document_title: Olive

question_text: when was the olive tree introduced to north america

question_tokens: when was the olive tree introduced to north america

text: Olive

text: Description[edit]

text: The olive tree, Olea europaea, is an evergreen tree or shrub native to the Mediterranean, Asia, and Africa. It is short and squat, and rarely exceeds 8–15 m (26–49 ft) in height. 'Pisciottana', a unique variety comprising 40,000 trees found only in the area around Pisciotta in the Campania region of southern Italy often exceeds this, with correspondingly large trunk diameters. The silvery green leaves are oblong, measuring 4–10 cm (1.6–3.9 in) long and 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in) wide. The trunk is typically gnarled and twisted.[9]

text: The small, white, feathery flowers, with ten-cleft calyx and corolla, two stamens, and bifid stigma, are borne generally on the previous year's wood, in racemes springing from the axils of the leaves.

text: The fruit is a small drupe 1–2.5 cm (0.39–0.98 in) long, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested in the green to purple stage.[10] Canned black olives have often been artificially blackened[11] (see below on processing) and may contain the chemical ferrous gluconate to improve the appearance.[12] Olea europaea contains a seed commonly referred to in American English as a pit or a rock, and in British English as a stone.[13]

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: The six natural subspecies of Olea europaea are distributed over a wide range:[14][15]

text:
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Mediterranean Basin)
O. e. subsp. cuspidata (from South Africa throughout East Africa, Arabia to South West China)
O. e. subsp. guanchica (Canaries)
O. e. subsp. cerasiformis (Madeira)
O. e. subsp. maroccana (Morocco)
O. e. subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger)

tag: ul

text: The subspecies O. e. maroccana and O. e. cerasiformis are respectively hexaploid and tetraploid.[16]

text: Wild growing forms of the olive are sometimes treated as the species Olea oleaster.

text: Cultivars[edit]

text: Hundreds of cultivars of the olive tree are known.[17][18] An olive's cultivar has a significant impact on its colour, size, shape, and growth characteristics, as well as the qualities of olive oil.[17] Olive cultivars may be used primarily for oil, eating, or both. Olives cultivated for consumption are generally referred to as table olives.[19]

text: Since many olive cultivars are self-sterile or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary one. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities such as resistance to disease, quick growth, and larger or more consistent crops.

text: History[edit]

text: Prehistory[edit]

text: Fossil evidence indicates the olive tree had its origins some 20–40 million years ago in the Oligocene region corresponding to Italy and the eastern Mediterranean Basin.[20][21] The olive plant later was first cultivated some 7,000 years ago in Mediterranean regions.[20][22]

text: The edible olive seems to have coexisted with humans for about 5,000 to 6,000 years, going back to the early Bronze Age (3150 to 1200 BC). Its origin can be traced to the Levant based on written tablets, olive pits, and wood fragments found in ancient tombs.[23] At least one cookbook writer notes that the most ancient evidence of olive cultivation is found in Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Crete.[24]

text: The immediate ancestry of the cultivated olive is unknown. O. europaea may have arisen from O. chrysophylla in northern tropical Africa and was introduced into the countries of the Mediterranean Basin via Egypt and then Crete or the Levant, Tunisia, and Asia Minor.[citation needed] Fossil Olea pollen has been found in Macedonia and other places around the Mediterranean, indicating that this genus is an original element of the Mediterranean flora. Fossilized leaves of Olea were found in the palaeosols of the volcanic Greek island of Santorini (Thera) and were dated about 37,000 BP. Imprints of larvae of olive whitefly Aleurolobus (Aleurodes) olivinus were found on the leaves. The same insect is commonly found today on olive leaves, showing that the plant-animal co-evolutionary relations have not changed since that time.[25] Other leaves found on the same island are dated back to 60,000 BP, making them the oldest known olives from the Mediterranean.[26]

text: As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan civilization.[27]

text: Outside the Mediterranean[edit]

text: Olives are not native to the Americas. Spanish colonists brought the olive to the New World, where its cultivation prospered in present-day Peru and Chile. The first seedlings from Spain were planted in Lima by Antonio de Rivera in 1560. Olive tree cultivation quickly spread along the valleys of South America's dry Pacific coast where the climate was similar to the Mediterranean.[28] Spanish missionaries established the tree in the 18th century in California. It was first cultivated at Mission San Diego de Alcalá in 1769 or later around 1795. Orchards were started at other missions, but in 1838, an inspection found only two olive orchards in California. Cultivation for oil gradually became a highly successful commercial venture from the 1860s onward.[29] In Japan, the first successful planting of olive trees happened in 1908 on Shodo Island, which became the cradle of olive cultivation.[30] An estimated 865 million olive trees are in the world today (as of 2005), and the vast majority of these are found in Mediterranean countries, with traditionally marginal areas accounting for no more than 25% of olive-planted area and 10% of oil production.[31]

text: Symbolic connotations[edit]

text: Olive oil has long been considered sacred. The olive branch was often a symbol of abundance, glory, and peace. The leafy branches of the olive tree were ritually offered to deities and powerful figures as emblems of benediction and purification, and they were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. Today, olive oil is still used in many religious ceremonies. Over the years, the olive has also been used to symbolize wisdom, fertility, power, and purity.

text: Ancient Israel and Hebrew Bible[edit]

text: The olive was one of the main elements in ancient Israelite cuisine. Olive oil was used for not only food and cooking, but also lighting, sacrificial offerings, ointment, and anointment for priestly or royal office.[32]

text: The olive tree is one of the first plants mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament), and one of the most significant. An olive branch was brought back to Noah by a dove to demonstrate that the flood was over (Book of Genesis, 8:11). The olive is listed in Deuteronomy 8:8 as one of the seven species that are noteworthy products of the Land of Israel.[33]

text: Ancient Greece[edit]

text: The ancient Greeks smeared olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health.

text: Olive oil was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples and was the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves.

text: In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock,[34] and in the Iliad, (XVII.53ff) is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, by a spring; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in Greece invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial culture-hero Aristaeus the understanding of olive husbandry, along with cheese-making and bee-keeping.[35] Olive was one of the woods used to fashion the most primitive Greek cult figures, called xoana, referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for centuries.[36] It was purely a matter of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive grew first in Athens.[37] In an archaic Athenian foundation myth, Athena won the patronship of Attica from Poseidon with the gift of the olive. According to the fourth-century BC father of botany, Theophrastus, olive trees ordinarily attained an age around 200 years,[38] he mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the Acropolis; it was still to be seen there in the second century AD;[39] and when Pausanias was shown it, c. 170 AD, he reported "Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, but on the very day it was burnt it grew again to the height of two cubits."[40] Indeed, olive suckers sprout readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was perfectly possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Bronze Age. The olive was sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage.

text: Theophrastus, in On the Causes of Plants, does not give as systematic and detailed an account of olive husbandry as he does of the vine, but he makes clear (in 1.16.10) that the cultivated olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rise to thorny, wild-type olives, spread far and wide by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a separate name, kotinos.[41] In his Enquiry into Plants (2.1.2–4) he states that the olive can be propagated from a piece of the trunk, the root, a twig, or a stake.[42]

text: Ancient Rome[edit]

text: According to Pliny the Elder, a vine, a fig tree, and an olive tree grew in the middle of the Roman Forum; the latter was planted to provide shade (the garden plot was recreated in the 20th century).[43] The Roman poet Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."[44] Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods.[45]

text: Vitruvius describes of the use of charred olive wood in tying together walls and foundations in his De Architectura:

text: The thickness of the wall should, in my opinion, be such that armed men meeting on top of it may pass one another without interference. In the thickness there should be set a very close succession of ties made of charred olive wood, binding the two faces of the wall together like pins, to give it lasting endurance. For that is a material which neither decay, nor the weather, nor time can harm, but even though buried in the earth or set in the water it keeps sound and useful forever. And so not only city walls but substructures in general and all walls that require a thickness like that of a city wall, will be long in falling to decay if tied in this manner.[46]

text: New Testament[edit]

text: The Mount of Olives east of Jerusalem is mentioned several times in the New Testament. The Allegory of the Olive Tree in St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans refers to the scattering and gathering of Israel. It compares the Israelites to a tame olive tree and the Gentiles to a wild olive branch. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible.[47]

text: Islam[edit]

text: The olive tree and olive oil are mentioned seven times in the Quran,[48] and the olive is praised as a precious fruit. Olive tree and olive-oil health benefits have been propounded in Prophetic medicine. Muhammad is reported to have said: "Take oil of olive and massage with it – it is a blessed tree" (Sunan al-Darimi, 69:103).

text: Olives are substitutes for dates (if not available) during Ramadan fasting, and olive tree leaves are used as incense in some Muslim Mediterranean countries.[49]

text: Oldest known trees[edit]

text: Olive trees in the groves around the Mediterranean Sea are centuries old, with some dated to 2000 years. The olive tree on the island of Brijuni (Brioni), Istria in Croatia, has a radiocarbon dating age of about 1,600 years. It still gives fruit (about 30 kg or 66 lb per year), which is made into olive oil.[50]

text: An olive tree in west Athens, named "Plato's Olive Tree", is thought to be a remnant of the grove where Plato's Academy was situated, making it an estimated 2,400 years old.[51] The tree comprised a cavernous trunk from which a few branches were still sprouting in 1975, when a traffic accident caused a bus to uproot it.[51] Following that, the trunk was preserved and displayed in the nearby Agricultural University of Athens. In 2013, it was reported that the remaining part of the trunk was uprooted and stolen, allegedly to serve as firewood. A supposedly older tree, the "Peisistratos Tree", is located by the banks of the Cephisus River, in the municipality of Agioi Anargyroi, and is said to be a remnant of an olive grove that was planted by Athenian tyrant Peisistratos in the sixth century BC.[citation needed] Numerous ancient olive trees also exist near Pelion in Greece.[52] The age of an olive tree in Crete, the Finix Olive, is claimed to be over 2,000 years old; this estimate is based on archaeological evidence around the tree.[53] The olive tree of Vouves, also in Crete, has an age estimated between 2000 and 4000 years.[54] An olive tree called Farga d'Arió in Ulldecona, Catalonia, Spain, has been dated (with laser-perimetry methods) as being 1,701 years old, estimating that it was planted when Constantine the Great was Roman emperor.[55]

text: Some Italian olive trees are believed to date back to Ancient Rome (8th century BC to 5th century AD), although identifying progenitor trees in ancient sources is difficult. A tree located in Santu Baltolu di Carana, in the municipality of Luras in Sardinia, Italy, is respectfully named in Sardinian as the Ozzastru by the islanders, and is claimed to be between 3,000 and 4,000 years old according to different studies.[citation needed] Several other trees of about 1,000 years old are within the same garden. The 15th-century trees of Olivo della Linza, at Alliste in the Province of Lecce in Apulia on the Italian mainland, were noted by Bishop Ludovico de Pennis during his pastoral visit to the Diocese of Nardò-Gallipoli in 1452.[56]

text: The town of Bshaale, Lebanon claims to have the oldest olive trees in the world (4000 BC for the oldest), but no scientific study supports these claims. Other trees in the towns of Amioun appear to be at least 1,500 years old.[57][58]

text: Throughout Israel and Palestine, dozens of ancient olive trees are found with estimated ages of 1,600–2,000 years; however, these estimates could not be supported by current scientific practices.[59] Ancient trees include two giant olive trees in Arraba and five trees in Deir Hanna, both in the Galilee region, which have been determined to be over 3,000 years old,[59] although no available data support the credibility of the study that produced these age estimates, and as such, the 3000 years age estimate can not be considered valid. All seven trees continue to produce olives.

text: Several trees in the Garden of Gethsemane (from the Hebrew words gat shemanim or olive press) in Jerusalem are claimed to date back to the purported time of Jesus.[60] A study conducted by the National Research Council of Italy in 2012 used carbon dating on older parts of the trunks of three trees from Gethsemane and came up with the dates of 1092, 1166, and 1198 AD, while DNA tests show that the trees were originally planted from the same parent plant.[61] According to molecular analysis, the tested trees showed the same allelic profile at all microsatellite loci analyzed which furthermore may indicate attempt to keep the lineage of an older species intact.[62] However, Bernabei writes, “All the tree trunks are hollow inside so that the central, older wood is missing . . . In the end, only three from a total of eight olive trees could be successfully dated. The dated ancient olive trees do, however, not allow any hypothesis to be made with regard to the age of the remaining five giant olive trees.”[63] Babcox concludes, “The roots of the eight oldest trees are possibly much older. Visiting guides to the garden often state that they are two thousand years old.”[64]

text: The 2,000-year-old[65] Bidni olive trees, which have been confirmed through carbon dating,[66] have been protected since 1933,[67] and are also listed in UNESCO's Database of National Cultural Heritage Laws.[68] In 2011, after recognising their historical and landscape value, and in recognition of the fact that "only 20 trees remain from 40 at the beginning of the 20th century",[69] Maltese authorities declared the ancient Bidni olive grove at Bidnija, limits of Mosta, as a Tree Protected Area, in accordance with the provisions of the Trees and Woodlands Protection Regulations, 2011, as per Government Notice number 473/11.[70]

text:
Kaštela, Croatia

Canneto Sabino, Italy

Karystos, Euboia, Greece

text: Uses[edit]

text: The olive tree, Olea europaea, has been cultivated for olive oil, fine wood, olive leaf, and the olive fruit. About 90% of all harvested olives are turned into oil, while about 10% are used as table olives.[17] The olive is one of the "trinity" or "triad" of basic ingredients in Mediterranean cuisine, the other two being wheat for bread, pasta, and couscous, and the grape for wine.[71][72]

text: Table olives[edit]

text: Table olives are classified by the IOC into three groups according to the degree of ripeness achieved before harvesting:[73]

text:
Green olives are picked when they have obtained full size, but before the ripening cycle has begun; they are usually shades of green to yellow.
Semiripe or turning-colour olives are picked at the beginning of the ripening cycle, when the colour has begun to change from green to multicolour shades of red to brown. Only the skin is coloured, as the flesh of the fruit lacks pigmentation at this stage, unlike that of ripe olives.
Black olives or ripe olives are picked at full maturity when fully ripe. They are found in assorted shades of purple to brown to black.[73]

text: Traditional fermentation and curing[edit]

text: Raw or fresh olives are naturally very bitter; to make them palatable, olives must be cured and fermented, thereby removing oleuropein, a bitter phenolic compound that can reach levels of 14% of dry matter in young olives.[74] In addition to oleuropein, other phenolic compounds render freshly picked olives unpalatable and must also be removed or lowered in quantity through curing and fermentation. Generally speaking, phenolics reach their peak in young fruit and are converted as the fruit matures.[75] Once ripening occurs, the levels of phenolics sharply decline through their conversion to other organic products which render some cultivars edible immediately.[74] One example of an edible olive native to the island of Thasos is the throubes black olive, which when allowed to ripen in sun, shrivel, and fall from the tree, is edible.[76][77]

text: The curing process may take from a few days, with lye, to a few months with brine or salt packing.[78] With the exception of California style and salt-cured olives, all methods of curing involve a major fermentation involving bacteria and yeast that is of equal importance to the final table olive product.[79] Traditional cures, using the natural microflora on the fruit to induce fermentation, lead to two important outcomes: the leaching out and breakdown of oleuropein and other unpalatable phenolic compounds, and the generation of favourable metabolites from bacteria and yeast, such as organic acids, probiotics, glycerol, and esters, which affect the sensory properties of the final table olives.[74] Mixed bacterial/yeast olive fermentations may have probiotic qualities.[80][81] Lactic acid is the most important metabolite, as it lowers the pH, acting as a natural preservative against the growth of unwanted pathogenic species. The result is table olives which can be stored without refrigeration. Fermentations dominated by lactic acid bacteria are, therefore, the most suitable method of curing olives. Yeast-dominated fermentations produce a different suite of metabolites which provide poorer preservation, so they are corrected with an acid such as citric acid in the final processing stage to provide microbial stability.[19]

text: The many types of preparations for table olives depend on local tastes and traditions. The most important commercial examples are:

text: Spanish or Sevillian type (olives with fermentation): Most commonly applied to green olive preparation, around 60% of all the world's table olives are produced with this method.[82] Olives are soaked in lye (dilute NaOH, 2–4%) for 8–10 hours to hydrolyse the oleuropein. They are usually considered "treated" when the lye has penetrated two-thirds of the way into the fruit. They are then washed once or several times in water to remove the caustic solution and transferred to fermenting vessels full of brine at typical concentrations of 8–12% NaCl.[83] The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds. Fermentation is carried out by the natural microbiota present on the olives that survive the lye treatment process. Many organisms are involved, usually reflecting the local conditions or "Terroir" of the olives. During a typical fermentation gram-negative enterobacteria flourish in small numbers at first, but are rapidly outgrown by lactic acid bacteria species such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis and Pediococcus damnosus. These bacteria produce lactic acid to help lower the pH of the brine and therefore stabilize the product against unwanted pathogenic species. A diversity of yeasts then accumulate in sufficient numbers to help complete the fermentation alongside the lactic acid bacteria. Yeasts commonly mentioned include the teleomorphs Pichia anomala, Pichia membranifaciens, Debaryomyces hansenii and Kluyveromyces marxianus.[19] Once fermented, the olives are placed in fresh brine and acid corrected, to be ready for market.

text: Sicilian or Greek type (olives with fermentation): Applied to green, semiripe and ripe olives, they are almost identical to the Spanish type fermentation process, but the lye treatment process is skipped and the olives are placed directly in fermentation vessels full of brine (8–12% NaCl). The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds. As the caustic treatment is avoided, lactic acid bacteria are only present in similar numbers to yeast and appear to be outcompeted by the abundant yeasts found on untreated olives. As very little acid is produced by the yeast fermentation, lactic, acetic, or citric acid is often added to the fermentation stage to stabilize the process.[79]

text: Picholine or directly-brined type (olives with fermentation): Applied to green, semiripe, or ripe olives, they are soaked in lye typically for longer periods than Spanish style (e.g. 10–72 hours) until the solution has penetrated three-quarters of the way into the fruit. They are then washed and immediately brined and acid corrected with citric acid to achieve microbial stability. Fermentation still occurs carried out by acidogenic yeast and bacteria, but is more subdued than other methods. The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds and a series of progressively stronger concentrations of salt are added until the product is fully stabilized and ready to be eaten.[19]

text: Water-cured type (olives with fermentation): Applied to green, semiripe, or ripe olives, these are soaked in water or weak brine and this solution is changed on a daily basis for 10–14 days. The oleuropein is naturally dissolved and leached into the water and removed during a continual soak-wash cycle. Fermentation takes place during the water treatment stage and involves a mixed yeast/bacteria ecosystem. Sometimes, the olives are lightly cracked with a hammer or a stone to trigger fermentation and speed up the fermentation process. Once debittered, the olives are brined to concentrations of 8–12% NaCl and acid corrected, and are then ready to eat.[79]

text: Salt-cured type (olives with minor fermentation): Applied only to ripe olives, they are usually produced in Morocco, Turkey, and other eastern Mediterranean countries. Once picked, the olives are vigorously washed and packed in alternating layers with salt. The high concentrations of salt draw the moisture out of olives, dehydrating and shriveling them until they look somewhat analogous to a raisin. Once packed in salt, fermentation is minimal and only initiated by the most halophilic yeast species such as Debaryomyces hansenii. Once cured, they are sold in their natural state without any additives.[19] So-called Oil-cured olives are cured in salt, and then soaked in oil.[84]

text: California or "artificial ripening" type (olives without fermentation): Applied to green and semiripe olives, they are placed in lye and soaked. Upon their removal, they are washed in water injected with compressed air. This process is repeated several times until both oxygen and lye have soaked through to the pit. The repeated, saturated exposure to air oxidises the skin and flesh of the fruit, turning it black in an artificial process that mimics natural ripening. Once fully oxidised or "blackened", they are brined and acid corrected and are then ready for eating.[79]

text: Olive wood[edit]

text: Olive wood is very hard and is prized for its durability, colour, high combustion temperature, and interesting grain patterns. Because of the commercial importance of the fruit, and the slow growth and relatively small size of the tree, olive wood and its products are relatively expensive. Common uses of the wood include: kitchen utensils, carved wooden bowls, cutting boards, fine furniture, and decorative items.

text: The yellow or light greenish-brown wood is often finely veined with a darker tint; being very hard and close-grained, it is valued by woodworkers.[85]

text: Cultivation[edit]

text: The earliest evidence for the domestication of olives comes from the Chalcolithic period archaeological site of Teleilat Ghassul in what is today modern Jordan. Farmers in ancient times believed that olive trees would not grow well if planted more than a certain distance from the sea; Theophrastus gives 300 stadia (55.6 km or 34.5 mi) as the limit. Modern experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing a preference for the coast, they have long been grown further inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean (Iberia, northwest Africa) where winters are mild.

text: Olives are now cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climates, such as South Africa, Chile, Peru, Australia, and California and in areas with temperate climates such as New Zealand, under irrigation in the Cuyo region in Argentina which has a desert climate. They are also grown in the Córdoba Province, Argentina, which has a temperate climate with rainy summers and dry winters (Cwa).[87] The climate in Argentina changes the external characteristics of the plant but the fruit keeps its original features.[88] The northernmost olive grove is placed in Anglesey, an island off the north west coast of Wales, in the United Kingdom:[89] but it is too early to say if the growing will be successful, having been planted in 2006.

text: Growth and propagation[edit]

text: Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. They grow in any light soil, even on clay if well drained, but in rich soils, they are predisposed to disease and produce poorer oil than in poorer soil. (This was noted by Pliny the Elder.) Olives like hot weather and sunny positions without any shade, while temperatures below −10 °C (14 °F) may injure even a mature tree. They tolerate drought well, due to their sturdy and extensive root systems. Olive trees can live for several centuries and can remain productive for as long if they are pruned correctly and regularly.

text: Only a handful of olive varieties can be used to cross-pollinate. 'Pendolino' olive trees are partially self-fertile, but pollenizers are needed for a large fruit crop. Other compatible olive tree pollenizers include 'Leccino' and 'Maurino'. 'Pendolino' olive trees are used extensively as pollenizers in large olive tree groves.

text: Olives are propagated by various methods. The preferred ways are cuttings and layers; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down. However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; they must be budded or grafted onto other specimens to do well.[91] Branches of various thickness cut into lengths around 1 m (3.3 ft) planted deeply in manured ground soon vegetate. Shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches and, when covered with a few centimetres of soil, rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. In Greece, grafting the cultivated tree on the wild tree is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted under the soil surface, where they soon form a vigorous shoot.

text: The olive is also sometimes grown from seed. To facilitate germination, the oily pericarp is first softened by slight rotting, or soaked in hot water or in an alkaline solution.

text: In situations where extreme cold has damaged or killed the olive tree, the rootstock can survive and produce new shoots which in turn become new trees. In this way, olive trees can regenerate themselves. In Tuscany in 1985, a very severe frost destroyed many productive, and aged, olive trees and ruined many farmers' livelihoods. However, new shoots appeared in the spring and, once the dead wood was removed, became the basis for new fruit-producing trees. In this way, an olive tree can live for centuries or even millennia.

text: Olives grow very slowly, and over many years, the trunk can attain a considerable diameter. A. P. de Candolle recorded one exceeding 10 m (33 ft) in girth. The trees rarely exceed 15 m (49 ft) in height, and are generally confined to much more limited dimensions by frequent pruning.

text: Olea europaea is very hardy: drought-, disease- and fire-resistant, it can live to a great age. Its root system is robust and capable of regenerating the tree even if the above-ground structure is destroyed. The older the olive tree, the broader and more gnarled the trunk becomes. Many olive trees in the groves around the Mediterranean are said to be hundreds of years old, while an age of 2,000 years is claimed for a number of individual trees; in some cases, this has been scientifically verified.[92] See paragraph dealing with the topic.

text: The crop from old trees is sometimes enormous, but they seldom bear well two years in succession, and in many cases, a large harvest occurs every sixth or seventh season.

text: Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in Languedoc and Provence, the trees are regularly pruned. The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding year, while keeping the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit.

text: The spaces between the trees are regularly fertilized.

text: Pests, diseases, and weather[edit]

text: Various pathologies can affect olives. The most serious pest is the olive fruit fly (Dacus oleae or Bactrocera oleae) which lays its eggs in the olive most commonly just before it becomes ripe in the autumn. The region surrounding the puncture rots, becomes brown, and takes a bitter taste, making the olive unfit for eating or for oil. For controlling the pest, the practice has been to spray with insecticides (organophosphates, e.g. dimethoate). Classic organic methods have now been applied such as trapping, applying the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, and spraying with kaolin. Such methods are obligatory for organic olives.

text: A fungus, Cycloconium oleaginum, can infect the trees for several successive seasons, causing great damage to plantations. A species of bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. oleae,[93] induces tumour growth in the shoots. Certain lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the leaves and flowers.

text: A pest which spreads through olive trees is the black scale bug, a small black scale insect that resembles a small black spot. They attach themselves firmly to olive trees and reduce the quality of the fruit; their main predators are wasps. The curculio beetle eats the edges of leaves, leaving sawtooth damage.[94]

text: Rabbits eat the bark of olive trees and can do considerable damage, especially to young trees. If the bark is removed around the entire circumference of a tree, it is likely to die. Voles and mice also do damage by eating the roots of olives.

text: At the northern edge of their cultivation zone, for instance in Southern France and north-central Italy, olive trees suffer occasionally from frost. Gales and long-continued rains during the gathering season also cause damage.

text: As an invasive species[edit]

text: Since its first domestication, O. europaea has been spreading back to the wild from planted groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe have been largely swamped by feral plants.[95]

text: In some other parts of the world where it has been introduced, most notably South Australia, the olive has become a major woody weed that displaces native vegetation. In South Australia, its seeds are spread by the introduced red fox and by many bird species, including the European starling and the native emu, into woodlands, where they germinate and eventually form a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees.[96] As the climate of South Australia is very dry and bushfire prone, the oil-rich feral olive tree substantially increases the fire hazard of native sclerophyll woodlands.[97]

text: Harvest and processing[edit]

text: Olives are harvested in the autumn and winter. More specifically in the Northern Hemisphere, green olives are picked from the end of September to about the middle of November. Blond olives are picked from the middle of October to the end of November, and black olives are collected from the middle of November to the end of January or early February. In southern Europe, harvesting is done for several weeks in winter, but the time varies in each country, and with the season and the cultivar.

text: Most olives today are harvested by shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Using olives found lying on the ground can result in poor quality oil, due to damage. Another method involves standing on a ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist. This method produces high quality oil.[99] A third method uses a device called an oli-net that wraps around the tree trunk and opens to form an umbrella-like catcher from which workers collect the fruit. Another method uses an electric tool, the oliviera, that has large tongs that spin around quickly, removing fruit from the tree. Olives harvested by this method are used for oil.

text: Table olive varieties are more difficult to harvest, as workers must take care not to damage the fruit; baskets that hang around the worker's neck are used. In some places in Italy, Croatia, and Greece, olives are harvested by hand because the terrain is too mountainous for machines. As a result, the fruit is not bruised, which leads to a superior finished product. The method also involves sawing off branches, which is healthy for future production.[75]

text: The amount of oil contained in the fruit differs greatly by cultivar; the pericarp is usually 60–70% oil. Typical yields are 1.5–2.2 kg (3.3–4.9 lb) of oil per tree per year.[53]

text: Global production[edit]

text: Olives are one of the most extensively cultivated fruit crops in the world.[100] In 2011, about 9.6 million hectares were planted with olive trees, which is more than twice the amount of land devoted to apples, bananas, or mangoes. Only coconut trees and oil palms command more space.[101] Cultivation area tripled from 2,600,000 to 7,950,000 hectares (6,400,000 to 19,600,000 acres) between 1960 and 1998 and reached a 10-million-ha peak in 2008. The 10 largest producing countries, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, are all located in the Mediterranean region and produce 95% of the world's olives.

text:
Main countries of production (Year 2016 per FAOSTAT)[102]

Country/Region
Production
(in 1000s tonnes)
Cultivated area
(in 1000s hectares)
Yield
(q/Ha)

World
19,267
10,650
18.091

 Spain
6,560
2,573
25.490

 Greece
2,343
887
26.414

 Italy
2,092
1,165
17.950

 Turkey
1,730
846
20.460

 Morocco
1,416
1,008
14.044

 Syria
899
765
11.748

 Tunisia
700
1,646
4.253

 Algeria
697
424
16.437

 Egypt
694
67
67.293

 Portugal
617
355
17.394

text: Nutrition[edit]

text:
Olives, green

Marinated green olives

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy
609 kJ (146 kcal)

Carbohydrates

3.84 g

Sugars
0.54 g

Dietary fiber
3.3 g

Fat

15.32 g

Saturated
2.029 g

Monounsaturated
11.314 g

Polyunsaturated
1.307 g

Protein

1.03 g

Vitamins

(%DV)†
Qty

Vitamin A equiv.
beta-Carotene
lutein zeaxanthin

(3%)
20 μg

(2%)
231 μg
510 μg

Thiamine (B1)

(2%)
0.021 mg

Riboflavin (B2)

(1%)
0.007 mg

Niacin (B3)

(2%)
0.237 mg

Vitamin B6

(2%)
0.031 mg

Folate (B9)

(1%)
3 μg

Choline

(3%)
14.2 mg

Vitamin E

(25%)
3.81 mg

Vitamin K

(1%)
1.4 μg

Minerals

Calcium

(5%)
52 mg

Iron

(4%)
0.49 mg

Magnesium

(3%)
11 mg

Phosphorus

(1%)
4 mg

Potassium

(1%)
42 mg

Sodium

(104%)
1556 mg

Other constituents

Water
75.3 g

Full Link to USDA Database entry

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units

†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

text: One hundred grams of cured green olives provide 146 calories, are a rich source of vitamin E (25% of the Daily Value, DV), and contain a large amount of sodium (104% DV); other nutrients are insignificant. Green olives are 75% water, 15% fat, 4% carbohydrates and 1% protein (table).

text: The polyphenol composition of olive fruits varies during fruit ripening and during processing by fermentation when olives are immersed whole in brine or crushed to produce oil.[103] In raw fruit, total polyphenol contents, as measured by the Folin method, are 117 mg/100 g in black olives and 161 mg/100 g in green olives, compared to 55 and 21 mg/100 g for extra virgin and virgin olive oil, respectively.[103] Olive fruit contains several types of polyphenols, mainly tyrosols, phenolic acids, flavonols and flavones, and for black olives, anthocyanins. The main bitter flavor of olives before curing results from oleuropein and its aglycone which total in content, respectively, 72 and 82 mg/100 g in black olives, and 56 and 59 mg/100 g in green olives.[103]

text: During the crushing, kneading and extraction of olive fruit to obtain olive oil, oleuropein, demethyloleuropein and ligstroside are hydrolyzed by endogenous beta-glucosidases to form aldehydic aglycones. The aglycones become soluble in the oil phase, whereas the glycosides remain in the water phase.[citation needed]

text: Polyphenol content also varies with olive cultivar (Spanish Manzanillo highest) and the manner of presentation, with plain olives having higher contents than those that are pitted or stuffed.[104]

text: Allergenic potential[edit]

text: Olive tree pollen is extremely allergenic, with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10.[105] Olea europaea is primarily wind-pollinated,[106] and their light, buoyant pollen is a strong trigger for asthma.[105] One popular variety, "Swan Hill", is widely sold as an "allergy-free" olive tree; however, this variety does bloom and produce allergenic pollen.[105]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Olive tree trunk

Olive flowers

Olivo della Linza. 15th century

A young olive plant, germinated from a seed

Cailletier cultivar, with an olive harvest net on the ground, Contes, France

Olive trees on Shōdo Island, Japan


document_title: Leave Out All the Rest

question_text: linkin park leave out all the rest song meaning

root

text: Leave Out All the Rest

text: Background information[edit]

text: The song's working titles were "Fear" and "When My Time Comes" according to the booklet. While writing, the group went through over thirty lyrical variations before completing the album version. The song combines various synths and samples with raw guitars and drums and powerful vocals. A demo which features Mike Shinoda doing lead vocals can be heard on the Making of Minutes to Midnight documentary, as well as the Linkin Park Underground 9.0 CD where it is entitled "Fear". The song starts with a string sample and electric piano intro, followed by the verse. At the end of the song of the album version, a crowd can be heard which leads into "Bleed It Out", a song that features the background sound of a crowd throughout.

tag: p

text: In a Kerrang! review/interview of the band, and the album, vocalist Chester Bennington had this to say about the song, "We knew this was going to be a single from the very beginning, so we worked really hard on making sure it had great lyrics. I'm singing 'Pretending someone else can come and save me from myself' during it because it's supposed to feel like an apology letter, as though I'm moving on but I want people to remember the good things and not the bad things. A lot of the song is about humility."[5] Mike Shinoda has also stated that Rick Rubin (producer for Minutes to Midnight) was the first to have said "This sounds like a massive single".

text: Media appearances[edit]

text: The intro to the song was featured on an English advert for the US television series Law & Order for Sky One.[citation needed]

text: It was also featured on the original motion picture soundtrack for the 2008 film Twilight. It is played during the end credits. Also, the performance from "Road to Revolution" is available on the Twilight special edition DVD.

text: "Leave Out All the Rest" was the title of a CSI episode that aired on November 6, 2008. The band made a deal with CBS to work the song into the episode. It contained several elements of the song throughout, and pieces of the verses, as well as the chorus, were played at the opening and end of the episode.[6]

text: In 2011 the German action-series Alarm für Cobra 11 used a part of the song (the chorus) in an especially sad scene, it was the fifth time that a Linkin Park title was used in the series.

text: Music video[edit]

text: In an interview with MTV, Mike said that the video, directed by bandmate Joe Hahn, takes place in a futuristic, science fiction influenced setting, and depicts what the daily life of the band's members would be like if they lived in outer space. The band lives in a rundown, artificial habitat that is making its way across the galaxy. At first, they are seen passing the time performing mundane tasks, but then gravity is lost on board the vessel, sending the members floating into what looks like the Sun or a star. The video features no performance footage, though Chester Bennington is seen singing during most of his solo scenes.[7] The video has respectively been influenced by the British movie Sunshine, borrowing similar imagery and a similar concept. Hahn said:

text: We're explorers in space, just like when we go on tour. We're leaving our home life behind, and I guess it kind of ties into 'Leave Out All the Rest', in that we have to leave things behind in order to do something better.

text: The video leaked on May 30, 2008, the same day the band released a statement on their widget at MySpace, saying that the premiere for the video would be on June 2, 2008. It featured in the top ten songs of the week on VH1.[8][9][10][11][12]

text: While playing a show in Germany (München) in June 2008, Shinoda spoke with Warner Bros. Records Germany and they told him that the music video they've made for "Leave Out All the Rest" was not going to be released just yet due to the high success for the single "Given Up" in Germany. He later told this to the fans at the show.[13][14]

text: Chart performance[edit]

text: The song managed to spend one week on the Billboard Pop 100 without being officially released as a single, at #98.[15] The song debuted on the US Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks at #35 and peaked at #11. It is one of Linkin Park's lowest charting songs in the UK to date, peaking at #90, as well as on the Billboard Modern Rock chart, peaking at only #11. "Leave Out All the Rest" debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at #99 and the Billboard Hot Digital Songs at #72. The single would later peak on the Billboard Hot 100 at #94. Despite its mediocre chart performance, the single was still certified Gold by the RIAA in 2009, and later reached Platinum in 2017.

text: Track listings[edit]

text:
CD single • iTunes single

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Leave Out All the Rest"
3:19

2.
"In Pieces" (Live from Projekt Revolution, Washington DC, Aug. 19 '07)
3:47

tag: table

text: All tracks written by Linkin Park.

text:
Maxi single

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Leave Out All the Rest"
3:19

2.
"In Pieces" (Live from Projekt Revolution, Washington DC, Aug. 19 '07)
3:47

3.
"Leave Out All the Rest" (Live from Projekt Revolution, Detroit MI, Aug. 22 '07)
3:26

4.
"Leave Out All the Rest" (Video)

text: All tracks written by Linkin Park.

text:
Japanese single

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Leave Out All the Rest"
3:19

2.
"Leave Out All the Rest" (Live from Projekt Revolution, Detroit MI, Aug. 22 '07)
3:26

3.
"L.O.A.T.R." (M. Shinoda Remix)
3:46

4.
"Leave Out All the Rest" (Video)
3:25

5.
"Leave Out All the Rest" (Live Video)
3:27

text: All tracks written by Linkin Park.

text:
iTunes EP

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Leave Out All the Rest"
3:19

2.
"In Pieces" (Live from Projekt Revolution, Washington DC, Aug. 19 '07)
3:47

3.
"Leave Out All the Rest" (Live from Projekt Revolution, Detroit MI, Aug. 22 '07)
3:26

text: Chart positions[edit]

text:
Chart (2007)
Peak
position

US Billboard Pop 100
98

US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100
17

Chart (2008)
Peak
position

Argentinian Singles Chart
46

Australian ARIA Singles Chart
24

Austrian Singles Chart[16]
17

Brazil (ABPD)[17]
55

Czech Singles Chart[16]
12

European Hot 100 Singles[18]
54

Finland Singles Chart[16]
19

German Singles Chart[16]
15

New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart
38

Polish Singles Chart[19]
3

Portugal Airplay Chart[20]
5

Slovakia Singles Chart[16]
12

Swiss Singles Chart[16]
36

Turkey Top 20 Chart[21]
9

UK Singles Chart
90

US Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks
11

US Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks
33

US Billboard Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks
23

US Billboard Hot 100
94

US Billboard Pop 100
69

Chart (2009)
Peak
position

Swedish Singles Chart
42

Chart (2017)
Peak
position

Czech Republic (Singles Digitál Top 100)[22]
80

US Hot Rock Songs (Billboard)[23]
22

text: Year-end charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2008)
Position

German Singles Chart[24]
93

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

United States (RIAA)[25]
Platinum
1,000,000


document_title: Timeline of the evolutionary history of life

question_text: when did living things begin to live on land

text: Extinction[edit]

text: Species go extinct constantly as environments change, organisms compete for environmental niches, and genetic mutation leads to the rise of new species from older ones. Occasionally biodiversity on the planet takes a hit in the form of a mass extinction in which the extinction rate is much higher than usual.[8] A large extinction event often represents an accumulation of smaller extinction events that take place in a relatively brief period of time.[9]

text: The first known mass extinction in earth's history was the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago. The event led to the loss of most of the planet's obligate anaerobes. The five largest extinction events in earth's history since are these:[10]

text:
End of the Ordovician: 440 million years ago, 86% of all species lost, including graptolites
Late Devonian: 375 million years ago, 75% of species lost, including trilobites
End of the Permian, "The Great Dying": 251 million years ago, 96% of species lost, including tabulate corals, and most extant trees and synapsids
End of the Triassic: 200 million years ago, 80% of species lost, including all of the conodonts
End of the Cretaceous: 66 million years ago, 76% of species lost, including all of the ammonites, mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, and nonavian dinosaurs

text: (Dates and percentages represent estimates.)

text: Smaller extinction events have occurred in the periods between these larger catastrophes, with some standing at the delineation points of the periods and epochs recognized by scientists in geologic time. The Holocene extinction event is currently under way.[11]

text: Factors in mass extinctions include continental drift, changes in atmospheric and marine chemistry, volcanism and other aspects of mountain formation, changes in glaciation, changes in sea level, and impact events.[9]

text: Detailed timeline[edit]

text: In this timeline, Ma (for megaannum) means "million years ago," ka (for kiloannum) means "thousand years ago," and ya means "years ago."

text: Hadean Eon[edit]

text: 4000 Ma and earlier.

text:
Date
Event

4600 Ma
The planet Earth forms from the accretion disc revolving around the young Sun with organic compounds (complex organic molecules) necessary for life having perhaps formed in the protoplanetary disk of cosmic dust grains surrounding it before the formation of the Earth.[12]

4500 Ma
According to the giant impact hypothesis, the Moon was formed when the planet Earth and the hypothesized planet Theia collided, sending a very large number of moonlets into orbit around the young Earth which eventually coalesce to form the Moon.[13] The gravitational pull of the new Moon stabilised the Earth's fluctuating axis of rotation and set up the conditions in which abiogenesis occurred.[14]

4404 Ma
First appearance of liquid water on Earth.

4280 Ma
Earliest appearance of life on Earth.[15][16][17][18]

text: Archean Eon[edit]

text: 4000 Ma – 2500 Ma

text:
Date
Event

4000 Ma
Formation of a greenstone belt of the Acasta Gneiss of the Slave craton in Northwest Territories, Canada, the oldest rock belt in the world.[19]

4100–3800 Ma
Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB): extended barrage of impact events upon the inner planets by meteoroids. Thermal flux from widespread hydrothermal activity during the LHB may have been conducive to abiogenesis and life's early diversification.[20] "Remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.[21][22] According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."[21][relevant? – discuss]

3900–2500 Ma
Cells resembling prokaryotes appear.[23] These first organisms are chemoautotrophs: they use carbon dioxide as a carbon source and oxidize inorganic materials to extract energy. Later, prokaryotes evolve glycolysis, a set of chemical reactions that free the energy of organic molecules such as glucose and store it in the chemical bonds of ATP. Glycolysis (and ATP) continue to be used in almost all organisms, unchanged, to this day.[24][25]

3800 Ma
Formation of a greenstone belt of the Isua complex of the western Greenland region, whose rocks show an isotope frequency suggestive of the presence of life.[19] The earliest evidences for life on Earth are 3.8 billion-year-old biogenic hematite in a banded iron formation of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt in Canada,[26] graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland[27] and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia.[28][29]

3500 Ma
Lifetime of the last universal common ancestor (LUCA);[30][31] the split between bacteria and archaea occurs.[32]
Bacteria develop primitive forms of photosynthesis which at first did not produce oxygen.[33] These organisms generated Adenosine triphosphate by exploiting a proton gradient, a mechanism still used in virtually all organisms.[34]

3000 Ma
Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria evolved; they used water as a reducing agent, thereby producing oxygen as a waste product.[35] The oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in the oceans, creating iron ore. The oxygen concentration in the atmosphere slowly rose, acting as a poison for many bacteria and eventually triggering the Great Oxygenation Event. The Moon, still very close to Earth, caused tides 1,000 feet (305 m) high.[citation needed] The Earth was continually wracked by hurricane-force winds. These extreme mixing influences are thought to have stimulated evolutionary processes.[citation needed]

2800 Ma
Oldest evidence for microbial life on land in the form of organic matter-rich paleosols, ephemeral ponds and alluvial sequences, some of them bearing microfossils.[36]

text: Proterozoic Eon[edit]

text: 2500 Ma – 542 Ma. Contains the Palaeoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic eras.

text:
Date
Event

2500 Ma
Great Oxygenation Event led by cyanobacteria's oxygenic photosynthesis.[35] Commencement of plate tectonics with old marine crust dense enough to subduct.[19]

2000 Ma
Diversification and expansion of acritarchs.[37]

By 1850 Ma
Eukaryotic cells appear. Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles with diverse functions, probably derived from prokaryotes engulfing each other via phagocytosis. (See Symbiogenesis and Endosymbiont). Bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) emerge before, or soon after, the divergence of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic lineages.[38] The appearance of red beds show that an oxidising atmosphere had been produced. Incentives now favoured the spread of eukaryotic life.[39][40][41]

1400 Ma
Great increase in stromatolite diversity.

By 1200 Ma
Meiosis and sexual reproduction are present in single-celled eukaryotes, and possibly in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[42] Sex may even have arisen earlier in the RNA world.[43] Sexual reproduction first appears in the fossil records; it may have increased the rate of evolution.[44]

800 Ma
First multicellular organism may have arisen.[45]

750 Ma
First protozoa (ex: Melanocyrillium)

850–630 Ma
A global glaciation may have occurred.[46][47] Opinion is divided on whether it increased or decreased biodiversity or the rate of evolution.[48][49][50]

600 Ma
The accumulation of atmospheric oxygen allows the formation of an ozone layer.[51] Prior to this, land-based life would probably have required other chemicals to attenuate ultraviolet radiation enough to permit colonisation of the land.[36]

580–542 Ma
The Ediacara biota represent the first large, complex multicellular organisms — although their affinities remain a subject of debate.[52]

580–500 Ma
Most modern phyla of animals begin to appear in the fossil record during the Cambrian explosion.[53][54]

560 Ma
Earliest fungi

550 Ma
First fossil evidence for Ctenophora (comb jellies), Porifera (sponges), Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones)

text: Phanerozoic Eon[edit]

text: 542 Ma – present

text: The Phanerozoic Eon, literally the "period of well-displayed life," marks the appearance in the fossil record of abundant, shell-forming and/or trace-making organisms. It is subdivided into three eras, the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, which are divided by major mass extinctions.

text: Palaeozoic Era[edit]

text: 542 Ma – 251.0 Ma and contains the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian periods.

text:
Date
Event

535 Ma
Major diversification of living things in the oceans: chordates, arthropods (e.g. trilobites, crustaceans), echinoderms, molluscs, brachiopods, foraminifers and radiolarians, etc.

530 Ma
The first known footprints on land date to 530 Ma, indicating that early animal explorations may have predated the development of terrestrial plants.[55]

525 Ma
Earliest graptolites

510 Ma
First cephalopods (nautiloids) and chitons

505 Ma
Fossilization of the Burgess Shale

485 Ma
First vertebrates with true bones (jawless fishes)

450 Ma
First complete conodonts and echinoids appear

440 Ma
First agnathan fishes: Heterostraci, Galeaspida, and Pituriaspida

434 Ma
The first primitive plants move onto land,[56] having evolved from green algae living along the edges of lakes.[57] They are accompanied by fungi[citation needed], which may have aided the colonization of land through symbiosis.

420 Ma
Earliest ray-finned fishes, trigonotarbid arachnids, and land scorpions[58]

410 Ma
First signs of teeth in fish. Earliest Nautilida, lycophytes, and trimerophytes.

395 Ma
First lichens, stoneworts. Earliest harvestmen, mites, hexapods (springtails) and ammonoids. The first known tetrapod tracks on land.

363 Ma
By the start of the Carboniferous Period, the Earth begins to resemble its present state. Insects roamed the land and would soon take to the skies; sharks swam the oceans as top predators,[59] and vegetation covered the land, with seed-bearing plants and forests soon to flourish.
Four-limbed tetrapods gradually gain adaptations which will help them occupy a terrestrial life-habit.

360 Ma
First crabs and ferns. Land flora dominated by seed ferns.

350 Ma
First large sharks, ratfishes, and hagfish

340 Ma
Diversification of amphibians

330 Ma
First amniote vertebrates (Paleothyris)

320 Ma
Synapsids (precursors to mammals) separate from sauropsids (reptiles) in late Carboniferous.[60]

305 Ma
Earliest diapsid reptiles (e.g. Petrolacosaurus)

280 Ma
Earliest beetles, seed plants and conifers diversify while lepidodendrids and sphenopsids decrease. Terrestrial temnospondyl amphibians and pelycosaurs (e.g. Dimetrodon) diversify in species.

275 Ma
Therapsid synapsids separate from pelycosaur synapsids

251.4 Ma
The Permian–Triassic extinction event eliminates over 90-95% of marine species. Terrestrial organisms were not as seriously affected as the marine biota. This "clearing of the slate" may have led to an ensuing diversification, but life on land took 30 million years to completely recover.[61]

text: Mesozoic Era[edit]

text: From 251.4 Ma to 66 Ma and containing the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.

text:
Date
Event

The Mesozoic Marine Revolution begins: increasingly well adapted and diverse predators[who?] pressurize sessile marine groups; the "balance of power" in the oceans shifts dramatically as some groups of prey[who?] adapt more rapidly and effectively than others[who?].

248 Ma
Sturgeon and paddlefish (Acipenseridae) first appear.

245 Ma
Earliest ichthyosaurs

240 Ma
Increase in diversity of gomphodont cynodonts and rhynchosaurs

225 Ma
Earliest dinosaurs (prosauropods), first cardiid bivalves, diversity in cycads, bennettitaleans, and conifers. First teleost fishes. First mammals (Adelobasileus).

220 Ma
Seed-producing Gymnosperm forests dominate the land; herbivores grow to huge sizes to accommodate the large guts necessary to digest the nutrient-poor plants.[citation needed] First flies and turtles (Odontochelys). First coelophysoid dinosaurs.

205
Ma

the Massive extinction of Triassic/Jurassic, that wiped out most of the group of pseudosuchians and was given the opportunity of dinosaurs including the Apatosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, Perrotasaurus, and Stegosaurus to enter its golden age.

200 Ma
The first accepted evidence for viruses that infect eukaryotic cells (at least, the group Geminiviridae) existed.[62] Viruses are still poorly understood and may have arisen before "life" itself, or may be a more recent phenomenon.
Major extinctions in terrestrial vertebrates and large amphibians. Earliest examples of armoured dinosaurs

195 Ma
First pterosaurs with specialized feeding (Dorygnathus). First sauropod dinosaurs. Diversification in small, ornithischian dinosaurs: heterodontosaurids, fabrosaurids, and scelidosaurids.

190 Ma
Pliosauroids appear in the fossil record. First lepidopteran insects (Archaeolepis), hermit crabs, modern starfish, irregular echinoids, corbulid bivalves, and tubulipore bryozoans. Extensive development of sponge reefs.

176 Ma
First members of the Stegosauria group of dinosaurs

170 Ma
Earliest salamanders, newts, cryptoclidids, elasmosaurid plesiosaurs, and cladotherian mammals. Sauropod dinosaurs diversify.

165 Ma
First rays and glycymeridid bivalves

163 Ma
Pterodactyloid pterosaurs first appear[63]

161 Ma
Ceratopsian dinosaurs appear in the fossil record (Yinlong) and the oldest known Eutherian Mammal appear in the fossil record: Juramaia.

160 Ma
Multituberculate mammals (genus Rugosodon) appear in eastern China

155 Ma
First blood-sucking insects (ceratopogonids), rudist bivalves, and cheilostome bryozoans. Archaeopteryx, a possible ancestor to the birds, appears in the fossil record, along with triconodontid and symmetrodont mammals. Diversity in stegosaurian and theropod dinosaurs.

130 Ma
The rise of the angiosperms: Some of these flowering plants bear structures that attract insects and other animals to spread pollen;other angiosperms were pollinated by wind or water. This innovation causes a major burst of animal evolution through coevolution. First freshwater pelomedusid turtles.

120 Ma
Oldest fossils of heterokonts, including both marine diatoms and silicoflagellates

115 Ma
First monotreme mammals

110 Ma
First hesperornithes, toothed diving birds. Earliest limopsid, verticordiid, and thyasirid bivalves.

106 Ma
Spinosaurus, the largest theropod dinosaur, appears in the fossil record

100 Ma
Earliest bees

90 Ma
Extinction of ichthyosaurs. Earliest snakes and nuculanid bivalves. Large diversification in angiosperms: magnoliids, rosids, hamamelidids, monocots, and ginger. Earliest examples of ticks. Probable origins of placental mammals (earliest undisputed fossil evidence is 66 Ma).

80 Ma
First ants

70 Ma
Multituberculate mammals increase in diversity. First yoldiid bivalves.

68 Ma
Tyrannosaurus, the largest terrestrial predator of what is now western North America appears in the fossil record. First species of Triceratops.

text: Cenozoic Era[edit]

text: 66 Ma – present

text:
Date
Event

66 Ma
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event eradicates about half of all animal species, including mosasaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ammonites, belemnites, rudist and inoceramid bivalves, most planktic foraminifers, and all of the dinosaurs excluding the birds.[64]

From 66 Ma
Rapid dominance of conifers and ginkgos in high latitudes, along with mammals becoming the dominant species. First psammobiid bivalves. Earliest rodents. Rapid diversification in ants.

63 Ma
Evolution of the creodonts, an important group of meat-eating (carnivorous) mammals

60 Ma
Diversification of large, flightless birds. Earliest true primates, along with the first semelid bivalves, edentate, carnivoran and lipotyphlan mammals, and owls. The ancestors of the carnivorous mammals (miacids) were alive.

56 Ma
Gastornis, a large flightless bird, appears in the fossil record

55 Ma
Modern bird groups diversify (first song birds, parrots, loons, swifts, woodpeckers), first whale (Himalayacetus), earliest lagomorphs, armadillos, appearance of sirenian, proboscidean, perissodactyl and artiodactyl mammals in the fossil record. Angiosperms diversify. The ancestor (according to theory) of the species in the genus Carcharodon, the early mako shark Isurus hastalis, is alive.

52 Ma
First bats appear (Onychonycteris)

50 Ma
Peak diversity of dinoflagellates and nannofossils, increase in diversity of anomalodesmatan and heteroconch bivalves, brontotheres, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and camels appear in the fossil record, diversification of primates

40 Ma
Modern-type butterflies and moths appear. Extinction of Gastornis. Basilosaurus, one of the first of the giant whales, appeared in the fossil record.

37 Ma
First nimravid ("false saber-toothed cats") carnivores — these species are unrelated to modern-type felines

35 Ma
Grasses diversify from among the monocot angiosperms; grasslands begin to expand. Slight increase in diversity of cold-tolerant ostracods and foraminifers, along with major extinctions of gastropods, reptiles, amphibians, and multituberculate mammals. Many modern mammal groups begin to appear: first glyptodonts, ground sloths, canids, peccaries, and the first eagles and hawks. Diversity in toothed and baleen whales.

33 Ma
Evolution of the thylacinid marsupials (Badjcinus)

30 Ma
First balanids and eucalypts, extinction of embrithopod and brontothere mammals, earliest pigs and cats

28 Ma
Paraceratherium appears in the fossil record, the largest terrestrial mammal that ever lived

25 Ma
Pelagornis sandersi appears in the fossil record, the largest flying bird that ever lived

25 Ma
First deer

20 Ma
First giraffes, hyenas, bears and giant anteaters, increase in bird diversity

15 Ma
Genus Mammut appears in the fossil record, first bovids and kangaroos, diversity in Australian megafauna

10 Ma
Grasslands and savannas are established, diversity in insects, especially ants and termites, horses increase in body size and develop high-crowned teeth, major diversification in grassland mammals and snakes

9.5 Ma
The Great American Interchange, where various land and freshwater faunas migrated between North and South America. Armadillos, opossums, hummingbirds Phorusrhacids, Ground Sloths, Glyptodonts, and Meridiungulates traveled to North America, while horses, tapirs, saber-toothed cats, Jaguars, Bears, Coaties, Ferrets, Otters, Skunks and deer entered South America.

6.5 Ma
First hominins (Sahelanthropus)

6 Ma
Australopithecines diversify (Orrorin, Ardipithecus)

5 Ma
First tree sloths and hippopotami, diversification of grazing herbivores like zebras and elephants, large carnivorous mammals like lions and the genus Canis, burrowing rodents, kangaroos, birds, and small carnivores, vultures increase in size, decrease in the number of perissodactyl mammals. Extinction of nimravid carnivores.

4.8 Ma
Mammoths appear in the fossil record

4 Ma
Evolution of Australopithecus, Stupendemys appears in the fossil record as the largest freshwater turtle, first modern elephants, giraffes, zebras, lions, rhinoceros and gazelles appear in the fossil record

2.7 Ma
Evolution of Paranthropus

2.5 Ma
The earliest species of Smilodon evolve

2 Ma
First members of the genus Homo appear, Homo Habilis in the fossil record. Diversification of conifers in high latitudes. The eventual ancestor of cattle, aurochs (Bos primigenus), evolves in India.

1.7 Ma
Extinction of australopithecines

1.2 Ma
Evolution of Homo antecessor. The last members of Paranthropus die out.

800 Ka
Short-faced bears (Arctodus simus) become abundant in North America

600 ka
Evolution of Homo heidelbergensis

350 ka
Evolution of Neanderthals

300 ka
Gigantopithecus, a giant relative of the orangutan from Asia dies out

250 ka
Anatomically modern humans appear in Africa.[65][66][67] Around 50,000 years before present they start colonising the other continents, replacing the Neanderthals in Europe and other hominins in Asia.

40 ka
The last of the giant monitor lizards (Varanus priscus) die out

30 ka
Extinction of Neanderthals, first domestic dogs

15 ka
The last woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) are believed to have gone extinct

11 ka
Short-faced bears vanish from North America, with the last giant ground sloths dying out. All Equidae become extinct in North America.

10 ka
The Holocene epoch starts 10,000[68] years ago after the Late Glacial Maximum. The last mainland species of woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenus) die out, as does the last Smilodon species.

8 ka
The Giant Lemur died out

text: Historical extinctions[edit]

text:
Date
Event

6000 ya (c. 4000 BC)
Small populations of American mastodon die off in places like Utah and Michigan

4500 ya (c. 2500 BC)
The last members of a dwarf race of woolly mammoths vanish from Wrangel Island near Alaska

c. 600 ya (c. 1400)
The moa and its predator, Haast's eagle, die out in New Zealand

390 ya (1627)
The last recorded wild aurochs die out

329 ya (1688)
The dodo goes extinct

249 ya (1768)
The Steller's sea cow goes extinct

134 ya (1883)
The quagga, a subspecies of zebra, goes extinct

103 ya (1914)
Martha, last known passenger pigeon, dies

81 ya (1936)
The thylacine goes extinct in a Tasmanian zoo, the last member of the family Thylacinidae

65 ya (1952)
The Caribbean monk seal goes extinct[71]

9 ya (2008)
The baiji, the Yangtze river dolphin, becomes functionally extinct, according to the IUCN Red List[72]

6 ya (2011)
The western black rhinoceros is declared extinct


document_title: Plant propagation

question_text: the plant which propagates with the help of its leaves is

text: Plant propagation

text: Sexual[edit]

text: Seeds and spores can be used for reproduction (through e.g. sowing). Seeds are typically produced from sexual reproduction within a species, because genetic recombination has occurred. A plant grown from seeds may have different characteristics from its parents. Some species produce seeds that require special conditions to germinate, such as cold treatment. The seeds of many Australian plants and plants from southern Africa and the American west require smoke or fire to germinate. Some plant species, including many trees do not produce seeds until they reach maturity, which may take many years. Seeds can be difficult to acquire and some plants do not produce seed at all. Some plants (like certain[1] Plants modified using genetic use restriction technology may produce seed, but not fertile seed.[2] In certain cases, this is done to prevent the accidental spreading of these plants, for example by birds and other animals.

text: Asexual propagation[edit]

text: Plants have a number of mechanisms for asexual or vegetative reproduction. Some of these have been taken advantage of by horticulturists and gardeners to multiply or clone plants rapidly. Humans may utilize these processes as propagation methods, such as tissue culture and grafting. Plants are produced using material from a single parent and as such there is no exchange of genetic material, therefore vegetative propagation methods almost always produce plants that are identical to the parent. Vegetative reproduction uses plants parts such as roots, stems and leaves.

text: In some plants seeds can be produced without fertilization and the seeds contain only the genetic material of the parent plant. Therefore, propagation via asexual seeds or apomixis is asexual reproduction but not vegetative propagation.

text: Techniques for vegetative propagation include:

text:
Air or ground layering
Division
Grafting and bud grafting, widely used in fruit tree propagation
Micropropagation
Stolons or runners
Storage organs such as bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes
Striking or cuttings
Twin-scaling
Offsets

text: Heated propagator[edit]

text: A heated propagator is a horticultural device to maintain a warm and damp environment for seeds and cuttings to grow in.

text: This can be in the form of a clear enclosed bin sitting over a hotpad, or even a portable heater pointed at the bin. The key is to keep the moisture in the clear bin, while keeping lighting over the top of it, usually.

text: Seed propagation mat[edit]

text: An electric seed-propagation mat is a heated rubber mat covered by a metal cage which is used in gardening. The mats are made so that planters containing seedlings can be placed on top of the metal cage without the risk of starting a fire. In extreme cold, gardeners place a loose plastic cover over the planters/mats which creates a sort of miniature greenhouse. The constant and predictable heat allows people to garden in the winter months when the weather is generally too cold for seedlings to survive naturally. When combined with a lighting system, many plants can be grown indoors using these mats.