document_title: Ode on a Grecian Urn

question_text: what is the poem ode on a grecian urn about

text: Ode on a Grecian Urn

text: Background[edit]

text: By the spring of 1819, Keats had left his job as dresser, or assistant house surgeon, at Guy's Hospital, Southwark, London, to devote himself entirely to the composition of poetry. Living with his friend Charles Brown, the 23-year-old was burdened with money problems and despaired when his brother George sought his financial assistance. These real-world difficulties may have given Keats pause for thought about a career in poetry, yet he did manage to complete five odes, including "Ode to a Nightingale", "Ode to Psyche", "Ode on Melancholy", "Ode on Indolence", and "Ode on a Grecian Urn".[2] The poems were transcribed by Brown, who later provided copies to the publisher Richard Woodhouse. Their exact date of composition is unknown; Keats simply dated "Ode on a Grecian Urn" May 1819, as he did its companion odes. While the five poems display a unity in stanza forms and themes, the unity fails to provide clear evidence of the order in which they were composed.[3]

text: In the odes of 1819 Keats explores his contemplations about relationships between the soul, eternity, nature, and art. His idea of using classical Greek art as a metaphor originated in his reading of Haydon's Examiner articles of 2 May and 9 May 1819. In the first article, Haydon described Greek sacrifice and worship, and in the second article, he contrasted the artistic styles of Raphael and Michelangelo in conjunction with a discussion of medieval sculptures. Keats also had access to prints of Greek urns at Haydon's office,[4] and he traced an engraving of the "Sosibios Vase", a Neo-Attic marble volute krater, signed by Sosibios, in The Louvre,[5] which he found in Henry Moses's A Collection of Antique Vases, Altars, Paterae.[6][7]

text: Keats's inspiration for the topic was not limited to Haydon, but embraced many contemporary sources.[8] He may have recalled his experience with the Elgin Marbles[9] and their influence on his sonnet "On Seeing the Elgin Marbles".[10] Keats was also exposed to the Townley, Borghese, and Holland House vases and to the classical treatment of subjects in Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy. Many contemporary essays and articles on these works shared Keats's view that classical Greek art was both idealistic and captured Greek virtues. Although he was influenced by examples of existing Greek vases, in the poem he attempted to describe an ideal artistic type, rather than a specific original vase.[11]

text: Although "Ode on a Grecian Urn" was completed in May 1819, its first printing came in January 1820 when it was published with "Ode to a Nightingale" in the Annals of Fine Art, an art magazine that promoted views on art similar to those Keats held.[12] Following the initial publication, the Examiner published Keats's ode together with Haydon's two previously published articles.[13] Keats also included the poem in his 1820 collection Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St Agnes, and Other Poems.[14]

text: Structure[edit]

text: In 1819, Keats had attempted to write sonnets, but found that the form did not satisfy his purpose because the pattern of rhyme worked against the tone that he wished to achieve. When he turned to the ode form, he found that the standard Pindaric form used by poets such as John Dryden was inadequate for properly discussing philosophy.[15] Keats developed his own type of ode in "Ode to Psyche", which preceded "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and other odes he wrote in 1819. Keats's creation established a new poetic tone that accorded with his aesthetic ideas about poetry. He further altered this new form in "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn" by adding a secondary voice within the ode, creating a dialogue between two subjects.[16] The technique of the poem is ekphrasis, the poetic representation of a painting or sculpture in words. Keats broke from the traditional use of ekphrasis found in Theocritus's Idyll, a classical poem that describes a design on the sides of a cup. While Theocritus describes both motion found in a stationary artwork and underlying motives of characters, "Ode on a Grecian Urn" replaces actions with a series of questions and focuses only on external attributes of the characters.[17]

text: "Ode on a Grecian Urn" is organized into ten-line stanzas, beginning with an ABAB rhyme scheme and ending with a Miltonic sestet (1st and 5th stanzas CDEDCE, 2nd stanza CDECED, and 3rd and 4th stanzas CDECDE). The same overall pattern is used in "Ode on Indolence", "Ode on Melancholy", and "Ode to a Nightingale" (though their sestet rhyme schemes vary), which makes the poems unified in structure as well as theme.[3] The word "ode" itself is of Greek origin, meaning "sung". While ode-writers from antiquity adhered to rigid patterns of strophe, antistrophe, and epode, the form by Keats's time had undergone enough transformation that it represented a manner rather than a set method for writing a certain type of lyric poetry. Keats's odes seek to find a "classical balance" between two extremes, and in the structure of "Ode on a Grecian Urn", these extremes are the symmetrical structure of classical literature and the asymmetry of Romantic poetry. The use of the ABAB structure in the beginning lines of each stanza represents a clear example of structure found in classical literature, and the remaining six lines appear to break free of the traditional poetic styles of Greek and Roman odes.[18]

text: Keats's metre reflects a conscious development in his poetic style. The poem contains only a single instance of medial inversion (the reversal of an iamb in the middle of a line), which was common in his earlier works. However, Keats incorporates spondees in 37 of the 250 metrical feet. Caesurae are never placed before the fourth syllable in a line. The word choice represents a shift from Keats's early reliance on Latinate polysyllabic words to shorter, Germanic words. In the second stanza, "Ode on a Grecian Urn", which emphasizes words containing the letters "p", "b", and "v", uses syzygy, the repetition of a consonantal sound. The poem incorporates a complex reliance on assonance, which is found in very few English poems. Within "Ode on a Grecian Urn", an example of this pattern can be found in line 13 ("Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear'd") where the "e" of "sensual" connects with the "e" of "endear'd" and the "ea" of "ear" connects with the "ea" of "endear'd". A more complex form is found in line 11 ("Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard") with the "ea" of "Heard" connecting to the "ea" of "unheard", the "o" of "melodies" connecting to the "o" of "those" and the "u" of "but" connecting to the "u" of "unheard".[19]

text: Poem[edit]

text: The poem begins with the narrator's silencing the urn by describing it as the "bride of quietness", which allows him to speak for it using his own impressions.[20] The narrator addresses the urn by saying:

text:
Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness!
Thou foster-child of silence and slow time (lines 1–2)

text: The urn is a "foster-child of silence and slow time" because it was created from stone and made by the hand of an artist who did not communicate through words. As stone, time has little effect on it and ageing is such a slow process that it can be seen as an eternal piece of artwork. The urn is an external object capable of producing a story outside the time of its creation, and because of this ability the poet labels it a "sylvan historian" that tells its story through its beauty:[21]

text:
Sylvan historian, who canst thus express
A flow'ry tale more sweetly than our rhyme:
What leaf-fring'd legend haunts about thy shape
Of deities or mortals, or of both,
In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?
What men or gods are these? What maidens loth?
What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape?
What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy? (lines 3–10)

text: The questions presented in these lines are too ambiguous to allow the reader to understand what is taking place in the images on the urn, but elements of it are revealed: there is a pursuit with a strong sexual component.[22] The melody accompanying the pursuit is intensified in the second stanza:[23]

text:
Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
Are sweeter; therefore, ye soft pipes, play on;
Not to the sensual ear, but, more endear'd,
Pipe to the spirit ditties of no tone: (lines 11–14)

text: There is a hint of a paradox in that indulgence causes someone to be filled with desire and that music without a sound is desired by the soul. There is a stasis that prohibits the characters on the urn from ever being fulfilled:[23]

text:
Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss,
Though winning near the goal – yet, do not grieve;
She cannot fade, though thou hast not thy bliss,
For ever wilt thou love, and she be fair! (lines 17–20)

text: In the third stanza, the narrator begins by speaking to a tree, which will ever hold its leaves and will not "bid the Spring adieu". The paradox of life versus lifelessness extends beyond the lover and the fair lady and takes a more temporal shape as three of the ten lines begin with the words "for ever". The unheard song never ages and the pipes are able to play forever, which leads the lovers, nature, and all involved to be:[23]

text:
For ever panting, and for ever young;
All breathing human passion far above,
That leaves a heart high-sorrowful and cloyed,
A burning forehead, and a parching tongue. (lines 27–30)

text: A new paradox arises in these lines because these immortal lovers are experiencing a living death.[24] To overcome this paradox of merged life and death, the poem shifts to a new scene with a new perspective.[24] The fourth stanza opens with the sacrifice of a virgin cow, an image that appeared in the Elgin Marbles, Claude Lorrain's Sacrifice to Apollo, and Raphael's The Sacrifice at Lystra[25][A 1]

text:
Who are these coming to the sacrifice?
To what green altar, O mysterious priest,
Lead'st thou that heifer lowing at the skies,
And all her silken flanks with garlands drest?
What little town by river or sea shore,
Or mountain-built with peaceful citadel,
Is emptied of its folk, this pious morn?
And, little town, thy streets for evermore
Will silent be; and not a soul to tell
Why thou art desolate, can e'er return. (lines 31–40)

text: All that exists in the scene is a procession of individuals, and the narrator conjectures on the rest. The altar and town exist as part of a world outside art, and the poem challenges the limitations of art through describing their possible existence. The questions are unanswered because there is no one who can ever know the true answers, as the locations are not real. The final stanza begins with a reminder that the urn is a piece of eternal artwork:[26]

text:
O Attic shape! Fair attitude! with brede
Of marble men and maidens overwrought,
With forest branches and the trodden weed;
Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought
As doth eternity: Cold pastoral! (lines 41–45)

text: The audience is limited in its ability to comprehend the eternal scene, but the silent urn is still able to speak to them. The story it tells is both cold and passionate, and it is able to help mankind. The poem concludes with the urn's message:[27]

text:
When old age shall this generation waste,
Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe
Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou sayst,
"Beauty is truth, truth beauty," – that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know. (lines 46–50)

text: Themes[edit]

text: Like many of Keats's odes, "Ode on a Grecian Urn" discusses art and art's audience. He relied on depictions of natural music in earlier poems, and works such as "Ode to a Nightingale" appeal to auditory sensations while ignoring the visual. Keats reverses this when describing an urn within "Ode on a Grecian Urn" to focus on representational art. He previously used the image of an urn in "Ode on Indolence", depicting one with three figures representing Love, Ambition and Poesy. Of these three, Love and Poesy are integrated into "Ode on a Grecian Urn" with an emphasis on how the urn, as a human artistic construct, is capable of relating to the idea of "Truth". The images of the urn described within the poem are intended as obvious depictions of common activities: an attempt at courtship, the making of music, and a religious rite. The figures are supposed to be beautiful, and the urn itself is supposed to be realistic.[28] Although the poem does not include the subjective involvement of the narrator, the description of the urn within the poem implies a human observer that draws out these images.[29] The narrator interacts with the urn in a manner similar to how a critic would respond to the poem, which creates ambiguity in the poem's final lines: "'Beauty is truth, truth beauty,' – that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know." The lack of a definite voice of the urn causes the reader to question who is really speaking these words, to whom they are speaking, and what is meant by the words, which encourages the reader to interact with the poem in an interrogative manner like the narrator.[30]

text: As a symbol, an urn cannot completely represent poetry, but it does serve as one component in describing the relationship between art and humanity.[31] The nightingale of "Ode to a Nightingale" is separated from humanity and does not have human concerns. In contrast, being a piece of art, the urn requires an audience and is in an incomplete state on its own. This allows the urn to interact with humanity, to put forth a narrative, and allows for the imagination to operate. The images on the urn provoke the narrator to ask questions, and the silence of the urn reinforces the imagination's ability to operate. This interaction and use of the imagination is part of a greater tradition called ut pictura poesis – the contemplation of art by a poet – which serves as a meditation upon art itself.[32] In this meditation, the narrator dwells on the aesthetic and mimetic features of art. The beginning of the poem posits that the role of art is to describe a specific story about those with whom the audience is unfamiliar, and the narrator wishes to know the identity of the figures in a manner similar to "Ode on Indolence" and "Ode to Psyche". The figures on the urn within "Ode on a Grecian Urn" lack identities, but the first section ends with the narrator believing that if he knew the story, he would know their names. The second section of the poem, describing the piper and the lovers, meditates on the possibility that the role of art is not to describe specifics but universal characters, which falls under the term "Truth". The three figures would represent how Love, Beauty, and Art are unified together in an idealised world where art represents the feelings of the audience. The audience is not supposed to question the events but instead to rejoice in the happy aspects of the scene in a manner that reverses the claims about art in "Ode to a Nightingale". Similarly, the response of the narrator to the sacrifice is not compatible with the response of the narrator to the lovers.[33]

text: The two contradictory responses found in the first and second scenes of "Ode on a Grecian Urn" are inadequate for completely describing art, because Keats believed that art should not provide history or ideals. Instead, both are replaced with a philosophical tone that dominates the meditation on art. The sensual aspects are replaced with an emphasis on the spiritual aspects, and the last scene describes a world contained unto itself. The relationship between the audience with the world is for benefiting or educating, but merely to emphatically connect to the scene. In the scene, the narrator contemplates where the boundaries of art lie and how much an artist can represent on an urn. The questions the narrator asks reveal a yearning to understand the scene, but the urn is too limited to allow such answers. Furthermore, the narrator is able to visualise more than what actually exists on the urn. This conclusion on art is both satisfying, in that it allows the audience to actually connect with the art, and alienating, as it does not provide the audience the benefit of instruction or narcissistic fulfilment.[34] Besides the contradictions between the various desires within the poem, there are other paradoxes that emerge as the narrator compares his world with that of the figures on the urn. In the opening line, he refers to the urn as a "bride of quietness", which serves to contrast the urn with the structure of the ode, a type of poem originally intended to be sung. Another paradox arises when the narrator describes immortals on the side of an urn meant to carry the ashes of the dead.[35]

text: In terms of the actual figures upon the urn, the image of the lovers depicts the relationship of passion and beauty with art. In "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on Melancholy", Keats describes how beauty is temporary. However, the figures of the urn are able to always enjoy their beauty and passion because of their artistic permanence.[36] The urn's description as a bride invokes a possibility of consummation, which is symbolic of the urn's need for an audience. Charles Patterson, in a 1954 essay, explains that "It is erroneous to assume that here Keats is merely disparaging the bride of flesh wed to man and glorifying the bride of marble wed to quietness. He could have achieved that simple effect more deftly with some other image than the richly ambivalent unravished bride, which conveys ... a hint of disparagement: It is natural for brides to be possessed physically ... it is unnatural for them not to be."[37] John Jones, in his 1969 analysis, emphasises this sexual dimension within the poem by comparing the relationship between "the Eve Adam dreamed of and who was there when he woke up" and the "bridal urn" of "Ode on a Grecian Urn".[38] Helen Vendler expands on the idea, in her 1983 analysis of Keats's odes, when she claimed "the complex mind writing the Urn connects stillness and quietness to ravishment and a bride".[39] In the second stanza, Keats "voices the generating motive of the poem – the necessary self-exhaustion and self-perpetuation of sexual appetite."[40] To Vendler, desire and longing could be the source of artistic creativity, but the urn contains two contradicting expressions of sexuality: a lover chasing after a beloved and a lover with his beloved. This contradiction reveals Keats's belief that such love in general was unattainable and that "The true opponent to the urn-experience of love is not satisfaction but extinction."[41]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The first response to the poem came in an anonymous review in the July 1820 Monthly Review, which claimed, "Mr Keats displays no great nicety in his selection of images. According to the tenets of that school of poetry to which he belongs, he thinks that any thing or object in nature is a fit material on which the poet may work ... Can there be a more pointed concetto than this address to the Piping Shepherds on a Grecian Urn?"[42] Another anonymous review followed in the 29 July 1820 Literary Chronicle and Weekly Review that quoted the poem with a note that said that "Among the minor poems, many of which possess considerable merit, the following appears to be the best".[43] Josiah Conder, in a September 1820 Eclectic Review, argues that:

text: Mr Keats, seemingly, can think or write of scarcely any thing else than the 'happy pieties' of Paganism. A Grecian Urn throws him into an ecstasy: its 'silent form,' he says, 'doth tease us out of thought as doth Eternity,'—a very happy description of the bewildering effect which such subjects have at least had upon his own mind; and his fancy having thus got the better of his reason, we are the less surprised at the oracle which the Urn is made to utter:

text:
'Beauty is truth, truth beauty,'—that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.

text: George Gilfillan, in an 1845 essay on Keats, placed the poem among "The finest of Keats' smaller pieces" and suggested that "In originality, Keats has seldom been surpassed. His works 'rise like an exhalation.' His language has been formed on a false system; but, ere he died, was clarifying itself from its more glaring faults, and becoming copious clear, and select. He seems to have been averse to all speculative thought, and his only creed, we fear, was expressed in the words— Beauty is truth,—truth beauty".[45] The 1857 Encyclopædia Britannica contained an article on Keats by Alexander Smith, which stated: "Perhaps the most exquisite specimen of Keats' poetry is the 'Ode to the Grecian Urn'; it breathes the very spirit of antiquity,—eternal beauty and eternal repose."[46] During the mid-19th century, Matthew Arnold claimed that the passage describing the little town "is Greek, as Greek as a thing from Homer or Theocritus; it is composed with the eye on the object, a radiancy and light clearness being added."[47]

text: Beauty is truth debate[edit]

text: The 20th century marked the beginning of a critical dispute over the final lines of the poem and their relationship to the beauty of the whole work. Poet laureate Robert Bridges sparked the debate when he argued:

text: The thought as enounced in the first stanza is the supremacy of ideal art over Nature, because of its unchanging expression of perfect; and this is true and beautiful; but its amplification in the poem is unprogressive, monotonous, and scattered ... which gives an effect of poverty in spite of the beauty. The last stanza enters stumbling upon a pun, but its concluding lines are very fine, and make a sort of recovery with their forcible directness.[48]

text: Bridges believed that the final lines redeemed an otherwise bad poem. Arthur Quiller-Couch responded with a contrary view and claimed that the lines were "a vague observation – to anyone whom life has taught to face facts and define his terms, actually an uneducated conclusion, albeit most pardonable in one so young and ardent."[48] The debate expanded when I. A. Richards, an English literary critic who analysed Keats's poems in 1929, relied on the final lines of the "Ode on a Grecian Urn" to discuss "pseudo-statements" in poetry:

text: On the one hand there are very many people who, if they read any poetry at all, try to take all its statements seriously – and find them silly ... This may seem an absurd mistake but, alas! it is none the less common. On the other hand there are those who succeed too well, who swallow 'Beauty is truth, truth beauty ...,' as the quintessence of an aesthetic philosophy, not as the expression of a certain blend of feelings, and proceed into a complete stalemate of muddle-mindedness as a result of their linguistic naivety.[49]

text: Poet and critic T. S. Eliot, in his 1929 "Dante" essay, responded to Richards:

text: I am at first inclined to agree ... But on re-reading the whole Ode, this line strikes me as a serious blemish on a beautiful poem, and the reason must be either that I fail to understand it, or that it is a statement which is untrue. And I suppose that Keats meant something by it, however remote his truth and his beauty may have been from these words in ordinary use. And I am sure that he would have repudiated any explanation of the line which called it a pseudo-statement ... The statement of Keats seems to me meaningless: or perhaps the fact that it is grammatically meaningless conceals another meaning from me.[50]

text: In 1930, John Middleton Murry gave a history of these responses "to show the astonishing variety of opinion which exists at this day concerning the culmination of a poem whose beauty has been acknowledged for many years. Whether such another cause, and such another example, of critical diversity exists, I cannot say; if it does, it is unknown to me. My own opinion concerning the value of those two lines in the context of the poem itself is not very different from Mr. Eliot's."[51]

text: Cleanth Brooks defended the lines from critics in 1947 and argued:

text: We shall not feel that the generalization, unqualified and to be taken literally, is meant to march out of its context to compete with the scientific and philosophical generalizations which dominate our world. 'Beauty is truth, truth beauty' has precisely the same status, and the same justification as Shakespeare's 'Ripeness is all.' It is a speech 'in character' and supported by a dramatic context. To conclude thus may seem to weight the principle of dramatic propriety with more than it can bear. This would not be fair to the complexity of the problem of truth in art nor fair to Keats's little parable. Granted; and yet the principle of dramatic propriety may take us further than would first appear. Respect for it may at least insure our dealing with the problem of truth at the level on which it is really relevant to literature.[52]

text: M. H. Abrams responded to Brooks's view in 1957:

text: I entirely agree, then, with Professor Brooks in his explication of the Ode, that 'Beauty is truth' ... is to be considered as a speech 'in character' and 'dramatically appropriate' to the Urn. I am uneasy, however, about his final reference to 'the world-view ...' For the poem as a whole is equally an utterance by a dramatically presented speaker, and none of its statements is proffered for our endorsement as a philosophical generalization of unlimited scope. They are all, therefore, to be apprehended as histrionic elements which are 'in character' and 'dramatically appropriate,' for their inherent interest as stages in the evolution of an artistically ordered ... experience of a credible human being.[53]

text: Earl Wasserman, in 1953, continued the discussion over the final lines and claimed, "the more we tug at the final lines of the ode, the more the noose of their meaning strangles our comprehension of the poem ... The aphorism is all the more beguiling because it appears near the end of the poem, for its apparently climactic position has generally led to the assumption that it is the abstract summation of the poem ... But the ode is not an abstract statement or an excursion into philosophy. It is a poem about things".[54]

text: Walter Evert, discussing the debate in 1965, justified the final lines of the poem to declare "The poem, then, accepts the urn for the immediate meditative imaginative pleasure that it can give, but it firmly defines the limits of artistic truth. In this it is wholly consistent with all the great poetry of Keats's last creative period."[55] Hugh Kenner, in 1971, explained that Keats "interrogates an urn, and answers for it, and its last answer, about Beauty and Truth, may seem almost intolerably enigmatic".[56] To Kenner, the problem with Keats's Beauty and Truth statement arises out of the reader's inability to distinguish between the poet, his reflections on the urn, and any possible statement made by the urn. He concluded that Keats fails to provide his narrator with enough characterization to be able to speak for the urn.[56] Charles Rzepka, in 1986, offered his view on the matter: "The truth-beauty equation at the end of the 'Ode on a Grecian Urn' offers solace but is finally no more convincing than the experience it describes is durable."[57] Rick Rylance picked up the debate again in 1990 and explained that the true meaning of the final lines cannot be discerned merely by studying the language. This posed a problem for the New Critics, who were prone to closely reading a poem's text.[58]

text: Later responses[edit]

text: Not every 20th-century critic opined primarily on the quality of the final lines when discussing the success or failure of the poem; Sidney Colvin, in 1920, explained that "while imagery drawn from the sculptures on Greek vases was still floating through his mind, he was able to rouse himself to a stronger effort and produce a true masterpiece in his famous Ode on a Grecian Urn."[59] In his 1926 analysis, H. W. Garrod felt that the end of the poem did not match with the rest of the poem: "Perhaps the fourth stanza is more beautiful than any of the others—and more true. The trouble is that it is a little too true. Truth to his main theme has taken Keats rather farther than he meant to go ... This pure cold art makes, in fact, a less appeal to Keats than the Ode as a whole would pretend; and when, in the lines that follow these lines, he indulges the jarring apostrophe 'Cold Pastoral' [...] he has said more than he meant—or wished to mean."[60] In 1933, M. R. Ridley described the poem as a "tense ethereal beauty" with a "touch of didacticism that weakens the urgency" of the statements.[61] Douglas Bush, following in 1937, emphasized the Greek aspects of the poem and stated, "as in the Ode to Maia, the concrete details are suffused with a rich nostalgia. The hard edges of classical Greek writing are softened by the enveloping emotion and suggestion. In his classical moments Keats is a sculptor whose marble becomes flesh."[62]

text: In 1954, Charles Patterson defended the poem and claimed, "The meaningfulness and range of the poem, along with its controlled execution and powerfully suggestive imagery, entitle it to a high place among Keats's great odes. It lacks the even finish and extreme perfection of To Autumn but is much superior in these qualities to the Ode to a Nightingale despite the magic passages in the latter and the similarities of over-all structure. In fact, the Ode on a Grecian Urn may deserve to rank first in the group if viewed in something approaching its true complexity and human wisdom."[63] Walter Jackson Bate argued in 1962 that "the Grecian Urn possesses a quiet and constrained composure hardly equaled by the other odes of this month and perhaps even unsurpassed by the ode To Autumn of the following September ... there is a severe repose about the Ode on a Grecian Urn; it is both 'interwoven' and 'complete'; and within its tensely braced stanzas is a potential energy momentarily stilled and imprisoned."[64] In 1964, literary critic David Perkins claimed in his essay "The Ode on a Nightingale" that the symbol of the urn "may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry ... but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions".[31]

text: F. W. Bateson emphasized in 1966 the poem's ability to capture truth: "The Ode to a Nightingale had ended with the explicit admission that the 'fancy' is a 'cheat,' and the Grecian Urn concludes with a similar repudiation. But this time it is a positive instead of a negative conclusion. There is no escape from the 'woe' that 'shall this generation waste,' but the action of time can be confronted and seen in its proper proportions. To enable its readers to do this is the special function of poetry."[65] Ronald Sharp followed in 1979 with a claim that the theme of "the relationship between life and art ... receives its most famous, and its most enigmatic and controversial, treatment" within the poem.[66] In 1983, Vendler praised many of the passages within the poem but argued that the poem was unable to fully represent what Keats wanted: "The simple movement of entrance and exit, even in its triple repetition in the Urn, is simply not structurally complex enough to be adequate, as a representational form, to what we know of aesthetic experience – or indeed to human experience generally."[67] Later in 1989, Daniel Watkins claimed the poem as "one of [Keats's] most beautiful and problematic works."[68]

text: Andrew Bennett, in 1994, discussed the poem's effectiveness: "What is important and compelling in this poem is not so much what happens on the urn or in the poem, but the way that a response to an artwork both figures and prefigures its own critical response".[69] In 1999, Andrew Motion claimed that the poem "tells a story that cannot be developed. Celebrating the transcendent powers of art, it creates a sense of imminence, but also registers a feeling of frustration."[6] Ayumi Mizukoshi, in 2001, argued that early audiences did not support "Ode to Psyche" because it "turned out to be too reflexive and internalised to be enjoyed as a mythological picture. For the same reason, the 'Ode on a Grecian Urn' drew neither attention nor admiration. Although the poet is gazing round the surface of the urn in each stanza, the poem cannot readily be consumed as a series of 'idylls'."[70]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ The Raphael is one of the Raphael Cartoons then at Hampton Court Palace. The Claude is now usually called Landscape with the Father of Psyche sacrificing to Apollo, and is now at Anglesey Abbey. It was one of the pair of "Altieri Claudes", among the most famous and expensive paintings of the day. See Reitlinger, Gerald; The Economics of Taste, Vol I: The Rise and Fall of Picture Prices 1760–1960, Barrie and Rockliffe, London, 1961, and Art and Money Archived July 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine., by Robert Hughes. Image of the Raphael, and image of the Claude

tag: ol


document_title: Wheat production in the United States

question_text: where is wheat grown in the united states

root

text: Wheat production in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: Although it was first introduced to the Western Hemisphere following the discovery of the New World in the 15th century, wheat came to be grown in North American soil only during the colonial period.[5] During the colonial period, wheat was sown by broadcasting, reaped by sickles, and threshed by flails. The kernels were then taken to a grist mill for grinding into flour.

tag: p

text: In 1830, it took four people and two oxen, working 10 hours a day, to produce 200 bushels.[6] The geographic center of wheat-growing areas in the U.S. in 1839 was to the north and west of Washington, D. C., and spread further over time to the far west of the country. Production conditions also resulted in extending the wheat growing areas into harsher climatic regions. Data on wheat production is available for the period between 1885 and 1930. Improvements in wheat breeding in the U.S. was an activity of the state agricultural experiment stations, while the federal officials concentrated on exploring possibilities of gaining from appropriate varieties developed in other parts of the world.[7]

text: After the American Civil War, the western Mississippi Valley and the Great Plains to its west, where large fertile lands were available, resulted in expanding wheat farming. By this time, better tillage equipment was in use, railroads provided better access to world markets, better trading and warehousing facilities were facilitated, and more particularly introduction of hard winter was introduced.[8] In the 1870s, Turkey red wheat, a hard variety of wheat, was introduced to the farmlands of Kansas by Russian Mennonite immigrants. This wheat variety spread quickly.[9] New technology substantially enhanced productivity in the 19th century, as sowing with drills replaced broadcasting, cradles took the place of sickles, and the cradles in turn were replaced by reapers and binders. Steam-powered threshing machines superseded flails. By 1895, in Bonanza farms in the Dakotas, it took six different people and 36 horses pulling huge harvesters, working 10 hours a day, to produce 20,000 bushels. Following the invention of the steel roller mill in 1878, hard varieties of wheat such as Turkey Red became more popular than soft, which had been previously preferred because they were easier for grist mills to grind.[10]

text: Exports from 1914 to 1922 amounted to more than 200 million bushels.[8] The annual wheat production of the United States more than tripled in the fifty years between 1871 and 1921; it increased from about 250 million bushels during the period of 1869–1871 to over 750 millions during the period of 1919–1921.[11] With recorded wheat production of more than its domestic consumption (production was as much as 2.5 times the consumption), as World War II started, wheat stocks could not be lifted and the result was its use as livestock feed and for industrial alcohol.[8] After the war years, there were four "best" years (1945–1948) when the average annual production peaked to 1,228 million bushels, double the production of war years.[8]

text: In 2002, 50% of the U.S. wheat crop was exported, while 36% was consumed by the American population, and 10% was fed to livestock, with the remaining 4% set aside for seed. Wheat harvesting occurs on land area of 60–63 million acres.[1] Genetically modified wheat, which "is not approved for cultivation anywhere in the world", was found in an Oregon farm in June 2013.[12] The grain was modified by Monsanto to tolerate weed killer treatments. It is not known whether the unapproved wheat is present elsewhere.[13]

text: Geography[edit]

text: In the North American plains, the axis which extends over a length of 1,500 miles (2,400 km) in a north-south direction from central Texas to central Alberta is known as the Wheat Belt. Hard red winter wheat is grown in the southern U.S. states of Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Nebraska, and Colorado. In the hot climatic conditions of these states, winter wheat is raised by planting in fall and harvesting in the spring. taking advantage of autumn rains. Under harsh cold weather conditions in parts of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota where winter wheat cannot be grown, the crop is planted in the spring and grows during the long summer days of the high latitudes so that it can be harvested in the fall.[14]

text: Classification and uses[edit]

text: Of wheat grown in the United States, 36% percent is consumed domestically by humans, 50% is exported, 10% is used for livestock feed, and 4% is used for seedlings.[15] Various American-style wheat beers are produced in the US.[16] Wheat in the U.S. is grown under two major categories based on climate: winter wheat, and spring wheat. The majority is winter wheat, accounting for, on average, 75% of wheat production. Wheat may be further classified as follows:[17] [18]

text:
Hard red winter wheat (HRW) with 40% production, the flour variety reported from the plains which extends from Texas north through Montana.[17][18]
Hard red spring (HRS) wheat (also has a sub-classification of Dark Northern Spring Wheat[15]) of high protein value, about 20% production preferred for making bread is from the states of North Dakota, Montana, Minnesota, and South Dakota.[17][18]
Soft red winter (SRW) wheat with an average production of 20% raised in the states of Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Michigan, New York, and the Southeast, the flour from this wheat is used in making cakes, cookies, and crackers.[17][18]
White wheat, which accounts for an average of 12.5% production in the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Michigan, and New York with its flour used in making products of noodle, crackers, cereals, and white-crusted breads.[17][18]
Durum wheat, the preferred variety for making pasta; grown mostly in the states of North Dakota and Montana to an average production level of 4%. The byproducts resulting from milling of all the above varieties is used to feed animals.[13][17]

text: Enrichment[edit]

text: In 1941, the wheat industry began to adopt voluntary widespread enrichment (fortification) of wheat flour with vitamins, folic acid, and iron, the outcome of a recommendation by the National Nutrition Conference for Defense, charged with investigating the causes of poor health among many World War II recruits. By 1942, some 75 percent of breads in the United States were fortified. Mandatory fortification requirements went into effect in 1943, following the publication of the first U.S. government recommended dietary allowances. The removal of naturally occurring nutrients that occurs in grain processing led to a number of diseases caused by nutritional deficiency, including beriberi, pellagra, neural tube defect, and iron deficiency anemia. Enrichment helped eradicate or reduce the frequency of these conditions in the United States.[19][20]

text: Policy[edit]

text: Under the Wilson administration during World War I, the U.S. Food Administration, under the direction of Herbert Hoover, set a basic price of $2.20 per bushel. The end of the war led to "the closing of the bonanza export markets and the fall of sky-high farm prices", and wheat prices fell from more than $2.20 per bushel in 1919 to $1.01 in 1921.[21] The McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill failed in Congress, and was followed by the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, the establishment of the Federal Farm Board, and the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933.[8][22] The most important legislation for wheat production in the United States today are the farm bills which authorized farm subsidies, the Conservation Reserve Program, and other programs. Adopted around every five years, the most recent farm bills are the 1985 farm bill, 1990 farm bill, 1996 farm bill, 2002 farm bill, and 2008 farm bill.

text: Wheat farmers are a major beneficiary of crop subsidies and other agricultural programs. According to U.S. Department of Agriculture data, from 1995 to 2012, the U.S. federal government paid over $39 billion in wheat subsidies, through direct payments (2003–present) and production flexibility contracts (1996-2002), deficiency payments, crop insurance premium subsidies, price support payments (including loan deficiency payments, marketing loan gains, and certificates), counter-cyclical programs, market loss assistance, and other wheat programs.[23] In 2012, wheat was the third most-subsidized crop, after corn and soybeans. Wheat farmers received $1.1 billion in subsidies in 2012.[24]

text: Production[edit]

text: The United States is a major wheat-producing country, with output typically exceeded only by China, the European Union, and India. Acreage brought under wheat has, over the last several decades, varied with the wheat price. During the first decade of the 2000s, wheat ranked third among U.S. field crops in both planted acreage and gross farm income; the first two positions were held by corn and soybeans. The acreage has gone down by nearly 30% (to 48,653,000 acres in 2001, as against 60-63 million acres harvested annually in the previous years; 30 of this area is in Texas.[15]) The amount exported has also declined.[13] The acreage reduction was dictated by the Acreage Reduction Program (ARP), which was introduced for wheat, feed grains, and cotton; and production faces pressures from multiple factors.[25][26]

text: It is generally accepted that wheat is beneficial to grow in the off season compared to other crops as its planting occurs, depending on the agro-climatic condition, in late fall or early spring. This results in reduced application of fertilizers and pesticides, and less need for irrigation, and helps in preventing soil erosion. However, some of the negative effects identified in a study conducted by the FAO are natural habitat loss due to encroachment into new lands after degraded lands are abandoned, loss of indigenous species affecting the biodiversity, and milling operation causing dust pollution. Historically, habitat conversion in the US has occurred in agropastoral land areas as in many other countries, and is considered a natural development. In the western US, habitat conversion is still an ongoing process because the subsidies provided by the government for wheat and other crops in the US have made it financially profitable to develop areas which otherwise would lie fallow; bluestem prairie is one such area. However, habitat expansion for wheat has stabilized since 2000.[27]

text: Exports[edit]

text: Nearly 50% of the wheat produced in the US is exported, although the share of the world market has declined due to competition from the EU, Argentina, Australia, Canada, and also recently from Ukraine and Russia. The exported wheat varieties are white wheat (about 66%), Hard Red Spring (about 50%), Soft Red Winter, and durum wheat. However, the producers continue to increase exports as in the domestic market wheat products have not been competitive in recent years.[13]

text: One of the widely criticized export policies of the US was the PL 480 (Public Law 480), instituted in 1954, which lasted till 1969. India had a major share of about 50% in receiving this aid under it. This policy was criticized because it had damaged the export potential of many countries, in particular Canada and Australia. It was also said that this policy discouraged countries from developing their own agriculture.[29] In India, in particular, this aid, in fact, "bankrupted large numbers of Indian farmers".[30]


document_title: The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy cast lists

question_text: who voiced the whale in hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy

question_tokens: who voiced the whale in hitchhiker 's guide to the galaxy

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Cast lists for different versions of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
A blank cell in the table indicates that the information is unknown.
"N/A" indicates that the role in question does not exist for that version of the story.
Columns are in chronological order from 1978–2005, except for the two German radio series (1981 and 1990–1991).

Character's Name
Primary and Secondary Phases[1]
Stage Adaptation
LP Adaptations[2][3]
TV Series[4]
Illustrated Edition (hardcover book)[5]
Tertiary to Quintessential Phases[6][7][8]
Movie[9]
German Radio Series One[10]
German Radio Series Two[11]

The Book (Narrator)
Peter Jones
Cindy Oswin (Lithos) and Maya Sendall (Terros)♥[12]
Roger Blake: ♠[13]

Peter Jones
N/A
William Franklyn
Stephen Fry
Rolf Boysen

Arthur Dent
Simon Jones
Chris Langham♥[12]
Simon Jones
Jonathan Lermit
Simon Jones
Martin Freeman
Felix von Manteuffel

Prosser
Bill Wallis

Bill Wallis
Joe Melia
Michael Cule
Bruce Hyman
Steve Pemberton
Wolfgang Hess
N/A

Ford Prefect
Geoffrey McGivern
Richard Hope
Geoffrey McGivern
David Dixon
Tom Finnis
Geoffrey McGivern
Mos Def
Markus Boysen
Ingo Hülsmann

Lady Cynthia Fitzmelton
Jo Kendall

N/A
Doris Schade
N/A

The barman
David Gooderson

Stephen Moore
Steve Conway
N/A
Albie Woodington

N/A

Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz
Bill Wallis
Michael Cule♦[14]
Bill Wallis
Martin Benson
N/A
Toby Longworth
Richard Griffiths (voice)
Peter Lühr
N/A

Zaphod Beeblebrox
Mark Wing-Davey
Ken Ellis♠[13]
Mark Wing-Davey
Francis Johnson
Mark Wing-Davey
Sam Rockwell
Klaus Löwitsch
Mathias Fuchs

Tricia McMillan ("Trillian")
Susan Sheridan
Sue Jones-Davies♥
Cindy Oswin
Sandra Dickinson
Tali
Susan Sheridan as "Trillian"
Sandra Dickinson as "Tricia McMillan"

Zooey Deschanel
Barbara Freier
Kornelia Boje

Eddie the Shipboard Computer
David Tate

David Tate
N/A
Roger Gregg
Tom Lennon
Ignaz Kirchner
Matthias Ponnier

Marvin the Paranoid Android
Stephen Moore
David Learner♦♠[13]
Stephen Moore
David Learner (costume)
Stephen Moore (voice)

N/A
Stephen Moore
Warwick Davis (costume)
Alan Rickman (voice)
Martin Flörchinger

Vogon Guard
David Tate

N/A
Michael Cule
N/A
Bob Golding

Joachim Höppner
N/A

Newsreader
David Tate
David Tate
Rayner Bourton
N/A
Kelly Macdonald

N/A

Gag Halfrunt
Stephen Moore

Stephen Moore
Gil Morris
N/A
Jason Schwartzman

N/A

The whale
Stephen Moore

Stephen Moore
N/A
N/A
Bill Bailey
Bernhard Minetti
N/A

Magrathean message voice ("Ghostly Image")
Richard Vernon

Richard Vernon
N/A
Simon Jones
Dieter Borsche
N/A

Slartibartfast
Richard Vernon

Richard Vernon
Janos Kuruz
Richard Griffiths
Bill Nighy
Dieter Borsche
Horst Bollmann

Lunkwill (First Computer Programmer)
Ray Hassett

Cindy Oswin
Antony Carrick
N/A
Jack Stanley

N/A

Fook (Second Computer Programmer)
Jeremy Browne

David Tate
Timothy Davies
N/A
Dominique Jackson

N/A

Vroomfondel
James Broadbent

James Broadbent
Charles McKeown
N/A

N/A

Majikthise
Jonathan Adams

David Tate
David Leland
N/A

N/A

Deep Thought
Geoffrey McGivern
Michael Cule♦[14]
Valentine Dyall
N/A
Helen Mirren
Hans Reinhard Müller
N/A

Magrathean Public Address Voice
Ray Hassett

Douglas Adams
David Tate
N/A

N/A

Frankie Mouse
Peter Hawkins

Stephen Moore
N/A
Garth Jennings

N/A

Benjy Mouse
David Tate

David Tate
N/A
Zoe Kubaisi

N/A

Humma Kavula
N/A
John Malkovich
N/A

Questular Rontok
N/A
Anna Chancellor
N/A

Kwaltz, a Vogon
N/A
Ian McNeice (voice)
N/A

Shooty
James Broadbent

Stephen Moore
Matt Zimmerman
Douglas Adams
N/A

N/A

Bang-Bang
Ray Hassett

James Broadbent
Marc Smith
Ed Victor
N/A

N/A

Garkbit
Anthony Sharp

Anthony Sharp
Jack May
N/A
Alexander Malachovsky
N/A

Max Quordlepleen
Roy Hudd

Roy Hudd
Colin Jeavons
N/A
Roy Hudd
N/A
Herbert Fleischmann
N/A

Reg Nullify
N/A
Graham de Wilde
N/A

The Great Prophet Zarquon
Anthony Sharp

Anthony Sharp
Colin Bennett
N/A
William Franklyn
N/A
Wolf Goldan
N/A

Dish of the Day
N/A
Michael Cule♦[14]
N/A
Peter Davison
N/A

Hotblack Desiato
N/A
Barry Frank Warren
N/A

Bodyguard
N/A
Michael Cule♦[14]
David Tate
Dave Prowse
N/A

Haggunenon Underfleet Commander
Aubrey Woods

N/A

N/A

B Ark Captain
David Jason
Michael Cule♦[14]
Frank Middlemass
Aubrey Morris
N/A

N/A

Number One
Jonathan Cecil

David Tate
Matthew Scurfield
N/A

N/A

Number Two
Aubrey Woods

Stephen Grief
David Neville
N/A

N/A

Number Three
N/A
Geoffrey Beevers
N/A

Marketing Girl
Beth Porter

Leueen Willoughby
Beth Porter
N/A

N/A

Management Consultant
Jonathan Cecil

David Tate
Jon Glover
N/A

N/A

Hairdresser
Aubrey Woods

Stephen Grief
David Rowlands
N/A

N/A

Caveman
David Jason

N/A

N/A

Character's Name
Primary and Secondary Phases[1]
Stage Adaptation (specify)
LP Adaptations[2][3]
TV Series[4]
Illustrated Edition (hardcover book)[5]
Tertiary to Quintessential Phases[6][7][8]
Movie[9]
German Radio Series One[10]
German Radio Series Two[11]

tag: table

text: ♦ "The Rainbow" production ♥ Science Fiction Theatre of Liverpool production ♠ Theatr Clwyd Production

text: Additional cast for the Secondary Phase[edit]

text: Covering the BBC Radio 4 Secondary Phase (1979—1980).

tag: ul

text:
Cast lists for Radio Series Two of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.[1]

Character's Name
Secondary Phase

Frogstar Robot
Geoffrey McGivern

Arcturan Number One
Bill Paterson

Arcturan Captain/Radio Voice
David Tate

Hitchhiker's Guide Receptionist
David Tate

Lift
David Tate

Roosta
Alan Ford

Frogstar Prisoner Relations Officer
David Tate

Gargravarr
Valentine Dyall

Vogon Captain
Bill Wallis

Vogon Guard
Stephen Moore/David Tate

Vogon Computer
David Tate

Gag Halfrunt
Stephen Moore

Ventilation System
Geoffrey McGivern

Nutrimat Machine
Leueen Willoughby

Zaphod Beeblebrox IV
Richard Goolden

Bird One
Ronald Baddiley

Bird Two
John Baddeley

Wise Old Bird
John le Mesurier

Footwarrior
John Baddeley

Lintilla (and her clones)
Rula Lenska

Hig Hurtenflurst
Mark Smith

Film Commentator
David Tate

Computeach
David Tate

Pupil
Stephen Moore

Varntvar the priest
Geoffrey McGivern

Android Stewardess
Rula Lenska

The Allitnils
David Tate

Poodoo
Ken Campbell

Autopilot
Jonathan Pryce

Zarniwoop (Vann Harl)
Jonathan Pryce

Man in the Shack
Stephen Moore

Character's Name
Secondary Phase

text: Additional cast for the Tertiary to Quintessential Phases[edit]

text: Covering the BBC Radio 4 radio series 3-5 (2004–2005) and the Bavarian Radio/Southwest radio adaptations in 1990-1991.

text:
Cast lists for different versions of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
A blank cell in the table indicates that the information is unknown.
"N/A" indicates that the role in question does not exist for that version of the story.

Character's Name
Tertiary to Quintessential Phases[6][7][8]
German Radio Series Two[11]

Hitchhiker's Guide Receptionist

N/A

Lift
Michael Fenton Stevens
N/A

Vogon Captain
Toby Longworth
N/A

Vogon Guard
Bob Golding
N/A

Lintilla (and her clones)
Rula Lenska
N/A

Zarniwoop (Vann Harl)
Jonathan Pryce
N/A

Wowbagger (the Infinitely Prolonged)
Toby Longworth
N/A

Zem the Mattress
Andy Taylor

Krikkit Robots
Dominic Hawksley

Walkie Talkie
Fiona Carew
N/A

The Boy
Theo Maggs

Deodat
Bruce Hyman
N/A

Cricket Commentator #1
Henry Blofeld as himself

Cricket Commentator #2
Fred Trueman as himself
Walter Hohe

Wikkit Voice
Dominic Hawksley
Heinz Schimmelpfennig

Agrajag
Douglas Adams
Klaus Herm

Judiciary Pag
Rupert Degas
Bruno Ganz

Krikkit Man One
Michael Fenton Stevens
Bernd Wesselmann

Krikkit Man Two
Philip Pope
Andreas Serda

Krikkit Man Three
Tom Maggs
Joachim Prech

Mancunian Correcting-Fluid Magnate
Michael Fenton Stevens

Krikkit songwriter
Philip Pope

Thor
Dominic Hawksley
Edgar Hoppe

Woman with the Sydney Opera House head
Joanna Lumley

Party Doorman
Paul Wickens

Hactar
"Young" voice: Geoffrey McGivern
"Dust cloud" voice: Leslie Phillips

Peter Lieck

Krikkit Commander
Dominic Hawksley

Dispatcher
Bob Golding

Silastic Armorfiends
Bob Golding

Elder of Krikkit
Dominic Hawksley

Krikkit Civilian
Bob Golding

Prak
Chris Langham

The Book's "update voice"
Rula Lenska
N/A

Rob McKenna
Bill Paterson[15]
Otto Sander

Fenchurch (Fenny)
Jane Horrocks
Nina Hoger

Barman (Old Pink Dog Bar)
Arthur Smith
N/A

Russell
Rupert Degas
Eberhard Feik

Alien Teaser
Bob Golding

Stewardess
Alison Pettitt
N/A

Hooker
Fiona Carew
N/A

Vogon Helmsman
Michael Cule
N/A

Evil-looking bird
Chris Emmett
N/A

Canis Pontiff
Chris Emmett
N/A

Raffle Woman
June Whitfield

BT Operator
Ann Bryson
N/A

Barmaid
Ann Bryson

Jim (bartender)
Simon Greenall

News Anchor 1
Simon Greenall

News Anchor 2
Ann Bryson

Speaking Clock
Brian Cobby
N/A

Zirzla Leader
David Dixon
N/A

Ecological Man
David Dixon

Arthur's BBC Boss
Geoffrey Perkins

Murray Bost Henson
Stephen Fry
Heinz Meier

East River Creature
Jackie Mason

Vogon Councillor
Dominic Hawksley
N/A

Steward
Simon Greenall

Mrs Kapelsen
Margaret Robertson

Vogon Clerk
Michael Cule
N/A

Wonko the Sane (John Watson)
Christian Slater
Hans Christian Blech

Tricia McMillan (parallel Earth)
Sandra Dickinson
N/A

The Lajestic Vantrasheel of Lob
Bob Golding

Radio commentators
Nick Clarke as himself
Charlotte Green as herself
Peter Donaldson as himself
Sir Patrick Moore as himself

First Grebulon
Andy Taylor
N/A

Second Grebulon
Michael Fenton Stevens
N/A

Prophet
John Challis
N/A

Information Creature
Mitch Benn
N/A

Gail Andrews
Lorelei King
N/A

Colin the Robot
Andrew Secombe
N/A

Old Man on the Pole
Saeed Jaffrey
N/A

Smelly Photocopier Woman
Miriam Margolyes
N/A

Stewardess
Lorelei King
N/A

Accountancy Bird #1
Roger Gregg
N/A

Accountancy Bird #2
Michael Fenton Stevens
N/A

Accountancy Bird #3
Danny Flint
N/A

Lift
Roger Gregg
N/A

Grebulon Underling
Philip Pope
N/A

Grebulon Lieutenant
Michael Fenton Stevens
N/A

Random Frequent Flyer Dent
Samantha Béart
N/A

Old Thrashbarg
Griff Rhys Jones
N/A

Strinder
Roger Gregg
N/A

Doctor
Roger Gregg
N/A

Grebulon Leader
Andy Taylor
N/A

The Patient
Lorelei King
N/A

Bartender (Domain of the King)
Roger Gregg
N/A

Elvis
Philip Pope
N/A

The Newsreader
Neil Sleat
N/A

Runner
Tom Maggs
N/A

Character's Name
Tertiary to Quintessential Phases[6][7][8]
German Radio Series Two[11]


document_title: Cyndi Grecco

question_text: who sings the theme song for laverne & shirley

text: Cyndi Grecco

text: This  biography of a living person does not include any references or sources. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living people that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately.Find sources: "Cyndi Grecco" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Cyndi Grecco (born May 19, 1952, in New York, New York) is an American singer who performed the theme tune to the popular 1970s American television show Laverne & Shirley. Titled "Making Our Dreams Come True," the song (in which Grecco was accompanied by the Ron Hicklin Singers) was also put out as a single and charted at #25 on July 25, 1976. The song came out on the small Private Stock label (#45086). An album followed, though a second disco-themed single, "Dancing, Dancing," failed to chart. She also provided the theme to another 1970s ABC television sitcom, Blansky's Beauties. Nevertheless, Grecco remains a one-hit wonder.

text: Discography[edit]

text: Albums

text:
Cyndi Grecco: Making Our Dreams Come True (Cyndi Grecco album)
Wish Upon A Star

text: Singles

text:
Making Our Dreams Come True
Dancing, Dancing
Hello Again
This Time I'm in It for Love
You Made Love Come True


document_title: Longford Castle

question_text: where is the castle used in princess diaries

text: Longford Castle

text: Longford Castle is located on the banks of the River Avon south of Salisbury, Wiltshire, England. It is the seat of the Earl of Radnor,[1] and an example of the Elizabethan prodigy house.

text: In 1573 Thomas Gorges acquired the manor (at the time written "Langford"), which was originally owned by the Servington (or Cervington) family.[2] Prior to this the existing mansion house had been damaged by fire. In c.1576 Thomas Gorges married Helena Snakenborg, the Swedish born dowager Marchioness of Northampton and Lady-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth. They rebuilt the Longford property as a triangular Swedish pattern castle on the banks of the River Avon. The building work became very expensive due to problems with the subsoil. Sir Thomas Gorges, who was now governor of Hurst Castle, persuaded his wife to beg of the Queen a shipwreck he knew from the defeated Spanish Armada. The gift was granted and the gold and silver retrieved from the shipwreck funded the completion of the castle[2] under the final supervision of John Thorpe in 1591. The family lived in the castle for several years before its final completion.

text: The main building had several floors and was triangular with a round tower in each corner; the three towers representing the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. There was a chapel, kitchen department, several boudoirs and sitting rooms, as well as bedrooms. Fresh cold water was pumped to various floors and there were water closets operating with rainwater. A park, fruit garden and kitchen garden were attached.

text: In 1717 Longford Castle became the Bouverie home, purchased by Sir Edward des Bouverie from the Coleraines. It is said that Sir Edward saw and fell in love with the castle in the valley as he rode past, having enough money in his saddle bags to effect the purchase there and then.[2] Subsequent generations of the family beautified the interior of the castle and surrounding park. However, Jacob, 2nd Earl of Radnor (1749-1828), employed James Wyatt to change Longford from a reasonably modest chateau into a hexagonal palace "to the despair of future generations".[2] He destroyed one of the Elizabethan towers and replaced it with a larger one of his own design, added two more towers and linked each to each other. The palace concept was not finished. It was Jacob, 4th Earl of Radnor (1815-1889), who oversaw the last significant changes to the castle architecture, undertaken by Anthony Salvin. These included the formation of a second courtyard, the doming over of the central courtyard and the addition of a square tower that can be seen in the aerial photograph.

text: The castle is Grade I listed.[3]

text: It is currently the seat of William Pleydell-Bouverie, 9th Earl of Radnor, and is open to the public for pre-booked tours on 28 days of each year.[4]

text: Other notable uses[edit]

text:
Longford was the model for the 'Castle of Amphialeus' in Sir Philip Sidney's The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (1580, pub. 1590).
In the 1914-18 war the castle was a hospital.[2]
In the 1939-45 war the castle was occupied by British and American troops and entertained Montgomery, Mark Clark and Creagh.[2]
Longford Castle is shown from the air at the end of the movie The Princess Diaries as the castle in Genovia.

text: Coordinates: 51°2′21.0″N 1°45′24.93″W / 51.039167°N 1.7569250°W / 51.039167; -1.7569250


document_title: United States Virgin Islands

question_text: where is the virgin islands located on the map

question_tokens: where is the virgin islands located on the map

text: United States Virgin Islands

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands were originally inhabited by the Ciboney, Carib, and Arawaks. The islands were named by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage in 1493 for Saint Ursula and her virgin followers. Over the next two hundred years, the islands were held by many European powers, including Spain, Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, and Denmark–Norway. In 1927, the inhabitants of the U.S. Virgin Islands were granted American citizenship.

text: The Danish West India Company settled on St. Thomas in 1672, settled on St. John in 1694, and purchased St. Croix from France in 1733.[9] The islands became royal Danish colonies in 1754, named the Danish West Indian Islands (Danish: De dansk-vestindiske øer). Sugarcane, produced by slave labor, drove the islands' economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries, until the abolition of slavery by Governor Peter von Scholten on July 3, 1848.

text: The Danish West India and Guinea Company are also credited with naming the island St. John (Danish: Sankt Jan). The Danish crown took full control of St. John in 1754 along with St. Thomas and St. Croix. Sugarcane plantations such as the famous Annaberg Sugar Plantation were established in great numbers on St. John because of the intense heat and fertile terrain that provided ideal growing conditions. The establishment of sugarcane plantations also led to the buying of more slaves from Africa. In 1733, St. John was the site of one of the first significant slave rebellions in the New World when Akwamu slaves from the Gold Coast took over the island for six months.

text: The Danish were able to defeat the enslaved Africans with help from the French in Martinique. Instead of allowing themselves to be recaptured, more than a dozen of the ringleaders shot themselves before the French forces could capture them and call them to account for their activities during the period of rebel control. It is estimated that by 1775, slaves outnumbered the Danish settlers by a ratio of 5:1. The indigenous Caribs and Arawaks were also used as slave labor to the point of the entire native population being absorbed into the larger groups. Slavery was abolished in the Virgin Islands on July 3, 1848.

text: Although some plantation owners refused to accept the abolition, some 5,000 Black people were freed while another 17,000 remained enslaved. In that era, slaves labored mainly on sugar plantations. Other crops included cotton and indigo. Over the following years, strict labor laws were implemented several times, leading planters to abandon their estates, causing a significant drop in population and the overall economy.  In the late 1800s, numerous natural disasters added to diminish the economy.[10][better source needed] For the remainder of the period of Danish rule the islands were not economically viable and significant transfers were made from the Danish state budgets to the authorities in the islands. In 1867 a treaty to sell St. Thomas and St. John to the United States was agreed, but the sale was never effected.[11] A number of reforms aimed at reviving the islands' economy were attempted, but none had great success. A second draft treaty to sell the islands to the United States was negotiated in 1902 but was defeated in the upper house of the Danish parliament in a tie vote (because the opposition carried a 97-year-old life member into the chamber).[11]

text: The onset of World War I brought the reforms to a close and again left the islands isolated and exposed. During the submarine warfare phases of the war, the United States, fearing that the islands might be seized by Germany as a submarine base, again approached Denmark about buying them. After a few months of negotiations, a selling price of $25 million in United States gold coin was agreed, equivalent to $562.23 million in 2017 dollars. At the same time the economics of continued possession weighed heavily on the minds of Danish decision makers, and a consensus in favor of selling emerged in the Danish parliament.

text: The Treaty of the Danish West Indies was signed in August 1916,[12] with a Danish referendum held in December 1916 to confirm the decision. The deal was finalized on January 17, 1917, when the United States and Denmark exchanged their respective treaty ratifications. The United States took possession of the islands on March 31, 1917 and the territory was renamed the Virgin Islands of the United States. Every year Transfer Day is recognized as a holiday, to commemorate the acquisition of the islands by the United States.[13] US citizenship was granted to the inhabitants of the islands in 1927. The US dollar was adopted in the territory in 1934[14] and from 1935 to 1939 the islands were a part of the United States customs area.[15]

text: Water Island, a small island to the south of St. Thomas, was initially administered by the US federal government and did not become a part of the United States Virgin Islands territory until 1996, when 50 acres (20 ha) of land was transferred to the territorial government. The remaining 200 acres (81 ha) of the island were purchased from the United States Department of the Interior in May 2005 for $10, a transaction that marked the official change in jurisdiction.[16]

text: Hurricane Hugo struck the U.S. Virgin Islands in 1989, causing catastrophic physical and economic damage, particularly on the island of St. Croix.  The territory was again struck by Hurricane Marilyn in 1995, killing eight people and causing more than $2 billion in damage. The islands were again struck by Hurricanes Bertha, Georges, Lenny, and Omar in 1996, 1998, 1999, and 2008, respectively, but damage was not as severe in those storms.  In 2017, Hurricane Irma caused catastrophic damage to St. John and St. Thomas; just days later, Hurricane Maria's eyewall crossed over St. Croix.

text: Until February 2012, the Hovensa plant located on St. Croix was one of the world's largest petroleum refineries and contributed about 20% of the territory's GDP. The facility stopped exporting petroleum products in 2014. In the final year of full refinery operations, the value of exported petroleum products was $12.7 billion (2011 fiscal year).[17] After being shut down, it has operated as no more than an oil storage facility; the closure had provoked a local economic crisis.[18][19]

text: In September 2017, two weeks after Hurricane Irma hit St. Thomas and St. John while a Category 5 hurricane, Hurricane Maria's weaker outer eyewall was reported by the National Hurricane Center to have crossed St. Croix while the hurricane was at Category 5 intensity.  Sustained winds at the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge on St. Croix reached 99 to 104 mph (159 to 167 km/h) and gusted to 137 mph (220 km/h).[20] Weather stations on St. Croix recorded 5 and 10 inches of rain from the hurricane, and estimates for St. John and St. Thomas were somewhat less.[21]

text: The hurricane killed two people, both in their homes: one person drowned and another was trapped by a mudslide.[22]  A third person had a fatal heart attack during the hurricane.[23] The hurricane caused extensive and severe damage to St. Croix.  After both hurricanes, the office of V.I. congresswoman Stacey Plaskett stated that 90% of buildings in the Virgin Islands were damaged or destroyed and 13,000 of those buildings had lost their roofs.[24] The Luis Hospital suffered roof damage and flooding, but remained operational.[25]

text: Geography[edit]

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands are in the Atlantic Ocean, about 40 miles (60 km) east of Puerto Rico and immediately west of the British Virgin Islands. They share the Virgin Islands Archipelago with the Puerto Rican Virgin Islands of Vieques and Culebra (administered by Puerto Rico), and the British Virgin Islands.

text: The territory consists of three main islands: St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix, as well as several dozen smaller islands. The main islands have nicknames often used by locals: "Twin City" (St. Croix), "Rock City" (St. Thomas) and "Love City" (St. John).[26] The combined land area of the islands is roughly twice the size of Washington, D.C.

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands are known for their white sand beaches, including Magens Bay and Trunk Bay, and deepwater harbors along the Anegada Passage, including Charlotte Amalie and Christiansted.[27] Like most Caribbean islands, the islands of the Virgin Islands, including St. Thomas, are volcanic in origin and hilly. The highest point is Crown Mountain, St. Thomas (1,555 ft or 474 m).

text: St. Croix, the largest of the U.S. Virgin Islands, lies to the south and has a flatter terrain due to being coral in origin. The National Park Service manages more than half of St. John, nearly all of Hassel Island, and many acres of coral reef. (See also Virgin Islands National Park, Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument, Buck Island Reef National Monument, Christiansted National Historic Site, and Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve.)

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands lie on the boundary of the North American plate and the Caribbean Plate. Natural hazards include earthquakes and hurricanes.

text: Climate[edit]

text: The United States Virgin Islands enjoy a tropical climate, with little seasonal change throughout the year. Rainfall is concentrated in the high sun period (May through October), while in the winter the northeast trade winds prevail. Summer and winter high temperatures differ by 5 °F (3 °C) or less on average.

text:
hideClimate data for St. Thomas, Virgin Islands

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high °F (°C)

93 (34)

93 (34)

94 (34)

96 (36)

97 (36)

99 (37)

98 (37)

99 (37)

98 (37)

97 (36)

95 (35)

92 (33)

99 (37)

Average high °F (°C)

85 (29)

85 (29)

86 (30)

87 (31)

88 (31)

89 (32)

90 (32)

90 (32)

90 (32)

89 (32)

87 (31)

86 (30)

88 (31)

Average low °F (°C)

72 (22)

73 (23)

73 (23)

74 (23)

76 (24)

78 (26)

78 (26)

78 (26)

78 (26)

77 (25)

75 (24)

74 (23)

76 (24)

Record low °F (°C)

63 (17)

62 (17)

56 (13)

62 (17)

66 (19)

67 (19)

57 (14)

59 (15)

64 (18)

66 (19)

52 (11)

62 (17)

52 (11)

Average precipitation inches (mm)

2.38 (60.5)

1.48 (37.6)

1.42 (36.1)

2.74 (69.6)

3.06 (77.7)

2.53 (64.3)

2.85 (72.4)

3.74 (95)

5.58 (141.7)

5.42 (137.7)

5.23 (132.8)

2.96 (75.2)

39.39 (1,000.5)

Source: weather.com[28]

text: Politics and government[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands are an organized, unincorporated United States territory. Although they are US citizens, US Virgin Islanders residing in the territory are ineligible to vote for the President of the United States. They are, however, eligible to vote if they become residents of mainland US states.

text: The US Democratic and Republican parties allow U.S. Virgin Islands citizens to vote in their presidential primary elections for delegates to the respective national conventions.[29]

text: People born in the U.S. Virgin Islands derive their US citizenship from Congressional statute.[30]

text: The main political parties in the U.S. Virgin Islands are the Democratic Party of the Virgin Islands, the Independent Citizens Movement, and the Republican Party of the Virgin Islands. Additional candidates run as independents.

text: At the national level, the U.S. Virgin Islands elect a delegate to Congress from their at-large congressional district. The elected delegate, while able to vote in committee, cannot participate in floor votes. The current House of Representatives delegate is Stacey Plaskett. Like other territories, the U.S. Virgin Islands does not have U.S. Senators.[31]

text: At the territorial level, fifteen senators – seven from the district of St. Croix, seven from the district of St. Thomas and St. John, and one senator at-large who must be a resident of St. John – are elected for two-year terms to the unicameral Virgin Islands Legislature. There is no limit as to the number of terms they can serve.[32]

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands have elected a territorial governor every four years since 1970. Previous governors were appointed by the President of the United States.

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands have a District Court, Superior Court and the Supreme Court. The District Court is responsible for federal law, while the Superior Court is responsible for U.S. Virgin Islands law at the trial level and the Supreme Court is responsible for appeals from the Superior Court for all appeals filed on or after January 29, 2007.  Appeals filed prior to that date are heard by the Appellate Division of the District Court.  Appeals from the federal District Court are heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.  District Court judges are appointed by the US president, while Superior Court and Supreme Court judges are appointed by the governor.

text: On October 21, 1976, President Gerald Ford signed Pub.L. 94–584 authorizing the people of the United States Virgin Islands to organize a government pursuant to a constitution, which would be automatically approved if Congress did not act within 60 days. On May 26, 2009 the U.S. Virgin Islands Fifth Constitutional Convention adopted a proposed Constitution of the Virgin Islands, which was submitted by President Barack Obama to Congress on March 1, 2010. On June 30, 2010, President Obama signed Pub.L. 111–194 in which Congress rejected the proposed constitution and urged the constitutional convention to reconvene.

text: As of early 2017, the territory still did not have its own constitution. Little has been achieved on this front since 2009 when a proposed constitution was contested by the US Justice Department on the grounds that the powers sought exceeded what would be considered allowable under territorial status.[33] In September 2012, the Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U.S. Virgin Islands was unable to come to a decision on the contents of a proposed constitution by the October 31 deadline.[34][35]

text: Administrative divisions[edit]

text: Administratively, the U.S. Virgin Islands are divided into two (2) districts: the Saint Thomas & Saint John district, and the Saint Croix district.[36][37][38] However, the U.S. Census Bureau divides each of the 3 main islands into 3 separate statistical entities (which are further divided into twenty (20) sub-districts).[39] Below is the U.S. Census Bureau's division model.

text:
Districts and sub-districts of the U.S. Virgin Islands

Districts

St. Thomas

St. John

St. Croix

Sub-districts

Charlotte Amalie
East End
Northside
Southside
Tutu
Water Island
West End

Central
Coral Bay
Cruz Bay
East End

Anna's Hope Village
Christiansted
East End
Frederiksted
Northcentral
Northwest
Sion Farm
Southcentral
Southwest

text: Each of the 3 main islands of the U.S. Virgin Islands is counted as a county-equivalent by the U.S. Census Bureau, with the following FIPS codes: 78010 for Saint Croix, 78020 for Saint John, and 78030 for Saint Thomas.[40][41]

text: While a Danish possession, the Islands were divided into "quarters" (five on St. John and nine on St. Croix) which were further divided into many dozens of "estates".  Estate names are still used to write addresses; estates and quarters are used in describing real estate, especially on St. John[42] and St. Croix.[43]  More densely populated towns such as Frederiksted and Christiansted on St. Croix were historically referred to as "districts", in contrast to the surrounding plantation land.

text: Self-determination[edit]

text: A 1993 referendum on status attracted only 31.4% turnout, and so its results (in favor of the status quo) were considered void.  No further referenda have been scheduled since.

text: In 2004, the 25th Legislature of the Virgin Islands established the Fifth Constitutional Convention, a constitutional convention gathered in order to draft a new constitution. In June 2009, Governor John de Jongh, Jr. rejected the resulting constitutional draft, saying the terms of the document would "violate federal law, fail to defer to federal sovereignty and disregard basic civil rights."[44] A lawsuit filed by members of the Convention to force Governor de Jongh to forward the document to President Barack Obama was ultimately successful. The President of the United States forwarded the proposal to Congress—which then had 60 days to approve or reject the document—in May 2010, along with a report noting concerns raised by the United States Department of Justice and restating the issues noted by Governor de Jongh. A US Congressional resolution disapproving of the proposed constitution and requesting that the Fifth Constitutional Convention reconvene to consider changes to address these issues was signed into law by President Obama on June 30, 2010.[45][46]

text: Months later, a federal lawsuit was filed in the Federal District Court of the Virgin Islands in 2011. The lawsuit claimed that the United States had to provide US Virgin Islanders with the ability to be represented in Congress and vote for US President. The case is Civil No. 3:11-cv-110, Charles v. U.S. Federal Elections Commission et al. (3:11-cv-00110-AET-RM). It alleged that racial discrimination present in an all-white and segregated US Congress of 1917 was the impetus to deny the right to vote to a majority non-white constituency. The case was ultimately dismissed and closed on August 16, 2012 by District Judge Anne E. Thompson from the Federal District Court of the Virgin Islands, Division of St. Croix.[47]

text: The Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U.S. Virgin Islands met in October 2012 but was not able to produce a revised Constitution before its October 31 deadline.[48][49]

text: In 2016, the United Nations's Special Committee on Decolonisation  recommended to the UN's General Assembly that this larger body should assist in "decolonization" and help the people of the territory to "determine freely their future political status". Specifically, the Special Committee recommended that the "views of the people of the United States Virgin Islands in respect of their right to self-determination should be ascertained" and that the UN should "actively pursue a public awareness campaign aimed at assisting the people of the United States Virgin Islands with their inalienable right to self-determination and in gaining a better understanding of the options for self-determination".[50]

text: Governors of the U.S. Virgin Islands[edit]

text: Governors under Danish rule[edit]

text: Appointed Governors under United States rule[edit]

text: • Ralph M. Paiewonsky (1961–1969) appointed by President Kennedy

text: Elected Governors[edit]

text: • Melvin Evans (1971–1975)

text: • Cyril King (1975–1978)

text: • Juan Luis (1978–1987)

text: • Alexander A. Farrelly (1987–1995)

text: • Roy Schneider (1995–1999)

text: • Charles Turnbull (1999–2007)

text: • John de Jongh Jr. (2007–2015)

text: • Kenneth Mapp (2015–incumbent)

text: Law enforcement[edit]

text: Law enforcement services are provided by the United States Virgin Islands Police Department (USVIPD).

text: Military[edit]

text: There are some military facilities and personnel on the islands, supported by the United States government:

text:
United States Army Reserve
Virgin Islands Army National Guard
Virgin Islands Air National Guard —— stationed at St Croix ANGS
Virgin Islands Army National Guard — stationed at St Croix ANGS
Lionel A. Jackson Readiness Center — shared facility for Army and Air units

text: Although a public airport, Henry E. Rohlsen Airport has serviced aircraft from the United States Air Force, as well as the United States Army.

text: Economy[edit]

text: A 2012 Economic report from the US Census Bureau indicated a total of 2,414 business establishments generating $6.8 billion in sales, employing 32,465 people and paying $1.1 billion in payroll per year. Between 2007 and 2012, sales declined by $12.6 billion, or 64.9 percent. (In 2007, total sales were $19.5 billion and the number employed was 35,300.)[51]

text: According to a report on the first half of 2016 by the VI Bureau of Economic Research, the unemployment rate was 11.5 percent. In May 2016 the islands' Bureau of Economic Research indicated that there were 37,613 non-agricultural wage and salary jobs in the islands. This report states that the "leisure and hospitality sector" employed an average of 7,333 people. The retail trade sector, which also serves many tourists, averaged another 5,913 jobs. Other categories which also include some tourism jobs include Arts and Entertainment (792 jobs), Accommodation and Food (6,541 jobs), Accommodation (3755 jobs), Food Services and Drink (2,766 jobs). A large percentage of the 37,613 non-farm workers are employed in dealing with tourists. Serving the local population is also part of the role of these sectors.[52]

text: Personal income[edit]

text: The median income for a household in the territory was $24,704, and the median income for a family was $28,553 according to the 2010 Census. Males had a median income of $28,309 versus $22,601 for females. The per capita income for the territory was $13,139. About 28.7% of families and 32.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 41.7% of those less than 18 years old and 29.8% of those 65 or more years old. Nearly 70% of adults had at least a high school diploma and 19.2% had a bachelor's degree or higher.[53]

text: Financial challenges[edit]

text: Analysts reviewing the economy often point to the closure of the HOVENSA oil refinery, the islands’ largest private sector employer, in early 2012 as having a major negative impact on the territory's economy. In late 2013, the Reserve Bank of New York's Research and Statistics Group pointed out that manufacturing employment dropped by 50 percent in May 2012, and by another 4 percent by November 2012, and that the GDP fell by 13 percent, "mainly due to an 80 percent drop-off in exports (mostly refined petroleum)". On the other hand, tourism and some other service industries were growing. As well, the 2010 census indicated that a relatively high share of the adult population  is in the labor force: 66 percent, versus 65 percent on the mainland and well below 50 percent in Puerto Rico. The bottom line in this report however is that "it may also be worthwhile to look at the physical infrastructure and human capital built up over the years, with an eye toward using it for other types of productive economic activity".[54]

text: A May 2016 report by Bloomberg expressed concern about the islands' tax-supported debt load.[55] By January 23, 2017 this had increased to $2 billion. That translated to a per capita debt of $19,000, which was higher than the per capita debt in Puerto Rico which was undergoing a severe financial crisis at the time. A Debtwire analyst writing in Forbes indicated that nothing short of a miracle would prevent a financial collapse.[7] Another area of concern was the structural budget deficit which was at $110 million in mid February 2017.[56] The government instituted a new law in March 2017 with new or increased taxes on rum, beer, tobacco products and sugary drinks, as well as internet purchases and timeshare unit owners.[57]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: Tourism, trade, and other service-oriented industries are the primary economic activities, accounting for nearly 60% of the GDP.  Approximately 2.5 million tourists per year visit, most arriving on cruise ships.[58]  Such visitors do not spend large amounts of money ($146.70 each on average) but as a group, they contributed $339.8 million to the economy in 2012.[59]

text: However, the travel industry warned in late 2014 that work needs to be done for USVI tourism practices to meet 21st century demands. "The needs of the community and the tourists may be diametrically opposed; however, for tourism to flourish cooperation is a necessity. From reduced energy costs to increased educational opportunities, from improved healthcare to a continued reduction in crime, these and many other challenges must be tackled. There is only now."[59]

text: Additionally, the islands frequently are a starting point for private yacht charters to the neighboring British Virgin Islands. Euromonitor indicates that over 50 percent of the workforce is employed in some tourism-related work.[60]

text: Manufacturing[edit]

text: The manufacturing sector consists of mainly rum distilling. The agricultural sector is small, with most food being imported. International business and financial services are a small but growing component of the economy. Most energy is also generated from imported oil, leading to electricity costs four to five times higher than the U.S. mainland.[61] The  Virgin Islands were the highest oil consumers per capita in the world in 2007.[62] The Virgin Islands Water and Power Authority[63] also uses imported energy to operate its desalination facilities to provide fresh water.

text: Government[edit]

text: The CIA World Factbook lists the value of federal programs and grants — $241.4 million in 2013, 19.7% of the territory's total revenues — and that "the economy remains relatively diversified. Along with the tourist industry, it appears that rum exports, trade, and services will be major income sources in future years".[64]

text: Tax and Trade[edit]

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands are an independent customs territory from the mainland United States and operate largely as a free port. US citizens thus do not have to clear customs when arriving in the U.S. Virgin Islands, but do when traveling to the mainland. Local residents are not subject to US federal income taxes on U.S. Virgin Islands source income; they pay taxes to the territory equal to what their federal taxes would be if they lived in a state.[65]

text: Transportation and communications[edit]

text: The Henry E. Rohlsen International Airport serves St. Croix and the Cyril E. King International Airport serves St. Thomas and St. John.

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands is the only US jurisdiction that drives on the left. This was inherited from what was then-current practice on the islands at the time of the 1917 transfer of the territory to the United States from Denmark. However, because most cars in the territory are imported from the mainland United States, the cars in the territory are left-hand drive.

text:
As in other US territories, U.S. Virgin Islands mail service is handled by the United States Postal Service, using the two-character state code "VI" for domestic mail delivery.[66][67][68]
ZIP codes are in the 008xx range.[68]
As of  January 2010[update], specifically assigned codes include 00801–00805 (St Thomas),[69]
00820–00824 (Christiansted),[70]
00830–00831 (St. John),[71]
00840–00841 (Frederiksted),[72]
and 00850–00851 (Kingshill).[73]
The islands are part of the North American Numbering Plan, using area code 340, and island residents and visitors are able to call most toll-free US numbers.[66]

text: The U.S. Virgin Islands are located in the Atlantic Standard Time zone and do not participate in daylight saving time. When the mainland United States is on Standard Time, the U.S. Virgin Islands are one hour ahead of Eastern Standard Time. When the mainland United States is on daylight saving time, Eastern Daylight Time is the same as Atlantic Standard Time.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: Historical populationYearPop.±%1970 62,468—    1980 96,569+54.6%1990 101,809+5.4%2000 108,612+6.7%2010 106,405−2.0%

text: In 2010 the U.S. Virgin Islands had a population of 106,405.[74][75] There are 40,648 households, and 26,636 families.

text: In 2010 there were 40,648 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.2% were married couples living together, 24.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.5% were non-families. 30.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.34.

text: In the territory, the population in 2010 was distributed with 31.6% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 8.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and up, there were 87.7 males. The annual population growth is −0.12%.

text: The literacy rate for the adult population was 94.9% in 2010.[76]

text: Ethnic groups[edit]

text: The racial makeup of the U.S. Virgin Islands was:[77]

text:
Black or Afro-Caribbean: 76.0%  (66.1% Non-Hispanic Black)
White: 15.7% (13.5% Non-Hispanic Whites)
Asian: 1.4%
Mixed: 2.1%
Other: 4.5%
Hispanic or Latino of any race: 17.4%  (10.3% Puerto Rican, 5.4% Dominican)

text: Many residents can trace their ancestry to other Caribbean islands, especially Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles. The territory is largely Afro-Caribbean in origin.[3]

text: Languages[edit]

text:
English is currently the dominant language and Spanish is spoken by about 17% of the population. Other languages are spoken by 11% of the population.[78]
English has been the predominant language since 1917 when the islands were transferred from Denmark to the United States. Under Danish rule, the official language was Danish, but it was solely the language of administration and spoken by Danes, a tiny minority of the overall population that primarily occupied administrative roles in colonial Danish West Indian society. However, place names and surnames of Denmark-Norway origin still remain among natives.

text: Although the U.S. Virgin Islands was a Danish possession during most of its colonial history, Danish never was a spoken language among the populace, black or white, as the majority of plantation and slave owners were of Dutch, English, Scottish or Irish descent.[79] Even during Danish ownership, Dutch was more common, at least during some of those 245 years, specifically on St. Thomas and St. John. In St. Croix, English was the dominant language. St. Croix was owned by the French until 1733 when the island was sold to the Danish West Indian and Guinea Company. By 1741 there were five times as many English on the island as Danes. English Creole emerged on St. Croix more so than Dutch Creole, which was more popular on St. Thomas and St. John. Other languages spoken in the Danish West Indies included Irish, Scots, Spanish, and French, as well as Virgin Islands English Creole.[80]

text: Virgin Islands Creole English, an English-based creole locally known as "dialect", is spoken in informal situations. The form of Virgin Islands Creole spoken on St. Croix, known as Crucian, is slightly different from that spoken on St. Thomas and St. John. Because the U.S. Virgin Islands are home to thousands of immigrants from across the Caribbean, Spanish and various French creole languages are also widely spoken.

text: As of the 2000 census, 25.3% of persons over the age of five speak a language other than English at home. Spanish is spoken by 16.8% of the population and French is spoken by 6.6%.[81][82]

text: Religion[edit]

text: Religion in the United States Virgin Islands (2010)[83]

text: Christianity is the dominant religion in the U.S. Virgin Islands. According to Pew Research Center, 94.8% of the population was Christian in 2010.[84] Baptist, Roman Catholic and Episcopalian were the largest Christian denominations in the 2010 census.[85]

text: Owing to both their Danish past and American present, Protestantism on the islands has long been widespread. It was first introduced when Lutheranism was brought to the islands in the Danish colonization. The Danish crown also allowed other religious traditions on the islands including Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism, the Moravian Church and other Protestant groups.[86] Historically, St. Thomas and St. Croix are known for missionary efforts undertaken by the Moravian missionaries. They were allowed on the islands by the Danish royal court, but came under scrutiny when they denounced slavery.[86][87][page needed] A number of neo-Protestant traditions including Pentecostalism, various evangelical Protestants and the Seventh-day Adventists arrived later with the switch of allegiance from Denmark to the United States.

text: There is also a strong Roman Catholic presence. Rastafari is also prevalent. St. Thomas is home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the Western Hemisphere as Sephardic Jews began to settle the island in the 18th century as traders and merchants. The St. Thomas Synagogue in Charlotte Amalie is the second oldest synagogue on American soil and oldest in terms of continuous usage.[88]

text: Health[edit]

text: In 2010, the national average life expectancy was 79.61 years. It was 76.57 years for men and 82.83 for women.[89]

text: Education[edit]

text: The United States Virgin Islands Department of Education serves as the territory's education agency, and has two school districts: St. Thomas-St. John School District and St. Croix School District.[90]

text: The University of the Virgin Islands provides higher education leading to associate's, bachelor's, and master's degrees, with campuses on St. Thomas and St. Croix.

text: Culture[edit]

text: The culture of the Virgin Islands reflects the various people that have inhabited the present-day U.S. Virgin Islands and British Virgin Islands, both despite their political separation having kept close cultural ties. The culture derives chiefly from West African, European and American cultures, in addition to the influences from the immigrants from the Arab world, India and other Caribbean islands. The island was strongly influenced by the Dutch,[91] French and Danish during the periods of control the island were under these powers.

text: Music[edit]

text: Media[edit]

text: The islands have a number of AM and FM radio stations (mostly on St. Thomas and St. Croix) broadcasting music, religious, and news programming.  (See List of radio stations in US Territories.)  Full and low-power television stations are split between St. Thomas and St. Croix.  (See List of television stations in the U.S. Virgin Islands.)  Newspapers include:

text:
The Avis, printed daily on St. Croix.
The Virgin Islands Daily News,[92] printed daily on St. Thomas.
St. John Tradewinds,[93] distributed weekly on St. John.
St. Thomas – St. John This Week,[94] online only.
St. Thomas Source,[95] online only.
St. Croix Source,[96] online only.
St. John On Island Times,[97] news and information on St. John, USVI.

text: Public holidays[edit]

text:
January 1: New Year's Day
January 6: Three Kings Day
January (third Monday): Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
February (third Monday): Presidents' Day
March 31: Transfer Day (celebrates the transfer of the islands from Denmark to the US)
April: Holy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter Monday
May: Memorial Day
July 3: Emancipation Day
July 4: US Independence Day
September (first Monday): Labor Day
October (second Monday): Virgin Islands Puerto Rico Friendship Day/Columbus Day
November 1: D. Hamilton Jackson Day (also known as "Liberty Day", or "Bull and Bread Day")
November 11: Veterans Day
November (fourth Thursday): Thanksgiving Day
December 25: Christmas
December 26: Christmas Second Day (also known as "Boxing Day")

text: Virgin Islands government employees are also given administrative leave for St. Croix carnival events in January and St. Thomas carnival events in April/May.