document_title: Shrek The Musical

question_text: who plays the gingerbread man in shrek the musical

text: Shrek The Musical

text: History[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Lindsay-Abaire and Jason Moore (director) began working on the show in 2002, with Tesori joining the team from 2004.[4] A reading took place on August 10, 2007, with Stephen Kramer Glickman in the role of Shrek, Celia Keenan-Bolger as Princess Fiona, Robert L. Daye, Jr. as Donkey and Christopher Sieber as Lord Farquaad.[5]

text: Seattle premiere (2008)[edit]

text: The musical premiered in an out-of-town tryout at the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle. Previews began August 14, 2008, with an opening night of September 10. The tryout ran through September 21, and played to generally favorable reviews, being cited as one of the few movie-to-stage adaptations "with heart".[6] The principal cast included Brian d'Arcy James as Shrek, Sutton Foster as Princess Fiona, Christopher Sieber as Lord Farquaad, Chester Gregory II as Donkey,[7] John Tartaglia as Pinocchio and Kecia Lewis-Evans as the Dragon.

text: During previews, "I Could Get Used to This" was replaced by "Don't Let Me Go," and "Let Her In" became "Make a Move". Also during previews, a brief reprise of "Who I'd Be" was sung after Shrek overhears Fiona's misleading comment about being with a hideous beast, which led into "Build a Wall". This was cut and "Build a Wall" was placed after "Morning Person (Reprise)". "Build a Wall" was later cut during previews, but re-instated towards the end of the run.

text: Broadway production (2008–10)[edit]

text: After extensive changes were made, the show began previews on Broadway at the Broadway Theatre on November 8, 2008, with the official opening on December 14. The cast included Brian d'Arcy James as Shrek, Sutton Foster as Fiona, Christopher Sieber as Farquaad and Tartaglia as Pinocchio. Daniel Breaker took over the role of Donkey, as the creative team thought Chester Gregory II did not fit the part.[8] The Dragon was voiced by company members Haven Burton, Aymee Garcia and Rachel Stern, instead of a soloist. Kecia Lewis-Evans, who played Dragon in Seattle, was offered a part in the show's ensemble but declined.[6] Ben Crawford was the standby for Shrek, until he replaced d'Arcy James for the final months of performances.

text: The song "I'm a Believer", which was originally played as the audience left the theatre, was added to the score on October 2, 2009, and sung by the entire company at the end of the performance.[9]

text: The Broadway production of the show received a total of twelve Drama Desk Award and eight Tony Award nominations, including Best Musical and acting awards for d'Arcy James, Foster and Sieber.  At the Tony Awards, the entire cast performed a section of "Freak Flag" for the opening number medley; later on, d'Arcy James, Foster and Breaker introduced Sieber and company, who performed "What's Up Duloc?".

text: The Broadway production closed on January 3, 2010, after 441 performances and 37 previews. At the time, it was one of the most expensive musicals to open on Broadway, at an estimated $25 million, and despite generally good reviews, it failed to recoup its initial investment.[10] The show was then extremely modified for the national tour.

text: US national tours[edit]

text: A national tour of North America began previews at the Cadillac Palace Theatre in Chicago, on July 13, 2010, with opening night on July 25.[11][12] Rob Ashford is the co-director, as the Broadway creative team revised changes. The production marked the debut of an all-new Dragon, voiced off-stage by a single vocalist, with four puppeteers controlling the movements of the new 25-foot puppet.. On the subject, set designer Tim Hatley stated "The biggest change [will be] the dragon. It will be a different creature from the puppet/soul trio on Broadway [but] I think we've finally gotten it right".[13] The tour also features a new opening, new songs and improved illusions, from those on Broadway.[14]

text: Many changes made for the tour include a new song sung by the dragon entitled "Forever", replacing "Donkey Pot Pie".

text:
The original touring cast featured Eric Petersen as Shrek, Haven Burton as Princess Fiona, Alan Mingo, Jr. as Donkey, and David F.M. Vaughn as Lord Farquaad. Carrie Compere played the Dragon, with Blakely Slaybaugh as Pinocchio. Todd Buonopane was originally cast in the role of Lord Farquaad, but was replaced by Vaughn before opening.
[15] The tour played its final performance at the Pantages Theatre in Los Angeles on July 31, 2011, ahead of a non-equity tour in September.[16]

text: A second tour of North America, featuring a Non-Equity cast, launched September 9, 2011, at the Capitol Theatre in Yakima, Washington.[17] Merritt David Janes appeared as Lord Farquaad.[18] The tour officially opened in Portland, Oregon on September 13, 2011. The tour ran in the U.S. through April 29, 2012, with the final show in Springfield, Missouri,[17] before playing Asia.

text: The second non-equity tour began October 5, 2012, in Anchorage, Alaska, ending on April 7, 2013, in Reno, Nevada.[19]

text: West End production (2011–13)[edit]

text: A newly revised scaled down version, began performances in the West End at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane, on May 6, 2011.[20] Nigel Lindsay headlined as Shrek, Richard Blackwood as Donkey, Nigel Harman as Lord Farquaad and Amanda Holden as Princess Fiona. Landi Oshinowo plays the Dragon, with Jonathan Stewart as Pinocchio.[21][22][23][24] The official opening night took place on June 14, 2011. Most critics were positive about the production, and in particular praised Harman's performance, branding him "hysterically funny".[25]

text: The show was nominated for a total of four awards at the 2012 Laurence Olivier Awards, including Best New Musical, Best Actor for Lindsay and Supporting Actor for Harman, as well as Best Costume Design for Tim Hatley. Harman won the award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical for his performance as Lord Farquaad. The ensemble cast performed "Freak Flag" at the awards.

text: Kimberley Walsh, of UK pop group Girls Aloud, took over the role of Princess Fiona from October 5, 2011, after Holden announced her pregnancy. Dean Chisnall and Neil McDermott took over from Lindsay and Harman as Shrek and Lord Farquaad respectively on February 29, 2012.[26] Carley Stenson later took over as Princess Fiona from May 23, 2012.[27]

text: The London production of the show came to an end after 715 performances, on February 24, 2013. Producers announced their plans to tour Shrek across the UK in 2014.[28]

text: UK and Ireland tours[edit]

text: The first UK and Ireland tour began at the Grand Theatre in Leeds, England on July 23, 2014, before touring across the UK and Ireland. Dean Chisnall repeats his West End performance as Shrek, under the direction of Nigel Harman, who originated the role of Lord Farquaad in the West End.[29] A full company announcement was made in February 2014, with Chisnall to be joined by Legally Blonde star Faye Brookes as Princess Fiona, Gerard Carey as Lord Farquaad, Idriss Kargbo as Donkey, Candace Furbert as Dragon and Will Haswell as Pinocchio.[30] A cast change for the tour took place July 8, 2015, with ensemble member Bronté Barbé taking over the role of Princess Fiona from Brookes. The tour concluded at The Lowry, Salford on February 20, 2016.

text: A second UK and Ireland tour commenced at the Edinburgh Playhouse from 12 December 2017. Nigel Harman once again directs the tour. The tour is currently scheduled to run until at least January 2019. The full cast was announced in November 2017 [31] The X Factor star Amelia Lily and Call the Midwife actress Laura Main will share the role of Princess Fiona, alongside Samuel Holmes as Lord Farquaad, Stefan Harri as Shrek and Marcus Ayton as Donkey

text: International productions[edit]

text: Shrek was made available for independent US and overseas theatres. They have chosen to stage their own versions of the show with the same music, book and lyrics intact and their own designs for sets, costuming and other creative elements. Productions have been staged in Asia, Poland, Spain, France, Italy, Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, the Philippines, Estonia, Finland, Israel, Sweden, Panama, Denmark, Canada, Puerto Rico, Argentina and Norway.

text: Synopsis of the Broadway production[edit]

text: Act I[edit]

text: On his seventh birthday, two ogre parents send their son Shrek out of their house and into the world to make his living. They warn him that because of his looks, humans will hate him, and the last thing he will see is an angry mob before he dies. ("Big Bright Beautiful World"). Some years later, an embittered, grown up Shrek is living contentedly alone in a swamp. However, his solitude is disrupted when a band of fairytale creatures show up on his property, including:

text:
Pinocchio;
The Three Bears;
The Three Little Pigs;
a Wicked Witch;
The Big Bad Wolf;
Peter Pan;
Ugly Duckling;
Fairy Godmother;
The White Rabbit;
Mad Hatter;
Sugar Plum Fairy;
Humpty Dumpty;
an Elf.

text: They explain of their banishment from the Kingdom of Duloc, by order of the evil Lord Farquaad, who exiled them for being freaks, under penalty of death if they ever return ("Story of My Life"). Even so, Shrek decides to travel to see Farquaad and try to regain his swamp, along with getting the Fairytale Creatures their homes back (but mostly to get his swamp back), with much encouragement from Pinocchio and the gang ("The Goodbye Song").

text: Along the way, Shrek rescues a talkative donkey from some of Farquaad's guards. In return for rescuing him, and offering his friendship, Donkey insists on tagging along to show him the way to Duloc ("Don't Let Me Go"), which Shrek reluctantly agrees to, due to him being lost.

text: Meanwhile, in the Kingdom of Duloc, Farquaad is torturing Gingy the Gingerbread Man into revealing the whereabouts of other Fairytale Creatures that are still hiding in the Kingdom so he can have them arrested as well. They are interrupted by one of his henchmen, Thelonious, who reveals that Farquaad's guards have acquired the Magic Mirror. Farquaad then sends Gingy to the swamp with all the other Fairytale Creatures. The Mirror reveals that Princess Fiona is currently trapped in a castle surrounded by hot boiling lava and guarded by a terrible fire-breathing dragon. Accepting this task, Farquaad decides to marry her to become king, and rushes out to prepare for the wedding before the Mirror can tell him what happens to Fiona at night. The Mirror then shows the audience the story of Fiona's childhood.

text: A seven-year-old Fiona dreams of the brave knight who, as her storybooks tell her, will one day rescue her from her tower and end her mysterious curse with "True Love's First Kiss". As she grows into a teenager, and then a headstrong woman, she becomes a little bit stir-crazy, but she never loses her faith in her fairytales ("I Know It's Today").

text: Shrek and Donkey arrive in Duloc where Farquaad expresses his love for his kingdom, accompanied by his cheerful cookie-cut army of Duloc Dancers ("Welcome to Duloc" / "What's Up, Duloc?"). They approach Farquaad, with him being impressed by Shrek's size and appearance. Farquaad demands that Shrek must rescue Fiona, and in return, he will give Shrek the deed to his swamp ("What's Up, Duloc? (Reprise)").

text: The two unlikely friends set off to find Fiona, with Shrek becoming increasingly annoyed with Donkey as time progresses ("Travel Song"). After crossing the rickety old bridge and arriving at the castle, Shrek sets off alone to rescue Fiona while Donkey encounters a ferocious female dragon who initially wants to eat him, but then wants to keep him for her own after Donkey manages to charm her ("Donkey Pot Pie")/("Forever"). When Shrek finds Fiona, his lack of interest in playing out her desired, romantic rescue scene annoys her, and he drags her off by force. The two of them reunite with Donkey, and all three attempt to escape while being chased by the angry Dragon. Shrek traps Dragon and they get to a safe point ("This Is How A Dream Comes True").

text: Fiona then insists that Shrek reveal his identity and is shocked that her rescuer is an ogre and not the Prince Charming her stories indicated. Shrek explains that he is merely her champion; instead, she is to marry Farquaad. The trio begin their journey back to Duloc, but Fiona becomes apprehensive as the sun begins to set. She insists that they rest for the night and that she spend the night alone in a nearby cave. Donkey and Shrek remain awake, with Donkey asking Shrek who he would be, if he did not have to be an ogre anymore. As Shrek opens up to Donkey on who he would wish to be, Fiona transforms into an ogress as part of her curse that happens during sunset, stands apart, alone, and listens ("Who I'd Be").

text: Act II[edit]

text: The next day, Princess Fiona rises early and sings with a bluebird and dances with a deer (before making the bird explode and throwing the deer off a cliff). She assists the Pied Piper in his rat-charming duties ("Morning Person"). Shrek brings down her mood by attempting to give subtle hints about her groom-to-be ("Men of Farquaad's stature are in short supply", "He's very good at small talk", etc.) and mocking her tragic childhood circumstances. The two begin a contest of trying to one-up each other to outdo the others' backstory, but end up revealing their respective pasts ("I Think I Got You Beat"). Both admit to being thrown out by their parents; this connection, as well as bonding over a love of disgusting bodily noises, kindles friendship.

text: Back in Duloc, Lord Farquaad plans his wedding, and he reveals his own sordid heritage after The Magic Mirror insists that Farquaad should invite his father, but Farquaad refuses, explaining how he abandoned him in the woods as a child ("The Ballad of Farquaad").

text: As Shrek and Fiona's newfound camaraderie grows into love, Donkey insists, with the help of the Three Blind Mice from his imagination, that Shrek should gather his courage and romantically engage Fiona ("Make a Move"). Shrek, finally beginning to come out of his caustic, protective shell, tries to find the words to explain his feelings to Fiona ("When Words Fail").

text: While Shrek is out finding a flower for Fiona, Donkey discovers that Fiona turns into an ogress at night, and she confesses that she was cursed as a child, which is why she was locked away in the tower. Only a kiss from her true love will return her to her proper form, and she asks Donkey to promise never to tell. Shrek arrives near the end of the conversation and misunderstands Fiona's description of herself as an ugly beast, and thinks she is talking about him. Hurt by her presumed opinion, Shrek storms off.

text: The next day, transformed back to her human form, Fiona decides to tell Shrek about her curse ("Morning Person (Reprise)"). When she tries to explain, Shrek rebuffs her with his "ugly beast" overhearing, causing Fiona in turn to misunderstand. Then Farquaad arrives to claim Fiona and tells Shrek he has cleared the swamp of the Fairytale Creatures, and now belongs to Shrek again. While not very impressed with Farquaad, Fiona agrees to marry him and insists that they have the wedding before sunset. As Farquaad and Fiona ride back to Duloc, Donkey tries to explain the misunderstanding to Shrek (who is too angry and upset to listen), and Shrek rejects him as well, declaring that he will return to his swamp alone and build a wall to shield himself from the world ("Build a Wall").

text: Meanwhile, the Fairytale Creatures are on their way to a landfill which is to be their new home, since they have been evicted from the swamp. After dealing with the fact that Shrek broke his promise to them, they start agreeing that Farquaad's treatment of them is intolerable; just because they are freaks does not mean they deserve to be hated, and start deciding on doing something about it. But a bitter Pinocchio (remembering they are not allowed back in the Kingdom, or they will be executed), not wanting his friends to get hurt, suggests they should just keep going, and wait until everything gets better, all the while, wishing to be a real boy. The gang convince Pinocchio that they need to stand up to Farquaad, while also inspiring him to accept who he is, as all of them have accepted who they are. They gather new confidence and strength in themselves, as they declare that they'll raise their "Freak Flag" high against their tormentors ("Freak Flag"). Now realizing that they have become something more than friends, and have become a family, Pinocchio and the gang now set off to Duloc to stand up to Farquaad once and for all.

text: Shrek has returned to his once again private swamp, but he misses Fiona. Donkey shows up attempting to seal off his half of the swamp with stone boulders, which Shrek rebuffs. In turn, Donkey angrily berates Shrek for his reclusive and stubborn habits, even to the point of driving off Fiona. An angered Shrek reveals he heard her talking about a hideous creature the night before, and Donkey retorts that they were not talking about him, but of "someone else". When a confused Shrek inquires who it was, Donkey, wanting to keep his promise, and still cross with Shrek, refuses to talk. When Shrek apologizes and extends his friendship, Donkey forgives him.

text: The two then go back to Duloc, where Shrek interrupts the wedding before Farquaad can kiss Fiona, and Fiona convinces him to let Shrek speak with her. Shrek finally finds the words to express his feelings for Fiona, and he declares his love for her ("Big Bright Beautiful World (Reprise)"). However, his declaration of love is mocked by Farquaad. Caught between love and her desire to break the curse, Fiona tries to escape the event. Just then, the Fairytale Creatures storm into the wedding and protest their banishment. They are accompanied by Grumpy, one of the Seven Dwarfs, who reveals that he is Farquaad's father and he kicked Farquaad out at the age of 28 when he wouldn't move out of the basement, revealing Farquaad is a freak as well. During the argument, the sun sets, causing Fiona to turn into an ogress in front of everyone. Farquaad, furious and disgusted over the change, orders for Shrek to be drawn and quartered (along with the Fairytale Creatures) and Fiona banished back to her tower. As Farquaad proclaims himself the new King, Shrek whistles for the Dragon, who has now escaped the castle (and is the reason Shrek and Donkey got to the wedding just in time). Dragon then crashes through the window with Donkey and incinerates Farquaad with her fiery breath.

text: With Farquaad dead, Shrek and Fiona admit their love for each other and share true love's first kiss. Fiona's curse is broken, and she takes her true form: an ogress. At first, she is ashamed of her looks, but Shrek declares that she is still beautiful. The two ogres begin a new life together (along with Donkey and the Fairytale Creatures), as everyone celebrates what makes them special ("This Is Our Story") and they all live happily ever after ("I'm A Believer").

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text: Broadway[edit]

text:
Act I
"Overture" – Orchestra
"Big Bright Beautiful World" – Mama Ogre, Papa Ogre, Shrek
"Story Of My Life" – Pinocchio, Elf, Peter Pan, Ugly Duckling, Fairy Godmother, Three Pigs, Wicked Witch, Mama Bear, Mad Hatter, Big Bad Wolf, Humpty Dumpty, White Rabbit, Three Bears, Fairytale Creatures
"Story Of My Life (Tag)" – Elf, Fairy Godmother, Pinocchio, Big Bad Wolf, Fairytale Creatures≠
"The Goodbye Song" – Elf, Fairytale Creatures≠
"Don't Let Me Go" – Donkey*
"Regiment" – Guards≠
"I Know It's Today" – Young Fiona, Teen Fiona, Fiona
"What's Up, Duloc?" – Lord Farquaad, Duloc Performers
"What’s Up, Duloc? (Reprise)" – Lord Farquaad, Duloc Performers≠
"Travel Song" – Donkey, Shrek
"Donkey Pot Pie" – Dragon, Donkey, Knights
"This Is How A Dream Comes True" – Fiona, Shrek, Donkey, Dragon
"Who I'd Be" – Shrek, Fiona, Donkey

Act II
"Entr’acte" – Orchestra≠
"Morning Person" – Fiona, Bluebird
"I Think I Got You Beat" – Fiona, Shrek
"The Ballad Of Farquaad" – Lord Farquaad, Guards
"Air Guitar Crossover" – Fiona, Shrek≠
"Make A Move" – Donkey, Three Blind Mice
"When Words Fail" – Shrek
"Morning Person (Reprise)" – Fiona
"The Arrival Of Farquaad" – Lord Farquaad
"Build A Wall" – Shrek
"Freak Flag" – Gingy, Mama Bear, Pinocchio, Three Pigs, Humpty Dumpty, Papa Bear, Elf, Wicked Witch, Mad Hatter, Big Bad Wolf, Fairytale Creatures
"Wedding Procession" – Choir≠
"Big Bright Beautiful World (Reprise)" – Shrek
"Cathedral Sunset/Transformation" – Crowd≠
"Beautiful Ain’t Always Pretty" – Shrek≠
"Finale" – Fiona, Shrek, Donkey, Mama Bear, Pinocchio, Gingy, Fairytale Creatures
"I'm a Believer" – Shrek, Three Pigs, Fiona, Young Fiona, Donkey, Full Company≠ (as of October 2, 2009)

text: ≠ Not included on the original Broadway cast recording. "I'm a Believer" and "Forever", however, was recorded later and released as a single as it was not in the show when the cast recording was made.

text: Changes

text:
An Overture and Entr'acte were added following the Seattle run, along with the song "Build a Wall" which was originally "More To The Story." This song was cut prior to the West End production opening.
"This Is Our Story" or "Finale" replaced "I Smell a Happy Ending" following the Seattle run, whilst "What Happens to Love?" and "More To The Story" were cut.
Beginning with the first North American tour, a new song was written for Dragon, "Forever." This was then performed in all subsequent productions, replacing "Donkey Pot Pie."
"Don't Let Me Go" was cut from the West End production, although an alternative version reinstated for the UK Tour.

text: US Tour[edit]

text:
Act I
"Overture" – Orchestra
"Big Bright Beautiful World" – Mama Ogre, Papa Ogre, Queen Lillian, King Harold, Shrek, Happy People/Angry Mob
"Story Of My Life" – Pinocchio, Elf, Peter Pan, Ugly Duckling, Sugar Plum Fairy, Three Pigs, Wicked Witch, Mama Bear, Elf, Big Bad Wolf, Humpty Dumpty, Fairytale Creatures
"Story Of My Life (Tag)" – Elf, Ugly Duckling, Pinocchio, Big Bad Wolf, Fairytale Creatures≠
"The Goodbye Song" – Baby Bear, Fairytale Creatures≠
"Don't Let Me Go" – Donkey
"Regiment #1" – Guards≠
"Regiment (Reprise)" – Guards≠
"What's Up, Duloc?" – Lord Farquaad, Duloc Performers
"What’s Up, Duloc? (Reprise)" – Lord Farquaad, Duloc Performers≠
"I Know It's Today" – Young Fiona, Teen Fiona, Fiona
"Travel Song" – Donkey, Shrek
"Forever" – Dragon, Donkey, Knights
"This Is How A Dream Comes True" – Fiona, Shrek, Donkey, Dragon
"Who I'd Be" – Shrek, Fiona, Donkey

Act II
"Entr'acte" – Orchestra≠
"Morning Person" – Fiona, Bluebird
"I Think I Got You Beat" – Fiona, Shrek
"The Ballad Of Farquaad" – Lord Farquaad, Guards
"Air Guitar Crossover" – Fiona, Shrek≠
"Make A Move" – Donkey, Three Blind Mice
"Make A Move (Tag)" – Donkey, Three Blind Mice≠
"When Words Fail" – Shrek
"Morning Person (Reprise)" – Fiona
"The Arrival Of Farquaad" - Lord Farquaad
"Build A Wall" – Shrek
"Freak Flag" – Gingy, Sugar Plum Fairy, Pinocchio, Three Pigs, Ugly Duckling, Papa Bear, Fairy Godmother, Wicked Witch, Big Bad Wolf, Humpty Dumpty, Mama Bear, Fairytale Creatures
"Wedding Procession" – Choir≠
"Big Bright Beautiful World (Reprise)" – Shrek
"Cathedral Sunset/Transformation" – Crowd≠
"Beautiful Ain’t Always Pretty" – Shrek≠
"Finale" – Fiona, Shrek, Donkey, Mama Bear, Pinocchio, Gingy, Fairytale Creatures
"I'm a Believer" – Shrek, Three Pigs, Fiona, Young Fiona, Donkey, Dragon, Full Company≠ (as of October 2, 2009)

text: Casts[edit]

text: The original principal casts of the English-speaking productions.

text:
Characters

Seattle

Broadway

U.S. Tour

West End

U.K. Tour

Budapest

Denmark

Shrek

Brian d'Arcy James

Eric Petersen

Nigel Lindsay

Dean Chisnall

Pál Feke

Niels Olsen

Princess Fiona

Sutton Foster

Haven Burton

Amanda Holden

Faye Brookes

Dóra Szinetár

Maria Lucia Heiberg Rosenberg

Donkey

Chester Gregory

Daniel Breaker

Alan Mingo, Jr.

Richard Blackwood

Idriss Kargbo

András Csonka

Alexandre Willaume

Lord Farquaad

Christopher Sieber

David F.M. Vaughn

Nigel Harman

Gerard Carey

Attila Serbán

Martin Brygmann

Pinocchio

John Tartaglia

Blakely Slaybaugh

Jonathan Stewart

Will Haswell

Levente Juhász

Silas Holst

Dragon

Kecia Lewis-Evans

Haven Burton, Aymee Garcia, Rachel Stern

Carrie Compere

Landi Oshinowo

Candace Furbert

Gabi Tóth

Szhirley

Gingy

Haven Burton

Aymee Garcia

Alice Fearn

Nikki Bentley

Kristine Yde Eriksen

text: Instrumentation[edit]

text: The Orchestra includes one bass guitar player, one trumpeter, one trombonist, two guitar players, one drummer, two violinists, two reed players, one horn player, two keyboard players, a cello player, and a percussion player. The guitar players double on ukulele, mandolins, electric guitars, and acoustic guitars. The trumpeter doubles on a flugelhorn and a piccolo trumpet. The trombonist doubles on tenor and bass trombones. The bass player doubles on the upright bass, the electric bass, and the 5-string bass guitar. The first reed doubles on alto sax, clarinet, flute, and piccolo. The second reed doubles on soprano sax, baritone sax, tenor sax, flute, bass clarinet, and clarinet.

text: The original Broadway orchestration included an additional trumpet, an additional trombone, two more violinists, one more cellist, and two more reed players. In this orchestration, the first reed doubles on piccolo, flute, and recorder. The second reed doubles on oboe, English horn, clarinet, and alto sax. The third reed doubles on flute, clarinet, bass clarinet, soprano sax, and tenor sax. The fourth reed doubles on clarinet, bassoon, and baritone sax.

text: Production references[edit]

text: This article contains a list of miscellaneous information. Please relocate any relevant information into other sections or articles. (April 2017)

text:
Puss in Boots makes a silent cameo appearance during the "Travel Song". He tips his hat to Shrek and Donkey and walks away. Later, a bunny screams after Shrek calls him delicious. A cow jumps over the moon, and a dish runs away with a spoon, while being pursued by the police. Shrek and Donkey later see a giraffe and gazelles which look like the gazelle wheel in The Lion King (an excerpt from "Circle of Life" plays during this part of the song).
As with the 2001 film, Shrek ends the song "Travel Song" with "That'll do, Donkey, that'll do"; this is a reference to the similar phrase in the film Babe, in which Hoggett reassures "That'll do, Pig. That'll do."
King Harold and Queen Lillian originally sang a part during "Big Bright Beautiful World," explaining to Young Fiona that all ogres are monsters unloved by everyone. Now they walk past Young Shrek, taking Young Fiona with them. She waves at Shrek, but they lead her away (the guards preceding them give the impression that they are taking Fiona to her tower). This was later cut out of the Broadway production. A similar part was re-introduced for the national tour and London productions.
In "I Know It's Today" and "This is How A Dream Comes True," Fiona sings "Are you there, God, it's me, Fiona?" which is similar to the book entitled "Are You There, God? It's Me, Margaret" by Judy Blume.
In "Morning Person," much of the part where Fiona dances with the mice is reminiscent of the nightclub scene in Bob Fosse's "Sweet Charity."
Most of the spoken lines are taken from the first film, including the Muffin Man scene between Farquaad and Gingy, and Fiona explaining the curse to Donkey.
"Welcome to Duloc" is the only original song from the film sung in the musical. It is now "What’s Up, Duloc" and is sung by the Duloc Dancers, who resemble the puppets that sing it in the film.
Originally the orchestra played "I'm a Believer" after the curtain call, but as of October 2, 2009, it is sung by the entire company at the end of the performance.
At the end of "What's up, Duloc?" (Reprise), Lord Farquaad references Defying Gravity from the Broadway musical Wicked, when he sings "...and no ones gonna bring me down!" followed by the famous ending note. Also, the oft-repeated line 'Hey-nonny-nonny-nonny-no' is taken from the song "Shy" from Once Upon a Mattress.
At the end of "Forever", the Dragon's final line is a reference to the Dreamgirls song "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going". In some adaptations of this song in later productions, the Dragon performer appears alongside the puppet (in previous performances, the performer sang off-stage.)
Julie Andrews, who played Queen Lillian in Shrek 2, Shrek the Third, and Shrek Forever After, provides the voice for the audio instructions before each performance that reminds the audience to turn off their cell phones, the use of recording devices is forbidden, etc. and "if you refuse, a terrifying ogre will leap from the stage, lift you from your seat, and drag you far, far away."
During "Story of My Life", one of the show's musical numbers, Mama Bear sings "Mama's in the mud, Mama's in distress," which is a nod to the song "Rose's Turn"  from the musical Gypsy.
During "Freak Flag" a flag is waved around with a face on it, which resembles the famous logo of young Cosette from Les Misérables.
During a part of "Don't Let Me Go" on the national tour, Donkey sings to the music of "Take Me or Leave Me" and "I'll Cover You" from Rent. He also makes a reference to "La Vie Boheme" from the same musical while chanting things and marching across the stage in the bridge of the song.
During "What's Up, Duloc?," the ensemble reference the musical Chicago.
During a part of "Don't Let Me Go" original Broadway recording, Donkey makes reference to "Part Of Your World" from Little Mermaid.
Donkey sings to Shrek "Don't speak, don't speak, don't speak," referencing Dianne Wiest and John Cusack in "Bullets Over Broadway."
The opening of "Who I'd Be" is reminiscent of "Bring Him Home" from 'Les Misérables.

text: Recordings[edit]

text: The original Broadway cast recording was recorded on January 12, 2009, and was released on March 24, 2009, by Decca Broadway Records.[32] The album debuted at #1 on Billboard's Top Cast Albums chart and #88 on the Billboard 200.[33][34] "I'm a Believer" was not featured on the initial recording as it was only added to the show on October 2, 2009. It was later included as part of a Highlighted Cast Recording, released on November 17, 2009. On December 4, 2009, when the Grammy Award nominees were announced, the cast recording was nominated for Best Musical Show Album.[35]

text: "Donkey Pot Pie" (which is included on the original Broadway cast recording) was cut from future productions, replaced by "Forever." The song became available on iTunes in 2011. It was recorded during a live performance of the national tour in Chicago, and features Carrie Compere (Dragon) and Alan Mingo, Jr. (Donkey).

text: The original London cast recorded a single of "I'm a Believer" for promotional purposes.

text: An original Spanish-language cast recording featuring the Madrid cast was recorded between August and September 2011, and released in September. The Spanish album includes later added songs "Forever" and "I'm a Believer", as well as different orchestrations to the Broadway recording and the arrangements made for the national tour.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The musical has received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Ben Brantley wrote in The New York Times: "'Shrek,' for the record, is not bad....  As the title character, a misanthropic green ogre who learns to love, the talented Mr. James is... encumbered with padding and prosthetics....  As the evil, psychologically maimed Lord Farquaad, the very droll Christopher Sieber is required to walk on his knees, with tiny fake legs dangling before him — an initially funny sight gag that soon drags". He praises Sutton Foster as "an inspired, take-charge musical comedian....  Ms. Foster manages both to make fun of and exult in classical musical-comedy moves while creating a real, full character at the same time."[36]

text: Variety noted that the production had a reported budget of $24 million.  Any "theme-park cutesiness is offset by the mischievous humor in David Lindsay-Abaire's book and lyrics. The production's real achievement, however, is that the busy visuals and gargantuan set-pieces never overwhelm the personalities of the actors or their characters. The ensemble is talented and the four leads, in particular, couldn't be better."[37]

text: The Associated Press said that "the folks at DreamWorks have done their darndest to make sure we are entertained at Shrek the Musical, the company's lavish stage adaptation of its hit animated movie. For much of the time, they succeed, thanks to the talent and ingratiating appeal of the show's four principal performers. The show's massive sets and colorful costumes (both courtesy of Tim Hatley) are so visually eye-catching that they often distract from what's going on with the story and score. Composer Jeanine Tesori has written attractive, eclectic, pop-flavored melodies that range from a jaunty 'Travel Song' to a gutsy duet called 'I Got You Beat' for Shrek and Fiona that revels in rude noises."  The review also noted that Lindsay-Abaire's lyrics are often fun and quite witty.[38]

text: USA Today gave the show three and ½ out of four stars, writing: "Shrek, which draws from William Steig's book about a lovable ogre and the DreamWorks animated movie that it inspired, is nonetheless a triumph of comic imagination with a heart as big and warm as Santa's. It is the most ingeniously wacky, transcendently tasteless Broadway musical since The Producers, and more family-friendly than that gag-fest."  The review also noted, however, that "Like other musical adaptations of hit films, Shrek... leans heavily on winking satire.  There are the usual nods to more fully realized shows, from Gypsy to A Chorus Line, and Jeanine Tesori's blandly ingratiating score doesn't feature any songs you're likely to be humming 20 years from now."[39]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Original Broadway production[edit]

text:
Year

Award Ceremony

Category

Nominee

Result

Ref

2009

Tony Award

Best Musical

Nominated

[40]

Best Book of a Musical

David Lindsay-Abaire

Nominated

Best Original Score

Jeanine Tesori (music) and David Lindsay-Abaire (lyrics)

Nominated

Best Actor in a Musical

Brian d'Arcy James

Nominated

Best Actress in a Musical

Sutton Foster

Nominated

Best Featured Actor in a Musical

Christopher Sieber

Nominated

Best Orchestrations

Danny Troob and John Clancy

Nominated

Best Costume Design

Tim Hatley

Won

Drama Desk Award

Outstanding Musical

Nominated

[41]

Outstanding Book of a Musical

David Lindsay-Abaire

Nominated

Outstanding Actor in a Musical

Brian d'Arcy James

Won

Daniel Breaker

Nominated

Outstanding Actress in a Musical

Sutton Foster

Nominated

Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical

Christopher Sieber

Nominated

Outstanding Director of a Musical

Jason Moore

Nominated

Outstanding Music

Jeanine Tesori

Nominated

Outstanding Lyrics

David Lindsay-Abaire

Nominated

Outstanding Orchestrations

Danny Troob

Nominated

Outstanding Set Design

Tim Hatley

Won

Outstanding Costume Design

Won

Grammy Award

Best Musical Show Album

Nominated

[42]

text: Original London production[edit]

text:
Year

Award Ceremony

Category

Nominee

Result

Ref

2012

Laurence Olivier Award

Best New Musical

Nominated

[43]

Best Actor in a Musical

Nigel Lindsay

Nominated

Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical

Nigel Harman

Won

Best Costume Design

Tim Hatley

Nominated

text: Home media[edit]

text: In October 2009, Jeffrey Katzenberg said that a performance of the Broadway production had been recorded for a potential DVD release. However, due to the national tour and West End productions running considerably longer, the idea was put on-hold.[44] On July 19, 2013, following the closure of the national tour and West End productions, Amazon.com confirmed that the filmed performance would be available for instant viewing on September 17, 2013.[1] It also became available "in HD for playback on Kindle Fire HD, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Roku or other HD compatible devices" beginning October 15, 2013.[2] The home video release is also available on Netflix Streaming as of January, 2014.[45] A DVD, Blu-ray, and digital download was also released on that day.[3] The performance is an edit of several live performances as well as a performance shot without an audience. The original principal cast appear, as well as various alumni across the show's Broadway run. Also, it keeps the song "Donkey Pot Pie" instead of the replacement, "Forever."


question_text: who pays the cost of deposit insurance with digcc

root

text: Legal Framework/Objective[edit]

text: The functions of the DICGC (Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation)are governed by the provisions of 'The Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation Act, 1961' (DICGC Act) and 'The Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation General Regulations, 1961' framed by the Reserve Bank of India in exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section (3) of Section 50 of the said Act.[2]

tag: p

text: A maximum of Rs 1,00,000 is insured for each user for both principal and interest amount. If the customer has accounts in different banks, all of those accounts are insured to a maximum of Rs 1,00,000. However, if there are more accounts in same bank, all of those are treated as a single account. The insurance premium is paid by the insured banks itself. This means that the benefit of deposit insurance protection is made available to the depositors or customers of banks free of cost. The Corporation has the power to cancel the registration of an insured bank if it fails to pay the premium for three consecutive half-year periods. The Corporation may restore the registration of the bank, which has been de-registered for non-payment of premium, if the concerned bank makes a request in this behalf and pays all the amounts due by way of premium from the date of default together with interest.

text: Reforms[edit]

text: The Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission (FSLRC) was a body set up by the Government of India, Ministry of Finance, on 24 March 2011, to review and rewrite the legal-institutional architecture of the Indian financial sector. In its report the FSLRC recommended a regulatory structure constituting of seven agencies including a deposit insurance-cum regulatory agency (which was named as Resolution Corporation). The present DICGC will be subsumed into the Resolution Corporation which will work across the financial system. Drawing on the best international practice, the FSLRC proposal involved a unified resolution corporation that will deal with an array of financial firms such as banks and insurance companies; it will not just be a bank deposit insurance corporation. It will concern itself with all financial firms which make highly intense promises to consumers, such as banks, insurance companies, defined benefit pension funds, and payment systems. It will also take responsibility for the graceful resolution of systemically important financial firms, even if they have no direct links to consumers. [3]

text: The Government of India introduced the Financial Resolution and Deposit Insurance bill, 2017 (FRDI bill) in Lok Sabha in the Monsoon session of 2017 to bring forth these reforms [4].There have been many concerns with regards to the new bill like:

text:
Presently the banks have to pay a sum to the DICGC as insurance premium which insures all kinds of bank deposits up to a limit of ₹1,00,000. In case a stressed bank had to be liquidated, the depositors would be paid through DICGC. Though the Bill proposes the banks to pay a sum to the Resolution Corporation, it neither specifies the insured amount nor the amount a depositor would be paid. It is thus unclear how much a depositor would be paid in case of liquidation.
The bail in clause which largely worked against the interests of the depositors(as in Cyprus). [5]

tag: ol


document_title: Pledge of Allegiance (United States)

question_text: who was the pledge of allegiance written for

text: Pledge of Allegiance (United States)

text: Recital

text: Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly-scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students cannot be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so.[8] A number of states state flag pledges of allegiance to be recited after this.[9]

text: The United States Flag Code says:

text: The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag—"I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all."[10]—should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.[2]

text: Origins

text: Balch and Bellamy pledges

text: The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855–1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist,[11][12] and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850–1898). There did exist a previous version created by Rear Admiral George Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later become auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:

text: We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag![3]

text: Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school.[3][13] Balch's pledge, which predates Bellamy's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge.[14] Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity."[15] The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance" was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children's magazine The Youth's Companion as part of the National Public-School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to sell flags to public schools.[16] According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: 'Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain.'"[17]

text: Bellamy's original Pledge read:

text: I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.[1][18]

text: The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity[16] but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.[19]

text: Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World's Fair), Illinois.[20]

text: Bellamy's account

text: In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story ... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools."[15] James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse,"[15] so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892-93).[15]

text: As the World's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land ... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions."[15] Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but [he] also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States."[15] The publication's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools."[15] Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity."[15]

text: Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation."[15] Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison."[15] He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag," seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity."[15] After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word 'allegiance'. ... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that 'pledge' was a better school word than 'vow' or 'swear'; and that the first person singular should be used, and that 'my' flag was preferable to 'the.'"[15] Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic," choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands."[15] Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible."[15]

text: Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity"), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and … [that] equality was a dubious word."[15] Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. they involved the spirit of equality and fraternity."[15]

text: After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words 'to my flag' were changed to 'to the flag of the United States of America' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools."[15] Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition."[15]

text: Changes

text: In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance" as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:[14]

text: I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.

text: In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915's "Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution" and 1916's annual "National Report," the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge" with Bellamy's version under the heading "New Pledge."[21][22] However, the "Old Pledge" continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.

text: In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag" to be changed to "the Flag of the United States," so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America" were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:[23]

text: I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.

text: Addition of "under God"

text: Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God" to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea.[24][25] He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948,[24] he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God" added. He said that the words came from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God", all the reporters' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom." Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.[24]

text: In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance.[26] In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God" after the words "one nation." Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.[27]

text: In 1952, Holger Christian Langmack suggested in a letter to President Truman adding "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance. Langmack was a Danish philosopher and educator who came to the US in 1911. He was one of the originators of the National Prayer Breakfast and a religious leader in Washington, D.C. Truman met with Langmack and with several others to discuss the addition.[citation needed] At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D-Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God" to the Pledge in 1953.[citation needed]

text: Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln's pew, the church's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom." He argued that the nation's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life." He cited Lincoln's words "under God" as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.[citation needed]

text: President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R-Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.[28] Eisenhower said:[29]

text: From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty.... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.

text: The phrase "under God" was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.[28]

text: On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.[27]

text: Even though the movement behind inserting "under God" into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, author Kevin Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push-back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.[30]

text: Salute

text: Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.[3]

text: In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand-over-the-heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942.[31] Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301(b)(1)of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.[32]

text: Music

text: A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag" was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God" was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.[33]

text: The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.[34][35]

text: It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants". A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.[36]

text: Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).[37]

text: Controversy

text: In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case—Jehovah's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry—could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:[38]

text: If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.

text: In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.[39]

text: Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.

text: One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance.[40][39] Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, cannot really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making.[41] Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting this phrase violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.[42]

text: In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God" meant "God willing", so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.[43][44]

text: Legal challenges

text: Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag.[45] They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.[46][47]

text: In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God" an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school-sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an Order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God."[48]

text: A 2005 Bill, H.R. 2389, to prohibit the Supreme Court's and most federal courts from considering any legal challenges to the government's requiring or promoting of the Pledge of Allegiance, died in the Senate after having passed in the House. This action is viewed[by whom?] in general as court stripping by Congress of the constitutional power of the Judiciary. Even if a similar bill is enacted, its practical effect may not be clear:[opinion] proponents of the bill have said that it is a valid exercise of Congress's power to regulate the jurisdiction of the federal courts under Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, but opponents say Congress does not have the authority to prevent the Supreme Court from hearing claims based on the Bill of Rights, since amendments postdate the original text of the Constitution and may thus implicitly limit the scope of Article III, Section 2. Judges and legal analysts have said that if Congress can remove from the judicial branch the ability to determine if legislation is constitutional, the US separation of powers would be disturbed, or rendered non-functional.[49]

text: Mark J. Pelavin, former Associate Director of the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism, said of court stripping in regard to the Pledge of Allegiance that:[50][51]

text: Today's House adoption of the so-called "Pledge Protection Act" is a shameful effort to strip our federal courts of their ability to uphold the rights of all Americans. By removing the jurisdiction of federal courts, including the Supreme Court, from cases involving the Pledge, this legislation sets a dangerous precedent: threatening religious liberty, compromising the vital system of checks and balances upon which our government was founded, and granting Congress the authority to strip the courts' jurisdiction on any issue it wishes. Today, the issue was the Pledge of Allegiance, but tomorrow it could be reproductive rights, civil rights, or any other fundamental concern.

text: In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution.[52] As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic" by a teacher.[53]

text: In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13-year-old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.[54]

text: On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District.[55][56] In a 2–1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature" and did not constitute an establishment of religion.[55] Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state-directed, teacher-led daily recitation in public schools of the amended 'under God' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution."[57]

text: On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary.[58][59] A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.[60][61]

text: In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts.[62] In May 2014, Massachusetts' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God" represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.[63]

text: In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "… the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who don't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message."[64] The case against the Matawan-Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God"in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second-class citizens."In a twenty-one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under [the association members'] reasoning, the very constitution under which [the members] seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which [association members] do not and cannot advance here."[64] Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples"that do not allow it.[65][66] He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words 'under God' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words 'In God We Trust' from every coin in the land, than the words 'so help me God' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787.”


document_title: Four Weddings and a Funeral

question_text: who dies in four weddings and a funeral

question_tokens: who dies in four weddings and a funeral

text: Four Weddings and a Funeral

text: Plot[edit]

text: The film follows the adventures of a group of friends through the eyes of Charles, a good-natured but socially awkward man living in London, who becomes smitten with Carrie, an American whom Charles keeps meeting at four weddings and a funeral.

text: The first wedding is in Somerset and is that of Angus and Laura, at which Charles is the best man. Charles and his single friends wonder whether they will ever get married. Charles meets Carrie and spends the night with her. Carrie pretends that, now they have slept together, they will have to get married, to which Charles endeavours to respond before realising she is joking. Carrie observes that they may have missed an opportunity and then returns to America.

text: The second wedding is that of Bernard and Lydia, a couple who became romantically involved at the previous wedding. Charles encounters Carrie again, but she introduces him to her fiancé, Sir Hamish Banks, a wealthy politician. At the reception, Charles finds himself seated with several ex-girlfriends who relate embarrassing stories about his inability to be discreet and afterwards bumps into Henrietta, known among Charles' friends as "Duckface", with whom he had a particularly difficult relationship. Charles retreats to an empty hotel suite, seeing Carrie and Hamish leave in a taxicab, only to be trapped in a cupboard after the newlyweds stumble into the room to have sex. After Charles awkwardly exits the room, Henrietta confronts him about his habit of "serial monogamy", telling him he is afraid of letting anyone get too close to him. Charles then runs into Carrie, and they end up spending another night together.

text: A month later, Charles receives an invitation to Carrie's wedding. While shopping for a present, he coincidentally encounters Carrie and ends up helping her select her wedding dress. Carrie lists her more than thirty sexual partners. Charles later awkwardly tries confessing his love to her and hinting that he would like to have a relationship with her, to no avail.

text: The third wedding is that of Carrie and Hamish. Charles attends, depressed at the prospect of Carrie marrying Hamish. At the reception, Gareth instructs his friends to seek potential mates; Fiona's brother, Tom, stumbles through an attempt to connect with a woman until she reveals that she is the minister's wife, while Charles's flatmate, Scarlett, strikes up a conversation with an American named Chester. As Charles watches Carrie and Hamish dance, Fiona deduces his feelings about Carrie. When Charles asks why Fiona is not married, she confesses that she has loved Charles since they first met years earlier. Charles is appreciative and empathetic but does not requite her love. During the groom's toast, Gareth dies of a heart attack.

text: At Gareth's funeral, his partner Matthew recites the poem "Funeral Blues" by W. H. Auden, commemorating his relationship with Gareth. Charles and Tom discuss whether hoping to find your "one true love" is just a futile effort and ponder that, while their clique have always viewed themselves as proud to be single, Gareth and Matthew were a "married" couple all the while.

text: The fourth wedding is ten months later. Charles has decided to marry Henrietta. However, shortly before the ceremony, Carrie arrives, revealing to Charles that she and Hamish are separated. Charles has a crisis of confidence, which he reveals to his deaf brother David and Matthew. During the ceremony, when the vicar asks whether anyone knows a reason why the couple should not marry, David, who was reading the vicar's lips, asks Charles to translate for him, and says in sign language that he suspects the groom loves someone else. The vicar asks whether Charles does love someone else, and Charles replies, "I do." Henrietta punches Charles and the wedding is halted.

text: Carrie visits Charles to apologise for attending the wedding. Charles confesses that, while standing at the altar, he realised that for the first time in his life he totally and utterly loved one person, "and it wasn't the person standing next to me in the veil." Charles makes a proposal of lifelong commitment without marriage to Carrie, who accepts.

text: Henrietta marries an officer in the Grenadier Guards; David marries his girlfriend Serena; Scarlett marries Chester; Tom marries his distant cousin Deirdre (whom he met, for the second time in 25 years, at Charles's wedding); Matthew finds a new partner; Fiona marries Prince Charles; and Charles and Carrie have a young son.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Hugh Grant as Charles
Andie MacDowell as Carrie
James Fleet as Tom
Simon Callow as Gareth
John Hannah as Matthew
Kristin Scott Thomas as Fiona
David Bower as David
Charlotte Coleman as Scarlett
Timothy Walker as Angus
Sara Crowe as Laura
Rowan Atkinson as Father Gerald
David Haig as Bernard
Sophie Thompson as Lydia
Corin Redgrave as Sir Hamish Banks
Anna Chancellor as Henrietta

tag: ul

text: Marisa Tomei turned down the role of Carrie.[3]

text: Production[edit]

text: The film was shot mainly in London and the Home counties, including Hampstead, Islington where the final moments take place on Highbury Terrace, Greenwich Hospital, Betchworth in Surrey, Amersham in Buckinghamshire, St Bartholomew-the-Great (wedding number four) and West Thurrock in Essex.[4] Exterior shots of guests arriving for the funeral were filmed in Thurrock, Essex overlooking the River Thames with the backdrop of the Dartford River Crossing and at stately homes in Bedfordshire (Luton Hoo for wedding two's reception) and Hampshire.[5]

text: Music[edit]

text: The original score was composed by British composer Richard Rodney Bennett. The movie also featured a soundtrack of popular songs, including a cover version of The Troggs' "Love Is All Around" performed by Wet Wet Wet that remained at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart for fifteen weeks and was then the ninth (now twelfth) biggest selling single of all time in Britain. This song would later be adapted into "Christmas Is All Around" and sung by the character of Billy Mack in Richard Curtis' 2003 film Love Actually, in which Grant also stars.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film was very well received with critics, currently holding a 95% "Certified Fresh" approval on reviews aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, with the site's consensus stating, "While frothy to a fault, Four Weddings and a Funeral features irresistibly breezy humor, and winsome performances from Hugh Grant and Andie MacDowell."[6] Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three-and-a-half stars out of four, calling it "delightful and sly", and directed with "light-hearted enchantment" by Newell. He praised Grant's performance, describing it as a kind of "endearing awkwardness".[7]

text: The film had its detractors. Writing for the Chicago Reader, Jonathan Rosenbaum called the film "generic" and "standard issue", stating that the audience shouldn't "expect to remember it ten minutes later".[8] Time magazine writer Richard Corliss was less scathing, but agreed that it was forgettable, saying that people would "forget all about [the movie] by the time they leave the multiplex," even joking at the end of his review that he had forgotten the film's name.[9] The character of Carrie was voted one of the most annoying film characters of all time in a British online poll.[10]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film earned £27.8 million in the United Kingdom.[11] Upon its North American limited release on 11 March 1994, Four Weddings and a Funeral opened with $138,486 in five theatres.[12] But upon its wide release on 15 April 1994, the film topped the box office with $4,162,489.[13] The film would continue to gross $52.7 million in North America with an additional $193 million internationally, earning $245.7 million worldwide.[1]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Wins[edit]

text:
Best Film
Best Direction (Mike Newell)
Best Actor (Hugh Grant)
Best Supporting Actress (Kristin Scott Thomas)

text: Best Foreign Film

text: Best Comedy Film

text: César Award for Best Foreign Film

text: Most Promising Actor (Hugh Grant)

text:
Best Actress (Kristin Scott Thomas)
Best Screenplay (Richard Curtis)

text: Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy (Hugh Grant)

text:
British Film of the Year
British Director of the Year (Mike Newell)
British Producer of the Year (Duncan Kenworthy)
British Screenwriter of the Year (Richard Curtis)

text: Best Original Screenplay (Richard Curtis)

text: Film – Screenplay (Richard Curtis)

text: Nominations[edit]

text:
Best Picture (lost to Forrest Gump)
Best Original Screenplay – Richard Curtis (lost to Quentin Tarantino and Roger Avary for Pulp Fiction)

text:
Best Film Music – Richard Rodney Bennett (lost to Backbeat)
Best Original Screenplay – Richard Curtis (lost to Quentin Tarantino and Roger Avary for Pulp Fiction)
Best Supporting Actor – Simon Callow (lost to Samuel L. Jackson for Pulp Fiction)
Best Supporting Actor – John Hannah (lost to Samuel L. Jackson for Pulp Fiction)
Best Supporting Actress – Charlotte Coleman (lost to Kristin Scott Thomas for this film)

text: Outstanding Directoring – Feature Film – Mike Newell (lost to Robert Zemeckis for Forrest Gump)

text:
Best Musical or Comedy (lost to The Lion King)
Best Screenplay – Richard Curtis (lost to Quentin Tarantino and Roger Avary for Pulp Fiction)
Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy – Andie MacDowell (lost to Jamie Lee Curtis for True Lies)

text: Recognition[edit]

text: The film was voted the 27th greatest comedy film of all time by readers of Total Film in 2000. In 2004, the same magazine named it the 34th greatest British film of all time. It is number 96 on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies".


document_title: Cell theory

question_text: the idea that all living cells come from preexisting living cells was proposed by

text: Cell theory

text: Microscopes

text: The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[3] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[4][5] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[6]

text: Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[7]

text: Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[7]

text: Discovery of cells

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[6] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[8] What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[9] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[6]

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[9] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[7] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[6]

text: The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[10] This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[11] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.

text: In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[12] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.

text: Cell theory

text: Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[13] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[14] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[15] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[10]

text: 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

text: 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life

text: Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[7] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[10] This translated to:

text: 3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells

text: However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[16] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.

text: Modern interpretation

text: The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

text:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[17]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[18]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[citation needed]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[19]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .[citation needed]

text: Modern version

text: The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:

text:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[20]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[20]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[20]

text: Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.

text: Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories

text: Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[21] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[22] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl−, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl− as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg2+. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph, "The Permeability of Living Cells", which rejects the bulk phase theories.

text: Emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept

text: With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.

text: The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]

text: The reemergence of the bulk phase theories

text: In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.

text: In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.

text: Types of cells

text: Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:

text:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[23] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[23] Bacteria and Archaea are the two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but on the other hand, they have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[24] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]

text: Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[25]