document_title: Claws (TV series)

question_text: who plays dean on the tv show claws

question_tokens: who plays dean on the tv show claws

text: Claws (TV series)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Five manicurists at the Nail Artisan salon of Manatee County, Florida enter the traditionally male world of organized crime when they begin laundering money for a neighboring pain clinic.[5]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Niecy Nash as Desna Simms, the owner of Nail Artisans, a nail salon in Manatee County, Florida. She has high hopes of owning a much better salon and goes through with the money laundering scheme to get it. She had a relationship with Roller, but when he withholds some of her earnings, she attempts to kill him and unexpectedly receives help from Virginia with the killing. It is later revealed that Desna and her brother Dean spent their childhoods with abusive foster parents.
Carrie Preston as Polly, a redheaded South Carolinian and professional con artist who did time in prison for embezzling money from seniors. She is fiercely protective of Desna, who seems to be the only positive influence in her life.
Judy Reyes as Quiet Ann, the salon's lookout and doorman. She is openly lesbian.
Karrueche Tran as Virginia Loc, a former prostitute for Uncle Daddy who Desna hires to work in the salon as a temporary replacement for Polly while she was serving time. Originally, Virginia was not part of Desna's inner circle.
Jenn Lyon as Jennifer Husser, Desna's best friend and Bryce's wife. She has two daughters. Having already lost more than a few relatives to the consequences of organized crime, she is adamant that Bryce not be part of his family's criminal business.
Jack Kesy as Roller Husser, Clay's nephew and a high-powered drug dealer whose death in the first episode triggers conflict between the Hussers and Desna's salon. It is later revealed that he is alive, having been imprisoned by a woman as her sex slave.
Kevin Rankin as Bryce Husser, Jennifer's husband and Roller's brother, who joins the Dixie Mafia to get justice for Roller's death.
Jason Antoon as Dr. Ken Brickman, a shady pharmacist who runs one of the mafia's pill mills. He suffers from emotional instability stemming from his failed marriage.
Harold Perrineau as Dean Simms, Desna's autistic brother whom she takes care of.
Dean Norris as Uncle Daddy/Clay Husser, Bryce's and Roller's uncle and the ruthless head of the Husser crime family.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
"Tirana"
Nicole Kassell
Eliot Laurence
June 11, 2017 (2017-06-11)
1.18[6]

In Manatee County, manicurist Desna Simms runs a side hustle laundering money for her boyfriend Roller, a dealer for Dixie Mafia boss Clay "Uncle Daddy" Husser, from various businesses the mob controls in order to save up for buying her own salon. She also takes care of her mentally disabled brother, Dean. One of her colleagues, Polly, has just been paroled for fraud and cannot join the girls later that evening (though she later arrives anyway) when they go to a New Year's Day celebration at a strip club run by Clay, who rewards Roller for his success. Upon discovering that her cut of the profits is less than she thinks she deserves, Desna confronts Roller, but he refuses to help her. Furthermore, he insists that she fire Polly and replace her with his mistress Virginia. Instead, she throws the latter out of the salon. The stress convinces her to split her cut with the girls, and, during a later visit to Roller, she tries to drown him. He survives but is subsequently shot dead by Virginia.

2
"Funerary"
Howard Deutch
Eliot Laurence
June 18, 2017 (2017-06-18)
1.20[7]

Desna and Virginia set Roller's body adrift and fake a shootout to cover up his murder. Unbeknownst to them, the boat strands on the nearby coast and the police find the remains. When Desna goes to get Virginia the next day, the latter vanishes. Jenn's husband Bryce, a life coach who also has ties to the mafia, informs the other girls that Roller, his older brother, is missing. When the teen girls she volunteers with ask about her conviction, Polly lies and claims she used to run a prostitution ring. Clay summons Desna to a meeting and asks her to find Virginia. She finds her living out of a dirty motel and convinces her to return. Clay offers Bryce the chance to run his pill mills, but Jenn wants him to turn it down. Desna learns that the salon she wants to buy is no longer willing to sell, on account of an incident where Dr. Brickman disrupted the salon's working day. During Roller's funeral, a battered Virginia bursts in claiming someone tried to kill her.

3
"Quicksand"
Jamie Travis
Eliot Laurence
June 25, 2017 (2017-06-25)
1.07[8]

Virginia spins a story about "Roller's killers" abducting and messing with her, angering Desna since doing so has created a trail for Clay. Dean, still distraught by Roller's death, becomes increasingly worried for his sister's life. Desna's agent, Mandy, ditches her as a client after the deal seemingly falls through for good. When a detective (Elvis Nolasco) comes by to check Virginia's story, Desna places a fake witness to back her up. Bryce agrees to temporarily take over Roller's operation, under Desna's supervision. Dr. Brickman's instability grows worse after learning that his ex-wife is remarrying, and Bryce gets distracted, allowing a thief to steal the clinic's entire supply of pills. The girls take Mandy and some other clients on a drinking spree, during which Desna learns of the robbery as well as Clay's insistence that Bryce repay the $88,000 he now owes him. The thieves are revealed to work for him, however, as part of a plan to fully bring Bryce into the Dixie Mafia.

4
"Fallout"
Victoria Mahoney
Janine Sherman Barrois
July 2, 2017 (2017-07-02)
1.24[9]

Desna suffers another recurring nightmare about being abused by Roller. Polly's old friend Sally (Gina Torres), who calls her "Heather", visits the salon, and Polly lies and claims she's conducting research for a novel. Clay calls in Desna's debt, but allows her to repay it in installments of $500. She comes up with a plan to increase sales at the clinic in order to free herself from his grip. Clay also asks Virginia to identify a suspect in Roller's death and then executes him anyway, traumatizing Bryce by forcing him to participate in the man's dismemberment. Polly ditches the girls to spend more time with Sally, but is quickly exposed as a fraud when her ankle monitor goes off. Desna's efforts raise enough to cover all but $15,000 of the debt, which Polly collects by blackmailing Sally. Desna learns that Clay has put a hit on Dr. Brickman, who gets thrown out of his ex-wife's engagement party after showing up drunk. Before Desna arrives, Bryce abducts Brickman and drives off with him.

5
"Bats**t"
Howard Deutch
Janine Sherman Barrois
July 9, 2017 (2017-07-09)
1.19[10]

With Jenn's help, Desna tracks Bryce to a remote swamp. At the last second, they persuade him to spare the doctor's life. While visiting the new salon, Desna is alerted by a neighbor that Dean is vandalizing a billboard featuring their old, abusive foster parents. The other girls suggest that Desna is enabling Dean's behavior, and that the new salon is a poor choice. At a meeting, the Hussers indirectly accuse Virginia of lying to them and Polly threatens to go after her if she gets Desna in trouble. Dean gets Desna to help him confront their foster parents and later reveals that he was raped as a child. Recognizing how the situation is making him more unstable, Desna has Polly plant evidence framing them as Roller's killers. Desna learns from Mandy that another salon has made an offer. The mafia executes a hit on the foster parents, during which Bryce commits his first set of murders. Roller, having survived his "death", wakes up to find himself the prisoner of a strange woman.

6
"Self-Portrait"
Tricia Brock
Leila Gerstein
July 16, 2017 (2017-07-16)
1.25[11]

Desna confers with Virginia and Polly, making it clear that Jenn must never learn the truth behind Bryce's actions. Roller's abductor reveals that she sees him as her soul mate and intends to trap him there forever. Desna decides to fire all of the manicurists at her new salon; in retaliation, they flood it and leave the girls with thousands of dollars worth of repairs to make. As an incentive to keep him in the family, Clay offers Bryce a new mansion. After being denied the chance to participate in the NailPalm tournament, Virginia ditches the girls and returns to prostitution. Desna meets Dr. Gregory Ruval (Jimmy Jean-Louis), a gynecologist who she starts to date but ends up ditching twice. After a last-minute substitution with Virginia for an injured Jenn, Nail Artisans goes on to win the tournament and the $15,000 prize. Roller manages to contact Clay, but is soon forced to drop the call. Jenn discovers the truth about the murder of Desna's foster parents from Dean.

7
"Escape"
Shira Piven
Bruce Rasmussen
July 23, 2017 (2017-07-23)
1.27[12]

Dean prepares to go on a trip with Virginia, upsetting Desna as she does not entirely approve of the latter. Polly takes her teenage neighbor Marnie in after her mother is incarcerated. Desna asks Toby, Clay's transgender muse, to run Nail Artisans in her place. Jenn quits her post at the salon on account of her newfound wealth. Ann's new girlfriend, Detective Branch, encourages her to be more open. Dean assaults a man after he insults Virginia. Gunmen break into the mansion owned by Gladys and confirm Roller's survival. After Dean is chosen as a performance artist's new model, Virginia gives him his first kiss and later has sex with him. At an anniversary party for Clay, Jenn angrily tries to choke Desna before Ann stops her. Drunk, she then fantasizes telling Bryce the truth, but ultimately decides not to. Desna finally asks Clay to release her from service to the Mafia, and he agrees. Virginia happens to spot Roller at the arthouse just before he is abducted by the gunmen.

8
"Teatro"
Nicole Kassell
Maisha Closson
July 30, 2017 (2017-07-30)
1.59[13]

Roller visits the salon with signs of amnesia, not remembering that Virginia shot him. Fearing the potential repercussions, Desna and the girls agree to return him to the Hussers. Overjoyed, Clay arranges for a special "white party" to celebrate his return. During lunch, Roller asks to go to Desna's house, and they have sex. The next morning, he catches her kissing Ruval, forcing Desna to lie about their past relationship. Bryce's success as a dealer incurs jealousy in Roller, and at the party, a fight nearly breaks out between them. Ken and Polly also end up having sex. Two Russians whom Roller owes money to demand it back, and he pretends to regain his memory, claiming that they were his attackers. Desna finds evidence that Roller embezzled money from the clinic to pay the Russians. When his request to attack them is denied, Roller ends up fighting Bryce before Clay breaks it up. The head of the Russians, Riva, confirms that Roller is in her pocket. When Desna confronts him, Roller abducts her at gunpoint.

9
"Ambrosia"
Marta Cunningham
Jeff Augustin
August 6, 2017 (2017-08-06)
1.34[14]

A series of flashbacks show Roller's first meeting with the girls, Polly's arrest for fraud, and Roller and Desna's growing romance; in the present, Roller explains his plan to clean out the mafia's accounts and frame Desna. She manages to pass along a code word to Polly before retrieving the money. Ann finds Branch's files on Desna during a hookup. Bryce asks Clay to request approval for a strike on the Russians. Desna manages to puncture one of Roller's tires, forcing them to pull over for repairs. When a cop comes by, he refuses to help on account of being on the Hussers' payroll. Ann struggles between her love for Arlene and the need to protect Desna. Bryce accidentally kills a fellow mobster (Michael Emerson), putting the family in danger. Ann drugs Arlene, getting her arrested for DUI. As a final wish, Desna gives Dean her blessing to marry Virginia. Roller also reveals that Clay, not him, took the money Desna was owed. Polly figures out the meaning of Desna's code, just as Roller arrives to make the drop. He ends up killing the Russians and prepares to kill Desna as well, but she escapes.

10
"Avalanche"
Howard Deutch
Eliot Laurence
August 13, 2017 (2017-08-13)
1.57[15]

The girls reach the park in time to save Desna from Roller, but soon realize that Jenn and her girls are in danger. The Russians declare war on the Husser family, and Clay's wife Juanda (Dale Dickey) is shot at their mansion and dies, while one of Bryce's daughters is taken hostage. Desna finds Jenn with her boyfriend and informs her of the situation. Riva explains that Roller had a child with her niece, which explains why he'd been making payments to them. The Hussers get into a brawl before making up, and Clay concedes that the only way out of the crisis is to have Desna negotiate with the Russians. Marnie arrives at the salon looking for a place to stay, but Polly turns her away. Desna offers to give the Russians 50% of the family's revenue, despite not having Clay's permission. Polly catches Marnie's mother trying to sell her as a prostitute and buys her freedom with Ken's help. Clay approves the deal, but Riva changes her terms: complete control of the mafia's business in return for Roller's life. After a brief standoff, the Hussers and their associates are taken away to be put into service for the Russians, while Desna cuts a deal to continue laundering money on their behalf. Virginia discovers that she is pregnant. Desna turns her salon over to Jenn, but she and the others refuse and vow to stay by her side until the end. The Hussers meet with their former rivals, the Haitians, to discuss an alliance.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The first season of Claws has received mostly positive reviews. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the series has an approval rating of 75% based on 24 reviews.[16] On Metacritic, the series has a score of 63 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[17] Variety described the show as aesthetically captivating but with weak storytelling.[18]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Tirana"
June 11, 2017
0.4
1.18[6]
0.3
N/A
0.7[19]
N/A

2
"Funerary"
June 18, 2017
0.4
1.20[7]
0.5
0.99
0.9
2.19[20]

3
"Quicksand"
June 25, 2017
0.4
1.07[8]
0.5
1.06
0.9
2.13[21]

4
"Fallout"
July 2, 2017
0.5
1.24[9]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

5
"Bats**t"
July 9, 2017
0.4
1.19[10]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

6
"No. 2"
July 16, 2017
0.5
1.25[11]
0.4
1.04
0.9
2.29[22]

7
"Escape"
July 23, 2017
0.5
1.27[12]
0.4
1.08
0.9
2.35[23]

8
"Teatro"
July 30, 2017
0.6
1.58[13]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

9
"Ambrosia"
August 6, 2017
0.5
1.34[14]
0.6
1.28
1.1
2.62[24]

10
"Avalanche"
August 13, 2017
0.6
1.57[15]
0.4
1.13
1.0
2.70[25]


document_title: Goal-line technology

question_text: when did goal line technology start in england

root

text: Goal-line technology

text: Background[edit]

text: In association football, a goal is scored if the whole of the ball crosses the goal line between the goalposts and under the crossbar. In most cases, this is relatively unambiguous (goal nets being a low-tech way of verifying that the ball passed the correct side of the goalposts). Occasionally however situations occur when it is difficult for referees and their assistants to tell if a goal has been scored before a rebound, save, or defender's clearance from the goal area.

tag: p

text: Rules[edit]

text: Since 2012, goal-line technology has been permitted in matches. Text relating to goal-line technology can now be found within four of the Laws of the Game:

text:
Law 1 (The Field of Play): permitting modifications to the goal frame.
Law 2 (The Ball): permitting the use of approved balls with integrated technology.
Law 5 (The Referee): requiring the referee to test a goal-line technology system prior to a match and not use it if a fault is found.
Law 10 (The Method of Scoring): permitting use of goal-line technology to verify whether or not goals have been scored. It states that "the use of GLT must be stipulated in the respective competition rules".

tag: ul

text: The Laws themselves are not specific as to the nature of Goal Line technology systems, however other documentation from FIFA, which is cited by the Laws, goes into more detail. The FIFA Quality Programme for GLT Testing Manual[7] precisely define the requirements of the systems. Four basic requirements of a system are stipulated:

text:
The system must address only the matter of whether a goal has been scored or not.
The system must be accurate.
The system must indicate the scoring of a goal immediately, confirming this within one second.
The system must communicate its information solely to the match officials (via vibration and visual alert on the referee's watch)

text: FIFA have a system whereby a particular technology provider needs to show effectiveness to successfully obtain a license for their technology, then an installation within a particular stadium must pass a "final installation test" before use, and before each game the referee must check that the system is functional.[8][9]

text: Current implementation[edit]

text:
Due to the expense of goal-line technology systems, the technology is only currently used at the very top levels of the game. In domestic competition, goal-line technology is only regularly used in a few major European leagues:
Serie A,[10]
Ligue 1,[11]
the Bundesliga,[12]
and the Premier League.[13]

text: As of  September 2018[update], FIFA's website list 167 stadiums with licensed GLT installations, 166 of which use the Hawk-Eye system.[14] One stadium uses GoalControl,[14] which is the other licensed provider.[15]

text: History[edit]

text: Pre-implementation history[edit]

text: Prior to 2012, competitions were unable to implement technology as provision was not made for it in the Laws. The Laws of association football are controlled by the International Football Association Board (IFAB), a body on which FIFA holds 50% of the voting power, sufficient to veto any changes to the laws.

text: Compared to other sports, association football was late to allow technology to assist with in-game decisions. The matter was a subject of debate within the game for over a decade with the game's lawmakers resisting calls for its implementation.

text: Throughout the 2000s various incidents incited discussion as to the potential for goal-line technology in the game.[16][17][18][19] The lack of use of technology in association football was contrasted with other sports, which had incorporated video replays and other systems into their rules.[20]

text: In response to this, FIFA decided to test a system by Adidas in which a football with an embedded microchip would send a signal to the referee if it crossed a sensor going through the goal.[21] According to FIFA president Sepp Blatter, "We did different tests at the Under-17 World Cup in Peru but the evidence wasn't clear so we will carry out trials in junior competitions in 2007".[21] However, those trials did not materialise and by 2008, Blatter had rejected the system outright, describing the technology as 'only 95% accurate'.[21] FIFA and IFAB were resistant to introducing technology in the game, voting in March 2010 to permanently ditch the technology.[22]

text: Following several refereeing errors at the 2010 FIFA World Cup – including the disallowed goal in Germany's 4–1 victory over England, when Frank Lampard hit a shot from outside of the penalty box that bounced off the crossbar and over the line; the ball came back out and the goal was disallowed because the assistant referee did not call for a goal[23] – Blatter announced that FIFA would reopen the goal-line technology discussion.[24]

text: Before Euro 2012, UEFA president Michel Platini dismissed the need for goal-line technology, instead arguing for placing additional assistant referees behind the goal. However, in a Group D match with Ukraine losing 1–0 to England, the on-field officials did not see Ukraine's Marko Dević's shot briefly cross the line before it was cleared by England's John Terry, although an offside in the build-up to the incident was too unnoticed by the match officials.[25][26]

text: Initial testing[edit]

text: Heeding calls for the use of technology, in July 2011 FIFA began a process of sanctioned tests that eventually resulted in the approval of the systems used in the current game.

text: The first stage of testing considered multiple goal-line technology systems, with the requirement that the system notified the referee of the decision within one second of the incident happening. The message needed to be relayed via a visual signal and vibration.[27] Tests were conducted by Empa between September and December 2011.[28] Tested systems included:[28]

text:
A system from Carios Technologies, in collaboration with Adidas, based around a modified ball with an implanted chip and a magnetic field generated by thin cables behind the goal line. The system could detect if the ball passed through the field.[29]
GoalRef: Another system based on generated magnetic fields and a sensor within the ball.[30]
Goalminder: A system based on cameras installed in the goal frame. This provided a visual playback to officials rather than an automatic goal-or-no-goal alert.[31][32]
Hawk-Eye: A Sony-owned system based several on multiple high-speed cameras whose images are used to which triangulate the position of the ball.[30] Hawk-Eye systems were, and still are, used in several other sports for supporting officiating decisions.[33]

text: Second phase of testing[edit]

text: On 3 March 2012, IFAB announced that two of the eight proposed systems had proceeded to the second stage of testing. These were Hawk-Eye and GoalRef.[28] In the second phase of testing, the manufacturer of the technology chose a stadium to test its technology in a number of imagined scenarios. Testing was also conducted in professional training sessions and in laboratories to account for different climatic conditions and other magnetic field distortions. Tests on the watch to be worn by referees were also be undertaken. The systems also each underwent testing in some competitive matches.

text: GoalRef technology underwent match testing in some Danish Superliga matches in the first half of 2012.[34][35] Following the second phase trials, on 5 July 2012 IFAB approved GoalRef in principle, making it available for use in professional matches under a set of revised Laws of the Game. Each installation however would also require licensing approval for use in the individual stadium, on a 12-month basis. The 2012 FIFA Club World Cup was the first tournament where GoalRef was used by a match referee. Goal Ref was used for the first time on 6 December 2012 in the first match of the 2012 FIFA Club World Cup.[36]

text: The first match to use the Hawk-Eye goal-line technology was Eastleigh F.C. versus A.F.C. Totton in the Hampshire Senior Cup final at St Mary's Stadium, Southampton in England on 16 May 2012. Although it used Hawk-Eye, the system had no bearing on the referee's decisions and the system readings were only available to FIFA's independent testing agency.[37] The system was also in place for the technology's second test on 2 June for England's friendly match against Belgium.[30]

text: Introduction[edit]

text: Following the success of the trials, in July 2012 IFAB voted unanimously to officially amend the Laws of the Game to permit (but not require) goal-line technology.[38]

text: In December 2012, FIFA announced it would introduce goal-line technology at the 2012 FIFA Club World Cup in Japan.[39] Hawk-Eye technology was employed at Toyota Stadium, while GoalRef was used at International Stadium Yokohama.

text: GoalControl, a camera-based system which uses 14 high-speed cameras located around the pitch and directed at both goals, was used at 2013 Confederations Cup, partly as a trial for use at the next year's World Cup.[40][41]

text: The Football Association announced that Hawk-Eye would be used in the 2013–14 Premier League season.[42] On 16 December 2013, it was announced that Hawk-Eye would be used in three of the four quarter-finals and subsequent matches in the League Cup.[43] The system was used when, on the very next day, in the Sunderland – Chelsea quarter-final, a goal from Frank Lampard was allowed.[44] The first goal to be decisively awarded using goal-line technology in the English Premier League was Edin Džeko's goal for Manchester City against Cardiff City on 18 January 2014.[45]

text: Following success at the Confederations Cup, GoalControl was used at the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The first goal given by the technology was in the 15 June 2014 group stage match between France and Honduras.[46]

text: Goal Line Technology was implemented across the major European competitions. In December 2014, the Bundesliga clubs approved goal-line technology that will be introduced at the start of the 2015–16 Bundesliga season. The league picked the cheaper Hawk-Eye system over two German technologies.[47] GoalControl was introduced for Ligue 1 for the start of the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season.[48][49] Ligue 1 later switched to using Hawk-Eye in 2018 after the GoalControl system made errors.[50]

text: Goal Line Technology was used in the UEFA Europa League final, UEFA Champions League, European Championship and Copa America for the first time in 2016.[51][52][53]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Human element is lost[edit]

text: While advocates for goal-line technology maintain that it would significantly reduce refereeing errors during play, there are also criticisms of the technology. Much of the criticism came from within FIFA itself including former FIFA president Sepp Blatter. Apart from the criticisms revolving around the technical aspects of the two proposed technologies, critics point out that such technology would impact on the human element of the game and remove the enjoyment of debating mistakes.[54] Sepp Blatter has been quoted as saying "Other sports regularly change the laws of the game to react to the new technology. ... We don't do it and this makes the fascination and the popularity of football".[55]

text: A study suggested that in the 2010–11 Premier League season "errors took place nearly 30% of the time that video replays could help prevent", but some people claim that instant replays would interrupt the flow of the game and take away possible plays.[56]

text:
Other critics believe it would be prohibitively expensive to implement the technology at all levels of the game and particularly for smaller/poorer football associations. FIFA officials have expressed a preference for 'better refereeing' as well as more match officials over implementing the technology.[57]
Advocates in turn cite the many examples of incorrect goal-line decisions deciding important games and point out that the technology has improved much since the initial trials carried out by FIFA.  Advocates contend that any extra help for the referee should outweigh arguments that it would lead to non-uniform rules (since not all football associations would be able to implement it).

text: Blatter had been opposed to goal-line technology until Frank Lampard's disallowed goal in the 2010 World Cup  where the ball clearly crossed the line.[27][58][59]

text: The introduction of additional assistant referees, who are mostly positioned beside the goal-line, was partly in order to facilitate in such situations.

text: Cost[edit]

text: In April 2013, MLS commissioner Don Garber confirmed that MLS would not adopt goal-line technology for the 2014 season, citing cost as the overriding factor. GoalControl installation would cost about $260,000 per stadium, and a further $3,900 for each game.[60]

text: In early 2014, the vast majority of teams in the two divisions of the German Bundesliga voted against introducing goal-line technology for financial reasons. The costs per club would have ranged from  €250,000 for a chip inside the ball up to €500,000 for Hawk-Eye or GoalControl. The manager of 1. FC Köln, Jörg Schmadtke, summarized the vote with "The cost is so exorbitant, that using this (technology) is not acceptable".[61]

text: World governing body FIFA are set to make £300,000 from the Premier League’s decision to install goal-line technology in all top-flight stadiums before the start of next season. Each of the 20 clubs will have to pay FIFA £15,000 to install, test and receive the ‘FIFA quality seal’ for Hawk-Eye’s camera-based system, which is expected to cost around £250,000 per ground in total. FIFA will also make an extra £15,000 from Wembley Stadium, which will have the technology installed for use in events such as the FA Cup semi-finals and final.

text: The Scottish Professional Football League stated in December 2017 that it would not be implementing goal-line technology, as it is only affordable for the richest leagues in Europe.[62]


document_title: List of Major League Baseball record holders

question_text: most strikeouts by mlb pitcher in a season

text: Batting records (1876–present)[edit]

text: Career[edit]

text:
Record

Player

#

Refs

Highest batting average

Ty Cobb

.3664

Most singles

Pete Rose

3,215

[1]

Most doubles

Tris Speaker

792

[2]

Most triples

Sam Crawford

309

[3]

Most home runs

Barry Bonds

762

[4]

Most grand slams

Alex Rodriguez

25

Most home runs by a pitcher

Wes Ferrell

38

Most grand slams by a pitcher

Madison Bumgarner

3

Oldest player to hit first home run

Bartolo Colón

7004156890000000000♠42 years, 349 days old

[5]

Youngest player to hit a home run

Tommy Brown

7003646700000000000♠17 years, 257 days old

[6]

Most runs batted in

Hank Aaron

2,297

[7]

Most hits

Pete Rose

4,256

[8]

Most runs scored

Rickey Henderson

2,295

[9]

Highest on-base percentage

Ted Williams

.482

[10]

Most stolen bases

Rickey Henderson

1,406

[11]

Most steals of home

Ty Cobb

54

Highest slugging percentage

Babe Ruth

.690

[12]

Highest OPS

Babe Ruth

1.164

[13]

Most walks

Barry Bonds

2,558

[14]

Most intentional walks

Barry Bonds

688

[15]

Most strikeouts

Reggie Jackson

2,597

[16]

Most at-bats

Pete Rose

14,555

[17]

Most total bases

Hank Aaron

6,856

[18]

Most runs created

Barry Bonds

2,892

[19]

Most games played

Pete Rose

3,562

[20]

tag: table

text: Single-Season[edit]

text:
Records

Player

#

Season

Refs

Games

Maury Wills

165

1962

Highest batting average

Hugh Duffy

.440

1894

[21]

Most singles

Ichiro Suzuki

225

2004

[22]

Most doubles

Earl Webb

67

1931

[23]

Most triples

Chief Wilson

36

1912

[24]

Most home runs

Barry Bonds

73

2001

Most runs batted in

Hack Wilson

191

1930

[25]

Most hits

Ichiro Suzuki

262

2004

[26]

Most runs scored

Billy Hamilton

192

1894

[27]

Highest on-base percentage

Barry Bonds

.609

2004

[28]

Most stolen bases[a]

Hugh NicolRickey Henderson

138130

18871982

[29]

Highest slugging percentage

Barry Bonds

.863

2001

[30]

Highest OPS

Barry Bonds

1.422

2004

[31]

Most walks

Barry Bonds

232

2004

[32]

Most strikeouts

Mark Reynolds

223

2009

Most extra base hits

Babe Ruth

119

1921

[33]

Fastest pitch thrown

Nolan Ryan

108.5 mph

1974

Most total bases

Babe Ruth

457

1921

[34]

Consecutive game hitting streak

Joe DiMaggio

56

1941

Most at-bats

Jimmy Rollins

716

2007

[35]

text: Pitching records (1876–present)[edit]

text: Career[edit]

text:
Record

Player

#

Most wins

Cy Young

511

Most losses

Cy Young

316

Lowest E.R.A.

Ed Walsh

1.82

Most no-hitters

Nolan Ryan

7

Most strikeouts

Nolan Ryan

5,714

Most shutouts

Walter Johnson

110

Most pickoffs

Steve Carlton

144

Most innings pitched

Cy Young

7,354⅔

Most hit batsmen

Gus Weyhing

278

Most home runs allowed

Jamie Moyer

522

Most complete games

Cy Young

749

Lowest WHIP

Addie Joss

.968

Most saves

Mariano Rivera

652

Highest win–loss percentage

Spud Chandler

71.7%

Most games

Jesse Orosco

1,252

Most consecutive scoreless innings pitched

Orel Hershiser

59[b]

text: Live-ball era (1920–present)[edit]

text: (if different from overall records)

text:
Record

Player

#

Most wins

Warren Spahn

363

Most losses

Nolan Ryan

292

Lowest earned-run average

Bob Gibson

2.91

Most shutouts

Warren Spahn

63

Most innings pitched

Phil Niekro

5,404⅓

Most complete games

Warren Spahn

382

Lowest WHIP

Mariano Rivera

1.000

text: Single season[edit]

text:
Record

Player

#

Season

Most wins

Old Hoss Radbourn

58

1884

Most losses

John Coleman

48

1883

Lowest E.R.A.

Tim Keefe

0.86

1880

Most strikeouts

Matt Kilroy

513

1886

Most shutouts

George BradleyPete Alexander

16

18761916

Most innings pitched

Will White

680

1879

Most complete games

Will White

75

1879

Lowest WHIP

Pedro Martínez

.7373

2000

Most saves

Francisco Rodríguez

62

2008

Highest win/loss percentage

Roy Face

94.7%

1959

Most hits allowed

John Coleman

772

1883

Most earned runs allowed

John Coleman

291

1883

text: Live-ball era (1920–present)[edit]

text: (if different from all-time records)

text:
Record

Player

#

Season

Most wins

Jim Bagby, Sr.Lefty GroveDenny McLain

31

192019311968

Most losses

Paul Derringer

27

1933

Most strikeouts

Nolan Ryan

383

1973

Most shutouts

Bob Gibson

13

1968

Most innings pitched

Wilbur Wood

376.2

1972

Most complete games

Bob Feller

36

1946

Most hits allowed

George Uhle

378

1923

Most earned runs allowed

Bobo Newsom

186

1938

text: Hitting records: single game (1876–present)[edit]

text:
Most hits in a nine-inning game: 7 by Wilbert Robinson, June 10, 1892, and Rennie Stennett, September 16, 1975.
Most hits in an extra-inning game: 9, Johnny Burnett, July 10, 1932.[36]
Most total bases in a nine-inning game: 19 (4 home runs, a double and a single), Shawn Green, May 23, 2002.

text: Pitching records: single game (1876–present)[edit]

text:
Most home runs allowed: 7, Charlie Sweeney, June 12, 1886
Most strikeouts: 21, Tom Cheney, September 12, 1962 (16 innings)
Most strikeouts in a nine-inning game: 20 by Kerry Wood, Roger Clemens (twice), and Max Scherzer [c]
Most consecutive home runs allowed: 4 by Paul Foytack, July 31, 1963, Chase Wright, April 22, 2007, Dave Bush, August 11, 2010, and Michael Blazek, July 27, 2017
Oldest pitcher to win a game: Jamie Moyer, age 49 years, 151 days, May 16, 2012

text: Catcher records: career[edit]

text:
Most runners caught stealing: 810, Gary Carter[38]
Most stolen bases allowed: 1,498, Gary Carter[39]
Most stolen-base attempts: 2,308, Gary Carter
Highest caught-stealing %: 57.40%, Roy Campanella[40]
Most pickoffs: 81, Iván Rodríguez[41]
Most games caught: 2,427, Iván Rodríguez

text: Most caught no hitters: 4, Jason Varitek, May 19, 2008 and Carlos Ruiz, July 25, 2015.

text: Note: Pre-1950 stolen-base data is incomplete; career leaders shown from 1950 to present.

text: Catcher records: single season[edit]

text:
Most runners caught stealing: Jody Davis, 89 (1986)[43]
Most stolen bases allowed: Mike Piazza, 155 (1996)[44]
Highest caught-stealing %: Mike LaValliere, 72.73% (1993)[45]
Most no-hitters caught: 2, Carlos Ruiz (2010) and Wilson Ramos (2015) (List of Major League Baseball no-hitters)

text: Both of Ruiz's no-hitters were by Roy Halladay; the second was in Game 1 of the National League Division Series, Halladay's first career postseason start. Both of Ramos' no-hitters were by Max Scherzer.

text: In 1914, Yankees catcher Les Nunamaker threw out three runners in the same inning.[46]

text: Other records[edit]

text:
Most World Series wins (as a manager): 7, Casey Stengel, Joe McCarthy
Most pennants won: 10, Casey Stengel, John McGraw
Most World Series appearances (as a manager): 10, Casey Stengel
Most World Series appearances (as a team): 40, New York Yankees
Most World Series titles (as a team): 27, New York Yankees
Most regular season wins (as a team): 116, Seattle Mariners (2001), Chicago Cubs (1907)
Most MVP Awards won: 7, Barry Bonds
Most Grand Slams By a Pitcher in One Season: Tony Cloninger, Madison Bumgarner, 2
Most Consecutive Games Played: 2,632, Cal Ripken, Jr.


document_title: Charles E. Rushmore

question_text: how did mt. rushmore get its name

question_tokens: how did mt . rushmore get its name

text: Charles E. Rushmore

text: Charles E. Rushmore (December 2, 1857 – October 31, 1931) was an American businessman and attorney for whom Mount Rushmore is named. Born in New York City, he was the son of Edward Carmen Rushmore and Mary Eliza (née Dunn) Rushmore, of Tuxedo Park, NY. He was married to the former Jeanette E. Carpenter.[1]

text: In 1883, a tin mine, the Etta, was opened, which caused excitement among Eastern investors.[2] In 1885 Rushmore was in the Black Hills of South Dakota to check the titles to properties for an eastern mining company owned by James Wilson. Although an Easterner, Rushmore quickly made friends among the miners and prospectors. One day he was returning to headquarters of the Harney Peak Consolidated Tin Co., Ltd., located at Pine Camp, which was north of the great granite peak soon to bear his name. With him were a local business man, and William W. Challis, a prospector and guide. As they neared the mountain, Rushmore turned to Challis and asked its name. Challis jestingly replied: "Never had any but it has now - we'll call the thing Rushmore."

text: According to rancher Jerry Urbanek, Rushmore returned to the Black Hills annually to hunt big game. One day, while accompanied by Ted Brockett of Keystone, South Dakota, Rushmore asked the name of the mountain and was told that it was Slaughterhouse Rock. Rushmore joked that his annual treks to the Hills had earned him the right to have the mountain named after himself. "So just for the hell of it," Urbanek claimed, the locals started calling the hill Mount Rushmore.[3]

text: Whatever the precise story, the United States Board of Geographic Names officially recognized the name "Mount Rushmore" in June 1930. Forty years after the initial 1885 naming, Rushmore donated $5000 towards Gutzon Borglum's sculpture of the four presidents' heads on the mountain - the largest single contribution. The Memorial was dedicated by President Coolidge on August 10, 1927.

text: Rushmore was also a member of the Phi Gamma Delta Fraternity. Mr. Rushmore was also a member of Kane Lodge No. 454, F&AM (NYC).


document_title: List of highest paid film actors

question_text: who is the highest paid movie star in hollywood

text: List of highest paid film actors

text: Salaries for the world's highest paid film actors currently range from $20–30 million, but an actor can earn substantially more by deferring all or part of their salary against a percentage of the film's gross, known within the industry as a "profit participation" deal. Since not all salaries are made public, this is a non-definitive list of actors who have received $30 million or more as compensation for their services. The figures are given at their nominal value, since earnings from profit based deals are accumulated over many years, making it unfeasible to adjust for inflation.

text:
Highest-earning actors in films

Actor

Film

Year

Salary

Total income

Ref

Keanu Reeves

The Matrix ReloadedThe Matrix Revolutions

2003

$30,000,000

$156,000,000

[1]

Bruce Willis

The Sixth Sense

1999

$14,000,000

$100,000,000

[1]

Tom Cruise

Mission: Impossible 2

2000

$100,000,000

[1]

Tom Cruise

War of the Worlds

2005

$100,000,000

[1]

Will Smith

Men in Black 3

2012

$100,000,000

[2]

Robert Downey, Jr.

Iron Man 3

2013

$75,000,000

[3]

Sandra Bullock

Gravity

2013

$20,000,000

$70,000,000+

[4]

Tom Hanks

Forrest Gump

1994

$70,000,000

[1]

Tom Cruise

Mission: Impossible

1996

$70,000,000

[1]

Harrison Ford

Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull

2008

$65,000,000

[5]

Jack Nicholson

Batman

1989

$6,000,000

$60,000,000

[1][6]

Leonardo DiCaprio

Inception

2010

$59,000,000

[7]

Robert Downey, Jr.

Captain America: Civil War

2014

$40,000,000

$40,000,000+

[3]

Robert Downey, Jr.

Avengers: Age of Ultron

2014

$40,000,000

[8]

Johnny Depp

Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides

2011

$35,000,000

$55,000,000

[7][9]

Robert Downey, Jr.

The Avengers

2012

$50,000,000

[10]

Cameron Diaz

Bad Teacher

2011

$42,000,000

[11]

Leonardo DiCaprio

Titanic

1997

$40,000,000

[1]

Tom Hanks

Saving Private Ryan

1998

$40,000,000

[1]

Johnny Depp

Alice in Wonderland

2010

$40,000,000

[7]

Aamir Khan

Dangal

2016

$37,000,000+

[nb 1][12][13]

Jim Carrey

Yes Man

2008

$35,000,000

[14]

Arnold Schwarzenegger

Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines

2003

$29,250,000

$30,000,000+

[nb 2][1]

Mel Gibson

Lethal Weapon 4

1998

$30,000,000

$30,000,000

[1]

Brad Pitt

Ocean's Eleven

2001

$10,000,000

$30,000,000

[1]

text:
Jump up ^ ₹257 crore ($37–41 million at 2017 exchange rates).

Jump up ^ Arnold Schwarzenegger received a $29,250,000 salary for Terminator 3 plus a 20% royalty on the worldwide box office gross over $380 million. The film ultimately had a global gross of $433 million.

tag: ol


document_title: Ms.

question_text: when did the term ms come into use

question_tokens: when did the term ms come into use

text: Ms.

text: Historical development and revival of the term[edit]

text: Ms. began to be used as early as the 17th century, along with Miss and Mrs., as a title derived from the then formal Mistress, which, like Mister, did not originally indicate marital status.[6][7] Ms., however, fell into disuse in favor of the other two titles and was not revived until the 20th century.[8][9]

text: The earliest known proposal for the modern revival of Ms. as a title appeared in The Republican of Springfield, Massachusetts, on November 10, 1901:

text: There is a void in the English language which, with some diffidence, we undertake to fill. Every one has been put in an embarrassing position by ignorance of the status of some woman. To call a maiden Mrs is only a shade worse than to insult a matron with the inferior title Miss. Yet it is not always easy to know the facts...

text: Now, clearly, what is needed is a more comprehensive term which does homage to the sex without expressing any views as to their domestic situation, and what could be simpler or more logical than the retention of what the two doubtful terms have in common. The abbreviation Ms is simple, it is easy to write, and the person concerned can translate it properly according to circumstances. For oral use it might be rendered as "Mizz," which would be a close parallel to the practice long universal in many bucolic regions, where a slurred Mis' does duty for Miss and Mrs alike.[4]

text: The term was again suggested as a convenience to writers of business letters by such publications as the Bulletin of the American Business Writing Association (1951) and The Simplified Letter, issued by the National Office Management Association (1952).[10]

text: In 1961, Sheila Michaels attempted to put the term into use when she saw what she thought was a typographical error on the address label of a copy of News & Letters sent to her roommate.[11][12] Michaels "was looking for a title for a woman who did not 'belong' to a man."[13] She knew the separation of the now common terms Miss and Mrs. had derived from Mistress, but one could not suggest that women use the original title with its now louche connotations. Her efforts to promote use of a new honorific were at first ignored.[14]

text: In 1969, in a lull during a WBAI-radio interview with The Feminists group, Michaels suggested the use of Ms. A friend of Gloria Steinem heard the interview and suggested it as a title for her new magazine. The magazine Ms. debuted on newsstands in January 1972, and its much-publicized name quickly led to widespread usage.[15] In February 1972, the US Government Printing Office approved using Ms. in official government documents.[16] In 1976 Marvel Comics introduced a new superhero named Ms. Marvel, billing her as the "first feminist superhero".

text: Even several public opponents of non-sexist language, such as William Safire, were finally convinced that Ms. had earned a place in English by the case of US Congresswoman Geraldine A. Ferraro. Ferraro, a United States vice-presidential candidate in 1984, was a married woman who used her birth surname professionally rather than her husband's (Zaccaro). Safire pointed out that it would be equally incorrect to call her "Miss Ferraro" (as she was married) or "Mrs. Ferraro" (as her husband was not "Mr. Ferraro")—and that calling her "Mrs. Zaccaro" would confuse the reader.[17]

text: Usage[edit]

text: Suggestions about how Ms. should be used, or whether it should be used at all, are varied.[18]

text: The Daily Telegraph states in its style guide that Ms should only be used if a subject requests it herself and it "should not be used merely because we do not know whether the woman is Mrs or Miss".[19] On the other hand, The Guardian, which restricts its use of honorific titles to leading articles, states in its style guide: "use Ms for women ... unless they have expressed a preference for Miss or Mrs".[20] The Economist states that it generally uses the title a person adopts but warns that Ms. is an "ugly" title.[21] A BBC Academy style guide states, "In choosing between Miss, Mrs and Ms, try to find out what the person herself uses, and stick to that."[22] The New York Times embraces the use of all three: Mrs., Miss, and Ms.,[23] and will follow the individual’s preferences.[24]

text: Some etiquette writers and famous figures do not support the use of Ms., including Charles Kidd, the editor of Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage, who claims the usage is "not very helpful" and that he had been "brought up to address a married woman as Mrs John Smith, for example".[25] Debrett's itself, concerning the case of a married woman who chooses not to take her husband's name, states, "The ugly-sounding Ms is problematic. Although many women have assumed this bland epithet, it remains incorrect to use it when addressing a social letter."[26] The former British Conservative Party MP Ann Widdecombe has stated, "I can't see the point of Ms and I don't see it as an issue",[25] whilst author and journalist Jessica Fellowes describes the title Ms. as "ghastly".[26] The Queen's English Society has criticised the use of Ms as "an abbreviation that is not short for anything", describing it as a "linguistic misfit [that] came about because certain women suddenly became sensitive about revealing their marital status".[27]

text: On the other hand, the default use of Ms., especially for business purposes, is championed by some American sources, including Judith Martin (a.k.a. Miss Manners).[28] Concerning business, the Emily Post Institute states, "Ms. is the default form of address, unless you know positively that a woman wishes to be addressed as Mrs."[29] The American Heritage Book of English Usage states, "Using Ms. obviates the need for the guesswork involved in figuring out whether to address someone as Mrs. or Miss: you can’t go wrong with Ms. Whether the woman you are addressing is married or unmarried, has changed her name or not, Ms. is always correct."[30]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Oxford English Dictionary online, Ms, n.2. Etymology:  An orthographic and phonetic blend of Mrs n.1 and miss n.2 Compare mizz n. The pronunciation with final /-z/ would appear to have arisen as a result of deliberate attempts to distinguish between this word and miss n.2; compare mizz n., and perhaps also Miz n.1 -- [mizz n.: Etymology: Representing the spoken realization of Ms n.2 (see discussion at that entry).]  Accessed 2012-07-25

Jump up ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary r. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 463. ISBN 0-582-05383-8.  entry "Ms". It may be pronounced with schwa even in stressed situation.

Jump up ^ "Emily Post's Guide to Addressing Correspondence: Addressing a Woman". The Emily Post Institute. Archived from the original on 2010-02-08. Retrieved 2013-03-12.

^ Jump up to: a b Zimmer, Ben (2009-06-23). "Hunting the Elusive First 'Ms.'". Word Routes. The Visual Thesaurus. Retrieved 2009-06-23.

Jump up ^ "Abbreviations : Capital Letters and Abbreviations". www.sussex.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 February 2018.

Jump up ^ Spender, Dale (1981). Man Made Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7100-0675-2.

Jump up ^ Stannard, Una (1977). Mrs Man. San Francisco: Germainbooks. ISBN 978-0-914142-02-7.

Jump up ^ Martin, Judith (October 11, 2009). "What's in a name?". Miss Manners. Buffalo News. Archived from the original on 2009-10-14.

Jump up ^ Martin, Judith. Miss Manners' Guide for the Turn of the Millennium. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 10. ISBN 0-671-72228-X.

Jump up ^ "Ms". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2009.

Jump up ^ Jeffs, Angela (November 5, 2000). "Missing piece of puzzle in story of 'Ms.'". The Japan Times Online.

Jump up ^ Michaels, Sheila (March–April 2008). "Forty Years of Defying the Odds". Solidarity Webzine. Solidarity. Retrieved November 9, 2009.

Jump up ^ Kay, Eve (28 June 2007). "Call Me Ms". The Guardian. Retrieved August 20, 2007.

Jump up ^ Fishko, Sara (June 28, 2012). "Fishko Files: Ms". WNYC. Archived from the original on 2013-03-12. Retrieved 2013-03-12.

Jump up ^ Zimmer, Ben (2009-10-25). "On Language: Ms". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-11-16.

Jump up ^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 246. ISBN 0-465-04195-7.

Jump up ^ Safire, William. "On Language: Goodbye Sex, Hello Gender", The New York Times, August 5, 1984, Section 6 p. 8.

Jump up ^ Grigg, John (1991-11-02). "The Times". Most married women are still addressed, and wish to be addressed, as Mrs, while most unmarried women are still addressed as Miss. Ms is used by feminists to make their point, or by male chauvinists trying to make the opposite point, though of course it is also used by unprejudiced correspondents in a state of doubt.  quoted in Burchfield, R. W. (1996). The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (3rd ed.). p. 512. ISBN 0-19-969036-7.

Jump up ^ "Telegraph style book: names and titles". Telegraph.co.uk. 19 February 2008.

Jump up ^ "The Guardian Style Guide: Mr, Ms, Mrs, Miss". The Guardian. August 2009. Retrieved 2013-03-12.

Jump up ^ "Titles". Style Guide. The Economist. Retrieved 2016-11-16.

Jump up ^ "Names". BBC Academy. Retrieved 2015-06-25.

Jump up ^ Zimmer, Ben. "On Language: Ms." The New York Times’’. 23 October 2009.

Jump up ^ Siegal, Allan M., Connolly, William G. "Courtesy title". The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage: The Official Style Guide Used by the Writers and Editors of the World's Most Authoritative News Organization. Random House USA Incorporated, 2015. ISBN 9781101905449. Page 79.

^ Jump up to: a b "Mrs? Or is that Ms, Miss?". BBC NEWS.

^ Jump up to: a b Fellowes, By Jessica. "Etiquette: Mind your 'please' and cues".

Jump up ^ "ERROR – Ms". The Queen's English Society: QES English Academy. Archived from the original on August 6, 2010. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)

Jump up ^ Martin, Judith. "Miss Manners: How and When to Use 'Ms.' in Business Correspondence". Lifestyle. MSN. Archived from the original on 2012-03-15.

Jump up ^ "Guide to Addressing Correspondence".

Jump up ^ "The American Heritage Book of English Usage". 31 October 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-12-09.


document_title: History of Kashmir

question_text: who is known as the first kashmiri historian

text: History of Kashmir

text: Etymology[edit]

text: According to folk etymology, the name "Kashmir" means "desiccated land" (from the Sanskrit: Ka = water and shimeera = desiccate).[2] In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the mid-12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake. According to Hindu mythology, the lake was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked Brahmins to settle there. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical condition of the country, we may see some ground for the story which has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44).[3][4] Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria.[5] Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way.

text: According to the Mahabharata,[6] the Kambojas ruled Kashmir during the epic period with a Republican system of government[7] from the capital city of Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava.,[8][9] shortened to Rajapura,[10][11][12][13] which has been identified with modern Rajauri.[14]

text: Later, the Panchalas are stated to have established their sway[citation needed]. The name Peer Panjal, which is a part of modern Kashmir, is a witness to this fact. Panjal is simply a distorted form of the Sanskritic tribal term Panchala[citation needed]. The Muslims prefixed the word peer to it in memory of Siddha Faqir and the name thereafter is said to have changed into Peer Panjal.[15] According to legend, Jammu was founded by Hindu King Raja Jambu Lochan in the 14th century BC. During one of his hunting campaigns he reached the Tawi River where he saw a goat and a lion drinking water at the same place. The king was impressed and decided to set up a town after his name, Jamboo. With the passage of time, the name was corrupted and became "Jammu".

text: Historiography[edit]

text: Nilmata Purana (complied c. 500–600 CE)[16] contains accounts of Kashmir's early history. However, being a Puranic source, it has been argued that it suffers from a degree of inconsistency and unreliability.[17][a] Kalhana's Rajatarangini (River of Kings), all the 8000 Sanskrit verses of which were completed by 1150 CE, chronicles the history of Kashmir's dynasties from mythical times to 12th century.[20][21] It relies upon traditional sources like Nilmata Purana, inscriptions, coins, monuments, and Kalhana's personal observations borne out of political experiences of his family.[22][20] Towards the end of the work mythical explanations give way to rational and critical analyses of dramatic events between 11th and 12th centuries, for which Kalhana is often credited as India's first historian.[17][20] During the reign of Muslim kings in Kashmir, three supplements to Rajatarangini were written by Jonaraja (1411–1463 CE), Srivara, and Prajyabhatta and Suka, which end with Akbar's conquest of Kashmir in 1586 CE.[23] The text was translated into Persian by Muslim scholars such as Nizam Uddin, Farishta, and Abul Fazl.[24] Baharistan-i-Shahi and Haidar Mailk's Tarikh-i-Kashmir (completed in 1621 CE) are the most important texts on the history of Kashmir during the Sultanate period. Both the texts were written in Persian and used Rajatarangini and Persian histories as their sources.[25]

text: Early history[edit]

text: Earliest Neolithic sites in the flood plains of Kashmir valley are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at Burzahom, which had two Neolithic and one Megalithic phases. First phase (c. 2920 BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted till c. 1700 BCE, houses were constructed on ground level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing were the primary modes of subsistence though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases.[26][27] In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery.[28] During the later Vedic period, as kingdoms of the Vedic tribes expanded, the Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir.[29][30]

text: In 326 BCE, Porus asked Abisares, the king of Kashmir, to aid him against Alexander the Great in the Battle of Hydaspes. After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants.[31][32] During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the Maurya Empire and Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many stupas, some shrines dedicated to Shiva, and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar) were built.[33] Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur.[34] Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the Fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra took part.[35] By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir.[36] Kumārajīva (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the Chang'an monastery.[37]

text: Hepthalites (White Huns) under Toramana crossed over the Hindukush mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir.[38] His son Mihirakula (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of North India. He was opposed by Baladitya in Magadha and eventually defeated by Yasodharman in Malwa. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of Gandhara where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.[39][40] After seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion.[41] Among notable scholars of this period was Vasugupta (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for a monistic Shaiva system called Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism.[42] Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in Southern India.[43]

text: In the eighth century, Karkota Empire established themselves as rulers of Kashmir.[44] Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor Lalitaditya Muktapida lead a successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kalinga. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh.[45][46] After his demise, Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE.[44] Utpala dynasty founded by Avantivarman followed the Kakrotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885–902 CE) led a successful military campaign against Gurjaras in Punjab.[47][44] Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards (Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir till they were defeated by Chakravarman.[48] Queen Didda, who descended from the Hindu Shahis of Kabul on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century.[44] After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to Lohara dynasty.[49] During the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not siege the fortress at Lohkot.[50]

text: Muslim rulers[edit]

text: Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s)[edit]

text: Historian Mohibbul Hasan states that the oppressive taxation, corruption, internecine fights and rise of feudal lords (Damaras) during the unpopular rule of the Lohara dynasty (1003–1320 CE) paved the way for foreign invasions of Kashmir.[51] Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a Turkic–Mongol chief, led a savage raid on Kashmir.[52][53] Rinchana, a Tibetan Buddhist refugee in Kashmir, established himself as the ruler after Zulju.[54][52] Rinchana's conversion to Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam by his minister Shah Mir, probably for political reasons. Islam had penetrated into countries outside Kashmir and in absence of the support from Hindus, who were in a majority,[55] Rinchana needed the support of the Kashmiri Muslims.[54] Shah Mir's coup on Rinchana's successor secured Muslim rule and the rule of his dynasty in Kashmir.[55]

text: In the 14th century, Islam gradually became the dominant religion in Kashmir.[56] Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as Nund Rishi, combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses.[57] The Sultans between 1354–1470 CE were tolerant of other religions with the exception of Sultan Sikandar (1389–1413 CE). Sultan Sikandar imposed taxes on non–Muslims, forced conversions to Islam, and earned the title But–Shikan for destroying idols.[52] Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (c. 1420–1470 CE) invited artists and craftsmen from Central Asia and Persia to train local artists in Kashmir. Under his rule the arts of wood carving, papier-mâché , shawl and carpet weaving prospered.[58] For a brief period in 1470s, states of Jammu, Poonch and Rajauri which paid tributes to Kashmir revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan. However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as ruler in 1472 CE.[58] By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the Hindu priests had declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia, and Persian replaced Sanskrit as the official language. Around the same period, the nobility of Chaks had become powerful enough to unseat the Shah Mir dynasty.[58]

text: Mughal general Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a member of ruling family in Kashgar, invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on behalf of emperor Humayun.[52][59] Persecution of Shias, Shafi'is and Sufis and instigation by Suri kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir.[60][59]

text: Mughals (1580s–1750s)[edit]

text: Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule till the reign of Mughal padshah (emperor) Akbar the Great, who visited the valley himself in 1589 CE. The Mughal conquered Kashmir and added it in 1586 to his Afghan province Kabul Subah, but Shah Jahan carved it out as a separate subah (imperial top-level province), with seat at Srinagar. During successive Mughal emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques and palaces were constructed. Religious intolerance and discriminatory taxation reappeared when Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, the influence of the Mughal Empire declined.[52][59]

text: In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought Mo-i Muqqadas (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of Muhammad, to the valley. The relic was housed in the Hazratbal Shrine on the banks of Dal Lake.[61] Nadir Shah's invasion of India in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir.[61]

text: Afghan rulers (1750s–1819)[edit]

text: In 1753, Abdul Khan Isk Aquasi, a general in Ahmed Shah Abdali's army, invaded Kashmir and established the rule of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan. Afghan rule in Kashmir was extremely cruel and oppressive, particularly for the Hindus. Locals were extorted from, captured and forced into slavery during this period. Dominance of Afghans declined after Ahmed Shah Abdali's death in 1772, but they ruled Kashmir for another 47 years.[62][61]

text: Sikh rule (1820–1846)[edit]

text: In 1819, the Kashmir valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Punjab.[63] As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.[64] However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,[65] protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.[66] The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,[66] which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,[64] closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the azaan, the public Muslim call to prayer.[66] Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.[64] However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh empire. During this time Kashmiri shawls became known world wide, attracting many buyers especially in the west.[66]

text: Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the Raja of Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to the Sikh power.[63] Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir valley, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands of Ladakh and Baltistan to the east and north-east, respectively, of Jammu.[63]

text: Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 1846–1947)[edit]

text: In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (rupees) ten million of indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and Indus; by the second[67] the British made over to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of Indus and west of Ravi" (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir).[63] The Treaty of Amritsar freed Gulab Singh from obligations towards the Sikhs and made him the Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir.[68] The Dogras' loyalty came in handy to the British during the revolt of 1857 which challenged British rule in India. Dogras refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers, allowed English women and children to seek asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri troops to fight on behalf of the British. British in return rewarded them by securing the succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir.[69] Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857,[68] his son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom.[70]

text: The Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire."[71] It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[71]

text: Despite being in a majority the Muslims were made to suffer severe oppression under Hindu rule in the form of high taxes, unpaid forced labor and discriminatory laws.[72] Many Kashmiri Muslims migrated from the Valley to Punjab due to famine and policies of Dogra rulers.[73] The Muslim peasantry was vast, impoverished and ruled by a Hindu elite.[74][75]  The Muslim peasants lacked education, awareness of rights and were chronically in debt to landlords and moneylenders,[74] and did not organize politically until the 1930s.[75]

text: Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. An internal revolt began in the Poonch region against oppressive taxation by the Maharaja.[76] In August, Maharaja's forces fired upon demonstrations in favour of Kashmir joining Pakistan, burned whole villages and massacred innocent people.[77] The Poonch rebels declared an independent government of "Azad" Kashmir on 24 October.[78] Rulers of Princely States were encouraged to accede their States to either Dominion – India or Pakistan, taking into account factors such as geographical contiguity and the wishes of their people. In 1947, Kashmir's population was "77% Muslim and 20% Hindu".[79] To postpone making a hurried decision, the Maharaja signed a standstill agreement with Pakistan, which ensured continuity of trade, travel, communication, and similar services between the two. Such an agreement was pending with India.[80] Following huge riots in Jammu, in October 1947, Pashtuns from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province recruited by the Poonch rebels, invaded Kashmir, along with the Poonch rebels, allegedly incensed by the atrocities against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in looting and killing along the way.[81][82] The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to the Government of India for assistance, and the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten[c] agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India.[79] Once the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional[83] until such time as the will of the people can be ascertained. Kashmir leader Sheikh Abdullah endorsed the accession as ad-hoc which would be ultimately decided by the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency administration by the Maharaja.[84] The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja acted under duress and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in force.

text: In Early 1948, India sought a resolution of the Kashmir Conflict at the United Nations. Following the set-up of the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), the UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained. The then Indian Prime Minister is reported to have himself urged U.N. to poll Kashmir and on the basis of results Kashmir's accession will be decided.[85] However, India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.[79]

text: On 5 January 1949, UNCIP (United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan) resolution stated that the question of the accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through a free and impartial plebiscite.[86] As per the 1948[87] and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the principle, that Pakistan secures the withdrawal of Pakistani intruders followed by withdrawal of Pakistani and Indian forces, as a basis for the formulation of a Truce agreement whose details are to be arrived in future, followed by a plebiscite; However, both countries failed to arrive at a Truce agreement due to differences in interpretation of the procedure for and extent of demilitarisation one of them being whether the Azad Kashmiri army is to be disbanded during the truce stage or the plebiscite stage.[88]

text: In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,[79] and eventually led to three more wars over Kashmir in 1965, 1971 and 1999. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, governing it as Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Vale of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."[89]

text: The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39 establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to the commission's recommendation the Security Council, ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948 that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN. In a string of subsequent resolutions the Security Council took notice of the continuing failure by India to hold the plebiscite. However, no punitive action against India could be taken by the Security Council because its resolution, requiring India to hold a Plebiscite, was non-binding and the Pakistani army never left the part of the Kashmir, they managed to keep occupied at the end of the 1947 war, required by the Security Council resolution 47.[90]

text: The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the communist revolution in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.:[89] "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962."[89] China has occupied Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1965.

text: In 1949, the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir and yield the government to Sheikh Abdullah, the leader of a popular political party, the National Conference Party.[80] Since then, a bitter enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars have taken place between them over Kashmir. The growing dispute over Kashmir and the consistent failure of democracy[91] also led to the rise of Kashmir nationalism and militancy in the state.

text: Following the disputed elections in 1987, young disaffected Kashmiris in the Valley such as the HAJY group – Abdul Hamid Shaikh, Ashfaq Majid Wani, Javed Ahmed Mir and Mohammed Yasin Malik – were recruited by the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front(JKLF) and the popular insurgency in the Kashmir Valley increased in momentum from this point on.[92][93] The year 1989 saw the intensification of conflict in Jammu and Kashmir as Mujahadeens from Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the Soviet-Afghan War the same year.[94] Pakistan provided arms and training to both indigenous and foreign militants in Kashmir, thus adding fuel to the smouldering fire of discontent in the valley.[95][96][97]

text: Historical demographics of Kashmir[edit]

text: In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims, 689,073 Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 50% of the population.[98] In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "only 524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."[98] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% of the population.[98] These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.[99] In the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus constituted 4%.[99] In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%[100] and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 67% and those of Muslims 27%.[100]

text: Among the Muslims of the Kashmir province within the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..."[101] It was recorded that these kram names included "Tantre", "Shaikh", "Bat", "Mantu", "Ganai", "Dar", "Damar", "Lon", etc. The Saiyids, it was recorded, "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is 'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."[101] The Mughals who were not numerous were recorded to have kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg", "Bandi", "Bach" and "Ashaye". Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak Pashtu."[101] Among the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the princely state which converted to Islam from Hinduism during its arrival in region.

text: Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."[98]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Pot, excavated from Burzahom (c. 2700 BCE), depicts horned motifs, which suggest links with sites like Kot-Diji, in Sindh.

A Muslim shawl making family in Kashmir. 1867. Cashmere shawl manufactory, chromolith., William Simpson.

Kashmiri home life c. 1890. Photographer unknown.

Muslim papier-mâché ornament painters in Kashmir. 1895. Photographer: unknown.

Three Hindu priests writing religious texts. 1890s, Jammu and Kashmir, photographer: unknown.

Full-length portrait of two Ladakhi men. 1895, Ladakh, unknown photographer.


document_title: Here Comes the Sun

question_text: who played drums on here comes the sun

question_tokens: who played drums on here comes the sun

text: Here Comes the Sun

text: Composition[edit]

text: "Here Comes the Sun" is one of Harrison's best-known Beatles compositions alongside "Something" and "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". The early months of 1969 were a difficult period for Harrison: he had quit the band temporarily, he was arrested for marijuana possession, and he had his tonsils removed.

text: Harrison states in his autobiography, I, Me, Mine:

text: "Here Comes the Sun" was written at the time when Apple was getting like school, where we had to go and be businessmen: 'Sign this' and 'sign that.' Anyway, it seems as if winter in England goes on forever, by the time spring comes you really deserve it. So one day I decided I was going to sag off Apple and I went over to Eric Clapton's house. The relief of not having to go see all those dopey accountants was wonderful, and I walked around the garden with one of Eric's acoustic guitars and wrote "Here Comes the Sun".[2]

text: As Clapton states in his autobiography, the house in question is known as Hurtwood Edge. When interviewed in the Martin Scorsese documentary George Harrison: Living in the Material World, Clapton said he believed the month was April. Data from two meteorological stations in the London area show that April 1969 set a record for sunlight hours for the 1960s. The Greenwich station recorded 189 hours for April, a high that was not beaten until 1984. The Greenwich data also show that February and March were much colder than the norm for the 1960s, which would account for Harrison's reference to a "long, cold, lonely winter".[3]

text: Musical structure[edit]

text: The song is in the key of A major. The main refrain uses a IV (D chord) to V-of-V (B chord) progression (the reverse of that used in "Eight Days a Week" and "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band").[4] The melody in the verse and refrain basically follows the pentatonic scale from E up to C♯ (scale steps 5, 6, 1, 2, 3).[4]

text: One feature is the increasing syncopation in the vocal parts.[5] Another feature is the guitar flat-picking that embellishes the E7 (V7) chord from 2:03 to 2:11, creating tension for resolution on the tonic A chord at "Little darlin' ".[6] The bridge involves a ♭III-♭VII-IV-I-V7 triple descending 4th (or Tri-Plagal) progression (with an extra V7) as the vocals move from "Sun" (♭III or C chord) to "sun" (♭VII or G chord) to "sun" (IV or D chord) to "comes" (I or A chord) and the additional 4th descent to a V7 (E7) chord.[7] The lyric here ("Sun, sun, sun, here it comes") has been described as taking "on the quality of a meditator's mantra".[8] The song also features extreme 4/4 (in the verse) and a sequence of 11/8 + 4/4 + 7/8 (which can also be transcribed as 11/8 + 15/8) in the bridge, phrasing interludes which Harrison drew from Indian music influences.[4][9] In the second verse (0:59–1:13) the Moog synthesizer doubles the solo guitar line and in the third verse the Moog adds an obbligato line an octave above.[5] The last four bars (2:54–3:04) juxtapose the guitar break with a repeat of the bridge.[5]

text: Recording[edit]

text: Harrison, Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr recorded the rhythm track in 13 takes on 7 July 1969.[10] John Lennon did not contribute to the song as he was recovering from a car crash.[11][12] Towards the end of the session Harrison spent an hour re-recording his acoustic guitar part. He capoed his guitar on the 7th fret, resulting in the final key of A major (in fact, slightly above A major due to the track being varispeeded by less than a semitone). He also used the same technique on his 1965 song "If I Needed Someone", which shares a similar melodic pattern. The following day he taped his lead vocals, and he and McCartney recorded their backing vocals twice to give a fuller sound.[5]

text: A harmonium and handclaps were added on 16 July.[13] Harrison added an electric guitar run through a Leslie speaker on 6 August, and the orchestral parts (George Martin's score for four violas, four cellos, double bass, two piccolos, two flutes, two alto flutes and two clarinets) were added on 15 August.[5] "Here Comes the Sun" was completed four days later with the addition of Harrison's Moog synthesizer part.[14] The master tapes reveal that Harrison recorded a guitar solo that was not included in the final mix at that time.[15][16]

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: Abbey Road was released on 26 September 1969 with "Here Comes the Sun" sequenced as the opening track on side two of the LP.[17] Along with "Something", which was issued as a single from the album, the song established Harrison as a composer to match Lennon and McCartney.[18][19][20] According to author Alan Clayson, Harrison's two Abbey Road compositions received "the most widespread syndication" of all the tracks on the album, partly through the number of cover versions they attracted.[21] Nine years later, Harrison recorded "Here Comes the Moon" as a lyrical successor to the song.

text: In Japan, "Here Comes the Sun" was issued on a single in 1970, as the B-side to McCartney's Abbey Road track "Oh! Darling".[22] While the Beatles never released the track on a single in Britain, new rules implemented to the UK Singles Chart in 2007 allowed any song to enter the charts based on download sales. This allowed several songs recorded by the Beatles to list on the charts when the group's back catalogue became available for download on iTunes in 2010, including "Here Comes the Sun", which peaked at number 58 on 27 November that year.

text: Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002, Mikal Gilmore likened "Here Comes the Sun" to the McCartney-written "Let It Be" and Lennon's "Imagine", as Harrison's "graceful anthem of hope amid difficult realities".[23] While expressing regret at having underestimated Harrison as a songwriter, Martin described "Here Comes the Sun" as being "in some ways one of the best songs ever written".[24]

text: Cultural references and legacy[edit]

text: In 1977, astronomer and science populariser Carl Sagan attempted to have "Here Comes the Sun" included on a disc of music accompanying the Voyager space mission.[25] Titled the Voyager Golden Record, copies of the disc were put on board both spacecraft in the Voyager program in order to provide any entity that recovered them with a representative sample of human civilization. Writing in his book Murmurs of Earth, Sagan recalls that the Beatles favoured the idea, but "[they] did not own the copyright, and the legal status of the piece seemed too murky to risk." When the probes were launched in 1977, the song was not included.[26]

text: The track has appeared in many critics' lists of the Beatles' best recordings. Among these, the NME placed it at number 4 in the magazine's 2015 list of "the 100 Greatest Beatles Songs".[27] In a similar poll compiled by Mojo in 2006, where the song appeared at number 21, Danny Eccleston described it as "perhaps the best song – outside 'Jerusalem' – that religion can claim credit for", adding: "Those who professed surprise at Harrison's immediate elevation to Most Successful Solo Beatle status [in 1970] clearly weren't listening to this."[28] "Here Comes the Sun" appeared at number 28 on Rolling Stone's 2010 list, where the editors commented: "Along with 'Something,' it gave notice that the Beatles now had three formidable composers."[29]

text: "Here Comes the Sun" was played as the entrance music for Ivanka Trump at the 2016 Republican National Convention. The George Harrison estate complained about the song being used to support Donald Trump's presidential campaign, saying it was "offensive and against the wishes of the George Harrison estate".[30] The Harrison family later tweeted: "If it had been Beware of Darkness, then we MAY have approved it! #TrumpYourself."[31]

text: Charts[edit]

text: Weekly charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2017)
Peak
position

US Hot Rock Songs (Billboard)[32]
14

text: Cover versions[edit]

text: Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel[edit]

text:
"Here Comes the Sun"

Single by Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel

from the album Love's a Prima Donna

B-side
"Lay Me Down"

Released
30 July 1976 (1976-07-30)

Format
7-inch single

Genre
Pop, rock

Length
2:55

Label
EMI

Songwriter(s)
George Harrison

Producer(s)
Steve Harley

Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel singles chronology

"White, White Dove"
(1976)
"Here Comes the Sun"
(1976)
"(I Believe) Love's a Prima Donna"
(1976)

"White, White Dove"
(1976)
"Here Comes the Sun"
(1976)
"(I Believe) Love's a Prima Donna"
(1976)

text: In 1976, "Here Comes the Sun" was covered by the British rock band Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel, and released as the lead single from their fifth studio album, Love's a Prima Donna.[33][34] The lineup on their version was Steve Harley on vocals and guitar, Jim Cregan on lead guitar and backing vocals, Jo Partridge on guitar and backing vocals, George Ford on bass guitar and backing vocals, Duncan Mackay on keyboards, and Stuart Elliott on drums. Additional backing vocals were provided by Yvonne Keeley, John G. Perry and Tony Rivers, while Lindsey Elliott played percussion.

text: "Here Comes the Sun" was the first cover version that Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel had chosen to record.[35][36] The song peaked at number 10 on the UK Singles Chart[34] and number 7 in Ireland.[37] It was the band's last top 40 single.

text: Other artists[edit]

text: In August 1971, Harrison performed the song at the Concert for Bangladesh,[38] accompanied by Pete Ham of the group Badfinger.[39] He also played it during his appearance on Saturday Night Live in November 1976, as a duet with Paul Simon.[40] A live version from his 1991 Japanese tour with Eric Clapton appears on Harrison's Live in Japan double album.[22]

text: Booker T. & the M.G.'s included the song on their 1970 Abbey Road tribute album, McLemore Avenue.[41] That same year, "Here Comes the Sun" was covered by Peter Tosh and released as a single, although it was not widely available until its inclusion on Can't Blame the Youth in 2004. We Five released a version on their 1970 album Catch the Wind.[42]

text: American folk singer Richie Havens had a US hit with his 1971 version, which peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.[43] Nina Simone recorded "Here Comes the Sun" as the title track to her 1971 covers album.[44]

text: Sandy Farina covered "Here Comes the Sun" on the Martin-produced soundtrack to the 1978 film Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.[22] In 1980, on their album Flaming Schoolgirls, the Runaways recorded "Here Comes the Sun". Dave Edmunds, Debbie Gibson and Raffi sang a live cover version in a Japanese television special aired in 1990.[45] On their 1994 debut album, Who Is, This Is?, ska-punk band Voodoo Glow Skulls recorded a version of the song.[46]

text: Linda Eder released a version of "Here Comes the Sun" in 2002 on her Gold album. On 29 November that year, Joe Brown performed the song at the Concert for George tribute,[47] which was organised by Clapton and held at the Royal Albert Hall in London.[48] Brown's performance was included on the subsequent live album from the event[49] and in David Leland's concert film.[50]

text: Sheryl Crow sang "Here Comes the Sun" in the 2007 animated film Bee Movie. Swedish heavy metal band Ghost released a version of the song as a bonus track on the Japanese edition of their 2010 album Opus Eponymous. Marina Prior recorded the song for her 2012 album Both Sides Now.

text: Malaysian singer Yuna recorded her version for the 2012 film Savages. It can be heard in the ending credits.

text: Naya Rivera and Demi Lovato performed the song, as Santana Lopez and Dani respectively, in Glee's fifth season episode "Tina in the Sky with Diamonds". Their duet version appears on the album Glee Sings the Beatles, released in September 2013. Writing for MTV, Jocelyn Vena commented that the two singers sang "in perfect harmony over a plucky guitar."[51] Idolator also pointed out "their beautiful harmonies" as a highlight.[52]

text: Paul Simon has often performed "Here Comes the Sun" in concert,[53] as a tribute to Harrison.[54] In September 2014, Simon played the song live on the TBS television show Conan as part of the show's "George Harrison Week" initiative.[53][55]

text: Personnel[edit]

text: According to Ian MacDonald, the lineup on the Beatles' recording was as follows.[11]

text: The Beatles

text:
George Harrison – lead and backing vocals, acoustic and electric guitars, harmonium, Moog synthesizer, handclaps
Paul McCartney – backing vocal, bass, handclaps
Ringo Starr – drums, handclaps

text: Orchestra

text: Uncredited – four violas, four cellos, double bass, two piccolos, two flutes, two alto flutes, two clarinets