document_title: Water buffalo

question_text: how many water buffalo are left in the world

text: Water buffalo

text: Characteristics[edit]

text: The skin of river buffalo is black, but some specimens may have dark, slate-coloured skin. Swamp buffalo have a grey skin at birth, but become slate blue later. Albinoids are present in some populations. River buffalo have comparatively longer faces, smaller girths, and bigger limbs than swamp buffalo. Their dorsal ridges extend further back and taper off more gradually. Their horns grow downward and backward, then curve upward in a spiral. Swamp buffalo are heavy-bodied and stockily built; the body is short and the belly large. The forehead is flat, the eyes prominent, the face short, and the muzzle wide. The neck is comparatively long, and the withers and croup are prominent. A dorsal ridge extends backward and ends abruptly just before the end of the chest. Their horns grow outward, and curve in a semicircle, but always remain more or less on the plane of the forehead. The tail is short, reaching only to the hocks. Height at withers is 129–133 cm (51–52 in) for males, and 120–127 cm (47–50 in) for females. They range in weight from 300–550 kg (660–1,210 lb), but weights of over 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) have also been observed.[1]

text: Tedong bonga is a black pied buffalo featuring a unique black and white colouration that is favoured by the Toraja of Sulawesi.[9]

text: The swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes; the river buffalo has 50 chromosomes. The two types do not readily interbreed, but fertile offspring can occur. Buffalo-cattle hybrids have not been observed to occur, but the embryos of such hybrids reach maturity in laboratory experiments, albeit at lower rates than non-hybrids.[10]

text: The rumen of the water buffalo has important differences from that of other ruminants.[11] It contains a larger population of bacteria, particularly the cellulolytic bacteria, lower protozoa, and higher fungi zoospores. In addition, higher rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N) and higher pH have been found as compared to those in cattle.[12]

text: Ecology and behavior[edit]

text: River buffalo prefer deep water. Swamp buffalo prefer to wallow in mudholes which they make with their horns. During wallowing, they acquire a thick coating of mud.[1] Both are well adapted to a hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to 30 °C (86 °F) and greater in the summer. Water availability is important in hot climates, since they need wallows, rivers, or splashing water to assist in thermoregulation. Some breeds are adapted to saline seaside shores and saline sandy terrain.[13]

text: Diet[edit]

text: Water buffalo thrive on many aquatic plants and during floods, will graze submerged, raising their heads above the water and carrying quantities of edible plants. They eat reeds, Arundo donax, a kind of Cyperaceae, Eichhornia crassipes, and Juncaceae. Some of these plants are of great value to local peoples. Others, such as E. crassipes, are a major problem in some tropical valleys and water buffalo may help to keep waterways clear.

text: Green fodders are used widely for intensive milk production and for fattening. Many fodder crops are conserved as hay, chaffed, or pulped. Fodders include alfalfa, the leaves, stems or trimmings of banana, cassava, Mangelwurzel, esparto, Leucaena leucocephala and kenaf, maize, oats, Pandanus, peanut, sorghum, soybean, sugarcane, bagasse, and turnips. Citrus pulp and pineapple wastes have been fed safely to buffalo. In Egypt, whole sun-dried dates are fed to milk buffalo up to 25% of the standard feed mixture.[1]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Swamp buffalo generally become reproductive at an older age than river breeds. Young males in Egypt, India, and Pakistan are first mated at about 3.0–3.5 years of age, but in Italy they may be used as early as 2 years of age. Successful mating behaviour may continue until the animal is 12 years or even older. A good river male can impregnate 100 females in a year. A strong seasonal influence on mating occurs. Heat stress reduces libido.[1]

text: Although buffalo are polyoestrous, their reproductive efficiency shows wide variation throughout the year. Buffalo cows exhibit a distinct seasonal change in displaying oestrus, conception rate, and calving rate.[14] The age at first oestrus of heifers varies between breeds from 13–33 months, but mating at the first oestrus is often infertile and usually deferred until they are 3 years old. Gestation lasts from 281–334 days, but most reports give a range between 300 and 320 days. Swamp buffalo carry their calves for one or two weeks longer than river buffalo. It is not rare to find buffalo that continue to work well at the age of 30, and instances of a working life of 40 years are recorded.[1]

text: Taxonomic history[edit]

text: Carl Linnaeus first described the genus Bos and the water buffalo under the binomial Bos bubalis in 1758; the species was known to occur in Asia and was held as a domestic form in Italy.[15] Ellerman and Morrison-Scott treated the wild and domestic forms of the water buffalo as conspecifics,[16] whereas others treated them as different species.[17] The nomenclatorial treatment of wild and domestic forms has been inconsistent and varies between authors and even within the works of single authors.[18]

text: In March 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature achieved consistency in the naming of wild and domestic water buffalo by ruling that the scientific name Bubalus arnee is valid for the wild form.[19] B. bubalis continues to be valid for the domestic form and applies also to feral populations.[20]

text: Domestication and breeding[edit]

text: Water buffalo were domesticated in Indian subcontinent about 5000 years ago, and in China about 4000 years ago. Two types are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria – the river buffalo of the Indian subcontinent and further west to the Balkans and Italy, and the swamp buffalo, found from Assam in the west through Southeast Asia to the Yangtze valley of China in the east.[3] The present-day river buffalo is the result of complex domestication processes involving more than one maternal lineage and a significant maternal gene flow from wild populations after the initial domestication events.[21] Twenty-two breeds of the river type water buffalo are known, including Murrah, NiliRavi, Surti, Jafarabadi, Anatolian, Mediterranean, and Egyptian buffalo.[22] China has a huge variety of buffalo genetic resources, comprising 16 local swamp buffalo breeds in various regions.[13]

text: Results of mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that the two types were domesticated independently.[23] Sequencing of cytochrome b genes of Bubalus species implies that the domestic buffalo originated from at least two populations, and that the river and the swamp types have differentiated at the full species level. The genetic distance between the two types is so large that a divergence time of about 1.7 million years has been suggested. The swamp type was noticed to have the closest relationship with the tamaraw.[24]

text: Distribution of populations[edit]

text: The water buffalo population in the world is about 172 million.[25]

text: In Asia[edit]

text: More than 95.8% of the world population of water buffalo are found in Asia, including both river and swamp types.[13] The water buffalo population in India numbered over 97.9 million head in 2003, representing 56.5% of the world population. They are primarily of the river type, with 10 well-defined breeds comprising Badhawari, Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Jafarabadi, Marathwada, Mehsana, Nagpuri, Pandharpuri, Toda, and Surti. Swamp buffalo occur only in small areas in the north-eastern part of the country and are not distinguished into breeds.[26]

text: In 2003, the second-largest population lived in China, with 22.76 million head, all of the swamp type with breeds kept only in the lowlands, and other breeds kept only in the mountains; as of 2003, 3.2 million swamp-type carabao buffalo were in the Philippines, nearly three million swamp buffalo were in Vietnam, and 772,764 buffalo were in Bangladesh. About 750,000 head were estimated in Sri Lanka in 1997.[13] In Japan, water buffalo is domestic animal throughout the Ryukyuan islands or Okinawa prefecture. It was also recorded that 889,246 buffalo were in Nepal.

text: The water buffalo is the main dairy animal in Pakistan, with 23.47 million head in 2010.[27] Of these, 76% are kept in the Punjab. The rest of them are mostly in the province of Sindh. Breeds used are NiliRavi, Kundi, and Azi Kheli.[28] Karachi has the largest population of water buffalos for an area where fodder is not grown, consisting of 350,000 head kept mainly for milking.[citation needed]

text: In Thailand, the number of water buffalo dropped from more than 3 million head in 1996 to less than 1.24 million head in 2011.[29] Slightly over 75% of them are kept in the country's northeastern region. The statistics also indicate that by the beginning of 2012, less than one million were in the country, partly as a result of illegal shipments to neighboring countries where sales prices are higher than in Thailand.[citation needed]

text: Water buffalo are also present in the southern region of Iraq in the Mesopotamian Marshes. The draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes by Saddam Hussein was an attempt to punish the south for the 1991 uprisings in Iraq. After 2003 and the Firdos Square statue destruction, these lands were reflooded and a 2007 report on Maysan and Dhi Qar shows a steady increase in the number of water buffalo. The report puts the number at 40,008 head in those two provinces.[30]

text: In Europe and the Mediterranean[edit]

text: Water buffalo were probably introduced to Europe from India or other Oriental countries. In Italy, the Longobard King Agilulf is said to have received water buffalo in about the year 600. These were probably a present from the Khan of the Avars, a Turkic nomadic tribe that dwelt near the Danube River at the time. Sir H. Johnston knew of a herd of water buffalo presented by a King of Naples to the Bey of Tunis in the mid-19th century that had resumed the feral state in northern Tunis.[31]

text: European buffalo are all of the river type and considered to be of the same breed named Mediterranean buffalo. In Italy, the Mediterranean type was particularly selected and is called Mediterranean Italian breed to distinguish it from other European breeds, which differ genetically. Mediterranean buffalo are also found in Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Kosovo, and the Republic of Macedonia, with a few hundred in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Hungary. Little exchange of breeding buffalo has occurred among countries, so each population has its own phenotypic features and performances. In Bulgaria, they were crossbred with the Indian Murrah breed, and in Romania, some were crossbred with Bulgarian Murrah.[13] Populations in Turkey are of the Anatolian buffalo breed.[22]

text: In Australia[edit]

text: Between 1824 and 1849, water buffalo were introduced into the Northern Territory from Timor, Kisar, and probably other islands in the Indonesian archipelago. In 1886, a few milking types were brought from India to Darwin. They have been the main grazing animals on the subcoastal plains and river basins between Darwin and Arnhem Land since the 1880s. In the early 1960s, an estimated population of 150,000 to 200,000 buffalo were living in the plains and nearby areas.[32]

text: They became feral and are causing significant environmental damage. Buffalo are also found in the Top End. As a result, they were hunted in the Top End from 1885 until 1980. The commencement of the brucellosis and tuberculosis campaign (BTEC) resulted in a huge culling program to reduce buffalo herds to a fraction of the numbers that were reached in the 1980s. The BTEC was finished when the Northern Territory was declared free of the disease in 1997. Numbers dropped dramatically as a result of the campaign, but have since recovered to an estimated 150,000 animals across northern Australia in 2008.[33]

text: During the 1950s, buffalo were hunted for their skins and meat, which was exported and used in the local trade. In the late 1970s, live exports were made to Cuba and continued later into other countries. Buffalo are now crossed with riverine buffalo in artificial insemination programs, and may be found in many areas of Australia. Some of these crossbreds are used for milk production. Melville Island is a popular hunting location, where a steady population up to 4,000 individuals exists. Safari outfits are run from Darwin to Melville Island and other locations in the Top End, often with the use of bush pilots. The horns, which can measure up to a record of 3.1 m (10 ft) tip-to-tip, are prized hunting trophies.[34]

text: The buffalo have developed a different appearance from the Indonesian buffalo from which they descend.[citation needed] They live mainly in freshwater marshes and billabongs, and their territory range can be quite expansive during the wet season. Their only natural predators in Australia are adult saltwater crocodiles, with whom they share the billabongs, and dingoes, which have been known to prey on buffalo calves and occasionally adult buffalo when the dingoes are in large packs.[citation needed]

text: Buffalo were exported live to Indonesia until 2011, at a rate of about 3000 per year. After the live export ban that year, the exports dropped to zero, and had not resumed as of June 2013.[35]

text: In South America[edit]

text: Water buffalo were introduced into the Amazon River basin in 1895. They are now extensively used there for meat and dairy production. In 2005, the buffalo herd in the Brazilian Amazon stood at roughly 1.6 million head, of which 460,000 were located in the lower Amazon floodplain.[36] Breeds used include Mediterranean from Italy, Murrah and Jafarabadi from India, and Carabao from the Philippines.

text: During the 1970s, small herds were imported to Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cayenne, Panama, Surinam, Guyana, and Venezuela.[37]

text: In Argentina, many game ranches raise water buffalo for commercial hunting.[citation needed]

text: In North America[edit]

text: In 1974, four water buffalo were imported to the United States from Guam to be studied at the University of Florida. In February 1978, the first herd arrived for commercial farming. Until 2002, only one commercial breeder was in the United States. Water buffalo meat is imported from Australia.[37] Until 2011, water buffalo were raised in Gainesville, Florida, from young obtained from zoo overflow. They were used primarily for meat production, frequently sold as hamburger.[38] Other US ranchers use them for production of high-quality mozzarella cheese.[39][40][41][42]

text: Husbandry[edit]

text: The husbandry system of water buffalo depends on the purpose for which they are bred and maintained. Most of them are kept by people who work on small farms in family units. Their buffalo live in very close association with them, and are often their greatest capital asset. The women and girls in India generally look after the milking buffalo while the men and boys are concerned with the working animals. Throughout Asia, they are commonly tended by children who are often seen leading or riding their charges to wallowing places. Water buffalo are the ideal animals for work in the deep mud of paddy fields because of their large hooves and flexible foot joints. They are often referred to as "the living tractor of the East". It probably is possible to plough deeper with buffalo than with either oxen or horses. They are the most efficient and economical means of cultivation of small fields. In most rice-producing countries, they are used for threshing and for transporting the sheaves during the rice harvest. They provide power for oilseed mills, sugarcane presses, and devices for raising water. They are widely used as pack animals, and in India and Pakistan also for heavy haulage. In their invasions of Europe, the Turks used buffalo for hauling heavy battering rams. Their dung is used as a fertilizer, and as a fuel when dried.[1]

text: Buffalo contribute 72 million tones of milk and three million tones of meat annually to world food, much of it in areas that are prone to nutritional imbalances. In India, river-type buffalo are kept mainly for milk production and for transport, whereas swamp-type buffalo are kept mainly for work and a small amount of milk.[26]

text: Dairy products[edit]

text: Water buffalo milk presents physicochemical features different from that of other ruminant species, such as a higher content of fatty acids and proteins.[43] The physical and chemical parameters of swamp and river type water buffalo milk differ.[44] Water buffalo milk contains higher levels of total solids, crude protein, fat, calcium, and phosphorus, and slightly higher content of lactose compared with those of cow milk. The high level of total solids makes water buffalo milk ideal for processing into value-added dairy products such as cheese. The conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in milk ranged from 4.4 mg/g fat in September to 7.6 mg/g fat in June. Seasons and genetics may play a role in variation of CLA level and changes in gross composition of the water buffalo milk.[45]

text: Water buffalo milk is processed into a large variety of dairy products:[46]

text:
Cream churns much faster at higher fat levels and gives higher overrun than cow cream.
Butter from water buffalo cream displays more stability than that from cow cream.
Ghee from water buffalo milk has a different texture with a bigger grain size than ghee from cow milk.
Heat-concentrated milk products in the Indian subcontinent include paneer, khoa, rabri, kheer and basundi.
Fermented milk products include dahi, yogurt, and chakka.
Whey is used for making ricotta and mascarpone in Italy, and alkarish in Syria and Egypt.
Soft cheeses made include mozzarella in Italy, karish, mish, and domiati in Egypt, madhfor in Iraq, alghab in Syria, kesong puti in the Philippines, and vladeasa in Romania.
The semihard cheese beyaz peynir is made in Turkey.
Hard cheeses include braila in Romania, rahss in Egypt,[47] white brine in Bulgaria, and akkawi in Syria.
Watered-down buffalo milk is used as a cheaper alternative to regular milk.[48]

text:
Top ten buffalo milk producers — 11 June 2008[49]

Country
Production (tonnes)
Footnote

 India
56,960,000
Unofficial, Semi-official, mirror data

 Pakistan
21,500,000
official figure

 People's Republic of China
2,900,000
FAO estimate

 Egypt
2,300,000
FAO estimate

   Nepal
930,000
FAO estimate

 Iran
241,500
FAO estimate

 Myanmar
205,000
FAO estimate

 Italy
200,000
FAO estimate

 Turkey
35,100
FAO estimate

 Vietnam
31,000
FAO estimate

 World
85 396 902

text: Meat and skin products[edit]

text: Water buffalo meat, sometimes called "carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions, and is also a major source of export revenue for India. In many Asian regions, buffalo meat is less preferred due to its toughness; however, recipes have evolved (rendang, for example) where the slow cooking process and spices not only make the meat palatable, but also preserve it, an important factor in hot climates where refrigeration is not always available.[citation needed]

text: Their hides provide tough and useful leather, often used for shoes.[citation needed]

text: Bone and horn products[edit]

text: The bones and horns are often made into jewellery, especially earrings. Horns are used for the embouchure of musical instruments, such as ney and kaval.[50]

text: Environmental effects[edit]

text: Wildlife conservation scientists have started to recommend and use introduced populations of feral domestic water buffalo in far-away lands to manage uncontrolled vegetation growth in and around natural wetlands. Introduced water buffalo at home in such environs provide cheap service by regularly grazing the uncontrolled vegetation and opening up clogged water bodies for waterfowl, wetland birds, and other wildlife.[51][52] Grazing water buffalo are sometimes used in Great Britain for conservation grazing, such as in Chippenham Fen National Nature Reserve. The buffalo can better adapt to wet conditions and poor-quality vegetation than cattle.[53]

text: Currently, research is being conducted at the Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies to determine the levels of nutrients removed and returned to wetlands when water buffalo are used for wetland vegetation management.[citation needed]

text: However, in uncontrolled circumstances, water buffalo can cause environmental damage, such as trampling vegetation, disturbing bird and reptile nesting sites, and spreading exotic weeds.[54]

text: Research[edit]

text: In 2007, the development of Southeast Asia's first cloned buffalo was announced in the Philippines. The Department of Agriculture's Philippine Carabao Center implemented cloning through somatic cell nuclear transfer as a tool for genetic improvement in water buffalo to produce "super buffalo calves" by multiplying existing germplasms but without modifying or altering genetic material.[55]

text: In January 2008, the Philippine Carabao Center in Nueva Ecija, per Filipino scientists, initiated a study to breed a super water buffalo that could produce 4 to 18 litres of milk per day using gene-based technology. Also, the first in vitro river buffalo was born there in 2004 from an in vitro-produced, vitrified embryo, named "Glory" after President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Joseph Estrada's most successful project as an opposition senator, the PCC was created through Republic Act 3707, the Carabao Act of 1992.[56]

text: Indian scientists from the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal developed a cloned buffalo in 2010. The buffalo calf was named Samrupa. The calf did not survive more than a week, due to genetic defects. A few months later, a second cloned calf was successfully born, named Garima.[57] The Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, India's premier research institute on buffalo, also became the second institute in the world to successfully clone the buffalo in 2016.[58][59]

text: In culture[edit]

text:
Some ethnic groups, such as Batak and Toraja in Indonesia and the Derung in China, sacrifice water buffalo or kerbau (called horbo in Batak or tedong in Toraja) at several festivals.
Legend has it that the Chinese philosophical sage Laozi left China through the Han Gu Pass riding a water buffalo.
According to Hindu lore, the god of death Yama, rides on a male water buffalo. The Hindu goddesses Varahi and Vihot Mata also ride on buffalo as their vahana.
According to another folk lore, Mahishasura, a half-buffalo and half-human demon, was killed by goddess Durga.
The Yoruban Orisha Oya (goddess of change) takes the form of a water buffalo.
The carabao breed is considered a national symbol of the Philippines.
In Vietnam, water buffalo are often the most valuable possession of poor farmers: 'Con trâu là đầu cơ nghiệp'. They are treated as a member of the family: 'Chồng cày, vợ cấy, con trâu đi bừa', meaning 'the husband ploughs, the wife sows, water buffalo draws the rake'. Children talk to their water buffalo: 'Bao giờ cây lúa còn bông. Thì còn ngọn cỏ ngoài đồng trâu ăn'. Hà Nội used to be named Kim Ngưu - Golden Water Buffalo.
Many ethnic groups use the horn of water buffalo as a game trophy, musical instruments and ornaments.
In the Thai and Sinhalese animal and planetary zodiac, the buffalo is the third animal zodiac of the Thai and the fourth animal zodiac of the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka.[60] Similarly, the water buffalo is the second animal zodiac in the Vietnamese zodiac.

text: Fighting festivals[edit]

text:
Pasungay Festival is held annually in the town of San Joaquin, Iloilo in the Philippines.
Moh juj Water Buffalo fighting is held every year in Bhogali Bihu in Assam.[61] Ahotguri in Nagaon is famous for it.
Do Son Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Vietnam is held each year on the ninth day of the eighth month of the lunar calendar at Do Son Township, Haiphong City in Vietnam. It is one of the most popular Vietnam festivals and events in Haiphong City. The preparations for this buffalo fighting festival begin from the two to three months earlier. The competing buffalo are selected and methodically trained months in advance. It is a traditional festival of Vietnam attached to a Water God worshipping ceremony and the Hien Sinh custom to show martial spirit of the local people of Do Son, Haiphong.[62][63]
"Hai Luu" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Vietnam has existed since the 2nd century B.C. General Lu Gia at that time, had the buffalo slaughtered to give a feast to the local people and the warriors, and organized buffalo fighting for amusement. Eventually, all the fighting buffalo will be slaughtered as tributes to the deities.[64][65]
"Ko Samui" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Thailand is a very popular event held on special occasions such as New Year's Day in January, and Songkran in mid-April, this festival features head-wrestling bouts in which two male Asian water buffalo are pitted against one another. Unlike in Spanish Bullfighting, wherein bulls get killed while fighting sword-wielding men, Buffalo Fighting Festival held at Ko Samui, Thailand is fairly harmless contest. The fighting season varies according to ancient customs & ceremonies. The first Buffalo to turn and run away is considered the loser, the winning buffalo becomes worth several million baht.[66]
"Ma'Pasilaga Tedong" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival, in Tana Toraja Regency of Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, is a popular event where the Rambu Solo or a Burial Festival took place in Tana Toraja.

text: Racing festivals[edit]

text:
Carabao Carroza Festival is being held annually every May in the town of Pavia, Iloilo, Philippines.
Kambala races of Karnataka, India, take place between December and March. The races are conducted by having the water buffalo (he buffalo) run in long parallel slushy ditches, where they are driven by men standing on wooden planks drawn by the buffalo. The objectives of the race are to finish first and to raise the water to the greatest height and also a rural sport. Kambala races are arranged with competition, as well as without competition and as a part of thanks giving (to god) in about 50 villages of coastal Karnataka.
In the Chonburi Province of Thailand, and in Pakistan, there are annual water buffalo races.
Chon Buri Water buffalo racing festival, Thailand[67] In downtown Chonburi, 70 km (43 mi) south of Bangkok, at the annual water buffalo festival held in mid-October. About 300 buffalo race in groups of five or six, spurred on by bareback jockeys wielding wooden sticks, as hundreds of spectators cheer. The water buffalo has always played an important role in agriculture in Thailand. For farmers of Chon Buri Province, near Bangkok, it is an important annual festival, beginning in mid-October. It is also a celebration among rice farmers before the rice harvest. At dawn, farmers walk their buffalo through surrounding rice fields, splashing them with water to keep them cool before leading them to the race field. This amazing festival started over a hundred years ago when two men arguing about whose buffalo was the fastest ended up having a race between them. That’s how it became a tradition and gradually a social event for farmers who gathered from around the country in Chonburi to trade their goods. The festival also helps a great deal in preserving the number of buffalo, which have been dwindling at quite an alarming rate in other regions. Modern machinery is rapidly replacing buffalo in Thai agriculture. With most of the farm work mechanized, the buffalo-racing tradition has continued. Racing buffalo are now raised just to race; they do not work at all. The few farm buffalo which still do work are much bigger than the racers because of the strenuous work they perform. Farm buffalo are in the "Buffalo Beauty Pageant", a Miss Farmer beauty contest and a comic buffalo costume contest etc.. This festival perfectly exemplifies a favored Thai attitude to life — "sanuk," meaning fun.
Babulang Water buffalo racing festival in Sarawak, Malaysia, is the largest or grandest of the many rituals, ceremonies and festivals of the traditional Bisaya community of Limbang, Sarawak. Highlights are the Ratu Babulang competition and the Water buffalo races which can only be found in this town in Sarawak, Malaysia.
Vihear Suor village Water buffalo racing festival, Cambodia,[68] each year, people visit Buddhist temples across the country to honor their deceased loved ones during a 15-day period commonly known as the Festival of the Dead but in Vihear Suor village, about 22 miles (35 km) northeast of Cambodia, citizens each year wrap up the festival with a water buffalo race to entertain visitors and honour a pledge made hundreds of years ago. There was a time when many village cattle which provide rural Cambodians with muscle power to plough their fields and transport agricultural products died from an unknown disease. The villagers prayed to a spirit to help save their animals from the disease and promised to show their gratitude by holding a buffalo race each year on the last day of "P'chum Ben" festival as it is known in Cambodian. The race draws hundreds of spectators who come to see riders and their animals charge down the racing field, the racers bouncing up and down on the backs of their buffalo, whose horns were draped with colorful cloth.
Buffalo racing in Kerala is similar to Kambala races.[69][70]

text: Religious festival[edit]

text: The Pulilan Carabao Festival is held annually every 14 and 15 May in the Philippine town of Pulilan in honor of St. Isidore the Laborer, the patron saint of farmers. As thanksgiving for a bountiful harvest every year, farmers parade their carabaos in the main town street, adorning them with garlands and other decorations. One of the highlights of the festival is the kneeling of the carabaos in front of the parish church.[71]


document_title: Virginia Henderson

question_text: what type of theory is virginia henderson's

question_tokens: what type of theory is virginia henderson 's

root

text: Virginia Henderson

text: Early life[edit]

text: Henderson was born on November 30, 1897 in Kansas City, Missouri to Daniel B. Henderson, a lawyer who worked with Native Americans, and Lucy Minor (Abbot) Henderson. She was the fifth of their eight children.[1] She grew up in Virginia where she received her early education at her grandfather's community boys' school.[4][5]

tag: p

text: Education and career[edit]

text: Henderson's early education was at home in Virginia with her aunts and her uncle at his all-boys school.[6] In 1921, Henderson graduated from the US Army School of Nursing in Washington, D.C.. She received a BS in 1931 or 1932 and a Master's degree in 1934 from Teachers College, Columbia University.[1][4]

text: Henderson's career in public health nursing began in 1921 at the Henry Street Settlement in Manhattan, New York. She worked for the Visiting Nurse Association of Washington, D.C. from 1921 to 1923. She was the first full-time nursing instructor in Virginia where she worked at the Norfolk Presbyterian Hospital from 1924 to 1929. Henderson taught at Teachers College, Columbia University from 1934 to 1948. In 1953 she became a research associate at Yale School of Nursing transitioning to emeritus status in 1971 continuing to serve in that position until 1996.[1][4] She also traveled the world  throughout her career to help and encourage not only nurses, but other healthcare workers.[6]

text: She was the author of the 1939 (4th ed.) revision of Bertha Harmer's Textbook of Principles and Practices of Nursing when the original author died.[7] She was co-author of the fifth (1955) and sixth (1978) editions.[3][5] Until 1975 the fifth edition was the most widely used nursing textbook in English and Spanish.[8] She developed one of the major nursing theories. "Henderson's Model" has been used throughout the world for standardizing nursing practice.[8] The Nursing Studies Index, a twelve-year project she directed, covered the first sixty years of nursing research.[1][9] It was considered an essential reference for years.[4] Another important publication was, Nursing Research: A Survey and Assessment written with Leo Simmons.[3][4][10] Her work is credited with shifting the focus of nursing research "from studying nurses to studying the differences that nurses can make in people's lives."[1] She always told the patients of the nurse's obligations instead of the doctor's obligations, making nurses more beneficial to doctors.[6]

text: Honors[edit]

text: Henderson has received numerous honors.[4] The International Council of Nurses presented her with the inaugural Christiane Reimann Prize in 1985 considered the most prestigious award in nursing.[1][11] She was an honorary fellow of the United Kingdom's Royal College of Nursing (FRCN).[7] She was selected to the American Nurses Association Hall of Fame and has received honorary degrees from thirteen universities.[4][11] She received the Virginia Historical Nurse Leadership Award in 1985.[6] The Virginia Henderson Repository an online resource for nursing research that grew out of the Virginia Henderson International Nursing Library at Sigma Theta Tau is named in her honor.[1][4]  Henderson was recognized as one of fifty-one pioneer nurses in Virginia in 2000. [6]

text: Nursing: Need Theory[edit]

text: Henderson's theory stresses the priority of patient self-determination so the patient will continue doing well after being released from the hospital. Henderson characterized the nurse's role as substitutive, which the nurse does for the patient; supplementary, which is helping the patient; or complementary, which is engaging with the patient to do something. The role of the nurse helps the patient become an individual again. She arranged nursing tasks into 14 different components based on personal needs. Not only are nurses responsible for the patient, but also to help the patient be themselves when they leave their care. This assures that the patient has fewer obstacles during recovery from being sick or injured, and helping getting back into self-care is easier when a nurse is there to motivate until the patient goes home.[12]

text: Death[edit]

text: She died in 1996 at the Connecticut Hospice in Branford, Connecticut, aged 98,[5] and was interred in her family's plot of the churchyard of St. Stephen's Church, Forest, Bedford County, Virginia.

text: Selected publications[edit]

text:
— (1935). Medical and Surgical Asepsis. The Nursing Education Bulletin. New York: Dept. of Nursing Education, Teachers College, Columbia University.
—; International Council of Nurses (ICN) (1961) [1960]. Basic Principles of Nursing Care. London: ICN. OCLC 474222238.
—; Nite, Gladys; Harmer, Bertha; International Council of Nurses (1997). Principles and Practice of Nursing. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 41028074.  Originally published: (1978); New York: Macmillan. Henderson was also author of the 1939 revised edition and coauthor of the 4th (1955) edition.
—; Yale University Nursing Index Staff (1984). Nursing Studies Index: An Annotated Guide to Reported Studies, Research in Progress, Research Methods and Historical Materials in Periodicals, Books, and Pamphlets Published in English. Volumes I-IV. New York: Garland. ISBN 9780824065157.  Originally published: V. IV (1963), V. I (1966), V. II (1970), V. III (1972); Philadelphia: JB Lippincott.
Simmons, Leo W.; — (1964). Nursing Research : A Survey and Assessment. Volumes I-V. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. OCLC 451308225.
— (1991). The Nature of Nursing : A Definition and its Implications for Practice, Research, and Education : Reflections After 25 Years (Henderson 1966 Rev. and expanded ed.). New York: National League for Nursing Press. ISBN 9780887374944.
— (1995).  Halloran, Edward J., ed. A Virginia Henderson Reader : Excellence in Nursing. New York: Springer. ISBN 9780826188304.

tag: ul


document_title: Kangaroo court

question_text: where does the phrase kangaroo court come from

text: Kangaroo court

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The term kangaroo court is often erroneously believed to have its origin from Australia's courts while it was a penal colony.[3] However, the first published instance of the term is from an American source in the year 1853.[4] Some sources suggest that it may have been popularized during the California Gold Rush of 1849, along with mustang court,[5] as a description of the hastily carried-out proceedings used to deal with the issue of claim jumping miners.[3]  Ostensibly the term comes from the notion of justice proceeding "by leaps", like a kangaroo[6] – in other words, "jumping over" (intentionally ignoring) evidence that would be in favour of the defendant. Another possibility is that the phrase could refer to the pouch of a kangaroo, meaning the court is in someone's pocket. The phrase is popular in the UK, US, Australia and New Zealand and is still in common use.[7]

text: As informal proceedings in sports[edit]

text: The term is sometimes used without any negative connotation. For example, many Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball teams have a kangaroo court to punish players for errors and other mistakes on the field, as well as for being late for a game or practice, not wearing proper attire to road games, or having a messy locker in the clubhouse. Fines are allotted, and at the end of the year, the money collected is given to charity. The organization may also use the money for a team party at the end of the season.[8]

text: Examples[edit]

text: Some examples of adjudication venues described as kangaroo courts are the People's Court (Volksgerichtshof) of Nazi Germany that convicted people who were suspected of being involved with the failed plot to assassinate Hitler on July 20, 1944.

text: Another example is the trial of Pol Pot and his brother Ieng San by the People's Revolutionary Tribunal in Cambodia in August 1979. After a lengthy trial with a duration of five days, both were sentenced to death in absentia on August 19, 1979.[9] Conclusive evidence showed that the verdicts and the sentencing papers had been prepared in advance of the trial.[10] Relying on this evidence the United Nations proceeded to delegitimize the tribunal stating that it did not comply with standards of international law.[9]


document_title: Indian 10-rupee coin

question_text: when did 10 rupees coin launched in india

text: Indian 10-rupee coin

text: Design[edit]

text: 2005 design (Unity in Diversity)[edit]

text: The first ₹10 coin minted in 2005 had a diameter of 27 mm and featured the lettering "भारत" and "INDIA" on the top, with Lion capital with 'Satyameva Jayate' in Hindi below at left, and the date of mint below it on the obverse. On the reverse of the coin it featured the "Four heads sharing a common body" – cross with a dot in each quadrant in the center, with the lettering "दस रुपये" and "TEN RUPEES" on the outer ring.[1][2]

text: 2008 design (Connectivity & Technology)[edit]

text: The second design featured two horizontal lines. The coin featured the lettering "भारत" and "INDIA" on the top, with Lion Capital in the middle and year of printing at bottom on the obverse. The reverse of the coin featured 15 notches and numeral 10 in the middle and at below line the word Rupees in English and रुपये in Hindi was written.[3][4]

text: This coin is rumored to be a fake one due to chaos on social media. However, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issued an official statement to address these rumors declaring that the old the design prior to 2011 is valid and is legal tender.[5]

text: 2011 design[edit]

text: The third design of the ₹10 coin, minted since 2011 features the lettering "भारत" on left and "INDIA" on right on the outer ring, and the year of mint and mint mark below. At the center part of the coin's obverse is the Lion capital with the lettering "सत्यमेव जयते" below it. On the reverse it features 10 notches with the ₹ sign below it, and the number 10 below the ₹ sign.[6][7]

text: Mintmark[edit]

text: The mintmark is featured at the bottom on the obverse of the ₹10 coin.[6]

text:
♦ (small dot/diamond) = Mumbai
° (circulat dot) = Noida
(no mintmark) = Calcutta
* (five-pointed star) = Hyderabad

text: Fake coin rumour[edit]

text: In July 2016, some shopkeepers in India were reported to be refusing to accept the ₹10 coin entirely, the result of a rumour circulating on social media.[8][9] It was initially claimed that coins with a 15 notch reverse design lacking the '₹' symbol were fake, compared to the 10 notch version using the symbol introduced in 2011.

text: It was later clarified by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) that the "alleged fake" coin was the earlier 2008 design, which predated the adoption of the '₹' symbol in 2010, and was still in legal circulation, along with the 2011 design and those refusing to accept it could face legal action.[10][11][9]

text: In February 2018, the Reserve Bank of India began an awareness campaign of sending SMS text messages about the ₹10 coins with 10 and 15 radiating lines. Both are valid.[12]


document_title: Longcase clock

question_text: where did the name grandfather clock come from

text: Longcase clock

text: Origin[edit]

text: The advent of the longcase clock is due to the invention of the anchor escapement mechanism by Robert Hooke around 1658. Prior to that, pendulum clock movements used an older verge escapement mechanism, which required very wide pendulum swings of about 80-100°.[1] Long pendulums with such wide swings could not be fitted within a case, so most freestanding clocks had short pendulums.

text: The anchor mechanism reduced the pendulum's swing to around 4° to 6°,[1] allowing clockmakers to use longer pendulums, which had slower "beats". These consumed less power allowing clocks to run longer between windings, caused less friction and wear in the movement, and were more accurate.[1] Almost all longcase clocks use a seconds pendulum (also called a "Royal" pendulum[2]) meaning that each swing (or half-period) takes one second. These are about a metre (39 inches) long (to the centre of the bob), requiring a long narrow case. The long narrow case actually predated the anchor clock by a few decades, appearing in clocks in 1660 to allow a long drop for the powering weights. However, once the seconds pendulum began to be used, this long weight case proved perfect to house it as well.[3][4] British clockmaker William Clement, who disputed credit for the anchor escapement with Robert Hooke, produced the first longcase clocks around 1680.[5] Within the year Thomas Tompion, the most prominent British clockmaker, was making them too.[5]

text: Modern longcase clocks use a more accurate variation of the anchor escapement called the deadbeat escapement.

text: Description[edit]

text: Traditionally, longcase clocks were made with two types of movement: eight-day and one-day (30-hour) movements. A clock with an eight-day movement required winding only once a week, while generally less expensive 30-hour clocks had to be wound every day. Eight-day clocks are often driven by two weights – one driving the pendulum and the other the striking mechanism, which usually consisted of a bell or chimes. Such movements usually have two keyholes, one on each side of the dial to wind each one. By contrast, 30-hour clocks often had a single weight to drive both the timekeeping and striking mechanisms. Some 30-hour clocks were made with false keyholes, for customers who wished that guests to their home would think that the household was able to afford the more expensive eight-day clock. All modern striking longcase clocks have eight-day movements. Most longcase clocks are cable-driven, meaning that the weights are suspended by cables. If the cable were attached directly to the weight, the load would cause rotation and untwist the cable strands, so the cable wraps around a pulley mounted to the top of each weight. The mechanical advantage of this arrangement also doubles the running time allowed by a given weight drop.

text: Cable clocks are wound by inserting a special crank (called a "key") into holes in the clock's face and turning it. Others, however, are chain-driven, meaning that the weights are suspended by chains that wrap around gears in the clock's mechanism, with the other end of the chain hanging down next to the weight. To wind a chain-driven longcase clock, one pulls on the end of each chain, lifting the weights until the weights come up to just under the clock's face.

text: Elaborate striking sequences[edit]

text: In the early 20th century, quarter-hour chime sequences were added to longcase clocks. At the top of each hour, the full chime sequence sounds, immediately followed by the hour strike. At 15 minutes after each hour, 1/4 of the chime sequence plays, at the bottom of each hour, 1/2 of the chime sequence plays, and at 15 minutes before each hour, 3/4 of the chime sequence plays. The chime tune used in almost all longcase clocks is Westminster Quarters. Many also offer the option of Whittington chimes or St. Michael's chimes, selectable by a switch mounted on the right side of the dial, which also allows one to silence the chimes if desired. As a result of adding chime sequences, all modern mechanical longcase clocks have three weights instead of just two. The left weight provides power for the hour strike, the middle weight provides power for the clock's pendulum and general timekeeping functions, while the right weight provides power for the quarter-hour chime sequences.

text: Origin of the term "grandfather clock"[edit]

text: The Oxford English Dictionary states that the popular 1876 song My Grandfather's Clock is responsible for the common name "grandfather clock" being applied to the longcase clock.[6]

text: The song was composed by an American songwriter by the name of Henry Clay Work who discovered a long grandfather clock in The George Hotel in Piercebridge, in County Durham in England. When he asked about the clock, he was informed that it had two owners. After the first owner died the clock became inaccurate and when the second owner died, the clock stopped working altogether. The story inspired Henry to create the song.

text: Types[edit]

text: Comtoise clocks[edit]

text: Comtoise clocks, also known as Morbier clocks or Morez clocks, are a style of longcase clock made in the French region Franche-Comté (whence their name). Features distinguishing this style are a curving "potbellied" case and a greater use of curved lines. Often a heavy, elongated, highly ornamented pendulum bob extends up the case (see photo).

text: Production of these clocks began in 1680 and continued for a period of about 230 years. During the peak production years (1850–1890) over 60,000 clocks were made each year. These clocks were very popular across the generations; they kept the time on farms throughout France. Many Comtoise clocks can be found in France but they are also frequently found in Spain, Germany, and other parts of Europe, less in the United States. Many Comtoise clocks were also exported to other countries in Europe and even further, to the Ottoman Empire and as far as Thailand. The metal mechanism was usually protected by a wooden sheath.

text: Bornholm clocks and Mora clocks[edit]

text: Bornholm clocks are Danish longcase clocks and were made on Bornholm from 1745 to 1900. In Sweden a special variety of longcase clocks was made in Mora, called Mora clocks.

text: Bornholm clock-making began in the 1740s when an English ship, which had longcase clocks in its hold, was stranded. They were sent for repair to a turner named Poul Ottesen Arboe in Rønne and as a result of his repair of them he learned enough about clocks to begin to make his own.

text: Historical manufacturers[edit]

text: Clockmakers in Britain

text:
John Alker or Alker of Wigan, Lancashire
Allam & Clements
William Barrow, London
Thomas Birchall Nantwich, Cheshire
Joseph Bowles, Winbourne (i.e.: Wimbourne), Dorset. Active 1791
Samuel Bowles, Wimbourne, Dorset
Robert Bryson, Edinburgh
William Bucknall, Burslem (Stoke-on-Trent)
Thomas Bullock, Bath
John Calver, Woodbridge, Suffolk
Thomas Cartwright
John Clement & Son (Tring, Hertfordshire)
Richard Donisthorp (fl. 1797), of Loughborough
Matthew & Thomas Dutton
Peter Fearnley, Wigan
John Fernhill, Wrexham
Thomas Hackney, London, c. 1700–1750
Edward Harrison, Warrington
John Harrison, Wakefield/Barrow-in-Furness/London
Nathaniel Hedge, Colchester
Holmes
James Howden, Edinburgh
Thomas Husband, Hull
Thomas Johnson
William Lassell (1758–1790), Toxteth Park, Liverpool
Timothy Mason Gainsborough, Lincolnshire
Alexander Miller, Montrose
Peddie Stirling, Scotland
Daniel Quare
Thomas Ross, Hull
John Snelling, Alton
Trubshaw
James Woolley Codnor
Thomas Worswick, Lancaster
Thomas Wright
Henry Young, Swaffham
John Wyld, Nottingham

text: Clockmakers in Ireland

text:
W Egan & Sons, Cork
Ezekiel Bullock, Lurgan

text: Clockmakers in Finland

text:
Masters of Könni Könnin mestarit (1757–1865), Ilmajoki
Finnish Museum of Horology is master of Jaakko Könni manufactured table clocks and pocket watches
Ilmajoki Museum is Masters of Könni manufactured horse vehicles, clocks, looms, locks, tools, machine of gear "keervärkki"

text: Clockmakers in the United States

text:
Aaron Brokaw (1768–1853), Bridge Town, New Jersey
Isaac Brokaw (1746–1826), Bridge Town, New Jersey
Silas Merriman (1733–1805), New Haven, Connecticut
Aaron Miller ( –1778), Elizabeth Township, New Jersey
Luman Watson (1790–1834), Cincinnati
Simon Willard (1753–1848), Roxbury, Massachusetts
Zachariah Grandfather Clocks (1975–1987), Chicago, Illinois

text: Clock case manufacturer in Australia

text: Harry Williams – Oxford Cabinet Company Pty Ltd (1946–1961), Granville, NSW, Australia

text: Current manufacturers[edit]

text:
Hermle Clocks – Amherst VA
Howard Miller Clock Company – Zeeland MI
Ridgeway Clocks (Owned now by Howard Miller Clock Co.)


document_title: List of best-selling albums in South Korea

question_text: list of best selling artists in south korea

text: Legend[edit]

text:
Colors

Standard album

Standard and reissue albums

Compilation album

Original soundtrack

tag: table

text: 2 million or more copies[edit]

text:
Artist
Album
Year
Sales
Ref.

Kim Gun-mo
Wrongful Encounter
1995
3,300,000
[1]

Kim Jong-hwan
For Love
1997
3,000,000
[3]

Lee Moon-sae
When Love Passes By
1987
2,850,000
[4]

Lee Moon-sae
Standing Under the Shade of a Roadside Tree
1988
2,580,000
[4]

Kim Jong-hwan

Reason for Existence

1996

2,500,000

[5]

Byun Jin-sub

Back To You

1989

2,400,000

[6]

Jo Sung-mo
For Your Soul
1999
2,047,152
[7]

Jo Sung-mo
Let Me Love
2000
2,042,096
[8]

Seo Taiji and Boys
Seo Taiji and Boys IV
1995
2,000,000
[9]

text: 1 million–1.9 million copies[edit]

text:
Artist
Album
Year
Sales
Ref.

g.o.d
Chapter 3: Lies
2000
1,824,278
[10]

Byun Jin-sub

To Be Alone

1988

1,800,000

[6]

BTS
Love Yourself: Tear
2018
1,782,329
[11]

BTS
Wings (Full & RG)
2016-2017
1,761,051
[12]

Various artists
The More I Love You
2001
1,750,354
[13]

g.o.d
Chapter 4: Road
2001
1,738,082
[14]

BTS
Love Yourself: Her
2017
1,730,290
[15]

EXO
The War (Full & RG)
2017
1,629,724
[16]

Seo Taiji and Boys
Seo Taiji and Boys
1992
1,600,000
[9]

Seo Taiji and Boys
Seo Taiji and Boys II
1993
1,600,000
[9]

Seo Taiji and Boys
Seo Taiji and Boys III
1994
1,600,000
[9]

Jo Sung-mo
Classic
2000
1,599,111
[17]

H.O.T.
We Hate All Kinds of Violence
1996
1,500,000
[18]

H.O.T.
Wolf and Sheep
1997
1,500,000
[19]

Lee Moon-sae
I Don't Know Yet
1985
1,500,000
[4]

Wanna One
1X1=1 (To Be One) (EP & RG)
2017
1,423,460
[20]

Kim Gun-mo
Another Days
2001
1,397,388
[21]

H.O.T.
I Yah!
1999
1,383,985
[22]

Seo Taiji
Ultramania
2000
1,300,000
[23]

EXO
XOXO (Full & RG)
2013
1,291,994

[24]

EXO
EXODUS (Full & RG)
2015
1,280,236

[25]

Byun Jin-sub

Farewell

1990

1,200,000

[6]

EXO
EX'ACT (Full & RG)
2016
1,179,600

[26]

Seo Taiji
Seo Tai Ji
1998
1,133,736
[27]

H.O.T.
Resurrection
1998
1,103,439
[28]

The Pearl Sisters
My Dear
1968
1,000,000
[29]

Joo Hyun-mi
Couple's Party
1984
1,000,000
[18]

Kim Gun-mo
Sleepless Rainy Night
1992
1,000,000
[30]

Kim Gun-mo
Myself
1997
1,000,000
[30]

text: 800,000–999,999 copies[edit]

text:
Artist
Album
Year
Sales
Ref.

Jo Sung-mo
No More Love
2001
961,539
[8]

H.O.T.
Outside Castle
2000
879,613
[31]

Wanna One
0+1=1 (I Promise You) (EP)
2018
829,275
[32]

Steve Yoo
Now or Never
1999
825,569
[33]

Kim Gun-mo
Exchange
1996
800,000
[34]

Queen
Greatest Hits
1981
800,000
[35]

Turbo
Born Again
1997
800,000
[19]

text: 600,000–799,999 copies[edit]

text:
Artist
Album
Year
Sales
Ref.

Steve Yoo
For Sale
1998
796,412
[27]

Cool
Sorrow
1998
789,016
[27]

Jo Sung-mo
To Heaven
1998
775,126
[28]

Brown Eyes
Reason 4 Breathing?
2002
763,898
[36]

S.E.S.
Love
1999
760,475
[31]

TWICE
Twicecoaster (EP & RG)
2016-2017
733,188
[37]

Brown Eyes
Brown Eyes
2001
710,359
[38]

Wax
Fixing My Makeup
2001
702,443
[39]

James Horner
Titanic: Music from the Motion Picture
1997
700,000
[40]

Sumi Jo
Only Love (Full & RG)
2000
697,572
[41][42]

EXO
Overdose (EP)
2014
693,652
[43]

Cool

Cool 5

2000

680,294

[31]

DJ Doc
The Life... DOC Blues
2000
667,582
[31]

S.E.S.
Sea & Eugene & Shoo
1998
651,330
[44]

S.E.S.
I'm Your Girl
1997
650,000
[45]

Cool
7even
2002
647,052
[46]

Wanna One
1÷x=1 (Undivided) (EP)
2018
639,955
[47]

TWICE
What is Love? (EP & RG)
2018
634,851
[48]

The Beatles
1
2000
629,575
[49]

S.E.S.
A Letter from Greenland
2000
626,565
[50]

TVXQ
Mirotic (Full & RG)
2008
603,936
[51]

Wax
Please
2002
603,173
[52]

text: 400,000–599,999 copies[edit]

text:
Artist
Album
Year
Sales
Ref.

Turbo
E-Mail My Heart
2000
595,401
[31]

Fin.K.L
White
1999
593,816
[53]

Cool
6ix
2001
582,584
[54]

g.o.d
Chapter 2: Love and Remember
1999
578,567
[55]

Super Junior
Mr. Simple (Full & RG)
2011
562,690
[56]

EXO
Miracles In December (EP)
2013
562,556
[57]

Turbo
Perfect Love
1998
562,478
[58]

Kim Hyun-jung
A Seagull of Dream
1999
561,614

[59]

BoA
No. 1
2002
560,326
[60]

TWICE
twicetagram (Full & RG)
2017
556,650
[61]

Uhm Jung-hwa
005.1999.06
1999
552,373
[62]

EXO
Universe
2017
551,485
[63][64]

Lee Jung Hyun
Let's Go to My Star
1999
541,106
[65]

BTS
The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever
2016
536,482
[66]

Mariah Carey
Merry Christmas
1994
533,947
[67]

Steve Yoo
Over and Over
1999
530,674
[31]

Kim Gun-mo
Hestory
2003
529,416
[68]

EXO
Sing for You (EP)
2015
516,003
[69]

Koyote
Philip
2002
513,244
[46]

EXO
Mama (EP)
2012
512,385
[70]

Super Junior
Sexy, Free & Single (Full & RG)
2012
503,522
[71]

Shin Seung-hun
Desire to Fly High
2000
492,931
[72]

Park Hyo-shin
Time Honored Voice
2002
491,621
[73]

BTS
The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Part 2 (EP)
2015
489,539
[74]

Koyote
Passion
2000
486,539
[75]

Kim Hyun-jung
Legend
1998
482,639
[76][77]

Seo Taiji
7th Issue
2004
482,066
[78]

Kim Gun-mo
Growing
1999
480,736
[22]

TVXQ
"O"-Jung.Ban.Hap. (Full & RG)
2006
478,662
[79]

Kim Min-jong
Destiny
1999
475,338
[44]

Lee Soo-young
My Stay in Sendai
2002
473,086
[46]

Uhm Jung-hwa
Invitation
1998
468,910
[58][80]

g.o.d
Chapter 5: Letter
2002
463,038
[81]

Girls' Generation
The Boys
2011
460,959
[82]

BIGBANG
Alive (EP & RG)
2012
451,506
[83][84]

Park Hyo-shin
Things I Can't Do For You
2000
446,943
[31]

Sung Si-kyung
Melodie D'Amour
2002
445,222
[85]

Kim Min-jong
Love
1998
443,292
[76][77]

EXO
For Life
2016
442,592
[86]

Lee Soo-young
This Time
2003
435,904
[68]

Yangpa
Addio
1999
429,560
[53]

Girls' Generation
Oh! (Full & RG)
2010
418,162
[82]

SG Wannabe
Saldaga (Full & RG)
2005
414,855
[87]

Steve Yoo
Summit Revival
2000
414,615
[50]

Super Junior
Mamacita (Full & RG)
2014
413,869
[88]

Fin.K.L
Now
2000
412,686
[31]

Park Ji-yoon
Coming-of-Age Ceremony
2000
412,359
[89]

Jang Na-ra
Sweet Dream
2002
411,253
[46]

Shin Seung-hun
The Shin Seung-hun
2002
410,666
[46]

Wheesung
It's Real
2003
406,959
[90]

BTS
The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Part 1 (EP)
2015
406,752
[91]

S.E.S
Choose My Life-U
2002
406,528
[46]

Im Chang-jung
Become a Star
1998
400,273
[27]

Sinawe

Heavy Metal Sinawe

1986

400,000

[9]

text: Best-selling album by year[edit]

text: Sales of standard release and reissue sold in a year. This list does not include sales of the same album in other years apart from each album's release year. For a list of total sales, see sections above.

text:
Year
Artist
Album
Sales
Ref.

1998[a]
Seo Taiji
Seo Tai Ji
1,133,736
[27]

1999
Jo Sung-mo
For Your Soul
1,949,043
[22]

2000
Jo Sung-mo
Let Me Love
1,968,967
[92]

2001
Various artists
The More I Love You
1,688,129
[93]

2002
Cool
7even
647,052
[46]

2003
Kim Gun-mo
Hestory
529,416
[68]

2004
Seo Taiji
7th Issue
482,066
[78]

2005
SG Wannabe
Saldaga (Full & RG)
414,855
[87]

2006
TVXQ
"O"-Jung.Ban.Hap. (Full & RG)
349,317
[94]

2007
SG Wannabe
The Sentimental Chord
190,998
[95]

2008[b]
TVXQ
Mirotic (Full & RG)
502,837
[96]

2009[c]
Super Junior
Sorry, Sorry (Full & RG)
250,673
[97]

2010
Girls' Generation
Oh! (Full & RG)
334,785
[98]

2011
Super Junior
Mr. Simple (Full & RG)
473,242
[99]

2012
Super Junior
Sexy, Free & Single (Full & RG)
480,622
[100]

2013
EXO
XOXO (Full & RG)
1,006,473
[101]

2014
EXO
Overdose (EP)
657,765
[88]

2015
EXO
EXODUS (Full & RG)
1,211,237
[102]

2016
EXO
EX'ACT (Full & RG)
1,149,743
[103]

2017
EXO
The War (Full & RG)
1,596,959
[63]


document_title: Snowball (Animal Farm)

question_text: who is leon trotsky in the animal farm

question_tokens: who is leon trotsky in the animal farm

text: Snowball (Animal Farm)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Snowball

First appearance
Animal Farm

Last appearance
Animal Farm (only appearance)

Created by
George Orwell

Voiced by
Maurice Denham (1954 film)
Kelsey Grammer (1999 film)

Information

Species
Pig

Gender
Male

Occupation
Past leader of Animal Farm

text: Snowball is a character in George Orwell's Animal Farm. He is largely based on Leon Trotsky and describes how he led the opposition against Joseph Stalin (Napoleon), though he also includes elements of Vladimir Lenin. He is shown as a pink pig on the movie poster for the 1999 film Animal Farm, and is voiced by Kelsey Grammer.

text: Snowball's ideas[edit]

text: Snowball believes in a continued revolution: he argues that in order to defend Animal Farm, he must strengthen the reality of Old Major's dream of a life without humans and that they must stir up rebellions in other farms throughout England. However, Napoleon always disagrees with any ideas that Snowball has because he does not want Snowball to lead Animal Farm and gain more popularity than himself.

text: Snowball also writes the first version of the Seven Commandments. They are later altered by Squealer under the orders of Napoleon, to accommodate the actions of the pigs. For example, the commandment stating "No animal shall drink alcohol" is changed to "No animal shall drink alcohol to excess", and that which states "No animal shall sleep in a bed" is changed to "No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets". Later all the commandments are replaced with one phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others".

text: Snowball is eventually forced out of the farm when Napoleon uses his guard dogs to attack Snowball. After that, he is blamed for problems on the farm, and it is believed he was in support of Jones from the start as well as sowing seeds with weeds. Though he fought bravely at the Battle of the Cowshed, the facts are altered to say he openly fought for Jones and that the shot wounds are changed to wounds Napoleon inflicted on him. Those accused of supporting him are executed after being forced to confess, and a reward is offered for his capture.

text: Snowball is an inventive pig who influences others to his side with intelligence and compassion. It is never revealed what happens to him after his escape. In the 1954 animated adaptation it is implied that the dogs kill him. However, in the 1999 live action film adaption, he is shown escaping the dogs and surviving, though Napoleon declares him banished under pain of death.

text: CIA-made character changes[edit]

text: When the novel Animal Farm was adapted for screen in the 1950s, the CIA investors were initially greatly concerned that Snowball was presented too sympathetically in early script treatments and that Batchelor's script implied Snowball was "intelligent, dynamic, courageous". A memo declared that Snowball must be presented as a "fanatic intellectual whose plans if carried through would have led to disaster no less complete than under Napoleon." De Rochemont subsequently implemented these changes.[1]


document_title: Enoch (ancestor of Noah)

question_text: where is enoch first mentioned in the bible

text: Enoch (ancestor of Noah)

text: Enoch in the Book of Genesis[edit]

text: Enoch appears in the Book of Genesis of the Pentateuch as the seventh of the ten pre-Deluge Patriarchs. Genesis recounts that each of the pre-Flood Patriarchs lived for several centuries. Genesis 5 provides a genealogy of these ten figures (from Adam to Noah), providing the age at which each fathered the next, and the age of each figure at death. Enoch is considered by many to be the exception, who is said to "not see death". (Hebrews 11:5) Furthermore, Genesis 5:22–29 states that Enoch lived 365 years which is extremely short in the context of his peers, who are all recorded as dying at over 700 years of age. The brief account of Enoch in Genesis 5 ends with the cryptic note that "he [was] not; for God took him".[8]

text: Apocryphal Books of Enoch[edit]

text: Three extensive apocryphal works are attributed to Enoch:

text:
1st Book of Enoch, or simply the Book of Enoch, written in Ge'ez (Ethiopic), first time brought in Europe by James Bruce and translated in English by August Dillmann and Reverent Schoode[9] - recognized by the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible and usually dated between the third century BC and the first century AD.
2nd Book of Enoch or the Book of the Secrets of Enoch, written in Old Bulgarian, Russian, Serbian and other slav languages, first translated in English by William Morfill[10] - recognized by the Old Slavonic Bible usually dated to the first century AD.
3rd Book of Enoch, a Rabbinic text in Hebrew usually dated to the fifth century AD.

text: These recount how Enoch was taken up to Heaven and was appointed guardian of all the celestial treasures, chief of the archangels, and the immediate attendant on God's throne. He was subsequently taught all secrets and mysteries and, with all the angels at his back, fulfils of his own accord whatever comes out of the mouth of God, executing His decrees. Much esoteric literature like the 3rd Book of Enoch identifies Enoch as the Metatron, the angel which communicates God's word. In consequence, Enoch was seen, by this literature, and the Rabbinic kabbala of Jewish mysticism, as having been the one which communicated God's revelation to Moses, in particular, the dictator of the Book of Jubilees.

text: Enoch in Book of Giants[edit]

text: The Book of Giants is a pseudepigraphical Jewish work from the 3rd century BC and resembles the Book of Enoch. At least six and as many as eleven copies were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls collections.[11]

text: Septuagint[edit]

text: The third-century BC translators who produced the Greek Septuagint rendered the phrase "God took him" with the Greek verb metatithemi (μετατίθημι)[12] meaning moving from one place to another.[13] Sirach 44:16, from about the same period, states that "Enoch pleased God and was translated into paradise that he may give repentance to the nations." The Greek word used here for paradise, 'paradeisos' (παράδεισος), was derived from an ancient Persian word meaning "enclosed garden", and was used in the Septuagint to describe the garden of Eden. Later, however, the term became synonymous for heaven, as is the case here.[14]

text: Enoch in classical Rabbinical literature[edit]

text: In classical Rabbinical literature, there are various views of Enoch. One view regarding Enoch was that found in the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, which thought of Enoch as a pious man, taken to Heaven, and receiving the title of Safra rabba (Great scribe). After Christendom was completely separated from Judaism, this view became the prevailing rabbinical idea of Enoch's character and exaltation.[15]

text: According to Rashi[16] [from Genesis Rabba[17]], “Enoch was a righteous man, but he could easily be swayed to return to do evil. Therefore, the Holy One, blessed be He, hastened and took him away and caused him to die before his time. For this reason, Scripture changed [the wording] in [the account of] his demise and wrote, ‘and he was no longer’ in the world to complete his years.”

text: Among the minor Midrashim, esoteric attributes of Enoch are expanded upon. In the Sefer Hekalot, Rabbi Ishmael is described as having visited the 7th Heaven, where he met Enoch, who claims that earth had, in his time, been corrupted by the demons Shammazai, and Azazel, and so Enoch was taken to Heaven to prove that God was not cruel.[15] Similar traditions are recorded in Sirach. Later elaborations of this interpretation treated Enoch as having been a pious ascetic, who, called to mix with others, preached repentance, and gathered (despite the small number of people on Earth) a vast collection of disciples, to the extent that he was proclaimed king. Under his wisdom, peace is said to have reigned on earth, to the extent that he is summoned to Heaven to rule over the sons of God. In a parallel with Elijah, in sight of a vast crowd begging him to stay, he ascends to Heaven on a horse.

text: Enoch in Christianity[edit]

text: New Testament[edit]

text: The New Testament contains three references to Enoch.

text:
The first is a brief mention in one of the genealogies of the ancestors of Jesus by Luke (Luke 3:37).
The second mention is in Hebrews 11: 5 (KJV) which says, "By faith Enoch was translated that he should not see death; and was not found, because God had translated him: for before his translation he had this testimony, that he pleased God." This suggests he did not experience the mortal death ascribed to Adam's other descendants which is consistent with Genesis 5:24(KJV), which says, "And Enoch walked with God: and he [was] not; for God took him."
The third mention is in the Epistle of Jude (1:14-15) where the author attributes to "Enoch, the Seventh from Adam" a passage not found in Catholic and Protestant canons of the Old Testament. The quotation is believed by most modern scholars to be taken from 1 Enoch 1:9 which exists in Greek, in Ge'ez (as part of the Ethiopian Orthodox canon), and also in Aramaic among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[18][19] Though the same scholars recognise that 1 Enoch 1:9 itself is a midrash of the words of Moses "he came from the ten thousands of holy ones" from Deuteronomy 33:2.[20][21][22][23][24]

text: The introductory phrase "Enoch, the Seventh from Adam" is also found in 1 Enoch (1 En. 60:8), though not in the Old Testament.[25] In the New Testament this Enoch prophesies "to"[b] ungodly men, that God shall come with His holy ones to judge and convict them (Jude 1:14-15).Jude 1:14-15</ref>

text: Early Christianity[edit]

text: Early Christianity contains various traditions concerning the "translation" of Enoch.

text: Regarding the quotation in Jude, most of early Christianity considered it an independent quotation pre-dating the flood. Regarding the Book of Enoch itself Origen, Jerome and Augustin mention it, but as of no authority. Justin, Athenagoras, Irenaeus, Clemens Alexandrinus, Lactantius, and others borrowed an opinion out of this book of Enoch, that the angels had sexual relations with the daughters of men, of whom they had offspring ('the giants of the past'). Tertullian, in several places, speaks of this book with esteem and would persuade us that it was preserved by Noah during the deluge.

text: Medieval and Reformation[edit]

text: According to the Figurists (a group of Jesuit missionaries mainly led by Joachim Bouvet into China at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century and based on ideas of Matteo Ricci 1552 to 1610),[29][30][31] Fu Xi in China's ancient history is actually Enoch.[32][33][34]

text: Modern Christianity[edit]

text: Enoch is not counted as a saint in Roman Catholic tradition, though Enoch has a saint's day, July 26, in the Armenian Apostolic Church. The "St. Enoch" in the place name St. Enoch's Square, Glasgow, is a corruption from the site of a medieval chapel to Saint Teneu, the legendary mother of Saint Mungo, and unconnected with Enoch.

text: Enoch is revered in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and the Enochic texts Jubilees and 1 Enoch regarded as the 13th and 14th books, respectively, of the Tewahedo Old Testament canon.[35] Most churches, including the Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Protestant churches, do not accept the books.

text: Some Church Fathers, like St. John of Damascus, as well as some modern Evangelical commentators consider Enoch to be one of the Two Witnesses in the Book of Revelation due to the fact that he did not die according to Genesis 5:24. Two televangelists holding this view, for example, are Pastor John Hagee of Christians United for Israel and Hebrew Roots Bible teacher Perry Stone.

text: In LDS theology[edit]

text: Among the Latter Day Saint movement and particularly in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Enoch is viewed as having founded an exceptionally righteous city, named Zion, in the midst of an otherwise wicked world. This view is encountered in the Mormon scripture (see Standard Works), the Pearl of Great Price and the Doctrine and Covenants, which states that not only Enoch, but the entire peoples of the city of Zion, were taken off this earth without death, because of their piety. (Zion is defined as "the pure in heart" and this city of Zion will return to the earth at the Second Coming of Jesus Christ.) The Doctrine and Covenants further states that Enoch prophesied that one of his descendants, Noah, and his family, would survive a Great Flood and thus carry on the human race and preserve the Scripture. The Book of Moses in the Pearl of Great Price has several chapters that give an account of Enoch's preaching, visions and conversations with God. In these same chapters are details concerning the wars, violence and natural disasters in Enoch's day, and notable miracles performed by Enoch. The Book of Moses is itself an excerpt from Joseph Smith's translation of the Bible, which is published in full, complete with these chapters concerning Enoch, by Community of Christ, as the Holy Scriptures/Inspired Version of the Bible, where it appears as part of the Book of Genesis. D&C 104:24 (CofC) / 107:48-49 (LDS) states that Adam ordained Enoch to the higher priesthood (now called the Melchizedek, after the great high priest) at age 25, that he was 65 when Adam blessed him, and he lived 365 years after that until he was translated, so making him 430 years old when that occurred.

text: Additionally in LDS theology, Enoch is implied to be the scribe who recorded Adam's blessings and prophecies at Adam-ondi-Ahman, as recorded in D&C 107:53-57 (LDS) / D&C 104:29b (CofC).

text: The left column lists the Bible’s teachings about Enoch, plus some not from the Bible; the right column lists additional information found in the LDS cannon.

text:
What the Bible Teaches
What Latter-day Revelation Adds

Jared, when 165 years old, fathered Enoch (see Gen. 5:18).

Enoch, at 65, fathered Methuselah and also, over the years, a large posterity (see Gen. 5:21–22).
Enoch was 25 years old when Adam ordained him to the priesthood, and he was 65 when Adam again blessed him (see D&C 107:48).

By his own voice, the Lord called Enoch, apparently at age 65, to be a prophet and seer (see Moses 6:25–27). At that time the Lord showed him the first of three visions of the future recorded in Moses (see Moses 6:36).

Enoch taught gospel principles as they had been revealed by God and angels to Adam (see Moses 6:47–68).

Enoch foresaw the Canaanites annihilating the people of Shum (see Moses 7:6–7). In doing so, the Canaanites forfeited their right to gospel blessings and Enoch was forbidden to preach to them (see Moses 7:12).

He defeated the enemies of the people of the Lord through priesthood miracles, moving mountains and turning rivers from their courses. As a result, his people gained security and peace (see Moses 7:13–17).

The seer’s people flourished and established a city of holiness called Zion (see Moses 7:17–19).

Three years before Adam’s death, Enoch, with other righteous leaders, attended a great convocation called by Adam at Adam-ondi-Ahman. There Adam bestowed his last blessing upon his children and related, by the power of prophecy, what should happen to his posterity to the end of time (see D&C 107:53–56). The prophecy was recorded in the book of Enoch (see D&C 107:57).

Enoch foresaw the first coming of the Savior, his crucifixion and death, and the great destructions of the earth associated therewith (see Moses 7:45–47, 55–56).

Enoch prophesied that the Lord would come “with ten thousands of his saints, to execute judgment upon all” (Jude 1:14–15).
He foresaw the Second Coming of the Lord, the building up of Zion in the last days, and the return of his city to the earth (see Moses 7:60–67).

The Lord personally met with Enoch on many occasions over the 365 years of his ministry (see D&C 107:49).

Enoch had lived for 365 years when he was taken by the Lord through translation (see Gen. 5:23; Heb. 11:5).
Enoch was actually 430 years old when he was translated. At that time, Zion had been in existence for 365 years (see Moses 7:68; Moses 8:1).

When the world in general had rejected the law of God, the Lord translated Enoch and his people, taking them and the “government of heaven” off the earth (see History of the Church, 5:64; D&C 38:4).

The Lord appointed Enoch to minister to terrestrial bodies and “to those who shall be heirs of salvation.” In this capacity, Enoch appeared to Jude, author of the Epistle of Jude (see History of the Church, 4:209).

The Savior himself spoke of the future glory of both Enoch’s Zion and the Zion of the last days, testifying that they would eventually be reunited and that he would personally abide there. Then the earth would rest for a thousand years (see 3 Ne. 21:1; Moses 7:62–64; History of the Church, 3:34).

text: Enoch in Islam[edit]

text: In Islam, Enoch (Arabic: ʼAkhnūkh أَخْنُوخ, [commonly in Islamic literature]: ʼIdrīs إِِدْرِيس)) is identified with Idris, as for example by the History of Al-Tabari intrepretation and the Meadows of Gold.[36] The Quran contains two references to Idris; in Surah Al-Anbiya (The Prophets) verse number 85, and in Surah Maryam (Mary) verses 56-57:

text:
(The Prophets, 21:85): "And the same blessing was bestowed upon Ismail and Idris and Zul-Kifl, because they all practised fortitude."
(Mary 19:56-57): "And remember Idris in the Book; he was indeed very truthful, a Prophet. And We lifted him to a lofty station".

text: Idris is closely linked in Muslim tradition with the origin of writing and other technical arts of civilization,[37] including the study of astronomical phenomena, both of which Enoch is credited with in the Testament of Abraham.[37] Nonetheless, even aside from the identification of Idris and Enoch, many Muslims still honor Enoch as one of the earliest prophets, regardless of whether they equate him with Idris or not.[38] Thus, views on Enoch are divided into two groups:

text:
The first believes that Enoch and Idris are one and the same.
The second believes that Enoch and Idris are two different prophets.