document_title: United States Armed Forces

question_text: how many members are in the armed forces

text: United States Armed Forces

text: History[edit]

text: The history of the U.S. Armed Forces dates to 1775, even before the Declaration of Independence marked the establishment of the United States. The Continental Army, Continental Navy and Continental Marines were created in close succession by the Second Continental Congress in order to defend the new nation against the British Empire in the American Revolutionary War.

text: These forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. The Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784 and the United States Congress created the United States Navy on 27 March 1794 and the United States Marine Corps on 11 July 1798. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army (on 14 June 1775), the Continental Navy (on 13 October 1775) and the Continental Marines (on 10 November 1775). The 1787 adoption of the Constitution gave the Congress the power to "raise and support armies", "provide and maintain a navy" and to "make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces", as well as the power to declare war. The President is the U.S. Armed Forces' commander-in-chief.

text: Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U.S. Navy (established 13 October 1775) and the United States Marine Corps (established 10 November 1775). The United States Coast Guard dates its origin to the founding of the Revenue Cutter Service on 4 August 1790 which merged with the United States Life-Saving Service in 1915 to establish the Coast Guard. The United States Air Force was established as an independent service on 18 September 1947; it traces its origin to the formation of the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps, which was formed 1 August 1907 and was part of the Army before becoming an independent service.

text: The reserve component formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War to be called into service in case of war.[14][15][16] Time magazine's Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror the reserves deployed as a single force with the active component and the U.S. no longer has a strategic reserve.[17][18][19]

text: Command structure[edit]

text: Command over the U.S. Armed Forces is established in the Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief. The Constitution also allows for the creation of "executive Departments" headed by "principal officers" whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act. The DoD is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the Armed Forces' chain of command (with the exception of the Coast Guard, which is under the Secretary of Homeland Security), just below the President and serves as the principal assistant to the President in all defense-related matters.[20] Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, which by law is the ultimate lawful source of military orders.[21]

text: To coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only advisory power to the President, but several of the members who statutorily comprise the council (the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Energy and the Secretary of Defense) possess executive authority over their own departments.[22]

text: Just as the President and the Secretary of Defense are in charge of the entire military establishment, maintaining civilian control of the military, so too are each of the Defense Department's constitutive military departments headed by civilians. The four DoD branches are organized into three departments, each with civilian heads. The Department of the Army is headed by the Secretary of the Army, the Department of the Navy is headed by the Secretary of the Navy and the Department of the Air Force is headed by the Secretary of the Air Force. The Marine Corps is organized under the Department of the Navy. The Coast Guard is not under the administration of the Defense Department, but the DHS and receives its operational orders from the Secretary of Homeland Security. However, the Coast Guard may be transferred to the Department of the Navy by the President or Congress during a time of war, thereby placing it within the DoD.[23]

text: The President, Secretary of Defense and other senior executive officials are advised by a seven-member Joint Chiefs of Staff, which is headed by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the highest-ranking officer in the United States military and the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.[24] The rest of the body is composed of the heads of each of the DoD's service branches (the Chief of Staff of the Army, the Chief of Naval Operations, the Commandant of the Marine Corps and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force) as well as the Chief of the National Guard Bureau. Although commanding one of the five military branches, the Commandant of the Coast Guard is not a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Despite being composed of the highest-ranking officers in each of the respective branches, the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not possess operational command authority. Rather, the Goldwater-Nichols Act charges them only with advisory power.[25]

text: All of the branches work together during operations and joint missions in Unified Combatant Commands, under the authority of the Secretary of Defense with the exception of the Coast Guard. Each of the Unified Combatant Commands is headed by a Combatant Commander, a senior commissioned officer who exercises supreme command authority per 10 U.S.C. § 164 over all of the forces, regardless of branch, within his geographical or functional command. By statute, the chain of command flows from the President to the Secretary of Defense to each of the Combatant Commanders.[26] In practice, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff often acts as an intermediary between the Secretary of Defense and the Combatant Commanders.

text: Budget[edit]

text: The United States has the world's largest military budget. In the fiscal year 2016, $580.3 billion in funding were enacted for the DoD and for "Overseas Contingency Operations" in the War on Terrorism.[4] Outside of direct DoD spending, the United States spends another $218 to $262 billion each year on other defense-related programs, such as Veterans Affairs, Homeland Security, nuclear weapons maintenance and DoD.

text: By service, $146.9 billion was allocated for the Army, $168.8 billion for the Navy and Marine Corps, $161.8 billion for the Air Force and $102.8 billion for defense-wide spending.[4] By function, $138.6 billion was requested for personnel, $244.4 billion for operations and maintenance, $118.9 billion for procurement, $69.0 billion for research and development, $1.3 billion for revolving and management funds, $6.9 billion for military construction and $1.3 billion for family housing.[4] In fiscal year 2009, major defense programs saw continued funding:

text:
$4.1 billion was requested for the next-generation fighter, F-22 Raptor, which was to roll out an additional 20 planes in 2009
$6.7 billion was requested for the F-35 Lightning II, which is still under development, but 16 planes were slated to be built
The Future Combat System program is expected to see $3.6 billion for its development
A total of $12.3 billion was requested for missile defense, including Patriot CAP, PAC-3 and SBIRS-High

tag: ul

text: Loren Thompson, a defense analyst with the Lexington Institute, has blamed the "vast sums of money" squandered on cutting-edge technology projects that were then canceled on shortsighted political operatives who lack a long-term perspective in setting requirements. The result is that the number of items bought under a given program are cut. The total development costs of the program are divided over fewer platforms, making the per-unit cost seem higher and so the numbers are cut again and again in a death spiral.[27] Although the United States was the world's biggest exporter of major weapons in 2010–2014, the U.S. was also the world's eight biggest importer during the same period. U.S. arms imports increased by 21 percent between 2005–2009 and 2010–2014.[10]

text: Cost containment measures in the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and the Obama administration's energy policy will play critical determining roles because health care and fuel costs are the two fastest-growing segments of the defense budget.[28][29]

text: Personnel[edit]

text: The projected active duty end strength in the armed forces for fiscal year 2017 was 1,281,900 people,[4] with an additional 801,200 people in the seven reserve components.[4] It is an all-volunteer military, but conscription through the Selective Service System can be enacted at the President's request and Congress' approval. All males ages 18 through 25 who are living in the United States are required to register with the Selective Service for a potential future draft.

text: The U.S. Armed Forces is the world's second largest after China's People's Liberation Army and has troops deployed around the globe.

text: From 1776 until September 2012, a total of 40 million people have served in the United States Armed Forces.[30]

text: The fiscal year 2017 DoD budget request[4] plan calls for an active duty end strength of 1,281,900, a decrease of 19,400 from the 2016 baseline as a result of decrements in the Army (15,000 fewer personnel) and Navy (4,400 fewer personnel) strength. The budget request also calls for a reserve component end strength of 801,200, a decrease of 9,800 personnel.

text: As in most militaries, members of the U.S. Armed Forces hold a rank, either that of officer, warrant officer or enlisted, to determine seniority and eligibility for promotion. Those who have served are known as veterans. Rank names may be different between services, but they are matched to each other by their corresponding paygrade.[31] Officers who hold the same rank or paygrade are distinguished by their date of rank to determine seniority, while officers who serve in certain positions of office of importance set by law, outrank all other officers in active duty of the same rank and paygrade, regardless of their date of rank.[32] Currently, only one in four persons in the United States of the proper age meet the moral, academic and physical standards for military service.[33]

text: Personnel in each service[edit]

text: 2010 Demographic Reports and end strengths for reserve components[4][34][35] (should be updated using July 2017 DMDC military personnel data).[36]

text:
Component
Military
Enlisted
Officer
Male
Female
Civilian

 United States Army
541,291
438,670
98,126
465,784
75,507
299,644

 United States Marine Corps
195,338
173,474
21,864
181,845
13,493
20,484

 United States Navy
317,237
260,253
52,546
265,852
51,385
179,293

 United States Air Force
333,772
265,519
64,290
270,462
63,310
174,754

 United States Coast Guard
42,357

9,752[37]
35,567
6,790
7,057

Total Active
1,429,995
1,137,916
236,826
1,219,510
210,485

 Army National Guard of the United States
342,000

 United States Army Reserve
198,000

 United States Marine Corps Reserve
38,900

 United States Navy Reserve
57,400

 Air National Guard of the United States
105,500

 United States Air Force Reserve
69,200

 United States Coast Guard Reserve
8,100

Total Reserves
818,000

Other DoD Personnel

108,833

text: These numbers do not take into account the use of Private Military and Private Security Companies (PSCs). Quarterly PSC census reports are available for United States Central Command (USCENTCOM)'s area of operations—i.e. Iraq and Afghanistan.[38] As of March 2011, there were 18,971 private security contractor (PSC) personnel in Afghanistan working for DoD, whereas in Iraq there were 9,207 PSC personnel, down from a high of 15,279 in June 2009.[39] As of October 2012, in Afghanistan there were 18,914 PSC personnel working for DoD and in Iraq there were 2,116 PSC personnel.[40] The total number of DoD contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan was more than 137,400, but reported PSCs were only a part of the number.

text: Personnel stationing[edit]

text: Overseas[edit]

text: As of 31 December 2010, U.S. Armed Forces troops were stationed in 150 countries; the number of non-contingent deployments per country ranges from 1 in Suriname to over 50,000 in Germany.[41] Some of the largest deployments are: 103,700 in Afghanistan, 52,440 in Germany (see list), 35,688 in Japan (USFJ), 28,500 in South Korea (USFK), 9,660 in Italy and 9,015 in the United Kingdom. These numbers change frequently due to the regular recall and deployment of units.

text: Altogether, 77,917 military personnel are located in Europe, 141 in the former Soviet Union, 47,236 in East Asia and the Pacific, 3,362 in North Africa, the Near East and South Asia, 1,355 in sub-Saharan Africa and 1,941 in the Western Hemisphere excluding the United States itself.

text: Domestic[edit]

text: Including U.S. territories and ships afloat within territorial waters As of 31 December 2009, a total of 1,137,568 personnel were on active duty within the United States and its territories (including 84,461 afloat).[42] The vast majority (941,629 personnel) were stationed at bases within the contiguous United States. There were an additional 37,245 in Hawaii and 20,450 in Alaska while 84,461 were at sea, 2,972 in Guam and 179 in Puerto Rico.

text: Types of personnel[edit]

text: Enlisted[edit]

text: Prospective service members are often recruited from high school or college, the target age ranges being 18–35 in the Army, 18–28 in the Marine Corps, 18–34 in the Navy, 18–39 in the Air Force and 18–27 (up to age 32 if qualified for attending guaranteed "A" school) in the Coast Guard. With the permission of a parent or guardian, applicants can enlist at age 17 and participate in the Delayed Entry Program (DEP), in which the applicant is given the opportunity to participate in locally sponsored military activities, which can range from sports to competitions led by recruiters or other military liaisons (each recruiting station's DEP varies).

text: After enlistment, new recruits undergo basic training (also known as "boot camp" in the Marine Corps, Navy and Coast Guard), followed by schooling in their primary Military Occupational Specialty (MOS), rating and Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) at any of the numerous training facilities around the United States. Each branch conducts basic training differently. The Marine Corps send all non-infantry MOS's to an infantry skills course known as Marine Combat Training prior to their technical schools. Air Force Basic Military Training graduates attend Technical Training and are awarded their Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) at the apprentice (3) skill level. All Army recruits undergo Basic Combat Training (BCT), followed by Advanced Individual Training (AIT), with the exceptions of cavalry scouts, infantry, armor, combat engineers and military police recruits who go to One Station Unit Training (OSUT), which combines BCT and AIT. The Navy sends its recruits to Recruit Training and then to "A" schools to earn a rating. The Coast Guard's recruits attend basic training and follow with an "A" school to earn a rating.

text: Initially, recruits without higher education or college degrees will hold the pay grade of E-1 and will be elevated to E-2 usually soon after basic training. Different services have different incentive programs for enlistees, such as higher initial ranks for college credit, being an Eagle Scout and referring friends who go on to enlist as well. Participation in DEP is one way recruits can achieve rank before their departure to basic training.

text: There are several different authorized pay grade advancement requirements in each junior-enlisted rank category (E-1 to E-3), which differ by service. Enlistees in the Army can attain the initial pay grade of E-4 (specialist) with a four-year degree, but the highest initial pay grade is usually E-3 (members of the Army Band program can expect to enter service at the grade of E-4). Promotion through the junior enlisted ranks occurs after serving for a specified number of years (which can be waived by the soldier's chain of command), a specified level of technical proficiency or maintenance of good conduct. Promotion can be denied with reason.

text: Non-commissioned and petty officers[edit]

text: With very few exceptions, becoming a non-commissioned officer (NCO) or petty officer in the U.S. Armed Forces is accomplished by progression through the lower enlisted ranks. However, unlike promotion through the lower enlisted tier, promotion to NCO is generally competitive. NCO ranks begin at E-4 or E-5, depending upon service and are generally attained between three and six years of service. Junior NCOs function as first-line supervisors and squad leaders, training the junior enlisted in their duties and guiding their career advancement.

text: While considered part of the non-commissioned officer corps by law, senior non-commissioned officers (SNCOs) referred to as chief petty officers in the Navy and Coast Guard, or staff non-commissioned officers in the Marine Corps, perform duties more focused on leadership rather than technical expertise. Promotion to the SNCO ranks, E-7 through E-9 (E-6 through E-9 in the Marine Corps) is highly competitive. Personnel totals at the pay grades of E-8 and E-9 are limited by federal law to 2.5 percent and 1 percent of a service's enlisted force, respectively. SNCOs act as leaders of small units and as staff. Some SNCOs manage programs at headquarters level and a select few wield responsibility at the highest levels of the military structure. Most unit commanders have a SNCO as an enlisted advisor. All SNCOs are expected to mentor junior commissioned officers as well as the enlisted in their duty sections. The typical enlistee can expect to attain SNCO rank after 10 to 16 years of service.

text: Each of the five services employs a single Senior Enlisted Advisor at departmental level. This individual is the highest ranking enlisted member within that respective service and functions as the chief advisor to the service secretary, service chief and Congress on matters concerning the enlisted force. These individuals carry responsibilities and protocol requirements equivalent to three-star general or flag officers. They are as follows:

text:
Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman
Sergeant Major of the Army
Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps
Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy
Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force
Master Chief Petty Officer of the Coast Guard

text: Warrant officers[edit]

text: Additionally, all services except for the Air Force have an active warrant officer corps. Above the rank of warrant Officer One, these officers may also be commissioned, but usually serve in a more technical and specialized role within units. More recently, they can also serve in more traditional leadership roles associated with the more recognizable officer corps. With one notable exception (Army helicopter and fixed-wing pilots), these officers ordinarily have already been in the military often serving in senior NCO positions in the field in which they later serve as a warrant officer as a technical expert. Most Army pilots have served some enlisted time. It is also possible to enlist, complete basic training, go directly to the Warrant Officer Candidate School at Fort Rucker, Alabama and then on to flight school.

text: Warrant officers in the U.S. military garner the same customs and courtesies as commissioned officers. They may attend the officer's club, receive a command and are saluted by junior warrant officers and all enlisted service members.

text: The Air Force ceased to grant warrants in 1959 when the enlisted grades of E-8 and E-9 were created. Most non-flying duties performed by warrant officers in other services are instead performed by senior NCOs in the Air Force.

text: Commissioned officers[edit]

text: Officers receive a commission in one of the branches of the U.S. Armed Forces through one of the following routes.

text:
Service academies (United States Military Academy (Army), United States Naval Academy, United States Air Force Academy, United States Coast Guard Academy and the United States Merchant Marine Academy)
Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC)
Officer Candidate School (OCS) (Officer Training School (OTS) in the Air Force): this can be through active-duty schools, or through state-run schools in the case of the Army National Guard.
Direct commission: civilians who have special skills that are critical to sustaining military operations and supporting troops may receive direct commissions. These officers occupy leadership positions in law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, intelligence, supply-logistics-transportation, engineering, public affairs, chaplain, oceanography and others.
Battlefield commission: under certain conditions, enlisted personnel who have skills that separate them from their peers can become officers by direct commissioning of a commander so authorized to grant them. This type of commission is rarely granted and is reserved only for the most exceptional enlisted personnel; it is done on an ad hoc basis, typically only in wartime. No direct battlefield commissions have been awarded since the Vietnam War. The Navy and Air Force do not employ this commissioning path.
Limited Duty Officer: due to the highly technical nature of some officer billets, the Marine Corps, Navy and Coast Guard employ a system of promoting proven senior enlisted members to the ranks of commissioned officers. They fill a need that is similar to, but distinct from that filled by warrant officers (to the point where their accession is through the same school). While warrant officers remain technical experts, LDOs take on the role of a generalist, like that of officers commissioned through more traditional sources. LDOs are limited, not by their authority, but by the types of billets they are allowed to fill. However, in recent times they have come to be used more and more like their more-traditional counterparts.

text: Officers receive a commission assigning them to the officer corps from the President with the Senate's consent. To accept this commission, all officers must take an oath of office.

text: Through their careers, officers usually will receive further training at one or a number of the many staff colleges.

text: Company grade officers in pay grades O-1 through O-3 (known as "junior" officers in the Navy and Coast Guard) function as leaders of smaller units or sections of a unit, typically with an experienced SNCO (or CPO in the Navy and Coast Guard) assistant and mentor.

text: Field grade officers in pay grades O-4 through O-6 (known as "senior" officers in the Navy and Coast Guard) lead significantly larger and more complex operations, with gradually more competitive promotion requirements.

text: General officers, (known as flag officers in the Navy and Coast Guard) serve at the highest levels and oversee major portions of the military mission.

text: Five-star ranking[edit]

text: These are ranks of the highest honor and responsibility in the U.S. Armed Forces, but they are almost never given during peacetime and only a very small number of officers during wartime have held a five-star rank:

text:
General of the Army
Fleet Admiral
General of the Air Force

text: No corresponding rank exists for the Marine Corps or the Coast Guard. As with three- and four-star ranks, Congress is the approving authority for a five-star rank confirmation.

text: The rank of General of the Armies is considered senior to General of the Army, but was never held by active duty officers at the same time as persons who held the rank of General of the Army. It has been held by two people: John J. Pershing who received the rank in 1919 after World War I and George Washington who received it posthumously in 1976 as part of the American Bicentennial celebrations. Pershing, appointed to General of the Armies in active duty status for life, was still alive at the time of the first five-star appointments during World War II and was thereby acknowledged as superior in grade by seniority to any World War II–era Generals of the Army. George Washington's appointment by Public Law 94-479 to General of the Armies of the United States was established by law as having "rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present", making him not only superior to Pershing, but superior to any grade in the Army in perpetuity.

text: In the Navy, the rank of Admiral of the Navy theoretically corresponds to that of General of the Armies, though it was never held by active-duty officers at the same time as persons who held the rank of Fleet Admiral. George Dewey is the only person to have ever held this rank. After the establishment of the rank of Fleet Admiral in 1944, the Department of the Navy specified that the rank of Fleet Admiral was to be junior to the rank of Admiral of the Navy. However, since Dewey died in 1917 before the establishment of the rank of Fleet Admiral, the six-star rank has not been totally confirmed.

text: Women in the military[edit]

text: The Woman's Army Auxiliary Corps was established in the United States in 1942. Women saw combat during World War II, first as nurses in the Pearl Harbor attacks on 7 December 1941. The Woman's Naval Reserve, Marine Corps Women's Reserve and Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) were also created during this conflict. In 1944, WACs arrived in the Pacific and landed in Normandy on D-Day. During the war, 67 Army nurses and 16 Navy nurses were captured and spent three years as Japanese prisoners of war. There were 350,000 American women who served during World War II and 16 were killed in action. In total, they gained over 1,500 medals, citations and commendations. Virginia Hall, serving with the Office of Strategic Services, received the second-highest U.S. combat award, the Distinguished Service Cross, for action behind enemy lines in France.

text: After World War II, demobilization led to the vast majority of serving women being returned to civilian life. Law 625, The Women's Armed Services Act of 1948, was signed by President Truman, allowing women to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces in fully integrated units during peace time, with only the WAC remaining a separate female unit. During the Korean War of 1950–1953, many women served in the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals, with women serving in Korea numbering 120,000 during the conflict. During the Vietnam War, 600 women served in the country as part of the Air Force, along with 500 members of the WAC and over 6,000 medical personnel and support staff. The Ordnance Corps began accepting female missile technicians in 1974[44] and female crewmembers and officers were accepted into Field Artillery missile units.[45][46]

text: In 1974, the first six women naval aviators earned their wings as Navy pilots. The Congressionally mandated prohibition on women in combat places limitations on the pilots' advancement,[47] but at least two retired as captains.[48] In 1989, Captain Linda L. Bray, 29, became the first woman to command American soldiers in battle during the invasion of Panama. The 1991 Gulf War proved to be the pivotal time for the role of women in the U.S. Armed Forces to come to the attention of the world media; there are many reports of women engaging enemy forces during the conflict.[49]

text: In the 2000s, women can serve on U.S. combat ships, including in command roles. They are permitted to serve on submarines.[50] Women can fly military aircraft and make up 2% of all pilots in the U.S. Military. In 2003, Major Kim Campbell was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for landing her combat damaged A-10 Thunderbolt II with no hydraulic control and only one functional engine after being struck by hostile fire over Baghdad.

text: On 3 December 2015, U.S. Defense Secretary Ashton Carter announced that all military combat jobs would become available to women.[51] This gave women access to the roughly 10% of military jobs which were previously closed off due to their combat nature.[52] The decision gave military services until January 2016 to seek exceptions to the rule if they believe that certain jobs, such as machine gunners, should be restricted to men only.[53] These restrictions were due in part to prior studies which stated that mixed gender units are less capable in combat.[54] Physical requirements for all jobs remained unchanged, though.[54] Many women believe this will allow for them to improve their positions in the military, since most high-ranking officers start in combat positions. Since women are now available to work in any position in the military, female entry into the draft has been proposed.[55]

text: Sergeant Leigh Ann Hester became the first woman to receive the Silver Star, the third-highest U.S. decoration for valor, for direct participation in combat. In Afghanistan, Monica Lin Brown was presented the Silver Star for shielding wounded soldiers with her body.[56] In March 2012, the U.S. military had two women, Ann E. Dunwoody and Janet C. Wolfenbarger, with the rank of four-star general.[57][58] In 2016, Air Force General Lori Robinson became the first female officer to command a major Unified Combatant Command (USNORTHCOM) in the history of the United States Armed Forces.[59]

text: Order of precedence[edit]

text: Under current Department of Defense regulation, the various components of the U.S. Armed Forces have a set order of seniority. Examples of the use of this system include the display of service flags, placement of Soldiers, Marines, Sailors, Airmen and Coast Guardsmen in formation, etc. When the Coast Guard shall operate as part of the Department of the Navy, United States Coast Guard Academy cadets, the United States Coast Guard and the Coast Guard Reserve shall take precedence after United States Naval Academy midshipmen; the United States Navy; and Navy Reserve, respectively.[60]

text:
Cadets, U.S. Military Academy
Midshipmen, U.S. Naval Academy
Cadets, U.S. Coast Guard Academy (when part of the Department of the Navy)
Cadets, U.S. Air Force Academy
Cadets, U.S. Coast Guard Academy (when part of the Department of Homeland Security)
Midshipmen, U.S. Merchant Marine Academy
United States Army
United States Marine Corps
United States Navy
United States Coast Guard (when part of the Department of the Navy)
United States Air Force
United States Coast Guard (when part of Department of the Homeland Security)
Army National Guard of the United States
United States Army Reserve
United States Marine Corps Reserve
United States Navy Reserve
United States Coast Guard Reserve (when part of the Department of the Navy)
Air National Guard of the United States
United States Air Force Reserve
United States Coast Guard Reserve (when part of the Department of Homeland Security)
Other training and auxiliary organizations of the Army, Marine Corps, Merchant Marine, Civil Air Patrol and Coast Guard Auxiliary, as in the preceding order. The CAP was constituted through the Administrative Order 9 of 1 December 1941 and operated under the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II. The CAP became the official civilian auxiliary of the newly independent USAF with the enactment of Public Law 80-557 on 26 May 1948.

text: Note: While the U.S. Navy is older than the Marine Corps,[61] the Marine Corps takes precedence due to previous inconsistencies in the Navy's birth date. The Marine Corps has recognized its observed birth date on a more consistent basis. The Second Continental Congress is considered to have established the Navy on 13 October 1775 by authorizing the purchase of ships, but did not actually pass the "Rules for the Regulation of the Navy of the United Colonies" until 27 November 1775.[62] The Marine Corps was established by act of said Congress on 10 November 1775. The Navy did not officially recognize 13 October 1775 as its birth date until 1972, when then–Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Elmo Zumwalt authorized it to be observed as such.[61]


document_title: Catalytic converter

question_text: describe one way that a catalytic converter functions as a catalyst

root

text: Catalytic converter

text: History[edit]

text: The catalytic converter was invented by Eugene Houdry, a French mechanical engineer and expert in catalytic oil refining,[6] who moved to the United States in 1930. When the results of early studies of smog in Los Angeles were published, Houdry became concerned about the role of smoke stack exhaust and automobile exhaust in air pollution and founded a company called Oxy-Catalyst. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for smoke stacks called "cats" for short, and later developed catalytic converters for warehouse forklifts that used low grade, unleaded gasoline.[7] In the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines used on cars. He was awarded United States Patent 2,742,437 for his work.[8]

tag: p

text: Widespread adoption of catalytic converters did not occur until more stringent emission control regulations forced the removal of the antiknock agent tetraethyl lead from most types of gasoline. Lead is a "catalyst poison" and would effectively disable a catalytic converter by forming a coating on the catalyst's surface.[9]

text: Catalytic converters were further developed by a series of engineers including John J. Mooney, Carl D. Keith, Antonio Eleazar, and Phillip Messina at Engelhard Corporation,[10] creating the first production catalytic converter in 1973.[11]

text: William C. Pfefferle developed a catalytic combustor for gas turbines in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide.[12][13]

text: Construction[edit]

text: The catalytic converter's construction is as follows:

text:
The catalyst support or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is usually a ceramic monolith that has a honeycomb structure (commonly square, not hexagonal). (Prior to the mid 1980s, the catalyst material was deposited on a packed bed of pellets, especially in early GM applications.) Metallic foil monoliths made of Kanthal (FeCrAl)[14] are used in applications where particularly high heat resistance is required.[14] The substrate is structured to produce a large surface area. The cordierite ceramic substrate used in most catalytic converters was invented by Rodney Bagley, Irwin Lachman, and Ronald Lewis at Corning Glass, for which they were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2002.[1]
The washcoat. A washcoat is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the materials over a large surface area. Aluminum oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, or a mixture of silica and alumina can be used. The catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core. Washcoat materials are selected to form a rough, irregular surface, which greatly increases the surface area compared to the smooth surface of the bare substrate. This in turn maximizes the catalytically active surface available to react with the engine exhaust. The coat must retain its surface area and prevent sintering of the catalytic metal particles even at high temperatures (1000 °C).[15]
Ceria or ceria-zirconia. These oxides are mainly added as oxygen storage promoters.[16]
The catalyst itself is most often a mix of precious metal. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and high cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals used. Rhodium is used as a reduction catalyst, palladium is used as an oxidation catalyst, and platinum is used both for reduction and oxidation. Cerium, iron, manganese, and nickel are also used, although each has limitations. Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union because of its reaction with carbon monoxide into toxic nickel tetracarbonyl.[citation needed] Copper can be used everywhere except Japan.[clarification needed]

tag: ol

text: Upon failure, a catalytic converter can be recycled into scrap. The precious metals inside the converter, including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are extracted.

text: Placement of catalytic converters[edit]

text: Catalytic converters require temperature of 800 degrees Fahrenheit (426 °C) to efficiently convert harmful exhaust gases into inert gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. Therefore, the first catalytic converters were placed close to the engine to ensure fast heating. However, such placing caused several problems, such as vapor lock. It occurred several minutes after the engine is shut off, as the heat from the catalytic converter influences fuel in the fuel lines, which makes it first boil and then aerate[17]. This condition of fuel results in non-start condition which lasts until the engine and fuel in the lines cool down.

text: As an alternative, catalytic converters were moved to a third of the way back from the engine, and were then placed underneath the vehicle.

text: Types[edit]

text: Two-way[edit]

text: A 2-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:

text:
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O2 → x CO2 + (x+1) H2O (a combustion reaction)

text: This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American- and Canadian-market automobiles until 1981. Because of their inability to control oxides of nitrogen, they were superseded by three-way converters.

text: Three-way[edit]

text: Three-way catalytic converters (TWC) have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (both together abbreviated with NOx and not to be confused with nitrous oxide (N2O)), which are precursors to acid rain and smog.[18]

text: Since 1981, "three-way" (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission regulations that in effect require three-way converters on gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:[18]

text: Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen (N2)

text:
2 CO + 2 NO → 2 CO2 + N2
hydrocarbon + NO → CO2 + H2O + N2
2 H2 + 2 NO → 2 H2O + N2

text: 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2

text: Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water, in addition to the above NO reaction

text: hydrocarbon + O2 → H2O + CO2

text: These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. For gasoline combustion, this ratio is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to one part fuel, by weight. The ratio for autogas (or liquefied petroleum gas LPG), natural gas, and ethanol fuels is slightly different for each, requiring modified fuel system settings when using those fuels. In general, engines fitted with 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with a computerized closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using one or more oxygen sensors[citation needed], though early in the deployment of three-way converters, carburetors equipped with feedback mixture control were used.

text: Three-way converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of air-fuel ratios near the stoichiometric point, such that the exhaust gas composition oscillates between rich (excess fuel) and lean (excess oxygen). Conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Under lean engine operation, the exhaust contains excess oxygen, and the reduction of NOx is not favored. Under rich conditions, the excess fuel consumes all of the available oxygen prior to the catalyst, leaving only oxygen stored in the catalyst available for the oxidation function.

text: Closed-loop engine control systems are necessary for effective operation of three-way catalytic converters because of the continuous balancing required for effective NOx reduction and HC oxidation. The control system must prevent the NOx reduction catalyst from becoming fully oxidized, yet replenish the oxygen storage material so that its function as an oxidation catalyst is maintained.

text: Three-way catalytic converters can store oxygen from the exhaust gas stream, usually when the air–fuel ratio goes lean.[19] When sufficient oxygen is not available from the exhaust stream, the stored oxygen is released and consumed (see cerium(IV) oxide). A lack of sufficient oxygen occurs either when oxygen derived from NOx reduction is unavailable or when certain maneuvers such as hard acceleration enrich the mixture beyond the ability of the converter to supply oxygen.

text: Unwanted reactions[edit]

text: Unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst, such as the formation of odoriferous hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Formation of each can be limited by modifications to the washcoat and precious metals used. It is difficult to eliminate these byproducts entirely. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or reduce hydrogen sulfide.

text: For example, when control of hydrogen-sulfide emissions is desired, nickel or manganese is added to the washcoat. Both substances act to block the absorption of sulfur by the washcoat. Hydrogen sulfide forms when the washcoat has absorbed sulfur during a low-temperature part of the operating cycle, which is then released during the high-temperature part of the cycle and the sulfur combines with HC.

text: Diesel engines [edit]

text: For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel engines), the most commonly used catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). DOCs contain palladium, platinum, and aluminium oxide, all of which catalytically oxidize the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

text: These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates (soot). These catalysts are not active for NOx reduction because any reductant present would react first with the high concentration of O2 in diesel exhaust gas.

text: Reduction in NOx emissions from compression-ignition engines has previously been addressed by the addition of exhaust gas to incoming air charge, known as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet new federal emissions requirements. There are two techniques that have been developed for the catalytic reduction of NOx emissions under lean exhaust conditions: selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and the lean NOx trap or NOx adsorber. Instead of precious metal-containing NOx absorbers, most manufacturers selected base-metal SCR systems that use a reagent such as ammonia to reduce the NOx into nitrogen. Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of urea into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. One trademark product of urea solution, also referred to as Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF), is AdBlue.

text: Diesel exhaust contains relatively high levels of particulate matter (soot), consisting largely of elemental carbon. Catalytic converters cannot clean up elemental carbon, though they do remove up to 90 percent of the soluble organic fraction,[citation needed] so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or diesel particulate filter (DPF). Historically, a DPF consists of a cordierite or silicon carbide substrate with a geometry that forces the exhaust flow through the substrate walls, leaving behind trapped soot particles. Contemporary DPFs can be manufactured from a variety of rare metals that provide superior performance (at a greater expense).[20] As the amount of soot trapped on the DPF increases, so does the back pressure in the exhaust system. Periodic regenerations (high temperature excursions) are required to initiate combustion of the trapped soot and thereby reducing the exhaust back pressure. The amount of soot loaded on the DPF prior to regeneration may also be limited to prevent extreme exotherms from damaging the trap during regeneration. In the U.S., all on-road light, medium and heavy-duty vehicles powered by diesel and built after January 1, 2007, must meet diesel particulate emission limits, meaning that they effectively have to be equipped with a 2-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter. Note that this applies only to the diesel engine used in the vehicle. As long as the engine was manufactured before January 1, 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system. This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007.[21] During the re-generation cycle, most systems require the engine to consume more fuel in a relatively short amount of time in order to generate the high temperatures necessary for the cycle to complete. This adversely affects the overall fuel economy of vehicles equipped with DPF systems, especially in vehicles that are driven mostly in city conditions where frequent acceleration requires a larger amount of fuel to be burned and therefore more soot to collect in the exhaust system.

text: Lean-burn spark-ignition engines[edit]

text: For lean-burn spark-ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine.

text: Installation[edit]

text: Many vehicles have a close-coupled catalytic converter located near the engine's exhaust manifold. The converter heats up quickly, due to its exposure to the very hot exhaust gases, enabling it to reduce undesirable emissions during the engine warm-up period. This is achieved by burning off the excess hydrocarbons which result from the extra-rich mixture required for a cold start.

text: When catalytic converters were first introduced, most vehicles used carburetors that provided a relatively rich air-fuel ratio. Oxygen (O2) levels in the exhaust stream were therefore generally insufficient for the catalytic reaction to occur efficiently. Most designs of the time therefore included secondary air injection, which injected air into the exhaust stream. This increased the available oxygen, allowing the catalyst to function as intended.

text: Some three-way catalytic converter systems have air injection systems with the air injected between the first (NOx reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the converter. As in two-way converters, this injected air provides oxygen for the oxidation reactions. An upstream air injection point, ahead of the catalytic converter, is also sometimes present to provide additional oxygen only during the engine warm up period. This causes unburned fuel to ignite in the exhaust tract, thereby preventing it reaching the catalytic converter at all. This technique reduces the engine runtime needed for the catalytic converter to reach its "light-off" or operating temperature.

text: Most newer vehicles have electronic fuel injection systems, and do not require air injection systems in their exhausts. Instead, they provide a precisely controlled air-fuel mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich combustion. Oxygen sensors monitor the exhaust oxygen content before and after the catalytic converter, and the engine control unit uses this information to adjust the fuel injection so as to prevent the first (NOx reduction) catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded, while simultaneously ensuring the second (HC and CO oxidation) catalyst is sufficiently oxygen-saturated.

text: Damage[edit]

text: Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the working surfaces, so that they cannot contact and react with the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is lead, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can run only on unleaded fuel. Other common catalyst poisons include sulfur, manganese (originating primarily from the gasoline additive MMT), and silicon, which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak that allows coolant into the combustion chamber. Phosphorus is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and zinc, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was until recently widely used in engine oil antiwear additives such as zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Beginning in 2004, a limit of phosphorus concentration in engine oils was adopted in the API SM and ILSAC GF-4 specifications.

text: Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes vaporize or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of lead deposits in this manner is usually not possible because of lead's high boiling point.

text: Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons—raw or partially burnt fuel—to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. Usually the upstream components of the exhaust system (manifold/header assembly and associated clamps susceptible to rust/corrosion and/or fatigue e.g. the exhaust manifold splintering after repeated heat cycling), ignition system e.g. coil packs and/or primary ignition components (e.g. distributor cap, wires, ignition coil and spark plugs) and/or damaged fuel system components (fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, and associated sensors) - since 2006 ethanol has been used frequently with fuel blends where fuel system components which are not ethanol compatible can damage a catalytic converter - this also includes using a thicker oil viscosity not recommended by the manufacturer (especially with ZDDP content - this includes "high mileage" blends regardless if its conventional or synthetic oil), oil and/or coolant leaks (e.g. blown head gasket inclusive of engine overheating). Vehicles equipped with OBD-II diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver to a misfire condition by means of illuminating the "check engine" light on the dashboard, or flashing it if the current misfire conditions are severe enough to potentially damage the catalytic converter.

text: Regulations[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Most automobile spark-ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since 1975,[1][2][3][4] and the technology used in non-automotive applications is generally based on automotive technology.

text: Regulations for diesel engines are similarly varied, with some jurisdictions focusing on NOx (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) emissions and others focusing on particulate (soot) emissions. This regulatory diversity is challenging for manufacturers of engines, as it may not be economical to design an engine to meet two sets of regulations.

text: Regulations of fuel quality vary across jurisdictions. In North America, Europe, Japan, and Hong Kong, gasoline and diesel fuel are highly regulated, and compressed natural gas and LPG (autogas) are being reviewed for regulation. In most of Asia and Africa, the regulations are often lax: in some places sulfur content of the fuel can reach 20,000 parts per million (2%). Any sulfur in the fuel can be oxidized to SO2 (sulfur dioxide) or even SO3 (sulfur trioxide) in the combustion chamber. If sulfur passes over a catalyst, it may be further oxidized in the catalyst, i.e., SO2 may be further oxidized to SO3. Sulfur oxides are precursors to sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain. While it is possible to add substances such as vanadium to the catalyst washcoat to combat sulfur-oxide formation, such addition will reduce the effectiveness of the catalyst. The most effective solution is to further refine fuel at the refinery to produce ultra-low-sulfur diesel. Regulations in Japan, Europe, and North America tightly restrict the amount of sulfur permitted in motor fuels. However, the direct financial expense of producing such clean fuel may make it impractical for use in developing countries. As a result, cities in these countries with high levels of vehicular traffic suffer from acid rain[citation needed], which damages stone and woodwork of buildings, poisons humans and other animals, and damages local ecosystems, at a very high financial cost.

text: Negative aspects[edit]

text: Catalytic converters restrict the free flow of exhaust, which negatively affects vehicle performance and fuel economy, especially in older cars.[22] Because early cars' carburetors were incapable of precise fuel-air mixture control, the cars' catalytic converters could overheat and ignite flammable materials under the car.[23] A 2006 test on a 1999 Honda Civic showed that removing the stock catalytic converter netted a 3% increase in horsepower; a new metallic core converter only cost the car 1% horsepower, compared to no converter.[24] To some performance enthusiasts, this modest increase in power for very little cost encourages the removal or "gutting" of the catalytic converter.[22][25] In such cases, the converter may be replaced by a welded-in section of ordinary pipe or a flanged "test pipe", ostensibly meant to check if the converter is clogged, by comparing how the engine runs with and without the converter. This facilitates temporary reinstallation of the converter in order to pass an emission test.[24] In many jurisdictions, it is illegal to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any reason other than its direct and immediate replacement. In the United States, for example, it is a violation of Section 203(a)(3)(A) of the 1990 amended Clean Air Act for a vehicle repair shop to remove a converter from a vehicle, or cause a converter to be removed from a vehicle, except in order to replace it with another converter,[26] and Section 203(a)(3)(B) makes it illegal for any person to sell or to install any part that would bypass, defeat, or render inoperative any emission control system, device, or design element. Vehicles without functioning catalytic converters generally fail emission inspections. The automotive aftermarket supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity.[27]

text: Warm-up period[edit]

text: Vehicles fitted with catalytic converters emit most of their total pollution during the first five minutes of engine operation; for example, before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently to be fully effective.[28]

text: In 1995, Alpina introduced an electrically heated catalyst. Called "E-KAT," it was used in Alpina's B12 5,7 E-KAT based on the BMW 750i.[29] Heating coils inside the catalytic converter assemblies are electrified just after the engine is started, bringing the catalyst up to operating temperature very quickly to qualify the vehicle for low emission vehicle (LEV) designation.[30] BMW later introduced the same heated catalyst, developed jointly by Emitec, Alpina, and BMW,[29] in its 750i in 1999.[30]

text: Some vehicles contain a pre-cat, a small catalytic converter upstream of the main catalytic converter which heats up faster on vehicle start up, reducing the emissions associated with cold starts. A pre-cat is most commonly used by an auto manufacturer when trying to attain the Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle (ULEV) rating, such as on the Toyota MR2 Roadster.[31]

text: Environmental impact[edit]

text: Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However, they also have some shortcomings in use, and also adverse environmental impacts in production:

text:
An engine equipped with a three-way catalyst must run at the stoichiometric point, which means more fuel is consumed than in a lean-burn engine. This means approximately 10% more CO2 emissions from the vehicle.
Catalytic converter production requires palladium or platinum; part of the world supply of these precious metals is produced near Norilsk, Russia, where the industry (among others) has caused Norilsk to be added to Time magazine's list of most-polluted places.[32]
Pieces of catalytic converters can cause wild fires, especially in dry areas [33][34][35]

text: Theft[edit]

text: Because of the external location and the use of valuable precious metals including platinum, palladium, rhodium, and gold, catalytic converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model trucks and SUVs, because of their high ground clearance and easily removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-on converters are also at risk of theft, as they can be easily cut off.[36][37][38] The tools with which thieves quickly remove a catalytic converter, such as a portable reciprocating saw, can often damage other components of the car, such as wiring or fuel lines, and thereby can have dangerous consequences. Rises in metal costs in the U.S. during recent years have led to a large increase in converter theft.[39] A catalytic converter can cost more than $1,000 to replace.[40]

text: Diagnostics[edit]

text: Various jurisdictions now require on-board diagnostics to monitor the function and condition of the emissions-control system, including the catalytic converter. On-board diagnostic systems take several forms.

text: Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning system, typically on two-way catalytic converters such as are still sometimes used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750 °C (1,380 °F). More-recent catalytic-converter designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900 °C (1,650 °F).[citation needed] Temperature sensors are also used to monitor catalyst functioning: usually two sensors will be fitted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over the catalytic-converter core.

text: The oxygen sensor is the basis of the closed-loop control system on a spark-ignited rich-burn engine; however, it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to monitor the O2 levels. The O2 levels are monitored to see the efficiency of the burn process. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the readings of the two sensors. The readings are taken by voltage measurements. If both sensors show the same output or the rear O2 is "switching", the computer recognizes that the catalytic converter either is not functioning or has been removed, and will operate a malfunction indicator lamp and affect engine performance. Simple "oxygen sensor simulators" have been developed to circumvent this problem by simulating the change across the catalytic converter with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the Internet. Although these are not legal for on-road use, they have been used with mixed results.[41] Similar devices apply an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fuel-economical lean burn that may, however, damage the engine or the catalytic converter.[42]

text: NOx sensors are extremely expensive and are in general used only when a compression-ignition engine is fitted with a selective catalytic-reduction (SCR) converter, or a NOx absorber catalyst in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR system, there may be one or two sensors. When one sensor is fitted it will be pre-catalyst; when two are fitted, the second one will be post-catalyst. They are used for the same reasons and in the same manner as an oxygen sensor; the only difference is the substance being monitored.[citation needed]


document_title: Tabula rasa

question_text: who argued that we are born with intellectual blank slates

text: Tabula rasa

text: History[edit]

text: Tabula rasa is a Latin phrase often translated as "blank slate" in English and originates from the Roman tabula used for notes, which was blanked by heating the wax and then smoothing it.[1] This roughly equates to the English term "blank slate" (or, more literally, "erased slate") which refers to the emptiness of a slate prior to it being written on with chalk. Both may be renewed repeatedly, by melting the wax of the tablet or by erasing the chalk on the slate.

text: Philosophy[edit]

text: In Western philosophy, the concept of tabula rasa can be traced back to the writings of Aristotle who writes in his treatise "Περί Ψυχῆς" (De Anima or On the Soul) of the "unscribed tablet." In one of the more well-known passages of this treatise he writes that:

text: Haven't we already disposed of the difficulty about interaction involving a common element, when we said that mind is in a sense potentially whatever is thinkable, though actually it is nothing until it has thought? What it thinks must be in it just as characters may be said to be on a writing-tablet on which as yet nothing stands written: this is exactly what happens with mind.[2]

text: This idea was further developed in Ancient Greek philosophy by the Stoic school. Stoic epistemology emphasizes that the mind starts blank, but acquires knowledge as the outside world is impressed upon it.[3] The doxographer Aetius summarizes this view as "When a man is born, the Stoics say, he has the commanding part of his soul like a sheet of paper ready for writing upon."[4] Diogenes Laërtius attributes a similar belief to the Stoic Zeno of Citium when he writes in Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers that:

text: Perception, again, is an impression produced on the mind, its name being appropriately borrowed from impressions on wax made by a seal; and perception they divide into, comprehensible and incomprehensible: Comprehensible, which they call the criterion of facts, and which is produced by a real object, and is, therefore, at the same time conformable to that object; Incomprehensible, which has no relation to any real object, or else, if it has any such relation, does not correspond to it, being but a vague and indistinct representation.[5]

text: In the eleventh century, the theory of tabula rasa was developed more clearly by the Persian philosopher Avicenna (Ibn Sina in Arabic). He argued that the "...human intellect at birth resembled a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know," and that knowledge is attained through "...empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts," which develops through a "...syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to propositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts." He further argued that the intellect itself "...possesses levels of development from the static/material intellect (al-‘aql al-hayulani), that potentiality can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (al-‘aql al-fa‘il), the state of the human intellect at conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge."[6]

text: In the twelfth century, the Andalusian-Islamic philosopher and novelist, Ibn Tufail, known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West, demonstrated the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment through his Arabic philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqzan, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island, through experience alone. The Latin translation of his philosophical novel, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.[7]

text: In the thirteenth century, St. Thomas Aquinas brought the Aristotelian and Avicennian notions to the forefront of Christian thought. These notions sharply contrasted with the previously held Platonic notions of the human mind as an entity that preexisted somewhere in the heavens, before being sent down to join a body here on Earth (see Plato's Phaedo and Apology, as well as others). St. Bonaventure (also thirteenth century) was one of the fiercest intellectual opponents of Aquinas, offering some of the strongest arguments toward the Platonic idea of the mind.

text: The writings of Avicenna, Ibn Tufail, and Aquinas on the tabula rasa theory stood unprogressed and untested for several centuries.[citation needed] For example, the late medieval English jurist Sir John Fortescue, in his work In Praise of the Laws of England (Chapter VI), takes for granted the notion of tabula rasa, stressing it as the basis of the need for the education of the young in general, and of young princes specifically. "Therefore, Prince, whilst you are young and your mind is as it were a clean slate, impress on it these things, lest in future it be impressed more pleasurably with images of lesser worth." (His igitur, Princeps, dum Adolescens es, et Anima tua velut Tabula rasa, depinge eam, ne in futurum ipsa Figuris minoris Frugi delectabilius depingatur.)

text: The modern idea of the theory, however, is attributed mostly to John Locke's expression of the idea in Essay Concerning Human Understanding (he uses the term "white paper" in Book II, Chap. I, 2). In Locke's philosophy, tabula rasa was the theory that at birth the (human) mind is a "blank slate" without rules for processing data, and that data is added and rules for processing are formed solely by one's sensory experiences. The notion is central to Lockean empiricism. As understood by Locke, tabula rasa meant that the mind of the individual was born blank, and it also emphasized the freedom of individuals to author their own soul. Individuals are free to define the content of their character—but basic identity as a member of the human species cannot be altered. This presumption of a free, self-authored mind combined with an immutable human nature leads to the Lockean doctrine of "natural" rights. Locke's idea of tabula rasa is frequently compared with Thomas Hobbes's viewpoint of human nature, in which humans are endowed with inherent mental content—particularly with selfishness.[citation needed]

text: The eighteenth-century Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau used tabula rasa to support his argument that warfare is an advent of society and agriculture, rather than something that occurs from the human state of nature. Since tabula rasa states that humans are born with a "blank-slate", Rousseau uses this to suggest that humans must learn warfare.

text: Tabula rasa also features in Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. Freud depicted personality traits as being formed by family dynamics (see Oedipus complex). Freud's theories imply that humans lack free will, but also that genetic influences on human personality are minimal. In Freudian psychoanalysis, one is largely determined by one's upbringing.[citation needed]

text: The tabula rasa concept became popular in social sciences during the twentieth century. Early ideas of eugenics posited that human intelligence correlated strongly with social class, but these ideas were rejected, and the idea that genes (or simply "blood") determined a person's character became regarded as racist. By the 1970s, scientists such as John Money had come to see gender identity as socially constructed, rather than rooted in genetics.

text: Science[edit]

text: Psychology and neurobiology[edit]

text: Psychologists and neurobiologists have shown evidence that initially, the entire cerebral cortex is programmed and organized to process sensory input, control motor actions, regulate emotion, and respond reflexively (under predetermined conditions).[8] These programmed mechanisms in the brain subsequently act to learn and refine the ability of the organism.[9][10] For example, psychologist Steven Pinker showed that—in contrast to written language—the brain is "programmed" to pick up spoken language spontaneously.[11]

text: There have been claims by a minority in psychology and neurobiology, however, that the brain is tabula rasa only for certain behaviours. For instance, with respect to one's ability to acquire both general and special types of knowledge or skills, Howe argued against the existence of innate talent.[12] There also have been neurological investigations into specific learning and memory functions, such as Karl Lashley's study on mass action and serial interaction mechanisms.

text: Important evidence against the tabula rasa model of the mind comes from behavioural genetics, especially twin and adoption studies (see below). These indicate strong genetic influences on personal characteristics such as IQ, alcoholism, gender identity, and other traits.[11] Critically, multivariate studies show that the distinct faculties of the mind, such as memory and reason, fractionate along genetic boundaries. Cultural universals such as emotion and the relative resilience of psychological adaptation to accidental biological changes (for instance the David Reimer case of gender reassignment following an accident) also support basic biological mechanisms in the mind.[13]

text: Social pre-wiring[edit]

text: Twin studies have resulted in important evidence against the tabula rasa model of the mind, specifically, of social behaviour.

text: The social pre-wiring hypothesis refers to the ontogeny of social interaction. Also informally referred to as, "wired to be social." The theory questions whether there is a propensity to socially oriented action already present before birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique genetic wiring to be social[14].

text: Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behaviour. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for social interaction. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behaviour cannot be contributed to any current form of socialization or social construction. Rather, newborns most likely inherit to some extent social behaviour and identity through genetics[14].

text: Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are social behaviours that are inherited and developed before birth, then one should expect twin fetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born. Thus, ten fetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin fetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins were not accidental but specifically aimed[14].

text: The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, "The central advance of this study is the demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of gestation. Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin fetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behaviour: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin fetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions."[14].

text: Computer science[edit]

text: In computer science, tabula rasa refers to the development of autonomous agents with a mechanism to reason and plan toward their goal, but no "built-in" knowledge-base of their environment. Thus they truly are a blank slate.

text: In reality autonomous agents possess an initial data-set or knowledge-base, but this cannot be immutable or it would hamper autonomy and heuristic ability.[citation needed] Even if the data-set is empty, it usually may be argued that there is a built-in bias in the reasoning and planning mechanisms.[citation needed] Either intentionally or unintentionally placed there by the human designer, it thus negates the true spirit of tabula rasa.[15]

text: A synthetic (programming) language parser (LR(1), LALR(1) or SLR(1), for example) could be considered a special case of a tabula rasa, as it is designed to accept any of a possibly infinite set of source language programs, within a single programming language, and to output either a good parse of the program, or a good machine language translation of the program, either of which represents a success, or, alternately, a failure, and nothing else. The "initial data-set" is a set of tables which are generally produced mechanically by a parser table generator, usually from a BNF representation of the source language, and represents a "table representation" of that single programming language.


document_title: United States declaration of war upon Germany (1941)

question_text: when did the us declare war on germany wwii

text: December 11, 1941, the United States Congress declared war upon Germany (Pub.L. 77–331, Sess. 1, ch. 564, 55 Stat. 796), hours after Germany declared war on the United States after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.[1] The vote was 88–0 in the Senate and 393–0 in the House.

text: Text of the declaration[edit]

text:
Seventy-Seventh Congress of the United States of America;
At the First Session Begun and held at the City of Washington, on Friday, the third day of January, 1941.
JOINT RESOLUTION Declaring That a State of War Exists Between The Government of Germany and the Government and the People of the United States and Making Provisions To Prosecute The Same
Whereas the Government of Germany has formally declared war against the Government and the people of the United States of America: Therefore be it Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the state of war between the United States and the Government of Germany which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared; and the President is hereby authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Government of Germany; and, to bring the conflict to a successful termination, all of the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States.
(Signed) Sam Rayburn, Speaker of the House of Representatives
(Signed) H. A. Wallace, Vice President of the United States and President of the Senate
Approved December 11, 1941 3:05 PM E.S.T.
(Signed) Franklin D. Roosevelt[2]

tag: div


document_title: The Little Rascals (film)

question_text: who played stymie in the little rascals movie

text: The Little Rascals (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Spanky McFarland (Travis Tedford) is the president of the "He-Man Woman Haters Club" with many school-aged boys from around the neighborhood as members. Alfalfa Switzer (Bug Hall), Spanky's best friend, has been chosen to be the driver for the club's prize-winning go-kart, "The Blur", in the upcoming Soap Box Derby go-kart race. Unfortunately, Alfalfa is nowhere to be found.

text: The boys go to find Alfalfa and they discover him in the company of his sweetheart Darla (Brittany Ashton Holmes), with whom he is forbidden to be in love because she is a girl and that is against club rules. Alfalfa invites Darla on a picnic, and to prove his devotion to her, he agrees to have the picnic inside the Clubhouse. Unbeknownst to Alfalfa, his fellow club members find out about his plans.

text: At the picnic, Alfalfa and Darla think they are alone, but the other club members secretly pull several silly pranks to sabotage their romantic date (whoopee cushion, cat litter in sandwiches, etc.). When they finally reveal themselves and demand to come inside the clubhouse, Alfalfa frantically tries to convince Darla to hide in the closet, which causes her to mistakenly believe that Alfalfa feels ashamed of her. In the frenzy, a candle flame gets out of control, ultimately causing the clubhouse to burn down.

text: Darla breaks up with Alfalfa and turns her attentions toward Waldo (Blake McIver Ewing), the new kid in town whose father is an oil tycoon. Because Alfalfa burned down the clubhouse and also fraternized with a girl, Stymie (Kevin Jamal Woods) assigns him to guard the go-kart until the day of the race.

text: Alfalfa makes several attempts to woo back Darla, including sending her a fake love note. When that attempt fails, Spanky goes with him to formally break things off with Darla. They are initially turned from the door of her ballet school, but Spanky insists that they will wait for Darla to come out. He gives Alfalfa a frog to play with as they wait. They are soon spotted by the neighborhood bullies Butch and Woim, who chase them inside the building. To get away, the boys duck into a door marked "Costume Room" and disguise themselves in ballet drag. They manage to evade the bullies, but when they attempt to enter another room to get out of their disguises (which are implied to be too tight and uncomfortable on their male anatomy), they are surprised to find the room filled with girls, including Darla, dressed in identical costumes. The boys nervously pretend to be in the ballet recital that is about to take place, but Alfalfa almost gives them away when the frog he is still holding in his hands croaks loudly (Spanky brushes it off by saying there's a frog in his throat). Alfalfa learns that Waldo is now Darla's boyfriend and that he is attending the recital that day, but that Darla still has feelings for him when he sings. Just as they are about to back out of the room, the ballet mistress enters and ushers them all on stage.

text: Spanky and Alfalfa are horrified to learn that they are in the middle of "Scenes from the Nutcracker." They begin awkwardly trying to dance along. Alfalfa attempts to hand the frog off to Spanky, but Spanky tell him to "Get rid of it" before depositing it into the front of Alfalfa's tights. Alfalfa immediately begins squirming in discomfort, and tries to catch the frog, now wriggling in and around his underwear, while still attempting to dance along. The recital quickly falls into chaos, and Alfalfa and Spanky run off of the stage. Alfalfa is glad to have finally caught the frog, but Spanky reminds him that frogs give warts and he rushes behind a curtain to rip off his ballet drag and dispose of the frog.

text: The ballet mistress, furious that they ruined her recital, confronts them, and upon seeing Alfalfa emerge from the curtain in only his underwear, realizes that they are boys and throws them out immediately, Alfalfa in his underwear and Spanky still dressed as a girl. Butch and Woim are waiting for them outside the door, so Spanky distracts them while Alfalfa sneaks out. When Spanky loses his wig, the bullies give chase. Spanky manages to lose them, but they bump into Alfalfa, who is trying to run home in his underwear. They chase him into a mansion but are turned away by the maid. Alfalfa gets through and escapes out the back door, but is chased by a dog. He jumps into a pool and swims across to escape, losing his underwear in the process. As Alfalfa grabs his underwear to put it back on, he looks around to see Darla and Waldo in a hot tub, laughing at him. He runs away in humiliation.

text: At the carnival talent show the day before the race, Alfalfa once again tries to win Darla back, this time through song, being that Darla mentioned after she dumped him that the only thing she ever really missed about him was his voice. Waldo and Darla also entered the show in a duet. He talks to Alfalfa backstage saying he was amazing and Darla did okay. This angers Alfalfa, who believes Waldo does not truly appreciate Darla. He then requests the chance to perform for her and win her back. However, Waldo spoils Alfalfa's attempts to serenade her by putting soap in his drinking water, causing him the embarrassment of burping out bubbles all throughout his song.

text: The boys try to fund-raise $450, the cost of the lumber needed to rebuild their clubhouse. The youngest club members, Buckwheat and Porky, have unwittingly come up with $500, not realizing that their method for earning the money was not exactly honest. Their school teacher, Miss Crabtree, finds out about the scheme and confronts them, but Spanky convinces her to donate the money to be given as first prize in the go-kart derby.

text: As a result of Alfalfa's carelessness, "The Blur" is eventually stolen by Butch and Woim, so that now, in addition to having to rebuild the clubhouse, the boys need a new go-kart. They band together to build "Blur 2: The Sequel," and prior to race day, Spanky and Alfalfa (who previously had a falling out when the latter discovers the gang's "prank list" among the clubhouse ruins and confronts the former) reconcile their friendship and decide to ride in the two-seat go-kart together. They hope to win the prize money and the trophy, which is to be presented to the winners by A.J. Ferguson (Reba McEntire).

text: Butch and Woim make several sneaky attempts to stop Alfalfa and Spanky from winning the race. Waldo and Darla have also entered the go-kart race, but they eventually become annoyed with each other, and Waldo seemingly kicks Darla out from his car midway through the race. In a wild dash to the finish, and despite the many scrapes and crashes throughout the race, "The Blur 2" crosses the finish line ahead of the pack in a photo-finish between "The Blur" and "The Blur 2" literally by a hair, due to Alfalfa's pointy hairstyle. After the race, Butch and Woim are angry towards Alfalfa because he won the trophy and the prize money. They attempt to beat him up, but Alfalfa finally stands up for himself and punches Butch in the face, knocking him into a giant pool of pig slop. Woim then gets scared and jumps into the pig slop willingly.

text: Along with first prize, Alfalfa also wins back Darla, after it is revealed that it had been Darla who had kicked Waldo out of their car and finished the race alone because she found out that Waldo was responsible for the bubbles at the talent show. Spanky, meanwhile, is shocked at the trophy presentation when he finally meets his favorite driver, A.J. Ferguson, who turns out to be female. Spanky confesses to Darla that he and the boys pulled the pranks on her at their picnic lunch, not Alfalfa. After the club house is rebuilt, the boys collectively have a change of heart towards membership and they decide to welcome Darla and friends as well as other girls into the club, adding a "Women Welcome" sign onto the front door.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Travis Tedford as Spanky McFarland, the president of "He-Man Women Hater's Club" and Alfalfa's best friend
Bug Hall as Alfalfa Switzer, Spanky's best friend and Darla's boyfriend
Brittany Ashton Holmes as Darla, Alfalfa's girlfriend
Kevin Jamal Woods as Stymie, the club's vice-president
Jordan Warkol (voice dubbed by E.G. Daily) as Froggy, a club member with a croaking voice and a love for amphibians
Zachary Mabry as Porky, one of the younger members of the club
Ross Elliot Bagley as Buckwheat, another one of the younger members of the club and Porky's best friend
Sam Saletta as Butch, the neighborhood bully
Blake Jeremy Collins as Woim, Butch's friend and sidekick
Blake McIver Ewing as Waldo, an obnoxious rich new kid who is very interested in Darla
Courtland Mead as Uh-huh – club "typographer", always answers "uh-huh"
Juliette Brewer as Mary Ann
Heather Karasek as Jane
Raven-Symoné as Stymie's girlfriend at the club
Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen as the twin girls at Darla's sleepover
Mel Brooks as Mr. Welling, the bank teller
Lea Thompson as Miss Roberts, Darla's ballet instructor
Daryl Hannah as Miss Crabtree, the gang's schoolteacher
Reba McEntire as A.J. Ferguson, "the best driver there is"
Whoopi Goldberg as Buckwheat's mother
Donald Trump as Waldo's father
Eric Edwards as Spanky's father
Dan Carton as Alfalfa's father
George Wendt as Lumber store guy
Alexandra Monroe King and Zoe Oakes as Darla's friends

text: Animals

text: Petey american bulldog Fifi doberman pinscher Elmer white throathed white capuchin monkey

text: Production[edit]

text: Bill Thomas, Jr., son of the late Bill Thomas, who played the original Buckwheat, contacted the studio and was invited down to visit the set, but got the impression that the filmmakers did not want him or any of the surviving original cast members involved in any production capacity. The surviving cast members saw this as especially hurtful, in light of the fact that director Penelope Spheeris had previously made a point of including Buddy Ebsen, from the original Beverly Hillbillies, in her 1993 feature film adaptation of that series. Eugene Jackson, who played the original Pineapple from the silent Our Gang comedies, and tried unsuccessfully to contact the studio to be a part of production, stated, "It's real cold. They have no respect for the old-timers. At least they could have recognized some of the living legends surviving from the first films."[1] Filming took place from January 11, 1994 to April 6, 1994.[citation needed]

text: Release[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The film received mostly negative critical reviews upon its original release; it currently holds a 23% "rotten" rating at Rotten Tomatoes.[2] Despite the mostly negative reception, the film had scored a 70% audience rating and Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a thumbs up. It has since been regarded as a cult film. Gene Siskel, however described the film as "A dismal kids' comedy in which creativity stopped after casting lookalikes for the old "rascals" was completed."

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Little Rascals earned $10 million at the North American box office during its opening weekend.[3][4] The film grossed a worldwide total of $67,308,282.

text: Repurposed scenes and situations[edit]

text: Many of the gags and subplots in the film were borrowed from the original Our Gang/Little Rascals shorts. These include:

text:
The scene in which Buckwheat and Porky are fishing and get their fishing lines tangled originates from a scene in the 1943 Our Gang short Three Smart Guys with Buckwheat, Froggy, and Mickey.
The He-Man Woman Haters Club originally appeared in the 1937 Our Gang short Hearts are Thumps; the club would return in the short Mail and Female the same year. The plots for both shorts were reused for the film. In addition, the scene where the gang ruins Alfalfa and Darla's lunch date, as well as the scene where bubbles come out of Alfalfa's mouth while he sings, were borrowed gags from Hearts are Thumps. Alfalfa sending Buckwheat and Porky to deliver a love note to Darla was borrowed from Mail and Female.
The "hi-sign" originally appeared in the 1935 Our Gang short Anniversary Trouble, and the animated 1979 special, The Little Rascals Christmas Special.
The children dressing up as fire fighters and attempting to put out a fire appeared in the Our Gang shorts Fire Fighters (1922), The Fourth Alarm (1926), and Hook and Ladder (1932). The gag in which Spanky (Travis Tedford) winds up on a flying water hose was originally used with Farina in The Fourth Alarm.
The gag involving Spanky and Stymie disguising as adults appeared in a handful of Our Gang shorts. Mickey Daniels and Johnny Downs attempted to dress up as Santa Claus with this gag in the 1926 short Good Cheer. Farina and Pleurisy tried this routine in the 1929 short Election Day. Stymie and Dickie Moore tried it in the 1933 short Fish Hooky, while Spanky and Alfalfa tried pulling it off in both the 1935 short Teacher's Beau and the 1936 short Two Too Young.
The scene in which Spanky and Alfalfa accidentally find themselves performing in a ballet recital was inspired by the plot of the 1937 short Rushin' Ballet. The costumes that the duo wear are exact replicas of the costumes that the original Spanky and Alfalfa wore in Rushin' Ballet. The gag in which Alfalfa gets a frog loose in his clothes was originally used in the 1937 short Framing Youth, where Spanky was trying to convince him he had a frog in his throat.
Alfalfa singing "The Barber of Seville" originated in Our Gang Follies of 1938.
The idea of the children building their own vehicle out of junk and scrap metal had been used in several Our Gang shorts, most notably the 1934 short Hi'-Neighbor!. The gag in which the kids' car causes several adults to leap into the air was also borrowed from Hi'-Neighbor!, and also appears in One Wild Ride (1925), Free Wheeling (1932), and Divot Diggers (1936).
Much of the Go-Cart race climax (including the gag in which the car belonging to Butch and Woim accidentally goes into reverse) was borrowed from the 1939 short Auto Antics. Material from Hi'-Neighbor and Three Men in a Tub (1938) is also present.