document_title: Father's Day

question_text: when does father's day celebrated in india

question_tokens: when does father 's day celebrated in india

root

text: Father's Day

text: History and traditions[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: A customary day for the celebration of fatherhood in Catholic Europe is known to date back to at least the Middle Ages, and it is observed on 19 March, as the feast day of Saint Joseph, who is referred to as the fatherly Nutritor Domini ("Nourisher of the Lord") in Catholicism and "the putative father of Jesus" in southern European tradition. This celebration was brought to the Americas by the Spanish and Portuguese, and in Latin America, Father's Day is still celebrated on 19 March. The Catholic Church actively supported the custom of a celebration of fatherhood on St. Joseph's day from either the last years of the 14th century or from the early 15th century[citation needed], apparently on the initiative of the Franciscans[citation needed].

tag: p

text: In the Coptic Church, the celebration of fatherhood is also observed on St Joseph's Day, but the Copts observe this celebration on July 20. This Coptic celebration may date back to the fifth century.[citation needed]

text: In the United States[edit]

text: Beginnings[edit]

text: Father's Day was not celebrated in the US, outside Catholic traditions, until the 20th century. As a civic celebration in the US, it was inaugurated in the early 20th century to complement Mother's Day by celebrating fathers and male parenting.

text: After Anna Jarvis' successful promotion of Mother's Day in Grafton, West Virginia, the first observance of a "Father's Day" was held on July 5, 1908, in Fairmont, West Virginia, in the Williams Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church South, now known as Central United Methodist Church.[1] Grace Golden Clayton was mourning the loss of her father, when in December 1907, the Monongah Mining Disaster in nearby Monongah killed 361 men, 250 of them fathers, leaving around a thousand fatherless children. Clayton suggested that her pastor Robert Thomas Webb honor all those fathers.[2][3][4][5]

text: Clayton's event did not have repercussions outside Fairmont for several reasons, among them: the city was overwhelmed by other events, the celebration was never promoted outside the town itself and no proclamation of it was made by the city council. Also, two events overshadowed this event: the celebration of Independence Day July 4, 1908, with 12,000 attendants and several shows including a hot air balloon event, which took over the headlines in the following days, and the death of a 16-year-old girl on July 4. The local church and council were overwhelmed and they did not even think of promoting the event, and it was not celebrated again for many years. The original sermon was not reproduced by the press and it was lost. Finally, Clayton was a quiet person, who never promoted the event and never talked to other persons about it.[3][4][5]

text: Failed attempts at establishing a Father's Day[edit]

text: In 1911, Jane Addams proposed that a citywide Father's Day celebration be held in Chicago, but she was turned down.[6]

text: In 1912, there was a Father's Day celebration in Vancouver, Washington, suggested by Methodist pastor J.J. Berringer of the Irvington Methodist Church. They mistakenly believed that they had been the first to celebrate such a day.[1] They followed a 1911 suggestion by the Portland Oregonian.[6]

text: Harry C. Meek, a member of Lions Clubs International, claimed that he had first come up with the idea for Father's Day in 1915.[1][6] Meek said that the third Sunday in June was chosen because it was his birthday.[6] The Lions Club has named him the "Originator of Father's Day".[1] Meek made many efforts to promote Father's Day and make it an official holiday.[1][6]

text: Establishment of the holiday[edit]

text: On June 19, 1910, a Father's Day celebration was held at the YMCA in Spokane, Washington by Sonora Smart Dodd.[7][8] Her father, the civil war veteran William Jackson Smart, was a single parent who raised his six children there.[7] She was also a member of Old Centenary Presbyterian Church (now Knox Presbyterian Church),[9] where she first proposed the idea. After hearing a sermon about Jarvis' Mother's Day in 1909 at Central Methodist Episcopal Church, she told her pastor that fathers should have a similar holiday to honor them.[7] Although she initially suggested June 5, her father's birthday, the pastors did not have enough time to prepare their sermons, and the celebration was deferred to the third Sunday in June.[1][6] Several local clergymen accepted the idea, and on June 19, 1910, the first Father's Day, "sermons honoring fathers were presented throughout the city".[10]

text: However, in the 1920s, Dodd stopped promoting the celebration because she was studying at the Art Institute of Chicago, and it faded into relative obscurity, even in Spokane.[11] In the 1930s, Dodd returned to Spokane and started promoting the celebration again, raising awareness at a national level.[12] She had the help of those trade groups that would benefit most from the holiday, for example the manufacturers of ties, tobacco pipes, and any traditional present for fathers.[13] By 1938, she had the help of the Father's Day Council, founded by the New York Associated Men's Wear Retailers to consolidate and systematize the holiday's commercial promotion.[14] Americans resisted the holiday for its first few decades, viewing it as nothing more than an attempt by merchants to replicate the commercial success of Mother's Day, and newspapers frequently featured cynical and sarcastic attacks and jokes.[15] However, the said merchants remained resilient and even incorporated these attacks into their advertisements.[16] By the mid-1980s, the Father's Day Council wrote, "(...) [Father's Day] has become a Second Christmas for all the men's gift-oriented industries."[17]

text: A bill to accord national recognition of the holiday was introduced in Congress in 1913.[18] In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson went to Spokane to speak at a Father's Day celebration[19] and he wanted to make it an officially recognized federal holiday, but Congress resisted, fearing that it would become commercialized.[20] US President Calvin Coolidge recommended in 1924 that the day be observed throughout the entire nation, but he stopped short at issuing a national proclamation.[19] Two earlier attempts to formally recognize the holiday had been defeated by Congress.[19][21] In 1957, Maine Senator Margaret Chase Smith wrote a Father's Day proposal accusing Congress of ignoring fathers for 40 years while honoring mothers, thus "[singling] out just one of our two parents".[21] In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued the first presidential proclamation honoring fathers, designating the third Sunday in June as Father's Day.[20] Six years later, the day was made a permanent national holiday when President Richard Nixon signed it into law in 1972.[19][20][21][22]

text: In addition to Father's Day, International Men's Day is celebrated in many countries on November 19 in honor of men and boys who are not fathers.

text: Spelling[edit]

text: In the United States, Dodd used the "Fathers' Day" spelling on her original petition for the holiday,[7] but the spelling "Father's Day" was already used in 1913 when a bill was introduced to the U.S. Congress as the first attempt to establish the holiday,[18] and it was still spelled the same way when its creator was commended in 2008 by the U.S. Congress.[23]

text: Dates around the world[edit]

text: The officially recognized date of Father's Day varies from country to country. This section lists some significant examples, in order of date of observance.

text:
Gregorian calendar

Occurrence
Dates
Country

February 23

 Russia (Defender of the Fatherland Day[24])*

St Joseph's Day

March 19

 Andorra (Dia del Pare)
 Angola
 Belgium (Antwerp)
 Bolivia
 Croatia[25]
 Honduras[26]
 Italy (Festa del papà)
 Liechtenstein
 Mozambique (Dia do Pai)
 Portugal (Dia do Pai)
 Spain (Día del Padre)
  Switzerland (Canton Ticino)

May 7

 Kazakhstan

May 8

 South Korea (Parents' Day)

Second Sunday in May

May 14, 2017
May 13, 2018
May 12, 2019

 Romania[27] (Ziua Tatălui)

Third Sunday in May

May 21, 2017
May 20, 2018
May 19, 2019

 Tonga

Ascension Day

May 25, 2017
May 10, 2018
May 30, 2019

 Germany

First Sunday in June

Jun 4, 2017
Jun 3, 2018
Jun 2, 2019

 Lithuania (Tėvo diena)
  Switzerland

June 5

 Denmark[28] (also Constitution Day)

Second Sunday in June

Jun 11, 2017
Jun 10, 2018
Jun 9, 2019

 Austria
 Belgium

Third Sunday in June

Jun 18, 2017
Jun 17, 2018
Jun 16, 2019
Jun 21, 2020

 Afghanistan
 Algeria
 Albania
 Antigua and Barbuda
 Argentina[29]
 Aruba
 Bahamas
 Bahrain
 Bangladesh
 Barbados
 Belize
 Bermuda
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Brunei
 Bulgaria
 Burkina Faso
 Cambodia
 Canada
 Chad
 Chile[30]
 Colombia
 Comoros
 Costa Rica[31]
 Cuba[32]
 Curaçao
 Cyprus
 Czech Republic
 Dominica
 Ecuador
 Ethiopia
 France
 Georgia
 Ghana
 Greece
 Guyana
 Hong Kong
 Hungary
 India
 Ireland
 Isle of Man
 Ivory Coast
 Jamaica
 Japan
 Kenya
 Kuwait
 Laos
 Macao
 Mali
 Madagascar
 Malaysia
 Maldives
 Malta
 Mauritius
 Mexico[33]
 Mozambique (Nao e o dia)
 Myanmar
 Namibia
 Netherlands
 Nigeria
 Oman
 Pakistan
 Panama[34]
 Paraguay
 Peru[35]
 Philippines[36]
 Puerto Rico
 Qatar
 Saint Lucia
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 Saudi Arabia
 Senegal
 Singapore
 Sierra Leone
 Slovakia
 South Africa
 Sri Lanka
 Suriname
 Trinidad and Tobago
 Tunisia
 Turkey
 Uganda
 Ukraine[37]
 United Kingdom[38]
 United States
 Venezuela
 Vietnam
 Zambia
 Zimbabwe[39]

June 17

 El Salvador[40]
 Guatemala[41]

June 21

 Egypt
 Jordan
 Kosovo
 Lebanon
 Syria
 United Arab Emirates

June 22

 Guernsey
 Jersey

June 23

 Nicaragua
 Poland

Last Sunday in June

Jun 25, 2017
Jun 24, 2018
Jun 30, 2019

 Haiti

Second Sunday in July

Jul 9, 2017
Jul 8, 2018
Jul 14, 2019

 Uruguay

Last Sunday in July

Jul 30, 2017
Jul 29, 2018
Jul 28, 2019

 Dominican Republic

August 8

 China**
 Mongolia
 Taiwan

Second Sunday in August

Aug 13, 2017
Aug 12, 2018
Aug 11, 2019

 Brazil
 Samoa

Last Monday in August

Aug 28, 2017
Aug 27, 2018
Aug 26, 2019

 South Sudan

First Sunday in September

Sep 3, 2017
Sep 2, 2018
Sep 1, 2019

 Australia
 Fiji
 New Zealand
 Papua New Guinea

Second Sunday in September

Sep 10, 2017
Sep 9, 2018
Sep 8, 2019

 Latvia

First Sunday in October

Oct 1, 2017
Oct 7, 2018
Oct 6, 2019

 Luxembourg

Second Sunday in November

Nov 12, 2017
Nov 11, 2018
Nov 10, 2019

 Estonia (Isadepäev)
 Finland (Isänpäivä)
 Iceland
 Norway
 Sweden

November 12

 Indonesia

December 5

 Thailand (The birthday of King Bhumibol)[42]

Hindu calendar

Definition
Sample dates
Country/territory

Bhadrapada Amavasya
(Gokarna Aunsi)

Between August 30 and September 30

   Nepal[43]

Islamic calendar

Occurrence
Sample dates
Country/territory

13 Rajab, Ali Ibn Abi Talib birthday

April 21, 2016
April 10, 2017

 Iran
 Kuwait
 Bahrain
 Iraq
 Oman
 Qatar
 Egypt
 Yemen
 Syria
 Lebanon
 Somalia
 Sudan
 Mauritania

tag: table

text:
*Officially, as the name suggests, the holiday celebrates people who are serving or were serving the Russian Armed Forces (both men and women). But the congratulations are traditionally, nationally accepted by all fathers, other adult men and male children as well.
**There is no official Father's Day of the P.R. China. During the Republican period prior to 1949, Father's Day on August 8 was first celebrated in Shanghai in 1945.

text: International history and traditions[edit]

text: Argentina[edit]

text: Father's Day in Argentina is celebrated on the third Sunday of June.

text: There have been attempts to change the date to August 24, to commemorate the day on which the Father of the Nation José de San Martín became a father.[29] In 1953, the proposal to celebrate Father's Day in all educational establishments on August 24, in honor of José de San Martín, was raised to the General Direction of Schools of Mendoza Province. The day was celebrated for the first time in 1958, on the third Sunday of June, but it was not included in the school calendars due to pressure from several groups.[44]

text: Schools in the Mendoza Province continued to celebrate Father's Day on August 24, and, in 1982, the provincial governor passed a law declaring Father's Day in the province to be celebrated on that day.[44]

text: In 2004, a proposal to change the date to August 24 were presented to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies as a single, unified project.

text: Aruba[edit]

text: In Aruba, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, Father's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of September, which is the first Sunday of Spring in Australia, and is not a public holiday. At school, children handcraft their present for their fathers. Consumer goods companies have all sorts of special offers for fathers: socks, ties, electronics, suits, and men's healthcare products. Most families present fathers with gifts and cards, and share a meal to show appreciation, much like Mother's Day.

text: YMCA Victoria continues the tradition of honouring the role fathers and father figures play in parenting through the annual awarding of Local Community Father of the Year in 32 municipalities in Victoria. The Father's Day Council of Victoria annually recognises fathers in the Father of the Year Award.[45]

text: Austria[edit]

text: In Austria, Father's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of June and it is not a public holiday.

text: Belgium[edit]

text: In Belgium, Father's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of June and it is not a public holiday.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: In Brazil Father's Day (Dia dos Pais, in Portuguese) is celebrated three months after Mother's Day, on the second Sunday of August. Publicist Sylvio Bhering picked the day in honor of Saint Joachim, patron of fathers. While it is not an official holiday (see Public holidays in Brazil), it is widely observed and typically involves spending time with and giving gifts to one's father or father figure.

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Father's Day typically involves spending time with one's father or the father figures in one's life. Small family gatherings and the giving of gifts may be part of the festivities organized for Father's Day.

text: China[edit]

text: In People's Republic of China, there is no official Father's Day. Some people celebrate on the third Sunday of June, according to the tradition of the United States.

text: Prior to the People's Republic, when the Republic of China governed from Nanjing, Father's Day was celebrated on August 8. This was determined by the fact that the eighth (ba) day of the eighth (ba) month makes two "eights" (八八, ba-ba), which sounds similar to the colloquial word for "daddy" (ba-ba，爸爸). It is still celebrated on this date in areas still under the control of the Republic of China, including Taiwan.

text: Costa Rica[edit]

text: In Costa Rica, the Unidad Social Cristiana party presented a bill to change the celebration of Father's Day from the third Sunday of June to March 19, the day of Saint Joseph.[46] That was in order to give tribute to this saint, who gave his name to the capital of the country San José, Costa Rica, and so family heads will be able to celebrate the Father's Day at the same time as the Feast of Saint Joseph the Worker.[31] The official date is still the third Sunday of June.

text: Croatia[edit]

text: In Croatia, according to the Roman Catholic tradition, fathers are celebrated on Saint Joseph's Day (Dan svetog Josipa), March 19. It is not a public holiday.

text: Denmark[edit]

text: In Denmark, Father's Day is celebrated on June 5.[28] It coincides with Constitution Day.

text: Estonia[edit]

text: In Estonia, Father's day ("Isadepäev") is celebrated on the second Sunday of November. It is an established flag day and a national holiday.

text: Finland[edit]

text: In Finland, Father's Day (Isänpäivä, Fars dag) is celebrated on the second Sunday of November. It is an established flag day.

text: France[edit]

text: In France lighter manufacturer "Flaminaire" introduced the idea of father's day first in 1949 for commercial reasons. Director "Marcel Quercia" wanted to sell their lighter in France. In 1950, they introduced "la Fête des Pères", which would take place every third Sunday of June (following the American example). Their slogan « Nos papas nous l'ont dit, pour la fête des pères, ils désirent tous un Flaminaire » (Our fathers told us, for father's day, they all want a Flaminaire). In 1952, the holiday was officially decreed. A national father's day committee was set up to give a prize for fathers that deserved it most (originally, candidates were nominated by the social services of each town hall's/mayor's office); This complements "la Fête des Mères" (Mother's day) which was made official in France in 1928 and added to the calendar in Vichy in 1941.

text: Germany[edit]

text: In Germany, Father's Day (Vatertag) is celebrated differently from other parts of the world.[47] It is always celebrated on Ascension Day (the Thursday forty days after Easter), which is a federal holiday. Regionally, it is also called men's day, Männertag, or gentlemen's day, Herrentag. It is a tradition for groups of males (young and old but usually excluding pre-teenage boys) to do a hiking tour with one or more smaller wagons, Bollerwagen, pulled by manpower. In the wagons are wine or beer bottles (according to the region) and traditional regional food, Hausmannskost. Many men use this holiday as an opportunity to get drunk.[47] According to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, alcohol-related traffic accidents multiply by three on this day.[48] The tradition of Father's Day is especially prevalent in Eastern Germany.[47]

text: These traditions are probably rooted in Christian Ascension Day's processions to the farmlands, which has been celebrated since the 18th century.[49][50] Men would be seated in a wooden cart and carried to the village's plaza, and the mayor would award a prize to the father who had the most children, usually a big piece of ham.[49] In the late 19th century the religious component was progressively lost, especially in urban areas such as Berlin, and groups of men organized walking excursions with beer and ham.[49] By the 20th century, alcohol consumption had become a major part of the tradition.[49][51] Many people will take the following Friday off at work, and some schools are closed on that Friday as well; many people then use the resulting four-day-long weekend for a short vacation.

text: Greece[edit]

text: Father's Day, is observed on the feast day of Fathers, It is celebrated as a public international day, like in many other countries including the U.S., on the third Sunday of June. In Europe like in the rest of the world, it became a manifestation of divorced fathers, and the day was inaugurated by Professor Dr Nicolas Spitalas (http://spitalas.blogspot.com) who created also the International Movement of Dads. His Association SYGAPA (Men's and Fathers' Dignity (www.sos-sygapa.eu) is the biggest movement in the world (35.000 members). In Greece, like in other European countries, this day is named (Fête des Peres/Feast of Fathers)

text: Haiti[edit]

text: In Haiti, Father's Day (Fête des peres) is celebrated on the last Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Fathers are recognized and celebrated on this day with cards, gifts, breakfast, lunch brunch or early Sunday dinner; whether enjoying the day at the beach or mountains, spending family time or doing favourite activities .

text: Children exclaim "bonne fête papa", while everyone wishes all fathers "bonne Fête des Pères". (Happy Father's Day)

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: In Hong Kong, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.

text: Hungary[edit]

text: In Hungary, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.

text: India[edit]

text: Father's Day (Telugu: ఫాదర్స్ డే)is not celebrated in all of India. But is observed the third Sunday of June by mostly westernized urban centers. The event is not a public holiday. The day is usually celebrated only in bigger cities of India like Hyderabad, Chennai, Mumbai, New Delhi, Kanpur, Bengaluru, Kolkata and others. After this day was first observed in the United States in 1908 and gradually gained popularity,[52] Indian metropolitan cities, much later, followed suit by recognising this event. In India, the day is usually celebrated with children giving gifts like greeting cards, electronic gadgets, shirts, coffee mugs or books to their fathers.

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: In Indonesia, Father's Day is celebrated on November 12 and is not a public holiday. Father's Day in Indonesia was first declared in 2006 in Solo City Hall attended by hundreds of people from various community groups, including people from community of inter-religion communication. Because of its recent declaration, there is not very much hype about the celebration, compared to the celebration of Mother's Day on December 22.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: In Ireland, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.

text: Israel[edit]

text: In Israel, Father's Day is usually celebrated on May 1 together with Workers' Day or Labour Day.[citation needed]

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy, according to the Roman Catholic tradition, Father's Day is celebrated on Saint Joseph's Day, commonly called Feast of Saint Joseph (Festa di San Giuseppe), March 19. It was a public holiday until 1977.

text: Japan[edit]

text: In Japan, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.

text: Kazakhstan[edit]

text: Kazakhstan continues the Soviet Union's tradition of celebrating Defender of the Fatherland Day instead of Father's Day like in Russia and other former soviet countries. It is usually called "Man's Day" and it is considered equivalent of Father's Day. It is still celebrated on February 23.

text: Kenya[edit]

text: In Kenya, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.

text: Korea[edit]

text: In South Korea, Parents' day is celebrated on May 8 and is not a public holiday.

text: Latvia[edit]

text: In Latvia, Father's Day (Tēvu diena) is celebrated on the second Sunday of September and is not a public holiday. In Latvia people did not always celebrate this day because of the USSR's influence with its own holidays. This day in Latvia was 'officially born' in 2008 when it was celebrated and marked in the calendar for the first time on September 14 (second September Sunday) to promote the idea that man as the father must be satisfied and proud of his family and children, also, the father is important to gratitude and loving words from his family for devoted to continuous altruistic concerns. Because this day is new to the country it does not have established unique traditions, but people borrow ideas from other country's Father's Day traditions to congratulate fathers in Latvia.

text: Lithuania[edit]

text: In Lithuania, Father's Day (Tėvo diena) is celebrated on the first Sunday of June and is a public holiday.

text: Macao[edit]

text: In Macau, Father's Day (Dia do Pai) is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: In Malaysia, Father's Day falls on the third Sunday of June.

text: Malta[edit]

text: Malta has followed the international trend and celebrates Father’s Day on the third Sunday in June. As in the case of Mother’s Day, the introduction of Father’s Day celebrations in Malta was encouraged by Frans H Said (Uncle Frans of the children’s radio programmes). The first mention of Father’s Day was in June 1977, [53] and the day is now part of the local events calendar. (The Times of Malta 11 June 2017) ( Il-Mument - Maltese newspaper- 18 June 2017)

text: Mexico[edit]

text: In Mexico, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.

text: Mongolia[edit]

text: The Mongolian Men's Association began the celebration of Father's Day on 8 of August since 2005.

text: Nepal[edit]

text: The Newar population (natives of Kathmandu valley) in Nepal honors fathers on the day of kusa aunsi, which occurs in late August or early September, depending on the year, since it depends on the lunar calendar. The Western-inspired celebration of Father's Day that was imported into the country is always celebrated on the same day as Gokarna Aunsi.

text: The rest of the population has also begun to celebrate the Gokarna Aunsi day[54] It is commonly known as Abu ya Khwa Swoyegu in Nepal Bhasa or Buwaako mukh herne din (बुवाको मुख हेर्ने दिन) in Nepali (literally "day for looking at father's face").[43][55] On the new moon day (Amavasya) it is traditional to pay respect to one's deceased father; Hindus go to the Shiva temple of Gokarneswor Mahadev, in Gokarna, a suburb of Kathmandu[56] while Buddhists go to Jan Bahal (Seto Machhendranath or white Tara) temple in Kathmandu.

text: Traditionally, in the Kathmandu Valley, the south-western corner is reserved for women and women-related rituals, and the north-eastern is for men and men-related rituals. The worship place for Mata Tirtha Aunsi ("Mother Pilgrimage New Moon") is located in Mata Tirtha in the south-western half of the valley, while the worship place for Gokarna Aunsi is located in the north-eastern half. This division is reflected in many aspects of the life in the Kathmandu Valley.[57]

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Netherlands, Father's Day (Vaderdag) is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Traditionally, as on Mother's Day, fathers get breakfast in bed made by their children and families gather together and have dinner, usually at the grandparents' house. In recent years, families also started having dinner out, and as on Mother's Day, it is one of the busiest days for restaurants. At school, children handcraft their present for their fathers. Consumer goods companies have all sorts of special offers for fathers: socks, ties, electronics, suits, and men's healthcare products.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In New Zealand, Father's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of September and it is not a public holiday. Fathers' Day seems to have been first observed at St Matthew's Church, Auckland on 14 July 1929[58] and first appeared in commercial advertising the following year.[59] By 1931 other churches had adopted the day. In 1935 much of Australia moved to mark the day at the beginning of September[60] and New Zealand followed, with a Wellington advert in 1937,[61] a Christchurch Salvation Army service in 1938[62] and in Auckland from 1939.[63]

text: Norway[edit]

text: In Norway, Father's day (Farsdag), is celebrated on the second Sunday of November. It is not a public holiday.

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. The Rutgers WPF launched a campaign titled 'Greening Pakistan – Promoting Responsible Fatherhood' on Father's Day (Sunday June 18, 2017) across Pakistan to promote active fatherhood and responsibility for the care and upbringing of children.[64][65] Father's Day is not a public holiday in Pakistan.

text: Peru[edit]

text: In Peru, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. People usually give a present to their fathers and spend time with him mostly during a family meal.

text: Philippines[edit]

text: In the Philippines, Father's Day is officially celebrated every first Monday of December, but it is not a public holiday.[66] It is more widely observed by the public on the 3rd Sunday of June perhaps due to American influence.

text: Poland[edit]

text: In Poland, Father's Day (in Polish: Dzień Ojca) is celebrated on June 23 and is not a public holiday.

text: Portugal[edit]

text: Father's Day ("Dia do Pai") is celebrated on March 19 (see Roman Catholic tradition below) in Portugal. Father's Day is not a bank holiday.

text: Roman Catholic tradition[edit]

text: In the Roman Catholic tradition, Fathers are celebrated on Saint Joseph's Day, commonly called the Feast of Saint Joseph, March 19, though in certain countries Father's Day has become a secular celebration.[67] It is also common for Catholics to honor their "spiritual father," their parish priest, on Father's Day.[68]

text: Romania[edit]

text: The Law instituting the Father's day celebration in Romania passed on September 29th, 2009 and stated that Father's day will be celebrated annually on the second Sunday of May. First time it was celebrated on May 9th 2010. This year it was celebrated on 13 May 2018. The next dates this celebration will take place are: 12 May 2019, 10 May 2020, 9 May 2021, 8 May 2022, 14 May 2023, 12 May 2024 and 11 May 2025. [27].

text: Russia[edit]

text: Russia continues the Soviet Union's tradition of celebrating Defender of the Fatherland Day instead of Father's Day. It is usually called "Man's Day" and it is considered the Russian equivalent of Father's Day.[24]

text: American Samoa and Samoa[edit]

text: In Samoa, Father's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in August, and is a recognised national holiday on the Monday following.

text: Seychelles[edit]

text: In Seychelles, Father's Day is celebrated on June 16 and is not a public holiday.[69]

text: Singapore[edit]

text: In Singapore, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June but is not a public holiday.

text: Slovakia[edit]

text: In Slovakia, Father's Day (In slovak: deň otcov) is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. It is not a public holiday

text: South Africa[edit]

text: In South Africa, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. It is not a public holiday.

text: South Sudan[edit]

text: In South Sudan, Father's Day is celebrated on the last Monday of August. President Salva Kiir Mayardit proclaimed it before August 27, 2012. First celebrated on August 27, 2012, Father's Day was not celebrated in South Sudan in 2011 (due to the country's independence).

text: Spain[edit]

text: Father's Day, El Día del Padre, is observed on the feast day of Saint Joseph, which is March 19.[70] It is celebrated as a public holiday in some regions of Spain.[71]

text: Sri Lanka[edit]

text: Father's Day (In sinhala : Piyawarunge dhinaya, පියවරුන්ගේ දිනය & in Tamil: Thanthaiyar Thinam, தந்தையர் தினம்), is observed on the third Sunday of June. It is not a public holiday. Many schools hold special events to honor fathers.

text: Sudan[edit]

text: In Sudan, Father's Day (عيد الأب), is celebrated on the twenty-first of June.

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden, Father's day (Fars dag), is celebrated on the second Sunday of November, but is not a public holiday.

text: Taiwan[edit]

text: In Taiwan, Father's Day is not an official holiday, but is widely observed on August 8, the eighth day of the eighth month of the year. In Mandarin Chinese, the pronunciation of the number eight is bā, and the pronunciation is very similar to the character "爸" "bà", which means "Pa" or "dad". The eighth day of the eighth month (bā-bā) is a pun for dad (爸爸 or "bàba"). The Taiwanese, therefore, sometimes refer to August 8 as "Bābā Holiday" as a pun for "Dad's Holiday" (爸爸節) or the more formal "Father's Day" (父親節).

text: Thailand[edit]

text: In Thailand, the birthday of the king, is set as Father's Day.[42] December 5 is the birthday of the late king Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX). Traditionally, Thais celebrate by giving their father or grandfather a canna flower (ดอกพุทธรักษา Dok Buddha Ruksa), which is considered a masculine flower; however, this is not as commonly practiced today. Thai people will wear yellow on this day to show respect for the late king, because yellow is the color of the day for Monday, the day King Bhumibol Adulyadej was born. Thais flood the Sanam Luang, a massive park in front of the palace, to watch the king give his annual speech, and often stay until the evening, when there is a national ceremony. Thais will light candles and show respect to the king by declaring their faith. This ceremony happens in almost every village in Thailand, and even overseas at Thai organizations.

text: It first gained nationwide popularity in the 1980s as part of a campaign by Prime Minister Prem Tinsulanonda to promote Thailand's royal family.[42] Mother's Day is celebrated on the birthday of Queen Sirikit,[42] August 12.

text: Trinidad and Tobago[edit]

text: In Trinidad and Tobago, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in June and is not a public holiday.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: In Turkey, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in June and is not a public holiday.

text: United Arab Emirates[edit]

text: In United Arab Emirates, Father's Day is celebrated on June 21, generally coinciding with midsummer's day.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June.[38] The day does not have a long tradition; The English Year (2006) states that it entered British popular culture "sometime after the Second World War, not without opposition".[72]

text: United States of America[edit]

text: In the US, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June.[73] Typically, families gather to celebrate the father figures in their lives. In recent years, retailers have adapted to the holiday by promoting greeting cards and gifts such as electronics and tools. Schools (if in session) and other children's programs commonly have activities to make Father's Day gifts. The U.S. Open golf tournament is scheduled to finish on Father's Day, as was the 2016 NBA Finals.

text: Ukraine[edit]

text: In Ukraine, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June.

text: Venezuela[edit]

text: In Venezuela, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Traditionally, as on Mother's Day, families gather together and have lunch, usually at the grandparents' house. In recent years, families also started having lunch out, and as on Mother's Day, it is one of the busiest days for restaurants. At school, children handcraft their present for their fathers. Consumer goods companies have all sorts of special offers for fathers: electronics, suits, and men's healthcare products.


document_title: Interstate Commerce Act of 1887

question_text: list one of the significant changes of the conception of interstate commerce

text: Interstate Commerce Act of 1887

text: Background of the act[edit]

text: The act was passed in response to rising public concern with the growing power and wealth of corporations, particularly railroads, during the late nineteenth century. Railroads had become the principal form of transportation for both people and goods, and the prices they charged and the practices they adopted greatly influenced individuals and businesses. In some cases, the railroads were perceived to have abused their power as a result of too little competition. Railroads also banded together to form pools and trusts that fixed rates at higher levels than they could otherwise command.[5] Railroads often charged a higher price per mile for short hauls than for long hauls. The practice was decried as one that discriminated against smaller businesses.

text: Responding to a widespread public outcry, states passed numerous pieces of legislation. Through the 1870s various constituencies, notably the Grange movement representing farmers, lobbied Congress to regulate railroads. While the Senate would investigate and report its findings and recommendations in 1874, Congress declined to step in, mirroring the lack of consensus in approach. In the 1886 decision on Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Company v. Illinois however,[6] the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that state laws regulating interstate railroads were unconstitutional because they violated the Commerce Clause of the Constitution, which gives Congress the exclusive power "to regulate Commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes."[7] With many of those questions of approach decided, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act the following year; it was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland on February 4, 1887.[8]:12

text: The act worked to keep rates and railroad revenue up on routes where competition existed.[9] It did this by attempting to force publicity about rates and make rebates and discrimination illegal. ('Discrimination' meant lower rates for certain customers, e.g. politicians, large customers, sharp bargainers, long haul shippers, shippers in competitive markets, low season travelers.)[9] Railroads saw that competition made it hard to pay their stockholders and bondholders the amount of money promised to them, and competition was therefore "bad." [10]

text: Jurisdiction of the act[edit]

text: The act also created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the first independent regulatory agency of the US government. As part of its mission, the ICC heard complaints against the railroads and issued cease and desist orders to combat unfair practices. While the ICC was empowered to investigate and prosecute railroads and other transportation companies that were alleged to have violated the act, its jurisdiction was limited to companies that operated across state lines. Over time the courts would further narrow the agency's authority, and in 1903 congress established the Department of Commerce and Labor and its Bureau of Corporations to study and report on wider industries and their monopolistic practices. By 1906, the Supreme Court had ruled in favor of a railroad company in fifteen out of the sixteen cases over which it presided.[11]

text: The commission later regulated many other forms of surface transportation, including trucking and bus transportation. Congress abolished the ICC in 1995 (see Interstate Commerce Commission Termination Act) and many of its remaining functions were transferred to a new agency, the Surface Transportation Board.[12]

text: Amendments[edit]

text: Early twentieth century[edit]

text: Congress passed a minor amendment to the Act in 1903, the Elkins Act.[13] Major amendments were enacted in 1906 and 1910. The Hepburn Act of 1906 authorized the ICC to set maximum railroad rates, and extended the agency's authority to cover bridges, terminals, ferries, sleeping cars, express companies and oil pipelines.[14] The Mann-Elkins Act of 1910 strengthened ICC authority over railroad rates and expanded its jurisdiction to include regulation of telephone, telegraph, and cable companies.[15] The Valuation Act of 1913 required the ICC to organize a Bureau of Valuation that would assess the value of railroad property. This information would be used to set freight shipping rates.[16]

text: Motor Carrier Act of 1935[edit]

text: In 1935, Congress passed the Motor Carrier Act, which amended the Interstate Commerce Act to regulate bus lines and trucking as common carriers.[17]

text: Later amendments[edit]

text: Congress enacted simplifying and reorganizing amendments in 1978, 1983 and 1994.[18]

text: Deregulation[edit]

text: Congress passed various railroad deregulation measures in the 1970s and 1980s. The Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976 (often called the "4R Act") gave railroads more flexibility in pricing and service arrangements. The 4R Act also transferred some powers from the ICC to the newly formed United States Railway Association, a government corporation, regarding the disposition of bankrupt railroads.[19] The Staggers Rail Act of 1980 further reduced ICC authority by allowing railroads to set rates more freely and become more competitive with the trucking industry.[20]

text: The Motor Carrier Act of 1980 deregulated the trucking industry.[21]


document_title: John Wick

question_text: what kind of puppy was in the movie john wick

text: John Wick

text: Plot[edit]

text: After John Wick loses his wife Helen to a terminal illness, he receives a beagle puppy named Daisy, per Helen's instructions, to help him cope with her death. He connects with the puppy and they spend their day driving around in his vintage 1969 Ford Mustang Mach 1. At a gas station, he encounters a trio of Russian gangsters whose leader, Iosef Tarasov, insists on buying his car, but John refuses to sell it. The mobsters follow John to his home that night, knock him unconscious, steal his car, and kill Daisy.

text: Iosef takes the Mustang to a chop shop run by Aurelio to have the VIN changed. Aurelio recognizes the car and, upon learning that Iosef stole it from John, punches him before throwing him out of his shop. John visits Aurelio, who tells him Iosef is the son of Viggo Tarasov, the head of the Russian crime syndicate in New York City. Viggo, informed by Aurelio of Iosef's actions, beats and berates Iosef, explaining to him that John Wick was his best assassin, nicknamed "Baba Yaga." When John wanted to retire and marry Helen, Viggo gave him an "impossible task", implied to involve multiple assassinations. John succeeded, establishing the Tarasov syndicate.

text: Viggo tries to talk John out of seeking retribution, but John silently refuses. Viggo then sends a twelve-man hit squad to John's house, but John kills them all and has the bodies professionally removed. An unsurprised Viggo places a $2 million bounty on John's head and personally offers the contract to Marcus, John's mentor. John seeks refuge at the Continental Hotel, which caters exclusively to the criminal underworld and permits no "business" on its premises. Viggo doubles the bounty for those willing to break the rules to kill John at the Continental.

text: John learns from Winston, the Continental's owner, that Viggo has Iosef protected at his nightclub, the Red Circle. John enters the Red Circle and kills his way to Iosef, but Viggo's henchman Kirill waylays John, allowing Iosef to escape. John retreats to the Continental to tend his injuries. Ms. Perkins, an assassin and former acquaintance, sneaks into John's room to kill him, but Marcus alerts John, allowing him to subdue Perkins. He forces Perkins to reveal the location of Viggo's front, knocks her unconscious and leaves her with fellow assassin Harry to await punishment. However, Perkins frees herself and kills Harry.

text: John travels to the Little Russia church which serves as Viggo's front and destroys Viggo's cache of money and blackmail material. When Viggo and his team arrive, John ambushes them, but he is subdued and captured. Viggo taunts John for thinking he could leave his old life behind. Before John can be killed, Marcus intervenes again, allowing John to free himself, kill Kirill, and accost Viggo. Under John's gunpoint, Viggo reveals Iosef's location to him. John then travels to Iosef's "safe house" and kills him.

text: Perkins sees that John and Marcus have been in contact and tells Viggo, who has Marcus tortured before executing him in his home. Viggo calls John to report this, planning to have Perkins ambush him. Perkins, however, is called to a meeting with Winston, who has her executed for breaking the Continental's rules.

text: Winston calls John to inform him that Viggo is planning to escape by helicopter, and John races to the harbor, killing Viggo's remaining henchmen before engaging Viggo in a fistfight on the dock. Viggo pulls a knife and John allows himself to be stabbed, surprising Viggo. John then disarms and fatally wounds Viggo. Wounded himself, John stops at a waterfront animal clinic to treat his wound and takes with him a pit bull puppy which was scheduled to be euthanized. John and the dog walk home on the boardwalk where he had his last date with Helen.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Keanu Reeves as John Wick

tag: ul

text: Michael Nyqvist as Viggo

text: Alfie Allen as Iosef

text: Adrianne Palicki as Ms. Perkins

text: Bridget Moynahan as Helen Wick

text: Dean Winters as Avi

text: Ian McShane as Winston

text: John Leguizamo as Aurelio

text: Willem Dafoe as Marcus

text: The cast also includes David Patrick Kelly as a "cleaner" named Charlie, Randall Duk Kim as a doctor with a select clientele, Lance Reddick as Charon, a concierge at The Continental Hotel who always seems to know what the client needs, Munro M. Bonnell as a Russian Orthodox priest who protects the vault where Viggo stores his valuables,[47] Omer Barnea as Gregori and Toby Leonard Moore as Victor, Iosef's friends and bodyguards,[47] Daniel Bernhardt as Kirill, Viggo's henchman;[48] Bridget Regan as Addy,[47] Keith Jardine as Kuzma,[48] Tait Fletcher as Nicholai,[48] Thomas Sadoski as Jimmy,[48] Clarke Peters as Harry,[47] Kevin Nash as a bouncer named Francis at the Red Circle nightclub,[49][50] Gameela Wright as a delivery woman,[48][51] Vladislav Koulikov as Pavel,[48][51] Pat Squire as an elderly woman,[48][51] Vladimir Troitsky as a team leader,[48][51] and Scott Tixier (uncredited) as a violinist.[52][53]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text:
"Making a movie is actually fairly easy. Making a good one is much harder. It was a huge learning experience and I'm very proud of it. We stretched our schedule to the absolute limits. We fought for what we believed in, and chose to make a story-driven, character-driven action movie. That's why I chose to do it. This was an opportunity to do something that wasn't just about cars, explosions, fire and fights. Yes, John fights; yes, he shoots guns; and he drives a car very fast, but the focus was always trying to do something cinematically different."

— Chad Stahelski, on the experience of directing John Wick[16]

tag: div

text: The premise for John Wick was conceived by screenwriter Derek Kolstad who began work on a treatment about a retired contract killer coming out to seek vengeance, entitled Scorn.[54] After one month of work, he had completed the first draft of the screenplay and once he had addressed several issues he pitched the script to various clients, garnering at least three offers.[55] When he first started thinking about writing the script, Kolstad was influenced by film-noir classics and the themes of revenge and the antihero and the occurrences of what may play out if "The worst man in existence found salvation […] When the source of his salvation is ripped from him […] Do the gates of Hades open?"[16][56] For Kolstad, both Alistair MacLean and Stephen King were influences in the creating of the story of John Wick in terms of characterisation and world-building, stating, "[…] MacLean could build a world, and King could surprise you by what the main character truly was capable of."[27]

text: On December 3, 2012, it was announced that Thunder Road Pictures had bought the script with discretionary funds, with Kolstad agreeing due to Thunder Road's plan to make the film straight away.[6][55][57] When Basil Iwanyk, head of Thunder Road Pictures, had first read Kolstad's original screenplay, he was immediately drawn to the main character of Wick, stating, "The tone of the script was subversive and really fun."[18] He also admired the emotional weight and action theme of the piece. After Thunder Road had optioned the script, Kolstad spent additional months refurbishing the script with them. In the original script, the character of John Wick was written with "a man in his mid-sixties" to play the role, given the title character’s fabled reputation as a revered and respected assassin.[18] However, Iwanyk was of the belief that this was irrelevant and bent the original vision ever so slightly, stating, "Instead, we decided to look for someone who is not literally older, but who has a seasoned history in the film world."[58]

text: On May 7, 2013, it was announced that Keanu Reeves began negotiations to star in the piece in April, and was later confirmed as the film's male lead, after Iwanyk and Peter Lawson of Thunder Road showed him the script,[16] to which he thought to be full of potential and further stated, "I love the role, but you want the whole story, the whole ensemble to come to life."[59] Reeves and Kolstad had worked closely together on further developing the screenplay and the story,[55][60] with the screenwriter stating, "We spent as much time developing the other characters as we did his. [Keanu] recognizes that the strength of the storyline lies in even the smallest details."[61] The title of the film was later changed from Scorn to John Wick, as according to Kolstad, "Keanu liked the name so much, that Reeves kept telling everyone that he was making a film called 'John Wick'", and the producers agreed, changing the title.[26]

text: During story discussions for John Wick, Reeves contacted Chad Stahelski and David Leitch, who he originally met on the set of The Matrix,[62] to see if they were interested in choreographing or directing the action of the piece.[14][63] Reeves admired Stahelski and Leitch's work performing, choreographing and coordinating, stating that, "When I got the script... I immediately thought of Chad and Dave for the action design, but I was secretly hoping they'd want to direct it."[63] he then added, "I knew that they would love the genre and I knew that they would love John Wick. And I thought the worlds that get created – the real world and then this underworld – would be attractive to them, and it was."[14][63] After reading Kolstad's script, Stahelski and Leitch, told Reeves they wanted to tell the story of John Wick, as they both had a desire to get involved with a project as directors. Impressed with Reeves' enthusiasm and the quality of the script, Stahelski and Leitch, told him that they wished to direct the film and later presented him with their version of the story which was based on "[…] the idea of [Wick] as an urban legend, a thriller assassin movie with a realistic vibe and an otherworldly setting."[16] Impressed with their concept, Reeves supported the pair, and Stahelski and Leitch pitched the idea to the studio, who hired them to direct, contrary to their initial request of directing the film's second unit.[14] On 7 May 2013, it was announced that Stahelski and Leitch were to direct the film together as a team,[64][65] though it was later ruled by the Directors Guild of America that only Stahelski would be given the director credit.[5] Leitch was credited as a producer.[66]

text: Stahelski acknowledged the challenges in balancing the action with that of both the pace and tone,[45] stating "we're good at doing that for a particular scene when doing action, but here, we had to take a through-line for the entire film." He acknowledged also that action itself should be a collaborative entity with the story, as opposed to being a thing of its own: "If you're clever with the story and clever with the action, they can fuse together."[67] "We don’t see any real separation that the story stops, and then we just wow you with action. If it all fits and weaves together and helps you love the character, that's what we want to do. … Demand more out of your action, as an audience."[44][67]

text: It was remarked by Kolstad, once Reeves, Stahelski and Leitch were officially on board, that during the period of January 2013 to September 2013,[68] he was still working on the final drafts of the screenplay and the modifying of it, to which he described in the general sense a rather "relentless process" further stating, "[…] it needs to be in order to get everyone’s vision in check."[68][69]

text: On September 12, 2013, Willem Dafoe was confirmed to have been cast in the role of Marcus "[…] a close friend of Wick. He was the one who encouraged Wick to leave the life after his wife dies."[70][71] On 19 September 2013, Michael Nyqvist, Alfie Allen, Adrianne Palicki and Dean Winters were later confirmed to be a part of the film's supporting cast.[72][73] On 14 October 2013, Bridget Moynahan had joined the cast of Stahelski and Leitch's film in the role of John Wick's wife who, "the beagle puppy, Daisy, was a posthumous gift to John from."[74][75][76] On 15 October 2013, Jason Isaacs had joined the cast, portraying David.[77][78][79] On 27 November 2013, Daniel Bernhardt was confirmed to have joined the cast of Stahelski and Leitch's John Wick, playing Kirill, "a formal Russian military commander who is Viggo's henchman."[80] Stahelski and Leitch are hoping for more opportunities behind the camera,[81] with Stahelski himself stating, "Our focus has always been to be filmmakers first and department heads second" and "Now we're following our passion and our dream".[82][83]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography was confirmed to have begun in New York City, with an expected late 2014 release, with an original shooting schedule meant to have occurred from 25 September to 5 December.[84][85] On 14 October 2013, shooting began in Mill Neck, New York,[86] with the filming process scheduled to continue in and around New York City and greater New York area.[75][87]

text: On August 26, 2013, Lionsgate announced that they were looking for "a high-end glass house with a water view" that was located in Nassau County, additionally with a scene or two being shot in Long Island.[88] On October 6, 2013, filming occurred next door to the Flatiron School, on 11 Broadway.[89] Filming moved to Brooklyn on October 24, with filming occurring on 6th Avenue between Union and Carroll Street, President Street between 6th and 7th Avenues and Carroll Street between 6th and 7th Avenues.[90] Additionally filming later occurred at the St. Francis Xavier Church on 6th Avenue.[91][92] On October 28, 2013, a scene was shot CITGO gas station, 501 N. Highland Ave in Upper Nyack, whilst also shooting footage at Route 9W and Christian Herald Road.[93][94]

text: On November 1, 2013, filming took place in lower Manhattan at 1 Wall Street Court, was used for the exterior of The Continental hotel. On November 12, 2013, some scenes were shot on 25 Broadway,[95] and in downtown Manhattan on Beaver Street by Broad Street.[96] Filming also took place at W 43rd Street and 8th Avenue, on November 13, in Manhattan,[97] and club scenes for John Wick have been filmed on W 27 Street, with November 15 being the last night schedule at the location.[98] On November 21, 2013, it was announced that a bath house scene was scheduled to be filmed on November 24, December 4 and December 5.[99] Other shooting locations included Tribeca, on November 20, which a chase scene was filmed on Church Street.[100] It was also reported, on November 27, that filming had been set up on E 83rd and 3rd Street on the Upper East Side.[101][102]

text: On December 2, 2013, a three-week Upper East Side shoot was scheduled until December 22, with Keanu Reeves and Willem Dafoe filming several scenes.[103] Filming continued to shoot in Tribeca from December 3 to December 5, with the notification placed on Church and Franklin.[104] After the Tribeca shoot, the crew moved to Long Island on December 6 to film a funeral scene, and the shoot will be exterior.[105] Additional filming was reported on December 13 for Chambers Street, Worth Street and Lafayette Street.[106] On December 19, Reeves was filming in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn.[107]

text: Principal photography was confirmed to have ended on December 20, 2013,[108] with post-production beginning on January 10, 2014.[109]

text: According to directors commentary, their first cut of the movie was 2 hours and 20 minutes long. They didn't reveal much about approximately 39 minutes of footage that was cut out of the movie but they did mention that the ending fight between John and Viggo was longer but was cut down after they both acknowledged that Viggo shouldn’t really pose a big physical threat to Wick. Also, David Leitch said how "There’s a ton of great shots on the cutting room floor that’s just Keanu walking in cool environments."[110]

text: Cinematography[edit]

text:
"Having the ALEXA XT with in-camera ARRIRAW is like going to back to an ARRICAM or an ARRIFLEX 435, which is amazing."

— Cinematographer Jonathan Sela, on the usage of ALEXA XT on John Wick[111]

text: The film was shot digitally with Arri Alexa XT in a distributed aspect ratio of 2.39:1.[112] Cinematographer Jonathan Sela himself chose to work with Arri Alexa XT cameras due to discussions regarding the look of the film John Wick, thus he pushed for a mix of ARRICAM and ALEXA which allowed, in turn, the blend of film and digital.[111] "Everybody loved the idea but when you run the numbers of having two packages and also the cost of film, it gets too expensive, so we decided to work entirely with the ALEXA. It's the camera I've used on commercials so I knew I was comfortable with the ALEXA and I knew I liked it."[111] Sela spoke of the idea that Stahelski, Leitch and himself wished to achieve a visual contrast between John Wick's normal life and the other of which he's drawn back into the underworld of assassins. "We wanted the first look to be soft and clean, and the second to be grittier, darker and sharper. For cost reasons we were shooting with just the one camera format, so I used different lenses and contrasting camerawork to create these two distinct looks." He describes the first section of the film as being far more static by stating that, "the camera never stops moving".[113] For John Wick he had decided on using both anamorphic and spherical lenses, to which he combined a set of Hawk V-Lite Vintage '74 anamorphics with that of Cooke S4 sphericals. The initial plan was to use the anamorphic and spherical lenses in the first and second parts, respectively, to create the visual contrast, however, he decided against such a course of action, as he stated, "[…] once we were shooting we felt that the camerawork was enough to separate those two worlds and we ended up using the anamorphics mainly for day work and the sphericals for night work."[111] Sela praised Hawk's Vintage '74 as "beautiful", however, highlighting that they flare considerably which would have become overbearing during night-time shooting. Equally, Sela added, "In daylight they gave us a hazy look and reduced the contrast, which helped make the day scenes seem much more cinematic to me."[111]

text: According to Sela, on-board ARRIRAW recording with the ALEXA XT cameras made a considerable difference with camerawork, stating, "Having the ALEXA XT with in-camera ARRIRAW is like going to back to an ARRICAM or an ARRIFLEX 435, which is amazing." There was a considerable amount of handheld camera work on the second section of John Wick and usage of the ALEXA M allowed filming "to squeeze through the window or into restricted spaces" to occur, especially for the car scenes.[111] Sela was recording ARRIRAW and used the whole sensor area of ALEXA's 4:3 for the anamorphic scenes, which allowed for the maximisation of the image quality for a 4K cinema release. Of such a decision the following was stated, "Shooting in ARRIRAW and having that extra sensor area helps most when you need to manipulate the image; you'll notice it when you have to adjust the color or contrast in a scene because you simply have more information to work with."[111]

text: Design[edit]

text: Costume design[edit]

text: Costume designer Luca Mosca explained that Wick had to possess a piece of attire that had to be worn throughout almost the entire production of the film, to which he then added, "Then we had to tailor it perfectly and make it sleek and timeless enough to fit into this perfect world." Due to the nature of the world Stahelski and Leitch created, Luca had to create a statement for every character based on their costume.[17] Reeves remarked praise for the costume designer, to which he highlighted Luca's ability to give the pieces of clothing meaning, if only subtle; "All the different shades of black that Luca used gave it a lot of overtones. It's funeral and it's priestly. It's also very chic, but it doesn't call attention to itself. When I put on the suit, it definitely affects me."[42] Initially the idea was to place the villains of the piece in combat gear, but later they decided against that due to the principle that they have to be placed in suits, with Leitch quoting Luca, "It is about men in suits."[114]

text: Production design[edit]

text: John Wick features not two worlds, but instead "two of everything", states production designer Dan Leigh on the contrast of the worlds, speaking in jest.[17] Leigh too added, "I approached the story as more of a fable, which ties into the graphic-novel idea. The visual manifestation of that is something that transcends reality. The light is a little bit different. There’s texture in the air. There are unexpected objects everywhere."[115]

text: Sound design[edit]

text: James Bolt and Martyn Zub were the re-recording mixers. Mark Stoeckinger was the supervising sound editor.[116]

text: Production sound mixer Danny Michael had used Sound Devices' 788T-SSD Digital Recorder[117] and CL-WiFi[117] as sound devices, additionally with a Lectrosonics VRT-Venue System, Lectrosonics radio mics, Schoeps CMC-6U and CMIT-5U microphones, a Cooper Sound 208 mixer, Blackmagic dual seven-inch monitors and a Denecke Dcode GR-1 as the main time clock for John Wick.[117] Due to John Wick being an action-oriented piece, it required a lot of sound effects, as well as "file-based workflow".[118]

text: For Michael, the 788T-SSD's ability to swap out removable storage was an advantage, due to himself simply supplying his CompactFlash to the post-production company Light Iron, in order for them to process the raw unedited footage on the set.[118] Michael stated, "I was basically handing over my sound every time a camera roll changed, to a person who was literally five feet away from me" adding that,[119] "They then took my material and synced it with what was coming off the cameras, on the spot. We would rotate CF cards throughout the course of the day."[119]

text: Visual effects[edit]

text: Jake Braver was the overall Visual Effects Supervisor and visual effects company Spin VFX worked on most of the visual effects on John Wick.[120]

text: Music[edit]

text: The musical score to John Wick was composed by Tyler Bates and Joel J. Richard, with on-screen violin music performed by Scott Tixier.[121] The film also features a few pieces of additional music such as Marilyn Manson's "Killing Strangers" and T-Bo and Bengie B's "Get Money". The original soundtrack album, John Wick: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack, was released digitally on October 21 and received a physical format release on October 27 by Varese Sarabande Records.[122] In addition to Bates and Richard's score, the album features music by artists such as Ciscandra Nostalghia, The Candy Shop Boys, and M86 & Susie Q. Le Castle Vania also provided additional music for the score.[121][123]

text: Influences[edit]

text: Director Chad Stahelski said influences on John Wick included The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966), Point Blank (1967), Le Cercle Rouge (1970), and The Killer (1989).[124]

text: Stahelski said about The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, "Look at Clint Eastwood in [the film] – there is so much back-story unsaid there. We're big fans of leaving it to your imagination. We just give you some gold coins, and then it's, "Where do the gold coins come from?" We'll get to that. Have your imagination do some work there."[24] He also said Point Blank (1967) influenced John Wick: "One of the biggest inspirations for the film was Point Blank. We watched it on a loop in our office and there are a couple homages to that [in John Wick]."[125] Park Chan-wook's The Vengeance Trilogy (2002–2005) and Lee Jeong-beom's The Man from Nowhere (2010) influenced the film due to "[their] minimalist composition and graphic nature."[126]

text: For screenwriter Derek Kolstad, both Alistair MacLean and Stephen King were huge influences in the creation of the story of John Wick in terms of characterisation and world-building, stating, with himself stating, "MacLean could build a world, and King could surprise you by what the main character truly was capable of."[127] Outside of films, Stahelski and Leitch drew inspiration from the visual stylings of the '60s and '70s as well as cinematic influences, including Sergio Leone, Akira Kurosawa, Steve McQueen, Lee Marvin, William Friedkin and Sam Peckinpah.[24] With Stahelski himself stating, "All the way back to Kurosawa up to Sergio Leone. We like the spaghetti western sensibility there, some of the composition." Albeit inspiration and emulation from the noir film genre, Stahelski too added that, "Noir maybe was sort of less impactful for us than the other sort of westerns and Kurosawa and things like that. I think we wanted to make this hard-boiled character."[124][125][128]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The official website for John Wick debuted on August 15, 2014 introducing a marketing campaign and interactive layout to promote the film. The website streamed an audio file as well as containing interactive games such as "The Red Club Club" and "Revenge Ride".[129] Lionsgate also provided information on the cast and crew as well as a gallery and video section.[130] The first images debuted on August 21, 2014 featuring Reeves' as Wick.[131] With the release Liongate confirmed the film being set for a "sudden release" on October 24, 2014.[132] On September 10, 2014, the teaser poster was released as well as the confirmation date of the expected teaser trailer.[133] The teaser trailer for John Wick debuted September 12, 2014.[134] The theatrical release poster and the final theatrical trailer were both released on September 30, 2014, by both Stahelski and Leitch on an 'Ask me anything' Reddit session.[135]

text: Lionsgate had provided Collider.com and Moviepilot, on October 2, 2014, with a prize pack to give away to various readers, which included Assassin's Creed Unity, a Fandango gift card for $25, a Lionsgate DVD 3-pack with Dredd, Gamer, and Rambo, and a John Wick poster and T-shirt.[136][137] On October 6, 2014, the official website for John Wick had been updated to include three trailers, photographs with John's story as well as individual cast photos and mini-biographies.[138] The IMAX TV spot trailer for John Wick debuted October 6, 2014, featuring new footage of the film.[139] Carl F. Bucherer was the official partner of the John Wick premiere in New York City on October 13, 2014. Keanu Reeves sported a Manero AutoDate with a light dial, Willem Dafoe wore a Manero AutoDate in classic black, and Daniel Bernhardt with a Patravi ChronoGrade.[140] An IMAX Featurette was released on October 22, 2014 featuring clips relating to the film, accompanied by statements by Reeves, Stahelski, and Leitch.[141]

text: On October 16, 2014, John Wick was featured on the week’s issue of Entertainment Weekly.[142]

text: As part of a cross-promotion deal with Overkill Software, Lionsgate and Thunder Road Pictures, on October 21, 2014, John Wick was added as a playable character in the online game Payday 2, and other elements from the film, including Wick's signature weapons, and skill tree that allowed for dual-wielding of certain firearms.[143] Additionally, Fandango offered people who purchase tickets online at select theaters a free download of Payday 2 through Steam.[144] Variety described Liongate's deal as a "pretty imaginative marketing move".[145] Danielle DePalma, Lionsgate's EVP of Digital Marketing, stated, "We're big fans of Payday 2 and the team at Starbreeze, and we're thrilled to kick off our partnership with such a cool movie"[146] and Bo Andersson Klint, Starbreeze CEO, stated, "We've finally got a real hitman on our team. Being able to play as John Wick in Payday 2 ahead of the movie's release is a great reward for our loyal Payday 2 community."[146]

text: Release[edit]

text: John Wick premiered at the Regal Union Square Theatre, Stadium 14 on October 13, 2014 in New York City,[147] after screening at the Austin Fantastic Fest on September 19,[148][149] where it opened the official sidebar section, Special Gala Screening, to an astounding reception,[150] and the ArcLight Hollywood in Los Angeles on October 22, 2014.[151] John Wick had its television premiere on USA (Channel) on March 12, 2017.

text: Pre-release screenings[edit]

text: Prior to John Wick's public release, an advance screening of the film was shown on October 9, 2014 at Regal Oakwood in Hollywood, Florida.[152] A screening was shown in advance at the UA Court Street in Brooklyn, New York on October 14.[153] Glendale Designs sponsored a private screening on October 16, 2014 at Harkins Arrowhead in Peoria, Arizona.[154] BackstageOL and Lionsgate hosted an advance screening on October 21, 2014 at Edwards Greenway Grand Palace Stadium in Houston, Texas and at the Santikos Embassy 14 in San Antonio, Texas. Additionally, Lionsgate had announced 40 additional advanced screening's at selected theatres in the United States from October 21 to October 22., as part of a national campaign to promote John Wick.[155] Entertainment One Films held advance screenings in Toronto, Ottawa, Halifax, Calgary, Edmonton, Victoria and Vancouver between October 20 and October 23.[156]

text: Theatrical run[edit]

text: John Wick began a wide theatrical release in the United States on October 24, 2014,[157] expanding in successive weeks to France, Australia and Netherlands,[158][159] ahead of a bow in the United Kingdom on February 2, 2015 after expanding throughout Europe.[160][161]

text: On May 22, 2013, Liongate had sold more than $250 million in territorial rights to nine titles at the Cannes Film Festival, including John Wick.[162] Studio Canal will distribute the piece throughout Germany,[163] Metropolitan Filmexport acquired the French distribution rights to John Wick from Lionsgate,[164] Acme Film acquired the distribution rights throughout the Baltic region,[165] Monolith Films acquired the film rights in Poland, Imagem had acquired the Latin American distribution rights,[163] Orange Sky Golden Harvest obtained the film rights in Taiwan and Hong Kong,[161] and Media Pro acquired the rights in the regions of Czech, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria.[161] Entertainment One Films picked up the Canadian distribution rights.[166] On 10 June 2014, Belga Films had acquired the rights to distribute the film within the Benelux region.[167] On 2 July 2014, MK2 Pictures were confirmed to have acquired the Italian distribution rights to John Wick.[163][168] On 8 May 2014, the Huayi Brothers picked up the Chinese distribution rights to John Wick, being one of only four films in the United States that were picked up, with a planned 2015 limited theatrical release.[169] On 11 August 2014, Lions Gate Entertainment acquired from Thunder Road Pictures the distribution rights to John Wick in the United States, with a planned 2014 limited theatrical release,[170][171][172] and in October, Summit Entertainment, a Lionsgate company, distributed the film in the United States[173] On 31 October 2014, it was announced that Warner Bros. Pictures would be distributing the film within the United Kingdom.[174][175] It was later announced that the release date in the United Kingdom was moved back from the first weekend of 2015 to 10 April 2015.[176]

text: On October 2, 2014, Summit Entertainment announced that John Wick would be released in IMAX.[177] Phil Groves, Senior Vice President of IMAX Corp and Executive Vice President of Global Distribution, IMAX Entertainment, stated, "John Wick is a fun action romp, complete with a tremendously entertaining performance by Keanu Reeves that is perfect for IMAX fans."[178] further adding, "There's no better place for audiences to experience the film's stylized storytelling than in IMAX theatres."[179]

text: Box office[edit]

text: John Wick earned $14.4 million from 2,589 locations on its opening weekend,[180] compared to the $7–8 million opening most analysts projected the film would make.[181] By the end of its theatrical run, John Wick grossed $45.7 million in North America and $43 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $88.8 million, against a production budget of $20 million.[182]

text: The film had a wide release in the United States and Canada in selected theatres on October 24.[183] The film earned $5.45 million on its opening day,[184] including $875,000 from Thursday night previews,[185] which was the second highest opening of that weekend, at an average of $5,465 per theater.[186] The film grossed $2.5 million from 347 IMAX locations that weekend, which represented 17.7 percent of the film's overall gross for its opening weekend.[187] The audience was 60% male and 77% were older than 25.[188][180]

text: Outside North America, the film took $1.4 million during its international opening weekend.[189] The film's highest-grossing debuts were in France, Australia, Thailand, Mexico, and the United Arab Emirates.[189] On its second week, it added $6.7 million from 33 territories.[190] The film went number one in France ($1.2 million) from 300 screens, number three in Australia ($961,000) from 177 screens, and number ten in the Middle East ($1 million) from a total of 80 screens.[190]

text: Reception[edit]

text: John Wick received generally positive reviews. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 85% based on 193 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Stylish, thrilling, and giddily kinetic, John Wick serves as a satisfying return to action for Keanu Reeves – and what looks like it could be the first of a franchise."[191] Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 68 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[192] CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a "B" grade, on an A+ to F scale.[193][194]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone praised the piece by stating, "John Wick is the kind of fired-up, ferocious B-movie fun some of us can't get enough of" and praising the "juicy performances" from Dafoe, Leguizamo, and McShane.[195] Richard Corliss of Time magazine wrote, "Action movies are about movement, and John Wick pursues that goal with remorseless verve."[196] Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club gave the film an "B+" rating, stating, "An underworld fantasy that grafts crisp action on to Rian Johnson-esque world-building, producing one of the more fully realized shoot-'em-up flicks in recent memory." He continued by praising the script of Kolstad, citing that it "distinguishes itself by carefully defining the boundaries of its universe".[197] Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A-" rating and called Kolstad's screenplay, "a marvelously rich and stylish feat of pulpy world-building."[198]

text: Justin Lowe of The Hollywood Reporter granted the film praise, "After a marked absence from the genre, Reeves resoundingly returns with an effortless, kinetic style that positions the film extremely well for any potential follow-ups."[199] Peter Debruge of Variety spoke highly of the film, "Back in action-hero mode, Keanu Reeves joins forces with his Matrix stunt double to deliver a slick and satisfying revenge thriller" and described "what a thrill well-choreographed action can be when we're actually able to make out what's happening".[200] Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice said that, "Reeves is wonderful here, a marvel of physicality and stern determination – he moves with the grace of an old-school swashbuckler."[201] Bilge Ebiri of Vulture commented, "It's a beautiful coffee-table action movie."[202]

text: Jeannette Catsoulis wrote, in her review for The New York Times, "Harboring few ambitions beyond knock-your-socks-off action sequences, this crafty revenge thriller delivers with so much style – and even some wit – that the lack of substance takes longer than it should to become problematic." Catsoulis praised Dafoe and Leguizamo as "bringing real subtlety to an all-too-brief scene" and Nyqvist as "marvellous", as well as Stahelski's direction and Sela's cinematography.[203] Forrest Wickman of Slate noted, "John Wick offers a slow burn, sizzling in a manner true to its hero’s surname."[204] Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian scored the film four out of five stars, writing, "A slick, propulsive and ridiculous crime picture that strides like an automatic machine gun."[205]

text: Peter Bradshaw, also reviewing for The Guardian, gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and stated "... Reeves's semi-deliberate zonked deadpan style only really works in juxtaposition with funny dialogue – and this is a pretty humourless and violent film, which grinds on and on with more and more gleaming black SUVs getting trashed."[206] Ealasaid Haas of San Jose Mercury News described John Wick as a "disappointingly standard revenge movie."[207] John Semley of The Globe and Mail called the title "the new name in crummy action cinema," giving it one-half out of 4 stars.[208]

text: Video game[edit]

text: On August 7, 2015, Lionsgate and Starbreeze Studios announced a partnership to develop a first-person shooter virtual reality game based on the film for the HTC Vive/Steam VR. Development will be headed by Grab Games, with Starbreeze set to publish. WEVR will develop an introductory experience for the game. The game was released on February 9, 2017, with the name John Wick Chronicles.[209] and have a standalone narrative based on the Continental Hotel.[210][211] Additionally, John Wick content – a free Character Pack and a chargeable Weapons Pack – was released for the Payday 2 games on October 20, 2016, as cross-promotion.[212][213]

text: Sequels[edit]

text: A sequel was released on February 10, 2017,[214] and at the 2016 CinemaCon, Reeves hinted that more sequels had been planned.[214] Following the release of John Wick: Chapter 2 it was reported that a third film is currently in development with a target release of May 17, 2019.[215][216]

text: TV series[edit]

text: In June 2017, it was reported that a prequel series titled The Continental is in active development. The series will focus on the hotel chain that acts as a neutral ground for assassins, as opposed the character John Wick.[217]


document_title: Trophic level

question_text: predators of herbivores belong to which trophic level

text: Trophic level

text: History[edit]

text: The concept of trophic level was developed by Raymond Lindeman (1942), based on the terminology of August Thienemann (1926): "producers", "consumers" and "reducers" (modified to "decomposers" by Lindeman).[2][3]

text: Overview[edit]

text: The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers and decomposers.

text:
Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers. In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain.[4] An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis.[5]
Consumers (heterotrophs) are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both plant and other animals are called omnivores.
Decomposers (detritivores) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi (mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again.

text: Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.

text:
Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.
Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
Level 5: Apex predators that have no predators are at the top of the food chain.

text:
Second trophic levelRabbits eat plants at the first trophic level, so they are primary consumers.

Third trophic levelFoxes eat rabbits at the second trophic level, so they are secondary consumers.

Fourth trophic levelGolden eagles eat foxes at the third trophic level, so they are tertiary consumers.

DecomposersThe fungi on this tree feed on dead matter, converting it back to nutrients that primary producers can use.

text: In real world ecosystems, there is more than one food chain for most organisms, since most organisms eat more than one kind of food or are eaten by more than one type of predator. A diagram that sets out the intricate network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its food web.[6] Decomposers are often left off food webs, but if included, they mark the end of a food chain.[6] Thus food chains start with primary producers and end with decay and decomposers. Since decomposers recycle nutrients, leaving them so they can be reused by primary producers, they are sometimes regarded as occupying their own trophic level.[7][8]

text: Biomass transfer efficiency[edit]

text: In general, each trophic level relates to the one below it by absorbing some of the energy it consumes, and in this way can be regarded as resting on, or supported by, the next lower trophic level. Food chains can be diagrammed to illustrate the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to the next in a food chain. This is called an energy pyramid. The energy transferred between levels can also be thought of as approximating to a transfer in biomass, so energy pyramids can also be viewed as biomass pyramids, picturing the amount of biomass that results at higher levels from biomass consumed at lower levels.

text: The efficiency with which energy or biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next is called the ecological efficiency. Consumers at each level convert on average only about 10% of the chemical energy in their food to their own organic tissue (the ten-percent law). For this reason, food chains rarely extend for more than 5 or 6 levels. At the lowest trophic level (the bottom of the food chain), plants convert about 1% of the sunlight they receive into chemical energy. It follows from this that the total energy originally present in the incident sunlight that is finally embodied in a tertiary consumer is about 0.001%[7]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Both the number of trophic levels and the complexity of relationships between them evolve as life diversifies through time, the exception being intermittent mass extinction events.[9]

text: Fractional trophic levels[edit]

text: Food webs largely define ecosystems, and the trophic levels define the position of organisms within the webs. But these trophic levels are not always simple integers, because organisms often feed at more than one trophic level.[10][11] For example, some carnivores also eat plants, and some plants are carnivores. A large carnivore may eat both smaller carnivores and herbivores; the bobcat eats rabbits, but the mountain lion eats both bobcats and rabbits. Animals can also eat each other; the bullfrog eats crayfish and crayfish eat young bullfrogs. The feeding habits of a juvenile animal, and, as a consequence, its trophic level, can change as it grows up.

text: The fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly sets the values of trophic levels to one in plants and detritus, two in herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers), three in secondary consumers, and so on. The definition of the trophic level, TL, for any consumer species is:[8]

text:
where

T

L

j

{\displaystyle TL_{j}}

 is the fractional trophic level of the prey j, and

D

C

i
j

{\displaystyle DC_{ij}}

 represents the fraction of j in the diet of i.

text:
In the case of marine ecosystems, the trophic level of most fish and other marine consumers takes value between
2.0 and 5.0. The upper value, 5.0, is unusual, even for large fish,[12] though it occurs in apex predators of marine mammals, such as polar bears and killer whales.[13]

text: In addition to observational studies of animal behavior, and quantification of animal stomach contents, trophic level can be quantified through stable isotope analysis of animal tissues such as muscle, skin, hair, bone collagen. This is because there is a consistent increase in the nitrogen isotopic composition at each trophic level caused by fractionations that occur with the synthesis of biomolecules; the magnitude of this increase in nitrogen isotopic composition is approximately 3–4‰.[14][15]

text: Mean trophic level[edit]

text: In fisheries, the mean trophic level for the fisheries catch across an entire area or ecosystem is calculated for year y as:

text:
where

Y

i
y

{\displaystyle Y_{iy}}

 is the catch of the species or group i in year y, and

T

L

i

{\displaystyle TL_{i}}

 is the trophic level for species i as defined above.[8]

text: Fish at higher trophic levels usually have a higher economic value, which can result in overfishing at the higher trophic levels. Earlier reports found precipitous declines in mean trophic level of fisheries catch, in a process known as fishing down the food web.[16] However, more recent work finds no relation between economic value and trophic level;[17] and that mean trophic levels in catches, surveys and stock assessments have not in fact declined, suggesting that fishing down the food web is not a global phenomenon.[18] However Pauly et al. note that trophic levels peaked at 3.4 in 1970 in the northwest and west-central Atlantic, followed by a subsequent decline to 2.9 in 1994. They report a shift away from long-lived, piscivorous, high-trophic-level bottom fishes, such as cod and haddock, to short-lived, planktivorous, low-trophic-level invertebrates (e.g., shrimps) and small, pelagic fish (e.g., herrings). This shift from high-trophic-level fishes to low-trophic-level invertebrates and fishes is a response to changes in the relative abundance of the preferred catch. They argue this is part of the global fishery collapse.[13][19]

text: FiB index[edit]

text: Since biomass transfer efficiencies are only about 10%, it follows that the rate of biological production is much greater at lower trophic levels than it is at higher levels. Fisheries catches, at least to begin with, will tend to increase as the trophic level declines. At this point the fisheries will target species lower in the food web.[19] In 2000, this led Pauly and others to construct a "Fisheries in Balance" index, usually called the FiB index.[20] The FiB index is defined, for any year y, by[8]

text:
where

Y

y

{\displaystyle Y_{y}}

 is the catch at year y,

T
L

y

{\displaystyle {TL}_{y}}

 is the mean trophic level of the catch at year y,

Y

0

{\displaystyle Y_{0}}

 is the catch,

T
L

0

{\displaystyle {TL}_{0}}

 the mean trophic level of the catch at the start of the series being analyzed, and

T
E

{\displaystyle TE}

 is the transfer efficiency of biomass or energy between trophic levels.

text: The FiB index is stable (zero) over periods of time when changes in trophic levels are matched by appropriate changes in the catch in the opposite direction. The index increases if catches increase for any reason, e.g. higher fish biomass, or geographic expansion.[8] Such decreases explain the “backward-bending” plots of trophic level versus catch originally observed by Pauly and others in 1998.[19]

text: Tritrophic and other interactions[edit]

text: One aspect of trophic levels is called tritrophic interaction. Ecologists often restrict their research to two trophic levels as a way of simplifying the analysis; however, this can be misleading if tritrophic interactions (such as plant–herbivore–predator) are not easily understood by simply adding pairwise interactions (plant–herbivore plus herbivore–predator, for example). Significant interactions can occur between the first trophic level (plant) and the third trophic level (a predator) in determining herbivore population growth, for example. Simple genetic changes may yield morphological variants in plants that then differ in their resistance to herbivores because of the effects of the plant architecture on enemies of the herbivore.[21] Plants can also develop defenses against herbivores such as chemical defenses.[22]

text: Examples[edit]

text: Depending on the nature of the species the precise trophic level of the species may be somewhat ambiguous and its precise value may vary depending on the source. Virtually all plants as well as phytoplankton and similar organisms are classified at level 1.0. Many worms would be typically classified at level 2.1; a typical insect 2.2; a jellyfish 3.0; a typical bird 3.6.[23] A 2013 study published in the National Academy of Sciences estimates the average trophic level of human beings at 2.21, similar to pigs or anchovy.[24] This is only an average, and plainly both modern and ancient human eating habits are complex and vary greatly. For example, a traditional Eskimo living on a diet consisting primarily of seals would have a trophic level of nearly 5.[25]