at number one there with 143,000 album-equivalent units (86,000 being pure sales), and became Gaga's second album to top the chart for two consecutive weeks after Born This Way (2011).[25] It then held the country's summit for a third week in a row with 109,000 equivalent units (61,000 pure sales), becoming the first soundtrack since High School Musical 2 in 2007 to top the chart for its first three weeks. Additionally it became Gaga's longest running chart-topping album in the country.[26]

text: A Star Is Born entered at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 18,000 equivalent units, earning the top sales and digital song download honors and the seventh highest on-demand streams for the week. The soundtrack was Gaga's third album to reach the summit in the nation and her first since Born This Way.[27] The soundtrack held the top position for the next week, with another 12,000 equivalent units and was also the top-selling album.[28] It had an 11% increase in sales during the third week and remained atop the charts, selling close to 14,000 equivalent units. Like in the United States, the soundtrack became Gaga's longest running chart-topping album in Canada for Gaga.[29]

text: In the United Kingdom, A Star Is Born faced competition from Twenty One Pilots' fifth studio album, Trench, with the midweek chart suggesting the latter to emerge as the top album. A Star Is Born pulled ahead at the last moment according to Alan Jones from Music Week, and debuted atop the UK Albums Chart with 31,816 units (including 6,178 from stream-equivalent units). It became Gaga's fourth album to reach number one in the nation and first since Artpop (2013), as well as Cooper's first entry on the chart.[30][31] The soundtrack was then displaced by Jess Glynne's Always In Between the following week, and it fell to number two, selling 24,732 equivalent units.[32][33] For the week ending November 1, 2018, the soundtrack moved back atop the chart with 24,982 copies sold (including 6,645 from sales-equivalent streams). "Shallow" also reached the top of the UK Singles Chart that week, making Gaga and Cooper score an Official UK Chart double, this being Gaga's third time to do so.[34][35]

text: A Star Is Born opened at number one in Ireland and Scotland,[36][37] and was Gaga's third number one in the former.[38] During its third week atop the Irish chart, the soundtrack attained its highest sales tally.[39] In France, the soundtrack sold 8,700 units and debuted at number seven on the SNEP Albums Chart, and held the same position the next week with another 8,000 units.[40][41] In Australia, A Star Is Born entered at number three on the ARIA Albums Chart, giving Gaga her seventh top 10 album in the country and her sixth to reach the top three.[42] Two weeks later, the soundtrack reached the top of the charts, becoming Gaga's third album to reach the Australian charts summit after The Fame Monster and Born This Way.[43] The soundtrack debuted at number six in the New Zealand Albums Chart, and after two weeks reached the top.[44]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: Standard version[45]No.TitleWriter(s)Producer(s)Length1."Intro"  0:202."Black Eyes" (performed by Bradley Cooper)CooperLukas NelsonCooperNelsonLady Gaga[a][b]3:033."Somewhere Over the Rainbow" (dialogue; featuring Lady Gaga)Harold ArlenE.Y. HarburgClaire Louise Whittleston[46] 0:424."Fabulous French" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper, Lady Gaga, Anthony Ramos and D.J. "Shangela" Pierce)  0:195."La Vie en rose" (performed by Lady Gaga)LouiguyÉdith PiafGagaBrian Newman2:596."I'll Wait for You" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga)  0:197."Maybe It's Time" (performed by Bradley Cooper)Jason IsbellCooperBenjamin RiceGaga[a]2:398."Parking Lot" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga)  0:319."Out of Time" (performed by Bradley Cooper)CooperNelsonCooperNelson2:5210."Alibi" (performed by Bradley Cooper)GagaCooperNelsonGagaCooperNelson3:0311."Trust Me" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga)  0:32[e]12."Shallow" (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)GagaMark RonsonAnthony RossomandoAndrew WyattGagaRice3:3513."First Stop, Arizona" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga)  0:1014."Music to My Eyes" (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)GagaNelsonNelson3:1915."Diggin' My Grave" (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)Paul KennerleyGagaNelson3:5716."I Love You" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga)  0:1917."Always Remember Us This Way" (performed by Lady Gaga)GagaNatalie HembyHillary LindseyLori McKennaDave CobbGaga3:3018."Unbelievable" (dialogue; featuring Lady Gaga and Rafi Gavron)  0:2819."How Do You Hear It?" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga)  0:1420."Look What I Found" (performed by Lady Gaga)GagaMark Nilan Jr.Nick MonsonPaul "DJWS" BlairNelsonAaron RaitiereGagaNilanMonsonBlair2:5521."Memphis" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga)  0:2422."Heal Me" (performed by Lady Gaga)GagaNilanMonsonBlairJulia MichaelsJustin TranterGagaNilanMonsonBlair3:1623."I Don't Know What Love Is" (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)GagaNelsonGaga[c]NelsonNilan[b]Monson[b]2:5724."Vows" (dialogue; featuring Lady Gaga)  0:1725."Is That Alright?" (performed by Lady Gaga)GagaNilanMonsonBlairRaitiereGagaNilanMonsonBlair3:1126."SNL" (dialogue; featuring Alec Baldwin, Donald King, Michael Mancini and Gena Rositano)  0:1327."Why Did You Do That?" (performed by Lady Gaga)GagaDiane WarrenNilanMonsonBlairGagaNilanMonsonBlair3:0428."Hair Body Face" (performed by Lady Gaga)GagaNilanMonsonBlairGagaNilanMonsonBlairRice[d]3:2229."Scene 98" (dialogue; featuring Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga)  0:35[f]30."Before I Cry" (performed by Lady Gaga)GagaNilanMonsonBlairGagaNilanMonsonBlair4:1831."Too Far Gone" (performed by Bradley Cooper)CooperNelsonCooperNelson1:2632."Twelve Notes" (dialogue; featuring Lady Gaga and Sam Elliott)  1:0333."I'll Never Love Again" (film version) (performed by Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper)GagaHembyLindseyRaitiereGagaRice4:4134."I'll Never Love Again" (extended version) (performed by Lady Gaga)GagaHembyLindseyRaitiereGagaRice5:28Total length:70:01[g]

text: showVersion without dialogue[47]No.TitleLength1."Black Eyes"3:032."La Vie en rose"2:593."Maybe It's Time"2:394."Out of Time"2:525."Alibi"3:036."Shallow" (radio edit)3:377."Music to My Eyes"3:198."Diggin' My Grave"3:579."Always Remember Us This Way"3:3010."Look What I Found"2:5511."Heal Me"3:1612."I Don't Know What Love Is"2:5713."Is That Alright?"3:1114."Why Did You Do That?"3:0415."Hair Body Face"3:2216."Before I Cry"4:1817."Too Far Gone"1:2618."I'll Never Love Again" (film version) (radio edit)4:4119."I'll Never Love Again" (extended version) (radio edit)5:28Total length:63:37

text: Notes

text:
^[a]  – additional vocal production
^[b]  – additional production
^[c]  – main and additional production
^[d]  – vocal production
^[e]  – 0:31 on clean version of the album
^[f]  – 0:34 on clean version of the album
^[g]  – 69:59 for clean version of the album

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2018)

Peak position

Argentinian Albums (CAPIF)[48]

3

Australian Albums (ARIA)[49]

1

Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[50]

2

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[51]

4

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[52]

4

Canadian Albums (Billboard)[53]

1

Croatia International Albums (HDU)[54]

3

Czech Albums (ČNS IFPI)[55]

1

Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[56]

3

Estonian Albums (IFPI)[57]

1

Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)[58]

12

French Albums (SNEP)[59]

7

German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[60]

5

Greek Albums (IFPI Greece)[61]

4

Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)[62]

15

Icelandic Albums (Tonlist)[63]

4

Irish Albums (OCC)[64]

1

Italian Albums (FIMI)[65]

4

New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[44]

1

Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[66]

2

Polish Albums (ZPAV)[67]

32

Portuguese Albums (AFP)[68]

2

Scottish Albums (OCC)[37]

1

Slovak Albums (ČNS IFPI)[69]

1

South African Albums (RiSA)[70]

18

South Korean Albums (Gaon)[71]

37

South Korean International Albums (Gaon)[72]

1

Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)[73]

2

Swedish Compilation (Sverigetopplistan)[74]

1

Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[75]

1

UK Albums (OCC)[76]

1

UK Soundtrack Albums (OCC)[77]

1

US Billboard 200[78]

1

US Soundtrack Albums (Billboard)[79]

1

US Top Tastemaker Albums (Billboard)[80]

1

text: Release history[edit]

text:
Region

Date

Format

Label

Ref.

Various

October 5, 2018

Digital download
Streaming
CD
LP

Interscope

[81]

Japan

November 7, 2018

CD
LP

[82]