document_title: European colonisation of Southeast Asia

question_text: which european country was the first to establish a colony in southeast asia

text: European colonisation of Southeast Asia

text: Early phase[edit]

text: In the period between the 15th to late 17th centuries, advances in cartography, shipbuilding and navigational skills gave rise to what is now called the Age of Exploration. During this time, the Europeans made many sea voyages around the world in search of new trading routes and opportunities. An early European to visit Southeast Asia was Niccolò de' Conti, who travelled there in the early 15th century.

text: The early Europeans were drawn to Southeast Asia by the spice trade. There was a great demand for oriental spices at the time in European markers. The spices from Southeast Asia included pepper, cloves, nutmeg, mace and cinnamon. The spice trade was extremely lucrative and the early Europeans were highly motivated to secure a direct trade route in spices between Europe and Asia.

text: The spice trade was made possible by the maritime trade route. In 1498, the Portuguese navigator, Vasco da Gama, sailed round the Cape of Good Hope and opened up a sea route from Europe to India. Bringing home samples of exotic oriental products, da Gama greatly increased European interest in the new trade route and the new trade route quickly facilitated the expansion of trade. Eventually, the Dutch wrestled control of it from the Portuguese in the 17th century, and in the 18th century, the British gained control of it from the Dutch. Nevertheless, the spice route greatly increased trading activities, deepened the economic relations between Europe and Southeast Asia and as a result, more European merchants found their way to Southeast Asia.[1]

text: Portugal was the first European power to establish a bridgehead on the lucrative maritime Southeast Asia trade route, with the conquest of the Sultanate of Malacca in 1511. The Netherlands and Spain followed and soon superseded Portugal as the main European powers in the region. In 1599, Spain began to colonise the Philippines. In 1619, acting through the Dutch East India Company, the Dutch took the city of Sunda Kelapa, renamed it Batavia (now Jakarta) as a base for trading and expansion into the other parts of Java and the surrounding territory. In 1641, the Dutch took Malacca from the Portuguese.[note 1] Economic opportunities attracted Overseas Chinese to the region in great numbers. In 1775, the Lanfang Republic, possibly the first republic in the region, was established in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, as a tributary state of the Qing Empire; the republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned.[note 2]

text: Spread of Christianity[edit]

text: During the 16th century, the Europeans viewed Muslim control of the eastern and southern parts of Europe with concern, as both a religious threat as well as an obstacle to trade. To counter this Muslim threat, the Europeans aimed to spread Christianity across the known world. At the same time, they also searched for profitable trading opportunities. This explained why the Portuguese and Spanish came to Southeast Asia and how they managed to establish their trading ports in strategic locations. By the time the British and the Dutch came to Southeast Asia, trade had become the dominant motive, and religion was less important. Aside from Islam being a widely important religion in Southeast Asia, Buddhism and Hinduism were also popular amongst the Southeast Asian population. A key reason for this could be because of the fact that India and China were neighbours to Southeast Asia.[citation needed]

text: Industrialised phase[edit]

text: The 17th century saw the formation of powerful trading companies such as the British East India Company and its Dutch counterpart VOC (initials for its Dutch name, Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie). This was because the ships needed for the maritime spice trade were too expensive for individual merchants to acquire, and the sea route presented numerous challenges which delayed the recovery of initial financial costs. Sea voyages were dangerous and, before the advent of steam engines, depended on the wind which meant that the journeys were long and unpredictable.

text: The British East India Company led by Josiah Child, had little interest or impact in the region, and were effectively expelled following the Siam–England war (1687). Britain, in the guise of the British East India Company, turned their attention to the Bay of Bengal following the Peace with France and Spain (1783). During the conflicts, Britain had struggled for naval superiority with the French, and the need of good harbours became evident. Penang Island had been brought to the attention of the Government of India by Francis Light. In 1786, the settlement of George Town was founded at the northeastern tip of Penang Island by Captain Francis Light, under the administration of Sir John Macpherson; this marked the beginning of British expansion into the Malay Peninsula.[2][note 3]

text: In the latter half of the 18th century, however, Europe experienced a massive advancements in science, industry and technology, and this created a tremendous gap in the power relations between the Europeans and people in other parts of the world, including Southeast Asia. This period also saw the initial stages of growing industrialisation that would increase European demand for raw materials. Southeast Asia happened to be rich in the resources needed.

text: The last quarter of the 19th century was a period when the European economies experienced the full effects of the Industrial Revolution. During this time, there was extensive use of machines to manufacture goods which increased production. This led to a growing accumulation of surplus goods. The manufacturers were thus compelled to find overseas markets to sell their products and increase their profits. One solution was to develop markets in new territories such as Southeast Asia that could use their manufactured goods. This led to the next phase of establishing colonial territories that could be retained as monopoly markets by the Europeans.

text: However, industrialisation took place against increasing competition among the European powers. This was encouraged by changes in the continental balance of power. The Napoleonic Wars unseated French power. The commercial and naval powers of Britain, which were unrivalled for a time, started to erode later on. Competition among European powers led to the practice of carving up the world into spheres of influence. There was also the need to fill ‘vacuums’ of territories that would otherwise fall under the influence of another competing European power.

text: The British temporarily possessed Dutch territories during the Napoleonic Wars; and Spanish areas in the Seven Years' War. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. British rule in Burma began with the first Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826).

text: Early United States entry into what was then called the East Indies (usually in reference to the Malay Archipelago) was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage for pepper set sail from Salem, Massachusetts on an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at the extraordinary profit of seven hundred per cent.[3] In 1831, the merchantman Friendship of Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, who accordingly sent the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army on the punitive expedition of 1831. President Andrew Jackson also ordered America's first Sumatran punitive expedition of 1832, which was followed by a punitive expedition in 1838. The Friendship incident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Ache; and Jackson, to dispatch diplomatist Edmund Roberts,[4] who in 1833 secured the Roberts Treaty with Siam. In 1856 negotiations for amendment of this treaty, Townsend Harris stated the position of the United States:

text: The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any. The form of government forbids the holding of colonies. The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission.[5]

text: From the end of the 1850s onwards, while the attention of the United States shifted to maintaining their union, the pace of European colonisation shifted to a significantly higher gear.

text: This phenomenon, denoted New Imperialism, saw the conquest of nearly all Southeast Asian territories by the colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. Only Siam did not experience foreign rule, though Siam, too, was greatly influenced by the politics of the Western powers. The Monthon reforms of the late 19th century continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities called Mueang, such that the country could be said to have successfully colonised itself.[6] Western powers did, however, continue to interfere in both internal and external affairs.[7][8]

text: By 1913, the British had occupied Burma, Malaya and the northern Borneo territories, the French controlled Indochina, the Dutch ruled the Netherlands East Indies while Portugal managed to hold on to Portuguese Timor. In the Philippines, the 1872 Cavite Mutiny was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution (1896–1898). When the Spanish–American War began in Cuba in 1898, Filipino revolutionaries declared Philippine independence and established the First Philippine Republic the following year. In the Treaty of Paris of 1898 that ended the war with Spain, the United States gained the Philippines and other territories; in refusing to recognise the nascent republic, America effectively reversed her position of 1856. This led directly to the Philippine–American War, in which the First Republic was defeated; wars followed with the Republic of Zamboanga, the Republic of Negros and the Republic of Katagalugan, all of which were also defeated.

text: The Long Depression also intensified the competition among the European powers. This period of prolonged economic recession saw severe price deflation as well as factors unfavourable to trade. The European governments responded to this crisis by promoting home industries and minimising trade with other European countries. However, as domestic markets and export opportunities quickly became saturated, finding new markets for manufactured goods became more urgent. New colonies overseas, not exposed to the same economic conditions, provided the perfect solution.

text: During the mid-19th century, the Europeans had certain goals which they regarded as important in the humanitarian sense. One of these goals was expressed in the slogan, ‘The White Man's Burden’ (taken from a line in a poem by Rudyard Kipling), which was the mission to ‘civilise’ (uplift, advance) the ‘less fortunate’ and ‘less gifted’ people of Southeast Asia. Towards this end, they implemented policies providing educational and healthcare services. However, this humanitarian concern was influenced by political concerns, and sometimes arose more out of cultural arrogance than genuine sympathy.

text: Sometimes, the acquisition of colonies was an attempt to revive declining political and economic status rather than a show of power. France was preoccupied with expanding her colonial empire to recover from her humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. Britain, having lost her dominance in the world economy to newly industrialised countries such as Germany (Prussia united all the German states to form Germany in 1871 after the victory in the Franco-Prussian war) and the United States, saw empire-building as a necessary recourse. It was generally assumed that the establishment of colonies to protect existing trade links would prevent further decline of the European powers.

text: Role of the Europeans[edit]

text: In the early phase, European control in Southeast Asia was largely confined to the establishment of trading posts. These trading posts were used to store the oriental products obtained from the local traders before they were exported to the European markets. Such trading posts had to be located along major shipping routes and their establishments had to be approved by the local ruler so that peace would prevail for trade to take place. Malacca, Penang, Batavia and Singapore were all early trading posts.

text: The role of the Europeans changed, however, in the industrialised phase as their control expanded beyond their trading posts. As the trading posts grew due to an increase in the volume of trade, demand for food supplies and timber (to build and repair ships) also increased. To ensure a reliable supply of food and timber, the Europeans were forced to deal with the local communities nearby. These marked the beginnings of territorial control. A good example is the case of Batavia. There, the Dutch extended control over parts of western Java and later to central Java and the east where rice was grown and timber found.

text: To ensure that trade flourish, the Europeans had to maintain political stability. Sometimes, they interfered with the internal affairs of the natives to maintain peace. The Europeans also tried to impose their culture on their colonies.

text: Impact[edit]

text: Colonial rule had had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent. Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period. The introduction Christianity bought by the colonist also have profound effect in the societal change.

text: Increased labor demand resulted in mass immigration, especially from British India and China, which brought about massive demographic change. The institutions for a modern nation state like a state bureaucracy, courts of law, print media and to a smaller extent, modern education, sowed the seeds of the fledgling nationalist movements in the colonial territories. In the inter-war years, these nationalist movements grew and often clashed with the colonial authorities when they demanded self-determination.

text: The expansion of European dominance through colonialism was considered extraordinary as it affected the entirety of Southeast Asia significantly. Later on, more common features would emerge, such as the rise of nationalist movements, the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia, and later the Cold War that engulfed many parts of the region. Taken altogether, it can be said that a common core of historical experiences existed, and that this core defined the region, thus justifying the use of the term ‘Southeast Asia’ to describe the region as a single entity.

text: List of European colonies[edit]

text:
British Burma (1824–1948, merged with India by the British from 1886 to 1937)
French Indochina (1887–1953, now the countries of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos), including:

text:
French Laos (1893-1953)
French Cambodia (1863-1953)
Annam (now Vietnam) (1883-1953)

text: Malaya (now part of Malaysia):

text: Straits Settlements (1826–1946)

text:
Penang – British colony (1786–1957)
Singapore – British colony (1819–1963)
Malacca – British colony (1824–1957)

text:
Federated Malay States (1895–1946)
Unfederated Malay States (1885-1946)

text: British Borneo (now part of Malaysia), including:

text:
Labuan (1848–1946)
North Borneo (1882–1941)

text: Crown Colony of North Borneo (1946–1963)

text:
Crown Colony of Sarawak (1946–1963)
British Brunei (1888–1984, British protectorate)

text: Philippines:

text:
Portuguese Timor (1702–1975, now East Timor)
Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) – Dutch colony from 1602–1949 (included Netherlands New Guinea until 1962)

text: Independent state[edit]

text: Siam (now Thailand) – was the only independent state in Southeast Asia, but had Britain sphere of influence in the north and south and France in the Northeast and East.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ For fifty or sixty years, the Portuguese enjoyed the exclusive trade to China and Japan. In 1717, and again in 1732, the Chinese government offered to make Macao the emporium for all foreign trade, and to receive all duties on imports; but, by a strange infatuation, the Portuguese government refused, and its decline is dated from that period. (Roberts, 2007 PDF image 173 p. 166)
Jump up ^ Other experiments in republicanism in adjacent regions were the Japanese Republic of Ezo (1869) and the Republic of Taiwan (1895).
Jump up ^ Company agent John Crawfurd used the census taken in 1824 for a statistical analysis of the relative economic prowess of the peoples there, giving special attention to the Chinese: The Chinese amount to 8595, and are landowners, field-labourers, mechanics of almost every description, shopkeepers, and general merchants. They are all from the two provinces of Canton and Fo-kien, and three-fourths of them from the latter. About five-sixths of the whole number are unmarried men, in the prime of life : so that, in fact, the Chinese population, in point of effective labour, may be estimated as equivalent to an ordinary population of above 37,000, and, as will afterwards be shown, to a numerical Malay population of more than 80,000! (Crawfurd image 48. p.30)


document_title: Lie to Me

question_text: when did the show lie to me end

question_tokens: when did the show lie to me end

root

text: Lie to Me

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Tim Roth as Dr. Cal Lightman, a genius body language scientist, predominantly microexpressions, and a founder of The Lightman Group, a private company that operates as an independent contractor to assist investigations of local and federal law enforcement through applied psychology.[11] Though often confronted by people's skepticism, Lightman uses any technique he deems necessary to reach the truth, however elaborate or confronting. He is divorced and shares custody of his teenage daughter. He cares deeply about his colleague Gillian Foster; and there is a chemistry between them that has yet to develop into anything more although, in the Season 3 finale, he confesses to his daughter that he loves her. His mother committed suicide while he was still young, an event that led him to discovering and researching microexpressions. There is evidence he was involved with British Intelligence in Northern Ireland.[12] Lightman also mentioned interrogating militant suspects recalling his release of one suspect resulted in the shootings of 6 and the deaths of 3 in a murder operation the suspect subsequently carried out. He has also admitted to being an MI6 intelligence agent during the Yugoslav Wars (1994) in an attempt to gain the trust of an intelligence agent that he was interrogating. Lightman is a West Ham United supporter as he mentions himself in Season 2. He can also be seen wearing a Claret and Blue scarf in one of the later episodes of Season 2. The character is based on Dr. Paul Ekman, a psychologist and expert on body language and facial expressions at University of California, San Francisco.[13]
Kelli Williams as Dr. Gillian Foster, Dr. Lightman's psychologist colleague in The Lightman Group who analyses patterns of voice, language, and behavior.[14] She can be somewhat impulsive but is very professional with the clients and subjects in public. While she occasionally disagrees with some of Lightman's actions, she has an open pact with Lightman: not to let their professional skill interfere with coworkers' personal lives. Her husband's lack of candor often challenges this: When Cal believes her husband, Alec, is cheating on her, he simply ignores what he is seeing, much to Torres's dismay. It is later revealed that he was not cheating on her but was trying to overcome his drug addiction; they promptly divorce. Gillian had adopted a baby (Sophie) who was eventually returned to the birth mother. This character is based on Dr. Maureen O’Sullivan, Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the University of San Francisco.
Brendan Hines as Eli Loker, an employee of The Lightman Group. Unlike Torres, whom Lightman calls "a natural", Loker acquired his skills in "reading" people through academic education and practice. During Season 1, he also adheres to Radical Honesty and thus rarely lies, even if that makes him appear rude or undiplomatic.[15] Lightman demoted him to an unpaid intern after, despite Foster's warnings, he divulged sensitive information to the SEC while working on a case. However, he is later promoted to Vice President, which makes a rift in any developing relationship between him and Torres.
Monica Raymund as Ria Torres, an employee of The Lightman Group and Dr. Lightman's protégé, who was recognized as a "natural" while she was still working as a TSA Agent.[16] Torres was abused as a child,[17] a common pattern among naturals. Though talented and loyal, she lacks academic training and sometimes lets her emotions cloud her judgment. She has a half-sister who was in juvenile prison and is now enrolled at a private school.

tag: ul

text:
Hayley McFarland as Emily Lightman, Cal Lightman's teenage daughter. Her parents share custody of her, and, while she does not appreciate her father's ability to "read" her, she does not deny its merit for social screening. She has boyfriends over the series that her father scrutinizes. Though she sometimes gets into trouble and has fake IDs, and, to Lightman's chagrin, has been sexually active, she is generally well behaved and has a loving relationship with her father. (Recurring – Season 1, regular – Seasons 2–3)
Mekhi Phifer as Ben Reynolds, an FBI Agent who is assigned to and assists the Lightman Group in their investigations, offering armed assistance and practical insights. Reynolds doesn't always agree with Lightman's ways but stands behind him most of the time. (Recurring – season 1, regular – season 2)

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Jennifer Beals as Zoe Landau, Cal Lightman's ex-wife and Emily's mother, occupied as an Assistant Attorney General. While engaged to another man, she also engaged in a tryst with Lightman, after he helped her in a case. (Seasons 1 & 2)
Monique Gabriela Curnen as Detective Sharon Wallowski, a police officer who assists Lightman. She also engages in a romantic relationship with Cal Lightman, but ends it once Lightman finds out the truth about her past as a dirty cop. (Season 3)
Tim Guinee as Alec Foster, Gillian Foster's ex-husband. He works at the United States Department of State and is a recovering cocaine addict. Throughout the series it was heavily hinted that he was having an extramarital affair until it was revealed that the woman was his CA sponsor. He and Gillian divorced. (Season 1 only)
Sean Patrick Thomas as Special Agent Karl Dupree. Dupree initially assisted the Lightman group on a case involving a controversial South Korean ambassador who is presumed to be an assassination target at his son's state wedding. Torres and Dupree are romantically involved later in season one. He also defends Torres against Loker when he divulged sensitive information to the SEC while working on a case. (Season 1 only)
Brandon Jones as Liam, Emily Lightman's boyfriend, a high school jock who is not intimidated by Cal Lightman. Emily breaks up with him because he does not believe in sex before marriage. (Season 3 only)

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
13
January 21, 2009
May 13, 2009

2
22
September 28, 2009
September 13, 2010

3
13
October 4, 2010
January 31, 2011

tag: table

text: Plot[edit]

text: Season one opens with Cal and Gillian hiring a new associate: TSA officer Ria Torres, who scored extraordinarily high on Cal's deception-detection diagnostic, and is in turn labeled a "natural" at deception detection. Her innate talent in the field clashes with Cal's academic approach, and he often shows off by rapidly analyzing her every facial expression. She counters by reading Lightman and, when he least expects it, peppers conversations with quotes from his books.

tag: p

text: It was gradually revealed that Dr. Lightman was driven to study micro-expressions as a result of guilt over his mother's suicide. She claimed to have been fine in order to obtain a weekend pass from a psychiatric ward, when she was actually experiencing agony (which parallels an anecdote in Paul Ekman's book "Telling Lies").

text: For a small number of the early episodes, Lightman would team up with Torres to work on a case, while Foster and Loker would team up on a separate case. Occasionally, their work would intertwine, or Foster and/or Lightman would provide assistance on each other's cases. As the first season progressed, the cases became more involved, and all four of the main characters would work together on one case for each episode.

text: In addition to detecting deception in subjects they interview, Lightman and his team also use various interviewing and interrogation tactics to elicit useful information. Rather than by force, they use careful lines of questioning, provocative statements, theatrics and healthy doses of deception on their own part. In the show's pilot episode, Lightman is speaking to a man who is refusing to speak at all, and is able to discern vital information by talking to him and gauging his reaction to each statement. This approach is also taken in several other episodes (e.g., "Do No Harm").

text: Principal crew[edit]

text: Samuel Baum (showrunner/head writer), Brian Grazer, David Nevins, Steven Maeda. Katherine Pope, former president of NBC Universal’s TV studio, signed on as a consulting producer. Pope worked on the final four episodes of the first season.[18] Shawn Ryan, creator of The Shield and The Unit, took over as show runner for the second season.[19][20]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The show received mostly positive reviews from television critics. It gained a score of 64 on Metacritic from 24 reviews.[21] Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker awarded Lie to Me a B- rating and wrote "Lie to Me is derivative yet well crafted, predictable yet ever-so-slightly novel… it's no wonder that Fox thinks it's got itself a potential hit". However, he also commented "if this review were a face, Dr. Lightman would say it had a forced smile: hopeful, but dubious, about Lie's chances."[22] Tom Shales, writing for the Washington Post, said "Lie to Me seems an unusually meaty, thoughtful and thought-provoking crime drama – another police procedural, yes, but one with a dramatic and mesmerizing difference… easily one of the season's best new shows."[23]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: In the United States, the viewing figures declined as the series progressed. The Pilot was seen by 12.37 million, however by the final episode of the first season it was down to 8.46 million. The most viewed episode was episode three, "A Perfect Score", which attracted 12.99 million. The second season premiered on September 28, 2009 to 7.73 million viewers.[24] The season two finale had 4.94 million viewers in the U.S. on September 13, 2010.[25] The third season, which had its premiere moved forward to October 4, 2010, was viewed by 5.87 million people in the U.S.[26] The series' official cancellation was announced by Fox on May 10, 2011.[27]

text: Seasonal ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Original airing
Rank
Viewers
(in millions)
Notes
Network

Season premiere
Season finale
TV season

1
13
January 21, 2009 (2009-01-21)
May 13, 2009 (2009-05-13)
2008–2009
#29[28]
11.06[28]

Fox

2
22
September 28, 2009 (2009-09-28)
September 13, 2010 (2010-09-13)
2009–2010
#57[29]
7.39[29]
[Note 1]

3
13
October 4, 2010 (2010-10-04)
January 31, 2011 (2011-01-31)
2010–2011
#78
6.71[31]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Primetime Emmy Awards[edit]

text: 2009 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Design (nominee)

text: People's Choice Awards[edit]

text: Lie to me was nominated for two awards at the 37th People's Choice Awards and won both of them.[32]

text:
2011 Favorite TV Crime Drama (WON)
2011 Favorite TV Crime Fighter (Tim Roth, WON)

text: International broadcasting[edit]

text: The series is broadcast on Global in Canada, Network Ten in Australia, M-Net in South Africa, and also airs in Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Hungary and Belgium.[33][34] Lie to Me aired on Sky1 in the UK and Ireland,[35] starting on May 14, 2009. On July 20, 2009, Fox aired the premiere in Latin America.[36] RTL 5 in The Netherlands has been broadcasting it since November 6, 2009. The series debuted in Italy on September 7, 2009 on the Fox Satellite channel. The series has aired in India since September 2010.

text:
Country
Television Network

Albania
Digi +

Argentina
Fox

Egypt
OSN First

Armenia
Kentron TV

Australia
Network Ten, W

Austria
ATV

Belgium
2BE, RTL-TVI

Brazil
Fox, Rede Record

Bulgaria
bTV Cinema

Canada
Global, V

Chile
Fox, MEGA

Colombia
Fox, Caracol Television

Costa Rica
Fox

Croatia
HRT2

Cuba
Multivisión

Czech Republic
TV Prima

Denmark
TV2

Dominican Republic
Fox

Ecuador
Fox Broadcasting Company

El Salvador
Fox Broadcasting Company

Estonia
TV3

Finland
MTV3

France
M6, Paris Première, W9

Georgia
Rustavi 2

Germany
VOX

Haiti
Canal Bleu

Honduras
Fox

Hungary
RTL Klub, Cool TV

Iceland
Stöð 2

India
STAR World

Indonesia
Fox, Rajawali Televisi

Ireland
RTÉ Two

Israel
yes stars Action HD

Italy
Fox, Rete 4, Top Crime

Japan
Fox, TV Tokyo

Kazakhstan
KazTRK

Latvia
TV3, TV3+, TV6, Fox Life

Lithuania
TV3

Malaysia
NTV7, Fox

Mauritius
MBCDigital12 (Cine12)

México
Fox

Moldova
Jurnal TV

The Netherlands
RTL 5

New Zealand
TV3 (New Zealand)

Norway
TV2

Panama
Fox, TV Max

Paraguay
Fox

Peru
Fox

Philippines
Fox, Jack TV

Poland
Canal+ Poland, FOX Life, TVP Seriale, TVP2

Portugal
FOX (Portugal), TVI

Romania
Pro TV

Russia
Channel One (Russia), TV3

Serbia
TV Avala, FOX

Singapore
Starhub Channel 505 – Fox Channel

Slovakia
TV JOJ

Slovenia
TV 3

South Africa
M-Net

South Korea
Fox Korea

Spain
Antena3, Cuatro

Sweden
TV4

Switzerland
RSI La 1, 3+, TSR 1

Taiwan
PTS

Thailand
True Series (Thailand), Fox Thailand

Turkey
Foxlife, Fox Crime, TV2

Ukraine
1+1

United Kingdom
Sky1, Pick TV, Universal Channel (UK)

Uruguay
Monte Carlo TV

Venezuela
Fox

Vietnam
VTV6

text: Home media releases[edit]

text: Season one and two have been released on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4. However, while season one was also released on Blu-ray in North America[37] there has been no announcement about releasing the second season on Blu-ray.[38] The first and second season DVDs sets include deleted scenes and behind-the-scenes featurettes.[39][40] The second season also includes "Dr. Ekman's Blog" and a gag reel.[40] The third and final season was released on October 4, 2011.[41]

text:
Season
DVD release date
Blu-ray release date

Region A
Region B

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4
United States
Canada
United Kingdom
Australia

1
August 25, 2009 (2009-08-25)[37]
September 14, 2009 (2009-09-14)[42]
October 28, 2009 (2009-10-28)[43]
August 25, 2009 (2009-08-25)[37]
N/A
December 5, 2012[44]

2
November 9, 2010 (2010-11-09)[40]
January 3, 2011 (2011-01-03)[45]
December 1, 2010
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

3
October 4, 2011[41]
N/A
November 2, 2011[46]
N/A
N/A
Cancelled


document_title: Mines and Geosciences Bureau Region 13 (Philippines)

question_text: where can manganese be found in the philippines

text: General geology[edit]

text: In the broader physiographic framework of the Philippine archipelago, Caraga Region occupies the northernmost portion of the Eastern Mindanao Ridge or Mindanao Pacific Cordillera, a more than 400-km, NNW-SSE trending orogenic belt comprising eastern Mindanao. The Mindanao Pacific Cordillera is bounded by two major structures that played a key role in the neotectonic evolution of the Philippine Mobile Belt, namely the Philippine Trench and the Philippine Fault Zone.

text: The geologic evolution of the Mindanao Pacific Cordillera was largely controlled by convergent and transcurrent tectonics intermittently active during Upper Cretaceous to Pleistocene times. These complex tectonic processes brought about the juxtaposition of older metamorphic basement rocks with ophiolite suite of rocks later superposed by younger multiple stage island arc volcano-sedimentary sequences. The broad geomorphic configuration of the region is largely controlled by these tectonic processes of the past.

text: Oldest rocks in the region are pre-Tertiary metamorphics and ophiolitic suite of rocks of Cretaceous age. Limited exposures of post-ophiolitic sedimentary rocks of Eocene age suggest dominant erosional processes from Paleocene to Eocene period. On the contrary, the Oligocene to Middle Miocene age is marked by thick accumulation of arc basaltic volcano-sedimentary sequence and turbidites later succeeded by mid-Miocene to Pliocene volcanic flows, pyroclastics and epiclastic of more andesitic composition. Arc magmatism was also active during the mid-Miocene to Pliocene times generating monzonitic and dioritic stocks and plutons and hornblende andesite porphyry intrusions. In areas away from paleo-volcanic centers, thick sedimentary clastic rocks with sporadic limestone horizons and intercalated calcareous sediments, marls and/or coal seams were formed during the Miocene to Pliocene. Reefal limestone, some of dubious stratigraphic position unconformably capped older rocks with age assignment ranging from Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene. The Paco-Maniayao volcanic complex north of Lake Mainit represents the latest Quaternary volcanism in the region.

text: Mineral resources[edit]

text: The rich mineral heritage of Caraga Region greatly owes its genesis to these complex natural processes operative during a long span of geologic time. Two (2) major geological events are noteworthy in influencing the high mineral endowment of the Region. These are: 1) the emplacement of Upper Cretaceous ophiolites over the eastern Philippines proto-arc during the Paleocene times and 2) island arc calc-alkalic magmatic and volcanic activity during the Miocene to Pliocene times coeval with the inception of the Philippine Trench – Philippine Fault system resulting from the oblique convergence of the Philippine Sea Plate with eastern Mindanao.

text: The superposition of the younger island arc plutonic and sub-volcanic rocks with associated hydrothermal base and precious metal deposits with an older ophiolite suite of rocks with affiliated nickel and chromite deposits makes Caraga Region as one of the most prolifically endowed belt of the Philippines in terms of mineral resource potential and diversity.

text: Major metallic commodities[edit]

text: Ophiolite and associated nickel and chromite deposits

text: Caraga Region is situated in the Samar – Surigao segment of the Eastern Bicol – Eastern Mindanao ophiolite belt, one of the nine (9) major ophiolite. Ophiolites, particularly the ultramafic member of the assemblage, are of economic significance as they play host to two strategic ferro-alloy metallic commodities namely nickel and chromium. Large tracts of ultramafic terrains are exposed in the province of Surigao del Norte and northern Surigao del Sur, a majority of which are within the Surigao Mineral Reservation (SMR). Minor occurrences can also be found in the western range of Agusan del Norte.

text: The nickel resources of the region are in the form of nickeliferous laterites, soils of unique geochemistry derived from the tropical weathering of parent serpentinized ultramafites. Two types of nickel ore are of commercial importance, limonite (oxide) ore and saprolite (nickel silicate) ore. Nickel content is higher in the saprolite zone although cobalt is an important by-product of the limonite horizon. Potential is high in Surigao del Norte and northern Surigao del Sur particularly in Dinagat and Nonoc group of islands as well as in Claver – Carrascal area, Surigao mainland. Potential, but of lower tonnage occur in the western highlands of Agusan del Norte particularly from Jabonga to Tubay area.

text: Chromite deposits of typical metallurgical grade are also widely distributed in the ultramafic rocks and are of two types namely primary and secondary chromites, also known in simple parlance as lumpy and sandy chromite, respectively. Primary or orthomagmatic chromites are sporadically distributed in the ultramafics although major economic deposits are generally concentrated in the transition zone between residual harzburgite and cumulate dunite unit. Secondary chromite are either concentrated as residual deposits in latosols or as alluvial deposits in streams and coastal beaches. Large potential of chromite deposits occur in Dinagat Island, Surigao del Norte while sporadic occurrences are also present in the Claver-Carrascal area, Surigao mainland.

text: Island arc volcanism and associated hydrothermal copper and gold deposits

text: Caraga Region likewise occupies the northern and central part of the Eastern Mindanao Gold District, one of the principal gold belts of the country. The province is traditionally known for its productive epithermal to mesothermal gold ± silver deposits even during the pre-WWII times and has been a prime producer of the royal metal during the last two decades. Gold mineralization is generally associated with Miocene to Pliocene plutonic and volcanic rocks of calc-alkalic affinity.

text: The discovery of the Boyongan porphyry copper deposit further enhance the mineral prospectivity of the region in targeting additional concealed copper ± gold deposits beneath or adjacent to known upper-level hydrothermal gold systems. The recognition of presence of telescoped epithermal—hypothermal deposit pairs offers a new dimension in copper—gold exploration for the Region.

text: In terms of potential for gold, Surigao del Norte still ranks high followed by Agusan del Sur and Agusan del Norte. For porphyry copper, rank is still the same although Agusan del Norte have a slight edge than Agusan del Sur as low-level diorite is already exposed in the Asiga area. At present, Surigao del Sur relatively ranks as lowest in potential for both epithermal gold and porphyry copper prospects among the provinces of the Region although its prospectivity may improve as exploration work progresses in the future.

text: Minor metallic mineral commodities[edit]

text: Manganese

text: Geologically, manganese prospects in the region are typically associated with basaltic rocks. Numerous, although sporadic occurrences are reported in the basalts in Surigao del Sur as well as in basalt – limestone contact in RTR town, Agusan del Norte. Continuity is less established and is deemed amenable at present to small scale mining.

text: Bauxite

text: Aluminous bauxite deposit had been reported in Bucas Grande Island, Surigao del Norte but at present, the island is declared as a protected area under the NIPA’s domain.

text: Magnetite

text: Two types of magnetite deposits are found in the region. Primary magnetite in the form of skarn deposit has been reported in Jubgan, San Francisco, Surigao del Norte hosted in ultramafic rocks intruded by felsic intrusives. Secondary titaniferous magnetite sands are reported in the coastal beaches of Bacuag-Gigaquit-Claver area, Surigao del Norte mainland. Of still unresolved genesis are the recently discovered magnetite bodies overlying ultramafic rocks in Urbiztondo, Claver, Surigao del Norte adjacent to ultramafic terrain – arc basalt / limestone lithology.

text: Non-metallic commodities[edit]

text: Limestone and Guano

text: Limestone exposures of varying age are widespread in the Region. Application broadly differs with age. The only cement plant in the Region located in Surigao City derived its raw materials from limestone of Mio-Pliocene age. Industrial and agri-lime are mostly derived from younger limestone bodies (Plio-Pleistocene age). Slightly metamorphosed / marbolized limestone of Oligo-Miocene and pre-Tertiary age are potential for dimension and ornamental stones but production is locally limited and largely untapped.

text: Numerous caves developed in limestone terrains had been inventoried in the past for presence of phosphate – guano deposits. However, with the current thrust on prioritization of cave for protection and use as eco-tourism spots, extraction of guanos from caves is currently minimal.

text: Silica

text: High grade silica bodies (90% and above) amenable to small-scale mining occur in Dinagat Island associated with Cretaceous metamorphics. Lower grade local silica source for cement additive is derived from plagiophyric andesite porphyry in Surigao City.

text: Dimension Stones

text: Serpentinized ultramafics form the bulk of materials that are utilized as dimension/ornamental stones. Presently, raw source from Dinagat are being shipped to Cebu where they are further polished and formed into finished products. Other sources are from foliated—schistosed metamorphics primarily used as local landscape materials. Overall, utilization of rocks with ornamental properties as well as semi-precious gemstone gatherings remain an undeveloped industry in the Region.

text: Coal

text: Although several coal seams had been reported in the literature, those of viable quality are found mostly in Surigao del Sur particularly in the Bislig-Lingig coal district and in San Miguel town.

text: Water resources[edit]

text: Based on the rapid appraisal of water supply sources covering Caraga Region, existing water resources can be broadly categorized into three types namely; groundwater, springs and surface waters.

text: Groundwater

text: In terms of groundwater availability, the percentage per province in terms of area per category are as follows:

text:
Province
Difficult
Deep Well
Shallow Well

Agusan del Norte
70%
30%
0%

Agusan del Sur
50%
50%
0%

Surigao del Norte
79%
20%
1%

Surigao del Sur
45%
43%
12%

text: The extent of completely shallow well area is limited, because most of the recent sedimentary deposits are thick or deposited on younger, permeable rocks that usually have multiple aquifers at greater depths.

text: Surface Waters

text: Major surface water sources in Agusan del Norte are Agusan River, Cabadbaran River, Kalinawan River, Linugos River, Tubay River and Lake Mainit. About 99.5% of the surface water rights were registered for irrigation

text: Major surface water sources in the province are the Agusan River and its tributaries. Surface water use is however mainly for irrigation purposes.

text: Major surface water sources in the province of Surigao del Norte are the Surigao River, Valencia River, Mayag River, Sonkoy Creek, Bacuag River and Gigaguit River. About 94% of the surface water rights were registered for irrigation and the remaining 6% were for domestic, industrial and fisheries by water supply systems and a few private companies. For domestic water supply, the Surigao Metropolitan Water District (SMWD) has registered water from the Parang-Parang Creek (tributary of the Surigao River) since 1994. Actually, SMWD has been collecting surface water from protected spring fields.

text: Major surface water sources in the province of Surigao del Sur are the Carac-an River, Tago River and Bislig River. The bulk of surface water rights were registered for irrigation and the remaining were for domestic, industrial and fisheries by water supply systems and a few private companies.

text: Springs

text: Developed spring sources are usually exploited in hilly to mountainous areas generally classified as difficult areas for groundwater development. Springs are generally localized in occurrence and emanate along contact between pervious and massive rocks; faults, joints, sheared zones and other rock discontinuities; and enlarged solution cavities in limestone / karstic terrain. Higher yield spring waters usually occur in areas underlain by limestone. Developed spring sources inventoried and identified untapped but with potential for future development per province are as follows:

text:
Province
Developed
Untapped

Agusan del Norte
83
18

Agusan del Sur
266
65

Surigao del Norte
277
34

text: No detailed spring sources inventory had been undertaken so far for the province of Surigao del Sur.

text: Officers[edit]

text:
Name
Division

Roger A. De Dios
Regional Director

Carlos E. Cogolio
OIC-Chief, Mine Management Division

Francis Glenn N. Suante
OIC-Chief, Mining Safety, Environment and Social Development Division

Romeo M. Dalodado
Chief, Geosciences Services Division

Jose Salve E. Cabiling
Chief, Finance and Administrative Division

text: Sources[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Ronald Echalas Diaz, Chan Robles & Associates Law Firm (1995-02-23). "Republic Act No. 7901 created Caraga Region comprising five (5) provinces of Dinagat Islands, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur". Chanrobles.com. Retrieved 2010-11-02. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Agusan del Norte". Agusan del Norte. Retrieved 2010-11-02.
Jump up ^ Agusan Del Sur. "Agusan del Sur". Agusan del Sur. Retrieved 2010-11-02.
Jump up ^ Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines) An executive Department of the Republic of the Philippines mandated to supervise judicious utilization and development of the country's natural resources. visit website
Jump up ^ Mines and Geosciences Bureau A line bureau under the Department of Environment and Natural Resources mandated to supervise licensing of mining permits and contracts, development and disposition of mineral resources, mining environment, health and safety, among others.
Jump up ^ DENR-MGB Regional Office No. 13 is located in Surigao City, rather than Butuan City (the region's capital), by virtue of Sec. 2, Republic Act No. 7901 - An Act Creating Region XIII to be known as the Caraga Administrative Region, and for other purposes

tag: ol

text: CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors listOrphaned articles from January 2012All orphaned articles


document_title: Hummingbird

question_text: how many times does a hummingbird heartbeat per minute

question_tokens: how many times does a hummingbird heartbeat per minute

text: Hummingbird

text: Evolution[edit]

text: A map of the hummingbird family tree—reconstructed from analysis of 284 of the world's 338 known species—shows rapid diversification from 22 million years ago.[5] Hummingbirds fall into nine main clades, the Topazes, Hermits, Mangoes, Brilliants, Coquettes, Patagona, Mountain Gems, Bees, and Emeralds, defining their relationship to nectar-bearing flowering plants and the birds' continued spread into new geographic areas.[5][6][7][8]

text: While all hummingbirds depend on flower nectar to fuel their high metabolisms and hovering flight, coordinated changes in flower- and bill shape stimulated the formation of new species of hummingbirds and plants. Due to this exceptional evolutionary pattern, as many as 140 hummingbird species can coexist in a specific region, such as the Andes range.[5]

text: The hummingbird evolutionary tree shows ancestral hummingbirds splitting from insectivorous swifts (family Apodidae) and treeswifts (family Hemiprocnidae) about 42 million years ago, probably in Eurasia.[5] One key evolutionary factor appears to be an altered taste receptor that enabled hummingbirds to seek nectar.[9] By 22 million years ago the ancestral species of current hummingbirds became established in South America, where environmental conditions stimulated further diversification.[5]

text: The Andes Mountains appear to be a particularly rich environment for hummingbird evolution because diversification occurred simultaneously with mountain uplift over the past 10 million years.[5] Hummingbirds remain in dynamic diversification inhabiting ecological regions across South America, North America, and the Caribbean, indicating an enlarging evolutionary radiation.[5]

text: Within the same geographic region, hummingbird clades co-evolved with nectar-bearing plant clades, affecting mechanisms of pollination.[10][11] The same is true for the sword-billed hummingbird (Ensifera ensifera), one of the morphologically most extreme species, and one of its main food plant clades (Passiflora section Tacsonia).[12]

text: Sexual dimorphisms[edit]

text: Hummingbirds exhibit sexual size dimorphism according to Rensch's rule,[13] in which males are smaller than females in small species, and males are larger than females in large-bodied species.[14] The extent of this sexual size difference varies among clades of hummingbirds.[14][15] For example, the Mellisugini clade exhibits a large size dimorphism, with females being larger than males.[15] Conversely, the Lophomithini clade displays very little size dimorphism; males and females are similar in size.[15] Sexual dimorphisms in bill size and shape are also present between male and female hummingbirds,[15] where in many clades, females have longer, more curved bills favored for accessing nectar from tall flowers.[16] For males and females of the same size, females will tend to have larger bills.[15]

text: Sexual size and bill differences likely evolved due to constraints imposed by courtship because mating displays of male hummingbirds require complex aerial maneuvers.[13] Males tend to be smaller than females, allowing conservation of energy to forage competitively and participate more frequently in courtship.[13] Thus, sexual selection will favor smaller male hummingbirds.[13]

text: Female hummingbirds tend to be larger, requiring more energy, with longer beaks that allow for more effective reach into crevices of tall flowers for nectar.[16] Thus females are better at foraging, acquiring flower nectar, and supporting the energy demands of their larger body size.[16] Directional selection will thus favor the larger hummingbirds in terms of acquiring food.[14]

text: Another evolutionary cause of this sexual bill dimorphism is that the selective forces from competition for nectar between the sexes of each species are what drive the sexual dimorphism.[15] Depending on which sex holds territory in the species, it is advantageous for the other sex to have a longer bill and be able to feed on a wide variety of flowers, decreasing intraspecific competition.[16] For example, in species of hummingbirds where males have longer bills, males do not hold a specific territory and have a lek mating system.[16] In species where males have shorter bills than females, males defend their resources and therefore females must have a longer bill in order to feed from a broader range of flower.[16]

text: Co-evolution with ornithophilous flowers[edit]

text: Hummingbirds are specialized nectarivores[17] and are tied to the ornithophilous flowers upon which they feed. Some species, especially those with unusual bill shapes such as the sword-billed hummingbird and the sicklebills, are co-evolved with a small number of flower species. The bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae) – the world's smallest bird – evolved to dwarfism likely because it had to compete with long-billed hummingbirds having an advantage for nectar foraging from specialized flowers, consequently leading the bee hummingbird to more successfully compete for flower foraging against insects.[18][19]

text: Many plants pollinated by hummingbirds produce flowers in shades of red, orange, and bright pink, though the birds will take nectar from flowers of other colors as well. Hummingbirds can see wavelengths into the near-ultraviolet, but hummingbird-pollinated flowers do not reflect these wavelengths as many insect-pollinated flowers do. This narrow color spectrum may render hummingbird-pollinated flowers relatively inconspicuous to most insects, thereby reducing nectar robbing.[20][21] Hummingbird-pollinated flowers also produce relatively weak nectar (averaging 25% sugars w/w) containing a high proportion of sucrose, whereas insect-pollinated flowers typically produce more concentrated nectars dominated by fructose and glucose.[22]

text: Bill evolution[edit]

text: Upon maturity, males of one species, Phaethornis longirostris, the long-billed hermit, appear to be evolving a dagger-like weapon on the beak tip as a secondary sexual trait to defend mating areas.[23]

text: Systematics[edit]

text: In traditional taxonomy, hummingbirds are placed in the order Apodiformes, which also contains the swifts. However, some taxonomists have separated them into their own order, the Trochiliformes. Hummingbirds' wing bones are hollow and fragile, making fossilization difficult and leaving their evolutionary history poorly documented. Though scientists theorize that hummingbirds originated in South America, where species diversity is greatest, possible ancestors of extant hummingbirds may have lived in parts of Europe to what is southern Russia today.[24]

text: Between 325 and 340 species of hummingbirds are described, depending on taxonomic viewpoint, divided into two subfamilies, the hermits (subfamily Phaethornithinae, 34 species in six genera), and the typical hummingbirds (subfamily Trochilinae, all the others). However, recent phylogenetic analyses suggest that this division is slightly inaccurate, and that there are nine major clades of hummingbirds: the topazes and jacobins, the hermits, the mangoes, the coquettes, the brilliants, the giant hummingbird (Patagona gigas), the mountain-gems, the bees, and the emeralds.[6] The topazes and jacobins combined have the oldest split with the rest of the hummingbirds. The hummingbird family has the second-greatest number of species of any bird family (after the tyrant flycatchers).

text: Fossil hummingbirds are known from the Pleistocene of Brazil and the Bahamas; however, neither has yet been scientifically described, and fossils and subfossils of a few extant species are known. Until recently, older fossils had not been securely identifiable as those of hummingbirds.

text: In 2004, Dr Gerald Mayr of the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt am Main identified two 30-million-year-old hummingbird fossils.[25] The fossils of this primitive hummingbird species, named Eurotrochilus inexpectatus ("unexpected European hummingbird"), had been sitting in a museum drawer in Stuttgart; they had been unearthed in a clay pit at Wiesloch–Frauenweiler, south of Heidelberg, Germany, and because it was assumed that hummingbirds never occurred outside the Americas, were not recognized to be hummingbirds until Mayr took a closer look at them.

text: Fossils of birds not clearly assignable to either hummingbirds or a related, extinct family, the Jungornithidae, have been found at the Messel pit and in the Caucasus, dating from 40–35 mya; this indicates that the split between these two lineages indeed occurred at that date. The areas where these early fossils have been found had a climate quite similar to that of the northern Caribbean or southernmost China during that time. The biggest remaining mystery at the present time is what happened to hummingbirds in the roughly 25 million years between the primitive Eurotrochilus and the modern fossils. The astounding morphological adaptations, the decrease in size, and the dispersal to the Americas and extinction in Eurasia all occurred during this timespan. DNA-DNA hybridization results[26] suggest that the main radiation of South American hummingbirds took place at least partly in the Miocene, some 12 to 13 million years ago, during the uplifting of the northern Andes.

text: In 2013, a 50-million-year-old fossil bird unearthed in Wyoming was found to be a predecessor to both hummingbirds and swifts before the groups diverged.[27]

text: Lists of genera and species[edit]

text:
List of hummingbird genera
List of hummingbird species, sortable alphabetically by common or binomial name

text: Specialized characteristics and metabolism[edit]

text: Vision[edit]

text: During evolution, hummingbirds have adapted to the navigational needs of visual processing while in rapid flight or hovering by development of an exceptionally dense array of retinal neurons allowing for increased spatial resolution in the lateral and frontal visual fields.[28] Morphological studies showed that neuronal hypertrophy, relatively the largest in any bird, exists in a brain region called the pretectal nucleus lentiformis mesencephali (or nucleus of the optic tract in mammals) responsible for refining dynamic visual processing while hovering and during rapid flight.[29][30] The enlargement of this brain region responsible for visual processing indicates enhanced ability for perception and processing of fast-moving visual stimuli which hummingbirds encounter during rapid forward flight, insect foraging, competitive interactions, and high-speed courtship.[30][31]

text: Hummingbirds are highly sensitive to stimuli in their visual fields, responding to even minimal motion in any direction by reorienting themselves in midflight.[30][31][32] Hummingbirds' visual sensitivity allows them to precisely hover in place while in complex and dynamic natural environments,[32] functions enabled by the lentiform nucleus which is tuned to fast-pattern velocities, enabling highly tuned control and collision avoidance during forward flight.[30]

text: Metabolism[edit]

text: With the exception of insects, hummingbirds while in flight have the highest metabolism of all animals – a necessity to support the rapid beating of their wings during hovering and fast forward flight.[3][33] Their heart rate can reach as high as 1,260 beats per minute, a rate once measured in a blue-throated hummingbird, with a breathing rate of 250 breaths per minute, even at rest.[34][35] During flight, oxygen consumption per gram of muscle tissue in a hummingbird is about 10 times higher than that measured in elite human athletes.[3]

text: Hummingbirds are rare among vertebrates in their ability to rapidly make use of ingested sugars to fuel energetically expensive hovering flight,[36] powering up to 100% of their metabolic needs with the sugars they drink (in comparison, human athletes max out at around 30%). Hummingbirds can use newly ingested sugars to fuel hovering flight within 30–45 minutes of consumption.[37][38] These data suggest that hummingbirds are able to oxidize sugar in flight muscles at rates high enough to satisfy their extreme metabolic demands. By relying on newly ingested sugars to fuel flight, hummingbirds can reserve their limited fat stores to sustain their overnight fasting or to power migratory flights.[37]

text: Studies of hummingbirds' metabolisms are relevant to the question of how a migrating ruby-throated hummingbird can cross 800 km (500 mi) of the Gulf of Mexico on a nonstop flight.[35] This hummingbird, like other birds preparing to migrate, stores fat as a fuel reserve, thereby augmenting its weight by as much as 100%, hence increasing potential flying time over open water.[35][39]

text: Kidney function[edit]

text: The dynamic range of metabolic rates in hummingbirds[40] requires a parallel dynamic range in kidney function.[41] During a day of nectar consumption with corresponding high water intake that may total five times the body weight per day, hummingbird kidneys process water via glomerular filtration rates (GFR) in amounts proportional to water consumption, thereby avoiding overhydration.[41][42] During brief periods of water deprivation, however, such as in nighttime torpor, GFR ceases, preserving body water.[41][42]

text: Hummingbird kidneys also have a unique ability to control the levels of electrolytes after consuming nectars with high amounts of sodium and chloride or none, indicating that kidney and glomerular structures must be highly specialized for variations in nectar mineral quality.[43] Morphological studies on Anna's hummingbird kidneys showed adaptations of high capillary density in close proximity to nephrons, allowing for precise regulation of water and electrolytes.[42][44]

text: Flight stability[edit]

text: During turbulent airflow conditions created experimentally in a wind tunnel, hummingbirds exhibit stable head positions and orientation when they hover at a feeder. When wind gusts from the side, hummingbirds compensate by increasing the amplitude of their wing strokes plane angle and by varying the orientation and enlarging the collective surface area of their tail feathers into the shape of a fan.[45] While hovering, the visual system of a hummingbird is able to separate apparent motion caused by the movement of the hummingbird itself from motions caused by external sources, such as an approaching predator.[32] In natural settings full of highly complex background motion, hummingbirds are able to precisely hover in place by rapid coordination of vision with body position.[32]

text: Song and vocal learning[edit]

text: Consisting of chirps, squeaks, whistles and buzzes,[46] hummingbird songs originate from at least seven specialized nuclei in the forebrain.[47][48] In a genetic expression study, it was shown that these nuclei enable vocal learning (ability to acquire vocalizations through imitation), a rare trait known to occur in only two other groups of birds (parrots and songbirds) and a few groups of mammals (including humans, whales and dolphins and bats).[47] Within the past 66 million years, only hummingbirds, parrots and songbirds out of 23 bird orders may have independently evolved seven similar forebrain structures for singing and vocal learning, indicating that evolution of these structures is under strong epigenetic constraints possibly derived from a common ancestor.[47][49]

text: The blue-throated hummingbird’s song differs from typical oscine songs in its wide frequency range, extending from 1.8 kHz to approximately 30 kHz.[50] It also produces ultrasonic vocalizations which do not function in communication.[50] As blue-throated hummingbirds often alternate singing with catching small ﬂying insects, it is possible the ultrasonic clicks produced during singing disrupt insect ﬂight patterns, making insects more vulnerable to predation.[50]

text: Torpor[edit]

text: The metabolism of hummingbirds can slow at night or at any time when food is not readily available: the birds enter a hibernation-like, deep-sleep state (known as torpor) to prevent energy reserves from falling to a critical level. During night-time torpor, body temperature falls from 40 to 18 °C,[51] with heart and breathing rates both slowed dramatically (heart rate to roughly 50 to 180 beats per minute from its daytime rate of higher than 1000).[52]

text: During torpor, to prevent dehydration, the GFR ceases, preserving needed compounds such as glucose, water, and nutrients.[41] Further, body mass declines throughout nocturnal torpor at a rate of 0.04 g per hour, amounting to about 10% of weight loss each night.[41] The circulating hormone, corticosterone, is one signal that arouses a hummingbird from torpor.[53]

text: Use and duration of torpor vary among hummingbird species and are affected by whether a dominant bird defends territory, with nonterritorial subordinate birds having longer periods of torpor.[54]

text: Lifespan[edit]

text: Hummingbirds have long lifespans for organisms with such rapid metabolisms. Though many die during their first year of life, especially in the vulnerable period between hatching and fledging, those that survive may occasionally live a decade or more.[55] Among the better-known North American species, the average lifespan is probably 3 to 5 years.[55] For comparison, the smaller shrews, among the smallest of all mammals, seldom live longer than 2 years.[56] The longest recorded lifespan in the wild relates to a female broad-tailed hummingbird that was banded (ringed) as an adult at least one year old, then recaptured 11 years later, making her at least 12 years old.[citation needed] Other longevity records for banded hummingbirds include an estimated minimum age of 10 years 1 month for a female black-chinned hummingbird similar in size to the broad-tailed hummingbird, and at least 11 years 2 months for a much larger buff-bellied hummingbird.[57]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: As far as is known, male hummingbirds do not take part in nesting.[58] Most species build a cup-shaped nest on the branch of a tree or shrub,[59] although a few tropical species normally attach their nests to leaves.[citation needed] The nest varies in size relative to the particular species—from smaller than half a walnut shell to several centimeters in diameter.[58][60]

text: Many hummingbird species use spider silk and lichen to bind the nest material together and secure the structure.[59][61] The unique properties of the silk allow the nest to expand as the young hummingbirds grow.[59][60] Two white eggs are laid,[59][61] which despite being the smallest of all bird eggs, are in fact large relative to the adult hummingbird's size.[60] Incubation lasts 14 to 23 days,[61] depending on the species, ambient temperature, and female attentiveness to the nest.[58] The mother feeds her nestlings on small arthropods and nectar by inserting her bill into the open mouth of a nestling, and then regurgitating the food into its crop.[58][60]

text:
Incubating in Copiapó, Chile

nest with two nestlings in Santa Monica, California

feeding two nestlings in Grand Teton National Park

Fallen Anna's hummingbird nest in Ventura County, California, shown next to toothpick for scale

text: Feather colors[edit]

text: To serve courtship and territorial competition, many male hummingbirds have plumage with bright, varied coloration[62] resulting both from pigmentation in the feathers and from prism-like cells within the top layers of feathers of the head, gorget, breast, back and wings.[63] When sunlight hits these cells, it is split into wavelengths that reflect to the observer in varying degrees of intensity,[63] with the feather structure acting as a diffraction grating.[63] Iridescent hummingbird colors result from a combination of refraction and pigmentation, since the diffraction structures themselves are made of melanin, a pigment,[62] and may also be colored by carotenoid pigmentation and more subdued black, brown or gray colors dependent on melanin.[63]

text: By merely shifting position, feather regions of a muted-looking bird can instantly become fiery red or vivid green.[63] In courtship displays for one example, males of the colorful Anna's hummingbird orient their bodies and feathers toward the sun to enhance the display value of iridescent plumage toward a female of interest.[64]

text: One study of Anna's hummingbirds found that dietary protein was an influential factor in feather color, as birds receiving more protein grew significantly more colorful crown feathers than those fed a low-protein diet.[65] Additionally, birds on a high-protein diet grew yellower (higher hue) green tail feathers than birds on a low-protein diet.[65]

text: Aerodynamics of flight[edit]

text: Hummingbird flight has been studied intensively from an aerodynamic perspective using wind tunnels and high-speed video cameras.

text: Two studies of rufous or Anna's hummingbirds in a wind tunnel used particle image velocimetry techniques to investigate the lift generated on the bird's upstroke and downstroke.[67][68] The birds produced 75% of their weight support during the downstroke and 25% during the upstroke, with the wings making a "figure 8" motion.[69]

text: Many earlier studies had assumed that lift was generated equally during the two phases of the wingbeat cycle, as is the case of insects of a similar size.[67] This finding shows that hummingbird hovering is similar to, but distinct from, that of hovering insects such as the hawk moth.[67] Further studies using electromyography in hovering rufous hummingbirds showed that muscle strain in the pectoralis major (principal downstroke muscle) was the lowest yet recorded in a flying bird, and the primary upstroke muscle (supracoracoideus) is proportionately larger than in other bird species.[70]

text: Because of their flying technique, these birds no longer have an alula, while the alula digit has evolved to become absent.[71]

text: The giant hummingbird's wings beat as few as 12 beats per second[72] and the wings of typical hummingbirds beat up to 80 times per second.[73]

text: A slow-motion video has shown how the hummingbirds deal with rain when they are flying. To remove the water from their heads, they shake their heads and bodies, similar to a dog shaking, to shed water.[74] Further, when raindrops collectively may weigh as much as 38% of the bird's body weight, hummingbirds shift their bodies and tails horizontally, beat their wings faster, and reduce their wings' angle of motion when flying in heavy rain.[75]

text: Feather sonation[edit]

text: Courtship dives[edit]

text: When courting, the male Anna's hummingbird ascends some 35 meters before diving over an interested female at a speed of 27 m/s, equal to 385 body lengths/second, producing a high-pitched sound.[76] This downward acceleration during a dive is the highest reported for any vertebrate undergoing a voluntary aerial maneuver; in addition to acceleration, the speed, relative to body length, is the largest known for any vertebrate. For instance, it is about twice the diving speed of peregrine falcons in pursuit of prey.[76] At maximum descent speed, about 10 g of gravitational force occurs in the courting hummingbird during a dive.[76] By comparison to humans, this is a g-force acceleration causing near loss of consciousness in fighter pilots during flight of fixed-wing aircraft in a high-speed banked turn.[76][77]

text: The outer tail feathers of male Anna's (Calypte anna) and Selasphorus hummingbirds (e.g., Allen's, calliope) vibrate during courtship display dives and produce an audible chirp caused by aeroelastic flutter.[78][79] Hummingbirds cannot make the courtship dive sound when missing their outer tail feathers, and those same feathers could produce the dive-sound in a wind tunnel.[78] The bird can sing at the same frequency as the tail feather chirp, but its small syrinx is not capable of the same volume.[80] The sound is caused by the aerodynamics of rapid air flow past tail feathers, causing them to flutter in a vibration which produces the high-pitched sound of a courtship dive.[78][81]

text: Many other species of hummingbirds also produce sounds with their wings or tails while flying, hovering or diving, including the wings of the calliope hummingbird,[82] broad-tailed hummingbird, rufous hummingbird, Allen's hummingbird, and streamertail, as well as the tail of the Costa's hummingbird and the black-chinned hummingbird, and a number of related species.[83] The harmonics of sounds during courtship dives vary across species of hummingbirds.[79]

text: Wing feather trill[edit]

text: Male rufous and broad-tailed hummingbirds (genus Selasphorus) have a distinctive wing feature during normal flight that sounds like jingling or a buzzing shrill whistle.[84] The trill arises from air rushing through slots created by the tapered tips of the ninth and tenth primary wing feathers, creating a sound loud enough to be detected by female or competitive male hummingbirds and researchers up to 100 m away.[84]

text: Behaviorally, the trill serves several purposes:[84]

text:
Announces the sex and presence of a male bird
Provides audible aggressive defense of feeding territory and an intrusion tactic
Enhances communication of threat
Favors mate attraction and courtship

text: Range[edit]

text: Hummingbirds are restricted to the Americas from south central Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, including the Caribbean. The majority of species occur in tropical and subtropical Central and South America, but several species also breed in temperate climates and some hillstars occur even in alpine Andean highlands at altitudes up to 5,200 metres (17,100 ft).[85]

text: The greatest species richness is in humid tropical and subtropical forests of the northern Andes and adjacent foothills, but the number of species found in the Atlantic Forest, Central America or southern Mexico also far exceeds the number found in southern South America, the Caribbean islands, the United States, and Canada. While fewer than 25 different species of hummingbirds have been recorded from the United States and fewer than 10 from Canada and Chile each,[86] Colombia alone has more than 160[87] and the comparably small Ecuador has about 130 species.[88]

text: The migratory ruby-throated hummingbird breeds in a range from the southeastern United States to Ontario,[89] while the black-chinned hummingbird, its close relative and another migrant, is the most widespread and common species in the southwestern United States. The rufous hummingbird is the most widespread species in western North America,[90] and the only hummingbird to be recorded outside of the Americas, having occurred in the Chukchi Peninsula of Russia.[91]

text: Migration[edit]

text: Most North American hummingbirds migrate southward in fall to spend winter in Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, or Central America. A few southern South American species also move north to the tropics during the southern winter. A few species are year-round residents of California and southwestern desert regions of the USA. Among these are Anna's hummingbird, a common resident from southern Arizona and inland California, and buff-bellied hummingbird, an uncommon resident in subtropical woodlands of southern Texas east through the Gulf coast to the Atlantic coast of Florida. Ruby-throated hummingbirds migrate from as far north as Ontario, Canada, in summer, returning to Mexico, South America, southern Texas, and Florida to winter.[92]

text: The rufous hummingbird breeds farther north than any other species of hummingbird, often breeding in large numbers in temperate western North America and wintering in increasing numbers along the coasts of subtropical Gulf of Mexico and Florida, rather than in western or central Mexico.[93] By migrating in spring as far north as the Yukon or southern Alaska,[93] the rufous hummingbird migrates more extensively and nests farther north than any other hummingbird species, and must tolerate occasional temperatures below freezing in its breeding territory. This cold hardiness enables it to survive temperatures below freezing, provided that adequate shelter and food are available.[93]

text: As calculated by displacement of body size, the rufous hummingbird makes perhaps the longest migratory journey of any bird in the world. At just over 3 in long, rufous birds travel 3,900-miles one-way from Alaska to Mexico in late summer, a distance equal to 78,470,000 body lengths.[93] By comparison, the 13-inch-long Arctic tern makes a one-way flight of about 11,185 miles, or 51,430,000 body lengths, just 65% of the body displacement during migration by rufous hummingbirds.[93]

text: The northward migration of rufous hummingbirds occurs along the Pacific flyway[93] and may be time-coordinated with flower and tree leaf emergence in spring in early March, and also with availability of insects as food.[94] Arrival at breeding grounds before nectar availability from mature flowers may jeopardize breeding opportunities, a factor of phenology possibly determining future migratory patterns linked to climate change.[95]

text: Diet and specializations for food gathering[edit]

text: For nutrition, hummingbirds eat a variety of insects, including mosquitoes, fruit flies, and gnats in flight or aphids on leaves and spiders in their webs.[96][97][98][99] The lower beak of hummingbirds is flexible and can bend as much as 25 degrees when it widens at the base, making a larger surface for catching insects.[98] Hummingbirds hover within insect swarms in a method called "hover-hawking" to facilitate feeding.[99]

text: To supply energy needs, hummingbirds drink nectar, a sweet liquid inside certain flowers. Like bees, they are able to assess the amount of sugar in the nectar they eat; they normally reject flower types that produce nectar that is less than 10% sugar and prefer those whose sugar content is higher. Nectar is a mixture of glucose, fructose, and sucrose, and is a poor source of nutrients, requiring hummingbirds to meet their nutritional needs by consuming insects.[98][99]

text: Hummingbirds do not spend all day flying, as the energy cost would be prohibitive; the majority of their activity consists simply of sitting or perching. Hummingbirds eat many small meals and consume around half their weight in nectar (twice their weight in nectar, if the nectar is 25% sugar) each day.[100] Hummingbirds digest their food rapidly due to their small size and high metabolism; a mean retention time less than an hour has been reported.[101] Hummingbirds spend an average of 10–15% of their time feeding and 75–80% sitting and digesting.

text: Because their high metabolism makes them vulnerable to starvation, hummingbirds are highly attuned to food sources. Some species, including many found in North America, are territorial and will try to guard food sources (such as a feeder) against other hummingbirds, attempting to ensure a future food supply for itself. Additionally, hummingbirds have an enlarged hippocampus, a brain region facilitating spatial memory used to map flowers previously visited during nectar foraging.[102]

text: Hummingbird beaks are flexible[98] and their shapes vary dramatically as an adaptation for specialized feeding.[15][16] Some species, such as hermits (Phaethornis spp.) have long bills that allow them to probe deep into flowers with long corollae. Thornbills have short, sharp bills adapted for feeding from flowers with short corollae and piercing the bases of longer ones. The sicklebills' extremely decurved bills are adapted to extracting nectar from the curved corollae of flowers in the family Gesneriaceae. The bill of the fiery-tailed awlbill has an upturned tip, as in the avocets. The male tooth-billed hummingbird has barracuda-like spikes at the tip of its long, straight bill.

text: The two halves of a hummingbird's bill have a pronounced overlap, with the lower half (mandible) fitting tightly inside the upper half (maxilla). When a hummingbird feeds on nectar, the bill is usually opened only slightly, allowing the tongue to dart out and into the interior of flowers. Hummingbird bill sizes range from about 5 mm to as long as 100 mm (about 4 in).[103] When catching insects in flight, a hummingbird's jaw flexes downward to widen the gape for successful capture.[97]

text: Perception of sweet nectar[edit]

text: Perception of sweetness in nectar evolved in hummingbirds during their genetic divergence from insectivorous swifts, their closest bird relatives.[104] Although the only known sweet sensory receptor, called T1R2,[105] is absent in birds, receptor expression studies showed that hummingbirds adapted a carbohydrate receptor from the T1R1-T1R3 receptor, identical to the one perceived as umami in humans, essentially repurposing it to function as a nectar sweetness receptor.[104] This adaptation for taste enabled hummingbirds to detect and exploit sweet nectar as an energy source, facilitating their distribution across geographical regions where nectar-bearing flowers are available.[104]

text: Tongue as a micropump[edit]

text: Hummingbirds drink with their tongues by rapidly lapping nectar. Their tongues have tubes which run down their lengths and help the hummingbirds drink the nectar.[106] While capillary action was believed to be what drew nectar into these tubes, high-speed photography has revealed that the tubes open down their sides as the tongue goes into the nectar, and then close around the nectar, trapping it so it can be pulled back into the beak.[107][108] The tongue, which is forked, is compressed until it reaches nectar, then the tongue springs open, the rapid action traps the nectar and the nectar moves up the grooves, like a pump action, with capillary action not involved.[106][109] Consequently, tongue flexibility enables accessing, transporting and unloading nectar.[110][111]

text: Feeders and artificial nectar[edit]

text: In the wild, hummingbirds visit flowers for food, extracting nectar, which is 55% sucrose, 24% glucose and 21% fructose on a dry-matter basis.[112] Hummingbirds also take sugar-water from bird feeders. Such feeders allow people to observe and enjoy hummingbirds up close while providing the birds with a reliable source of energy, especially when flower blossoms are less abundant. A negative aspect of artificial feeders, however, is that the birds may seek less flower nectar for food, so reduce the amount of pollination their feeding naturally provides.[113]

text: White granulated sugar is the best sweetener to use in hummingbird feeders. A ratio of 1 part sugar to 4 parts water, or 25% concentration, is a common recipe,[114] although hummingbirds will defend feeders more aggressively when sugar content is at 35%, indicating preference for nectar with higher sweetness and sugar content.[115] Organic and "raw" sugars contain iron, which can be harmful,[116] and brown sugar agave syrup, molasses and artificial sweeteners also should not be used.[117] Honey is made by bees from the nectar of flowers, but it is not good to use in feeders because when it is diluted with water, microorganisms easily grow in it, causing it to spoil rapidly.[118][119][120]

text: Red food dye was once thought to be a favorable ingredient for homemade solutions, but it is unnecessary, and there is no point in adding it to the nectar. Some people speculate red dye could be bad for the birds, although this claim has not received scientific attention.[121] Commercial products sold as "instant nectar" or "hummingbird food" may also contain preservatives and/or artificial flavors as well as dyes, and are not necessary,[121] although the long-term effects of these additives on hummingbirds have not been systematically studied.[122] Although some commercial products contain small amounts of nutritional additives, hummingbirds obtain all necessary nutrients from the insects they eat, rendering added nutrients unnecessary.[90]

text: Other animals also visit hummingbird feeders. Bees, wasps, and ants are attracted to the sugar-water and may crawl into the feeder, where they may become trapped and drown. Orioles, woodpeckers, bananaquits, raccoons and other larger animals are known to drink from hummingbird feeders, sometimes tipping them and draining the liquid.[123] In the southwestern United States, two species of nectar-drinking bats (Leptonycteris yerbabuenae and Choeronycteris mexicana) visit hummingbird feeders to supplement their natural diet of nectar and pollen from saguaro cacti and agaves.[124]

text: Visual cues of foraging[edit]

text: Hummingbirds have exceptional visual acuity providing them with discrimination of food sources while foraging.[28] Although it is commonly believed that hummingbirds are attracted to color while seeking food, such as red flowers or artificial feeders, experiments indicate that location and flower nectar quality are the most important "beacons" for foraging.[125][126] Hummingbirds depended little on visual cues of flower color to beacon to nectar-rich locations, but rather they used surrounding landmarks to find the nectar reward.[127][128]

text: In at least one hummingbird species – the green-backed firecrown (Sephanoides sephaniodes) – flower colors preferred are in the red-green wavelength for the bird's visual system, providing a higher contrast than for other flower colors.[129] Further, the crown plumage of firecrown males is highly iridescent in the red wavelength range (peak at 650 nanometers), possibly providing a competitive advantage of dominance when foraging among other hummingbird species with less-colorful plumage.[129] The ability to discriminate colors of flowers and plumage is enabled by a visual system having four single cone cells and a double cone screened by photoreceptor oil droplets which enhance color discrimination.[125][129]

text: Superficially similar birds[edit]

text: Some species of sunbirds of Africa, southern and southeastern Asia, and Australia resemble hummingbirds in appearance and behavior, as do perhaps also the honeyeaters of Australia and Pacific islands. These two groups, however, are not related to hummingbirds, as their resemblance is due to convergent evolution.[130]

text: The hummingbird moth is often mistaken for a hummingbird.

text: In myth and culture[edit]

text:
Aztecs wore hummingbird talismans, both artistic representations of hummingbirds and fetishes made from actual hummingbird parts: emblematic for their vigor, energy, and propensity to do work along with their sharp beaks that symbolically mimic instruments of weaponry, bloodletting, penetration, and intimacy. Hummingbird talismans were prized as drawing sexual potency, energy, vigor, and skill at arms and warfare to the wearer.[131]
The Aztec god of war Huitzilopochtli is often depicted as a hummingbird (right). It was also believed that fallen warriors would return to earth as hummingbirds and butterflies.[132] The Nahuatl word huitzil (hummingbird) is an onomatopoeic word derived from the sounds of the hummingbird's wing-beats and zooming flight.
One of the Nazca Lines depicts a hummingbird (right).
Trinidad and Tobago, known as "The land of the hummingbird," displays a hummingbird on that nation's coat of arms,[133] 1-cent coin[134] and emblem of its national airline, Caribbean Airlines (right).

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Play media

Hummingbirds feeding at 1500fps

Hummingbird feeding from a flower in the University of California Botanical Garden

Hummingbird with yellow pollen on its beak in the University of California Botanical Garden

Talamanca hummingbird

Costa's hummingbird

Juvenile Anna's hummingbird with tongue sticking out

Calypte anna perched

Artificial hummingbird

Hummingbird chicks in nest in cactus in Mesa, Arizona

Hummingbird adult in nest in cactus in Mesa, Arizona

A female Anna's Hummingbird perched on a small branch.


document_title: List of Star Wars filming locations

question_text: where did they film the forest moon of endor

text: List of Star Wars filming locations

text: Maps[edit]

text:
Mount Etna

Palace of Caserta

Hardangerjøkulen

Seville

Grindelwald

Balbianello

Skellig Michael

Locations in continental Europe

Tozeur

Nefta

Matmata

Ksar Ouled Soltane

Ksar Hadada

Ajim

Locations in Tunisia

Ealing Studios

Leavesden Studios

Shepperton Studios

Whippendell Woods

Studios & locations in the UK

text: Location filming[edit]

text:
Image
Location
Country
Episode
Setting
Notes

Ksar Hadada, Ghoumrassen
Tunisia
I
Tatooine: Mos Espa slave quarters
[1]

Ksar Ouled Soltane
Tunisia
I
Tatooine: Mos Espa slave quarters
30 km south of Tataouine[1]

Onk Jemal, Tozeur 33°59′39″N 7°50′34″E / 33.994030°N 7.842748°E / 33.994030; 7.842748
Tunisia
I
Tatooine: Mos Espa street set
Location of the lightsaber duel between Qui-Gon Jinn & Darth Maul; Mos Espa;[1]

Palace of Caserta
Italy
I, II
Naboo Royal Palace
[2]

Whippendell Woods, Cassiobury Park, Watford
UK
I
Naboo forest scene
First meeting of Qui-Gon Jinn and Obi-Wan Kenobi with Jar Jar Binks.[3][4]

Plaza de España in Seville
Spain
II
Naboo: City of Theed
[5]

Villa del Balbianello
Italy
II
Naboo lakeside
Used for Anakin and Padmé's wedding scene overlooking Lake Como [6]

Matmata
Tunisia
II, IV
Tatooine: Lars Homestead
Used for courtyard shots and Lars dinner scene. The homestead also featured in Attack of the Clones[1][7]

Phang Nga Bay, near Phuket
Thailand
III
Kashyyyk
Aerial footage of limestone karst mountains which was later composited into the film for the approach over the Battle of Kashyyyk [8]

Guilin
China
III
Kashyyyk
Footage of limestone karst mountains which was later composited into the film for the backdrop of Kashyyyk[9]

Mount Etna
Italy
III
Mustafar
The volcano erupted during filming of Episode III and Lucasfilm sent camera crews to shoot several angles of the eruption; footage was later composited into the background of the scenes set on Mustafar including the lightsaber duel of Obi-Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker.[10][11]

Grindelwald
Switzerland
III
Alderaan
Footage of mountain scenery which was later composited into the film for the backdrop of the planet Alderaan[12]

Canary Wharf
UK
R1
Imperial Base
London's Canary Wharf tube station was used as the setting for the Imperial security complex on Scarif. The Norman Foster-designed station's escalators and glass safety doors are particularly noticeable in the film. [13]

Laamu Atoll
Maldives
R1
Planet Scarif
The Laamu Atoll makes up 82 of the 1,192 Maldivian islands. The atoll's Gan, which is one of the Maldives' largest islands, stood in for planet Scarif. [13]

Reynisfjara
Iceland
R1
Planet Eadu
A 20-minute drive from Vík í Mýrdal, Reynisfjara served as the setting for the planet Eadu. [13]

Wadi Rum
Jordan
R1
Planet Jedha
Wadi Rum is a popular desert location, also used in The Martian. This location earned the Royal Film Commission – Jordan the Location Managers Guild Award for best Film Commission in 2017. [14]

Chott el Djerid, near Nefta 33°50′34″N 7°46′45″E / 33.842850°N 7.779055°E / 33.842850; 7.779055
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine desert and Lars homestead
Area west of Nefta: chott used for the Lars homestead[1]

La Grande Dune, near Nefta
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine desert
Sand dunes west of Nefta used to film the landing area of the escape pod of C-3PO and R2-D2[1][15][16]

Tikal
Guatemala
IV
Yavin IV Rebel Base
Exterior panoramic shots over the Yavin IV jungle towards the Massassi Temple[17][18]

RAF Cardington, Bedfordshire
UK
IV, R1
Yavin IV Rebel Base
Interior of disused WWII airship sheds were used for the Rebel Base hangar scenes inside the Massassi Temple on the Fourth Moon of Yavin IV; Shed 1 was used in Ep.IV and Shed 2 was used for Rogue One.[19][20]

Death Valley National Park
United States
IV
Tatooine desert

Several Tatooine scenes:[17][21]

Mesquite Flat Sand Dunes - scene where R2D2 goes his separate way after he and C3P0 crash their escape pod on Tatooine (spliced with footage shot in Tunisia)
Artists Palette & Golden Canyon - Canyon where R2D2 is abducted by Jawas (spliced with footage shot at Sidi Bouhlel, Tunisia)
Artist's Drive - Where the miniature Sandcrawler was filmed for the shot of R2D2 being carried up to it by Jawas
Desolation Canyon - Canyon where Tusken Raiders mount Bantha before Luke Skywalker is attacked (spliced with Sidi Bouhlel footage)
Dante's View - panoramic establishing shot of Mos Eisley (spliced with Sidi Bouhlel footage of Luke and Obi-Wan standing on rocky outcrop)

Ajim, Island of Djerba
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine: Mos Eisley Spaceport
Scenes shot in the town include the exterior of the Mos Eisley Cantina. An old mosque outside the town (33°44′27″N 10°44′05″E / 33.740855°N 10.734859°E / 33.740855; 10.734859) was used for exterior shots of Obi-Wan Kenobi's house.[1]

Sidi Jemour, Island of Djerba
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine: Tosche Station
Location for the deleted exterior scenes with Luke and Biggs Darklighter; also used as a backdrop in the Special Edition for the scene showing Luke's landspeeder heading towards Mos Eisley[1][22]

Shubiel Gorge, Sidi Bouhlel (or Sidi Bou Helal), near Tozeur 34°02′11″N 8°16′49″E / 34.036255°N 8.280333°E / 34.036255; 8.280333
Tunisia
IV
Tatooine canyon

Several Tatooine scenes:[15][23]

Canyon where R2D2 is abducted by Jawas (spliced with footage shot at Death Valley, USA)
Canyon where Tusken Raiders attack Luke Skywalker (spliced with Death Valley footage)
Scene of wrecked Sandcrawler after attack by Imperial stormtroopers
Also features in The Phantom Menace.[1]

Hardangerjøkulen Glacier
Norway
V
Hoth
Exterior scenes during the battle of Hoth[24]

Twenty-Mule Team Canyon, Death Valley, California
USA
VI
Tatooine: Road to Jabba's Palace
Two Tatooine scenes:

C-3P0 and R2D2 walk up to the Palace of Jabba the Hutt on Tatooine.
"Lost scene" of Luke Skywalker working on a new lightsaber in a cave overlooking the Millennium Falcon and his X-wing, followed by R2D2 and C3PO starting their trek to Jabba's palace.

Buttercup Valley, Yuma Desert
United States
VI
Tatooine exteriors

Location used for the Great Pit of Carkoon scene [25][26]
Additional footage for the special edition of A New Hope of stormtroopers finding evidence of droids was shot here and cut in with original shots from La Grande Dune, Tunisia [27][28]

Del Norte County, CA
USA
VI
Endor forest scenes

Skellig Michael
Ireland
VII
Ahch-To: Luke's refuge
Final scenes: Rey meeting Luke Skywalker for the first time

Derwentwater, Cumbria
UK
VII
Takodana
Lakeside setting of Maz Kanata's Castle on Takodana; some Lakeland Fells in the background are altered with CGI[29]

Thirlmere, Cumbria
UK
VII
Takodana
Low-level X-Wing flight sequences over Takodana; the background was apparently flipped horizontally[29]

RAF Greenham Common, Berkshire
UK
VII
D'Qar
Disused missile silos formed the backdrop for the Resistance Base[30]

Puzzlewood, Forest of Dean
UK
VII
Starkiller Base
Forest scenes on the surface of Starkiller Base[31]

Rub' al Khali
UAE
VII
Jakku
[32]

Bovingdon Airfield, Hertfordshire
UK
R1
Battle scenes on the surface of Scarif
[33]

text: Studios[edit]

text:
Image
Location
Country
Episode
Setting
Notes

Ealing Studios
UK
II

Elstree Studios
UK
II, III, R1, IV, V, VI

The largest Stage 6 was built specifically for The Empire Strikes Back in 1979 (since demolished)

Leavesden Studios
UK
I

Pinewood Studios
UK
R1, VII

Shepperton Studios
UK
III, IV
Yavin
Stage H was used for the final awards ceremony at the end of Episode IV

Fox Studios, Sydney
Australia
II, III


document_title: Jessie Flower

question_text: voice of toph in avatar the last airbender

text: Jessie Flower

text:
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This biographical article needs additional citations for verification, as it includes attribution to IMDb. IMDb may not be a reliable source for biographical information. Please help by adding additional, reliable sources for verification. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (August 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

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text:
Jessie Flower

Flower at Anime North in 2009

Born
Michaela Murphy
(1994-08-18) August 18, 1994 (age 23)
Southern Indiana, U.S.

Occupation
Voice actress

Years active
2005–present

Notable credit(s)
Avatar: The Last Airbender
as Toph
The Emperor's New School
as Chaca.

Website
http://www.jessieflower.com/

text: Michaela Murphy[1] (born August 18, 1994), better known as Jessie Flower, is an American voice actress best known as the voice of Toph Beifong in the animated television series Avatar: The Last Airbender. She also voiced the character Meng in the season one episode "The Fortuneteller". She voices Peggy in Random! Cartoons episode Tiffany. Jessie has been in several movies, including Meet the Robinsons, Over the Hedge, The Ant Bully, Finding Nemo, The Emperor's New School and Brother Bear 2.

text: Biography[edit]

text: Jessie Flower was born on August 18, 1994 in Southern Indiana. At the age of four years she moved to Los Angeles, where she currently resides with her mother. She began her acting career with work in commercials, appearing in advertisements for Barbie and Mitsubishi. Jessie's voice can be heard in TV shows and movies such as Finding Nemo and Avatar: The Last Airbender. Jessie has also guest starred in television shows such as General Hospital and Strong Medicine and acted live in performances of Meet Me In St. Louis as the role of Tootie, and Annie as the role of Annie.

text: She has also appeared in The Legend of Korra as the voice of a young Suyin Beifong, the younger half-sister of Lin Beifong, both of whom are daughters of Toph Beifong. She later played Eiko Carol in World of Final Fantasy