document_title: Polar bear

question_text: where is polar bear found in north america

question_tokens: where is polar bear found in north america

text: Polar bear

text: Naming and etymology

text: Constantine John Phipps was the first to describe the polar bear as a distinct species in 1774.[1] He chose the scientific name Ursus maritimus, the Latin for 'maritime bear',[10] due to the animal's native habitat. The Inuit refer to the animal as nanook (transliterated as nanuq in the Inupiat language).[11][12] The Yupik also refer to the bear as nanuuk in Siberian Yupik.[13] The bear is umka in the Chukchi language. In Russian, it is usually called бе́лый медве́дь (bélyj medvédj, the white bear), though an older word still in use is ошку́й (Oshkúj, which comes from the Komi oski, "bear").[14] In Quebec, the polar bear is referred to as ours blanc ("white bear") or ours polaire ("polar bear").[15] In the Norwegian-administered Svalbard archipelago, the polar bear is referred to as Isbjørn ("ice bear").

text: The polar bear was previously considered to be in its own genus, Thalarctos.[16] However, evidence of hybrids between polar bears and brown bears, and of the recent evolutionary divergence of the two species, does not support the establishment of this separate genus, and the accepted scientific name is now therefore Ursus maritimus, as Phipps originally proposed.[1]

text: Taxonomy and evolution

text: The bear family, Ursidae, is thought to have split off from other carnivorans about 38 million years ago.[17] The Ursinae subfamily originated approximately 4.2 million years ago.[18] The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000-year-old jaw bone, found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004.[19] Fossils show that between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.[20] Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of brown bears that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene[21] or from the eastern part of Siberia, (from Kamchatka and the Kolym Peninsula).[20]

text: The evidence from DNA analysis is more complex. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the polar bear diverged from the brown bear, Ursus arctos, roughly 150,000 years ago.[19] Further, some clades of brown bear, as assessed by their mtDNA, are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears,[22] meaning that the polar bear might not be considered a species under some species concepts.[23] The mtDNA of extinct Irish brown bears is particularly close to polar bears.[24] A comparison of the nuclear genome of polar bears with that of brown bears revealed a different pattern, the two forming genetically distinct clades that diverged approximately 603,000 years ago,[25] although the latest research is based on analysis of the complete genomes (rather than just the mitochondria or partial nuclear genomes) of polar and brown bears, and establishes the divergence of polar and brown bears at 400,000 years ago.[26]

text: However, the two species have mated intermittently for all that time, most likely coming into contact with each other during warming periods, when polar bears were driven onto land and brown bears migrated northward. Most brown bears have about 2 percent genetic material from polar bears, but one population, the ABC Islands bears has between 5 percent and 10 percent polar bear genes, indicating more frequent and recent mating.[27] Polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzly–polar bear hybrids,[21][28] rather than indicating that they have only recently diverged, the new evidence suggests more frequent mating has continued over a longer period of time, and thus the two bears remain genetically similar.[27] However, because neither species can survive long in the other's ecological niche, and because they have different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviours, and other phenotypic characteristics, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.[29]

text: When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776.[30] This distinction has since been invalidated.[31][32][33] One alleged fossil subspecies has been identified: Ursus maritimus tyrannus became extinct during the Pleistocene. U.m. tyrannus was significantly larger than the living subspecies.[21] However, recent reanalysis of the fossil suggests that it was actually a type of brown bear.[34]

text: Population and distribution

text: The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland. Due to the absence of human development in its remote habitat, it retains more of its original range than any other extant carnivore.[35] While they are rare north of 88°, there is evidence that they range all the way across the Arctic, and as far south as James Bay in Canada. Their southernmost range is near the boundary between the subarctic and humid continental climate zones. They can occasionally drift widely with the sea ice, and there have been anecdotal sightings as far south as Berlevåg on the Norwegian mainland and the Kuril Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk. It is difficult to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied; however, biologists use a working estimate of about 20–25,000 or 22–31,000 polar bears worldwide.[1][36][37]

text: There are 19 generally recognized, discrete subpopulations, though polar bears are thought to exist only in low densities in the area of the Arctic Basin.[36][38] The subpopulations display seasonal fidelity to particular areas, but DNA studies show that they are not reproductively isolated.[33] The thirteen North American subpopulations range from the Beaufort Sea south to Hudson Bay and east to Baffin Bay in western Greenland and account for about 54% of the global population.[39]

text: The range includes the territory of five nations: Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), Russia, the United States (Alaska) and Canada. These five nations are the signatories of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, which mandates cooperation on research and conservation efforts throughout the polar bear's range.

text: Modern methods of tracking polar bear populations have been implemented only since the mid-1980s, and are expensive to perform consistently over a large area.[40] The most accurate counts require flying a helicopter in the Arctic climate to find polar bears, shooting a tranquilizer dart at the bear to sedate it, and then tagging the bear.[40] In Nunavut, some Inuit have reported increases in bear sightings around human settlements in recent years, leading to a belief that populations are increasing. Scientists have responded by noting that hungry bears may be congregating around human settlements, leading to the illusion that populations are higher than they actually are.[40] The Polar Bear Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission takes the position that "estimates of subpopulation size or sustainable harvest levels should not be made solely on the basis of traditional ecological knowledge without supporting scientific studies."[41]

text: Of the 19 recognized polar bear subpopulations, three are declining, six are stable, one is increasing, and nine have insufficient data, as of 2014.[8]

text: Habitat

text: The polar bear is a marine mammal because it spends many months of the year at sea.[42] However, it is the only living marine mammal with powerful, large limbs and feet that allow them to cover miles on foot and run on land.[43] Its preferred habitat is the annual sea ice covering the waters over the continental shelf and the Arctic inter-island archipelagos. These areas, known as the "Arctic ring of life", have high biological productivity in comparison to the deep waters of the high Arctic.[35][44] The polar bear tends to frequent areas where sea ice meets water, such as polynyas and leads (temporary stretches of open water in Arctic ice), to hunt the seals that make up most of its diet.[45] Freshwater is limited in these environments because it is either locked up in snow or saline. Polar bears are able to produce water through the metabolism of fats found in seal blubber.[46] Polar bears are therefore found primarily along the perimeter of the polar ice pack, rather than in the Polar Basin close to the North Pole where the density of seals is low.[47]

text: Annual ice contains areas of water that appear and disappear throughout the year as the weather changes. Seals migrate in response to these changes, and polar bears must follow their prey.[44] In Hudson Bay, James Bay, and some other areas, the ice melts completely each summer (an event often referred to as "ice-floe breakup"), forcing polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze-up.[44] In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year-round.

text: Physical characteristics

text: The only other bear of a similar size to the polar bear is the Kodiak bear, which is a subspecies of brown bear.[48] Adult male polar bears weigh 350–700 kg (772–1,543 lb) and measure 2.4–3 metres (7 ft 10 in–9 ft 10 in) in total length.[49] The Guinness Book of World Records listed the average male as having a body mass of 385 to 410 kg (849 to 904 lb) and a shoulder height of 133 cm (4 ft 4 in), slightly smaller than the average male Kodiak bears.[50] Around the Beaufort Sea, however, mature males reportedly average 450 kg (992 lb).[51] Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150–250 kg (331–551 lb), measuring 1.8–2.4 metres (5 ft 11 in–7 ft 10 in) in length. Elsewhere, a slightly larger estimated average weight of 260 kg (573 lb) was claimed for adult females.[52] When pregnant, however, females can weigh as much as 500 kg (1,102 lb).[49] The polar bear is among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the pinnipeds such as elephant seals.[53] The largest polar bear on record, reportedly weighing 1,002 kg (2,209 lb), was a male shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.[50] This specimen, when mounted, stood 3.39 m (11 ft 1 in) tall on its hindlegs.[50] The shoulder height of an adult polar bear is 122 to 160 cm (4 ft 0 in to 5 ft 3 in).[50][54] While all bears are short-tailed, the polar bear's tail is relatively the shortest amongst living bears, ranging from 7 to 13 cm (2.8 to 5.1 in) in length.[55]

text: Compared with its closest relative, the brown bear, the polar bear has a more elongated body build and a longer skull and nose.[29] As predicted by Allen's rule for a northerly animal, the legs are stocky and the ears and tail are small.[29] However, the feet are very large to distribute load when walking on snow or thin ice and to provide propulsion when swimming; they may measure 30 cm (12 in) across in an adult.[56] The pads of the paws are covered with small, soft papillae (dermal bumps), which provide traction on the ice.[29] The polar bear's claws are short and stocky compared to those of the brown bear, perhaps to serve the former's need to grip heavy prey and ice.[29] The claws are deeply scooped on the underside to assist in digging in the ice of the natural habitat. Research of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness.[57] Unlike the brown bear, polar bears in captivity are rarely overweight or particularly large, possibly as a reaction to the warm conditions of most zoos.

text: The 42 teeth of a polar bear reflect its highly carnivorous diet.[29] The cheek teeth are smaller and more jagged than in the brown bear, and the canines are larger and sharper.[29] The dental formula is 3.1.4.23.1.4.3[29]

text: Polar bears are superbly insulated by up to 10 cm (4 in) of adipose tissue,[56] their hide and their fur; they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography.[58] Polar bear fur consists of a layer of dense underfur and an outer layer of guard hairs, which appear white to tan but are actually transparent.[56] The guard hair is 5–15 cm (2–6 in) over most of the body.[59] Polar bears gradually moult from May to August,[60] but, unlike other Arctic mammals, they do not shed their coat for a darker shade to provide camouflage in summer conditions.[61] The hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat were once thought to act as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed; however, this hypothesis was disproved by a study in 1998.[62]

text: The white coat usually yellows with age. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, the fur may turn a pale shade of green due to algae growing inside the guard hairs.[63] Males have significantly longer hairs on their forelegs, which increase in length until the bear reaches 14 years of age. The male's ornamental foreleg hair is thought to attract females, serving a similar function to the lion's mane.[64]

text: The polar bear has an extremely well developed sense of smell, being able to detect seals nearly 1.6 km (1 mi) away and buried under 1 m (3 ft) of snow.[65] Its hearing is about as acute as that of a human, and its vision is also good at long distances.[65]

text: The polar bear is an excellent swimmer and often will swim for days.[66] One bear swam continuously for 9 days in the frigid Bering Sea for 687 km (400 mi) to reach ice far from land. She then travelled another 1,800 km (1,100 mi). During the swim, the bear lost 22% of her body mass and her yearling cub died.[67] With its body fat providing buoyancy, the bear swims in a dog paddle fashion using its large forepaws for propulsion.[68] Polar bears can swim 10 km/h (6 mph). When walking, the polar bear tends to have a lumbering gait and maintains an average speed of around 5.6 km/h (3.5 mph).[68] When sprinting, they can reach up to 40 km/h (25 mph).[69]

text: Life history and behaviour

text: Unlike brown bears, polar bears are not territorial. Although stereotyped as being voraciously aggressive, they are normally cautious in confrontations, and often choose to escape rather than fight.[70] Satiated polar bears rarely attack humans unless severely provoked.[71][72] However, due to their lack of prior human interaction, hungry polar bears are extremely unpredictable, fearless towards people and are known to kill and sometimes eat humans.[73] Many attacks by brown bears are the result of surprising the animal, which is not the case with the polar bear. Polar bears are stealth hunters, and the victim is often unaware of the bear's presence until the attack is underway.[74] Whereas brown bears often maul a person and then leave, polar bear attacks are more likely to be predatory and are almost always fatal.[74] However, due to the very small human population around the Arctic, such attacks are rare. Michio Hoshino, a Japanese wildlife photographer, was once pursued briefly by a hungry male polar bear in northern Alaska. According to Hoshino, the bear started running but Hoshino made it to his truck. The bear was able to reach the truck and tore one of the doors off the truck before Hoshino was able to drive off.[75]

text: In general, adult polar bears live solitary lives. Yet, they have often been seen playing together for hours at a time and even sleeping in an embrace,[73] and polar bear zoologist Nikita Ovsianikov has described adult males as having "well-developed friendships."[70] Cubs are especially playful as well. Among young males in particular, play-fighting may be a means of practicing for serious competition during mating seasons later in life.[76] Polar bears are usually quiet but do communicate with various sounds and vocalizations. Females communicate with their young with moans and chuffs, and the distress calls of both cubs and subadults consists of bleats.[77] Cubs may hum while nursing.[78] When nervous, bears produce huffs, chuffs and snorts while hisses, growls and roars are signs of aggression.[77] Chemical communication can also be important: bears leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one another in the vast Arctic wilderness.[79]

text: In 1992, a photographer near Churchill took a now widely circulated set of photographs of a polar bear playing with a Canadian Eskimo Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) a tenth of its size.[80][81] The pair wrestled harmlessly together each afternoon for ten days in a row for no apparent reason, although the bear may have been trying to demonstrate its friendliness in the hope of sharing the kennel's food.[80] This kind of social interaction is uncommon; it is far more typical for polar bears to behave aggressively towards dogs.[80]

text: Hunting and diet

text: The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family, and throughout most of its range, its diet primarily consists of ringed (Pusa hispida) and bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus).[83] The Arctic is home to millions of seals, which become prey when they surface in holes in the ice in order to breathe, or when they haul out on the ice to rest.[82][84] Polar bears hunt primarily at the interface between ice, water, and air; they only rarely catch seals on land or in open water.[85]

text: The polar bear's most common hunting method is called still-hunting:[86] The bear uses its excellent sense of smell to locate a seal breathing hole, and crouches nearby in silence for a seal to appear. The bear may lay in wait for several hours. When the seal exhales, the bear smells its breath, reaches into the hole with a forepaw, and drags it out onto the ice. The polar bear kills the seal by biting its head to crush its skull. The polar bear also hunts by stalking seals resting on the ice: Upon spotting a seal, it walks to within 90 m (100 yd), and then crouches. If the seal does not notice, the bear creeps to within 9 to 12 m (30 to 40 ft) of the seal and then suddenly rushes forth to attack.[82] A third hunting method is to raid the birth lairs that female seals create in the snow.[86]

text: A widespread legend tells that polar bears cover their black noses with their paws when hunting. This behaviour, if it happens, is rare – although the story exists in the oral history of northern peoples and in accounts by early Arctic explorers, there is no record of an eyewitness account of the behaviour in recent decades.[68]

text: Mature bears tend to eat only the calorie-rich skin and blubber of the seal, which are highly digestible,[87] whereas younger bears consume the protein-rich red meat.[82] Studies have also photographed polar bears scaling near-vertical cliffs, to eat birds' chicks and eggs.[88] For subadult bears, which are independent of their mother but have not yet gained enough experience and body size to successfully hunt seals, scavenging the carcasses from other bears' kills is an important source of nutrition. Subadults may also be forced to accept a half-eaten carcass if they kill a seal but cannot defend it from larger polar bears. After feeding, polar bears wash themselves with water or snow.[68]

text: Although polar bears are extraordinarily powerful, its primary prey species, the ringed seal, is much smaller than itself, and many of the seals hunted are pups rather than adults. Ringed seals are born weighing 5.4 kg (12 lb) and grown to an estimated average weight of only 60 kg (130 lb).[89][90] They also in places prey heavily upon the harp seal (Pusa groenlandica) or the harbor seal.[90] The bearded seal, on the other hand, can be nearly the same size as the bear itself, averaging 270 kg (600 lb).[90] Adult male bearded seals, at 350 to 500 kg (770 to 1,100 lb) are too large for a female bear to overtake, and so are potential prey only for mature male bears.[91] Large males also occasionally attempt to hunt and kill even larger prey items.[92] It can kill an adult walrus (Odobenus rosmarus),[90][93] although this is rarely attempted. At up to 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) and a typical adult mass range of 600 to 1,500 kg (1,300 to 3,300 lb), a walrus can be more than twice the bear's weight,[94] and has up to 1-metre (3 ft)-long ivory tusks that can be used as formidable weapons. A polar bear may charge a group of walruses, with the goal of separating a young, infirm, or injured walrus from the pod. They will even attack adult walruses when their diving holes have frozen over or intercept them before they can get back to the diving hole in the ice. Yet, polar bears will very seldom attack full-grown adult walruses, with the largest male walrus probably invulnerable unless otherwise injured or incapacitated. Since an attack on a walrus tends to be an extremely protracted and exhausting venture, bears have been known to back down from the attack after making the initial injury to the walrus.[93] Polar bears have also been seen to prey on beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas)[90] and narwhals (Monodon monoceros),[90] by swiping at them at breathing holes. The whales are of similar size to the walrus and nearly as difficult for the bear to subdue.[95][96] Most terrestrial animals in the Arctic can outrun the polar bear on land as polar bears overheat quickly, and most marine animals the bear encounters can outswim it. In some areas, the polar bear's diet is supplemented by walrus calves and by the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales, whose blubber is readily devoured even when rotten.[73] Polar bears sometimes swim underwater to catch fish like the Arctic charr or the fourhorn sculpin.[84]

text:
at rest;
assessing a situation;
when feeding

tag: ol

text: With the exception of pregnant females, polar bears are active year-round,[97] although they have a vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood. Unlike brown and black bears, polar bears are capable of fasting for up to several months during late summer and early fall, when they cannot hunt for seals because the sea is unfrozen.[97] When sea ice is unavailable during summer and early autumn, some populations live off fat reserves for months at a time,[58] as polar bears do not 'hibernate' any time of the year.[98]

text: Being both curious animals and scavengers,[94][99] polar bears investigate and consume garbage where they come into contact with humans.[90][94] Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil.[94][99] The dump in Churchill, Manitoba was closed in 2006 to protect bears, and waste is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba.[100][101]

text: Dietary flexibility

text: Although seal predation is the primary and an indispensable way of life for most polar bears, when alternatives are present they are quite flexible. Polar bears consume a wide variety of other wild foods, including muskox (Ovibos moschatus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus),[102] birds, eggs, rodents, crabs, other crustaceans and other polar bears. They may also eat plants,[102] including berries, roots, and kelp;[102] however, none of these have been a significant part of their diet,[94] except for beachcast marine mammal carcasses. Given the change in climate, with ice breaking up in areas such as the Hudson Bay earlier than it used to, polar bears are exploiting food resources such as snow geese and eggs, and plants such as lyme grass in increased quantities.[103] When stalking land animals, such as muskox, reindeer,[102] and even willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus), polar bears appear to make use of vegetative cover and wind direction to bring them as close to their prey as possible before attacking. Polar bears have been observed to hunt the small Svalbard reindeer (R. t. platyrhynchus), which weigh only 40 to 60 kg (90 to 130 lb) as adults, as well as the barren-ground caribou (R. t. groenlandicus), which is about twice as heavy as that.[104][105] Adult muskox, which can weigh 450 kg (1,000 lb) or more, are a more formidable quarry.[106] Although ungulates are not typical prey, the killing of one during the summer months can greatly increase the odds of survival during that lean period. Like the brown bear, most ungulate prey of polar bears is likely to be young, sickly or injured specimens rather than healthy adults.[105] The polar bear's biology is specialized to require large amounts of fat from marine mammals, and it cannot derive sufficient caloric intake from terrestrial food.[107][108]

text: In their southern range, especially near Hudson Bay and James Bay, Canadian polar bears endure all summer without sea ice to hunt from.[102] Here, their food ecology shows their dietary flexibility. They still manage to consume some seals, but they are food-deprived in summer as only marine mammal carcasses are an important alternative without sea ice, especially carcasses of the beluga whale. These alternatives may reduce the rate of weight loss of bears when on land.[109] One scientist found that 71% of the Hudson Bay bears had fed on seaweed (marine algae) and that about half were feeding on birds[90] such as the dovekie and sea ducks, especially the long-tailed duck (53%) and common eider, by swimming underwater to catch them. They were also diving to feed on blue mussels and other underwater food sources like the green sea urchin. 24% had eaten moss recently, 19% had consumed grass, 34% had eaten black crowberry and about half had consumed willows.[102] This study illustrates the polar bear's dietary flexibility but it does not represent its life history elsewhere. Most polar bears elsewhere will never have access to these alternatives, except for the marine mammal carcasses that are important wherever they occur.

text: In Svalbard, polar bears were observed to kill white-beaked dolphins during spring, when the dolphins were trapped in the sea ice. The bears then proceeded to cache the carcasses, which remained and were eaten during the ice-free summer and autumn.[110]

text: Reproduction and lifecycle

text: Courtship and mating take place on the sea ice in April and May, when polar bears congregate in the best seal hunting areas.[111] A male may follow the tracks of a breeding female for 100 km (60 mi) or more, and after finding her engage in intense fighting with other males over mating rights, fights that often result in scars and broken teeth.[111] Polar bears have a generally polygynous mating system; recent genetic testing of mothers and cubs, however, has uncovered cases of litters in which cubs have different fathers.[112] Partners stay together and mate repeatedly for an entire week; the mating ritual induces ovulation in the female.[113]

text: After mating, the fertilized egg remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these four months, the pregnant female eats prodigious amounts of food, gaining at least 200 kg (440 lb) and often more than doubling her body weight.[111]

text: Maternity denning and early life

text: When the ice floes break up in the fall, ending the possibility of hunting, each pregnant female digs a maternity den consisting of a narrow entrance tunnel leading to one to three chambers.[111] Most maternity dens are in snowdrifts, but may also be made underground in permafrost if it is not sufficiently cold yet for snow.[111] In most subpopulations, maternity dens are situated on land a few kilometers from the coast, and the individuals in a subpopulation tend to reuse the same denning areas each year.[35] The polar bears that do not den on land make their dens on the sea ice. In the den, she enters a dormant state similar to hibernation. This hibernation-like state does not consist of continuous sleeping; however, the bear's heart rate slows from 46 to 27 beats per minute.[114] Her body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation.[58][115]

text: Between November and February, cubs are born blind, covered with a light down fur, and weighing less than 0.9 kg (2.0 lb),[113] but in captivity they might be delivered in the earlier months. The earliest recorded birth of polar bears in captivity was on 11 October 2011 in the Toronto Zoo.[116] On average, each litter has two cubs.[111] The family remains in the den until mid-February to mid-April, with the mother maintaining her fast while nursing her cubs on a fat-rich milk.[111] By the time the mother breaks open the entrance to the den, her cubs weigh about 10 to 15 kilograms (22 to 33 lb).[111] For about 12 to 15 days, the family spends time outside the den while remaining in its vicinity, the mother grazing on vegetation while the cubs become used to walking and playing.[111] Then they begin the long walk from the denning area to the sea ice, where the mother can once again catch seals.[111] Depending on the timing of ice-floe breakup in the fall, she may have fasted for up to eight months.[111] During this time, cubs playfully imitate the mother's hunting methods in preparation for later life.[117]

text: Female polar bears are noted for both their affection towards their offspring,[citation needed] and their valor in protecting them.[citation needed] Multiple cases of adoption of wild cubs have been confirmed by genetic testing.[118] Adult male bears occasionally kill and eat polar bear cubs.[119] As of 2006, in Alaska, 42% of cubs were reaching 12 months of age, down from 65% in 1991.[120] In most areas, cubs are weaned at two and a half years of age,[111] when the mother chases them away or abandons them. The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation is unusual in that its female polar bears sometimes wean their cubs at only one and a half years.[111] This was the case for 40% of cubs there in the early 1980s; however by the 1990s, fewer than 20% of cubs were weaned this young.[121] After the mother leaves, sibling cubs sometimes travel and share food together for weeks or months.[73]

text: Later life

text: Females begin to breed at the age of four years in most areas, and five years in the Beaufort Sea area.[111] Males usually reach sexual maturity at six years; however, as competition for females is fierce, many do not breed until the age of eight or ten.[111] A study in Hudson Bay indicated that both the reproductive success and the maternal weight of females peaked in their mid-teens.[122]

text: Polar bears appear to be less affected by infectious diseases and parasites than most terrestrial mammals.[123] Polar bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism,[124] although infections are usually not fatal.[123] Only one case of a polar bear with rabies has been documented, even though polar bears frequently interact with Arctic foxes, which often carry rabies.[123] Bacterial leptospirosis and Morbillivirus have been recorded. Polar bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases that may be caused by mites or other parasites.

text: Life expectancy

text: Polar bears rarely live beyond 25 years.[125] The oldest wild bears on record died at age 32, whereas the oldest captive was a female who died in 1991, age 43.[126] The causes of death in wild adult polar bears are poorly understood, as carcasses are rarely found in the species's frigid habitat.[123] In the wild, old polar bears eventually become too weak to catch food, and gradually starve to death. Polar bears injured in fights or accidents may either die from their injuries or become unable to hunt effectively, leading to starvation.[123]

text: Ecological role

text: The polar bear is the apex predator within its range, and is a keystone species for the Arctic.[127] Several animal species, particularly Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) and glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus), routinely scavenge polar bear kills.[68]

text: The relationship between ringed seals and polar bears is so close that the abundance of ringed seals in some areas appears to regulate the density of polar bears, while polar bear predation in turn regulates density and reproductive success of ringed seals.[85] The evolutionary pressure of polar bear predation on seals probably accounts for some significant differences between Arctic and Antarctic seals. Compared to the Antarctic, where there is no major surface predator, Arctic seals use more breathing holes per individual, appear more restless when hauled out on the ice, and rarely defecate on the ice.[68] The baby fur of most Arctic seal species is white, presumably to provide camouflage from predators, whereas Antarctic seals all have dark fur at birth.[68]

text: Brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses,[128] and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens.[129] Wolves are rarely encountered by polar bears, though there are two records of Arctic wolf (Canis lupus arctos) packs killing polar bear cubs.[130] A rather unlikely killer of a grown polar bear has reportedly included a wolverine (Gulo gulo), anecedotely reported to have suffocated a bear in a zoo with a bite to the throat during a conflict.[131] Polar bears are sometimes the host of arctic mites such as Alaskozetes antarcticus.[68]

text: Long-distance swimming and diving

text: Researchers tracked 52 sows in the southern Beaufort Sea off Alaska with GPS system collars; no boars were involved in the study due to males' necks being too thick for the GPS-equipped collars. Fifty long-distance swims were recorded; the longest at 354 kilometres (220 mi), with an average of 155 kilometres (96 mi). The length of these swims ranged from most of a day to ten days. Ten of the sows had a cub swim with them and after a year, six cubs survived. The study did not determine if the others lost their cubs before, during, or some time after their long swims. Researchers do not know whether or not this is a new behaviour; before polar ice shrinkage, they opined that there was probably neither the need nor opportunity to swim such long distances.[132]

text: The polar bear may swim underwater for up to three minutes to approach seals on shore or on ice floes.[133][134]

text: Hunting

text: Indigenous people

text: Polar bears have long provided important raw materials for Arctic peoples, including the Inuit, Yupik, Chukchi, Nenets, Russian Pomors and others. Hunters commonly used teams of dogs to distract the bear, allowing the hunter to spear the bear or shoot it with arrows at closer range.[135] Almost all parts of captured animals had a use.[136] The fur was used in particular to make trousers and, by the Nenets, to make galoshes-like outer footwear called tobok; the meat is edible, despite some risk of trichinosis; the fat was used in food and as a fuel for lighting homes, alongside seal and whale blubber; sinews were used as thread for sewing clothes; the gallbladder and sometimes heart were dried and powdered for medicinal purposes; the large canine teeth were highly valued as talismans.[137] Only the liver was not used, as its high concentration of vitamin A is poisonous.[138] Hunters make sure to either toss the liver into the sea or bury it in order to spare their dogs from potential poisoning.[137] Traditional subsistence hunting was on a small enough scale to not significantly affect polar bear populations, mostly because of the sparseness of the human population in polar bear habitat.[139]

text: History of commercial harvest

text: In Russia, polar bear furs were already being commercially traded in the 14th century, though it was of low value compared to Arctic fox or even reindeer fur.[137] The growth of the human population in the Eurasian Arctic in the 16th and 17th century, together with the advent of firearms and increasing trade, dramatically increased the harvest of polar bears.[58][140] However, since polar bear fur has always played a marginal commercial role, data on the historical harvest is fragmentary. It is known, for example, that already in the winter of 1784/1785 Russian Pomors on Spitsbergen harvested 150 polar bears in Magdalenefjorden.[137] In the early 20th century, Norwegian hunters were harvesting 300 bears per year at the same location. Estimates of total historical harvest suggest that from the beginning of the 18th century, roughly 400 to 500 animals were being harvested annually in northern Eurasia, reaching a peak of 1,300 to 1,500 animals in the early 20th century, and falling off as the numbers began dwindling.[137]

text: In the first half of the 20th century, mechanized and overpoweringly efficient methods of hunting and trapping came into use in North America as well.[141] Polar bears were chased from snowmobiles, icebreakers, and airplanes, the latter practice described in a 1965 New York Times editorial as being "about as sporting as machine gunning a cow."[141] Norwegians used "self-killing guns", comprising a loaded rifle in a baited box that was placed at the level of a bear's head, and which fired when the string attached to the bait was pulled.[142] The numbers taken grew rapidly in the 1960s, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1,250 bears that year.[143]

text: Contemporary regulations

text: Concerns over the future survival of the species led to the development of national regulations on polar bear hunting, beginning in the mid-1950s. The Soviet Union banned all hunting in 1956. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973, and has completely banned hunting since then. The United States began regulating hunting in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973, the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears was signed by all five nations whose territory is inhabited by polar bears: Canada, Denmark, Norway, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers, and conduct further research.[144] The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods". Norway is the only country of the five in which all harvest of polar bears is banned. The agreement was a rare case of international cooperation during the Cold War. Biologist Ian Stirling commented, "For many years, the conservation of polar bears was the only subject in the entire Arctic that nations from both sides of the Iron Curtain could agree upon sufficiently to sign an agreement. Such was the intensity of human fascination with this magnificent predator, the only marine bear."[145]

text: Agreements have been made between countries to co-manage their shared polar bear subpopulations. After several years of negotiations, Russia and the United States signed an agreement in October 2000 to jointly set quotas for indigenous subsistence hunting in Alaska and Chukotka.[146] The treaty was ratified in October 2007.[147] In September 2015, the polar bear range states agreed upon a "circumpolar action plan" describing their conservation strategy for polar bears.[148]

text: Although the United States government has proposed that polar bears be transferred to Appendix I of CITES, which would ban all international trade in polar bear parts, polar bears currently remain listed under Appendix II.[149] This decision was approved of by members of the IUCN and TRAFFIC, who determined that such an uplisting was unlikely to confer a conservation benefit.[150]

text: Canada

text: Polar bears were designated "Not at Risk" in April 1986 and uplisted to "Special Concern" in April 1991. This status was re-evaluated and confirmed in April 1999, November 2002, and April 2008. Polar bears continue to be listed as a species of special concern in Canada because of their sensitivity to overharvest and because of an expected range contraction caused by loss of Arctic sea ice.[151]

text: More than 600 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada,[8] a rate calculated by scientists to be unsustainable for some areas, notably Baffin Bay.[36] Canada has allowed sport hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970,[152] but the practice was not common until the 1980s.[153] The guiding of sport hunters provides meaningful employment and an important source of income for northern communities in which economic opportunities are few.[40] Sport hunting can bring CDN$20,000 to $35,000 per bear into northern communities, which until recently has been mostly from American hunters.[154]

text: The territory of Nunavut accounts for the location 80% of annual kills in Canada. In 2005, the government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears,[154] despite protests from the IUCN Polar Bear Specialist Group.[155] In two areas where harvest levels have been increased based on increased sightings, science-based studies have indicated declining populations, and a third area is considered data-deficient.[156] While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s)[153] Nunavut polar bear biologist, Mitchell Taylor, who was formerly responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, has insisted that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.[157] In 2010, the 2005 increase was partially reversed. Government of Nunavut officials announced that the polar bear quota for the Baffin Bay region would be gradually reduced from 105 per year to 65 by the year 2013.[158] The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 to 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.[citation needed] Environment Canada also banned the export from Canada of fur, claws, skulls and other products from polar bears harvested in Baffin Bay as of 1 January 2010.[158]

text: Because of the way polar bear hunting quotas are managed in Canada, attempts to discourage sport hunting would actually increase the number of bears killed in the short term.[40] Canada allocates a certain number of permits each year to sport and subsistence hunting, and those that are not used for sport hunting are re-allocated to indigenous subsistence hunting. Whereas northern communities kill all the polar bears they are permitted to take each year, only half of sport hunters with permits actually manage to kill a polar bear. If a sport hunter does not kill a polar bear before his or her permit expires, the permit cannot be transferred to another hunter.[40]

text: In August 2011, Environment Canada published a national polar bear conservation strategy.[159]

text: Greenland

text: In Greenland, hunting restrictions were first introduced in 1994 and expanded by executive order in 2005.[38] Until 2005 Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. However, in 2006 it imposed a limit of 150, while also allowed recreational hunting for the first time.[160] Other provisions included year-round protection of cubs and mothers, restrictions on weapons used, and various administrative requirements to catalogue kills.[38]

text: Norway

text: Polar bear were hunted heavily in Savalbard, Norway throughout the 19th century and to as recently as 1973, when the conservation treaty was signed. 900 bears a year were harvested in the 1920s and after World War II, there were as many as 400–500 harvested annually. Some regulations of hunting did exist. In 1927, poisoning was outlawed while in 1939, certain denning sights were declared off limits. The killing of females and cubs was made illegal in 1965. Killing of polar bears decreased somewhat 25–30 years before the treaty. Despite this, the polar bear population continued to decline and by 1973, only around 1000 bears were left in Savalbard. Only with the passage of the treaty did they begin to recover.[161]

text: Russia

text: The Soviet Union banned the harvest of polar bears in 1956; however, poaching continued and is estimated to pose a serious threat to the polar bear population.[38] In recent years, polar bears have approached coastal villages in Chukotka more frequently due to the shrinking of the sea ice, endangering humans and raising concerns that illegal hunting would become even more prevalent.[162] In 2007, the Russian government made subsistence hunting legal for indigenous Chukotkan peoples only, a move supported by Russia's most prominent bear researchers and the World Wide Fund for Nature as a means to curb poaching.[162]

text: Polar bears are currently listed as "Rare", of "Uncertain Status", or "Rehabilitated and rehabilitating" in the Red Data Book of Russia, depending on population.[163] In 2010, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment published a strategy for polar bear conservation in Russia.[164]

text: United States

text: The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 afforded polar bears some protection in the United States. It banned hunting (except by indigenous subsistence hunters), banned importing of polar bear parts (except polar bear pelts taken legally in Canada), and banned the harassment of polar bears.[165] On 15 May 2008, the United States Department of the Interior listed the polar bear as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act, citing the melting of Arctic sea ice as the primary threat to the polar bear.[165] It banned all importing of polar bear trophies. Importing products made from polar bears had been prohibited from 1972 to 1994 under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and restricted between 1994 and 2008. Under those restrictions, permits from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service were required to import sport-hunted polar bear trophies taken in hunting expeditions in Canada. The permit process required that the bear be taken from an area with quotas based on sound management principles.[166] Since 1994, hundreds of sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S.[167] In 2015, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a draft conservation management plan for polar bears to improve their status under the Endangered Species Act and the Marine Mammal Protection Act.[168]

text: Conservation status, threats and controversies

text: Polar bear population sizes and trends are difficult to estimate accurately because they occupy remote home ranges and exist at low population densities. Polar bear fieldwork can also be hazardous to researchers.[169] As of 2015, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports that the global population of polar bears is 22,000 to 31,000, and the current population trend is unknown.[1] Nevertheless, polar bears are listed as "Vulnerable" under criterion A3c, which indicates an expected population decrease of ≥30% over the next three generations (~34.5 years) due to "decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat".[1] Risks to the polar bear include climate change, pollution in the form of toxic contaminants, conflicts with shipping, oil and gas exploration and development, and human-bear interactions including harvesting and possible stresses from recreational polar-bear watching.[1]

text: According to the World Wildlife Fund, the polar bear is important as an indicator of Arctic ecosystem health. Polar bears are studied to gain understanding of what is happening throughout the Arctic, because at-risk polar bears are often a sign of something wrong with the Arctic marine ecosystem.[170]

text: Climate change

text: The International Union for Conservation of Nature, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, United States Geological Survey and many leading polar bear biologists have expressed grave concerns about the impact of climate change, including the belief that the current warming trend imperils the survival of the polar bear.[35][171][172][173][174][175]

text: The key danger posed by climate change is malnutrition or starvation due to habitat loss. Polar bears hunt seals from a platform of sea ice. Rising temperatures cause the sea ice to melt earlier in the year, driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall.[121] Reduction in sea-ice cover also forces bears to swim longer distances, which further depletes their energy stores and occasionally leads to drowning.[176] Thinner sea ice tends to deform more easily, which appears to make it more difficult for polar bears to access seals.[85] Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears, in addition to poorer body condition in bears of all ages.[35]

text: In addition to creating nutritional stress, a warming climate is expected to affect various other aspects of polar bear life: Changes in sea ice affect the ability of pregnant females to build suitable maternity dens.[28] As the distance increases between the pack ice and the coast, females must swim longer distances to reach favored denning areas on land.[35] Thawing of permafrost would affect the bears who traditionally den underground, and warm winters could result in den roofs collapsing or having reduced insulative value.[35] For the polar bears that currently den on multi-year ice, increased ice mobility may result in longer distances for mothers and young cubs to walk when they return to seal-hunting areas in the spring.[35] Disease-causing bacteria and parasites would flourish more readily in a warmer climate.[85]

text: Problematic interactions between polar bears and humans, such as foraging by bears in garbage dumps, have historically been more prevalent in years when ice-floe breakup occurred early and local polar bears were relatively thin.[171] Increased human-bear interactions, including fatal attacks on humans, are likely to increase as the sea ice shrinks and hungry bears try to find food on land.[171][177]

text: The effects of climate change are most profound in the southern part of the polar bear's range, and this is indeed where significant degradation of local populations has been observed.[175] The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation, in a southern part of the range, also happens to be one of the best-studied polar bear subpopulations. This subpopulation feeds heavily on ringed seals in late spring, when newly weaned and easily hunted seal pups are abundant.[156] The late spring hunting season ends for polar bears when the ice begins to melt and break up, and they fast or eat little during the summer until the sea freezes again.[156]

text: Due to warming air temperatures, ice-floe breakup in western Hudson Bay is currently occurring three weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago, reducing the duration of the polar bear feeding season.[156] The body condition of polar bears has declined during this period; the average weight of lone (and likely pregnant) female polar bears was approximately 290 kg (640 lb) in 1980 and 230 kg (510 lb) in 2004.[156] Between 1987 and 2004, the Western Hudson Bay population declined by 22%,[178] although the population is currently listed as "stable".[8] As the climate change melts sea ice, the U.S. Geological Survey projects that two-thirds of polar bears will disappear by 2050[179]

text: In Alaska, the effects of sea ice shrinkage have contributed to higher mortality rates in polar bear cubs, and have led to changes in the denning locations of pregnant females.[120][180] In recent years, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, possibly resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005.[176]

text: A new development is that polar bears have begun ranging to new territory. While not unheard of but still uncommon, polar bears have been sighted increasingly in larger numbers ashore, staying on the mainland for longer periods of time during the summer months, particularly in North Canada, traveling farther inland.[181] This may cause an increased reliance on terrestrial diets, such as goose eggs, waterfowl and caribou,[182] as well as increased human–bear conflict.[183]

text: Pollution

text: Polar bears accumulate high levels of persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) and chlorinated pesticides. Due to their position at the top of the ecological pyramid, with a diet heavy in blubber in which halocarbons concentrate, their bodies are among the most contaminated of Arctic mammals.[184] Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals, because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency.[185]

text: Many chemicals, such as PCBs and DDT, have been internationally banned due to the recognition of their harm on the environment. Their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades after being banned as these chemicals spread through the food chain. Since then, the trend seems to have discontinued, with tissue concentrations of PCBs declining between studies performed from 1989 to 1993 and studies performed from 1996 to 2002.[186] During the same time periods, DDT was notably lower in the Western Hudson Bay population only.[186]

text: Oil and gas development

text: Oil and gas development in polar bear habitat can affect the bears in a variety of ways. An oil spill in the Arctic would most likely concentrate in the areas where polar bears and their prey are also concentrated, such as sea ice leads.[1] Because polar bears rely partly on their fur for insulation and soiling of the fur by oil reduces its insulative value, oil spills put bears at risk of dying from hypothermia.[97] Polar bears exposed to oil spill conditions have been observed to lick the oil from their fur, leading to fatal kidney failure.[97] Maternity dens, used by pregnant females and by females with infants, can also be disturbed by nearby oil exploration and development. Disturbance of these sensitive sites may trigger the mother to abandon her den prematurely, or abandon her litter altogether.[1]

text: Predictions

text: Steven Amstrup and other U.S. Geological Survey scientists have predicted two-thirds of the world's polar bears may disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change,[85] though the validity of this study has been debated.[187][188] The bears could disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080, they could disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic Archipelago.[85] However, in the short term, some polar bear populations in historically colder regions of the Arctic may temporarily benefit from a milder climate, as multiyear ice that is too thick for seals to create breathing holes is replaced by thinner annual ice.[189]

text: Polar bears diverged from brown bears 400,000–600,000 years ago and have survived past periods of climate fluctuation. It has been claimed that polar bears will be able to adapt to terrestrial food sources as the sea ice they use to hunt seals disappears.[190] However, most polar bear biologists think that polar bears will be unable to completely offset the loss of calorie-rich seal blubber with terrestrial foods, and that they will be outcompeted by brown bears in this terrestrial niche, ultimately leading to a population decline.[191]

text: Controversy over species protection

text: Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today.[192][193] Some estimates of the global population are around 5,000 to 10,000 in the early 1970s;[194] other estimates were 20,000 to 40,000 during the 1980s.[44][58] Current estimates put the global population at between 20,000 and 25,000[38] or 22,000 and 31,000.[1]

text: There are several reasons for the apparent discordance between past and projected population trends: estimates from the 1950s and 1960s were based on stories from explorers and hunters rather than on scientific surveys.[195][196] Second, controls of harvesting were introduced that allowed this previously overhunted species to recover.[195] Third, the recent effects of climate change have affected sea ice abundance in different areas to varying degrees.[195]

text: Debate over the listing of the polar bear under endangered species legislation has put conservation groups and Canada's Inuit at opposing positions;[40] the Nunavut government and many northern residents have condemned the U.S. initiative to list the polar bear under the Endangered Species Act.[197][198] Many Inuit believe the polar bear population is increasing, and restrictions on commercial sport-hunting are likely to lead to a loss of income to their communities.[40][199]

text: In culture

text: Indigenous folklore

text: For the indigenous peoples of the Arctic, polar bears have long played an important cultural and material role.[136][137] Polar bear remains have been found at hunting sites dating to 2,500 to 3,000 years ago[139] and 1,500-year-old cave paintings of polar bears have been found in the Chukchi Peninsula.[137] Indeed, it has been suggested that Arctic peoples' skills in seal hunting and igloo construction has been in part acquired from the polar bears themselves.[137]

text: The Inuit and Alaska Natives have many folk tales featuring the bears including legends in which bears are humans when inside their own houses and put on bear hides when going outside, and stories of how the constellation that is said to resemble a great bear surrounded by dogs came into being.[135] These legends reveal a deep respect for the polar bear, which is portrayed as both spiritually powerful and closely akin to humans.[135] The human-like posture of bears when standing and sitting, and the resemblance of a skinned bear carcass to the human body, have probably contributed to the belief that the spirits of humans and bears were interchangeable.[135]

text: Among the Chukchi and Yupik of eastern Siberia, there was a longstanding shamanistic ritual of "thanksgiving" to the hunted polar bear. After killing the animal, its head and skin were removed and cleaned and brought into the home, and a feast was held in the hunting camp in its honor. To appease the spirit of the bear, traditional song and drum music was played, and the skull was ceremonially fed and offered a pipe.[200] Only once the spirit was appeased was the skull be separated from the skin, taken beyond the bounds of the homestead, and placed in the ground, facing north.[137]

text: The Nenets of north-central Siberia placed particular value on the talismanic power of the prominent canine teeth. These were traded in the villages of the lower Yenisei and Khatanga rivers to the forest-dwelling peoples further south, who would sew them into their hats as protection against brown bears. It was believed that the "little nephew" (the brown bear) would not dare to attack a man wearing the tooth of its powerful "big uncle", the polar bear.[137] The skulls of killed polar bears were buried at sacred sites, and altars, called sedyangi, were constructed out of the skulls. Several such sites have been preserved on the Yamal Peninsula.[137]

text: Symbols and mascots

text: Their distinctive appearance and their association with the Arctic have made polar bears popular icons, especially in those areas where they are native. The millennium version of the Canadian two-dollar coin carried the image of a polar bear.[201] Vehicle license plates in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada are in the shape of a polar bear.[citation needed] The polar bear is the mascot of Bowdoin College, Maine, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary.[citation needed] The Eisbären Berlin hockey team uses a roaring polar bear as their logo.[citation needed]

text: Companies such as Coca-Cola,[202] Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum, and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of the polar bear in advertising,[citation needed] while Fox's Glacier Mints have featured a polar bear named Peppy as the brand mascot since 1922.[203]

text: Fiction

text: Polar bears are popular in fiction, particularly in books for children or teenagers. For example, The Polar Bear Son is adapted from a traditional Inuit tale.[204] The animated television series Noah's Island features a polar bear named Noah as the protagonist. Polar bears feature prominently in East (also released as North Child) by Edith Pattou,[205] The Bear by Raymond Briggs (adapted into an animated short in 1998),[206] and Chris d'Lacey's The Fire Within series.[207] The panserbjørne of Philip Pullman's fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are sapient, dignified polar bears who exhibit anthropomorphic qualities, and feature prominently in the 2007 film adaptation of The Golden Compass.[208] The television series Lost features polar bears living on the tropical island setting.[209]


document_title: Jon Snow (character)

question_text: when does jon snow die the first time

question_tokens: when does jon snow die the first time

root

text: Jon Snow (character)

text: Character[edit]

text: Description[edit]

text: In A Game of Thrones, Jon Snow is introduced as the 14-year-old bastard son of Eddard "Ned" Stark, Lord of Winterfell,[3][4] and half-brother to Robb, Sansa, Arya, Bran and Rickon. Jon is described as having strong Stark features with a lean build, long face, dark brown hair and grey eyes.[5] Jon has the surname "Snow" (customarily used for illegitimate children in the North) and is resented by Ned's wife Catelyn, who views him as a constant reminder of Ned's infidelity.[4] Jon is the same age as Robb and enjoys a warm relationship with his siblings, particularly the tomboy Arya (who resembles Jon and like him does not feel like she fits in). Ned treats Jon as much like his other children as propriety and his honor will allow. Still, as somewhat of an outsider, Jon has learned to be independent and to fend for himself when necessary.[3] Jon idolizes his father, but is wounded by Ned's refusal to tell him about his mother.[6] At the beginning of the story, Jon adopts the albino direwolf that he names Ghost. He later finds that at times he can "inhabit" the wolf and share its experiences.[4][5][6]

tag: p

text: David Orr of The New York Times describes Jon as "a complex, thoughtful and basically good character".[1] David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, the creators and executive producers of the television adaptation of the series, explain that Jon is one of several characters in the series who must "face hard truths about the world they live in, and adapt themselves to those truths" because "The struggle many of them face is how to do that without losing their grip on who they are."[7] Ned Stark teaches all his children about leadership, selflessness, duty and honor. Following his father's example becomes more difficult as Jon faces challenges to his identity as a man, a Stark, and a brother of the Night's Watch.[3][4] Benioff and Weiss note that "Jon Snow tries to live with honor, while knowing that honor often gets his family members murdered."[7] Writing for Variety about the season 6 episode "Battle of the Bastards", Laura Prudom suggests that Jon "has the same shortcomings" as his father: "he fights with honor against opponents who are all too willing to use that predictable morality against him".[8]

text: Jon is a prominent point of view character in the novels, and has been called one of Martin's "finest creations".[1] Jon is introduced as the illegitimate son of a Northern lord who, realizing he is an outsider in his own family, follows his uncle to the far north and accepts the honorable duty of serving in the Night's Watch. But as much as he is a second-class Stark at home, initially his fellow recruits and brothers of the Watch set him apart as privileged and aloof. Jon adapts, soon proving himself to be wise, compassionate, and a natural leader. Over the course of the series, Jon's loyalty to the Watch and its vows, his family, and even Westeros itself are tested as he becomes embroiled in the efforts of the wildlings from Beyond the Wall to force their way back into the Seven Kingdoms. He lives among them as a spy for the Watch, sympathetic to their cause and becoming romantically involved with the tenacious Ygritte. However he ultimately betrays them to defend The Wall. Later, as the newest Lord Commander of the Night's Watch, he pursues an alliance with the wildlings.[3][4][5][9]

text: Several reviews of 2011's A Dance with Dragons noted the return to the narrative of Jon, Daenerys Targaryen and Tyrion Lannister, the three popular characters whom fans had missed most from the previous volume, A Feast for Crows.[2][10][11] These "favorites" had last been featured 11 years before in Martin's A Storm of Swords.[12] In A Dance with Dragons, Jon's leadership of the Night's Watch is complicated by several unprecedented challenges, including a wildling alliance, the demands of would-be-king Stannis Baratheon and the conflicting factions developing within the Watch itself.[12][13][14] The New York Times notes that "Jon’s leadership is the best hope of Westeros, so naturally he’s in imminent danger throughout A Dance With Dragons."[1] James Hibberd of Entertainment Weekly called Jon's final chapter in A Dance with Dragons "a harsh chapter in terms of fan expectations. You go from this total high of Jon giving this rousing speech about going after the evil Ramsay Bolton, to this utter low of his men turning against him."[15] Jon's presence in the forthcoming volume The Winds of Winter is uncertain.[15]

text: Asked what he thought was Jon’s biggest "mistake", Martin replied:

text: Were they mistakes? I guess they were mistakes in some ways since they led to him losing control of part of his group. But it might have been wise and necessary decisions in terms of protecting the realm and dealing with the threat of the White Walkers. I’m a huge student of history, and all through history there’s always this question of what’s the right decision. You look back with benefit of hindsight at a battle that was lost and say, ‘The losing general was such an idiot.’ Was Napoleon a genius for all the battles he won? Or an idiot for losing at Waterloo? Partly I’m reacting to a lot of the fantasy that has come before this. Ruling is difficult whether you’re a Lord Commander of the Night’s Watch or the King of England. These are hard decisions and each have consequences. We’re looking at Jon trying to take control of Night’s Watch and deal with the wildlings and the threat beyond The Wall.[16]

text: Parentage[edit]

text: The identity of Jon's mother has created much speculation among readers of the series, and guessing her identity was the test Martin gave Benioff and Weiss when they approached him in March 2006 about adapting his novels into a TV series.[17][18][19] In the novels, Martin hints that she could be a servant named Wylla, or the noblewoman Ashara Dayne.[20][21][22] The popular fan theory—called "R+L=J", an abbreviation of "Rhaegar + Lyanna = Jon"—proposes that Jon is not the son of Ned at all, but is actually the son of Rhaegar Targaryen and Ned's younger sister Lyanna Stark.[17][23][24]

text: Though the character is presented as the illegitimate son of Ned Stark,[1][2][25] David Orr voiced the doubt of some readers when he wrote in The New York Times in 2011, "Jon Snow is presented as the illegitimate son of the Stark patriarch, although it's uncertain whether Stark is indeed his father."[1] Actor Sean Bean, who portrays Ned in the HBO television series, said when asked in a 2014 interview about returning to the series to appear in flashbacks, "I've definitely got some unfinished business that needs to be resolved there. I'm obviously not Jon Snow's dad. And you need that to be revealed at some point, don't you?"[26] The uncertainty arises from anecdotal evidence in the texts interpreted by readers to connect the mysterious maternity of Ned's son with the vague backstory of his sister Lyanna.[17][24][27]

text: As recounted by Ned in A Game of Thrones, at a tourney years before the events of the novel, Rhaegar had shown public favor to Lyanna in the presence of his own wife, the Dornish princess Elia Martell.[28] When Rhaegar and Lyanna disappeared a year later, her father Rickard and eldest brother Brandon confronted Rhaegar's father, the Mad King Aerys Targaryen, demanding that his son return the abducted Lyanna. Aerys had Rickard and Brandon brutally executed for their insolence, inciting Ned and his friend Robert Baratheon, Lord of Storm's End and Lyanna's betrothed, to rebel against Aerys.[29][30] In what later became known as Robert's Rebellion, Aerys was overthrown and Rhaegar was killed by Robert in single combat.[29] After a bloody battle against three of Aerys' Kingsguard protecting the Tower of Joy in Dorne, Ned found Lyanna inside, in a "bed of blood." She died shortly after eliciting a promise from Ned.[28][29] Once the war was won, he returned to Winterfell with his illegitimate son Jon.[25]

text: The R+L=J theory posits that rather than Rhaegar kidnapping Lyanna, they fell in love and ran away together. Living for a year in the Tower of Joy, they conceived a child—Jon. Rhaegar was killed in battle by Robert, and Lyanna died in childbirth.[31][32] Ned claimed the baby as his own to protect him from Robert, who sought to exterminate all Targaryens out of hatred and to secure his claim to the throne.[32]

text: HBO's Game of Thrones has included in its adaptation many of the "hints" identified by this theory.[33] In the season 6 finale, "The Winds of Winter", Bran Stark has a vision of the past which shows Ned reuniting with a dying Lyanna in the Tower of Joy. Lyanna makes him promise to protect her son—Jon.[33][34][35] An infographic subsequently posted on the HBO-controlled website MakingGameofThrones.com confirmed Rhaegar as Jon's father.[36][37][38] Journalists later commented on the significance of two plot points in the season 7 episode "Eastwatch". One of Daenerys Targaryen's dragons, Drogon, approaches Jon calmly and allows the King in the North to pet him, seemingly recognizing him as a Targaryen.[39][40][41] Later, Gilly learns from a book at the Citadel that a High Septon annulled Rhaegar's marriage, and married him to someone else in Dorne, suggesting the possibility that Jon is the legitimate son of Rhaegar and Lyanna.[42][43][44] The season 7 finale episode "The Dragon and the Wolf" confirmed that Jon is indeed the legitimate son of Rhaegar and Lyanna, and that his birth name is Aegon Targaryen.[45][46]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: A Game of Thrones[edit]

text: Jon Snow is first introduced in A Game of Thrones (1996), as he and his five siblings adopt six orphaned direwolf cubs. As Ned Stark's illegitimate son and with Ned's wife Catelyn despising him, Jon has always felt removed from the rest of the Stark family. He resolves to join the Night's Watch, as his status as a bastard prevents him from holding lands or marrying into a good family. At The Wall, the other recruits resent Jon's aura of superiority, but he makes amends by helping them master swordplay. He also befriends Samwell Tarly, a cowardly lordling who, despite being helpless with weapons, displays an aptitude for book learning. Jon's independence and his compassion for the recruits invite the ire of the harsh master-at-arms Alliser Thorne, who sees Jon as a threat to his authority. Jon gains the notice of the Lord Commander, Jeor Mormont, who names Jon his personal squire and grooms Jon for command. After learning of his father's execution, Jon resolves to desert the Night's Watch and join his half brother Robb, but the other recruits convince Jon to remain loyal to his Night's Watch vows. The next night, Jon saves Mormont's life by killing an undead wight. Mormont then orders a Great Ranging beyond the Wall to learn more of this new threat.[3][6]

text: A Clash of Kings[edit]

text: In 1998's A Clash of Kings, Mormont leads a party of Night's Watch rangers beyond the Wall to investigate the disappearance of Jon's uncle Benjen, assess the intentions of the wildling leader Mance Rayder and learn more of the threat posed by the Others. Jon is sent out with a scouting party led by Qhorin Halfhand. On the journey, Jon comes upon a wildling lookout and takes the warrior girl Ygritte captive; though told to kill her, Jon lets her escape. Jon and Qhorin are subsequently captured by the wildlings. Qhorin, who faces certain execution at Mance's hands, commands Jon to infiltrate the wildlings and learn their plans, at any cost. Jon pretends to disavow the Night's Watch, and the wildlings force him to fight Qhorin to the death to earn their trust. With Qhorin's silent consent, Jon kills him with the aid of Ghost.[4][47]

text: A Storm of Swords[edit]

text: As A Storm of Swords (2000) begins, Jon has gained the trust of the wildlings by killing Qhorin, and marches with their host. He learns that Mance intends to breach the Wall and march south to escape the Others, crushing the Night's Watch if necessary. Jon finds himself torn between his growing love for Ygritte and his vows of celibacy. After climbing over The Wall with Ygritte and Tormund Giantsbane, Jon deserts them to warn the Watch of the impending attack. He helps defend Castle Black against the wildlings' initial attacks despite his lack of men and weapons. Ygritte is killed in the fighting, leaving Jon stricken. When the battle is won, Jon is arrested for desertion by Thorne and Janos Slynt, but is freed after convincing the judges of his loyalty. Still suspicious, Thorne orders that Jon be sent to kill Mance under the pretense of parley, but Jon's task is interrupted by the arrival of Stannis Baratheon's army. Stannis offers to legitimize Jon and declare him Lord of Winterfell if he will align the North with Stannis. Though greatly tempted at the prospect of becoming a true Stark, Jon again chooses to remain loyal to his Night's Watch vows. With Sam's help, Jon is elected to the position of Lord Commander by acclamation.[2][9][13][48]

text: A Feast for Crows and A Dance with Dragons[edit]

text: Jon is not a POV character in 2005's A Feast for Crows, but appears briefly from Sam's perspective as he sends Sam away from Castle Black with the Watch's Maester Aemon and Mance's newborn son to protect them from sacrifice by the Red Priestess Melisandre. Jon also gives Sam the specific mission of traveling to the Citadel in Oldtown to become a maester, so that he may better understand the threat of the Others and eventually succeed Maester Aemon.[49]

text: In A Dance with Dragons (2011), after sending Sam away to the Citadel to become a Maester, Jon successfully negotiates the peaceful surrender of the remains of Mance's army. He promises to settle the wildlings in sparsely populated regions of the North, and allows some of them to join the Watch to garrison the many abandoned Night's Watch fortresses. Many members of the Watch dislike the idea of allowing their ancient enemies through the Wall and welcoming them into their ranks. Jon attempts to juggle the integration of the wildlings, growing unrest within the Night's Watch, and Stannis' attempts to use the Watch in his war for the Iron Throne, while trying to maintain the Watch's strict political neutrality. Already agitated by these unprecedented developments, a group of officers led by Slynt openly defies Jon's orders. When Slynt refuses to submit, Jon executes the man himself. Stannis explains to Jon his plan to attack the Dreadfort, but Jon advises him to instead rally the Mountain Clans and attack Deepwood Motte, the fortress of House Glover recently captured by the Ironborn. Stannis does so, winning the support of the Glovers and the Mormonts. Jon learns that his sister Arya is being married to Ramsay Bolton so that the Boltons may claim Winterfell. Unaware that the bride is actually Jeyne Poole, Jon sends Mance to rescue her while Stannis marches on Winterfell. Jon later receives a letter from Ramsay claiming that Stannis has been defeated and Mance is a prisoner. Ramsay demands hostages, else he will march on the Wall and kill Jon.[1][2][13][12][14] Jon decides to seek out and kill Ramsay himself, but he is stabbed by his Night's Watch brothers seeking to uphold the Watch's neutrality before he can leave Castle Black.[50][51]

text: Jon's presence in the forthcoming volume The Winds of Winter is uncertain; when asked in 2011 by Entertainment Weekly "Why did you kill Jon Snow?", author Martin responded "Oh, you think he’s dead, do you?"[15] Asked later whether Jon was killed or will survive, Martin responded with a laugh, "I will not comment on that."[52]

text: Family tree[edit]

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Descendants of Rickard Stark

Rickard[a]

Lyarra[b]

Brandon[a]

Catelyn
Tully[c]

Eddard[a]

Lyanna[a][d]

Benjen[a]

Robb[c]

Jeyne
Westerling[e]

Sansa[c]

Tyrion
Lannister[f]

Arya[c]

Brandon[c]

Rickon[c]

Jon
Snow[c][d]

Notes:

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin, George R. R. (1996). "Chapter 4: Eddard". A Game of Thrones. pp. 36–45. ISBN 978-0-553-89784-5.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R.; García Jr., Elio M.; Antonsson, Linda (2014). "Appendix: Stark Lineage". The World of Ice & Fire. ISBN 978-0-553-80544-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Martin. "Appendix: House Stark". A Game of Thrones. pp. 785–786.
^ Jump up to: a b In the TV series Game of Thrones, Jon is the son of Rhaegar Targaryen and Lyanna
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Chapter 14: Catelyn". A Storm of Swords. pp. 192–193. ISBN 978-0-553-89787-6.
Jump up ^ Martin, George R. R. (2000). "Chapter 28: Sansa". A Storm of Swords. pp. 382–393. ISBN 978-0-553-89787-6.

tag: table

text: TV adaptation[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text: Martin told Rolling Stone in 2014 that some early inquiries he received about adapting A Song of Ice and Fire suggested identifying the story's "important character" and focusing on that individual plot line: Jon and Daenerys Targaryen being the two most popular choices.[53] Martin was not interested in sacrificing so much of the overall story.[53] When the pilot for the HBO adaptation went into production years later, one of the first parts cast was Jon, with Kit Harington announced in the role in July 2009.[54][55] Alfie Allen and Iwan Rheon had also auditioned for the role, and were brought into the show to play Theon Greyjoy and Ramsay Snow instead, respectively.[56][57][58] In October 2014, Harington and several other key cast members, all contracted for six seasons of the series, renegotiated their deals to include a potential seventh season and salary increases for seasons five, six, and seven.[59][60] The Hollywood Reporter called the raises "huge", noting that the deal would make the performers "among the highest-paid actors on cable TV".[59] Deadline.com put the number for season five at "close to $300,000 an episode" for each actor,[60] and The Hollywood Reporter wrote in June 2016 that the performers would each be paid "upward of $500,000 per episode" for seasons seven and the potential eight.[61] In 2017, Harington became one of the highest paid actors on television and will earn £2 million per episode for the show.[62][63][dubious – discuss]

text: As the series premiered, TV Guide called Harington a "soulful heartthrob" whose Jon is idolized by his younger siblings and who "seeks purpose" by joining the Night's Watch.[64] Creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss later noted that Jon "tries to live with honor, while knowing that honor often gets his family members murdered".[7] They explained that he is one of several characters in the series who must "face hard truths about the world they live in, and adapt themselves to those truths. The struggle many of them face is how to do that without losing their grip on who they are."[7] Matt Fowler of IGN wrote in 2013 that while Jon and Daenerys' storylines in season 1 and season 2 "felt very separate" from the rest of the series' plot, for the first time in season 3, "Jon's entire situation felt incorporated into the larger picture."[65] Fowler also added that Jon's "oath-breaking romance with Ygritte added a lot of heat to the story".[65] In May 2015, International Business Times called Jon "clearly the most popular character" of the series.[66]

text: In a 2015 interview Benioff said, "The problem with Jon is, he’s not a cautious man. It's the problem with him, and also the reason we love him. He is a hero, but heroes are inherently incautious."[67] Weiss added, "At the end of the day, Jon is his father’s son, he’s a person who’s honorable to a fault and does the right thing even when the right thing is extremely dangerous to him personally."[67] In the June 2015 season 5 finale "Mother's Mercy", Jon is stabbed to death by Alliser Thorne and several men of the Night's Watch after being labeled a traitor.[67] With Martin's 2011 novel A Dance with Dragons vague on Jon's fate, Harington confirmed the character's death in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, saying "I’ve been told I’m dead. I’m dead. I’m not coming back next season."[68] He added, "I loved how they brought [the orphan boy] Olly in to be the person who kills me. I love how the storyline with Thorne was wrapped up."[68] Benioff also said of the episode:

text: This is obviously a big deal, the death of Jon Snow. This is something we've been thinking about for a long long time, and Alliser kills him, it's kind of like, it's a bad guy killing a good guy. But when it's Olly holding the knife … Olly's not a bad guy. Olly's a kid who’s seen just way too much horror way too early, and he makes a decision that's a really hard decision for him but you understand where he's coming from ... It's one of those great conflicts that makes us love the books and this saga, is that it's, ultimately it's not just about good vs evil, it's about people of good intentions who come into conflict with each other because they have very different views of the world, and unfortunately it did not work out well for Jon Snow in this case.[67]

text: Writing for The New York Times, Jeremy Egner called Jon's demise "the biggest death on the show" since Ned Stark's beheading in season 1.[69] Amid strong fan reaction over Jon's death on social media,[66][70] immediately following the episode journalists began theorizing how the show could resurrect the character.[16][71][72][73][74][75] Nate Jones of Vulture.com noted:

text: It's easy to see what [other characters'] deaths meant for the series' sprawling narrative: Ned's execution sent the Stark kids adrift in a universe where there was nobody looking out for them, while Robb's murder was the final death knell for the hopes that the saga would ever have a traditional 'happy' ending. What would be accomplished, narratively, by getting rid of Jon permanently right now?[76]

text: A July 2015 sighting of Harington arriving in Belfast, a primary filming location for the series where other actors were arriving for season 6 script read-throughs, prompted further speculation about the character's return.[77][78] However, a story in Vanity Fair pointed out that Charles Dance had been seen in Belfast the previous year after his character Tywin Lannister's death as well, and he only appeared in the first episode of the subsequent season as a corpse.[77][79] Another photo that showed Harington on set in Belfast in a costume that varied from the Night's Watch outfit was published on September 25, 2015.[80] A season 6 Game of Thrones promotional poster released in November 2015 featured a bloodied Jon.[81]

text: Jon is resurrected by Melisandre in "Home", the May 2016 second episode of season 6.[82][83] Though calling it a "predictable move" for a television series, David Sims of The Atlantic praised the plot development as "the right choice" for the show's narrative.[84] In a subsequent interview with Entertainment Weekly, Harington said:

text: I'd like to say sorry for lying to everyone. I'm glad that people were upset that he died. I think my biggest fear was that people were not going to care ... But it seems like people had a, similar to the Red Wedding episode, kind of grief about it. Which means something I'm doing—or the show is doing—is right.[82]

text: Joanna Robinson of Vanity Fair credited Jon's much-discussed cliffhanger death as a primary factor behind Game of Thrones' subsequent 25% ratings increase for season 6.[85] Harington's performance in season 6 earned the actor his first Primetime Emmy Award nomination in July 2016.[86]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Following the plot of A Game of Thrones, in season 1 Jon, the bastard son of Ned Stark, joins the Night's Watch. He arrives at the Wall, with his direwolf Ghost in tow, to find that the order is a shadow of its former self. Raised to be a talented fighter with a strong sense of justice and honor, Jon is at first contemptuous of his fellow recruits, who are mostly lowborn, untrained criminals and exiles. In "Lord Snow", he is persuaded by Tyrion Lannister to put aside his prejudices, and helps some of the others with their weapons training. Jon befriends Samwell Tarly, who is more an intellectual than a fighter. Jon takes his vows but is disappointed to be made steward to Lord Commander Jeor Mormont rather than a ranger in "You Win or You Die". Sam points out that he is likely being groomed for command. Jon saves Mormont from a wight in "The Pointy End", and in "Baelor" is given House Mormont's ancestral blade Longclaw, a sword made of Valyrian steel, in thanks. Jon learns of his father's execution for treason in "Fire and Blood", and though tempted to leave the Wall to help his family, his sense of duty ultimately compels him to stay.

text: Season 2[edit]

text: In season 2, Jon witnesses the wildling Craster, a man with many wives who marries his own daughters, sacrifice his newborn son to the White Walkers in "The Night Lands". Later, as part of a small scouting party led by Night's Watch ranger Qhorin Halfhand, Jon is tasked to kill a wildling prisoner, the woman warrior Ygritte. He finds himself unable to do so in "The Old Gods and the New", and she escapes, only to capture him with her comrades in "The Prince of Winterfell". Qhorin orders Jon to pretend to defect and join the wildlings to discover their plans. In "Valar Morghulis", Qhorin stages a fight and secretly instructs Jon to kill him to gain the wildlings' trust. Jon does, and is taken to meet Mance Rayder, the wildlings' King-Beyond-the Wall.

text: Season 3[edit]

text: In season 3, Jon pledges his loyalty to Mance and travels with the wildlings, learning that they intend to scale the Wall and force their way back into Westeros. Jon's feelings for Ygritte begin to intensify, and they have sex in "Kissed by Fire". When Jon refuses to kill an innocent man to prove his loyalty in "The Rains of Castamere", he is attacked by the other wildlings, but escapes. In "Mhysa", he is tracked by Ygritte, who shoots him with three arrows before he is able to escape again and return to Castle Black.

text: Season 4[edit]

text: In "Two Swords", Alliser Thorne and Janos Slynt call for Jon's execution for defecting to the wildlings, but Maester Aemon is convinced of Jon's loyalty to the Watch and sets him free. In "First of His Name", Jon leads an expedition to Craster's Keep, where some men of the Watch have mutinied and murdered Lord Commander Mormont. After defeating the mutineers, Jon is reunited with Ghost. Tormund's wildlings attack Castle Black while Mance's army besieges the Wall in "The Watchers on the Wall". The wildlings are successfully repelled, though Ygritte is shot and dies in Jon's arms. Before Jon can negotiate with or kill Mance, Stannis Baratheon's army arrives and routs the wildling camp, taking Mance prisoner in the season finale "The Children".

text: Season 5[edit]

text: In "The Wars to Come", Stannis enlists Jon as an intermediary between himself and Mance, hoping to add the wildling army to his own. Mance refuses to submit to Stannis, and the wildling king is burned at the stake by the red priestess Melisandre. In "The House of Black and White", Stannis offers to legitimize Jon and make him lord of Winterfell in exchange for his support. Jon is voted the new Lord Commander of the Night's Watch, initially tying with his nemesis Thorne but having the tie settled by Maester Aemon. Jon's intent to welcome the wildlings into Westeros and grant them lands by the Wall further enrages Thorne's faction of the Watch, who hold a deep seated hatred for the wildlings. In "Hardhome", Jon travels by ship north of the Wall to the eponymous wildling village, seeking their support for his plan to ally the Night's Watch and the wildlings against the growing threat of the White Walkers. As some the wildling clans board Stannis' ships to travel south, a massive force of wights, led by White Walkers and their Night King, attacks the village. Jon kills a White Walker with Longclaw, learning that weapons forged with Valyrian steel can destroy them completely. Jon and his group barely make it out alive, with only a fraction of the wildling forces. Jon then permits the wildling forces to pass through the Wall into the North. Shortly after returning to Castle Black in the season finale "Mother's Mercy", Jon is summoned to hear news of his missing uncle Benjen, but is instead stabbed to death by Thorne and his group of mutineers.

text: Season 6[edit]

text: In "The Red Woman", Davos Seaworth, Dolorous Edd, and other brothers of the Watch loyal to Jon barricade themselves in a room with Ghost and Jon's body, and an attack by Thorne and his men is thwarted by the arrival of Tormund and his wildlings. Davos encourages Melisandre to attempt to resurrect Jon in "Home", and though the ritual at first seems to fail, Jon suddenly awakens. After hanging Thorne, Olly, Bowen Marsh, and Othell Yarwyck for their treason in "Oathbreaker", Jon gives command of the Watch to Edd and prepares to leave Castle Black. In "Book of the Stranger", he is reunited with his half-sister Sansa Stark, who has fled her abusive husband Ramsay Bolton and now seeks Jon's aid in crushing the Boltons. Jon is hesitant until a threatening message arrives from Ramsay demanding Sansa's return, and announcing Ramsay's possession of their brother Rickon. Jon, Sansa, Davos, Tormund, and Brienne of Tarth set off to recruit an army to take back Winterfell and rescue Rickon from Ramsay in "The Broken Man", but their forces grow to only half the size of Bolton's. As the armies face each other in "Battle of the Bastards", Ramsay murders Rickon to enrage Jon, who rushes in with murderous fury. A devastating battle ensues in which the outnumbered Stark forces are nearly slaughtered, until the Knights of the Vale from House Arryn arrive with Sansa and Petyr Baelish, and attack the Bolton army from the rear. Jon chases Ramsay back into Winterfell and beats him savagely, stopping before killing him. Sansa subsequently feeds Ramsay to his own hounds. In the season finale episode "The Winds of Winter", Bran Stark has a vision of the past which shows Ned reuniting with a dying Lyanna in the Tower of Joy. She makes him swear to protect her son—Jon.[36][37][38] Meanwhile, the Northern lords name Jon the King in the North.

text: Season 7[edit]

text: Attempting to bolster the North's defenses in "Dragonstone", Jon is frustrated when his authority is undermined by Sansa, who does not want him to repeat the mistakes that got their father Ned and brother Robb killed. Jon dismisses a message from Cersei Lannister that he swear his allegiance to her. In "Stormborn", he receives an invitation to Dragonstone from Tyrion on Daenerys Targaryen's behalf. Subsequently, receiving a message from Sam that a hoard of obsidian lies beneath the ancient Targaryen castle, Jon decides to meet Daenerys, leaving a surprised Sansa as his regent. At Dragonstone, he declines swearing fealty to Daenerys in "The Queen's Justice", and instead asks for her assistance fighting the White Walkers. She demurs, but permits him to mine the obsidian. In "Eastwatch", Daenerys is surprised when her dragon Drogon approaches Jon and allows the King in the North to pet him. Determined to convince Cersei that their true enemy is the army of the dead, Jon leads an expedition north of the Wall to capture a wight and bring it south to King's Landing. They manage to do so in "Beyond the Wall", but are surrounded by a horde of the Night King's minions. Daenerys arrives with her dragons, but the Night King kills one of them with an ice spear, forcing the others to flee without Jon. He is saved by the reappearance of his uncle Benjen, who is overtaken by the dead as Jon escapes back to the Wall. Daenerys vows to fight the White Walkers with Jon, and he agrees to swear fealty to her as his queen. In "The Dragon and the Wolf", the two negotiate a truce with Cersei, who agrees to join them in fighting the Night King's forces. Bran learns that Jon was born Aegon Targaryen, the legitimate son and heir of Rhaegar Targaryen and Lyanna Stark. Meanwhile, Jon and Daenerys finally give in to their growing attraction for each other and fall into bed together, unaware that they are related by blood.

text: Recognition and awards[edit]

text: Harington was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for the role in 2016.[86][87] He said, "It is a serious understatement to say that I am somewhat stunned ... For my work on Game of Thrones to be recognized in this way is an emotional moment for me. I could not be more humbled."[86] Harington was also nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television for the role in 2012, 2016, and 2017.[88][89][90] His other nominations include the Golden Nymph Award for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series in 2012,[91] the Young Hollywood Award for Actor of the Year in 2013,[92] and the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 2016.[93] IGN also nominated Jon Snow as its Best TV Hero in 2011.[94]