document_title: Thymus

question_text: at what age does the thymus reach its maximal size

text: Thymus

text: Structure[edit]

text: In children, the thymus is pinkish-gray, soft, and lobulated on its surfaces. At birth it is about 4–6 cm long, 2.5–5 cm wide, and about 1 cm thick.[1] It is made up of two lobes that meet in upper midline, that stretch from below the thyroid in the neck to as low as the cartilage of the fourth rib.[1] It lies beneath the sternum, rests on the pericardium, and is separated from the aortic arch and great vessels by a layer of fascia. The left brachiocephalic vein may even be embedded within the thymus.[1] In the neck, it lies on the front and sides of the trachea, behind the sternohyoidei and sternothyreoidei.[1]

text: The thymus enlarges during childhood, and atrophies at puberty. Unlike many other organs, the thymus is at its largest in childhood. The thymus reaches maximum weight (20 to 37 grams) by the time of puberty. The thymus of older people is scarcely distinguishable from surrounding fatty tissue. With aging the thymus slowly shrinks, eventually degenerating into tiny islands of fatty tissue. By the age of 75 years, the thymus weighs only 6 grams. In children the thymus is grayish-pink in colour and in adults it is yellow.

text: Microanatomy[edit]

text: The thymus consists of two lobes, merged in the middle, surrounded by a capsule that extends with blood vessels into the interior.[2] The lobes consists of a dense outer cortex and an inner less dense medulla.[2] The lobes are divided into smaller lobules 0.5-2mm diameter, between which extrude radiating insertions from the capsule along (septa).[1]

text: The cortex is mainly made up of thymocytes, supported by a network of finely-branched epithelial reticular cells, which is continuous with a similar network in the medulla. This network forms an adventitia to the blood vessels, which enter the cortex via septa near the junction with the medulla.[1] The cortex is the location of the earliest events in thymocyte development, where T-cell receptor gene rearrangement and positive selection takes place.

text: In the medulla, the network of reticular cells is coarser than in the cortex, the lymphoid cells are relatively fewer in number, and there are concentric, nest-like bodies called Hassall's corpuscles. These are concentric, layered whorls of epithelial cells that increase in number throughout life.[1] They are the remains of the epithelial tubes, which grow out from the third pharyngeal pouches of the embryo to form the thymus.[3] In the center of the medullary portion there are very few vessels, and they are of minute size.

text: The medulla is the location of the latter events in thymocyte development. Thymocytes that reach the medulla have already successfully undergone T-cell receptor gene rearrangement and positive selection, and have been exposed to a limited degree of negative selection. The medulla is specialized to allow thymocytes to undergo additional rounds of negative selection to remove auto-reactive T cells from the mature repertoire. Transcriptional regulators AIRE and FEZ2 are expressed by the thymic medullary epithelium, and drives the transcription of organ-specific genes such as insulin to allow maturing thymocytes to be exposed to a more complex set of self-antigens than is present in the cortex.

text:
Micrograph of the thymus

Structure of the thymus.

Micrograph showing a Hassall's corpuscle, found within the medulla of the thymus.

text: Blood and nerve supply[edit]

text: The arteries supplying the thymus are branches of the internal thoracic, and inferior thyroid arteries, with branches from the superior thyroid artery sometimes seen.[1] The branches reach the thymus and travel with the septa of the capsule into the area between the cortex and medulla, where they enter the thymus itself.[1]

text: The veins end in the left brachiocephalic vein, internal thoracic vein, and in the inferior thyroid veins.[1]

text: Lymphatic vessels travel only away from the thymus, accompanying the arteries and veins. These drain into the brachiocephalic, tracheobronchial and parasternal llymph nodes.[1]

text: The nerves supplying the thymus arise from the vagus nerve and the cervical sympathetic chain. Branches from the phrenic nerves reach the investing capsule, but do not enter into the thymus itself. Although present, the exact role of the nerve supply of the thymus is little understood.[1]

text: Variation[edit]

text: The two lobes differ slightly in size and may be united or separated.[4] Thymic tissue sometimes be found scattered on or around the gland.[1]

text: Development[edit]

text: The thyomocytes and the epithelium of the thymus have different developmental origins. The epithelium of the thymus develops first, appearing as two flask-shape endodermal diverticula, which arise one on either side, from the third pharyngeal pouch, and extend outward and backward into the surrounding mesoderm and neural crest-derived mesenchyme in front of the ventral aorta. Here the thymocytes and epithelium meet and join with connective tissue. The pharyngeal opening of each diverticulum is soon obliterated, but the neck of the flask persists for some time as a cellular cord. By further proliferation of the cells lining the flask, buds of cells are formed, which become surrounded and isolated by the invading mesoderm. Additional portions of thymus tissue are sometimes developed from the fourth pharyngeal pouch.[5]

text: The epithelium forms fine lobules, and develops into a sponge-like structure. During this stage, hematopoietic bone-marrow precursors migrate into the thymus.[2] Normal development is dependent on the interaction between the epithelium and the hematopoietic thymocytes. Iodine is also necessary for thymus development and activity.[6]

text: Involution[edit]

text: The thymus continues to grow between birth and puberty and then begins to atrophy, called thymic involution.[2] The process accelerates after puberty, thymus decreases both in size and activity, and the tissue of the thymus is primarily replaced with fat (a phenomenon known as "organ involution").[2] The atrophy is due to the increased circulating level of sex hormones, and chemical or physical castration of an adult results in the thymus increasing in size and activity.[7] Fat cells are first visible in the walls between lobules, and then slowly spread throughout the cortex and then medulla.[2]

text: Function[edit]

text: In the two lobes, hematopoietic precursors from the bone-marrow, referred to as thymocytes, mature into T cells. Once mature, T cells emigrate from the thymus and make up the peripheral T cells responsible for directing many parts of the adaptive immune system. Loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation (as in DiGeorge Syndrome[8]) results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection.[9]

text: Each T cell attacks a specific substance which it identifies with its receptor. T cells have receptors which are generated by randomly shuffling gene segments. Each T cell attacks a different antigen. T cells that attack the body's own proteins are eliminated in the thymus. Thymic epithelial cells express major proteins from elsewhere in the body. First, T cells undergo "Positive Selection", whereby the cell comes in contact with self-MHC, expressed by thymic epithelial cells; those with no interaction die by a lack of stimulatory signal. Second, the T cell undergoes "Negative Selection" by interacting with thymic dendritic cells, whereby T cells with a strong interaction with self-MHC and/or self-antigen die by induced apoptosis or are induced to become a regulatory T cell, to avoid autoimmunity. Those with intermediate affinity survive.

text: The stock of T-lymphocytes is built up in early life, so the function of the thymus is diminished in adults. It is largely degenerated in elderly adults and is barely identifiable, consisting mostly of fatty tissue. Involution of the thymus has been linked to loss of immune function in the elderly, susceptibility to infection and to cancer.

text: The ability of T cells to recognize foreign antigens is mediated by the T-cell receptor. The T-cell receptor undergoes genetic rearrangement during thymocyte maturation, resulting in each T cell bearing a unique T-cell receptor, specific to a limited set of peptide:MHC combinations. The random nature of the genetic rearrangement results in a requirement of central tolerance mechanisms to remove or inactivate those T cells which bear a T-cell receptor with the ability to recognise self-peptides.

text:
A rare population of hematopoietic progenitor cells enter the thymus from the blood, and expands by cell division to generate a large population of immature thymocytes.[10]
Immature thymocytes each make distinct T-cell receptors by a process of gene rearrangement. This process is error-prone, and some thymocytes fail to make functional T-cell receptors, whereas other thymocytes make T-cell receptors that are autoreactive.[11]
Immature thymocytes undergo a process of selection, based on the specificity of their T-cell receptors. This involves selection of T cells that are functional (positive selection), and elimination of T cells that are autoreactive (negative selection). The medulla of the thymus is the site of T Cell maturation.

text:
type:
functional (positive selection)
autoreactive (negative selection)

location:
cortex
medulla

In order to be positively-selected, thymocytes will have to interact with several cell surface molecules, MHC/HLA, to ensure reactivity and specificity.[12]
Positive selection eliminates (by apoptosis) weakly-binding cells and only takes strongly- or medium-binding cells. (Binding refers to the ability of the T-cell receptors to bind to either MHC class I/II or peptide molecules.)

Negative selection is not 100% complete. Some autoreactive T cells escape thymic censorship, and are released into the circulation.
Additional mechanisms of tolerance active in the periphery exist to silence these cells such as anergy, deletion, and regulatory T cells.
If these peripheral tolerance mechanisms also fail, autoimmunity may arise.

text: Cells that pass both levels of selection are released into the bloodstream to perform vital immune functions.

text: The thymus also secretes hormones and cytokines that regulate the maturation of T cells, including thymulin, thymopoietin, and thymosins.[2]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: The immune system is a multicomponent interactive system. It effectively protects the host from various infections. An improperly functioning immune system can cause discomfort, disease or even death. The type of malfunction falls into one or more of the following major groups: hypersensitivity or allergy, auto-immune disease, or immunodeficiency.

text: Hypersensitivity[edit]

text: Allergy results from an inappropriate and excessive immune response to common antigens. Substances that trigger an allergic response are called allergens. Allergies involve mainly IgE, antibodies, and histamine. Mast cells release the histamine. Sometimes an allergen may cause a sudden and severe, possibly fatal reaction in a sensitive individual; this is called anaphylaxis.

text: Immunodeficiency[edit]

text: As the thymus is the organ of T-cell development, any congenital defect in thymic genesis or a defect in thymocyte development can lead to a profound T cell deficiency in primary immunodeficiency disease. Defects that affect both the T cell and B cell lymphocyte lineages result in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Acquired T cell deficiencies can also affect thymocyte development in the thymus.

text: DiGeorge syndrome[edit]

text: DiGeorge syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by the deletion of a small section of chromosome 22. This results in a midline congenital defect including thymic aplasia, or congenital deficiency of a thymus. Patients may present with a profound immunodeficiency disease, due to the lack of T cells. No other immune cell lineages are affected by the congenital absence of the thymus. DiGeorge syndrome is the most common congenital cause of thymic aplasia in humans. In mice, the nude mouse strain are congenitally thymic deficient. These mice are an important model of primary T cell deficiency.

text: SCID[edit]

text: Severe combined immunodeficiency syndromes (SCID) are group of rare congenital genetic diseases that result in combined T lymphocyte and B lymphocyte deficiencies. These syndromes are caused by defective hematopoietic progenitor cells which are the precursors of both B- and T cells. This results in a severe reduction in developing thymocytes in the thymus and consequently thymic atrophy. A number of genetic defects can cause SCID, including IL-7 receptor deficiency, common gamma chain deficiency, and recombination activating gene deficiency. The gene that codes for the enzyme called ADA (adenine deaminase), is located on chromosomes 20.

text: HIV/AIDS[edit]

text: The HIV virus causes an acquired T-cell immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) by specifically killing CD4+ T cells. Whereas the major effect of the virus is on mature peripheral T cells, HIV can also infect developing thymocytes in the thymus, most of which express CD4.

text: Autoimmune disease[edit]

text: Autoimmune diseases are caused by a hyperactive immune system that instead of attacking pathogens reacts against the host organism (self) causing disease. One of the primary functions of the thymus is to prevent autoimmunity through the process of central tolerance, immunologic tolerance to self antigens.

text: APECED[edit]

text: Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) is an extremely rare genetic autoimmune syndrome. However, this disease highlights the importance of the thymus in prevention of autoimmunity. This disease is caused by mutations in the Autoimmune Regulator (AIRE) gene.[13] AIRE allows for the ectopic expression of tissue-specific proteins in the thymus medulla, such as proteins that would normally only be expressed in the eye or pancreas. This expression in the thymus, allows for the deletion of autoreactive thymocytes by exposing them to self-antigens during their development, a mechanism of central tolerance. Patients with APECED develop an autoimmune disease that affects multiple endocrine tissues.

text: Thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity (TAMA)[edit]

text: A GVHD-like disease called thymoma-associated multiorgan autoimmunity (TAMA) can occur in patients with thymoma. In these patients rather than a donor being a source of pathogenic T cells, the patient's own malignant thymus produces self-directed T cells. This is because the malignant thymus is incapable of appropriately educating developing thymocytes to eliminate self-reactive T cells. The end result is a disease virtually indistinguishable from GVHD.[14]

text: Myasthenia gravis[edit]

text: Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease caused by antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors. Myasthenia gravis is often associated with thymic hyperplasia. Thymectomy may be necessary to treat the disease.

text: Patients with the autoimmune disease myasthenia gravis commonly (70%) are found to have thymic hyperplasia or malignancy.[15]

text: Cancer[edit]

text: Two primary forms of tumours originate in the thymus.

text: Thymomas[edit]

text: Tumours originating from the thymic epithelial cells are called thymomas, and are found in about 10-15% of patients with myasthenia gravis.[16] Symptoms are sometimes confused with bronchitis or a strong cough because the tumour presses on the recurrent laryngeal nerve. All thymomas are potentially cancerous, but they can vary a great deal. Some grow very slowly. Others grow rapidly and can spread to surrounding tissues. Treatment of thymomas often requires surgery to remove the entire thymus.

text: Lymphomas[edit]

text: Tumours originating from the thymocytes are called thymic lymphomas.[16] Lymphomas or leukemias of thymocyte origin are classified as Precursor T acute lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (T-ALL).

text: People with an enlarged thymus, particularly children, were treated with intense radiation in the years before 1950. There is an elevated incidence of thyroid cancer and leukemia in treated individuals.[17]

text: Cervical thymic cyst[edit]

text: Cervical thymus is a rare malformation. Thymic tissue containing cysts is rarely described in the literature, ectopic glandular tissue included in the wall of cystic formation can trigger a series of problems similar to those of thymus.[18]

text: Thymic cysts are uncommon lesions, about 150 cases being found. While thymic cyst and ectopic cervical thymus are identified most frequently in childhood, the mean age at which thymoma is diagnosed is 45 years. However, studies have shown the existence of necrotic thymic tissue masses in the neck (asymptomatic intravital) more frequently, the incidence reaching nearly 30%. These observations may mean absence of clinical observation.[18]

text: Surgical removal[edit]

text: Thymectomy is the surgical removal of the thymus. The usual reason for a thymectomy is to gain access to the heart for surgery to correct congenital heart defects in the neonatal period. In neonates, but not older children or adults, the relative size of the thymus obstructs surgical access to the heart. Removal of the thymus in infancy results in immunodeficiency by some measures, although T cells develop compensating function and it remains unknown whether disease incidence in later life is significantly greater.[19][20][21][22] This is because sufficient T cells are generated during fetal life prior to birth. These T cells are long-lived and can proliferate by homeostatic proliferation throughout the lifetime of the patient. However, there is evidence of premature immune aging in patients thymectomized during early childhood.[23]

text: Other indications for thymectomy include the removal of thymomas and the treatment of myasthenia gravis. Thymectomy is not indicated for the treatment of primary thymic lymphomas. However, a thymic biopsy may be necessary to make the pathologic diagnosis.[23]

text: Research[edit]

text: Thymus transplantation[edit]

text: A thymus may be transplanted, however, this approach is problematic due to donor requirements and matching tissue with the patient.

text: Thymus tissue engineering[edit]

text: A fully functional thymus derived from reprogrammed mouse embryonic fibroblasts has been grown in the kidney capsule of mice. The newly formed organ resembled a normal thymus histologically and molecularly, and upon transplantation it was able to restore immune function in immunocompromised mice. The mouse embryonic fibroblasts were reprogrammed into thymic epithelial cells (TECs) by enforcing the expression of one transcription factor, FOXN1.[24][25]

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: When used as food for humans, animal thymic tissue is known as (one of the kinds of) sweetbread.

text: History[edit]

text: The thymus was known to the ancient Greeks, and its name comes from the Greek word θυμός (thumos), meaning "anger",[26] or "heart, soul, desire, life", possibly because of its location in the chest, near where emotions are subjectively felt; or else the name comes from the herb thyme (also in Greek θύμος or θυμάρι), which became the name for a "warty excrescence", possibly due to its resemblance to a bunch of thyme.[27][28]

text: Galen was the first to note that the size of the organ changed over the duration of a person's life.[29]

text: In the nineteenth century, a condition was identified as status thymicolymphaticus defined by an increase in lymphoid tissue and an enlarged thymus. It was thought to be a cause of sudden infant death syndrome but is now an obsolete term.[30][31]

text: Due to the large numbers of apoptotic lymphocytes, the thymus was originally dismissed as a "lymphocyte graveyard", without functional importance. The importance of the thymus in the immune system was discovered in 1961 by Jacques Miller, by surgically removing the thymus from one day old mice, and observing the subsequent deficiency in a lymphocyte population, subsequently named T cells after the organ of their origin.[32][33] Recently, advances in immunology have allowed the function of the thymus in T-cell maturation to be more fully understood.[34]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The thymus is present in all jawed vertebrates, where it undergoes the same shrinkage with age and plays the same immunological function as in human beings. Recently, a discrete thymus-like lympho-epithelial structure, termed the thymoid, was discovered in the gills of larval lampreys.[35] Hagfish possess a protothymus associated with the pharyngeal velar muscles, which is responsible for a variety of immune responses.[36] Little is known about the immune mechanisms of tunicates[37] or of Amphioxus.

text: The thymus is also present in most vertebrates, with similar structure and function as the human thymus. Some animals have multiple secondary (smaller) thymi in the neck; this phenomenon has been reported for mice[38] and also occurs in 5 out of 6 human fetuses.[39] As in humans, the Guinea pig's thymus naturally atrophies as the animal reaches adulthood, but the athymic hairless guinea pig (which arose from a spontaneous laboratory mutation) possesses no thymic tissue whatsoever, and the organ cavity is replaced with cystic spaces.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Thymus of a fetus

On chest X-ray, the thymus appears as a radiodense (brighter in this image) mass by the upper lobe of the child's right (left in image) lung.


document_title: List of the largest trading partners of Canada

question_text: canada's top 5 trading partners imports and exports

question_tokens: canada 's top 5 trading partners imports and exports

root

text: This is a list of the largest trading partners of Canada.  Canada is considered to be a trading nation as its total trade is worth more than two-thirds of its GDP (the second highest level in the G7 after Germany).[1][2][3]

tag: p

text: Historically, the issue of Canada's largest trade partners, and dependence on particular markets, has been a major political issue. At the time of Confederation in 1867, the United Kingdom was by far Canada's largest trading partner, reflecting the close historical, cultural, and institutional ties within the British Empire.  Over time, more and more of Canada's trade was proportionally done with the United States.  Various governments hoped to strengthen or reverse this trend, by changing tariff policy either to one of Imperial Preference with the British, Reciprocity with the National Policy of internal development.  The 1891 and 1911 elections were fought partly over the issue of closer trade relationships with the British.  Following the Civil War, the United States emerged as Canada's largest trading partner.  By the time the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community in 1973, the idea of the UK as an alternative to the USA as Canada's largest market was no longer viable.  Canada and the United States signed the Free Trade Agreement in 1988 (which was expanded into NAFTA by the addition of Mexico in 1994).  Since that time the United States has dominated Canadian trade by an overwhelming degree. After the Wars, trade with Asia began to expand, especially China. After the opening of Canada – People's Republic of China relations in 1970, trade with China has expanded rapidly.

text:
The 20 largest trade partners of Canada represent 94.0% of Canada's exports, and 91.9% of Canada's imports as of  December 2016[update].[4] These figures do not include services or foreign direct investment.
The largest partners of Canada with their total trade (sum of imports and exports) in millions of Canadian Dollars for calendar year 2016 are as follows:[5]

text:
Rank
Country
Exports
Imports
Total Trade
Trade Balance

-
World
521,251
547,320
1,068,571
-26,070

1
 United States
297,260
210,915
508,175
+32,345

-
 European Union
41,827
52,288
94,115
-10,461

2
 China
15,359
48,593
59,952
-15,234

3
 Mexico
8,879
18,901
27,780
-10,023

4
 United Kingdom
17,957
7,589
25,546
+10,368

5
 Japan
11,004
11,765
22,769
-761

6
 Germany
4,423
14,583
19,006
-10,160

7
 South Korea
4,623
8,952
13,576
-4,329

8
 Italy
2,485
5,635
	8,120
-3,150

9
 France
3,513
4,448
7,961
-935

10
 Netherlands
2,916
4,819
	7,735
-1,902

11
 India
4,067
2,956
	7,023
+1,111

12
  Switzerland
1,365
5,407
	6,772
-4,042

13
 Hong Kong
2,377
4,106
	6,483
-1,730

14
 Belgium
3,292
3,130
	6,423
+162

15
 Brazil
2,114
3,206
	5,320
-1,091

16
 Taiwan
1,670
3,039
4,709
-1,368

17
 Spain
1,866
2,129
	3,995
-263

18
 Australia
1,934
1,848
	3,782
+85

19
 Norway
1,585
1,632
	3,216
-47

20
 Saudi Arabia
1,368
1,723
3,092
-355

-
Remaining Countries
29,194
43,944
73,138
-14,750

tag: table


document_title: Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (TV special)

question_text: rudolph the red nosed reindeer how it was made

text: Plot[edit]

text: Sam the Snowman welcomes the viewers to Christmastown at the North Pole and introduces Santa and Mrs. Claus who live in a castle located north of the Christmas Tree Forest. Mrs. Claus fusses over Santa as she wants him to fatten up by Christmas Eve. Sam then recalls the year Christmas was almost cancelled due to a snowstorm and tells the story of how a very special reindeer saved the day.

text: Donner, Santa's lead reindeer, and his wife have given birth to their new baby fawn, Rudolph. Upon admiring him, they are surprised to see that Rudolph has been born with a glowing red nose. When Santa arrives, he warns Donner that Rudolph won't make the sleigh team because of his nose. Donner then decides to hide the nose by covering it with mud to allow Rudolph to fit in with all the other reindeer.

text: Over Rudolph's first year of life, Donner trains him in the basics of being a reindeer, including hiding from the Abominable Snow Monster of the North. Rudolph enters the reindeer games, competing against his fellow fawns. During flight practice, Rudolph meets a doe named Clarice who tells him he's cute, which causes an elated Rudolph to fly higher and faster than everyone else. However, while celebrating with the other bucks, Rudolph's nose cover pops off, and the others react with fear, then scorn and finally rejection as Rudolph is kicked out of the Reindeer Games. Walking away, Rudolph meets up with Hermey, an elf who ran away from Santa's workshop because he wanted to be a dentist instead of making toys, and they decide to run away together. The pair then meet a prospector named Yukon Cornelius, who has fruitlessly searched his whole life for silver and gold. After escaping the snow monster on an iceberg, the trio crash land on the Island of Misfit Toys where unloved or unwanted toys live with their ruler, a winged lion named King Moonracer. The king allows the group to stay one night on the island in exchange for returning to Christmastown to ask Santa to find homes for the unwanted toys. However, Rudolph leaves the island in the middle of the night on his own, fearing that his nose, which attracts the Abominable, will endanger his friends.

text: Time goes by and Rudolph grows into adulthood; he tries and fails to find a place to settle where he will be accepted despite his nose. Returning home, he finds that his parents and Clarice have been looking for him for months. He sets out once again to find them, only to discover that they have been kidnapped by the Abominable Snow Monster. Rudolph tries to save Clarice from being eaten, but the monster hits him in the head with a stalactite, dazing him. Later, Hermey and Yukon return to Christmastown and go to save Rudolph. Hermey, oinking like a pig, lures the monster out of his cave and Yukon drops rocks on his head to knock him out. Hermey then pulls out all the monster's teeth. Realizing that the Abominable is now defenseless, Yukon drives the toothless monster back, only to fall over the cliff with all his pack dogs. Mourning Yukon's supposed death, Rudolph, Hermey, Clarice, and the Donners return home where everyone apologizes to them. After hearing their story, Santa welcomes the group back to Christmastown, promises that he'll find homes for the Misfit Toys, Hermey opens his own dentist's office, and Clarice's father apologizes for being so hard on Rudolph. Yukon then returns with a reformed Abominable Snow Monster whom he hired to be a tree decorator. Christmas Eve comes and while everybody's celebrating, Santa fears that he'll have to cancel Christmas if the storm doesn't let up. Santa is soon distracted by Rudolph's red nose and realizes that its light could cut through the storm. He asks Rudolph to lead the sleigh and Rudolph agrees. The team then flies off to the island and pick up the toys. The special ends with Santa wishing the viewers a merry Christmas as he and Rudolph fly off into the night.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Billie Mae Richards[3][4] voices Rudolph, a reindeer with strong mental (he learns to speak shortly after birth) and physical strength who is shunned for his nonconforming red nose, but later saves Christmas.
Stan Francis voices:

Santa Claus, portrayed in the special as a moody, nervous and "skinny Santa" whose fears are only allayed when he conjures the idea of using Rudolph's nose to lead the sleigh.
King Moonracer, a winged lion who rules the entire Island of Misfit Toys. King Moonracer's voice uses a reverb effect to distinguish it from Santa Claus.

Paul Kligman voices:

Donner, Rudolph's father and Santa's most prized reindeer. While he loves and accepts Rudolph, he shows great concern that society will reject him for his nose and tries to protect him by creating a nose cover.
Comet, head coach of the Reindeer Games.
Clarice's unnamed father, who forbids Clarice from shaming the family by associating with a red-nosed reindeer.

Burl Ives voices Sam the Snowman, the narrator.
Paul Soles voices Hermey, an elf who dreams of pursuing a career in dentistry and "feels different" from the other elves. He eventually is forced out and runs off with Rudolph.
Janis Orenstein voices Clarice, a female reindeer who is the only one of Rudolph's age to not reject him. She later joins Rudolph's parents in the search party.
Larry D. Mann voices Yukon Cornelius, the "greatest prospector of the North" who joins Rudolph and Hermey on their journey but never finds any of the gold or silver he seeks.
Peg Dixon voices:

Mrs. Claus, a pushy wife who mocks her husband's lack of appetite.
Mrs. Donner, a loving and mostly submissive wife.

Carl Banas voices:

The Head Elf. For the Head Elf's voice, Banas uses a meek Bill Thompson-like voice when speaking in front of Santa Claus, but turns into a ruthless boss with a voice similar to Mel Blanc's Yosemite Sam or Cosmo Spacely when Santa is not around.
Various Misfit Toys, including a Spotted Elephant, King Moonracer's footman; a bird that swims, a cowboy who rides an ostrich, a train with square wheels on his caboose, two teddy bears (one on a bicycle and one with wings), a boat that doesn't float, a set of clown nesting dolls with a wind-up mouse as the last one, a water pistol that shoots jelly, a plane that can't fly, a toy car that only drives in reverse, and a scooter with two wheels in front and one in back.

Alfie Scopp voices:

Fireball, who introduces Rudolph to the opposite sex, but later snubs Rudolph when his red nose is revealed.
Charlie-In-The-Box, the island's sentry.

Corinne Conley voices Dolly, a seemingly normal girl rag doll on the Island of Misfit Toys. Her misfit problem is never explained on the special; many decades later, on NPR's Wait Wait… Don't Tell Me! news quiz show (broadcast December 8, 2007), Rudolph's producer, Arthur Rankin Jr., noted that Dolly's problem was psychological, caused by being abandoned by her owner (named as Sue in the special) and suffering depression from feeling uncared-for.[5]

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: The TV special, with the teleplay by Romeo Muller, introduced several new characters inspired by the song's lyrics. Muller told an interviewer shortly before his death that he would have preferred to base the teleplay on May's original book, but could not find a copy.[6] Other than Burl Ives, all characters were portrayed by Canadian actors recorded at RCA studios in Toronto under the supervision of Bernard Cowan.[7]

text: After the script, concept designs and storyboards for Rudolph were done by Arthur Rankin, Jr. and his staff of artists at Rankin/Bass in New York City, the company's trademark stop motion animation process, known as "Animagic", was filmed at MOM Productions in Tokyo with supervision by Tadahito Mochinaga and associate direction by Kizo Nagashima.[6] Besides Rudolph, Mochinaga and the rest of the Japanese puppet animation staff are also known for their partnership with Rankin/Bass on their other "Animagic" productions almost throughout the 1960s, from The New Adventures of Pinocchio, to Willy McBean and his Magic Machine, to The Daydreamer and Mad Monster Party?.[6]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: Since those involved with the production had no idea of the future value of the stop-motion puppet figures used in the production, many were not preserved. Rankin claimed in 2007 to be in possession of an original Rudolph figure.[8] Nine other puppets—including Santa and young Rudolph—were given to a secretary, who gave them to family members. Eventually seven were discarded.[8] In 2005, the remaining two puppets of Rudolph and Santa were appraised on Antiques Roadshow; the episode aired in 2006 on PBS. At that time, their appraised value was between $8,000 and $10,000. The puppets had been damaged through years of rough handling by children and storage in an attic.[9] Toy aficionado Kevin Kriess bought Santa and Rudolph in 2005; in 2007, he had both puppets restored by Screen Novelties, a Los Angeles-based collective of film directors specializing in stop motion animation with puppet fabricator Robin Walsh leading the project.[8][10] The figures have been shown at conventions since then.[11]

text: Production credits[edit]

text:
Directed by Larry Roemer
Produced by Arthur Rankin, Jr.
Co-Producer: Jules Bass
Written by Romeo Muller
Adapted from the Story by Robert L. May
Adapted from the Song by Johnny Marks
Music and Lyrics by Johnny Marks
Music Conducted and Arranged by Maury Laws
Associate Director: Kizo Nagashima
Recording Engineers: Bill Giles, Alan Mirchin, Ralph Friedman
Sound Effects: Walter Gustafson
Recording Supervisor: Bernard Cowan
"Animagic" Supervisor: Tadahito Mochinaga (aka Tad Mochinaga)
Continuity Design: Anthony Peters

text: Different versions[edit]

text: Original 1964 NBC broadcast edit[edit]

text: This version has the NBC "living color" peacock at the introduction. It includes the original end credits, where an elf drops presents which list all the technical credits. It also includes commercials which were exclusively for GE small appliances with some of the same animated elves from the main program introducing each of the products, and closing NBC network bumpers, including promos for the following week's episodes of GE College Bowl and Meet the Press, which were presumably pre-empted that Sunday for the inaugural 5:30 PM (EST) telecast. The College Bowl quiz show was also sponsored by GE.[12] The original does not include Santa traveling to the Island of Misfit Toys, but does include a scene near the end of the special in which Yukon Cornelius discovers a peppermint mine near Santa's workshop. He can be seen throughout the special tossing his pickax into the air, sniffing, then licking the end that contacts the snow or ice. Discarded in 1965 to make room for Santa traveling to the Island of Misfit Toys, the audience was left to assume that Cornelius was attempting to find either silver or gold by taste alone.[6]

text: 1965–1997 telecasts[edit]

text: The 1965 broadcast also included a new duet between Rudolph and Hermey called "Fame and Fortune", which replaced a scene in which the same characters sang "We're a Couple of Misfits". Viewers of the 1964 special complained that Santa was not shown fulfilling his promise to the Misfit Toys (to include them in his annual toy delivery).[6] In reaction, a new scene for subsequent rebroadcasts was produced with Santa making his first stop at the Island to pick up the toys. This is the ending that has been shown on all telecasts and video releases ever since. Until sometime in the 1970s the special aired without additional cuts, but eventually more commercial time was required by the network. In 1978, several sequences were deleted to make room for more advertising: the instrumental bridge from "We Are Santa's Elves" featuring the elf orchestra, additional dialogue by Burl Ives, and the "Peppermint Mine" scene resolving the fate of Yukon Cornelius.[6] The special's 1993 restoration saw "Misfits" returned to its original film context, and the 2004 DVD release showcases "Fame and Fortune" as a separate musical number.

text: 1998– CBS telecasts[edit]

text: Most of the 1965 deletions were restored in 1998, and "Fame and Fortune" was replaced with the original "We're a Couple of Misfits" reprise. A short slide reading "Rankin/Bass Presents" was inserted at the beginning of the special to reflect the company's name change. The "Peppermint Mine" scene was not restored; it has not aired on CBS since the mid 70s.

text: Starting in 2005, CBS aired the video of the "Fame and Fortune" scene with the soundtrack replaced by an edited version of "We're a Couple of Misfits".[6] The special has been edited to make more time for commercial advertising by shortening some musical numbers.

text: Home media[edit]

text: When Rudolph was first issued on VHS, Betamax, and LaserDisc by Family Home Entertainment and Broadway Video from 1989 to 1997 under the Christmas Classics Series label, the 1965 rebroadcast print described above was used. All current video prints of Rudolph by Classic Media are a compendium of the two previous telecast versions of the special. All the footage in the current versions follow the original NBC airing (without the original GE commercials) up until the "Peppermint Mine" scene, followed by the final act of the 1965 edit (with the Island of Misfit Toys finale and the 1965 alternate credits in place of the original end credit sequence).

text: In 1998, the special was released by Sony Wonder on VHS. In 2000, it was released on DVD, and on Blu-ray Disc in 2010 (although the Blu-ray does not contain the bonus features from the previous DVD release.) This edit has been made available in original color form by former rights holders Classic Media,[13] (which in 2012 became the DreamWorks Classics division of DreamWorks Animation, and finally in 2016, part of Universal Pictures)[14] As previously mentioned, this is also the version currently airing on CBS, albeit in edited form to accommodate more commercial time. In November 2014, Classic Media released a 50th anniversary edition of the special on Blu-ray.[15] Walmart released an exclusive 50th anniversary Blu-ray edition with a storybook.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The songs and incidental music were all written by Johnny Marks, with Maury Laws supervising. In addition to the songs previously mentioned, the score also includes the film's love theme "There's Always Tomorrow", sung by Clarice after Rudolph is kicked out of the reindeer games. Marks' holiday standard "Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree" appears as instrumental background music when Rudolph first arrives at the Reindeer Games. Also included in the soundtrack is an instrumental version of Marks' setting of the Christmas hymn "I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day."

text: In 1964, an LP record of the soundtrack was released on Decca Records. It contained all the original songs performed as they are in the special, with the exception of Burl Ives' material, which has been re-recorded. MCA Special Products released the soundtrack on CD in June 1995. It is an exact duplication of the original LP released in 1964. Tracks 1-9 are the original soundtrack selections while tracks 10-19 are the same songs performed by the Decca Concert Orchestra. The song "Fame and Fortune" is not contained on either release. On November 30, 2004 the soundtrack was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over 500,000 copies.

text: Ives re-recorded "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer" and "A Holly Jolly Christmas", with different arrangements, for his own album Have a Holly Jolly Christmas in 1965.[16]

text: Merchandise[edit]

text: Books and other items related to the show have in some cases misspelled "Hermey" as "Herbie". Rich Goldschmidt, who wrote Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer: The Making of the Rankin/Bass Holiday Classic, says the scripts by Romeo Muller show the spelling to be "Hermey".[17]

text: A Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer video game was released on November 9, 2010. The adaptation was published by Red Wagon Games for the Wii and Nintendo DS, and was developed by High Voltage Software and Glyphic Entertainment respectively. The Wii version was received poorly, and garnered extremely negative reviews from sites such as IGN giving it a 1.5/10.[18]

text: Sequels[edit]

text: The Rankin/Bass special, which currently airs on CBS, inspired numerous television sequels made by the same studio:

text:
Rudolph's Shiny New Year (1976), a special that first aired on ABC and is still aired annually on both ABC and Freeform.
Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in July (1979), a feature-length special that paired Rudolph with the song-inspired character Frosty the Snowman.
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer and the Island of Misfit Toys (2001), a direct-to-video computer-animated film that is considered[by whom?] an unofficial sequel to the 1964 film.
"Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer - 4D Attraction"[19] (2016), A faithful, 10-minute stop motion story adaptation in the form of a 4D film for SimEx-Iwerks;[20] produced by Bent Image Lab and directed by Chel White.

text: Parodies of, and homages to, Rudolph[edit]

text: The television special's familiarity to American audiences through its annual rebroadcasts, along with its primitive stop-motion animation that is easy to recreate with modern technology and the special's ambiguous copyright status, has lent itself to numerous parodies and homages over the years.

text: Films by Corky Quakenbush[edit]

text: Animator Corky Quakenbush has produced parodies of Rudolph for several American television shows:

text:
In its December 16, 1995 episode, the Fox Network's comedy series MADtv aired "Raging Rudolph",[21] which also parodied Martin Scorsese's films. In it, Sam The Snowman narrates in a Joe Pesci-like voice how Rudolph and Hermey got violent Mafia-style revenge on their tormentors. This was followed by two sequels: "The Reinfather",[22] spoofing The Godfather trilogy and "A Pack of Gifts Now",[23] spoofing Apocalypse Now.
A 2001 episode of That '70s Show, titled "An Eric Forman Christmas", featured a subplot where Kelso was taunted by his friends for still watching "kiddie shows" like Rudolph even though he was in high school. A dream sequence produced and directed by Quakenbush, Kelso himself appears in stop-motion form with Rudolph and Santa who encourage him to continue watching their show.
In December 2005, the George Lopez Show featured an animated segment in which Lopez sees a stop-motion version of himself on television in a Rudolph-style special mirroring the theme of the holiday episode.

text: Other parodies of Rudolph[edit]

text:
In the stop-motion animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993), Jack looks through a book version of Rudolph the Red Nosed Reindeer to find a logical answer to explain Christmas to the other citizens of Halloween Town. Later, Zero, the ghost dog, has a magnificently glowing pumpkin nose, which is bright enough to break through the fog that Sally has conjured up. Jack lets Zero go to the head of his skeleton reindeer team and light the way for him.
Chel White, of Bent Image Lab, directed two parodies that played on Saturday Night Live', on Robert Smigel's TV Funhouse:

In a 2001 TV Funhouse episode, Sam the Snowman refuses to narrate the story because of the September 11, 2001 attacks. He then takes two children to Ground Zero at New York City, but Santa Claus convinces him to narrate the story, because people need comforting stories like Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. Sam decided to narrate the tale, but was immediately interrupted by a special news report.
In 2004, TV Funhouse referenced the Red state-blue state divide. In the segment, Santa hangs out with liberal celebrities Natalie Merchant, Margaret Cho, Al Franken, and Moby while skipping over the Red states ("screw the red states, voting for that dumbass president just because of that moral values crap. I don't want any part of them!"). Rudolph's red nose turns blue.

In 2004, for Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer's 40th anniversary, CBS produced stop motion promos for their programming line-up, done in the style of Rankin/Bass animation. Appearing as elves in the CBS promos were puppet versions of CBS stars Jeff Probst from Survivor, Ray Romano and Doris Roberts from Everybody Loves Raymond, William Petersen and Marg Helgenberger from CSI, Charlie Sheen from Two and a Half Men, Phil Simms and Greg Gumbel from The NFL on CBS, and late-night talk show host David Letterman. A new stop-motion animation featuring Rudolph and Santa meeting even more CBS network stars was also aired in 2005.
Mystery Science Theater 3000 made numerous references to the special in their movie hecklings, such as Rudolph's line "I'm cute!! I'm cuute!! She said I'm cuuuuuutte!!!!". In episode 321, which screened Santa Claus Conquers the Martians, the MST3K cast had their own ideas for potential residents on the Island of Misfit Toys including Toaster Dolls, Patrick Swayze's Roadhouse board game, the EZ Bake Foundry, and Mr. Mashed Potato Head.

text: Uses in advertising[edit]

text:
In 1964, Rankin & Bass produced several commercials for the General Electric-sponsored broadcast.[12]
In November 2007, the Aflac insurance company released a commercial that featured Rudolph, who has a cold but does not want to miss work. All his friends say he will be unable to pay for his expenses. Santa then tells them about Aflac. Charlie wonders what will happen if Rudolph is not better by Christmas, but Rudolph thinks the Aflac duck can do the work. Rudolph gets better in a week, but Blitzen is sick, so the Aflac duck fills in for him.[24]
In 2009, Verizon began showing a commercial of the Misfit Toys with an AT&T phone. The characters wonder why it is there with all of its features but soon discover why, when the phone shows a map of where it has 3G coverage. (Verizon's ad campaign touts its much wider 3G coverage compared to AT&T's.) The toy airplane replies: "You're gonna fit right in here!" and falls on the ground laughing.[citation needed]
Starting in 2011, there have been several Bing.com commercials, filmed to look like the same stop-motion style as the special, which feature several characters including Rudolph, Yukon Cornelius, Hermey, the Bumble, and the Misfit Toys.[citation needed]
A 2012 commercial for Windows phone features Bumble the Abominable Snowman (with his full set of teeth), speed-dating and getting advice from friends through Live Tiles. A follow-up features Bumble at Santa's North Pole pool party, and Santa using Live Tiles on his new Windows Phone to help him give his elves the holiday-season toy production directives.[citation needed]
A 2013 commercial for Nissan shows a woman in a dealership briefly entering a fantasy, wherein Santa's Elves, including Boss Elf and Hermey, have expanded their manufacturing line to include Nissan cars. Furthermore, the Bumble makes an appearance test driving one to his obvious approval.[citation needed]
CBS celebrated the special's 50th anniversary in 2014 with Rudolph and Sam the Snowman celebrating with cast members from The Big Bang Theory and NCIS while passing by their studio lots.[citation needed]
In 2014, the United States Postal Service used four characters (Rudolph, Hermey, Yukon Cornelius, and Bumble) for the year's "Contemporary Christmas" stamp issue.[2][25]
In 2015, the Rudolph characters began appearing in commercials for AT&T with a stop-motion version of spokes-character Lily Adams.

text: Copyright issues[edit]

text: The copyright of the Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer special lies in a loophole of American federal copyright law. When the recording was originally published, the date of copyright (published in Roman numerals) was accidentally listed as 1164 (MCLXIV), omitting an M that should have been present (1964 in Roman numerals is MCMLXIV); this mistake was not corrected with subsequent edits and remains on televised prints to this day.[26] The songs were validly and separately copyrighted, and the original character on which the special was based also remains under copyright and trademark protection, extending some indirect copyright protection to the special as a derivative work. (A number of films, such as It's a Wonderful Life and His Girl Friday, fall under similar circumstances: a public domain film loosely based on a copyrighted work.)

text: Assuming the error in the copyright is considered substantial enough to invalidate it (U.S. copyright law before 1988 required works to have a valid date on a copyright notice, while providing some leeway in regard to non-substantial errors), the error puts large portions of the special not directly tied to the songs or original story into the public domain. (Some of the characters, particularly Santa Claus and the adult reindeer, relied on material that was already public domain anyway; all of the characters except Rudolph, most of the images, and large portions of the spoken soundtrack would thus be public domain in this interpretation.) Because of the indirect copyright protections and uncertainty over their extent, permission is still required to show the program as a whole. The extensive derivative works seen in popular culture are likely a byproduct of this uncertain copyright status.


document_title: Singin' in the Rain

question_text: who played lina lamont in singing in the rain

text: Singin' in the Rain

text: Plot[edit]

text: Don Lockwood (Gene Kelly) is a popular silent film star with humble roots as a singer, dancer, and stuntman. Don barely tolerates his vain, cunning, and shallow leading lady, Lina Lamont (Jean Hagen), though their studio, Monumental Pictures, links them romantically to increase their popularity. Lina is convinced they are in love, despite Don's protestations otherwise.

text: At the premiere of his newest film, The Royal Rascal, Don tells the gathered crowd an exaggerated version of his life story, including his motto: "Dignity, always dignity." His words are humorously contradicted by flashbacks showing him alongside his best friend Cosmo Brown (Donald O'Connor). To escape from his fans after the premiere, Don jumps into a passing car driven by Kathy Selden (Debbie Reynolds). She drops him off, but not before claiming to be a stage actress and sneering at his "undignified" accomplishments as a movie star.

text: Later, at a party, the head of Don's studio, R.F. Simpson (Millard Mitchell), shows a short demonstration of a talking picture,[a] but his guests are unimpressed. To Don's amusement, Kathy pops out of a mock cake right in front of him, revealing herself to be a chorus girl. Furious at Don's teasing, she throws a real cake at him, only to hit Lina right in the face. She runs away. Don is smitten with Kathy and searches for her for weeks. While filming a love scene, Lina tells him that she had Kathy fired. Don finally finds Kathy working in another Monumental Pictures production. She confesses to having been a fan of his all along.

text: After a rival studio has an enormous hit with its first talking picture, the 1927 film The Jazz Singer, R.F. decides he has no choice but to convert the next Lockwood and Lamont film, The Duelling Cavalier, into a talkie. The production is beset with difficulties, including Lina's grating voice and strong New York accent. An exasperated diction coach tries to teach her how to speak properly, but to no avail. The Duelling Cavalier's test screening is a disaster; the actors are barely audible thanks to the awkward placing of the microphones, Don repeats the line "I love you" to Lina over and over, to the audience's derisive laughter,[b] and in the middle of the film, the sound goes out of synchronization, with hilarious results.

text: Don, Kathy and Cosmo come up with the idea to turn The Duelling Cavalier into a musical called The Dancing Cavalier, complete with a modern musical number called "Broadway Melody". Cosmo, inspired by a scene in The Duelling Cavalier where Lina's voice was out of sync, suggests that they dub Lina's voice with Kathy's. R.F. approves the idea but tells them not to inform Lina about the dubbing. When Lina finds out, she is infuriated. She becomes even angrier when she discovers that R.F. intends to give Kathy a screen credit and a big publicity buildup afterward. Lina threatens to sue R.F. unless he orders Kathy to continue working uncredited as Lina's voice. R.F. reluctantly agrees to her demands, as a clause in her contract states that she can sue whenever denied a role of her choosing.

text: The premiere of The Dancing Cavalier is a tremendous success. When the audience clamors for Lina to sing live, Don, Cosmo, and R.F. tell her to lip sync into the microphone while Kathy, hidden behind the curtain, sings into a second one. While Lina is "singing," Don, Cosmo and R.F. gleefully raise the curtain, revealing the fakery. Lina flees. A distressed Kathy tries to run away as well, but Don proudly announces to the audience that she's "the real star of the film." Later, Kathy and Don kiss in front of a billboard for their new film, Singin' in the Rain.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gene Kelly as Don Lockwood. His performance in the song "Singin' in the Rain" is now considered to be iconic.[5]
Debbie Reynolds as Kathy Selden. Directors Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen insisted that Reynolds was always first in their minds for the role.[6] Although the film revolves around the idea that Kathy has to dub over for Lina's voice, in the scene where Kathy is dubbing a line of Lina's dialogue ("Our love will last 'til the stars turn cold"), Jean Hagen's normal voice is used.[7][8][9]
Donald O'Connor as Cosmo Brown, Don's lifelong pal, and vaudeville partner, who becomes the head of Monumental Pictures' music department.
Jean Hagen as Lina Lamont. Fresh off her role in The Asphalt Jungle, Hagen read for the part for producer Arthur Freed. She did a dead-on impression of Judy Holliday's Billie Dawn character from Born Yesterday, which won her the role.
Millard Mitchell as R.F. Simpson. The initials of the fictional head of Monumental Pictures are a reference to producer Arthur Freed. R.F. also uses one of Freed's favorite expressions when he says that he "cannot quite visualize it" and has to see it on film first, referring to the "Broadway Melody" sequence. This is a joke, since the audience has just seen it.
Cyd Charisse as the long-legged woman in the green sequined dress and Louise Brooks hair who vamps Gene Kelly in the "Broadway Melody" sequence.
Douglas Fowley as Roscoe Dexter, the director of Don and Lina's films.
Rita Moreno as Zelda Zanders, the "Zip Girl" and Lina's friend.

text: Uncredited

text:
King Donovan as Rod, head of the publicity department at Monumental Pictures.
Judy Landon as Olga Mara, a silent screen vamp who attends the premiere of The Royal Rascal.
Madge Blake as Dora Bailey, a radio show host.
Kathleen Freeman as Phoebe Dinsmore, Lina's diction coach.
Bobby Watson as diction coach during the "Moses Supposes" number.
Jimmy Thompson as the singer of "Beautiful Girl".
Mae Clarke as the hairdresser who puts the finishing touches on Lina Lamont's hairdo.

text: Songs[edit]

text: Singin' in the Rain was originally conceived by MGM producer Arthur Freed, the head of the "Freed Unit" responsible for turning out MGM's lavish musicals, as a vehicle for his catalog of songs written with Nacio Herb Brown for previous MGM musical films of the 1929–39 period.[10] Screenwriters Betty Comden and Adolph Green wrote two entirely new songs, "Make 'Em Laugh" and "Moses Supposes", the latter with music director Roger Edens providing the music. (see below).[11]

text: All songs have lyrics by Freed and music by Brown unless otherwise indicated.[11] Some of the songs, such as "Broadway Rhythm," "Should I?," and most notably "Singin' in the Rain," have been featured in numerous films. The films listed below mark the first time each song was presented on screen.

text:
"Fit as a Fiddle (And Ready for Love)" from College Coach (1933)[12] (music by Al Hoffman and Al Goodhart, lyrics by Freed)
"Temptation" (instrumental only) from Going Hollywood (1933)
"All I Do Is Dream of You" from Sadie McKee (1934)[11]
"Singin' in the Rain" from The Hollywood Revue of 1929 (1929)[11]
"Make 'Em Laugh," considered an original song, but bearing a striking resemblance to Cole Porter's "Be a Clown," used in another MGM Freed-produced musical, The Pirate (1948). Credited to Comden and Green.
"Beautiful Girl Montage" comprising "I've Got a Feelin' You're Foolin'" from Broadway Melody of 1936 (1935),[11] "The Wedding of the Painted Doll" from The Broadway Melody (1929),[11] "Should I?" from Lord Byron of Broadway (1930)[11] and "Beautiful Girl" from Stage Mother (1933)[11]
"You Were Meant for Me" from The Broadway Melody (1929)[11]
"You Are My Lucky Star" from Broadway Melody of 1936 (1935)[11]
"Moses Supposes" (music by Roger Edens, lyrics by Comden and Green)
"Good Morning" from Babes In Arms (1939)[11]
"Would You?" from San Francisco (1936)[11]
"Broadway Melody" composed of "The Broadway Melody" from The Broadway Melody (1929)[11] and "Broadway Rhythm" from Broadway Melody of 1936 (1935)[11] The music for the "Broadway Ballet" section is by Nacio Herb Brown.[1]

text: Production[edit]

text: Revisions from early drafts[edit]

text:
In an early draft of the script, the musical number "Singin' in the Rain" was to be sung by Reynolds, O'Connor, and Kelly, emerging from a restaurant after the flop preview of The Dueling Cavalier, to celebrate the idea of changing the film into a musical.[13]
Kelly singing "You Were Meant For Me" to Reynolds on an empty sound stage was not included in that draft. The number was originally conceived as Kelly singing a medley of other songs to her as they romped around various studio back lot sets.[14]
Rita Moreno was originally to have sung the lead in "I've Got a Feelin' You're Foolin'" with other showgirls, but this ended up as part of the "Beautiful Girl Montage" without her.[15]

text: Scenes filmed but cut before release[edit]

text:
Gene Kelly sang a reprise of "All I Do is Dream of You" after the party at R.F. Simpson's house when Kelly chases after Reynolds. The song, ending in Kelly's bedroom, was cut from the release version after two previews, and the footage has been lost.[16]
Reynolds' solo rendition of "You Are My Lucky Star" (to a billboard showing an image of Lockwood) was cut after previews.[16] This number has survived and is included on the original soundtrack and DVD version of the film.[17]
In the steamy "Vamp Dance" segment of the "Broadway Melody Ballet" with Cyd Charisse and Gene Kelly, reviewers from both the Production Code and the Catholic Church's Legion of Decency objected to a brief, suggestive pose or movement between the dancers. Although there is no precise documentation of what or where it was, close examination of footage toward the end of the dance shows an abrupt cut when Charisse is wrapped around Kelly, indicating the probable location.[18]

text: Other notes[edit]

text: In the famous dance sequence in which Gene Kelly sings the title song while spinning an umbrella, splashing through puddles and getting soaked to the skin, Kelly was sick with a 103 °F (39 °C) fever.[19][20] The rain in the scene caused Kelly's wool suit to shrink during filming. A common myth is that Kelly managed to perform the entire song in one take, thanks to cameras placed at predetermined locations. However, this was not the case, as the filming of the sequence took place over 2–3 days.[21] Another myth is that the rain was mixed with milk in order for the drops to show up better on camera; but the desired visual effect was produced, albeit with difficulty, through backlighting.[22][23]

text: Debbie Reynolds was not a dancer when she made Singin' in the Rain; her background was as a gymnast.[17] Kelly apparently insulted her for her lack of dance experience, upsetting her. In a subsequent encounter when Fred Astaire was in the studio, he found Reynolds crying under a piano. Hearing what had happened, Astaire volunteered to help her with her dancing. Kelly later admitted that he had not been kind to Reynolds and was surprised that she was still willing to talk to him afterwards. After shooting the "Good Morning" routine, which had taken from 8:00 a.m. until 11:00 p.m. to shoot,[24] Reynolds' feet were bleeding.[17] Years later, she was quoted as saying that "Singin' in the Rain and childbirth were the two hardest things I ever had to do in my life."[25]

text: Donald O'Connor had to stay in bed in the hospital for several days after filming the "Make 'Em Laugh" sequence, due to his smoking up to four packs of cigarettes a day.[21][26]

text: Most of the costumes from this film were eventually acquired by Debbie Reynolds and held in her massive collection of original film costumes, sets, and props. Many of these items were sold at a 2011 auction in Hollywood. While most items were sold to private collectors, Donald O'Connor's green check "Fit As a Fiddle" suit and shoes were purchased by Costume World, Inc. They are now on permanent display at the Costume World Broadway Collection Museum in Pompano Beach, Florida.[citation needed]

text: Reception[edit]

text: According to MGM records, during the film's initial theatrical release, it made $3,263,000 in the US and Canada and $2,367,000 internationally, earning the studio a profit of $666,000.[27] It was the tenth highest-grossing movie of the year in the US and Canada.[28][29]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film had a score of a perfect 100% "Certified fresh" approval rating based on 49 reviews with an average rating of 9.2/10, the website's critical consensus reads: "Clever, incisive, and funny, Singin' In The Rain is a masterpiece of the classical Hollywood musical."[30]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: For her role as Lina Lamont, Jean Hagen was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. The film was also nominated for Best Original Music Score for Lennie Hayton.

text: Donald O'Connor won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy for his portrayal of Cosmo Brown.[31] Betty Comden and Adolph Green received the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical.[32]

text: Singin' in the Rain has appeared twice on Sight & Sound's list of the ten best films of all time, in 1982 and 2002. Its position in 1982 was at number 4 on the critics list; on the 2002 critics' list, it was listed as number 10, and it tied for 19 on the directors' list.[33]

text: Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 100% of critics gave the film a positive review based on 49 reviews, with an average score of 9.2/10. The film is currently ranked as No. 14 on Rotten Tomatoes' list of best rated films.[34] Rotten Tomatoes summarizes the critical consensus as, "Clever, incisive, and funny, Singin' in the Rain is a masterpiece of the classical Hollywood musical."[35] In 2008, Singin' in the Rain was placed on Empire's 500 Greatest Movies of All Time List, ranking at #8, the highest ranked G-rated movie on the list.

text: In 1989, Singin' in the Rain was among the first 25 films chosen for the newly established National Film Registry for films that are deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation.

text: The film is recognized by the American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #10[36]
2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – #16[37]
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – #16[38]
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:

Lina Lamont – Nominated Villain[39]

2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:

"Singin' in the Rain" – #3[40]
"Make 'Em Laugh" – #49[41]
"Good Morning" – #72[42]

2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:

Lina Lamont: "What do they think I am, dumb or something? Why, I make more money than Calvin Coolidge! Put together!" – Nominated[43]

2006: AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – #1[44]
2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #5[45]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The 40th Anniversary Edition VHS version released in 1992 includes a documentary, the original trailer, and Reynolds' solo rendition of "You Are My Lucky Star," which had been cut from the final film.[46]

text: According to the audio commentary on the 2002 Special Edition DVD, the original negative was destroyed in a fire. Despite this, the film was digitally restored for its DVD release. A Blu-ray Ultimate Collector's Edition was released in July 2012.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Comic book adaptation

text: Eastern Color Movie Love #14 (April 1952)[47]

text:
Stage adaptation
The Broadway musical Singin' in the Rain was adapted from the motion picture, and the plot of the stage version closely adheres to the original. Directed and choreographed by post-modern choreographer Twyla Tharp, the opening night cast starred Don Correia as Don Lockwood, Mary D'Arcy as Kathy Selden, Richard Fancy as Roscoe Dexter, Faye Grant as Lina Lamont, and Peter Slutsker as Cosmo Brown. The musical opened on July 2, 1985 at the Gershwin Theatre after 39 previews, and ran for 367 performances, closing on May 18, 1986.[48]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
Kelly's hometown Pittsburgh Pirates games at PNC Park play the scene from the film during rain delays.[49]
"Singin' in the Rain" is sung mockingly by Alex DeLarge, played by Malcolm McDowell, in the rape scene in Stanley Kubrick's 1971 film A Clockwork Orange. The Gene Kelly version plays during the end credits.[50]
"Singin' in the Rain" is sung by Inspector Jacques Clouseau played by Peter Sellers as part of the extended version of the grocery scene from The Pink Panther Strikes Again in Blake Edwards 1982 film Trail of the Pink Panther.
In the 1989 Woody Allen film Crimes and Misdemeanors, Cliff (Woody Allen) and Halley (Mia Farrow) watch Singin’ in the Rain at Cliff’s apartment. Cliff claims to watch the film “every few months to keep my spirits up.”
In their 1976 Christmas special, the British comedy act Morecambe and Wise parodied the "Singin' in the Rain" sequence.[51]
Gene Kelly's "Singin' in the Rain" sequence is one of the opening scenes of The Great Movie Ride at Disney's Hollywood Studios.[52] Kelly approved his Audio-Animatronics likeness prior to its delivery to Florida.[53]
The dance to the title song is parodied in the 2005 Broadway musical Spamalot in the dance break to "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life," complete with tap-dancing knights spinning bright yellow umbrellas around.[54]
The "Singin' in the Rain" sequence was featured in a 2005 Volkswagen Golf commercial, with Gene Kelly seen break-dancing in the street. Also featured was Mint Royale's version of the song accompanying the commercial.
Two songs from the film were featured in "The Substitute", a season 2 episode of the musical comedy television series Glee.
In the 2012 film Silver Linings Playbook, Jennifer Lawrence's character is inspired by a clip of Donald O'Connor and Gene Kelly dancing to "Moses Supposes" from Singin' in the Rain.
The 2013 anime short Gisoku no Moses features a young female ghost dancing with a pair of haunted dance shoes to the tune of "Moses Supposes."[55]
In the 2015 romantic drama film Brooklyn, Tony Fiorello (Emory Cohen) takes Eilis Lacey (Saoirse Ronan) out on a date to see the film. In the next scene, he emulates Gene Kelly's iconic swing on the lamppost.
The scene in which Gene Kelly sings "You Were Meant for Me" is featured in the 2015 Nancy Meyers film The Intern.
Singin' in the Rain is an inspiration for the 2016 musical film La La Land, directed by Damien Chazelle.[56]
The 2017 Eurovision entry of Italy, Occidentali's Karma, features the phrase "Communque vada panta rei, and Singing in the Rain".


document_title: Rugby World Cup hosts

question_text: when did south africa host rugby world cup

text: Rugby World Cup hosts

text: Current criteria[edit]

text: World Rugby requires for a country to host a Rugby World Cup, it must possess the necessary facilities. Stadiums must have a capacity at least 15,000, with the stadium for the final having a capacity of at least 60,000.[1] The stadiums have other requirements, such as pitch size and floodlighting.[2]

text:
World Rugby also looks for hosts that will either generate significant revenue or hosts that will spread the geographic reach of the sport. According to World Rugby Chairman Bernard Lapasset in 2008:
"As the revenue generation is vital to our ongoing development plans, we recognise that the World Cup has to be held in one of our senior core markets on a regular basis . . . However, the commercial success of the tournament also means we can now consider placing the tournament in new developing markets to assist the game's strategic growth."[3]

text: Summary[edit]

text:
Tournament

# Matches

Matches Hosted by Nations

Other bidders

1987
32
 New Zealand (21)   Australia (11)

1991
32
 France (8)   England (7)   Wales (7)   Scotland (5)   Ireland (5)

1995
32
 South Africa (32)

1999
41
 Wales (9)   England (9)   France (8)   Scotland (8)   Ireland (7)

2003
48
 Australia (48)
 New Zealand

2007
48
 France (42)   Wales (4)   Scotland (2)
 England[4]

2011
48
 New Zealand (48)
 Japan   South Africa[5]

2015
48
 England (40)   Wales (8)
 South Africa   Italy   Japan

Total 1987–2015
329
 New Zealand (69)  Australia (59)   France (58)    England (56)   South Africa (32)   Wales (28)   Scotland (15)   Ireland (12)

2019

 Japan
 South Africa   Italy

2023

 France
 South Africa   Ireland

text: Hosts by tournament[edit]

text: 1987: New Zealand and Australia[edit]

text: The first Rugby World Cup was hosted by Australia and New Zealand after the Australian Rugby Union and the New Zealand Rugby Union each independently wrote to the International Rugby Board seeking to conduct a World Cup tournament. The final was played in Auckland, New Zealand at Eden Park and won by New Zealand.

text: 1991: England, Ireland, Wales, France and Scotland[edit]

text: The 1991 Rugby World Cup was jointly hosted by England, Ireland, Wales, France and Scotland, with games played all over these five European nations. Pool A, in which England played, saw half of the matches played in London, though games were also in Leicester, Gloucester and Otley. Pool B games involved European nations Scotland and Ireland, which had all their games in either Dublin or Edinburgh; one game was played in Belfast. Pool C included Wales, whose games were all played in Cardiff, with the other games in Pontypool, Pontypridd, and Llanelli. Pool D, of which France were a part, saw games played in Agen, Bayonne, Béziers Brive, Grenoble, and Toulouse. None of the quarter-finals or semi-finals was played in England. The final was played at the Rugby Football Union's Twickenham.

text: 1995: South Africa[edit]

text: The 1995 World Cup was hosted and won by South Africa. The IRB broke new ground by awarding the tournament to an African nation, making it the first major sporting event ever held on the continent. This was also the first Rugby World Cup to be played entirely in one country.

text: The tournament will probably be most remembered for two moments—the emergence of Jonah Lomu as a rugby superstar, and the trophy presentation. In one of the most emotional moments in sports history, President Nelson Mandela wore a Springbok jersey and matching baseball cap when presenting the trophy to the team's Afrikaner captain Francois Pienaar. Mandela's jersey had Pienaar's number 6 on the back. The presentation was widely seen as a sign of reconciliation between South Africa's black and white communities.

text: 1999: Wales[edit]

text: The 1999 World Cup was hosted by Wales with some matches spread across Scotland, England, Ireland and France. The format of the pool games was similar to the 1991 World Cup in England. All Pool A games were held in Scotland, Pool B games in England, Pool C games in France, Pool D games were all held in Wales and Pool 5 games were all held in Ireland. Second round play-offs and the quarter-finals were held a variety of European venues, the semi-finals were held at Twickenham Stadium, London. The third place play-off and the final were held at the new Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.

text: 2003: Australia[edit]

text: The 2003 Cup was intended to be held jointly by Australia and New Zealand, but disagreements between the International Rugby Board and the NZRU, over sponsorship, advertising and ticketing, saw the competition played solely in Australia. This was the first and only tournament to date to be won by a team from the northern hemisphere. The 2003 World Cup saw matches played in eleven stadia in ten Australian cities.

text: 2007: France[edit]

text: Unlike the previous tournaments in 1991 and 1999 where five countries in Europe hosted matches, the IRB decided to award the right to host the 2007 tournament to one country.[4]

text: Both England and France bid to host the tournament.[6][7] England's bid included a two-tier tournament — a 16 team format, and a separate Nations Cup for emerging countries — and altering the structure of the qualifying tournament.[4] France's bid had a traditional 20-team format to be held in September and October.[8]

text: The IRB announced in April 2003 that France had won the right to host the tournament.[9] The French bid won with 18 out of 21 votes, with IRB Chairman Syd Millar stating that "The council was overwhelmingly of the view that the structure should remain as it is."[4] The tournament was moved to the proposed September–October dates with the tournament structure remaining as it was.[9] It was also announced that ten French cities would be hosting games, with the final at the Stade de France.[9]

text: 2011: New Zealand[edit]

text: New Zealand, Japan, and South Africa bid to host the tournament. South Africa was eliminated in the first round of IRB voting;[5] in the second round, New Zealand won the vote 13 to 8, and the IRB Council awarded the hosting of the 2011 Rugby World Cup to New Zealand. The bidding occurred in November 2005, the first time that hosting rights had been awarded to a nation six years in advance. The voting procedure was managed by a team of independent auditors.[10]

text: Some bookmakers had initially made Japan the favourite to win the vote, reasoning that it was believed there was a desire to take the Rugby World Cup to a non-traditional rugby nation, and host the event in Asia for the first time.[citation needed]

text: There were also concerns about New Zealand's infrastructure, however an IRB fact-finding mission impressed the executives.[who?][citation needed]

text: South Africa had initially explored the possibility of inviting other African countries to stage some matches.[11] And according to Argentina Rugby Union officials, South Africa had discussed with Argentina the possibility of hosting some matches in Buenos Aires.[12] Ultimately, however, South Africa decided to submit a solo bid.

text: Additionally, the United States were discussed in the media as a country that might submit a bid,[11] but the United States did not bid.

text:
Japan responded critically to the IRB's decision to award the 2011 World Cup to New Zealand, with the Japanese RFU chief Yoshiro Mori declaring:
"The established nations pass the ball around their friends . . . Only the interests of the bigger unions remain."[13]
Despite not winning the right to host the 2011 World Cup, Japan Rugby officials remained optimistic about future opportunities.
Japan Rugby stated: "We want to help with the spread of rugby fever . . . and we believe that dispersing rugby fever in the biggest continent on the planet will help the IRB in their mission of globalizing the game we all love."[14]

text: The IRB defended its decision to award the 2011 World Cup to New Zealand instead of Japan, stating: "New Zealand can guarantee packed stadiums and that can't be guaranteed in Japan."[13]

text: 2015: England[edit]

text: The host for the 2015 tournament was England, who won their bid on 28 July 2009.[15] A record ten unions indicated formal interest in hosting the 2015 and/or the 2019 events: Australia, England, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Russia, Scotland, South Africa and Wales.[16] Argentina had been reported in early 2008 as having given preliminary consideration to bidding, but did not ultimately formally indicate an interest in bidding.[17]

text: 2019: Japan[edit]

text: The host for the 2019 tournament is Japan, who won the right to host the tournament on 28 July 2009.[18]

text: 2023: France[edit]

text: Several countries declared their interest in hosting the 2023 Rugby World Cup, including ones that have already hosted RWC matches and countries looking to host a tournament for the first time.

text: South Africa was considered one of the front runners to host the 2023 competition, having bid unsuccessfully for the right to host the 2011, 2015 and 2019 tournaments.[19][20] Ireland submitted a formal bid, following the January 2014 establishment of a government taskforce to assess a bid to host the Rugby World Cup. Previous host nation France also submitted a bid to host again in 2023.[21]

text: The United States was expected to bid to host the 2023 and/or 2027 Rugby World Cup (possibly co-hosting with Canada).[22] Argentina also expressed interest, with the IRB Council representative Agustín Pichot stating that he wanted to bring the tournament to Argentina in 2023.[23][24][25] Italy, which lost to England by just three votes on the right to host the 2015 tournament, was also interested in hosting.[20]

text: On 15 November 2017, it was announced that France had beaten rivals Ireland and South Africa, in its successful bid to host the 2023 Rugby World Cup.[26]


document_title: Judge Rinder

question_text: where does the money come from on judge rinder

text: Judge Rinder

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Judge Rinder

Genre
Court show

Presented by
Robert Rinder

Starring
Michelle Hassan

Voices of
Charles Foster

Country of origin
United Kingdom

Original language(s)
English

No. of series
6[1]

No. of episodes
407[1]

Production

Location(s)
The Studios, MediaCityUK, Salford, Greater Manchester

Running time
45 minutes (60 minutes including adverts)

Production company(s)
ITV Studios

Release

Original network
ITV

Picture format
1080i 16:9 (HDTV)

Original release
11 August 2014 (2014-08-11) – present

Chronology

Related shows
Judge Judy
Judge Rinder's Crime Stories

text: Judge Rinder is a British court show that is aired mainly on weekdays on ITV since it started on 11 August 2014. It centres on criminal barrister Robert Rinder as the judge, who oversees a variety of civil cases, such as disputes over basic consumer issues, business/personal/neighbourhood disputes, and allegations of negligence.

text: Like other court shows, Judge Rinder acts as an arbitrator in a form of binding arbitration, not as an actual judge.[2] In 2014 Rinder, who is a barrister at 2 Hare Court Chambers in London, told Legal Cheek that he was "adamant that we had to make it clear to viewers that I am in fact a practising criminal barrister and not a civil law judge." Participants are paid by the production company, which also pays out any damages awarded as a game-show prize, rather than taking them from the loser (hence, both sides emerge financially better off than they would from using a real court). Rinder claims that unlike other TV arbitrators such as Judge Judy who make judgements based on emotion, he makes his purely in accordance with real UK law, and hence the show is educational about real legal principles.

text: Show structure[edit]

text: The hearings are conducted in a studio mock-up of a small claims courtroom. However, real UK courts do not feature flags and gavels are only used in Scottish High Courts. The robes worn by Rinder are regular barristers' robes, minus wig, and resemble judicial robes worn by Deputy High Court judges. Part time judges in the Crown Court (called Recorders) also wear the same robes with wig. In reality, most small claim trials in England and Wales are conducted in District Judges' Chambers, with the parties seated throughout and no robes being worn at all.

text: The show shares the same format as other television court shows, such as Judge Judy and Judge Mathis.[3] When filmed, each case takes around an hour or so to film and is thus subsequently edited down so that multiple cases (usually two or three) can be fitted into the given timeslot.

text: The claimant and defendant enter the courtroom separately, while announcer Charles Foster announces their names (unlike Judge Judy, where full names are used, they are only identified by first names), along with details of the case, and take their places at their respective benches: the claimant on the left, and the defendant on the right, from Judge Rinder's viewpoint; for the audience, it is vice versa. Rinder then asks the claimant and defendant to confirm their names, and the case proceeds.

text: Rinder does not allow misconduct or disrespect in the courtroom, often firmly reprimanding litigants with what has become the show's virtual catchphrase, "Talking!" He allows the litigants three chances — or "strikes", as he calls them. If a litigant interrupts or acts out three times in the courtroom, they are escorted out by the court usher, a tall, well-built man named Ian, and the case continues in their absence.

text: The bailiff of the show is Michelle Hassan, who passes items of evidence (photographs, receipts, copies of text messages etc.) between the litigants and Judge Rinder during proceedings, which can be displayed on a large video screen in the courtroom (with certain identifying information electronically blurred) when required. Michelle also brings a box of tissues or a glass of water to any litigant who should become distressed during the case, as well as escorting any additional witnesses into the courtroom, who give their evidence standing in a dock on the same side of the room where she stands, and out of the courtroom again afterwards.


document_title: Comforter

question_text: what is the size of a king bed comforter

text: Comforter

text: A comforter (in American English), also known as a doona in Australian English[citation needed], a cloonie in parts of Canada and some states of America, or a continental quilt (or simply quilt) or duvet in British English, is a type of bedding made of two lengths fabric or covering sewn together and filled with insulative materials for warmth, traditionally down or feathers, wool or cotton batting, silk, or polyester and other down alternative fibers. Like quilts, comforters are generally laid over a top bed sheet (and sometimes also blankets). Duvets are another form of quilt, traditionally filled with feathers, though since the late 20th century often made of synthetic fibres or down alternatives.

text: A comforter is sometimes covered for protection and prolonged use. Comforter covers are similar in principle to pillowcases, usually closed with zippers or buttons.

text: In the United Kingdom the term comforter is not generally used. It is instead called a quilt, duvet or an eiderdown. A duvet differs in that it is thicker and usually used without blankets or extra sheets.

text: Sometimes a comforter is sold as a "bed in a bag". This term usually denotes an entire set of bedding, including either a comforter or duvet with its cover.

text: Comforters are sometimes packaged in a set that also includes a bed skirt, pillow shams, and sometimes pillows.

text: The terminology comforter comes from the word comfort. Comforters are usually used in the winter season when it is very cold. Due to the thickness of a comforter or the amount of down/feathers or other filling it has, a person is insulated against cold.

text: Comforter sizes correspond with bed sizes: twin, full, queen, king, and cal-king. Comforter sizes run slightly larger than mattress sizes to allow for draping over the sides of the bed. Typical sizes in the United States for comforters are:

text:
Twin = 64" (163 cm) width × 87" (221 cm) length
Queen / Full = 87" (221 cm) width × 87" (221 cm) length
King = 101" (257 cm) width × 90" (229 cm) length.

text: Construction[edit]

text: Filling - Comforters are filled with layers of natural material such as down feathers, wool, or silk, or polyester batting. Comforters can also be made out of fur, usually with a backing of satin or silk. The loft of the filling determines the weight as well as the level of insulation. The comforter is stitched or quilted to secure the filling and keep it evenly distributed.

text: Shell/Covering - The outer shells of comforters are typically made with cotton, silk, or polyester fabrics or blends, of varying thread counts. Comforter shells vary in design and color, often designed to coordinate with other bedding.


document_title: Amniotic fluid

question_text: where does the amniotic fluid go as the baby grows

text: Amniotic fluid

text: Development[edit]

text: Amniotic fluid, also known as Camerons fluid is present from the formation of the gestational sac. Amniotic fluid is in the amniotic sac. It is generated from maternal plasma, and passes through the fetal membranes by osmotic and hydrostatic forces. When fetal kidneys begin to function in about week 16, fetal urine also contributes to the fluid.[1] In earlier times, it was believed that the amniotic fluid was composed entirely of fetal urine.

text: The fluid is absorbed through the fetal tissue and skin.[citation needed] After the 15th-25th week of pregnancy when the keratinization of an embryo's skin occurs,[citation needed] the fluid is primarily absorbed by the fetal gut.[1]

text: Contents[edit]

text: At first, amniotic fluid is mainly water with electrolytes, but by about the 12-14th week the liquid also contains proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and phospholipids, and urea, all of which aid in the growth of the fetus.

text: Volume[edit]

text: The volume of amniotic fluid increases with the growth of fetus. From the 10th to the 20th week it increases from 25ml to 400ml approximately.[citation needed] Approximately in the 10th-11th week the breathing and swallowing of the fetus slightly decrease the amount of fluid, but neither urination nor swallowing contributes significantly to fluid quantity changes, until the 25th week, when keratinization of skin is complete. Then the relationship between fluid and fetal growth stops. It reaches a plateau of 800ml by the 28-week gestational age. The amount of fluid declines to roughly 400 ml at 42 weeks.[2] There is about 1L of amniotic fluid at birth.[1]

text: Rupture of membranes[edit]

text: The forewaters are released when the amnion ruptures. This is commonly known as the time when a woman's "water breaks". When this occurs during labour at term, it is known as "spontaneous rupture of membranes". If the rupture precedes labour at term, however, it is referred to as "premature rupture of membranes". The majority of the hindwaters remain inside the womb until the baby is born. Artificial rupture of membrane (ARM), a manual rupture of the amniotic sac, can also be performed to release the fluid if the amnion has not spontaneously ruptured.[3]

text: Function[edit]

text: Swallowed amniotic fluid creates urine and contributes to the formation of meconium. Amniotic fluid protects the developing baby by cushioning against blows to the mother's abdomen, allowing for easier fetal movement and promoting muscular/skeletal development. Amniotic fluid swallowed by the fetus helps in the formation of the gastrointestinal tract. Contrary to popular belief, amniotic fluid has not been conclusively shown to be inhaled and exhaled by the fetus. In fact, studies from the 1970s show that in a healthy fetus, there is no inward flow of amniotic fluid into the airway.[4] Instead, lung development occurs as a result of the production of fetal lung fluid which expands the lungs. It also prevents the fetus from mechanical jerks and shocks.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Collection[edit]

text: Amniotic fluid is removed from the mother by an amniocentesis procedure, where a long needle is inserted through the abdomen into the amniotic sac, using ultrasound guidance such that the fetus is not harmed. Amniocentesis is an abnormal procedure, and is only performed if there is a suspicion of health defects in the fetus, or if an early delivery of the fetus may be necessary, since there can be complications from the procedure. If warranted, fluid is collected between 16–42 weeks of fetal development, and 20-30ml of fluid are removed.

text: Analysis[edit]

text: Analysis of amniotic fluid can reveal many aspects of the baby's genetic health as well as the age and viability of the fetus. This is because the fluid contains metabolic wastes and compounds used in assessing fetal age and lung maturity, but amniotic fluid also contains fetal cells, which can be examined for genetic defects.

text: Amniotic fluid normally has a pH of 7.0 to 7.5.[5] Because pH in the upper vagina is normally acidic (pH 3.8-4.5), a vaginal pH test showing a pH of more than 4.5 strengthens a suspicion of rupture of membranes in case of clear vaginal discharge in pregnancy.[5] Other tests for detecting amniotic fluid mainly include nitrazine paper test and fern test.[6] One main test that is performed on amniotic fluid is the L/S ratio test (lecithin/sphigomyelin). This test is used to determine fetal lung maturity. Both lecithin and sphingomyelin are lung surfactants that are present in increasing amounts in the maturing fetus, though past week 33, sphigomyelin levels remain relatively constant. Measuring a ratio of L/S of 2:1 or greater indicates that the fetus can be safely delivered, with functioning lungs.

text: Complications related to amniotic fluid[edit]

text: Too little amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios) can be a cause or an indicator of problems for the mother and baby. The majority of pregnancies proceed normally and the baby is born healthy, but this isn't always the case. Babies with too little amniotic fluid can develop contractures of the limbs, clubbing of the feet and hands, and also develop a life-threatening condition called hypoplastic lungs. If a baby is born with hypoplastic lungs, which are small underdeveloped lungs, this condition is potentially fatal and the baby can die shortly after birth due to inadequate oxygenation. Potter sequence refers to a constellation of findings related to insufficient amniotic fluid and includes shortened and malformed limbs with clubbed feet and the underdeveloped lungs that can lead to perinatal death.

text: On every prenatal visit, the obstetrician/gynaecologist or midwife should measure the patient's fundal height with a tape measure. It is important that the fundal height be measured and properly recorded to track proper fetal growth and the increasing development of amniotic fluid. The obstetrician/gynaecologist or midwife should also routinely ultrasound the patient—this procedure will also give an indication of proper fetal growth and amniotic fluid development. Oligohydramnios can be caused by infection, kidney dysfunction or malformation (since much of the late amniotic fluid volume is urine), procedures such as chorionic villus sampling (CVS), and preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM). Oligohydramnios can sometimes be treated with bed rest, oral and intravenous hydration, antibiotics, steroids, and amnioinfusion.[citation needed] It is also important to keep the baby warm and moist.

text: The opposite of oligohydramnios is polyhydramnios, an excess volume of amniotic fluid in the amniotic sac.

text: A rare but very often fatal condition (fatal for both mother and child) connected with amniotic fluid is amniotic fluid embolism.

text: Stem cell research[edit]

text: Recent studies show that amniotic fluid contains a considerable quantity of stem cells.[7] These amniotic stem cells[8][9] are pluripotent and able to differentiate into various tissues, which may be useful for future human application.[10][11][12] Some researchers have found that amniotic fluid is also a plentiful source of non-embryonic stem cells.[13] These cells have demonstrated the ability to differentiate into a number of different cell-types, including brain, liver and bone.

text: It is possible to conserve the stem cells extracted from amniotic fluid in private stem cells banks. Some private companies offer this service for a fee.