document_title: The Snowman (2017 film)

question_text: who was the killer in the movie snowman

question_tokens: who was the killer in the movie snowman

text: The Snowman (2017 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: At a remote cabin amidst heavy snowfall, a man named Jonas (Peter Dalle) confronts his former lover (Sofia Helin) about their illegitimate son. The woman threatens to tell Jonas' family about the child, and he leaves angrily in his car. The woman and her son pursue him, but lose him in the snow. She lets go of the steering wheel, causing the car to drive off the road onto a frozen lake. The boy manages to escape from the sinking car, but the woman stays inside in an apparent suicide.

text: Harry Hole (Michael Fassbender) is a brilliant but troubled inspector with the Norwegian Police Service's Oslo district, struggling with the recent divorce and remarriage of his wife Rakel (Charlotte Gainsbourg) to Mathias (Jonas Karlsson), a renowned surgeon, and their son Oleg, who is unaware that Harry is his biological father. Harry receives a mysterious letter signed with the drawing of a snowman, and is paired with a brilliant new recruit, Katrine Bratt (Rebecca Ferguson). The two are assigned to a missing persons case of Britte Becker (Genevieve O'Reilly), who vanished from her house after being followed home by a red Volvo.

text: The police receive a report of another missing woman named Sylvia Otterson (Chloe Sevigny). When Harry and Katrine travel to her farmhouse to investigate, they find her alive and well. They brush the report off as a prank call and leave, but shortly thereafter a figure wearing a black ski mask stalks and kills Sylvia outside her house, using a mechanized cutting tool to decapitate her. Harry receives another call about Otterson, and returning to the farmhouse comes face-to-face with her twin sister Ane. They search the property and find Sylvia's beheaded corpse inside her house, and her head atop a snowman inside an empty storage tank.

text: Connecting the letter with the presence of a snowman at the crime scene, Harry's research leads him to a previous case in Bergen, involving a similar set of circumstances. He travels to meet the case's investigating officer Gert Rafto (Val Kilmer), but upon arrival learns that Rafto died eight years prior through what appeared to be a self-inflicted gunshot wound, and that the case went cold after the apparent suicide. Inside Rafto's old cabin, he finds a jacket and a photograph that lead him to realize that Katrine is Rafto's daughter, and is likely out to find her father's real killer.

text: Katrine believes that Arve Stop (J. K. Simmons), a business tycoon implicated in the earlier case, is behind her father's death. Stop is involved in a high-class prostitution ring overseen by Idar Vetelsen (David Dencik), a doctor working at the hospital all the current victims had gone to. Britte's cell phone begins transmitting again, and the signal is traced to Vetelsen's house. When the police raid it, they find Vetelsen dead of a shotgun blast to the head, along with the remains of Britte and another woman named Hegen Dahl.

text: Katrine seduces Stop at a fundraiser event, and he asks her to wait in his hotel room. She sets a trap for him inside, but is attacked and drugged by a masked figure who severs her right finger and uses it to unlock the biometric security measures on her work tablet, wiping all the data from it. The next morning, Harry sees the impression of a snowman atop his snow-covered car, and inside finds Katrine's corpse in the driver's seat.

text: Rakel tells Harry that Oleg has run away after Harry missed a school camping trip in which he was supposed to have joined him. Oleg stays at a friend's house, and when Rakel arrives to tell Harry the two kiss and almost have sex. Mathias calls to tell Rakel that he is picking up Oleg to take him home. Upon returning home, Mathias drugs and ties up Rakel, then does likewise to Oleg, taking both of them to a cottage in Telemark. Harry tracks him down, where he has Rakel and Oleg hostage with the cutter to Rakel's throat. Mathias is revealed as the boy at the start of the film, who grew to hate his mother because she did not want him to know who his real father was. Harry attacks Mathias and manages to get the cutter off of Rakel's neck, losing a finger in the process. Mathias escapes and, implored by Rakel, Harry gives pursuit, chasing Mathias onto the ice. Mathias manages to shoot Harry, but the ice beneath his feet suddenly cracks and breaks apart, dropping him into the water below and dragging him under the current to his death.

text: After having his injuries treated, Harry returns to the police precinct, and volunteers for a new homicide case.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Michael Fassbender as Detective Harry Hole
Rebecca Ferguson as Katrine Bratt
Charlotte Gainsbourg as Rakel Fauke
Val Kilmer as Gert Rafto
J. K. Simmons as Arve Støp
Toby Jones as Investigator Svenson
David Dencik as Idar Vetlesen
Ronan Vibert as DCI Gunnar Hagen
Chloë Sevigny as Sylvia Ottersen/Ane Pedersen
James D'Arcy as Filip Becker
Genevieve O'Reilly as Birte Becker
Jamie Clayton as Edda
Jakob Oftebro as Magnus Skarre
Jonas Karlsson as Mathias Lund-Helgesen
Silvia Busuioc as Beautiful Girl
Michael Yates as Oleg Fauke-Gosev
Alec Newman as Mould Man

text: Jo Nesbø (the writer of the novel on which the film is based) was supposed to have a small cameo, but his scenes were cut.[3]

text: Production[edit]

text: Pre-production[edit]

text: According to Variety, the initial hope with the film to was to create a series in the vein of the various Alex Cross film adaptations.[4] Screen Rant has suggested that the film was inspired by the success of The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo.[5]

text: For a while Martin Scorsese was attached to direct,[6] although he would later drop out in 2013.[5] The next year, Tomas Alfredson was hired to direct.[7] Prior to Alfredson, the studio considered both Morten Tyldum and Baltasar Kormakur as possible directors, although both declined.[8] By September 2015, Michael Fassbender was in talks to join the film for the lead role.[9] Rebecca Ferguson and Charlotte Gainsbourg were in talks to join by that October and December respectively.[10][11]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography on the film commenced on 18 January 2016 in Oslo, Norway.[12] Fassbender was spotted on set for the first time on 21 January in the Barcode area of Oslo, shooting a scene on the tram.[13] A big scene depicting a party, which required over 300 extras, was shot in Oslo City Hall on 5 February.[14] Production moved to the area of Rjukan on 9 February, and to Bergen on 23 February. Filming in Bergen included locations such as the mountain of Ulriken, Bryggen and Skansen firestation. Production moved back to Oslo for the remainder of filming in mid-March. This included scenes at Restaurant Schrøder, where Harry Hole is a regular in the novel series.[15] Scenes were also shot in Drammen and on the Atlantic Ocean Road. Filming ended on 1 April 2016.[16]

text: Reshoots and additional filming took place in Norway during the spring of 2017.

text: In response to the negative critical reviews, Alfredson blamed the short filming schedule in which 10–15% of the screenplay was not shot during principal photography. This led to huge narrative problems when editing commenced:

text:
“
Our shoot time in Norway was way too short, we didn't get the whole story with us and when we started cutting we discovered that a lot was missing. It's like when you're making a big jigsaw puzzle and a few pieces are missing so you don't see the whole picture.[17][18]
”

text: Alfredson also revealed he had a lack of time to prep the film properly:

text:
“
It happened very abruptly, suddenly we got notice that we had the money and could start the shoot in London.[17][18]
”

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Universal Pictures released a poster on 18 July 2017, and the first trailer for the film premiered the following day. An international trailer was released on 5 September. The original poster, featuring a doodle of a snowman and the note to the police, became a popular Internet meme shortly after its release.

text: Release[edit]

text: The Snowman premiered at the Haifa International Film Festival on 7 October 2017. It was released on 13 October 2017 in the United Kingdom and on 20 October 2017 in the United States.[19]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of 20 December 2017[update], The Snowman has grossed $6.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $36.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $43 million, against a production budget of $35 million.[1]

text: In the United States and Canada, The Snowman was released alongside Boo 2! A Madea Halloween, Geostorm, and Only The Brave, and was expected to gross around $10 million from 1,813 theaters in its opening weekend.[20] However after making just $1.3 million on its first day (including $270,000 from Thursday night previews), weekend predictions were lowered to $4 million. It went on to debut to just $3.2 million, finishing 8th at the box office.[21] In its second weekend the film dropped 64% to $1.2 million, falling to 17th place at the box office.[22] The film was then pulled from 1,291 theaters in its third week and fell 86% to $167,685, finishing 33rd.[23]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The Snowman received negative reviews from critics, who criticized the film's scattered and incomprehensible plot line and the lack of direction for its main cast members.[24] On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 8% based on 164 reviews, with an average rating of 3.1/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A mystery that feels as mashed together and perishable as its title, The Snowman squanders its bestselling source material as well as a top-notch ensemble cast."[25] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 23 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[26] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "D" on an A+ to F scale.[21]

text: Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a negative review, writing "There's probably a good movie or several buried in the frigid wilds of Nesbø's fiction, and with more time and cultural nuance and fewer cooks in the kitchen, it might well be realized. Watching this bungled slopsicle of a movie, it’s hard not to conclude that somebody let the wrong one in."[27] Variety's Guy Lodge also called the film a disappointment, saying: "If The Snowman were merely a chilly, streamlined precis of a knottier page-turner, it could stolidly pass muster. The sad surprise here, considering how deftly Alfredson and Straughan previously navigated the far more serpentine plot machinations of a John le Carré classic, is the snowballing incoherence of proceedings."[28] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called the film a "leaden, clotted, exasperating mess".[29]


document_title: List of Dallas Cowboys seasons

question_text: when was the last time the dallas cowboys won a playoff game

root

text: List of Dallas Cowboys seasons

text: This article is a list of seasons completed by the Dallas Cowboys American football franchise of the National Football League (NFL). The list documents the season-by-season records of the Cowboys' franchise from 1960 to present, including postseason records, and league awards for individual players or head coaches. The Cowboys franchise was founded in 1960 as an expansion team.[1] The team has earned 31 postseason appearances, tied for second place with the Pittsburgh Steelers, the longest consecutive streak of winning seasons with 20, the second-most appearances in the NFC Championship Game (14, behind the San Francisco 49ers' 15) and the second-most Super Bowl appearances (8 with the Denver Broncos and Steelers). The Cowboys have played for 10 NFL Championships and have won 5, all five being Super Bowls.[2]

tag: p

text: The Cowboys won Super Bowl VI, XII, XXVII, XXVIII and XXX. They also played in and lost Super Bowl V, X, and XIII.[2]

text: The franchise has experienced two major periods of continued success in their history. The first period of success came from 1966–1985 when the Cowboys played in the postseason 18 times.[3] During this period, they played in two NFL Championships and five Super Bowls, winning two of them, winning a total of 20 playoff games.[3] The second period of success was between 1991–1996 when the Cowboys captured five straight NFC East Division titles and won three Super Bowls going 11–2 in the postseason.[3]

text: The Cowboys have also experienced failure in their history. The most notable period of failure was from their 1960 inaugural season to 1965, during which the Cowboys did not have a single postseason appearance.[4] They did not win a single game during their first season, compiling an 0–11–1 record that is still the worst in franchise history.[4] Also, they did not have a single winning record in this period.[4] Between 1986 and 1990 the Cowboys had losing records in each season as veteran coach Landry retired and the team was radically overhauled, with the low point being the NFL's second 15-loss season (after the 1980 Saints) in 1989. After losing a Divisional playoff Game in 1996, the Cowboys between 1997 and 2008 lost five consecutive playoff games, one after a franchise-record 13–3 season in 2007, during which most predicted the Cowboys would break this streak.[5] This streak finally came to an end when the Cowboys finally beat their bitter rival, the Philadelphia Eagles 34–14 after an 11–5 season in 2009.[5]

text: Seasons[edit]

text:
NFL Champions (1920–1969)
Super Bowl Champions (1970–present)
Conference Champions
Division Champions
Wild Card Berth

tag: table

text:
Season
Team
League
Conference
Division
Regular season
Postseason Results
Awards
Head coaches

Finish
Wins
Losses
Ties

1960
1960
NFL
Western

7th
0
11
1

Tom Landry

1961
1961
NFL
Eastern

6th
4
9
1

Tom Landry

1962
1962
NFL
Eastern

5th
5
8
1

Tom Landry

1963
1963
NFL
Eastern

5th
4
10
0

Tom Landry

1964
1964
NFL
Eastern

5th
5
8
1

Tom Landry

1965
1965
NFL
Eastern

2nd
7
7
0

Tom Landry

1966
1966
NFL
Eastern

1st
10
3
1
Lost NFL Championship Game (Packers) 34–27
Tom Landry (COY)
Tom Landry

1967[6]
1967
NFL
Eastern
Capitol
1st
9
5
0
Won Conference Playoffs (Browns) 52–14
Lost NFL Championship Game (Packers) 21–17

Tom Landry

1968
1968
NFL
Eastern
Capitol
1st
12
2
0
Lost Conference Playoffs (Browns) 31–20

Tom Landry

1969
1969
NFL
Eastern
Capitol
1st
11
2
1
Lost Conference Playoffs (Browns) 38–14
Calvin Hill (OROY)
Tom Landry

1970
1970
NFL
NFC
East
1st
10
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Lions) 5–0
Won Conference Championship (49ers) 17–10
Lost Super Bowl V (Colts) 16–13
Chuck Howley (SB MVP)
Tom Landry

1971
1971
NFL
NFC
East
1st
11
3
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Vikings) 20–12
Won Conference Championship (49ers) 14–3
Won Super Bowl VI (1) (Dolphins) 24–3
Roger Staubach (SB MVP)
Tom Landry

1972
1972
NFL
NFC
East
2nd
10
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (49ers) 30–28
Lost Conference Championship (Redskins) 26–3

Tom Landry

1973
1973
NFL
NFC
East
1st[7]
10
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Rams) 27–26
Lost Conference Championship (Vikings) 27–10

Tom Landry

1974
1974
NFL
NFC
East
3rd
8
6
0

Tom Landry

1975
1975
NFL
NFC
East
2nd
10
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Vikings) 17–14
Won Conference Championship (Rams) 37–7
Lost Super Bowl X (Steelers) 21–17

Tom Landry

1976
1976
NFL
NFC
East
1st
11
3
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Rams) 14–12

Tom Landry

1977
1977
NFL
NFC
East
1st
12
2
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Bears) 37–7
Won Conference Championship (Vikings) 23–6
Won Super Bowl XII (2) (Broncos) 27–10
Tony Dorsett (OROY)
Harvey Martin (DPOY, SB MVP)
Randy White (SB MVP)
Tom Landry

1978[8]
1978
NFL
NFC
East
1st[9]
12
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Falcons) 27–20
Won Conference Championship (Rams) 28–0
Lost Super Bowl XIII (Steelers) 35–31

Tom Landry

1979
1979
NFL
NFC
East
1st[10]
11
5
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Rams) 21–19

Tom Landry

1980
1980
NFL
NFC
East
2nd[11]
12
4
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Rams) 34–17
Won Divisional Playoffs (Falcons) 30–27
Lost Conference Championship (Eagles) 20–7

Tom Landry

1981
1981
NFL
NFC
East
1st
12
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Buccaneers) 38–0
Lost Conference Championship (49ers) 28–27

Tom Landry

1982[12]
1982
NFL
NFC

2nd
6
3
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Buccaneers) 30–17
Won Divisional Playoffs (Packers) 37–26
Lost Conference Championship (Redskins) 31–17

Tom Landry

1983
1983
NFL
NFC
East
2nd
12
4
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Rams) 24–17

Tom Landry

1984
1984
NFL
NFC
East
4th
9
7
0

Tom Landry

1985
1985
NFL
NFC
East
1st[13]
10
6
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Rams) 20–0

Tom Landry

1986
1986
NFL
NFC
East
3rd
7
9
0

Tom Landry

1987[14]
1987
NFL
NFC
East
4th
7
8
0

Tom Landry

1988
1988
NFL
NFC
East
5th
3
13
0

Tom Landry

1989
1989
NFL
NFC
East
5th
1
15
0

Jimmy Johnson

1990
1990
NFL
NFC
East
4th
7
9
0

Emmitt Smith (OROY)
Jimmy Johnson (COY)
Jimmy Johnson

1991
1991
NFL
NFC
East
2nd[15]
11
5
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Bears) 17–13
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Lions) 38–6

Jimmy Johnson

1992
1992
NFL
NFC
East
1st
13
3
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Eagles) 34–10
Won Conference Championship (49ers) 30–20
Won Super Bowl XXVII (3) (Bills) 52–17
Troy Aikman (SB MVP)
Jimmy Johnson

1993
1993
NFL
NFC
East
1st
12
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Packers) 27–17
Won Conference Championship (49ers) 38–21
Won Super Bowl XXVIII (4) (Bills) 30–13
Emmitt Smith (MVP, SB MVP)
Jimmy Johnson

1994
1994
NFL
NFC
East
1st
12
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Packers) 35–9
Lost Conference Championship (49ers) 38–28

Barry Switzer

1995
1995
NFL
NFC
East
1st
12
4
0
Won Divisional Playoffs (Eagles) 30–11
Won Conference Championship (Packers) 38–27
Won Super Bowl XXX (5) (Steelers) 27–17
Larry Brown (SB MVP)
Barry Switzer

1996
1996
NFL
NFC
East
1st[16]
10
6
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Vikings) 40–15
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Panthers) 26–17

Barry Switzer

1997
1997
NFL
NFC
East
4th
6
10
0

Barry Switzer

1998
1998
NFL
NFC
East
1st
10
6
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Cardinals) 20–7

Chan Gailey

1999
1999
NFL
NFC
East
2nd[17]
8
8
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Vikings) 27–10

Chan Gailey

2000
2000
NFL
NFC
East
4th
5
11
0

Dave Campo

2001
2001
NFL
NFC
East
5th
5
11
0

Dave Campo

2002
2002
NFL
NFC
East
4th
5
11
0

Dave Campo

2003
2003
NFL
NFC
East
2nd
10
6
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Panthers) 29–10

Bill Parcells

2004
2004
NFL
NFC
East
3rd
6
10
0

Bill Parcells

2005
2005
NFL
NFC
East
3rd
9
7
0

Bill Parcells

2006
2006
NFL
NFC
East
2nd
9
7
0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Seahawks) 21–20

Bill Parcells

2007
2007
NFL
NFC
East
1st
13
3
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Giants) 21–17
Greg Ellis (CBPOY)
Wade Phillips

2008
2008
NFL
NFC
East
3rd
9
7
0

Wade Phillips

2009
2009
NFL
NFC
East
1st[18]
11
5
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Eagles) 34–14
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Vikings) 34–3

Wade Phillips

2010
2010
NFL
NFC
East
3rd
6
10
0

Wade Phillips (1–7)
Jason Garrett (5–3)

2011
2011
NFL
NFC
East
3rd
8
8
0

Jason Garrett

2012
2012
NFL
NFC
East
3rd
8
8
0

Jason Witten (WP MOY)
Jason Garrett

2013
2013
NFL
NFC
East
2nd
8
8
0

Jason Garrett

2014
2014
NFL
NFC
East
1st
12
4
0
Won Wild Card Playoffs (Lions) 24–20
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Packers) 26–21
DeMarco Murray (OPOY)
Jason Garrett

2015
2015
NFL
NFC
East
4th
4
12
0

Jason Garrett

2016
2016
NFL
NFC
East
1st
13
3
0
Lost Divisional Playoffs (Packers) 34–31
Dak Prescott (OROY)
Jason Garrett (COY)
Jason Garrett

2017
2017
NFL
NFC
East
2nd
9
7
0

Jason Garrett

Total
502
374
6
All-time regular season record (1960–2017)

34
27
0
All-time postseason record (1960–2017)

536
401
6
All-time regular season and postseason record (1960–2017)

5 NFL Championships, 10 Conference Championships, 22 Divisional Championships

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "1960 Dallas Cowboys". Dallas Cowboys' Official Website. Archived from the original on 2007-12-29. Retrieved 2008-01-12.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dallas Cowboys' Championship History". NFLTeamHistory.com. Retrieved 2008-01-12.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Dallas Cowboys Championship History". NFLTeamHistory.com. Retrieved 2008-01-28.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Dallas Cowboys History". CBS Sports. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dallas Cowboys Franchise History". SportsEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2011-12-17.
Jump up ^ The 1967 NFL season marks the first season in the league's history where the league was divided into two conferences which were subdivided into two divisions. Up to 1967, the league was either divided into two divisions, two conferences, or neither.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1973 season, the Cowboys and the Redskins finished the season with identical 10–4 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Dallas finished ahead of Washington in the NFC East based on better point differential in head-to-head games.
Jump up ^ For the 1978 season, the NFL expanded from a 14-game season to a 16-game season.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1978 season, the Cowboys and the Los Angeles Rams finished the season with identical 12–4 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Los Angeles was the top NFC seed over Dallas based on a better head-to-head record.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1979 season, the Cowboys and the Eagles finished the season with identical 11–5 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Dallas finished ahead of Philadelphia in the NFC East based on a better conference record.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1980 season, the Cowboys and the Eagles finished the season with identical 12–4 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Philadelphia finished ahead of Dallas in the NFC East based on better net points in division games.
Jump up ^ The 1982 NFL season was shortened from 16 games per team to 9 games because of a players' strike. The NFL adopted a special 16-team playoff tournament; eight teams from each conference were seeded 1–8, and division standings were ignored.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1985 season, the Cowboys, Redskins, and the Giants finished the season with identical 10–6 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Dallas finished ahead of New York and Washington based on a better head-to-head record.
Jump up ^ The 1987 NFL season was shortened from 16 games per team to 15 games because of a players' strike. Games to be played during the third week of the season were canceled, and replacement players were used to play games from weeks 4 through 6.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1991 season, the Cowboys and the Bears finished the season with identical 11–5 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Chicago was the first NFC Wild Card based on better conference record than Dallas.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1996 season, the Cowboys and the Eagles finished the season with identical 10–6 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Dallas finished ahead of Philadelphia in the NFC East based on better record against common opponents.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 1999 season, the Cowboys, Lions, and the Panthers finished the season with identical 8–8 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Dallas was the second NFC Wild Card based on a better record than Detroit against common opponents and a better conference record than Carolina.
Jump up ^ At the end of the 2009 season, the Cowboys and the Eagles finished with identical 11–5 records. Using the NFL's tie-breaking procedures, Dallas finished ahead of Philadelphia in the NFC East based on better head-to-head record.

tag: ol


document_title: Seat belt legislation in Canada

question_text: when did seat belts become mandatory in bc

text: Seat belt legislation in Canada

text: Seat belt legislation in Canada is left to the provinces. All provinces in Canada have primary enforcement seat belt laws, which allow a police officer to stop and ticket a driver if s/he observes a violation. Ontario was the first province to pass a law which required vehicle occupants to wear seat belts, a law that came into effect on January 1, 1976.[1]

text: The laws by province[edit]

text: This table contains a brief summary of all seatbelt laws in Canada.[2][3] This list includes only seatbelt laws, which often do not themselves apply to children; however, all provinces and territories have separate child restraint laws. A subsequent offense may be higher.

text:
Province/Territory
Date of inception
Who is covered
Base fine before fees
Demerit points assigned
Usage[4]

 Alberta
000000001987-07-01-0000July 1, 1987
Anyone in driver's seat or passenger seat[5]
$115
0
92.0%

 British Columbia
000000001977-10-01-0000October 1, 1977
Age 16+ in all seats
$167
0
96.9%

 Manitoba
000000001984-04-01-0000April 1, 1984
Age 16+ in all seats
$299.65
2
93.8%

 New Brunswick
000000001983-11-01-0000November 1, 1983
Age 16+ in all seats
$172.50
2
94.8%

 Newfoundland and Labrador
000000001982-07-01-0000July 1, 1982
Age 16+ in all seats
$115
2
93.1%

 Northwest Territories
000000001988-07-01-0000July 1, 1988
Age 16+ in all seats
$115
2
84.9%

 Nova Scotia
000000001985-01-01-0000January 1, 1985
Age 16+ in all seats
$157.50
2
90.1%

 Ontario
000000001976-01-01-0000January 1, 1976
Age 16+ in all seats
$240
2
96.0%

 Prince Edward Island
000000001987-07-01-0000July 1, 1987
Age 16+ in all seats
$110
3
89.7%

 Quebec
000000001976-08-15-0000August 15, 1976
Age 16+ in all seats
$115–154
3
96.0%

 Saskatchewan
000000001977-07-01-0000July 1, 1977
Age 16+ in all seats
$165
3
96.8%

 Yukon
000000001991-07-01-0000July 1, 1991
Age 15+ in all seats
$75
4
78.1%


document_title: Connective tissue

question_text: list the three major groups of connective tissue

text: Connective tissue

text: Types[edit]

text: Connective tissue can be broadly subdivided into connective tissue proper, and special connective tissue.[5][6] Connective tissue proper consists of loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue (which is further subdivided into dense regular and dense irregular connective tissues.)[7] Loose and dense connective tissue are distinguished by the ratio of ground substance to fibrous tissue. Loose connective tissue has much more ground substance and a relative lack of fibrous tissue, while the reverse is true of dense connective tissue. Dense regular connective tissue, found in structures such as tendons and ligaments, is characterized by collagen fibers arranged in an orderly parallel fashion, giving it tensile strength in one direction. Dense irregular connective tissue provides strength in multiple directions by its dense bundles of fibers arranged in all directions.

text: Special connective tissue consists of reticular connective tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood.[8] Other kinds of connective tissues include fibrous, elastic, and lymphoid connective tissues.[9] New vascularised connective tissue that forms in the process of wound healing is termed granulation tissue.[10] Fibroblasts are the cells responsible for the production of some CT.

text: Type I collagen is present in many forms of connective tissue, and makes up about 25% of the total protein content of the mammalian body.[11]

text: Characteristics[edit]

text: Characteristics of CT:

text:
Cells are spread through an extracellular fluid.
Ground substance - A clear, colorless, and viscous fluid containing glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans to fix the body water and the collagen fibers in the intercellular spaces. Ground substance slows the spread of pathogens.
Fibers. Not all types of CT are fibrous. Examples of non-fibrous CT include adipose tissue and blood. Adipose tissue gives "mechanical cushioning" to the body, among other functions.[12][13] Although there is no dense collagen network in adipose tissue, groups of adipose cells are kept together by collagen fibers and collagen sheets in order to keep fat tissue under compression in place (for example, the sole of the foot). The matrix of blood is plasma.
Both the ground substance and proteins (fibers) create the matrix for CT. Connective tissues are derived from the mesenchyme.

tag: ul

text: Types of fibers:

text:
Tissue
Purpose
Components
Location

Collagenous fibers
Bind bones and other tissues to each other
Alpha polypeptide chains
tendon, ligament, skin, cornea, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, gut, and intervertebral disc.

Elastic fibers
Allow organs like arteries and lungs to recoil
Elastic microfibril and elastin
extracellular matrix

Reticular fibers
Form a scaffolding for other cells
Type III collagen
liver, bone marrow, and lymphatic organs

text: Function[edit]

text: Connective tissue has a wide variety of functions that depend on the types of cells and the different classes of fibers involved. Loose and dense irregular connective tissue, formed mainly by fibroblasts and collagen fibers, have an important role in providing a medium for oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from capillaries to cells, and carbon dioxide and waste substances to diffuse from cells back into circulation. They also allow organs to resist stretching and tearing forces. Dense regular connective tissue, which forms organized structures, is a major functional component of tendons, ligaments and aponeuroses, and is also found in highly specialized organs such as the cornea.[14]:161 Elastic fibers, made from elastin and fibrillin, also provide resistance to stretch forces.[14]:171 They are found in the walls of large blood vessels and in certain ligaments, particularly in the ligamenta flava.[14]:173

text: In hematopoietic and lymphatic tissues, reticular fibers made by reticular cells provide the stroma—or structural support—for the parenchyma—or functional part—of the organ.[14]:171

text: Mesenchyme is a type of connective tissue found in developing organs of embryos that is capable of differentiation into all types of mature connective tissue.[15] Another type of relatively undifferentiated connective tissue is mucous connective tissue, found inside the umbilical cord.[14]:160

text: Various types of specialized tissues and cells are classified under the spectrum of connective tissue, and are as diverse as brown and white adipose tissue, blood, cartilage and bone.[14]:158 Cells of the immune system, such as macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells and eosinophils are found scattered in loose connective tissue, providing the ground for starting inflammatory and immune responses upon the detection of antigens.[14]:161

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: There are many types of connective tissue disorders, such as:

text:
Connective tissue neoplasms including sarcomas such as hemangiopericytoma and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor in nervous tissue.
Congenital diseases include Marfan syndrome and Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome.
Myxomatous degeneration – a pathological weakening of connective tissue.
Mixed connective tissue disease – a disease of the autoimmune system, also undifferentiated connective tissue disease.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) – a major autoimmune disease of connective tissue
Scurvy, caused by a deficiency of vitamin C which is necessary for the synthesis of collagen.

text: Staining of connective tissue[edit]

text: For microscopic viewing, most of the connective tissue staining-techniques, colour tissue fibers in contrasting shades. Collagen may be differentially stained by any of the following:

text:
Van Gieson's stain
Masson's trichrome stain
Mallory's trichrome stain
Aniline blue stain
Eosin
Reticulin stain


document_title: Gold standard

question_text: when did us currency leave the gold standard

question_tokens: when did us currency leave the gold standard

text: Gold standard

text: History

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Origin

text: The gold specie standard arose from the widespread acceptance of gold as currency.[5] Various commodities have been used as money; typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form.[6] Chemically, gold is of all major metals the one most resistant to corrosion.

text: The use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor.[7]

text: During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. However, as the Byzantine Empire's economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant.[8] In its place, European territories chose silver as their currency over gold, leading to the development of silver standards.

text: Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa CE 757–796.[9] Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros circulated in Europe. Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545.[10] International trade came to depend on coins such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and later, the United States trade dollar.

text: In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard. Following Queen Anne's proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. In 1717, Sir Isaac Newton, the master of the Royal Mint, established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation and putting Britain on a gold standard.[11][self-published source]

text: A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the gold sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816. The United Province of Canada in 1853, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany (de jure) in 1873 adopted gold. The United States used the eagle as its unit, Germany introduced the new gold mark, while Canada adopted a dual system based on both the American gold eagle and the British gold sovereign.

text: Australia and New Zealand adopted the British gold standard, as did the British West Indies, while Newfoundland was the only British Empire territory to introduce its own gold coin. Royal Mint branches were established in Sydney, Melbourne and Perth for the purpose of minting gold sovereigns from Australia's rich gold deposits.

text: The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I.

text: Silver

text: From 1750 to 1870, wars within Europe as well as an ongoing trade deficit with China (which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods) drained silver from the economies of Western Europe and the United States. Coins were struck in smaller and smaller numbers, and there was a proliferation of bank and stock notes used as money.

text: United Kingdom

text: In the 1790s, the United Kingdom suffered a silver shortage. It ceased to mint larger silver coins and instead issued "token" silver coins and overstruck foreign coins. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Bank of England began the massive recoinage programme that created standard gold sovereigns, circulating crowns, half-crowns and eventually copper farthings in 1821. The recoinage of silver after a long drought produced a burst of coins. The United Kingdom struck nearly 40 million shillings between 1816 and 1820, 17 million half crowns and 1.3 million silver crowns.

text: The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility, which was reached by 1821. Throughout the 1820s, small notes were issued by regional banks. This was restricted in 1826, while the Bank of England was allowed to set up regional branches. In 1833 however, Bank of England notes were made legal tender and redemption by other banks was discouraged. In 1844, the Bank Charter Act established that Bank of England notes were fully backed by gold and they became the legal standard. According to the strict interpretation of the gold standard, this 1844 act marked the establishment of a full gold standard for British money.

text: United States

text: In the 1780s, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress the value of a decimal system. This system would also apply to monies in the United States. The question was what type of standard: gold, silver or both.[12] The United States adopted a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar in 1785.

text: International

text: From 1860 to 1871 various attempts to resurrect bi-metallic standards were made, including one based on the gold and silver franc; however, with the rapid influx of silver from new deposits, the expectation of scarce silver ended.

text: The interaction between central banking and currency basis formed the primary source of monetary instability during this period. The combination of a restricted supply of notes, a government monopoly on note issuance and indirectly, a central bank and a single unit of value produced economic stability. Deviation from these conditions produced monetary crises.

text: Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems. Governments, demanding specie as payment, could drain the money out of the economy. Economic development expanded need for credit. The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed.

text: Japan

text: Following Germany's decision after the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War to extract reparations to facilitate a move to the gold standard, Japan gained the needed reserves after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. For Japan, moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets.[13]

text: Bimetallic standard

text: US: Pre-Civil War

text: In 1792, Congress passed the Mint and Coinage Act. It authorized the federal government's use of the Bank of the United States to hold its reserves, as well as establish a fixed ratio of gold to the U.S. dollar. Gold and silver coins were legal tender, as was the Spanish real. In 1792 the market price of gold was about 15 times that of silver.[12] Silver coins left circulation, exported to pay for the debts taken on to finance the American Revolutionary War. In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of silver coins. This resulted in a derivative silver standard, since the Bank of the United States was not required to fully back its currency with reserves. This began a long series of attempts by the United States to create a bi-metallic standard.

text: The intention was to use gold for large denominations, and silver for smaller denominations. A problem with bimetallic standards was that the metals' absolute and relative market prices changed. The mint ratio (the rate at which the mint was obligated to pay/receive for gold relative to silver) remained fixed at 15 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold, whereas the market rate fluctuated from 15.5 to 1 to 16 to 1. With the Coinage Act of 1834, Congress passed an act that changed the mint ratio to approximately 16 to 1. Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money.[14] Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard-money standard. Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins.

text: Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system. However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, the US reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system. Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the US Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie. In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called "greenbacks".[14]

text: US: Post-Civil War

text: After the Civil War, Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates. The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ($20.67 per ounce of gold) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price. This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output. By 1879 the market price matched the mint price of gold. The coinage act of 1873 (also known as the Crime of ‘73) demonetized silver. This act removed the 412.5 grain silver dollar from circulation. Subsequently silver was only used in coins worth less than $1 (fractional currency). With the resumption of convertibility on June 30, 1879 the government again paid its debts in gold, accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold. Greenbacks were therefore perfect substitutes for gold coins. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues, raised especially by William Jennings Bryan, the People's Party and the Free Silver movement. In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established. Greenbacks, silver certificates, and silver dollars continued to be legal tender, all redeemable in gold.[14]

text: Fluctuations in the US gold stock, 1862–1877

text:
US gold stock

1862
59 tons

1866
81 tons

1875
50 tons

1878
78 tons

text: The US had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces (59 t) in 1862. Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces (81 t) in 1866, declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces (50 t) and rose to 2.5 million ounces (78 t) in 1878. Net exports did not mirror that pattern. In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels, but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879. The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods, services, and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies. In the final years of the greenback period (1862–1879), gold production increased while gold exports decreased. The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions. The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle, and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade. The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power.[15]

text: Gold exchange standard

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Towards the end of the 19th century, some silver standard countries began to peg their silver coin units to the gold standards of the United Kingdom or the United States. In 1898, British India pegged the silver rupee to the pound sterling at a fixed rate of 1s 4d, while in 1906, the Straits Settlements adopted a gold exchange standard against sterling, fixing the silver Straits dollar at 2s 4d.

text: Around the start of the 20th century, the Philippines pegged the silver peso/dollar to the U.S. dollar at 50 cents. This move was assisted by the passage of the Philippines Coinage Act by the United States Congress on March 3, 1903.[16] Around the same time Mexico and Japan pegged their currencies to the dollar. When Siam adopted a gold exchange standard in 1908, only China and Hong Kong remained on the silver standard.

text: When adopting the gold standard, many European nations changed the name of their currency, for instance from Daler (Sweden and Denmark) or Gulden (Austria-Hungary) to Crown, since the former names were traditionally associated with silver coins and the latter with gold coins.

text: Impact of World War I

text: Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century. The real test, however, came in the form of World War I, a test which "it failed utterly" according to economist Richard Lipsey.[5]

text: By the end of 1913, the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it.[17] According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard’s failure to resume its previous position after World War 1 was “the Bank of England's precarious liquidity position and the gold-exchange standard.” A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard; convertibility was not legally suspended, but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before.[18] In financing the war and abandoning gold, many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations. Price levels doubled in the US and Britain, tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy. Exchange rates changed less, even though European inflations were more severe than America’s. This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe. Between August 1914 and spring of 1915, the dollar value of US exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time.[19]

text: Ultimately, the system could not deal quickly enough with the large balance of payments deficits and surpluses; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor, but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change. In any case, prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression, which served to kill off the system completely.[5]

text: For example, Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914, and could not effectively return to it because War reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves. During the Occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank (Reichsbank) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class.

text: The US did not suspend the gold standard during the war. The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to “sterilize”[vague] some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money.[citation needed] By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard.[14] As a result of World War 1 the United States, which had been a net debtor country, had become a net creditor by 1919.[20]

text: Gold bullion replaces gold specie as standard

text: The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns. Legally, the gold specie standard was not repealed. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie. It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa that the gold specie standard was officially ended.

text: The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but "only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy [12 kg] of fine gold".[21][22] John Maynard Keynes, citing deflationary dangers, argued against resumption of the gold standard.[23] By fixing the price at the pre-war rate of $4.86, Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression, unemployment and the 1926 general strike. The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a "historic mistake".[24]

text: Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard, this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation.[25] This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression (1929–1939) forced countries off the gold standard. In September 19, 1931, speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard. Loans from American and French Central Banks of £50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks, due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic.[26][27][28] The British benefited from this departure. They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy. Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit.

text: The interwar partially backed gold standard was inherently unstable, because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England's reserve ratio. France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center, and it received large gold flows as well.[29]

text: In May 1931 a run on Austria's largest commercial bank caused it to fail. The run spread to Germany, where the central bank also collapsed. International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls, followed by Austria in October. The Austrian and German experiences, as well as British budgetary and political difficulties, were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling, which occurred in mid-July 1931. Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves.

text: Depression and World War II

text: Great Depression

text: Some economic historians, such as Barry Eichengreen, blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade.[31] In the United States, adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy, fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could "prime the pump" for an expansion. Once off the gold standard, it became free to engage in such money creation. The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply. In the US, the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) to have gold backing 40% of its demand notes.[32] Others including former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke and Nobel Prize-winner Milton Friedman place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve, mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the gold standard.[33] They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital, weaker securities markets, reduced net government contribution to income, the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs.[34] The money supply peaked in March 1937, with a trough in May 1938.[35]

text: Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks. Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931, reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation. This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system. Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks.[36] As bank runs grew, a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply.[37] Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over $150 million in gold (over 240 tons) to European Central Banks. This transfer contracted the US money supply. The foreign loans became questionable once Britain, Germany, Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar.[38]

text: The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation. Even as nominal interest rates dropped, inflation-adjusted real interest rates remained high, rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it, further slowing the economy.[39] Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain, in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done.[40]

text: In the early 1930s, the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates, trying to increase the demand for dollars. This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold.[36]

text: Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury. In return the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes. The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar. Under this authority the president, on 31 January 1934, changed the value of the dollar from $20.67 to the troy ounce to $35 to the troy ounce, a devaluation of over 40%.

text: Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot–Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain,[41] the failure of central banks to act responsibly,[42] government policies designed to prevent wages from falling, such as the Davis–Bacon Act of 1931, during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices, thereby injuring business profits[43] and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security. The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25% to 63% in 1932 and to 79% in 1936,[44] while the bottom rate increased over tenfold, from .375% in 1929 to 4% in 1932.[45] The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl.

text: The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust.[46] Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931. This act "tore asunder" any remaining confidence in the banking system.[47] Financial historian Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly 'great' was the European banking crisis of 1931.[48] According to Fed Chairman Marriner Eccles, the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class. These classes went into debt, producing the credit explosion of the 1920s. Eventually the debt load grew too heavy, resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s.[49]

text: World War II

text: Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944, the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility. The role of gold was severely constrained, as other countries’ currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar. Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold. Still they preferred to settle balances with other currencies, with the American dollar becoming the favorite. The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates. Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation. Under the old standard, a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly. Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars, but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates. Therefore, most countries' currencies were still basically inconvertible. In the late 1950s, the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements.[14]

text: Bretton Woods

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: After the Second World War, a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a "gold exchange standard" was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of $35 per ounce; this option was not available to firms or individuals. All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold.[5]

text: Starting in the 1959–1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing US economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock").

text: This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation or redemption occurred. The dollar subsequently floated. In December 1971, the "Smithsonian Agreement" was reached. In this agreement, the dollar was devalued from $35 per troy ounce of gold to $38. Other countries' currencies appreciated. However, gold convertibility did not resume. In October 1973, the price was raised to $42.22. Once again, the devaluation was insufficient. Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float. The $42.22 par value was made official in September 1973, long after it had been abandoned in practice. In October 1976, the government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. From this point, the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money.

text: Production of gold

text: An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, according to GFMS as of 2012. This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres (327,000 cu ft), or a cube 21 metres (69 ft) on a side. There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years. Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities.[50]

text: World production for 2011 was at 2,700 tonnes. Since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth of around 2x[clarification needed],[51] although far less than world economic growth of some 8x[clarification needed],[52] or some 4x[clarification needed] since 1980.[53]

text: Theory

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing.

text: Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification,[54] often in conjunction with silver. Silver was typically the main circulating medium, with gold as the monetary reserve. Commodity money was anonymous, as identifying marks can be removed. Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority. After the fall of South Vietnam, many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless.[citation needed]

text: Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A US silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.

text: Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs.

text: Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner. For example, Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost entirely avoided the depression (due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy). The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.[55]

text: Variations

text: A full or 100%-reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate. It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it. Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement, saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold.[citation needed] Gold standard proponents have said, "Once a money is established, any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income."[56] While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold, the process may involve considerable economic disruption, as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards.[57]

text: In an international gold-standard system (which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned),[58] gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments. Under such a system, when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold, inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level. International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold.

text: Advantages

text:
Long-term price stability has been described as one of the virtues of the gold standard.[59] The gold standard makes it difficult for governments to inflate prices through expanding the money supply. Under the gold standard, significant inflation is rare, and hyperinflation is essentially impossible because the money supply can only grow at the rate that the gold supply increases. High inflation under a gold standard is seen only when warfare destroys a large part of an economy, reducing the production of goods, or when a major new gold source becomes available.[60] In the U.S., inflation occurred during the Civil War, which destroyed the economy of the South.[61] Inflation also followed the California Gold Rush that made large amounts of gold available for minting.[62] Historical data shows that the magnitude of short run swings in prices were far higher under the gold standard.[63][59]
The gold standard provides fixed international exchange rates between participating countries and thus reduces uncertainty in international trade. Historically, imbalances between price levels were offset by a balance-of-payment adjustment mechanism called the "price–specie flow mechanism".[60] Gold used to pay for imports reduces the money supply of importing nations, causing deflation, which makes them more competitive, while the importation of gold by net exporters serves to increase their money supply, causing inflation, making them less competitive.[64]
A gold standard does not allow some types of financial repression.[65] Financial repression acts as a mechanism to transfer wealth from creditors to debtors, particularly the governments that practice it. Financial repression is most successful in reducing debt when accompanied by inflation and can be considered a form of taxation.[66][67] In 1966 Alan Greenspan wrote "Deficit spending is simply a scheme for the confiscation of wealth. Gold stands in the way of this insidious process. It stands as a protector of property rights. If one grasps this, one has no difficulty in understanding the statists' antagonism toward the gold standard."[68]

text: Disadvantages

text:
The unequal distribution of gold deposits makes the gold standard more advantageous for those countries that produce gold.[69] In 2010 the largest producers of gold, in order, were China, Australia, U.S., South Africa and Russia.[70] The country with the largest unmined gold deposits is Australia.[71]
Some economists believe that the gold standard acts as a limit on economic growth. "As an economy's productive capacity grows, then so should its money supply. Because a gold standard requires that money be backed in the metal, then the scarcity of the metal constrains the ability of the economy to produce more capital and grow."[72]
Mainstream economists believe that economic recessions can be largely mitigated by increasing the money supply during economic downturns.[73] A gold standard means that the money supply would be determined by the gold supply and hence monetary policy could no longer be used to stabilize the economy.[74] The gold standard is often blamed for prolonging the Great Depression, as under the gold standard, central banks could not expand credit at a fast enough rate to offset deflationary forces.[75]
Although the gold standard brings long-run price stability, it is historically associated with high short-run price volatility.[59][76] It has been argued by Schwartz, among others, that instability in short-term price levels can lead to financial instability as lenders and borrowers become uncertain about the value of debt.[76]
Deflation punishes debtors.[77][78] Real debt burdens therefore rise, causing borrowers to cut spending to service their debts or to default. Lenders become wealthier, but may choose to save some of the additional wealth, reducing GDP.[79]
The money supply would essentially be determined by the rate of gold production. When gold stocks increase more rapidly than the economy, there is inflation and the reverse is also true.[59][80] The consensus view is that the gold standard contributed to the severity and length of the Great Depression.[81][82]
Hamilton contended that the gold standard is susceptible to speculative attacks when a government's financial position appears weak. Conversely, this threat discourages governments from engaging in risky policy (see moral hazard). For example, the U.S. was forced to contract the money supply and raise interest rates in September 1931 to defend the dollar after speculators forced the UK off the gold standard.[82][83][84][85]
Devaluing a currency under a gold standard would generally produce sharper changes than the smooth declines seen in fiat currencies, depending on the method of devaluation.[86]
Most economists favor a low, positive rate of inflation of around 2%. This reflects fear of deflationary shocks and the belief that active monetary policy can dampen fluctuations in output and unemployment. Inflation gives them room to tighten policy without inducing deflation.[87]
A gold standard provides practical constraints against the measures that central banks might otherwise use to respond to economic crises.[88] Creation of new money reduces interest rates and thereby increases demand for new lower cost debt, raising the demand for money.[89]

text: Gold standard and Bitcoin

text: According to research produced by the Bank of Canada, the emerging Bitcoin economy has many similarities with the economy based on gold standard, in particular:[90][91]

text:
limited and predictable supply of the anchor of the monetary system
no central bank or monetary authority controls the supply
low or non-existent inflation
virtually no arbitrage costs for international transactions
Governments have less control over their domestic economies
Governments lose seigniorage revenues that they obtain from the ability to almost costlessly create money

text: Edward Hadas and Michael Hiltzik noted that monetary systems based on Bitcoin and gold have some similar disadvantages:

text:
independence from government[92][93]
price declines[92]
less spending during crisis times[92]

text: George Gilder, a proponent of gold standard, proposed breaking "the government monopoly on money" by using a combination of Bitcoin for the internet and treating gold in tax terms as currency.[94][95]

text: Advocates

text: A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982, but found only minority support.[96] In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using the Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25 grams of pure (24-carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations. This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt-backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest.[97] As of 2013[update] the global monetary system continued to rely on the US dollar as the main reserve currency.[98]

text: Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of "a small minority" within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard.[99] In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand, titled "Gold and Economic Freedom", Greenspan argued the case for returning to a 'pure' gold standard; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as "welfare statists" intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending.[100] More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation "central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard", rendering a return to the standard unnecessary.[101]

text: Similarly, economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of "monetary constitution" is essential for stable, depoliticized monetary policy, the form this constitution takes—for example, a gold standard, some other commodity-based standard, or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money—is considerably less important.[102]

text: The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics, free-market libertarians and some supply-siders.[103]

text: US politics

text: In the United States, strict constitutionalists object to the government issuing fiat currency through central banks. Some gold-standard advocates also call for a mandated end to fractional-reserve banking. Many similar alternatives have been suggested, including energy-based currencies, collections of currencies or commodities, with gold as one component.

text: Former congressman Ron Paul is a long-term, high-profile advocate of a gold standard, but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy.[104]

text: In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes.[105] As federally issued currency, the coins were already legal tender for taxes, although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value. Similar legislation is under consideration in other US states.[106] The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama.[107]

text: In 2013, the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439, which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt, but the bill was vetoed by the Governor.[108]

text: In 2015, some candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard, based on concern that the Federal Reserve’s attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation. Economic historians did not agree with candidate's assertions that the gold standard would benefit the US economy.[109]

text: Critics

text: In 2012 a poll of 40 U.S. economists in the IGM Economic Experts Panel found that none of them agreed with a claim that a return to the gold standard would result in "price-stability and employment outcomes [that] would be better for the average American." The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners, former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents, and senior faculty from Harvard, Chicago, Stanford, MIT, and other well-known research universities. (The specific question posed to the economists was: "If the US replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard, defining a 'dollar' as a specific number of ounces of gold, the price-stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American.") [3]

text: The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University presented arguments against Ron Paul's advocacy of the gold standard since the 1970s. He sometimes summarizes his opposition by stating simply, "[W]e don’t have the gold standard. It’s not because we don’t know about the gold standard, it’s because we do."[110]


document_title: Water chlorination

question_text: when was chlorine first added to drinking water in the uk

text: Water chlorination

text: History[edit]

text: In a paper published in 1894, it was formally proposed to add chlorine to water to render it "germ-free". Two other authorities endorsed this proposal and published it in many other papers in 1895.[1] Early attempts at implementing water chlorination at a water treatment plant were made in 1893 in Hamburg, Germany, and in 1897 the town of Maidstone, England was the first to have its entire water supply treated with chlorine.[2]

text: Permanent water chlorination began in 1905, when a faulty slow sand filter and a contaminated water supply caused a serious typhoid fever epidemic in Lincoln, England.[3] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston used chlorination of the water to stop the epidemic. His installation fed a concentrated solution of so-called chloride of lime to the water being treated. This was not simply modern calcium chloride, but contained chlorine gas dissolved in lime-water (dilute calcium hydroxide) to form calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime). The chlorination of the water supply helped stop the epidemic and as a precaution, the chlorination was continued until 1911 when a new water supply was instituted.[4]

text: The first continuous use of chlorine in the United States for disinfection took place in 1908 at Boonton Reservoir (on the Rockaway River), which served as the supply for Jersey City, New Jersey.[5] Chlorination was achieved by controlled additions of dilute solutions of chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) at doses of 0.2 to 0.35 ppm. The treatment process was conceived by Dr. John L. Leal, and the chlorination plant was designed by George Warren Fuller.[6] Over the next few years, chlorine disinfection using chloride of lime (calcium hypochlorite) were rapidly installed in drinking water systems around the world.[7]

text: The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developed by a British officer in the Indian Medical Service, Vincent B. Nesfield, in 1903. According to his own account, "It occurred to me that chlorine gas might be found satisfactory ... if suitable means could be found for using it.... The next important question was how to render the gas portable. This might be accomplished in two ways: By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts."[8]

text: Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the first practical demonstration of this in 1910.[9] This work became the basis for present day systems of municipal water purification. Shortly after Darnall's demonstration, Major William J. L. Lyster of the Army Medical Department used a solution of calcium hypochlorite in a linen bag to treat water.

text: For many decades, Lyster's method remained the standard for U.S. ground forces in the field and in camps, implemented in the form of the familiar Lyster Bag (also spelled Lister Bag). The canvas "bag, water, sterilizing" was a common component of field kitchens, issued one per 100 persons, of a standard 36-gallon capacity that hung from an often-improvised tripod in the field. In use from World War I through the Vietnam War, it has been replaced by reverse osmosis systems that produce potable water by pressure straining local water through microscopic-level filters: the Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit (1980) and the Tactical Water Purification System (2007) for large-scale production, and the Light Water Purifier unit for smaller-scale needs that includes ultrafiltration technology to produce potable water from any source and uses automated backwash cycles every 15 minutes to simplify cleaning operations.

text: Chlorine gas was first used on a continuing basis to disinfect the water supply at the Belmont filter plant, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by using a machine invented by Charles Frederick Wallace[citation needed] who dubbed it the Chlorinator. It was manufactured by the Wallace & Tiernan company beginning in 1913.[10] By 1941, disinfection of U.S. drinking water by chlorine gas had largely replaced the use of chloride of lime.[11][12]

text: Chlorination can also be practiced using sodium hypochlorite or various other chemicals.

text: Biochemistry[edit]

text: As a halogen, chlorine is a highly efficient disinfectant, and is added to public water supplies to kill disease-causing pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoans, that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls of water mains and in storage tanks.[13] The microscopic agents of many diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery killed countless people annually before disinfection methods were employed routinely.[13]

text: Chlorine is manufactured from salt by electrolysis or other methods. It is a gas at atmospheric pressures but liquefies under pressure. The liquefied gas is transported and used as such.

text: As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills via the oxidation of organic molecules.[13] Chlorine and hydrolysis product hypochlorous acid are neutrally charged and therefore easily penetrate the negatively charged surface of pathogens. It is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and react with intracellular enzymes and proteins, making them nonfunctional. Microorganisms then either die or are no longer able to multiply.[14]

text: Principles[edit]

text: When dissolved in water, chlorine converts to an equilibrium mixture of chlorine, hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydrochloric acid (HCl):

text:
In acidic solution, the major species are Cl
2 and HOCl, whereas in alkaline solution, effectively only ClO− (hypochlorite ion) is present. Very small concentrations of ClO2−, ClO3−, ClO4− are also found.[15]

text: Shock chlorination[edit]

text: Shock chlorination is a process used in many swimming pools, water wells, springs, and other water sources to reduce the bacterial and algal residue in the water. Shock chlorination is performed by mixing a large amount of hypochlorite into the water. The hypochlorite can be in the form of a powder or a liquid such as chlorine bleach (solution of sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite in water). Water that is being shock chlorinated should not be swum in or drunk until the sodium hypochlorite count in the water goes down to three parts per million (PPM) or until the calcium hypochlorite count goes down to 0.2 to 0.35 PPM.[citation needed]

text: Drawbacks[edit]

text: Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. Chlorine can react with naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water supply to produce compounds known as disinfection by-products (DBPs). The most common DBPs are trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs). Trihalomethanes are the main disinfectant by-products created from chlorination with two different types, bromoform and dibromochloromethane, which are mainly responsible for health hazards. Their effects depend strictly on the duration of their exposure to the chemicals and the amount ingested into the body. In high doses, bromoform mainly slows down regular brain activity, which is manifested by symptoms such as sleepiness or sedation. Chronic exposure of both bromoform and dibromochloromethane can cause liver and kidney cancer, as well as heart disease, unconsciousness, or death in high doses.[16] Due to the potential carcinogenicity of these compounds, drinking water regulations across the developed world require regular monitoring of the concentration of these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water systems. The World Health Organization has stated that "the risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection".[17]

text: There are also other concerns regarding chlorine, including its volatile nature which causes it to disappear too quickly from the water system, and organoleptic concerns such as taste and odor.

text: Alternative methods for water disinfection[edit]

text: Ozonation[edit]

text: Ozonation is used by many European countries and also in a few municipalities in the United States and Canada. This alternative is more cost effective but energy intensive. It involves ozone being bubbled through the water, breaking down all parasites, bacteria, and all other harmful organic substances. However, this method leaves no residual ozone to control contamination of the water after the process has been completed.[18]

text: The advantage of chlorine in comparison to ozone is that the residual persists in the water for an extended period of time. This feature allows the chlorine to travel through the water supply system, effectively controlling pathogenic backflow contamination. In a large system this may not be adequate, and so chlorine levels may be boosted at points in the distribution system, or chloramine may be used, which remains in the water for longer before reacting or dissipating.

text: Chloramination[edit]

text: Chloramination is also becoming increasingly common. Disinfection with chloramine produces less undesirable byproducts than chlorine (gas or hypochlorite). Chloramine has a longer half-life in the distribution system, and maintains effective protection against pathogens. Chloramines persist in the distribution because of their lower redox potential in comparison to free chlorine. Chloramine is formed by adding ammonia and chlorine into drinking water to form monochloramine and/or dichloramine. Whereas Helicobacter pylori can be many times more resistant to chlorine than Escherichia coli, both organisms are about equally susceptible to the disinfecting effect of chloramine.[19]

text: Bromination and iodinization[edit]

text: Chlorine in water is over three times more effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and over six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine.[20]

text: Home filtration[edit]

text: Water treated by filtration and home filtration may not need further disinfection; a very high proportion of pathogens are removed by materials in the filter bed. Filtered water must be used soon after it is filtered, as the low amount of remaining microbes may proliferate over time. In general, these home filters remove over 90% of the chlorine available to a glass of treated water. These filters must be periodically replaced otherwise the bacterial content of the water may actually increase due to the growth of bacteria within the filter unit.[18]

text: UV radiation[edit]

text: UV disinfection is gaining popularity. UV treatment leaves minimal residue in the water. In water UV generates ozone in situ and thus has many of the advantages of ozone disinfection. However, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation alone (as well as chlorination alone) will not remove toxins from bacteria, pesticides, heavy metals, etc. from water.

text: Ionizing radiation[edit]

text: Like UV, ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, and electron beams) has been used to sterilize water.


document_title: The Last Tycoon (TV series)

question_text: who plays minna davis in the last tycoon

text: The Last Tycoon (TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: Based on F. Scott Fitzgerald's last book The Last Tycoon published posthumously, the show takes place in 1936 Hollywood. Monroe Stahr, loosely based on the famous producer Irving Thalberg, battles his boss Pat Brady.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Matt Bomer as Monroe Stahr, widower and film producer
Kelsey Grammer as Pat Brady
Lily Collins as Cecelia Brady
Dominique McElligott as Kathleen Moore
Enzo Cilenti as Aubrey Hackett
Koen De Bouw as Tomas Szep[4]
Mark O'Brien as Max Miner
Rosemarie DeWitt as Rose Brady

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Jessica De Gouw as Minna Davis
Jennifer Beals as Margo Taft
Saul Rubinek as Louis B. Mayer

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

1
"Pilot"
Billy Ray
Billy Ray
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

Hollywood's Golden Boy, Monroe Stahr battles father figure and boss Pat Brady for the soul of their studio in a world darkened by the Depression and the growing influence of Hitler's Germany.

2
"Nobody Recasts Like Monroe"
Billy Ray
Story by : Billy Ray and Christopher Keyser
Teleplay by : Billy Ray
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)

Monroe's personal life heats up as he pursues the beautiful Kathleen, who pushes against the idea of being a replacement for Minna. Pat Brady's pet project has a devastating debut, forcing him to accept Monroe's help. Celia gets cozy in her role as producer, so Hackett takes it upon himself to give her an education.

3
"More Stars Than There Are in Heaven"
Julie Anne Robinson
Story by : Billy Ray and Christopher Keyser
Teleplay by : Billy Ray
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)

With Pat Brady's back against the wall, he proves his worth as a studio head in pursuing film star Margo Taft. Monroe must manage two demanding bosses as Louis B. Mayer takes a driving role in Brady American. Rose seeks a new outlet in her life. Celia forms a connection with office boy, Max Miner. Monroe's relationship with Kathleen blossoms as they let their guard down.

4
"Burying the Boy Genius"
Scott Hornbacher
Story by : Billy Ray and Christopher Keyser
Teleplay by : Billy Ray
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)

Irving Thalberg's death sends shockwaves throughout the industry, and causes further insecurity from Brady about his own golden boy. Monroe risks his budding relationship to save a movie and Brady American. Celia's adjustments to Hackett's script are well received. Rose immerses herself in volunteering, and forges a meaningful bond with a young, lonely patient.

5
"Eine Kleine Reichmusik"
Gwyneth Horder-Payton
Story by : Billy Ray and Christopher Keyser
Teleplay by : Christopher Keyser
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)

Stahr orchestrates an extravagant Hollywood party that masks a secret agenda. Brady courts Margo Taft to become Brady-American's permanent leading lady. Rose is tortured by Stahr's public happiness and Brady's public philandering. Celia and Lang's partnership takes a provocative turn. Hackett is intrigued by a visitor from Vienna. Kathleen reluctantly agrees to Monroe's request to screen test.

6
"A Brady-American Christmas"
Stacie Passon
Julia Cox and Katie Robbins
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)

Stahr encourages Kathleen to join Lang's secluded rehearsal, leaving him alone on Christmas Eve to contemplate his choices. Brady hopes for a Christmas miracle as he schemes to boost ticket sales for "Angels on the Avenue." Kathleen must pay a sinister price for stardom. Rose helps Kitty prepare for a dangerous surgery. Celia and Max are brought closer by tragedy.

7
"A More Perfect Union"
Daisy von Scherler Mayer
Anna Fishko
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)

Stahr hunts for the perfect publicity angle for Kathleen, while managing reactions to his big news. Brady hatches a bold business ploy that has sweeping consequences for the studio and forces Monroe to contain the repercussions. Kathleen struggles to manage her tangled web of half-truths. Celia cares for Max as they test the boundaries of their new relationship. Hackett takes a stand.

8
"An Enemy Among Us"
Scott Hornbacher
Peter Parnell
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)

Stahr concocts a campaign to secure the studio's first ever Oscar nominations. Brady scours for a solution to balance the books and get the Board of Directors off his back. Celia's mettle as a producer is tested by Lang's outrageous demands. Kathleen plots an escape from her dangerous charade. Rose makes a shocking discovery.

9
"Oscar, Oscar, Oscar"
Billy Ray
Story by : Billy Ray and Christopher Keyser
Teleplay by : Christopher Keyser
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)

Brady makes a drastic decision to save the studio which causes a catastrophic rift in his relationship with Stahr. Monroe and Kathleen grapple with the emotional fallout of her dark deception. Rose forges a new path in life. Celia takes a lesson from her father. Max's indiscretion comes back to haunt him. Hackett has a surprising proposition for Hannah.