document_title: Bee

question_text: when did the first bees appear on earth

question_tokens: when did the first bees appear on earth

text: Bee

text: Evolution

text: The ancestors of bees were wasps in the family Crabronidae, which were predators of other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of prey insects which were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. This same evolutionary scenario may have occurred within the vespoid wasps, where the pollen wasps evolved from predatory ancestors. Until recently, the oldest non-compression bee fossil had been found in New Jersey amber, Cretotrigona prisca of Cretaceous age, a corbiculate bee.[3] A bee fossil from the early Cretaceous (~100 mya), Melittosphex burmensis, is considered "an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees".[4] Derived features of its morphology (apomorphies) place it clearly within the bees, but it retains two unmodified ancestral traits (plesiomorphies) of the legs (two mid-tibial spurs, and a slender hind basitarsus), showing its transitional status.[4] By the Eocene (~45 mya) there was already considerable diversity among eusocial bee lineages.[5][a]

text: The highly eusocial corbiculate Apidae appeared roughly 87 Mya, and the Allodapini (within the Apidae) around 53 Mya.[8] The Colletidae appear as fossils only from the late Oligocene (~25 Mya) to early Miocene.[9] The Melittidae are known from Palaeomacropis eocenicus in the Early Eocene.[10] The Megachilidae are known from trace fossils (characteristic leaf cuttings) from the Middle Eocene.[11] The Andrenidae are known from the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, around 34 Mya, of the Florissant shale.[12] The Halictidae first appear in the Early Eocene[13] with species [14][15] found in amber. The Stenotritidae are known from fossil brood cells of Pleistocene age.[16]

text: Coevolution

text: The earliest animal-pollinated flowers were shallow, cup-shaped blooms pollinated by insects such as beetles, so the syndrome of insect pollination was well established before the first appearance of bees. The novelty is that bees are specialized as pollination agents, with behavioral and physical modifications that specifically enhance pollination, and are the most efficient pollinating insects. In a process of coevolution, flowers developed floral rewards[17] such as nectar and longer tubes, and bees developed longer tongues to extract the nectar.[18] Bees also developed structures known as scopal hairs and pollen baskets to collect and carry pollen. The location and type differ among and between groups of bees. Most bees have scopal hairs located on their hind legs or on the underside of their abdomens, some bees in the family Apidae possess pollen baskets on their hind legs while very few species lack these entirely and instead collect pollen in their crops.[2] This drove the adaptive radiation of the angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves.[6] Bees have not only coevolved with flowers but it is believed that some bees have coevolved with mites. Some bees provide tufts of hairs called acarinaria that appear to provide lodgings for mites; in return, it is believed that the mites eat fungi that attack pollen, so the relationship in this case may be mutualistc.[19][20]

text: Phylogeny

text: External

text: This cladogram is based on Debevic et al, 2012, which used molecular phylogeny to demonstrate that the bees (Anthophila) arose from deep within the Crabronidae, which is therefore paraphyletic. The placement of the Heterogynaidae is uncertain.[21] The small subfamily Mellininae was not included in their analysis.

text:
Apoidea

Ampulicidae

Heterogynaidae (possible placement #1)

Sphecidae (sensu stricto)

Crabroninae (part of "Crabronidae")

(rest of "Crabronidae")

Bembicini

Nyssonini, Astatinae

Heterogynaidae (possible placement #2)

Pemphredoninae, Philanthinae

Anthophila (bees)

text: Internal

text: This cladogram of the bee families is based on Hedtke et al., 2013, which places the former families Dasypodaidae and Meganomiidae as subfamilies inside the Melittidae.[22] English names, where available, are given in parentheses.

text:
Anthophila (bees)

Melittidae (inc. Dasypodainae, Meganomiinae) at least 50 Mya

long-tongued bees

Apidae (social, inc. honeybees) ≈87 Mya

Megachilidae (mason, leafcutter bees) ≈50 Mya

short-tongued bees

Andrenidae (mining bees) ≈34 Mya

Halictidae (sweat bees) ≈50 Mya

Colletidae (plasterer bees) ≈25 Mya

Stenotritidae (large Australian bees) ≈2 Mya

text: Description

text: It is usually easy to recognise that a particular insect is a bee. They differ from closely related groups such as wasps by having branched or plume-like setae (bristles), combs on the forelimbs for cleaning their antennae, small anatomical differences in the limb structure and the venation of the hind wings, and in females, by having the seventh dorsal abdominal plate divided into two half-plates.[23]

text: Behaviourally, one of the most obvious characteristics of bees is that they collect pollen to provide provisions for their young, and have the necessary adaptations to do this. However, certain wasp species such as pollen wasps have similar behaviours, and a few species of bee scavenge from carcases to feed their offspring.[23] The world's largest species of bee is thought to be the Indonesian resin bee Megachile pluto, whose females can attain a length of 39 millimetres (1.54 in).[24] The smallest species may be dwarf stingless bees in the tribe Meliponini whose workers are less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) in length.[25]

text: A bee has a pair of large compound eyes which cover much of the surface of the head. Between and above these are three small simple eyes (ocelli) which provide information for the bee on light intensity. The antennae usually have thirteen segments in males and twelve in females and are geniculate, having an elbow joint part way along. They house large numbers of sense organs that can detect touch (mechanoreceptors), smell and taste, and small, hairlike mechanoreceptors that can detect air movement so as to "hear" sounds. The mouthparts are adapted for both chewing and sucking by having both a pair of mandibles and a long proboscis for sucking up nectar.[26]

text: The thorax has three segments, each with a pair of robust legs, and a pair of membranous wings on the hind two segments. The front legs of corbiculate bees bear combs for cleaning the antennae, and in many species the hind legs bear pollen baskets, flattened sections with incurving hairs to secure the collected pollen. The wings are synchronised in flight and the somewhat smaller hind wings connect to the forewings by a row of hooks along their margin which connect to a groove in the forewing. The abdomen has nine segments, the hindermost three being modified into the sting.[26]

text: Sociality

text: Haplodiploid breeding system

text: According to inclusive fitness theory, organisms can gain fitness not just through increasing their own reproductive output, but also that of close relatives. In evolutionary terms, individuals should help relatives when Cost < Relatedness * Benefit. The requirements for eusociality are more easily fulfilled by haplodiploid species such as bees because of their unusual relatedness structure.[27] In haplodiploid species, females develop from fertilized eggs and males from unfertilized eggs. Because a male is haploid (has only one copy of each gene), his daughters (which are diploid, with two copies of each gene) share 100% of his genes and 50% of their mother's. Therefore, they share 75% of their genes with each other. This mechanism of sex determination gives rise to what W. D. Hamilton termed "supersisters", more closely related to their sisters than they would be to their own offspring.[28] Workers often do not reproduce, but they can pass on more of their genes by helping to raise their sisters (as queens) than they would by having their own offspring (each of which would only have 50% of their genes), assuming they would produce similar numbers. This unusual situation has been proposed as an explanation of the multiple independent evolutions of eusociality (arising at least nine separate times) within the Hymenoptera.[29][30] However, some eusocial species such as termites are not haplodiploid. Conversely, all bees are haplodiploid but not all are eusocial, and among eusocial species many queens mate with multiple males, creating half-sisters that share only 25% of their genes.[31] Haplodiploidy is thus neither necessary nor sufficient for eusociality. But, monogamy (queens mating singly) is the ancestral state for all eusocial species so far investigated, so it is likely that haplodiploidy contributed to the evolution of eusociality in bees.[29]

text: Eusociality

text: Bees may be solitary or may live in various types of communities. Sociality, of several different types, appears to have evolved independently many times within the bees.[32] The most advanced of these are species with eusocial colonies; these are characterised by having cooperative brood care and a division of labour into reproductive and non-reproductive adults, plus overlapping generations.[33] This division of labour creates specialized groups within eusocial societies which are called castes. In some species, groups of cohabiting females may be sisters, and if there is a division of labour within the group, they are considered semisocial. The group is called eusocial if, in addition, the group consists of a mother (the queen) and her daughters (workers). When the castes are purely behavioural alternatives, with no morphological differentiation other than size, the system is considered primitively eusocial, as in many paper wasps; when the castes are morphologically discrete, the system is considered highly eusocial.[18]

text: The true honey bees (genus Apis, of which there are seven currently-recognized species) are highly eusocial, and are among the best known of all insects. Their colonies are established by swarms, consisting of a queen and several hundred workers. There are 29 subspecies of one of these species, Apis mellifera, native to Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Africanized bees are a hybrid strain of A. mellifera that escaped from experiments involving crossing European and African subspecies; they are extremely defensive.[34]

text: Stingless bees are also highly eusocial. They practise mass provisioning, with complex nest architecture and perennial colonies also established via swarming.[35]

text: Many bumblebees are eusocial, similar to the eusocial Vespidae such as hornets in that the queen initiates a nest on her own rather than by swarming. Bumblebee colonies typically have from 50 to 200 bees at peak population, which occurs in mid to late summer. Nest architecture is simple, limited by the size of the pre-existing nest cavity, and colonies rarely last more than a year.[36] In 2011, the International Union for Conservation of Nature set up the Bumblebee Specialist Group to review the threat status of all bumblebee species worldwide using the IUCN Red List criteria.[37]

text: There are many more species of primitively eusocial than highly eusocial bees, but they have been studied less often. Most are in the family Halictidae, or "sweat bees". Colonies are typically small, with a dozen or fewer workers, on average. Queens and workers differ only in size, if at all. Most species have a single season colony cycle, even in the tropics, and only mated females hibernate. A few species have long active seasons and attain colony sizes in the hundreds, such as Halictus hesperus.[38] Some species are eusocial in parts of their range and solitary in others,[39] or have a mix of eusocial and solitary nests in the same population.[40] The orchid bees (Apidae) include some primitively eusocial species with similar biology. Some allodapine bees (Apidae) form primitively eusocial colonies, with progressive provisioning: a larva's food is supplied gradually as it develops, as is the case in honey bees and some bumblebees.[41]

text: Solitary and communal bees

text: Most other bees, including familiar insects such as carpenter bees, leafcutter bees and mason bees are solitary in the sense that every female is fertile, and typically inhabits a nest she constructs herself. There is no division of labor so these nests lack queens and worker bees for these species. Solitary bees typically produce neither honey nor beeswax.[42]

text: Solitary bees are important pollinators; they gather pollen to provision their nests with food for their brood. Often it is mixed with nectar to form a paste-like consistency. Some solitary bees have advanced types of pollen-carrying structures on their bodies. A very few species of solitary bees are being cultured for commercial pollination. Most of these species belong to a distinct set of genera which are commonly known by their nesting behavior or preferences, namely: carpenter bees, sweat bees, mason bees, polyester bees, squash bees, dwarf carpenter bees, leafcutter bees, alkali bees and digger bees.[43]

text: Most solitary bees nest in the ground in a variety of soil textures and conditions while others create nests in hollow reeds or twigs, holes in wood. The female typically creates a compartment (a "cell") with an egg and some provisions for the resulting larva, then seals it off. A nest may consist of numerous cells. When the nest is in wood, usually the last (those closer to the entrance) contain eggs that will become males. The adult does not provide care for the brood once the egg is laid, and usually dies after making one or more nests. The males typically emerge first and are ready for mating when the females emerge. Solitary bees are either stingless or very unlikely to sting (only in self-defense, if ever).[44][45]

text: While solitary females each make individual nests, some species. such as the European mason bee Hoplitis anthocopoides,[46] and the Dawson's Burrowing bee, Amegilla dawsoni,[47] are gregarious, preferring to make nests near others of the same species, and giving the appearance of being social. Large groups of solitary bee nests are called aggregations, to distinguish them from colonies. In some species, multiple females share a common nest, but each makes and provisions her own cells independently. This type of group is called "communal" and is not uncommon. The primary advantage appears to be that a nest entrance is easier to defend from predators and parasites when there are multiple females using that same entrance on a regular basis.[46]

text: Biology

text: Life cycle

text: The life cycle of a bee, be it a solitary or social species, involves the laying of an egg, the development through several moults of a legless larva, a pupation stage during which the insect undergoes complete metamorphosis, followed by the emergence of a winged adult. Most solitary bees and bumble bees in temperate climates overwinter as adults or pupae and emerge in spring when increasing numbers of flowering plants come into bloom. The males usually emerge first and search for females with which to mate. The sex of a bee is determined by whether or not the egg is fertilised; after mating, a female stores the sperm, and determines which sex is required at the time each individual egg is laid, fertilised eggs producing female offspring and unfertilised eggs, males. Tropical bees may have several generations in a year and no diapause stage.[48][49][50][51]

text: The egg is generally oblong, slightly curved and tapering at one end. In the case of solitary bees, each one is laid in a cell with a supply of mixed pollen and nectar next to it. This may be rolled into a pellet or placed in a pile and is known as mass provisioning. In social species of bee there is progressive provisioning with the larva being fed regularly while it grows. The nest varies from a hole in the ground or in wood, in solitary bees, to a substantial structure with wax combs in bumblebees and honey bees.[52]

text: The larvae are generally whitish grubs, roughly oval and bluntly-pointed at both ends. They have fifteen segments and spiracles in each segment for breathing. They have no legs but are able to move within the confines of the cell, helped by tubercles on their sides. They have short horns on the head, jaws for chewing their food and an appendage on either side of the mouth tipped with a bristle. There is a gland under the mouth that secretes a viscous liquid which solidifies into the silk they use to produce their cocoons. The pupa can be seen through the semi-transparent cocoon and over the course of a few days, the insect undergoes metamorphosis into the form of the adult bee. When ready to emerge, it splits its skin dorsally and climbs out of the exuviae as a winged adult and breaks out of the cell.[52]

text: Flight

text: In Antoine Magnan's 1934 book Le vol des insectes, he wrote that he and André Sainte-Laguë had applied the equations of air resistance to insects and found that their flight could not be explained by fixed-wing calculations, but that "One shouldn't be surprised that the results of the calculations don't square with reality".[53] This has led to a common misconception that bees "violate aerodynamic theory", but in fact it merely confirms that bees do not engage in fixed-wing flight, and that their flight is explained by other mechanics, such as those used by helicopters.[54] In 1996 it was shown that vortices created by many insects' wings helped to provide lift.[55] High-speed cinematography[56] and robotic mock-up of a bee wing[57] showed that lift was generated by "the unconventional combination of short, choppy wing strokes, a rapid rotation of the wing as it flops over and reverses direction, and a very fast wing-beat frequency". Wing-beat frequency normally increases as size decreases, but as the bee's wing beat covers such a small arc, it flaps approximately 230 times per second, faster than a fruitfly (200 times per second) which is 80 times smaller.[58]

text: Navigation, communication, and finding food

text: The ethologist Karl von Frisch studied navigation in the honey bee. He showed that honey bees communicate by the waggle dance, in which a worker indicates the location of a food source to other workers in the hive. He demonstrated that bees can recognize a desired compass direction in three different ways: by the sun, by the polarization pattern of the blue sky, and by the earth’s magnetic field. He showed that the sun is the preferred or main compass; the other mechanisms are used under cloudy skies or inside a dark beehive.[59] Bees navigate using spatial memory with a "rich, map-like organization".[60]

text: Ecology

text: Floral relationships

text: Most bees are polylectic (generalist) meaning they collect pollen from a range of flowering plants, however, some are oligoleges (specialists), in that they only gather pollen from one or a few species or genera of closely related plants.[61] Specialist pollinators also include bee species which gather floral oils instead of pollen, and male orchid bees, which gather aromatic compounds from orchids (one of the few cases where male bees are effective pollinators). Bees are able to sense the presence of desirable flowers through ultraviolet patterning on flowers, floral odors,[62] and even electromagnetic fields.[63] Once landed, a bee then uses nectar quality[62] and pollen taste[64] to determine whether to continue visiting similar flowers.

text: In rare cases, a plant species may only be effectively pollinated by a single bee species, and some plants are endangered at least in part because their pollinator is also threatened. There is, however, a pronounced tendency for oligolectic bees to be associated with common, widespread plants which are visited by multiple pollinators. There are some forty oligoleges associated with the creosote bush in the arid parts of the United States southwest, for example.[65]

text: As mimics and models

text: Many bees are aposematically coloured, typically orange and black, warning of their ability to defend themselves with a powerful sting. As such they are models for Batesian mimicry by non-stinging insects such as bee-flies, robber flies and hoverflies,[66] all of which gain a measure of protection by superficially looking and behaving like bees.[66]

text: Bees are themselves Müllerian mimics of other aposematic insects with the same colour scheme, including wasps, lycid and other beetles, and many butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) which are themselves distasteful, often through acquiring bitter and poisonous chemicals from their plant food. All the Müllerian mimics, including bees, benefit from the reduced risk of predation that results from their easily recognised warning coloration.[67]

text: Bees are also mimicked by plants such as the bee orchid which imitates both the appearance and the scent of a female bee; male bees attempt to mate (pseudocopulation) with the furry lip of the flower, thus pollinating it.[68]

text: As brood parasites

text: Brood parasites occur in several bee families including the apid subfamily Nomadinae.[69] Females of these bees lack pollen collecting structures (the scopa) and do not construct their own nests. They typically enter the nests of pollen collecting species, and lay their eggs in cells provisioned by the host bee. When the cuckoo bee larva hatches it consumes the host larva's pollen ball, and often the host egg also.[70] The Arctic bee species, Bombus hyperboreus, in particular are an aggressive species that attack and enslave other bees of the same subgenus. However, unlike many other bee brood parasites, they have pollen baskets and often collect pollen.[71]

text: In the south of Africa, hives of African honeybees (A. mellifera scutellata) are being destroyed by parasitic workers of the Cape honeybee, A. m. capensis. These lay diploid eggs ("thelytoky"), escaping normal worker policing, leading to the colony's destruction; the parasites can then move to other hives.[72]

text: The cuckoo bees in the Bombus subgenus Psithyrus are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts in looks and size. This common pattern gave rise to the ecological principle "Emery's rule". Others parasitize bees in different families, like Townsendiella, a nomadine apid, two species of which are cleptoparasites of the dasypodaid genus Hesperapis,[73] while the other species in the same genus attacks halictid bees.[74]

text: Nocturnal bees

text: Four bee families (Andrenidae, Colletidae, Halictidae, and Apidae) contain some species that are crepuscular. Most are tropical or subtropical, but there are some which live in arid regions at higher latitudes. These bees have greatly enlarged ocelli, which are extremely sensitive to light and dark, though incapable of forming images. Some have refracting superposition compound eyes: these combine the output of many elements of their compound eyes to provide enough light for each retinal photoreceptor. Their ability to fly by night enables them to avoid many predators, and to exploit flowers that produce nectar only or also at night.[75]

text: Predators, parasites and pathogens

text: Vertebrate predators of bees include bee-eaters, shrikes and flycatchers, which make short sallies to catch insects in flight.[76] Swifts and swallows[76] fly almost continually, catching insects as they go. The honey buzzard attacks bees' nests and eats the larvae.[77] The greater honeyguide interacts with humans by guiding them to the nests of wild bees. The humans break open the nests and take the honey and the bird feeds on the larvae and the wax.[78] Among mammals, predators such as the badger dig up bumblebee nests and eat both the larvae and any stored food.[79]

text: Specialist ambush predators of visitors to flowers include crab spiders, which wait on flowering plants for pollinating insects; predatory bugs, and praying mantises,[76] some of which (the flower mantises of the tropics) wait motionless, aggressive mimics camouflaged as flowers.[80] Beewolves are large wasps that habitually attack bees;[76] the ethologist Niko Tinbergen estimated that a single colony of the beewolf Philanthus triangulum might kill several thousand honeybees in a day: all the prey he observed were honeybees.[81] Other predatory insects that sometimes catch bees include robber flies and dragonflies.[76]

text: Honey bees are affected by parasites including acarine and Varroa mites.[82] However, some bees are believed to have a mutualistic relationship with mites.[20]

text: Bees and humans

text: In mythology and folklore

text: Three bee maidens with the power of divination and thus speaking truth are described in Homer's Hymn to Hermes, and the food of the gods is "identified as honey"; the bee maidens were originally associated with Apollo, and are probably not correctly identified with the Thriae. Honey, according to a Greek myth, was discovered by a nymph called Melissa ("Bee"); and honey was offered to the Greek gods from Mycenean times. Bees were associated, too, with the Delphic oracle and the prophetess was sometimes called a bee.[83]

text: The image of a community of honey bees has been used from ancient to modern times, in Aristotle and Plato; in Virgil and Seneca; in Erasmus and Shakespeare; Tolstoy, and by political and social theorists such as Bernard Mandeville and Karl Marx as a model for human society.[84] In English folklore, bees would be told of important events in the household, in a custom known as "Telling the bees".[85]

text: In art and literature

text: The oldest examples of bees in art are rock paintings in Spain which have been dated to 15,000 BC.[86]

text: W. B. Yeats's poem The Lake Isle of Innisfree (1888) contains the couplet "Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee, / And live alone in the bee loud glade." At the time he was living in Bedford Park in the West of London.[87]

text: Beatrix Potter's illustrated book The Tale of Mrs Tittlemouse (1910) features Babbity Bumble and her brood (pictured).

text: Kit Williams' treasure hunt book The Bee on the Comb (1984) uses bees and beekeeping as part of its story and puzzle.

text: Sue Monk Kidd's The Secret Life of Bees (2004), and the 2009 film starring Dakota Fanning, tells the story of a girl who escapes her abusive home and finds her way to live with a family of beekeepers, the Boatwrights.

text: The humorous 2007 animated film Bee Movie used Jerry Seinfeld's first script and was his first work for children; he starred as a bee named Barry B. Benson, alongside Renée Zellweger. Critics found its premise awkward and its delivery tame.[88]

text: Dave Goulson's A Sting in the Tale (2014) describes his efforts to save bumblebees in Britain, as well as much about their biology.

text: The playwright Laline Paull's fantasy The Bees (2015) tells the tale of a hive bee named Flora 717 from hatching onwards.[89]

text: Beekeeping

text: Humans have kept honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, for millennia. Beekeepers collect honey, beeswax, propolis, pollen, and royal jelly from hives; bees are also kept to pollinate crops and to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers.

text: Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 15,000 years ago; efforts to domesticate them are shown in Egyptian art around 4,500 years ago.[90] Simple hives and smoke were used;[91][92] jars of honey were found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. From the 18th century, European understanding of the colonies and biology of bees allowed the construction of the moveable comb hive so that honey could be harvested without destroying the colony.[93][94] Among Classical Era authors, beekeeping with the use of smoke is described in the History of Animals Book 9[95] (a book not written by Aristotle himself). The account mentions that bees die after stinging; that workers remove corpses from the hive, and guard it; castes including workers and non-working drones, but "kings" rather than queens; predators including toads and bee-eaters; and the waggle dance, with the "irresistible suggestion" of άpοσειονται (aroseiontai, it waggles) and παρακολουθούσιν (parakolouthousin, they watch).[96][b]

text: Beekeeping is described in detail by Virgil in his Eclogues; it is also mentioned in his Aeneid, and in Pliny's Natural History.[96]

text: As commercial pollinators

text: Bees play an important role in pollinating flowering plants, and are the major type of pollinator in many ecosystems that contain flowering plants. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on pollination by insects, birds and bats, most of which is accomplished by bees, whether wild or domesticated.[97][98]

text: Contract pollination has overtaken the role of honey production for beekeepers in many countries. From 1972 to 2006, feral honey bees declined dramatically in the US, and they are now almost absent.[99] The number of colonies kept by beekeepers declined slightly, through urbanization, systematic pesticide use, tracheal and Varroa mites, and the closure of beekeeping businesses. In 2006 and 2007 the rate of attrition increased, and was described as colony collapse disorder.[100] In 2010 invertebrate iridescent virus and the fungus Nosema ceranae were shown to be in every killed colony, and deadly in combination.[101][102][103][104] Winter losses increased to about 1/3.[105][106] Varroa mites were thought to be responsible for about half the losses.[107]

text: Apart from colony collapse disorder, losses outside the US have been attributed to causes including pesticide seed dressings, such as Clothianidin, Imidacloprid and Thiamethoxam.[108][109][110] From 2013 the European Union restricted some pesticides to stop bee populations from declining further.[111] In 2014 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report warned that bees faced increased risk of extinction because of global warming.[112]

text: However farmers have focused on alternative solutions in order to mitigate these problems. By raising native plants, they provide food for native bee pollinators like L. vierecki[113] and L. leucozonium,[114] leading to less reliance on honey bee populations.

text: As food

text: Honey is a natural product produced by bees and stored for their own use, but its sweetness has always appealed to humans. Before domestication of bees was even attempted, humans were raiding their nests for their honey. Smoke was often used to subdue the bees and such activities are depicted in rock paintings in Spain which have been dated to 15,000 BC.[86] Indigenous people in many countries eat insects, including consuming the larvae and pupae of bees, mostly stingless bees. They also gather "bee brood" (the larvae, pupae and surrounding cells) for consumption.[115] In the Indonesian dish botok tawon from Central and East Java, bee larvae are eaten as a companion to rice, after being mixed with shredded coconut, wrapped in banana leaves, and steamed.[116][117]

text: Honey bees are used commercially to produce honey.[118] They also produce some substances used as dietary supplements with possible health benefits, pollen,[119] propolis,[120] and royal jelly,[121] though all of these can also cause allergic reactions.

text: Stings

text: The painful stings of bees are mostly associated with the poison gland and the Dufour's gland which are abdominal exocrine glands containing various chemicals. In Lasioglossum leucozonium, the Dufour's Gland mostly contains octadecanolide as well as some eicosanolide. There is also evidence of n-triscosane, n-heptacosane,[122] and 22-docosanolide.[123] However, the secretions of these glands could also be used for nest construction.[122]


document_title: Maggie Peterson

question_text: who played charlene darling on the andy griffin show

root

text: Maggie Peterson

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
Maggie Peterson

Bill Dana and Peterson on
The Bill Dana Show (1964)

Background information

Birth name
Margaret Ann Peterson

Born
(1941-01-10) January 10, 1941 (age 77)
Greeley, Colorado, U.S.

Genres
Country music, Bluegrass music

Occupation(s)
Television actress, singer

Years active
1958–present

Labels
Capitol Records

text: Maggie Peterson Mancuso (born January 10, 1941)[1] is an American television actress. She is best known for playing Charlene Darling on The Andy Griffith Show.[2] She also played the character of Doris in the episode "A Girl for Goober" (1968).

tag: p

text: Biography[edit]

text: The youngest of four children, Peterson was born to Arthur and Tressa Hill Peterson. Her father was a doctor and her mother a homemaker. Aside from The Andy Griffith Show, Peterson also appeared on other TV shows such as Love American Style, Green Acres, Gomer Pyle USMC, and The Odd Couple. She appeared in an episode of Mayberry R.F.D. as Edna, a cafe waitress; in the 1986 movie Return to Mayberry; as the innocent Rose Ellen in the 1969 film The Love God?, starring next to Don Knotts; and in the 1968 film Angel in My Pocket.

text: Peterson landed a role as Susie, the coffee shop waitress on The Bill Dana Show, another spin-off from The Danny Thomas Show, which aired from September 1963 to January 1965.

text: Peterson grew up in a musical family. While growing up in Colorado, she has said her earliest memories were of music. Peterson, her brother Jim and two of Jim's friends formed a small group called the Ja-Da Quartet. They would ride around in the back of a pickup truck singing to people.

text: In 1954 at a Capitol Records convention, Dick Linke (manager of Andy Griffith and Jim Nabors) heard Peterson singing and was so impressed with her, he encouraged her to come to New York. So in 1958 after graduating high school Maggie and the group did just that. They landed a number of stints on the Perry Como Show[citation needed] and the Pat Boone Show,[citation needed] and in 1959 they released their album "It's the Most Happy Sound."[citation needed] Soon after, the band broke up and went back home.

text: A short time later, Peterson joined another group, The Ernie Mariani Trio (later renamed Margaret Ann and the Ernie Mariani Trio). The group traveled for several years and had stints in resort areas such as Las Vegas, Lake Tahoe and Reno, where Frank Sinatra and the Rat Pack were often seen in the audience while Maggie performed. It was while she was on tour that Maggie was discovered by The Andy Griffith Show director Bob Sweeny and producer Aaron Ruben.

text: For The Andy Griffith Show, Peterson initially read for the role of love interest for Sheriff Andy Taylor, but the role went to Elinor Donahue (Ellie Walker). Soon after, she was selected to play the role of Charlene Darling. The only daughter of Briscoe Darling, she had a crush on Sheriff Taylor ("Pa, can't I just look at the pretty man?").

text: The Darlings, including Briscoe's four boys (played by The Dillards bluegrass band), lived in the mountains and came to town on many occasions. When in town, they enjoyed playing music with Andy. One of Charlene's favorite songs is "Salty Dog." The one that made her cry was "Boil that Cabbage Down." Ernest T. Bass had his eyes on Charlene and believed he had courting rights because her marriage to Dud Wash had been performed by Sheriff Andy Taylor acting as a justice of the peace. He tried to steal her away on the day they were to be remarried by a preacher. Threatening the gathering with a high-powered rifle, he runs off with the fully veiled "bride." While Charlene and Dud are hurriedly married by the preacher, Ernest T. discovers the person in the veil is really Barney Fife. Charlene and Dud had a daughter together, Andilina. They tried to betroth Andilina to Opie as it was customary in their family. Briscoe called off the engagement of Opie and Andilina when he discovered there was witchery in the Taylor family.

text: In 1968, while she was singing as an opening act for Andy Griffith at a casino in Lake Tahoe, Peterson met jazz musician Gus Mancuso who was playing bass in a lounge act. The two married and have been together ever since. The couple spent a number of years in Los Angeles, where Peterson worked doing commercials, until they decided to settle in Las Vegas where Maggie now works as a location scout for film and television.[3]

text: In April 2008 The Darlings received a star on the Missouri Walk of Fame in Marshfield, Missouri. Peterson and Darlings/Dillards band members Dean Webb and Mitch Jayne were on hand representing The Darlings.

text: In May 2016 Peterson appeared as the guest of honor at the Mayberry In The Midwest Festival in Danville, Indiana.


document_title: Canadian ten-dollar note

question_text: who is on the $10 canadian bill

question_tokens: who is on the $ 10 canadian bill

text: Canadian ten-dollar note

text:
Ten dollars

(Canada)

Value
10 Canadian dollars

Width
152.4 mm

Height
69.85 mm

Security features
Holographic stripe, Watermark, EURion constellation, Tactile marks, Registration device, Raised printing, UV printing

Paper type
Polymer

Years of printing
2001–present

Obverse

Design
Sir John A. Macdonald

Designer
Bruce Stewart

Design date
2001
2005

Reverse

Design
Via Rail route map, featuring The Canadian. In the background; the Canadian Rockies

Designer
Bruce Stewart

Design date
2001
2005

text: The Canadian ten-dollar note is one of the most common banknotes of the Canadian dollar.

text: The current ten-dollar note is dominantly purple in colour. The front features a portrait of Canada's first Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, and a metallic image of the Library of Parliament. The reverse side shows Via Rail's train, the Canadian, with the Canadian Rockies in the background; this is accompanied by a Via Rail route map. Yellow dots representing the EURion constellation can be found on both sides. As well as textured printing, this design includes Braille dots for the blind indicating the denomination as a new tactile feature.

text: An updated version of the note began circulation on May 18, 2005, with new security features. On the front, these include a holographic stripe along the left side, depicting the number 10 alternated with maple leaves; a watermark of Macdonald's portrait; and a broken-up number 10, which resolves itself when backlit (the latter two which replaced the shiny-leaf feature). On the back, it has an interleaved metallic strip, reading '10 CAN' repeatedly along its length.

text: The version of the note issued in 1971 depicted the operations of Polymer Corporation on its back.

text: Less-visible security features include ultraviolet-detected threads in the paper, as well as an ink imprint of the coat of arms.

text: As with all modern Canadian banknotes, all text is in both English and French.

text: A new ten-dollar note made with polymer, as part of the "Frontier Series", was released on November 7, 2013. The new note features a new portrait of Sir John A. Macdonald and hologram of the Library of Parliament on the front and the Canadian (Via Rail train pulled using F40PH-2 locomotive) in the Rockies on the back.[1] After mistakenly identifying Mount Edith Cavell and Mount Marmot as appearing in the background, the Bank of Canada later corrected them as Lectern Peak, Aquila Mountain, Mount Zengel and other mountains.[2]

text: On December 8, 2016, Viola Desmond was chosen as the first non-royal woman to appear alone on the obverse (front) of the ten-dollar note after being on a shortlist of five.[3][4] The note is of vertical orientation and will be issued in late 2018.[5][6] For 2017, the Bank of Canada issued a special commemorative design, celebrating the 150th anniversary of the confederation of Canada.[7]

text:
Series
Main colour
Obverse
Reverse
Series Year
Issued
Withdrawn

1935 Series
Purple
Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood
Harvest allegory
1935
11 March 1935

1937 Series
Purple
George VI
Transportation allegory
1937
19 July 1937

1954 Series
Purple
Elizabeth II
Mount Burgess, British Columbia
1954
9 September 1954

Scenes of Canada
Purple
John A. Macdonald
Polymer Corporation oil refinery in Sarnia, Ontario
1971
8 November 1971
27 June 1989

Birds of Canada
     Purple
John A. Macdonald
Osprey
1989
27 June 1989
17 January 2001

Canadian Journey Series
     Purple
John A. Macdonald
Peacekeeping forces and war memorial; poppy field and excerpt from "In Flanders Fields" by John McCrae
2001
17 January 2001
18 May 2005

2004A/2006/2008
18 May 2005
7 November 2013

Frontier Series
     Purple
John A. Macdonald
The Canadian passenger train
2013
7 November 2013

Commemorative Issue
     Purple
John A. Macdonald, Georges-Étienne Cartier, Agnes MacPhail, James Gladstone
Variety of Canadian vistas
2017
1 June 2017

2018 Series
     Purple
Viola Desmond
Canadian Museum for Human Rights
2018


document_title: Once Upon a Time in the West

question_text: where does once upon a time in the west take place

text: Once Upon a Time in the West

text: Plot[edit]

text: The film portrays two conflicts that take place around Flagstone, a fictional town in the American Old West: a land battle related to construction of a railroad, and a mission of vengeance against a cold-blooded killer. A struggle exists for Sweetwater, a piece of land near Flagstone containing the region's only water source. The land was bought by Brett McBain (Frank Wolff), who foresaw that the railroad would have to pass through that area to provide water for the steam locomotives. When crippled railroad tycoon Morton (Gabriele Ferzetti) learns of this, he sends his hired gun Frank (Henry Fonda) to intimidate McBain to move off the land, but Frank instead kills McBain and his three children, planting evidence to frame the bandit Cheyenne (Jason Robards). It appears the land has no owner; however, a former prostitute (Claudia Cardinale) arrives from New Orleans, revealing she is Jill McBain, Brett's new wife and the owner of the land.

text: Meanwhile, a mysterious harmonica-playing gunman (Charles Bronson), whom Cheyenne later dubs "Harmonica", pursues Frank. In the film's opening scene, Harmonica kills three men sent by Frank to kill him. In a roadhouse on the way to Sweetwater, he informs Cheyenne that the three gunfighters appeared to be posing as Cheyenne's men.

text: Back at Sweetwater, construction materials are delivered to build a railroad station and a small town. Harmonica explains that Jill will lose Sweetwater unless the station is built by the time the track's construction crews reach that point, so Cheyenne puts his men to work building it.

text: Frank turns against Morton, who wanted to make a deal with Jill; Morton's disability makes him unable to fight back. After raping Jill, Frank forces her to sell the property in an auction. He tries to buy the farm cheaply by intimidating the other bidders, but Harmonica arrives, holding Cheyenne at gunpoint and makes a much higher bid based on his reward money for delivering Cheyenne to the authorities. Harmonica rebuffs an offer by Frank to buy the farm from him for one dollar more than he paid at the auction. As Cheyenne is placed on a train bound for the Yuma prison, two members of his gang purchase one-way tickets for the train, intending to help him escape.

text: Frank's men betray and ambush him, having been paid by Morton to turn against him, but—much to Jill's outrage—Harmonica helps Frank kill them, intending to kill Frank himself. Frank returns to Morton, only to find that he and the rest of Frank's men have been killed in a battle with Cheyenne's gang. Frank then goes to Sweetwater to confront Harmonica. On two occasions, Frank has asked Harmonica who he is, but both times Harmonica refused to answer him. Instead, he mysteriously quoted names of men Frank has murdered. This time, Harmonica says he will reveal who he is "only at the point of dying". The two men position themselves for a gun duel, at which point Harmonica's motive for revenge is revealed in a flashback:

text: A younger Frank, already a cruel bandit, is forcing a boy to support on his shoulders his older brother, whose neck is in a noose strung from an arch. As the boy struggles to hold his brother's weight, Frank stuffs a harmonica into the boy's mouth and tells him to play. The older brother curses Frank and kicks his young brother away and dies. The boy (Harmonica) collapses onto the ground clutching the harmonica in his mouth.

text: Harmonica draws first and shoots Frank. As he lies dying, Frank again asks who he is, and Harmonica stuffs his harmonica into Frank's mouth, like Frank did to him when he was a child. Frank suddenly remembers Harmonica as a boy, collapses to the ground clutching the harmonica in his mouth and dies. Harmonica and Cheyenne say goodbye to Jill, who is supervising construction of the railway station as the track-laying crews reach Sweetwater. Cheyenne collapses, revealing that he was mortally wounded by Morton during the fight with Frank's gang. As the work train arrives, Jill carries water to the rail workers, while Harmonica rides away with Cheyenne's dead body.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Claudia Cardinale as Jill McBain
Henry Fonda as Frank
Jason Robards as Manuel "Cheyenne" Gutiérrez
Charles Bronson as "Harmonica"
Gabriele Ferzetti as Mr. Morton
Paolo Stoppa as Sam, the Coachman
Marco Zuanelli as Wobbles
Keenan Wynn as the Sheriff of Flagstone
Frank Wolff as Brett McBain
Lionel Stander as the barman
Woody Strode as Stony, first gunman
Jack Elam as Snaky, second gunman
Al Mulock as Knuckles, third gunman
Enzo Santaniello as Timmy McBain
Simonetta Santaniello as Maureen McBain
Stefano Imparato as Patrick McBain
Antonio Palombi as the old Stationmaster
Claudio Mancini as "Harmonica"'s brother
Dino Mele as young "Harmonica"
Michael Harvey as Frank's Lieutenant
Benito Stefanelli as Frank's Lieutenant
Aldo Sambrell as Cheyenne's Lieutenant

tag: ul

text: With the death of Gabriele Ferzetti in 2015,[7] Claudia Cardinale is the sole surviving member of the film's main cast.

text: Production[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: After making his American Civil War epic The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, Leone had intended to retire from making Westerns, believing he had said all he wanted to say. He had come across the novel The Hoods by the pseudonymous "Harry Grey", an autobiographical book based on the author's own experiences as a Jewish hood during Prohibition, and planned to adapt it into a film (this would eventually, seventeen years later, become his final film, Once Upon a Time in America). Leone though was offered only Westerns by the Hollywood studios. United Artists (who had produced the Dollars Trilogy) offered him the opportunity to make a film starring Charlton Heston, Kirk Douglas and Rock Hudson, but Leone refused. However, when Paramount offered Leone a generous budget along with access to Henry Fonda—his favorite actor, and one whom he had wanted to work with for virtually all of his career—Leone accepted the offer.

text: Leone commissioned Bernardo Bertolucci and Dario Argento—both of whom were film critics before becoming directors—to help him develop the film in late 1966. The men spent much of the following year watching and discussing numerous classic Westerns such as High Noon, The Iron Horse, The Comancheros, and The Searchers at Leone's house, and constructed a story made up almost entirely of "references" to American Westerns.

text: Ever since The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, which originally ran for three hours, Leone's films were usually cut (often quite dramatically) for box office release. Leone was very conscious of the length of Once Upon a Time in the West during filming and later commissioned Sergio Donati, who had worked on several of Leone's other films, to help him refine the screenplay, largely to curb the length of the film towards the end of production. Many of the film's most memorable lines of dialogue came from Donati, or from the film's English dialogue adapter, expatriate American actor Mickey Knox.[8]

text: Style and pacing[edit]

text: For Once Upon a Time in the West, Leone changed his approach over his earlier Westerns. Whereas the "Dollars" films were quirky and up-tempo, a celebratory yet tongue-in-cheek parody of the icons of the Wild West, this film is much slower in pace and sombre in theme. Leone's distinctive style, which is very different from, but very much influenced by, Akira Kurosawa's Sanshiro Sugata (1943), is still present but has been modified for the beginning of Leone's second trilogy, the so-called Once Upon a Time Trilogy. The characters in this film are also beginning to change markedly over their predecessors in the Dollars Trilogy. They are not quite as defined and, unusual for Leone characters up to this point, they begin to change (or at least attempt to) over the course of the story. This signals the start of the second phase of Leone's style, which would be further developed in Duck, You Sucker! and Once Upon a Time in America.

text: The film features long, slow scenes in which there is very little dialogue and little happens, broken by brief and sudden violence. Leone was far more interested in the rituals preceding violence than in the violence itself. The tone of the film is consistent with the arid semi-desert in which the story unfolds, and imbues it with a feeling of realism that contrasts with the elaborately choreographed gunplay.

text: Sergio Leone liked to tell the story of a cinema in Paris where the film ran uninterrupted for two years. When he visited this theatre, he was surrounded by fans who wanted his autograph, as well as the projectionist, who was less than enthusiastic. Leone claimed the projectionist told him "I kill you! The same movie over and over again for two years! And it's so SLOW!"[9]

text: Locations[edit]

text: Most of the film was shot in Cinecittà studios, Rome. The brick arch where Bronson's character flashbacks to his youth and the original lynching incident was built near a small airport fifteen miles north of Monument Valley, in Utah and two miles from U.S. Route 163 (which links Gouldings Lodge and Mexican Hat). The opening sequence with the three gunmen meeting the train was one of the sequences filmed in Spain. Shooting for scenes at Cattle Corner Station, as the location was called in the story, was scheduled for four days and was filmed at the 'ghost' train station in the municipality of La Calahorra, county of Gaudix, near Guadix, in the Province of Granada, Spain, as were the scenes of Flagstone, and shooting for the scenes in the middle of the railway were filmed along the Guadix - Hernan Valle railway line.[10][11][12]

text: Casting[edit]

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Fonda did not accept Leone's first offer to play Frank, so Leone flew to New York to convince him, telling him: "Picture this: the camera shows a gunman from the waist down pulling his gun and shooting a running child. The camera tilts up to the gunman's face and...it's Henry Fonda." After meeting with Leone, Fonda called his friend Eli Wallach, who had co-starred in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Wallach advised Fonda to do the film, telling him "You will have the time of your life."

text: When he accepted the role, Fonda came to the set with brown contacts and facial hair. Fonda felt having dark eyes and facial hair would blend well with his character's evil and also help the audience to accept this "new" Fonda as the bad guy, but Leone immediately told him to remove the contacts and facial hair. Leone felt that Fonda's blue eyes best reflected the cold, icy nature of the killer. It was one of the first times in a Western film where the villain would be played by the lead actor.

text: Leone originally offered the role of Harmonica to Clint Eastwood; when he turned it down, Leone hired Charles Bronson who had originally been offered and turned down the part of the Man with No Name in A Fistful of Dollars. James Coburn was also approached for Harmonica, but demanded too much money.

text: Robert Ryan was offered the role of the Sheriff played by Keenan Wynn. Ryan initially accepted, but backed out after being given a larger role in Sam Peckinpah's The Wild Bunch.

text: Enrico Maria Salerno and Robert Hossein were both offered the role of Morton before Gabriele Ferzetti was cast; Hossein had accepted, but had to drop out for a theatre commitment. Ferzetti, who considers it one of his best roles, referred to his casting as "Fate, Destiny" in an interview for the DVD release.

text: Actor Al Mulock (featured as Knuckles in the opening train sequence, as well as in Leone's The Good, the Bad and the Ugly) committed suicide during shooting of the film by leaping from his Guadix hotel room in full costume. Frank Wolff, the actor who plays McBain, also committed suicide in a Rome hotel in 1971.

text: Following the film's completion, Once Upon a Time in the West was dubbed into several languages, including Italian, French, German, Spanish and English. For the English dub, the voices of much of the American cast, including Fonda, Bronson, Jason Robards, Jack Elam, Wynn, Wolff and Lionel Stander, were used. However, the rest of the cast had to be dubbed by other actors, including Ferzetti, who was dubbed by actor Bernard Grant (who is believed to have voiced Gian Maria Volontè and Aldo Giuffrè in the Dollars Trilogy), and Claudia Cardinale, who was voiced by Grant's wife, Joyce Gordon.[13]

text: Music[edit]

text: The music was written by composer Ennio Morricone, Leone's regular collaborator, who wrote the score under Leone's direction before filming began. As in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, the haunting music contributes to the film's grandeur and, like the music for The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, is considered one of Morricone's greatest compositions.

text: The film features leitmotifs that relate to each of the main characters (each with their own theme music) as well as to the spirit of the American West.[14] Especially compelling are the wordless vocals by Italian singer Edda Dell'Orso during the theme music for the Claudia Cardinale character. It was Leone's desire to have the music available and played during filming. Leone had Morricone compose the score before shooting started and would play the music in the background for the actors on set.[14]

text: Except for about a minute of the "Judgment" motif, before Harmonica kills the three outlaws, no soundtrack music is played until at the end of the second scene, when Henry Fonda makes his first entry. During the beginning of the film, Leone instead uses a number of natural sounds, for instance a turning wheel in the wind, sound of a train, grasshoppers, shotguns while hunting, wings of pigeons, etc., in addition to the harmonica played by Bronson's character, since that sound is "explained" by the fact that the sound of the harmonica is diegetic rather than a true soundtrack.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Though less popular in the US than the earlier Dollars Trilogy, Once Upon a Time in the West has gained a cult following around the world, particularly among cineastes and filmmakers. In the late 1960s and 1970s, it was re-evaluated by young filmmakers and critics, many of whom called it a masterpiece. Directors including Quentin Tarantino, Martin Scorsese, George Lucas, John Carpenter, Vince Gilligan,[15] and John Boorman have spoken about the influence that the film had on them. It is now considered one of the greatest films ever made and some critics consider it to be the finest Western and Sergio Leone's finest accomplishment as a director. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected reviews from 56 critics and gave the film a score of 98%. Once Upon a Time in the West can be found on numerous film polls and 'best of' lists.

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Time named Once Upon a Time in the West as one of the 100 greatest films of all-time.[16]
In They Shoot Pictures, Don't They's list of the 1000 Greatest Films, Once Upon a Time in the West is placed at number 62.[17]
Total Film magazine placed Once Upon a Time in the West in their special edition issue of the 100 Greatest Movies.[18]
In 2008, Empire held a poll of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time", taking votes from 10,000 readers, 150 filmmakers and 50 film critics. "Once Upon a Time in the West" was voted in at number 14, the highest Western on the list.[19]
In 2009, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being “culturally, historically or aesthetically significant”.[6]
In 2014, Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films.[20] Once Upon A Time In The West placed 30th on their list.[21]

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:

Frank – Nominated Villain[22]

2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated[23]

text: Releases[edit]

text: European release[edit]

text: The movie was a massive hit in France[2] and was easily the most successful film released there in 1969.[24] It sparked a brief fashion trend for duster coats which took such proportions that Parisian department stores such as Au Printemps had to affix signs on escalators warning patrons to keep their "maxis," as they were called, clear from the edges of moving steps to prevent jamming.

text: American release[edit]

text: In the US, Paramount edited the film to about 145 minutes for the wide release, but the film underperformed at the box office, earning $2.1M in rentals in North America.[25]

text: The following scenes were cut for the American release:

text:
The entire scene at Lionel Stander's trading post. Cheyenne (Robards) was not introduced in the American release until his arrival at the McBain ranch later in the film. Stander remained in the credits, even though he did not appear in this version at all.
The scene in which Morton and Frank discuss what to do with Jill at the Navajo Cliffs.
Morton's death scene was reduced considerably.
Cheyenne's death scene was completely excised.

text:
Otherwise, one scene was slightly longer in the US version than in the international film release:
Following the opening duel (where all four gunmen fire and fall), Charles Bronson's character stands up again showing that he had only been shot in the arm. This part of the scene had been originally cut by director Sergio Leone for the worldwide theatrical release. It was added again for the U.S. market because the American distributors feared American viewers would not understand the story otherwise, especially since Harmonica's arm wound is originally shown for the first time in the scene at the trading post which was cut for the shorter U.S. version.

text: The English-language version was restored to approximately 165 minutes for a re-release in 1984, and for its video release the following year.

text: Director's cut[edit]

text: In Italy, a 175-minute director's cut features a yellow tint filter, and several scenes augmented with additional material. This director's cut was released on home video until the early 2000s, and still airs on TV, but more recent home video releases have used the international cut.

text: Home video releases[edit]

text: After years of public requests, Paramount released a 2-Disc "Special Collector's Edition" of Once Upon a Time in the West on November 18, 2003, with a running time of 165 minutes (158 minutes in some regions).[nb 1] This release is the color 2.35:1 aspect ratio version in anamorphic wide-screen, closed captioned and Dolby. Commentary is also provided by film experts and historians including John Carpenter, John Milius, Alex Cox, film historian and Leone biographer Sir Christopher Frayling, Dr. Sheldon Hall, as well as actors Claudia Cardinale and Gabriele Ferzetti, and director Bernardo Bertolucci, a co-writer of the film.

text: The second disc has special features, including three recent documentaries on several aspects of the film:

text:
An Opera of Violence
The Wages of Sin
Something to Do with Death

text: The film was released on Blu-ray on May 31, 2011.

text: Film references[edit]

text: Leone's intent was to take the stock conventions of the American Westerns of John Ford, Howard Hawks and others, and rework them in an ironic fashion, essentially reversing their intended meaning in their original sources to create a darker connotation.[26] The most obvious example of this is the casting of veteran film good guy Henry Fonda as the villainous Frank, but there are also many other, more subtle reversals throughout the film. According to film critic and historian Christopher Frayling, the film quotes from as many as 30 classic American Westerns.

text: The major films referenced include:

text:
The Comancheros (1961): The names "McBain" and "Sweetwater" may come from this film. (Contrary to popular belief, the name of the town "Sweetwater" was not taken from Victor Sjöström's silent epic drama The Wind. Bernardo Bertolucci has stated that he looked at a map of the southwestern United States, found the name of the town in Arizona, and decided to incorporate it into the film. However, both "Sweetwater" and a character named "McBain" appeared in The Comancheros, which Leone admired.[27])
Johnny Guitar (1954): Jill and Vienna have similar backstories (both are former prostitutes who become saloonkeepers), and Harmonica, like Sterling Hayden's title character, is a mysterious, gunslinging outsider known by his musical nickname. Some of West's central plot (Western settlers vs. the railroad company) may be recycled from Nicholas Ray's film.[27]
The Iron Horse (1924): West may contain several subtle references to this film, including a low angle shot of a shrieking train rushing towards the screen in the opening scene, and the shot of the train pulling into the Sweetwater station at the end.[27]
Shane (1953): The massacre scene in West features young Timmy McBain out hunting with his father, just as Joey does in this movie. The funeral of the McBains is borrowed almost shot-for-shot from Shane.[27] Also, the movie ends with the wounded gunslingers leaving town, unable to stay in civilization, as does Shane.
The Searchers (1956): Leone admitted that the rustling bushes, the silencing of insect sounds, and the fluttering grouse that suggest menace approaching the farmhouse when the McBain family is massacred were all taken from The Searchers. The ending of the film—where Western nomads Harmonica and Cheyenne move on rather than join modern society—also echoes the famous ending of Ford's film.[27]
Winchester '73 (1950): It has been claimed that the scenes in West at the trading post are based on those in Winchester '73, but the resemblance is slight.[27]
The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962): The dusters (long coats) worn by Cheyenne and his gang (and by Frank and his men while impersonating them) resemble those worn by Liberty Valance (Lee Marvin) and his henchmen when they are introduced in this film. In addition, the auction scene in West was intended to recall the election scene in Liberty Valance.[27]
The Last Sunset (1961): The final duel between Frank and Harmonica is shot almost identically to the duel between Kirk Douglas and Rock Hudson in this film.[27]
Duel in the Sun (1946): The character of Morton, the crippled railroad baron in West, was based on the character played by Lionel Barrymore in this film.[27]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ The 7-minute regional variation in DVD running time is due to the 4% speed difference between the 24 fps NTSC and 25 fps PAL video formats. There is no difference in content.

tag: ol


document_title: Interstate 65 in Kentucky

question_text: where does the time change on i 65

question_tokens: where does the time change on i 65

text: Interstate 65 in Kentucky

text: Route description[edit]

text: Along its 137.32-mile (221.00 km) length in the Bluegrass State,[1] I-65 passes Mammoth Cave National Park, Bernheim Forest, the National Corvette Museum and the Fort Knox Military Reservation before entering the state's largest metropolitan area, Louisville.

text: It has interchanges with four of the state's parkways. The first of these is with the William H. Natcher Parkway at Bowling Green, followed by the Louie B. Nunn Cumberland Parkway north of that city between Smiths Grove and Park City. At Elizabethtown, it has two more parkway interchanges with the Wendell H. Ford Western Kentucky Parkway and the Martha Layne Collins Bluegrass Parkway.

text: I-65 also has interchanges with I-265, I-264, and a complex junction with I-64 and I-71 along the south bank of the Ohio River in central Louisville. From there, northbound motorists on I-65 cross into Indiana on the Abraham Lincoln Bridge, while southbound I-65 traffic enters Kentucky from Jeffersonville, Indiana via the John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge.

text: The widest stretch of I-65 in its entirety is in Louisville, at Kentucky Route 1065 (Outer Loop) where the mainline is 14 lanes wide.

text: The highway crosses between the Central and Eastern time zones at the border of Hart and LaRue counties, respectively.

text: For most of 2016, the Ohio River Bridges Project routed all I-65 traffic onto the Abraham Lincoln Bridge (a six-lane cable-stayed bridge now carrying only northbound traffic) while rebuilding the deck of the 1963 John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge to accommodate six lanes of all-southbound traffic. The project is also completing the rebuild of the Kennedy Interchange just south of both bridges in downtown Louisville.[2] On December 30, 2016, both I-65 bridges began using electronic toll collection (ETC) to charge motorists for their use of this previously toll-free Interstate crossing.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: From July 25, 1954 until June 30, 1975, the portion from the outskirts of Louisville to Elizabethtown was a toll road bearing the Kentucky Turnpike name. It was signed with a distinctive sign featuring a cardinal, the state bird of Kentucky. Unlike most states, Kentucky law requires that tolls be removed when the original construction bonds are paid off. The road was thus the first of the state's extensive system of toll roads to be made free.[4] Unlike the other roads, which maintain their separate names when becoming toll-free, the Kentucky Turnpike signs were removed. It is today almost impossible to find any traces of its former toll status.

text: On November 15, 2006, the stretch of I-65 from Bowling Green to Louisville was renamed the Abraham Lincoln Memorial Highway.[5]

text: On February 12, 2007, a bill passed the Kentucky Senate to rename I-65 in Jefferson County the "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway".[6] Signage was posted July 25, 2007.[7]

text: On July 15, 2007, Kentucky officially raised its speed limits on Interstate and State Parkway Highways to 70 miles per hour (110 km/h). Until that date, Kentucky was the only state along I-65's path that had a speed limit of 65 mph (105 km/h).[8]

text: In 2008, Governor Steve Beshear ordered the entire route to be widened to a minimum of six lanes through the entire state. As of 2017, the majority of this project is complete.

text: In July 2017, the KYTC opened a new interchange of I-65 at mile marker 30 to provide access to the Kentucky Transpark near Bowling Green. The $66.8 million project, which began in 2016, would improve traffic conditions along I-65 and U.S. 31W in northeastern Warren County. The first phase of the project include the new interchange, Exit 30, plus a four-lane connector road going from the interstate to U.S. 68 just east of Bowling Green. [9] The second phase is building a two-lane connector road running from U.S. 68 to U.S. 31W between Bowling Green and Oakland, thus relieving congestion problems on both U.S. routes. This was the first new exit on I-65 since 2002, when the interchange with KY 234 was built to connect downtown Bowling Green from the freeway.

text: Exit list[edit]

text:
County
Location
mi[10]
km
Exit
Destinations
Notes

Simpson

0.00
0.00

 I-65 south – Nashville
Continuation into Tennessee

1.980
3.187
2
 US 31W (Main Street) – Franklin

5.979
9.622
6
 KY 100 (Scottsville Road) – Scottsville, Franklin

Warren

20.568
33.101
20
 Natcher Parkway – Owensboro, Bowling Green
Natcher Parkway exits 2A-B; signed 20A (south) & 20B (north).

Bowling Green
22.388
36.030
22
 US 231 (Scottsville Road) – Scottsville, Bowling Green

25.732
41.412
26
 KY 234 (Cemetery Road) – Bowling Green

Bowling Green
28.066
45.168
28
 KY 446 to US 31W – Bowling Green
Serves National Corvette Museum

30
 KY 3145 to US 68 – Bowling Green
Serves Kentucky Transpark; exit opened July 6, 2017[11][12]

Oakland
35.631
57.343
36
 US 68 (Glasgow Road) / KY 80 – Oakland
Northbound exit and southbound entrance

Smiths Grove
37.578
60.476
38
 KY 101 (Main Street) to US 68 – Smiths Grove, Scottsville
Also serves Nolin River Reservoir

Barren

43.135
69.419
43
 Cumberland Parkway – Somerset, Glasgow
Cumberland Parkway exit 0

Park City
47.371
76.236
48
 KY 255 (Mammoth Cave Parkway) to US 31W – Park City, Brownsville
Serves Mammoth Cave National Park

Cave City
52.423
84.367
53
 KY 70 (Mammoth Cave Road) / KY 90 – Cave City, Glasgow
Serves Mammoth Cave National Park

Hart

57.627
92.742
58
 KY 218 (Flint Ridge Road) to KY 335 – Horse Cave

Munfordville
64.200
103.320
65
 US 31W (Main Street) – Munfordville

70.407
113.309
71
 KY 728 (Bacon Creek Road) – Bonnieville

LaRue
Upton
75.896
122.143
76
 KY 224 (Upton Talley Road) – Upton

Hardin
Sonora
80.457
129.483
81
 KY 84 (Western Avenue) to US 31W – Sonora

85.686
137.898
86
 KY 222 (Glendale Hodgenville Road) to US 31W – Glendale

Elizabethtown
91.086
146.589
91
 US 31W / KY 61 / Western Kentucky Parkway – Hodgenville, Paducah, Elizabethtown
Southbound exit to Dixie Avenue, Serves Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park; WKP exit 137

93.345
150.224
93
 Bluegrass Parkway – Lexington, Bardstown

94.154
151.526
94
 US 62 (Mulberry Street) / KY 61 – Elizabethtown

102.533
165.011
102
 KY 313 (Joe Prather Highway) – Radcliff, Vine Grove

Bullitt
Lebanon Junction
104.698
168.495
105
 KY 61 (Preston Highway) – Boston, Lebanon Junction

111.773
179.881
112
 KY 245 (Clermont Road) – Bardstown, Clermont

Shepherdsville
115.574
185.998
116
 KY 480 (Cedar Grove Road) to KY 61

116.639
187.712
117
 KY 44 (4th Street) – Mt. Washington, Shepherdsville

121.722
195.893
121
 KY 1526 (John Harper Highway)

Jefferson

125.143
201.398
125
 I-265 east (Gene Snyder Freeway) / KY 841
I-265 exit 10; signed as exits 125A (east) & 125B (west) northbound.

126.746
203.978
127
 KY 1065 (Outer Loop) – Okolona, Fairdale
Southbound split exit (east) and (west)

Louisville
128.328
206.524
128
 KY 1747 (Fern Valley Road)

129.802
208.896
130
 KY 61 (Preston Highway) / Grade Lane

130.710
210.357
131A
 I-264 (Watterson Expressway) – Louisville International Airport
I-264 exit 12; signed as exits 131A (east) and 131B (west) southbound.

130.792
210.489
131B
Kentucky Exposition Center

132.601
213.401
132
 KY 1631 (Crittenden Drive) – Kentucky Exposition Center
No access back to I-65 Northbound (must use exit 133 from Warnock Street)

132.955
213.970
133

 US 60 Alt. (Eastern Parkway)
No access from I-65 Southbound to (Eastern Parkway, must use Arthur Street)or back to I-65 northbound (must use Warnock Street for I-65 North)

133.767
215.277
134
 KY 61 south (Arthur Street)
South end of KY 61 overlap; no northbound exit to Preston Street

133.978
215.617
134A
 KY 61 north (Preston Street)
North end of KY 61 overlap; northbound exit and southbound entrance

134.145
215.885
134B
Woodbine Street
Northbound exit and southbound entrance

134.675
216.738
135
St. Catherine Street west

135.195–
135.384
217.575–
217.879
136A
Chestnut Street, Broadway (US 150)
Northbound exit and southbound entrance

135.649
218.306
136B
Brook Street
Northbound exit and southbound entrance

135.649–
135.919
218.306–
218.740
136C
Muhammad Ali Boulevard, Jefferson Street – Downtown Louisville
Signed northbound as exit 136C

136.421
219.548
137
 I-64 / I-71 north – Lexington, St. Louis, Cincinnati
I-64 exit 5; I-71 exit 1

Ohio River
137.318
220.992
John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge (southbound)
Abraham Lincoln Bridge (northbound)
 I-65 continues north into Indiana

1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi

      Concurrency terminus
      Incomplete access

text: Auxiliary routes[edit]

text: I-265: Forms three-quarters of a beltway around Metro Louisville. The signage runs from I-65 to I-71 on the northeast side of the Metro. It is cosigned with KY 841 for its entire length and is known as the Gene Snyder Freeway. Construction of the Lewis and Clark Bridge over the Ohio River to connect the Kentucky segment of I-265 with the Indiana segment was completed and opened to traffic on December 18, 2016.