document_title: Legal drinking age

question_text: whats the legal age for drinking in spain

text: Legal drinking age

text: Africa[edit]

text:
Country/region
De jure
Notes

Drinking Age
Purchase age

 Algeria
18[2]

 Angola
18[citation needed]

 Botswana
18[2]

 Burundi
16[2]
No limit if accompanied by parents[citation needed]

 Cameroon
18
21
18 on the premises, 21 off the premises[citation needed]

 Cape Verde
18[citation needed]

 Central African Republic
18[citation needed]

 Comoros
None[citation needed]

 Egypt
21[2]

 Equatorial Guinea
18[citation needed]

 Eritrea
18[2]

 Ethiopia
18[2]

 Gabon
18[2]

 Gambia
18[2]

 Ghana
18[3]

 Guinea-Bissau
None[2]

 Kenya
18[2]

 Lesotho
18[2]

 Libya
Illegal[2]

 Malawi
18[2]

 Mauritius
18[2]

 Morocco
18[citation needed]
Forbidden for Muslims[2]

 Mozambique
18[2]

 Namibia
18[2]

 Niger
18[2]

 Nigeria
18[citation needed]

 Republic of the Congo
18[citation needed]

 Rwanda
18[2]

 Senegal
18[citation needed]

 Seychelles
18[2]

 Somalia
Illegal[4]

 South Africa
18
The parent, adult guardian of a minor or a person responsible for administering a religious sacrament, may on occasion supply to that minor a moderate quantity of liquor to be consumed by the minor in the presence and under the supervision of that parent, guardian or other person.[5]

 South Sudan
18[6]

 Sudan
Illegal[7]

 Swaziland
18[2]

 Tanzania
18[8]

 Togo
None[2]

 Tunisia
18[citation needed]

 Uganda
18[2]

 Western Sahara
16[citation needed]

 Zambia
18[2]

 Zimbabwe
18[2]

tag: table

text: Americas[edit]

text:
Country/region
De jure
Notes

Drinking age
Purchase age

 Anguilla
16[citation needed]

 Antigua and Barbuda
16[9]
The sale and distribution of alcohol to a person under 16 years of age is illegal.

 Argentina
18[10]

 Bahamas
18[2]

 Barbados
18[11]
Those aged 10–17 are allowed to consume alcohol provided they are with a parent or guardian.

 Belize
18[12]
Drinking age is rarely enforced. IDs are almost never requested.

 Bermuda
18[13]

 Bolivia
18[2]

 Brazil
18[2]

 British Virgin Islands
16[12]
It is illegal to sell or to supply alcohol to anyone under the age of 16.

 Canada
18[14][15][16]
In Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec, the legal drinking age is 18.

19[14][15][16]
In Ontario, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Northwest Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut, the legal drinking age is 19.

 Cayman Islands
18[17]

 Chile
18[2]
The minimum age is 18 to enter an enclosure that sells alcoholic beverages. Selling alcohol to a minor may incur a fine. One must provide identification upon request. Residents of Chile over the age of 18 must carry their Chilean identification card issued by the Civil Registry and Identification Service at all times.[18]

 Colombia
18[2]

 Costa Rica
18[2]

 Cuba
16[2]

 Dominican Republic
18[19]

 Ecuador
18[2]

 El Salvador
18[2]

 Falkland Islands
18[citation needed]

 Grenada
16[citation needed]

 Guatemala
18[2]

 Guyana
18[2]
Except 16 for wine or malt liquor to be consumed with a meal

 Haiti
None[2]

 Honduras
18[2]

 Jamaica
None[citation needed]
18[citation needed]
Minors can drink if accompanied by parent or legal guardian as well as someone with permission from their parent or legal guardian.[citation needed]

 Mexico
18[2]
A person must be eighteen years or over to legally purchase and consume alcoholic beverages in Mexico. The drinking age however isn't strictly enforced, and IDs are barely requested.[citation needed]

 Nicaragua
18[2]

 Panama
18[2]

 Paraguay
20[20]

According to Art. 1° of the law to "ban on the sale of alcoholic beverages to minors", it is illegal to serve or sell alcohol or to allow the consumption by minors under 20 years of age.
Furthermore, under Art 2° all public establishments selling alcohol must display a clearly legible notice in the sales area with the following text: "ESTA PROHIBIDA LA VENTA DE BEBIDAS ALCOHÓLICAS A MENORES DE VEINTE AÑOS DE EDAD" (It is illegal (prohibited) to sell alcoholic beverages to minors under 20 years of age)

 Peru
18[2]

 Puerto Rico
18
The minimum age for the selling of any alcohol beverage is 18. Although a valid Puerto Rico license ID or passport is required as proof of age to buyers who look under the age of 18, it is generally not a common practice to ask for ID to enter a venue that sells alcohol or to sell you alcohol at other establishments. This law can be more enforced in some tourist areas and on foreigners visiting the island by some more exclusive hotels, bars, and upscale clubs. A few of the more exclusive venues in the tourist areas may have their own entrance rules regarding age including not allowing anyone under the age of 25 or 23 to enter and consume alcohol or change this depending on specific nights/events and restricted by gender/sex (i.e. women over 18 allowed to enter but only men over 21 on that same night).[citation needed]

 Trinidad and Tobago
18[2]

 Turks and Caicos Islands
18[citation needed]

 United States
(50 states and integral territories)
Varies by jurisdiction[2]
21[2]
The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 withholds revenue from states that allow the purchase of alcohol by anyone under the age of twenty-one. Prior to the effective date of that Act, the drinking age varied from state to state. Some states do not allow those under the legal drinking age to be present in liquor stores or in bars (usually, the difference between a bar and a restaurant is that food is served only in the latter). Contrary to popular belief, since the act went into law, only a few states prohibit minors and young adults from consuming alcohol in private settings. As of January 1, 2010, fifteen states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, seventeen states do not ban underage consumption, and the remaining eighteen states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws.
Federal law explicitly provides for religious exceptions. As of 2005, thirty-one states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws. However, non-alcoholic beer in many (but not all) states, such as Idaho, Texas, and Maryland, is considered legal for those under the age of twenty-one.[21]
By a judge's ruling, South Carolina appears to allow the possession and consumption of alcohol by adults eighteen to twenty years of age, but a circuit court judge has said otherwise.[22]
The states of Washington and Wisconsin allows the consumption of alcohol in the presence of parents.
Some U.S. states have legislation that make providing to and possession of alcohol by persons under twenty-one a gross misdemeanor with a potential penalty of a $5,000 fine or up to year in jail.[23]
See also: Minor in Possession and List of alcohol laws of the United States

 United States Virgin Islands
18[24]

 Uruguay
18[2]

 Venezuela
18[2]

text: Asia[edit]

text:
Country/region
De jure
Notes

Drinking age
Purchase age

 Afghanistan
Illegal[25]

 Bangladesh
Illegal for Muslims [26]
Alcohol will be sold to foreigners in certain locations, albeit clandestinely.

 Bhutan
18[27]

 Brunei
17 with restrictions, unless Muslim[2]
Non-Muslims over 17 years of age are allowed to import alcohol not to exceed maximum total volume 2 liters of liquor and 12 cans of beer at 330 ml for personal use, once in 48 hours. This alcohol must be “stored and consumed at the place of residence of the importer” and is “not to be given, transferred or sold to another person.”.[2]

 Cambodia
None[28]

 China
18[2]
Introduced in January 2006.[29] Weakly enforced to not enforced.

 Hong Kong
18[30]
The regulation is only applicable to restaurants, bars and clubs, where a liquor license is required. Private drinking is also not regulated.

 India
18–25 (varies between states)[2]

Main article: Alcohol laws of India
Consumption of alcohol is prohibited in the states of Bihar, Gujarat and Nagaland.[31]

 Indonesia
21[32]

 Iran
Illegal [2]
There is a ban on alcohol, but religious minorities may purchase small amounts from shops owned by the same religious minority.[33]

 Iraq
18[34]

 Israel
None
18[2]
Israel law prohibits selling or serving alcohol to minors, but it does not prohibit minors to drink.

 Japan
20[2]

 Jordan
18[35]

 Kazakhstan
21[36]

 Kuwait
Illegal[37]

 Kyrgyzstan
18[2]

 Lebanon
18[2]
Often unenforced and according to a global school health study, 40% of minors over 13 drink alcohol and up to 25% buy it from stores.[38]

 Macau
None[citation needed]

 Malaysia
18
Will be increased to 21 on 1 December 2017[39]

 Maldives
Illegal except for tourists, 18[citation needed]
Sale of alcohol is limited to tourist resorts. It is illegal to sell alcohol to local Maldivians[40]

 Mongolia
18[41]

 Myanmar
None
18[42]

   Nepal
18
The legal age for consumption of alcohol in Nepal is 18. However, there are exceptions to underage consumption for purposes of religious ceremonies.[citation needed]

 North Korea
18[43]

 Oman
21
Residents need personal liquor licenses to consume alcohol in their private residences.[44]

 Pakistan
Illegal [2]
Non-Muslim citizens may possess alcohol to be used in accordance with religious ceremonies[2]

 Palestinian Authority
16[citation needed]
Legal in most cities

 Philippines
18[45]

 Qatar
19[citation needed]
Muslims are allowed to purchase alcohol, but generally not allowed to consume. Non Muslims are allowed to purchase, and consume alcohol. The only legal distributor of alcohol in the country is the Qatar Distribution Company located in Doha.[citation needed]

 Saudi Arabia
Illegal
Drinking or possessing alcohol is illegal in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Persons who drink or possess alcohol are subject to arrest and trial. Punishments range from heavy fines, lengthy prison terms and whippings.[citation needed]

 Singapore
None (Private places, sometimes with permission from parents/guardian)
18 (Public places e.g. bars and restaurants)
18[2]

Main Legislation

Drinking alcohol is strictly forbidden in public places in reaction to 2013 Little India riot, after the Committee of Inquiry accepts the recommendations on 7 July 2014.
For convenience stores, those who pretend to be 18 years and above in a "Challenge 18" scheme will be downgraded to "Challenge 21" scheme, and after which the licences will be revoked once they pretend to be 18 years and above if it is on "Challenge 21".
It is illegal to purchase alcohol in Singapore or consume in a nightclub/allow entry to the nightclub under 18. Home and private drinking of alcohol is allowed, although the safest age could be 6. Parents can try a sip of alcohol at any age.[citation needed]

 South Korea
None
19[citation needed]
The age limit for alcohol is after January 1 of the year one's age turns to 19.[citation needed]

 Sri Lanka
21[2]

 Syria
18[citation needed]

 Taiwan
18[46]

It is illegal for anyone under the age of 18 to consume alcohol.[47]
Parents, guardians, and others taking care of people under 18 shall prohibit underage drinking,[48] or risk administrative fines of 10000 to 50000 new Taiwan dollars when the situations are serious.[49]
One shall not supply alcohol to anyone under the age of 18.[50] A violator shall be administratively fined 3000 to 15000 New Taiwan Dollars.[51]

 Tajikistan
18[2]

 Thailand
20[52]
The Alcoholic Beverage Control Act of 2008 increased the drinking age in Thailand from 18 to 20, private drinking is not regulated in private locations.[52][53]

 Turkmenistan
18[2]

 United Arab Emirates
18–21 (varies between states).[54]
Expatriate non-Muslim residents may request a liquor permit to purchase alcoholic beverages, but it is illegal for such holders to provide drinks to others.[55]
The legal age for drinking alcohol is 18 in Abu Dhabi (although a Ministry of Tourism by-law allows hotels to serve alcohol only to those over 21), and 21 in Dubai and the Northern Emirates (except Sharjah, where drinking alcohol is illegal).[54]
It is a punishable offence to drink, or to be under the influence of alcohol, in public.[54]

 Uzbekistan
None
20[2]

 Vietnam
None[citation needed]

 Yemen
Illegal[citation needed]
Exception is in Aden Region where it's legal for 21 and up[citation needed]

text: Europe[edit]

text:
Country/region
De jure
Notes

Drinking age
Purchase age

 Albania
18[2]

 Armenia
None
18
There are no laws mandating alcohol vendors to ID potential underage drinkers. ID checks are very rarely, if ever, carried out.[citation needed]

 Austria
16
 Burgenland,  Lower Austria and  Vienna[56]

16 for beer and wine
18 for distilled beverages
 Carinthia,  Upper Austria,  Salzburg,  Styria,  Tyrol and  Vorarlberg[56]
Carinthia also requires adolescents to maintain a blood alcohol level below 0.05%.

 Azerbaijan
18[2]

 Belarus
18[2]

 Belgium
None
16 for beer and wine
18 for spirits[57]
Since 10 January 2010, it is illegal to "sell, serve, or offer" any form of distilled alcohol to those under the age of 18 or any alcoholic drink to those under 16. So fermented drinks like beer or wine are permitted above 16.[57] Previously, it was illegal to sell alcoholic drinks to under-16s, but accompanying adults could buy drinks for them.

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
None
18[58]

 Bulgaria
18[2]

 Croatia
18[2]

 Cyprus
17[59]

 Czech Republic
None
18[60]
It is illegal to provide alcohol to minors[61] (punishable by fine or up to 1[62] or 2[63] year(s) imprisonment). Consumption itself is not prohibited by law.[64]

 Denmark
None
16 to buy alcohol <16.5% ABV
18 to buy alcohol ≥16.5% ABV
18 to be served in restaurants, bars, discos etc.[2]
While there is no age requirement for drinking alcohol in Denmark, there are laws that prevent minors from buying alcohol:

In order to buy alcohol above 1.2% and below 16.5% ABV in stores, one must be 16 years of age.
In order to buy alcohol above 16.5% ABV in stores, one must be 18 years of age.[65]
To be served alcoholic drinks in bars, discos, clubs, restaurants and any establishment serving alcoholic beverages one must be 18 years of age.

By tradition, youths are privately allowed to drink alcohol after their confirmation.[66] If a shop or bar fails to ask for an ID card and is identified having sold alcohol to an underage, it is subject to fine. A national ID card, obtained in the local town hall, can serve as age verification.[67] This card is rarely used though since a passport or moped-licence can sometimes be used.[68]
Both the legal drinking and purchasing age in the Faroe Islands is 18.[citation needed]

 Estonia
18[69]

 Finland
18 for possession and purchase of 1.2–22% ABV
20 for possession and purchase of 23–80% ABV
18 for all in bars, clubs and restaurants[70]
All major grocery chains have implemented a policy to ask for ID if the customer looks under 30.[71] Stores may refuse to sell alcohol if the customer is accompanied by a minor, or if proxy purchasing is suspected. Purchasing alcohol on behalf of a minor is a criminal offence.[70][72]
Police may search minors in public places and confiscate or destroy any alcoholic beverages in their possession. Incidents are reported to the legal guardian and social authorities, who may intervene with child welfare procedures. In addition, those aged 15 or above are subject to a fine.[73]
In private, offering alcohol to a minor is considered a criminal offence if it results in drunkenness and the act can be deemed reprehensible as a whole, considering the minor's age, degree of maturity and other circumstances.[70]

 France
None
18
France has no explicitly stated consumption age,[74] but selling alcohol to a minor (under 18) is illegal[75] and can be fined 7500 euros.[74] This age was raised from 16 to 18 in 2009.[76][77]

 Georgia
None
16[citation needed]

 Germany
None (on private residence)
16 (in public) (14 when accompanied by a custodial person) for beer and wine
18 for spirits and aliments containing spirits above negligible amount[78]

16 for beer and wine
18 for spirits and aliments containing spirits above negligible amounts[78]

See also: Alcohol laws in Germany

 Gibraltar
None[79]
16/18
It is illegal to sell alcoholic drinks to anyone under the age of 18.
The minimum age to be served in licensed premises is 16 if:[79]

The alcoholic beverage is beer, wine or cider below 15% ABV, or
The alcoholic beverage is served in a bottle, or a pre-packaged container below 5.5% ABV.

 Greece
None
18[citation needed]
In 2008, the consumption of alcoholic beverages was prohibited for minors in public. However, the law does not apply to private events or private premises.

 Hungary
18[2]

 Iceland
None
20[80]
Possession or consumption of alcohol by minors is not an offence, but supplying them with alcohol is. However, law allows alcohol possessed by a minor to be confiscated.

 Ireland
None (on private residence with permission from parents or guardians) [81]
18[81]
It is illegal for minors to buy alcohol or for a third party to attempt to buy it for minors. It is illegal to purchase alcohol for anybody under the age of consent without permission from their guardians.[82]

 Italy
None
18[83]
In 2012 the then Health Minister Renato Balduzzi proposed to raise the age to 18.[84] Selling alcohol to those under the age of 18 in shops carries a fine between €250 and €1000. Serving alcoholic beverages to those under the age of 16 is a criminal offense and is punished with prison up to one year, if the individual is 16 or 17 it will be treated as an offense that is fined between €250 and €1000 (Legge n. 189/2013).

 Kosovo
None

 Latvia
None
18[85]

 Liechtenstein
16 for wine, beer and cider
18 for spirits and spirit-based beverages. e.g. alcopops
Wine, beer and ciders as well as some other party drinks sometimes without spirits may be purchased by the age of 16. Spirits as well as alcopops may be sold only to people at least 18.[86]

 Lithuania
18[87]
Minors under the age of 18 are prohibited from consuming alcoholic beverages or from having them. After 2018, January 1st, a new law will be put into place, changing the legal drinking age from 18 to 20.[88]

 Luxembourg
None
16[89]

 Macedonia
18[90][unreliable source?]
Must show an ID card upon request. In certain smaller places, such as family-owned convenience stores and street kiosks, there is little to no enforcement on how old or young somebody purchases alcohol. There is little to no enforcement for drinking privately, but drinking in bars may require an ID.

 Malta
17[91]
Must provide identification upon request.

 Moldova
None
16[92]
It is illegal to sell alcohol to anyone under the age of 16. There is no consumption age.

 Montenegro
None
18[citation needed]

 Netherlands
18
The legal age for purchasing and consumption of alcoholic beverages was raised from 16 to 18 on 1 January 2014. Alcohol is commonly available upon parental permission. Selling alcoholic beverages to people under 18 is illegal, although giving it away in private is not.[citation needed]

 Norway
None[93]
18 (<22%)
20 (≥22% ABV)[2]
Selling alcohol to or buying alcohol for minors is illegal. Minors are defined as under 18 for beer and wine, under 20 for drinks that contain 22% ABV or more. Minors who buy alcohol are not held criminally responsible; instead, the crime lies with those who sold it or obtained it for them.
Alcohol with more than 60% ABV is generally not sold in Norway, although exceptions may be made by the government for specific products.[94]
Alcohol possessed by minors may be confiscated as evidence. Drinking in public is prohibited, though this is rarely enforced in recreational areas.[95]

 Poland
None
18[96]
Article 15 of The Act on Upbringing in Sobriety and Counteracting Alcoholism[97] clearly states that buyers or persons being served must be at least 18 and prove it with ID if they look like they may not be at least that age. There is no mention of consumption age in this or any other act in Poland. Drinking on streets, town squares, and in parks is illegal regardless of age.

 Portugal
None[citation needed]
18[98]

 Romania
None
18[99]
According to law 61/1991 updated in 2008, paragraphs 21-25, it is illegal to serve or sell alcohol to minors.

 Russia
None
18[100]
There is no law or regulation in Russia that prohibits minors from consuming alcohol, but selling alcohol to minors is prohibited by federal and additional regional laws.

 Serbia
18[101]

 Slovakia
18[102]

 Slovenia
None
18[103]
There is no law regulating the possession and consumption, but it is illegal to sell or offer alcohol of any kind to minors.

 Spain
18
Asturias was the last autonomous community in Spain where the drinking age was increased to 18 (previously 16) on 1 May 2015.[104]

 Sweden

None

None (less than 2.25% ABV)
18 (bars and restaurants),
18 (2.25%–3.5% ABV in food shops),
20 (Systembolaget shops[105]),

See also: Alcohol in Sweden
Many clubs choose to have higher age limits than 18, commonly 20 or 23. It is legal to drink below 18, but it is illegal to sell, lend or give alcohol to someone under that age and the police can seize alcohol from them, apart from being served alcohol supervised in private "in moderation". It is legal to serve an underage person alcohol in a private place.[106] The reason for lower limit in bars than in Systembolaget shops is that bartenders have a legal responsibility for how drunk a guest gets.

  Switzerland
None
(See notes)
16 for fermented alcoholic drinks (with less than 15% ABV and natural wines with less than 18% ABV);[107]
18 for spirits [108]
Whoever offers or supplies alcoholic beverages to a child under the age of 16 years in an amount which is harmful to one's health is punished with imprisonment up to 3 years or a fine.[109] Whoever sells or supplies spirits to a person under the age of 18 years is punished with a fine up to 10.000 CHF.[110]

18
The canton Ticino prohibits selling and consumption of any type of alcohol by minors under the age of 18. Some shops and supermarkets may not sell alcohol to minors under the age of 18.[111]

 Turkey
18[2]

See also: Alcohol laws of Turkey

 Ukraine
18[2]

 United Kingdom
18 (on licensed premises)[112]
16 (beer, wine or cider with a meal on licensed premises)[112]
5 (not on licensed premises)[113]
None (under medical supervision, or in an emergency)[113]
18[112]
None (liqueur confectionery)[114]
Legislation in  England and  Wales:

It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages on licensed premises under the age of 18, other than the following two exceptions.[112]
Minors aged 16 or 17 may consume wine, beer or cider on licensed premises when ordered with a meal, and accompanied by an adult.[112]
It is legal to sell liqueur confectionery to someone of any age.[114]
It is illegal to permit minors under the age of 5 to consume alcoholic beverages unless under medical supervision or in an emergency.[113]
Persons over 17 are entitled to their own duty free allowance, which includes alcohol. [115]

18 (in public without a meal or adult supervision)
16 (beer, wine or cider on licensed premises with meal)
5 (on private premises)[116]
18
16 (beer, wine, cider or perry with a meal on licensed premises)
None (liqueur confectionery)[114]
Legislation in  Scotland:

It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18.[117]
Minors aged 16 or 17 may consume wine, beer or cider on licensed premises when ordered with a meal.[117]
It is legal to sell liqueur confectionery to someone of any age.[114]
Persons over 17 are entitled to their own duty free allowance, which includes alcohol. [115]

18
Legislation in Northern Ireland:
It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18.[citation needed]

Challenge 21 and Challenge 25 (applies to all of the  United Kingdom)
Under the BBPA's Challenge 21 and Challenge 25 schemes, customers attempting to buy alcoholic beverages are asked to prove their age if in the retailer's opinion they look under 21[118] (or optionally 25) even though the law states they must be a minimum of 18. Many supermarket and off-licence chains display Challenge 21 (or Challenge 25) notices stating that they will not serve persons who look under 21 (or 25) without ID.

text: Oceania[edit]

text:
Country/region
De jure
Notes

Drinking age
Purchase age

 American Samoa
21[119]

 Australia
18[2][120]

Main article: Alcohol laws of Australia
Varies by state. Some states restrict possession and consumption to over 18, all states restrict purchasing to over 18. In some states, minors may consume alcohol in a private residence with parental permission.[121]

 Fiji
18[122]
The drinking age was 21 from 2006 to 2009 but was lowered to 18 in 2009.[122]

 Guam
21[123]

 Micronesia, Federated States of
21

 New Zealand
None
18[124]
Minimum age applies for beverages with 1.15% ABV or over; no restrictions on beverages less than 1.15% ABV.[125]
Persons under 18 may drink outside private residences or private functions if accompanied by their parent or legal guardian. Alcohol may be supplied to minors only by, or with express consent from, their parent or legal guardian.[126]

 Northern Mariana Islands
21[citation needed]

 Palau
21[2]

 Papua New Guinea
18[2]

 Samoa
21[2]

 Solomon Islands
21[2]

 Tokelau
18[127]

 Tonga
21[2]

 Vanuatu
18[2]


document_title: Sugarcane

question_text: sugarcane is an example of a plant that can be used to produce which kind of fuel

root

text: Sugarcane

text: Description[edit]

text: Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, typically three to four m (10 to 13 ft) high and about 5 cm (2 in) in diameter. The stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is typically composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars, and 63–73% water. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, and the harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare (24–28 long ton/acre; 27–31 short ton/acre) per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation. Sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder.[7]

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text: Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia.[9] Different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea.[9] The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear. The earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.[10]

text: Around the 8th century, Muslim and Arab traders introduced sugar from South Asia to the other parts of the Abbasid Caliphate in the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa, and Andalusia. By the 10th century, sources state that no village in Mesopotamia did not grow sugarcane.[8] It was among the early crops brought to the Americas by the Spanish, mainly Andalusians, from their fields in the Canary Islands, and the Portuguese from their fields in the Madeira Islands.

text: Christopher Columbus first brought sugarcane to the Caribbean during his second voyage to the Americas; initially to the island of Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). In colonial times, sugar formed one side of the triangle trade of New World raw materials, along with European manufactured goods, and African slaves. Sugar (often in the form of molasses) was shipped from the Caribbean to Europe or New England, where it was used to make rum. The profits from the sale of sugar were then used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe.

text: France found its sugarcane islands so valuable that it effectively traded its portion of Canada, famously dubbed "a few acres of snow", to Britain for their return of Guadeloupe, Martinique and St. Lucia at the end of the Seven Years' War. The Dutch similarly kept Suriname, a sugar colony in South America, instead of seeking the return of the New Netherlands (New York).

text: Boiling houses in the 17th through 19th centuries converted sugarcane juice into raw sugar. These houses were attached to sugar plantations in the Western colonies. Slaves often ran the boiling process under very poor conditions. Rectangular boxes of brick or stone served as furnaces, with an opening at the bottom to stoke the fire and remove ashes. At the top of each furnace were up to seven copper kettles or boilers, each one smaller and hotter than the previous one. The cane juice began in the largest kettle. The juice was then heated and lime added to remove impurities. The juice was skimmed and then channeled to successively smaller kettles. The last kettle, the "teache", was where the cane juice became syrup. The next step was a cooling trough, where the sugar crystals hardened around a sticky core of molasses. This raw sugar was then shoveled from the cooling trough into hogsheads (wooden barrels), and from there into the curing house.

text: In the British Empire, slaves were liberated after 1833 and many would no longer work on sugarcane plantations when they had a choice. British owners of sugarcane plantations therefore needed new workers, and they found cheap labour in China, Portugal and India.[11][12] The people were subject to indenture, a long-established form of contract which bound them to forced labour for a fixed term; apart from the fixed term of servitude, this resembled slavery.[13] The first ships carrying indentured labourers from India left in 1836.[14] The migrations to serve sugarcane plantations led to a significant number of ethnic Indians, southeast Asians and Chinese settling in various parts of the world.[15] In some islands and countries, the South Asian migrants now constitute between 10 and 50 percent of the population. Sugarcane plantations and Asian ethnic groups continue to thrive in countries such as Fiji, Natal, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, British Guiana, Jamaica, Trinidad, Martinique, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, St. Croix, Suriname, Nevis, and Mauritius.[14][16]

text: The then British colony of Queensland, now a state of Australia, coerced (or "blackbirded") between 55,000 and 62,500 (estimates vary) people from the South Pacific Islands to work on sugarcane plantations between 1863 and 1900.[17]

text: Cuban sugar derived from sugarcane was exported to the USSR, where it received price supports and was ensured a guaranteed market. The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet state forced the closure of most of Cuba's sugar industry.

text: Sugarcane remains an important part of the economy of Guyana, Belize, Barbados, and Haiti, along with the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, and other islands.

text: About 70% of the sugar produced globally comes from S. officinarum and hybrids using this species.[18]

text: Cultivation[edit]

text: Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or temperate climate, with a minimum of 60 cm (24 in) of annual moisture. It is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom. It is a C4 plant, able to convert up to 1% of incident solar energy into biomass.[19] In prime growing regions, such as Mauritius, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, India, Guyana, Indonesia, Pakistan, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Australia, Ecuador, Cuba, the Philippines, El Salvador, Jamaica, and Hawaii, sugarcane crops can produce over 15 kg/m2 of cane. Once a major crop of the southeastern region of the United States, sugarcane cultivation has declined there in recent decades, and is now primarily confined to Florida, Louisiana, and South Texas.

text: Sugarcane is cultivated in the tropics and subtropics in areas with a plentiful supply of water for a continuous period of more than six to seven months each year, either from natural rainfall or through irrigation. The crop does not tolerate severe frosts. Therefore, most of the world's sugarcane is grown between 22°N and 22°S, and some up to 33°N and 33°S.[20] When sugarcane crop is found outside this range, such as the Natal region of South Africa, it is normally due to anomalous climatic conditions in the region, such as warm ocean currents that sweep down the coast. In terms of altitude, sugarcane crop is found up to 1,600 metres or 5,200 feet close to the equator in countries such as Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.[21]

text: Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile well-drained mollisols, through heavy cracking vertisols, infertile acid oxisols, peaty histosols, to rocky andisols. Both plentiful sunshine and water supplies increase cane production. This has made desert countries with good irrigation facilities such as Egypt some of the highest-yielding sugarcane-cultivating regions.

text: Although some sugarcanes produce seeds, modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method.[22] Each cutting must contain at least one bud, and the cuttings are sometimes hand-planted. In more technologically advanced countries like the United States and Australia, billet planting is common. Billets harvested from a mechanical harvester are planted by a machine that opens and recloses the ground. Once planted, a stand can be harvested several times; after each harvest, the cane sends up new stalks, called ratoons. Successive harvests give decreasing yields, eventually justifying replanting. Two to 10 harvests are usually made depending on the type of culture. In a country with a mechanical agriculture looking for a high production of large fields, like in North America, sugar canes are replanted after two or three harvests to avoid a lowering in yields. In countries with a more traditional type of agriculture with smaller fields and hand harvesting, like in the French island la Réunion, sugar canes are often harvested up to 10 years before replanting.

text: Sugarcane is harvested by hand and mechanically. Hand harvesting accounts for more than half of production, and is dominant in the developing world. In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire. The fire burns dry leaves, and chases away or kills any lurking venomous snakes, without harming the stalks and roots. Harvesters then cut the cane just above ground-level using cane knives or machetes. A skilled harvester can cut 500 kg (1,100 lb) of sugarcane per hour.[citation needed]

text: Mechanical harvesting uses a combine, or sugarcane harvester.[23] The Austoft 7000 series, the original modern harvester design, has now been copied by other companies, including Cameco / John Deere.[citation needed] The machine cuts the cane at the base of the stalk, strips the leaves, chops the cane into consistent lengths and deposits it into a transporter following alongside. The harvester then blows the trash back onto the field. Such machines can harvest 100 long tons (100 t) each hour; however, harvested cane must be rapidly processed. Once cut, sugarcane begins to lose its sugar content, and damage to the cane during mechanical harvesting accelerates this decline. This decline is offset because a modern chopper harvester can complete the harvest faster and more efficiently than hand cutting and loading. Austoft also developed a series of hydraulic high-lift infield transporters to work alongside their harvesters to allow even more rapid transfer of cane to, for example, the nearest railway siding. This mechanical harvesting doesn't require the field to be set on fire; the remains left in the field by the machine consist of the top of the sugar cane and the dead leaves, which act as mulch for the next round of planting.

text: Pests[edit]

text: The cane beetle (also known as cane grub) can substantially reduce crop yield by eating roots; it can be controlled with imidacloprid (Confidor) or chlorpyrifos (Lorsban). Other important pests are the larvae of some butterfly/moth species, including the turnip moth, the sugarcane borer (Diatraea saccharalis), the African sugarcane borer (Eldana saccharina), the Mexican rice borer (Eoreuma loftini), the African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta), leaf-cutting ants, termites, spittlebugs (especially Mahanarva fimbriolata and Deois flavopicta), and the beetle Migdolus fryanus. The planthopper insect Eumetopina flavipes acts as a virus vector, which causes the sugarcane disease ramu stunt.[24][25]

text: Pathogens[edit]

text: Numerous pathogens infect sugarcane, such as sugarcane grassy shoot disease caused by Phytoplasma, whiptail disease or sugarcane smut, pokkah boeng caused by Fusarium moniliforme, Xanthomonas axonopodis bacteria causes Gumming Disease, and red rot disease caused by Colletotrichum falcatum. Viral diseases affecting sugarcane include sugarcane mosaic virus, maize streak virus, and sugarcane yellow leaf virus.

text: Nitrogen fixation[edit]

text: Some sugarcane varieties are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in association with the bacterium Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus.[26] Unlike legumes and other nitrogen-fixing plants that form root nodules in the soil in association with bacteria, G. diazotrophicus lives within the intercellular spaces of the sugarcane's stem.[27][28] Coating seeds with the bacteria is a newly developed technology that can enable every crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use.[29]

text: Conditions for sugarcane workers[edit]

text: At least 20,000 people are estimated to have died of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in Central America in the past two decades – most of them sugar cane workers along the Pacific coast. This may be due to working long hours in the heat without adequate fluid intake.[30]

text: Processing[edit]

text: Traditionally, sugarcane processing requires two stages. Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and "mill-white” sugar is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar-extraction mills, intended for local consumption. Sugar crystals appear naturally white in color during the crystallization process. Sulfur dioxide is added to inhibit the formation of color-inducing molecules as well as to stabilize the sugar juices during evaporation.[31][32] Refineries, often located nearer to consumers in North America, Europe, and Japan, then produce refined white sugar, which is 99 percent sucrose. These two stages are slowly merging. Increasing affluence in the sugar-producing tropics increased demand for refined sugar products, driving a trend toward combined milling and refining.

text: Milling[edit]

text: Sugarcane processing produces cane sugar (sucrose) from sugarcane. Other products of the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake.

text: Bagasse, the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted, is used for several purposes:[33]

text:
fuel for the boilers and kilns,
production of paper, paperboard products, and reconstituted panelboard,
agricultural mulch, and more,
as a raw material for production of chemicals.

tag: ul

text: The primary use of bagasse and bagasse residue is as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam in sugar plants. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement, fertilizer, and source of sugarcane wax.

text: Molasses is produced in two forms: Blackstrap, which has a characteristic strong flavor, and a purer molasses syrup. Blackstrap molasses is sold as a food and dietary supplement. It is also a common ingredient in animal feed, is used to produce ethanol and rum, and in the manufacturing of citric acid. Purer molasses syrups are sold as molasses, and may also be blended with maple syrup, invert sugars, or corn syrup. Both forms of molasses are used in baking.

text: Refining[edit]

text: Sugar refining further purifies the raw sugar. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged in a process called "affination". Its purpose is to wash away the sugar crystals' outer coating, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup, about 60 percent solids by weight.

text: The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide, which combine to precipitate calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" technique is "carbonatation", which is similar, but uses carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate.

text: After filtering any remaining solids, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through activated carbon. Bone char or coal-based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role.[34] Some remaining color-forming impurities are adsorbed by the carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum, to produce white refined sugar. As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging.[35] Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce brown sugar. When no more sugar can be economically recovered, the final molasses still contains 20–30 percent sucrose and 15–25 percent glucose and fructose.

text: To produce granulated sugar, in which individual grains do not clump, sugar must be dried, first by heating in a rotary dryer, and then by blowing cool air through it for several days.

text: Ribbon cane syrup[edit]

text: Ribbon cane is a subtropical type that was once widely grown in the southern United States, as far north as coastal North Carolina. The juice was extracted with horse or mule-powered crushers; the juice was boiled, like maple syrup, in a flat pan, and then used in the syrup form as a food sweetener.[36] It is not currently a commercial crop, but a few growers find ready sales for their product.[citation needed]

text: Pollution from sugarcane processing[edit]

text: Particulate matter, combustion products, and volatile organic compounds are the primary pollutants emitted during the sugarcane processing.[33] Combustion products include nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), CO2, and sulfur oxides (SOX). Potential emission sources include the sugar granulators, sugar conveying and packaging equipment, bulk loadout operations, boilers, granular carbon and char regeneration kilns, regenerated adsorbent transport systems, kilns and handling equipment (at some facilities), carbonation tanks, multi-effect evaporator stations, and vacuum boiling pans. Modern pollution prevention technologies are capable of addressing all of these potential pollutants.[citation needed]

text: Production[edit]

text:
Top ten sugarcane producers — 2015[2]

Country
Production
(thousand metric tons, TMT)

 Brazil
739,267

 India
341,200

 China
*125,536

 Thailand
100,096

 Pakistan
63,750

 Mexico
61,182

 Colombia
34,876

 Indonesia
*33,700

 Philippines
31,874

 United States
27,906

 World
1,877,105

P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure
A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates);
Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division

text: Brazil led the world in sugarcane production in 2013 with a 739,267 TMT harvest.[2] India was the second largest producer with 341,200 TMT tons, and China the third largest producer with 125,536 TMT tons harvest.

text: The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crops in 2013 was 70.77 tons per hectare.[2] The most productive farms in the world were in Peru with a nationwide average sugarcane crop yield of 133.71 tons per hectare.

text: The theoretical possible yield for sugar cane, according to 1983 study of Duke, is about 280 metric tons per hectare per year, and small experimental plots in Brazil have demonstrated yields of 236–280 metric tons of fresh cane per hectare.[37][38] The most promising region for high yield sugarcane production were in sun drenched, irrigated farms of northern Africa, and other deserts with plentiful water from river or irrigation canals.

text: In the United States, sugarcane is grown commercially in Florida, Hawaii, Louisiana, and Texas.[39]

text: Brazil uses sugarcane to produce sugar and ethanol for gasoline-ethanol blends (gasohol), a locally popular transportation fuel. In India, sugarcane is used to produce sugar, jaggery and alcoholic beverages.

text: Ethanol[edit]

text: Ethanol is generally available as a byproduct of sugar production. It can be used as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in cars in Brazil. It is an alternative to gasoline, and may become the primary product of sugarcane processing, rather than sugar.

text: In Brazil, gasoline is required to contain at least 22 percent bioethanol.[40] This bioethanol is sourced from Brazil's large sugarcane crop.

text: The production of ethanol from sugar cane is more energy efficient than from corn or sugar beets or palm/vegetable oils, particularly if cane bagasse is used to produce heat and power for the process. Furthermore, if biofuels are used for crop production and transport, the fossil energy input needed for each ethanol energy unit can be very low. EIA estimates that with an integrated sugar cane to ethanol technology, the well-to-wheels CO2 emissions can be 90 percent lower than conventional gasoline.[40]

text: A textbook on renewable energy[41] describes the energy transformation:

text: Presently, 75 tons of raw sugar cane are produced annually per hectare in Brazil. The cane delivered to the processing plant is called burned and cropped (b&c), and represents 77% of the mass of the raw cane. The reason for this reduction is that the stalks are separated from the leaves (which are burned and whose ashes are left in the field as fertilizer), and from the roots that remain in the ground to sprout for the next crop. Average cane production is, therefore, 58 tons of b&c per hectare per year.

text: Each ton of b&c yields 740 kg of juice (135 kg of sucrose and 605 kg of water) and 260 kg of moist bagasse (130 kg of dry bagasse). Since the lower heating value of sucrose is 16.5 MJ/kg, and that of the bagasse is 19.2 MJ/kg, the total heating value of a ton of b&c is 4.7 GJ of which 2.2 GJ come from the sucrose and 2.5 from the bagasse.

text: Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W per square meter. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%.

text: The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b&c are transformed into 70 litres of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GJ. The practical sucrose-ethanol conversion efficiency is, therefore, 76% (compare with the theoretical 97%).

text: One hectare of sugar cane yields 4,000 litres of ethanol per year (without any additional energy input, because the bagasse produced exceeds the amount needed to distill the final product). This, however, does not include the energy used in tilling, transportation, and so on. Thus, the solar energy-to-ethanol conversion efficiency is 0.13%.

text: Bagasse applications[edit]

text: Sugarcane is a major crop in many countries. It is one of the plants with the highest bioconversion efficiency. Sugarcane crop is able to efficiently fix solar energy, yielding some 55 tonnes of dry matter per hectare of land annually. After harvest, the crop produces sugar juice and bagasse, the fibrous dry matter. This dry matter is biomass with potential as fuel for energy production. Bagasse can also be used as an alternative source of pulp for paper production.[42]

text: Sugarcane bagasse is a potentially abundant source of energy for large producers of sugarcane, such as Brazil, India and China. According to one report, with use of latest technologies, bagasse produced annually in Brazil has the potential of meeting 20 percent of Brazil’s energy consumption by 2020.[43]

text: Electricity production[edit]

text: A number of countries, in particular those devoid of any fossil fuel, have implemented energy conservation and efficiency measures to minimize energy used in cane processing and furthermore export any excess electricity to the grid. Bagasse is usually burned to produce steam, which in turn creates electricity. Current technologies, such as those in use in Mauritius, produce over 100 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse. With a total world harvest of over 1 billion tonnes of sugar cane per year, the global energy potential from bagasse is over 100,000 GWh.[44] Using Mauritius as a reference, an annual potential of 10,000 GWh of additional electricity could be produced throughout Africa.[45] Electrical generation from bagasse could become quite important, particularly to the rural populations of sugarcane producing nations.

text: Recent cogeneration technology plants are being designed to produce from 200 to over 300 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse.[46][47] As sugarcane is a seasonal crop, shortly after harvest the supply of bagasse would peak, requiring power generation plants to strategically manage the storage of bagasse.

text: Biogas production[edit]

text: A greener alternative to burning bagasse for the production of electricity is to convert bagasse into biogas. Technologies are being developed to use enzymes to transform bagasse into advanced biofuel and biogas.[43]

text: Medicinal usage[edit]

text: In āyurveda, the Indian system of medicine, the sugarcane is most commonly known in Sanskrit as Ikṣu, having characteristics such as improving strength and acting as an aphrodisiac. It has the following synonyms: Dīrghachada, Bhūrirasa, Guḍamūla, Asipatra, Madhutṛṇa. These synonyms, along with its main varieties and characteristics are described in nighaṇṭus such as the Bhāvaprakāśa (1.6.23, group of sugarcanes). The juice of the sugarcane is known as Phāṇita.[48]

text: Sugarcane as food[edit]

text:
Cane juice[49]

Freshly squeezed sugarcane juice.

Nutritional value per 28.35 grams

Energy
111.13 kJ (26.56 kcal)

Carbohydrates

27.51 g

Sugars
26.98 g

Protein

0.27 g

Minerals

Calcium

(1%)
11.23 mg

Iron

(3%)
0.37 mg

Potassium

(1%)
41.96 mg

Sodium

(1%)
17.01 mg

Nutrient Information from ESHA Research

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

text: In most countries where sugarcane is cultivated, there are several foods and popular dishes derived directly from it, such as:

text:
Raw sugarcane: chewed to extract the juice
Sayur nganten: an Indonesian soup made with the stem of trubuk (Saccharum edule), a type of sugarcane.
Sugarcane juice: a combination of fresh juice, extracted by hand or small mills, with a touch of lemon and ice to make a popular drink, known variously as air tebu, usacha rass, guarab, guarapa, guarapo, papelón, aseer asab, ganna sharbat, mosto, caldo de cana, nước miá.
Syrup: a traditional sweetener in soft drinks, now largely supplanted in the US by high fructose corn syrup, which is less expensive because of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs.[50]
Molasses: used as a sweetener and a syrup accompanying other foods, such as cheese or cookies
Jaggery: a solidified molasses, known as gur or gud or gul in India, is traditionally produced by evaporating juice to make a thick sludge, and then cooling and molding it in buckets. Modern production partially freeze dries the juice to reduce caramelization and lighten its color. It is used as sweetener in cooking traditional entrees, sweets and desserts.
Falernum: a sweet, and slightly alcoholic drink made from sugarcane juice
Cachaça: the most popular distilled alcoholic beverage in Brazil; a liquor made of the distillation of sugarcane juice.
Rum: is a liquor made from sugarcane products, typically molasses but sometimes also cane juice. It is most commonly produced in the Caribbean and environs.
Basi: is a fermented alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane juice produced in the Philippines and Guyana.
Panela: solid pieces of sucrose and fructose obtained from the boiling and evaporation of sugarcane juice; a food staple in Colombia and other countries in South and Central America
Rapadura: a sweet flour that is one of the simplest refinings of sugarcane juice, common in Latin American countries such as Brazil, Argentina and Venezuela (where it is known as papelón) and the Caribbean.
Rock candy: crystallized cane juice
Gâteau de Sirop


document_title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

question_text: where does the new madrid fault line run

text: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: Location[edit]

text: The 150-mile (240 km) long seismic zone, which extends into five states, stretches southward from Cairo, Illinois; through Hayti, Caruthersville and New Madrid in Missouri; through Blytheville into Marked Tree in Arkansas. It also covers a part of West Tennessee, near Reelfoot Lake, extending southeast into Dyersburg. It is southwest of the Wabash Valley Seismic Zone.

text: Most of the seismicity originates between 3 and 15 miles (4.8 and 24.1 km) beneath the Earth's surface.[citation needed]

text: Earthquake history[edit]

text: The zone had four of the largest North American earthquakes in recorded history, with moment magnitudes estimated to be as large as 7.0 or greater, all occurring within a three-month period between December 1811 and February 1812. Many of the published accounts describe the cumulative effects of all the earthquakes (known as the New Madrid Sequence); thus finding the individual effects of each quake can be difficult. Magnitude estimates and epicenters are based on interpretations of historical accounts and may vary.

text: Prehistoric earthquakes[edit]

text: Because uplift rates associated with large New Madrid earthquakes could not have occurred continuously over geological timescales without dramatically altering the local topography, studies have concluded that the seismic activity there cannot have gone on for longer than 64,000 years, making the New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ) a young feature, or that earthquakes and the associated uplift migrate around the area over time, or that the NMSZ has short periods of activity interspersed with long periods of quiescence.[3] Archaeological studies have found from studies of sand blows and soil horizons that previous series of very large earthquakes have occurred in the NMSZ in recent prehistory. Based on artifacts found buried by sand blow deposits and from carbon-14 studies, previous large earthquakes like those of 1811–1812 appear to have happened around AD 1450 and around AD 900,[4] as well as approximately AD 300. Evidence has also been found for an apparent series of large earthquakes around 2350 BC.[5] About 80 km southwest of the presently-defined NMSZ but close enough to be associated with the Reelfoot Rift, near Marianna, Arkansas, two sets of liquefaction features indicative of large earthquakes have been tentatively identified and dated to 3500 BC and 4800 BC. These features were interpreted to have been caused by groups of large earthquakes timed closely together.[6]

text: Dendrochronology (tree ring) studies conducted on the oldest bald cypress trees growing in Reelfoot Lake found evidence of the 1811–1812 series in the form of fractures followed by rapid growth after their inundation, whereas cores taken from old bald cypress trees in the St. Francis sunklands showed slowed growth in the half century that followed 1812. These were interpreted as clear signals of the 1811–1812 earthquake series in tree rings. Because the tree ring record in Reelfoot Lake and the St. Francis sunk lands extend back to AD 1682 and AD 1321, respectively, Van Arsdale et al. interpreted the lack of similar signals elsewhere in the chronology as evidence against large New Madrid earthquakes between those years and 1811.[7]

text: December 25, 1699[edit]

text: The first known written record of an earthquake felt in the NMSZ was from a French missionary traveling up the Mississippi with a party of explorers. At 1 p.m., on Christmas Day 1699, at a site near the present-day location of Memphis, the party was startled by a short period of ground shaking.[8]

text: 1811–12 earthquake series[edit]

text: December 16, 1811, 0815 UTC (2:15 a.m.); (M ~7.5)[9] epicenter in northeast Arkansas, probably on the Cottonwood Grove fault;[10]:p. 7 it caused only slight damage to man-made structures, mainly because of the sparse population in the epicentral area. The future location of Memphis, Tennessee was shaken at Mercalli level nine intensity. A seismic seiche propagated upriver and Little Prairie was destroyed by liquefaction.[11] Local uplifts of the ground and the sight of water waves moving upstream gave observers the impression that the Mississippi River was flowing backwards.[12]

text:
December 16, 1811, sometimes termed the "Dawn Shock" or "Daylight Shock", 1315 UTC (7:15 a.m.); (M ~ 7) epicenter in northeast Arkansas.[9]
January 23, 1812, 1515 UTC (9:15 a.m.); (M ~7.3) epicenter around New Madrid,[9] although this is disputed.[10]:p. 7 This was probably the smallest of the three main shocks, but resulted in widespread ground deformation, landslides, fissuring, and stream bank caving in the meizoseismal area. Johnston and Schweig attributed this earthquake to a rupture on the New Madrid North Fault.[11][9] A minority viewpoint holds that this earthquake's epicenter was in southern Illinois. A 2011 expert panel urged further research to clarify this point, stating that the Illinois hypothesis would mean that an extended section of fault exists, perhaps still loaded and capable of hosting a great earthquake in the future.[10]:p. 7
February 7, 1812, 0945 UTC (3:45 a.m.); (M ~7.5) epicenter near New Madrid, Missouri.[9] This was the largest event in the series, and it destroyed the town of New Madrid.[9] At St. Louis, Missouri, many houses were severely damaged, and their chimneys were toppled. It appears to have occurred on Reelfoot fault, a reverse fault segment that crosses under the Mississippi River just south of Kentucky Bend and continues to the east as the Lake County Uplift.[10]:p. 7 In this event, uplift along the fault created temporary waterfalls on the Mississippi River, created a wave that propagated upstream, and caused the formation of Reelfoot Lake by damming streams.[11]

text: Hundreds of aftershocks of the 1811-1812 series followed over a period of several years. Aftershocks strong enough to be felt occurred until 1817. The largest earthquakes to have occurred since then were on January 4, 1843, and October 31, 1895, with magnitude estimates of 6.0 and 6.6, respectively. The 1895 had its epicenter near Charleston, Missouri. The quake damaged virtually all the buildings in Charleston, created sand volcanoes by the city, cracked a pier on the Cairo Rail Bridge and toppled chimneys in St. Louis, Missouri; Memphis, Tennessee; Gadsden, Alabama; and Evansville, Indiana.[14]

text: Modern activity[edit]

text: The largest NMSZ earthquake of the 20th century was a 5.4-magnitude quake (although it was reported as a 5.5 at the time) on November 9, 1968, near Dale, Illinois. The quake damaged the civic building at Henderson, Kentucky and was felt in 23 states. People in Boston said their buildings swayed. At the time of the quake, it was the biggest recorded quake with an epicenter in Illinois in that state's recorded history.[15] In 2008 in the nearby Wabash Valley Seismic Zone, a similar magnitude 5.4 earthquake occurred with its epicenter in Illinois near West Salem and Mount Carmel.

text: Instruments were installed in and around the area in 1974 to closely monitor seismic activity. Since then, more than 4,000 earthquakes have been recorded, most of which were too small to be felt. On average, one earthquake per year is large enough to be felt in the area.

text: Geology[edit]

text: The faults responsible for the New Madrid Seismic Zone are embedded in a subsurface geological feature known as the Reelfoot Rift that formed during the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era (about 750 million years ago). The resulting rift system failed to split the continent, but has remained as an aulacogen (a scar or zone of weakness) deep underground, and its ancient faults appear to have made the Earth's crust in the New Madrid area mechanically weaker than much of the rest of North America.

text: This relative weakness is important, because it would allow the relatively small east-west compressive forces associated with the continuing continental drift of the North American plate to reactivate old faults around New Madrid, making the area unusually prone to earthquakes in spite of it being far from the nearest tectonic plate boundary.[16]

text: Since other ancient rifts are known to occur in North America but not all are associated with modern earthquakes, other processes could be at work to locally increase mechanical stress on the New Madrid faults.[17][18] It has also been suggested that some form of heating in the lithosphere below the area may be making deep rocks more plastic, which would concentrate compressive stress in the shallower subsurface area where the faulting occurs.[19][20]

text: Potential for future earthquakes[edit]

text: In a report filed in November 2008, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency warned that a serious earthquake in the New Madrid Seismic Zone could result in "the highest economic losses due to a natural disaster in the United States," further predicting "widespread and catastrophic" damage across Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, and particularly Tennessee, where a 7.7 magnitude quake would cause damage to tens of thousands of structures affecting water distribution, transportation systems, and other vital infrastructure.[21] The earthquake is expected to also result in many thousands of fatalities, with more than 4,000 of the fatalities expected in Memphis alone.

text: The potential for the recurrence of large earthquakes and their impact today on densely populated cities in and around the seismic zone has generated much research devoted to understanding in the New Madrid Seismic Zone. By studying evidence of past quakes and closely monitoring ground motion and current earthquake activity, scientists attempt to understand their causes and recurrence intervals.

text: In October 2009, a team composed of University of Illinois and Virginia Tech researchers headed by Amr S. Elnashai, funded by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), considered a scenario where all three segments of the New Madrid fault ruptured simultaneously with a total earthquake magnitude of 7.7. The report found that there would be significant damage in the eight states studied – Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, and Tennessee – with the probability of additional damage in states farther from the NMSZ. Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri would be most severely impacted, and the cities of Memphis, Tennessee and St. Louis, Missouri would be severely damaged. The report estimated 86,000 casualties, including 3,500 fatalities; 715,000 damaged buildings; and 7.2 million people displaced, with 2 million of those seeking shelter, primarily due to the lack of utility services. Direct economic losses, according to the report, would be at least $300 billion.[22]

text: Iben Browning's 1990 prediction[edit]

text: Beginning in February 1989, climatologist Iben Browning – who claimed to have predicted the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens and the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake – predicted that there was a 50 percent probability of a magnitude 6.5 to 7.5 earthquake in the New Madrid area sometime between December 1 and December 5, 1990.[23][24] Browning appears to have based this prediction on particularly strong tidal forces being expected during that time frame and his opinion that a New Madrid earthquake was "overdue"; however, seismologists generally agree that there is no correlation between tides and earthquakes.[24] The United States Geological Survey requested an evaluation of the prediction by an advisory board of earth scientists, who concluded that "the prediction does not have scientific validity."[24] Despite the lack of scientific support, Browning's prediction was widely reported in international media, causing public alarm. The period passed with no major earthquake activity in New Madrid or along the 120-mile (190 km) fault line.[24]

text: Uncertainty over recurrence potential[edit]

text: The lack of apparent land movement along the New Madrid fault system has long puzzled scientists. In 2009, two studies based on eight years of GPS measurements indicated that the faults were moving at no more than 0.2 millimeters (0.0079 in) a year.[25] This contrasts to the rate of slip on the San Andreas Fault, which averages up to 37 mm (1.5 in) a year across California.[26]

text: On March 13, 2009, a research group based out of Northwestern University and Purdue University, funded by the United States Geological Survey, reported in the journal Science and in other journals that the New Madrid system may be "shutting down" and that tectonic stress may now be accumulating elsewhere.[25] Seth Stein, the leader of the research group, published these views in a book, Disaster Deferred, in 2008. Although some of these ideas have gained some amount of acceptance among researchers, they have not been accepted by the National Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council, which advises the USGS.[27]

text: In the November 5, 2009, issue of Nature, researchers from Northwestern University and the University of Missouri said that due to the lack of fault movement, the quakes along the faults may only be aftershocks of the 1811–1812 earthquakes.[28]

text: According to the USGS, there is a broad consensus that the possibility of major earthquakes in the New Madrid Seismic Zone remains a concern, and that the GPS data do not provide a compelling case for lessening perceived earthquake hazards in the region. One concern is that the small earthquakes that still happen are not diminishing over time, as would be if they were aftershocks of the 1811–1812 events; another is that the 4,500-year archaeological record of large earthquakes in the region is more significant than ten years of direct strain measurement. The USGS issued a fact sheet in 2009 stating the estimate of a 7–10% chance of a New Madrid earthquake of magnitude comparable to one of the 1811–1812 quakes within the next 50 years, and a 25–40% chance of a magnitude 6.0 earthquake in the same time frame.[29]

text: In July 2014, the USGS increased the risk assessment for the New Madrid area.[30]


document_title: Over-the-Rhine

question_text: where did the name over the rhine come from

text: Over-the-Rhine

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The neighborhood's distinctive name comes from its builders and early residents, German immigrants of the mid-19th century. Many walked to work across bridges over the Miami and Erie Canal, which separated the area from downtown Cincinnati. The canal was nicknamed "the Rhine" in reference to the river Rhine in Germany, and the newly settled area north of the canal as "Over the Rhine".[3][4] In German, the district was called über den Rhein.

text: An early reference to the canal as "the Rhine" appears in the 1853 book White, Red, Black, in which traveler Ferenc Pulszky wrote, "The Germans live all together across the Miami Canal, which is, therefore, here jocosely called the 'Rhine.' "[5] In 1875 writer Daniel J. Kenny referred to the area exclusively as "Over the Rhine." He noted, "Germans and Americans alike love to call the district 'Over the Rhine.' "[6] The canal was drained and capped by Central Parkway, the resulting tunnel was to be used for the now defunct Cincinnati Subway project.

text: History[edit]

text: Built in the nineteenth century during a period of extensive German immigration, Over-the-Rhine changed as many residents moved to the suburbs following World War 2. The city and area had lost many of the industrial jobs which once supported its workers. By the end of the century, the area was notable for the poverty of remaining residents. In this time period residents united and created many life-saving organizations. The community was strong and accepting.[3]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Over-the-Rhine is one of the largest, most intact urban historic district in the United States.[2] Because of its size, Over-the-Rhine has several distinct districts. OTR is bisected by Liberty Street. The Northern Liberties[7] and the Brewery District[8] are north of Liberty Street. South of Liberty are the Gateway Quarter and Pendelton.

text: The Washington Park Area[edit]

text: In recent years developers have renamed this portion of Over-the-Rhine to "The Gateway Quarter". This area has been the focal point of gentrification, which has been controversial due to the displacement of African Americans and low income residents. A comparison of the 2010 and 2000 federal censuses shows that over 1000 African Americans left this area during the decade. As of 2016, this is a primarily white, wealthy and exclusive section of the neighborhood.[9]

text: The Brewery District[edit]

text: The area north of Liberty street was the heart of Cincinnati's beer brewing industry.[10] Christian Moerlein established his first brewing company in Over-the-Rhine in 1853. Eventually the Christian Moerlein Brewing Co. became the city’s largest brewery and expanded into the national market. At its height the brewery occupied three entire city blocks. Prohibition brought an end to the company in the 1920s.[11] In 2010 the revived Christian Moerlein Brewing Co. began brewing beer in the Brewery District once again.[12]

text: North of Liberty Street[edit]

text: This area of the neighborhood has been relatively untouched by recent gentrification efforts and may resemble historic OTR better than other areas, though future investment may change this space in the future.[13]

text: Until 1849, today's Liberty Street, then called Northern Row, was the corporation line forming Cincinnati's northern boundary. The area north of Northern Row was not subject to municipal law and was, appropriately, called 'The Northern Liberties'. In 1955, the city decided to widen Liberty Street to connect with Reading Road as an east-west cross town access point for the interstate highway system. Buildings on the south side of the street were demolished and the street was widened from a two lane road to one with five lanes. Efforts are underway to narrow Liberty Street to bridge the gap between these halves of the neighborhood.[14]

text: Architecture[edit]

text: Over-the-Rhine has been praised for its collection of historic architecture. The New York Times described the neighborhood as having "a scale and grace reminiscent of Greenwich Village in New York."[15] Its architectural significance has also been compared to the French Quarter in New Orleans and the historic districts of Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina.[15][16] When Arthur Frommer, founder of the Frommer's travel guides, visited Over-the-Rhine he described it as the most promising urban area for revitalization in the United States, and claimed that its potential for tourism "literally could rival similar prosperous and heavily visited areas."[17][18]

text: Most of Over-the-Rhine's ornate brick buildings were built by German immigrants from 1865 to the 1880s.[15] The architecture of Over-the-Rhine reflects the diverse styles of the late nineteenth century—simple vernacular, muted Greek Revival, Italianate and Queen Anne.[19] Most of the buildings in Over-the-Rhine are one of these styles, but there are other odd balls as well. Art Deco is represented by the American Building on Central Parkway, the Germania Building at Twelfth and Walnut streets is ironically one of the few examples of German ornamentation in the neighborhood, Music Hall's mixture of styles is best described as Venetian Gothic, there are a handful of buildings with Gothic architecture, and the new SCPA on Central Parkway is the most notable example of Modern architecture in the neighborhood.[2]

text:
The Germania Building (Eastlake H)

Music Hall (Venetian Gothic)

Memorial Hall (Beaux Arts)

Elaborate ornamentation of an Elm Street building.

Rounded window cornices are a common feature of Italianate architecture.

Italianate greystone at Clay and 13th Streets.

Entrance to the American Building (Art Deco)

Hanke Building on Main Street detail (Renaissance Revival)

Queen Anne architecture on Main Street

text: New construction[edit]

text: Noted Indianapolis architect Evans Woollen III and his architectural firm of Woollen, Molzan and Partners were involved in the redevelopment of the historic neighborhood in the 1970s and 1980s. Woollen designed the Over-the-Rhine Pilot Center (1972–84), a group of four modern, mixed-use buildings within a two-block area.[20] The Pilot Center buildings included a recreational center, a senior citizens center, a Montessori school and daycare center, and a meeting and event space. Funding for the $2.5 million project came from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.[21]

text: Historic restoration[edit]

text: In 2011 the Over-the-Rhine Foundation, which works to prevent historic building loss in OTR, won third place in the National Trust for Historic Preservation's nationwide "This Place Matters" community challenge.[22] In 2006 the National Trust for Historic Preservation listed the status of Over-the-Rhine as "Endangered."[19] Since 1930, approximately half of Over-the-Rhine's historic buildings have been destroyed.[17] More will follow unless currently deteriorating buildings are repaired.[19] Between 2001 and 2006, the city approved more than 50 "emergency demolitions," which were caused by absentee landlords' allowing their buildings to become so critically dilapidated that the city declared them a danger to the public. Reinvestment could have saved them.[17][23] Due to the situation, the National Trust for Historic Preservation declared Over-the-Rhine one of Eleven Most Endangered Historic Places in 2006.[19] Over-the-Rhine was included in the 2008 book, Frommer's 500 Places to See Before They Disappear, which noted the district's "shocking state of neglect".[24]

text: According to research conducted by WCPO in 2001, some of the worst-kept properties are owned by Over-the-Rhine's non-profits,[25] which let the buildings sit vacant and deteriorating because of lack of funds[26] or volunteers.[27] With some buildings on the verge of collapse, investors and real-estate developers are trying to restore them before deterioration to the point of requiring demolition.[15] According to the U.S. Census Bureau, part of Over-the-Rhine has one of the highest rates of abandoned and vacant homes in the country. They classify it as the sixth hardest area in the nation to get an accurate population count.[28]

text: Crime[edit]

text: The number of serious crimes committed in OTR has decreased significantly in recent years but still remains significantly higher than the citywide average.

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Historical population

Year
Pop.
±%

1900
44,475
—

1960
30,000
−32.5%

1970
15,025
−49.9%

1980
11,914
−20.7%

1990
9,572
−19.7%

2000
7,422
−22.5%

2007*
4,970
−33.0%

2010
7,000
+40.8%

*2007 data from Cincinnati Drill Down;[29] 2010 data[30]

text: In 2001 there were an estimated 500 vacant buildings in Over-the-Rhine with 2,500 residential units.[13] Of those residential units 278 were condemned as uninhabitable.[13] Also in 2001 the owner-occupancy rate was between 3 and 4 percent compared to the citywide rate of 39 percent.[13] According to the "Drilldown", a comprehensive analysis of the city's actual population and demographics conducted in 2007, OTR's current population was just 4,970 people.[31] As of the census[32] of 2000, the racial makeup of Over-the-Rhine was 19.4% White, 76.9% African American, and less than 4% of other races. 0.6% of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race.

text: The neighborhood's residents comprise roughly 1.2% of the population of the City of Cincinnati.

text: In media[edit]

text:
In the movie Ides of March, George Clooney plays a politician who campaigns at Memorial Hall in Over-the-Rhine.
In the movie Traffic (2000), the teenage daughter of the US drug czar becomes addicted to heroin and goes to Over-the-Rhine for drugs.[33]
Harry's Law (2011), an NBC legal comedy-drama, is set in Over-the-Rhine, though only old stock photos are shown. No filming was done in Over-the-Rhine or Cincinnati.[34]
Little Man Tate (1991) was filmed in Over-the-Rhine as well as various other Cincinnati locations.
A Rage in Harlem (1991) was filmed in Over-the-Rhine because the un-gentrified area resembled 1950s Harlem.[35]
In Eight Men Out (1988) scenes depicting Chicago in 1919 were shot in Over-the-Rhine.
Over-the-Rhine and other nearby neighborhoods are featured in the 3 Doors Down music video It's Not My Time.
In the seriocomic American novel A Deserted Place, by Keith Brabender, the artistic community in Over-the Rhine is featured and contrasted against the religious suburbs of Cincinnati..

text: List of annual events[edit]

text: Over-the-Rhine is home to several distinctive annual events. A few of them are:

text:
Bockfest
Cincinnati Fringe Festival Annual - Occurs the two weeks after Memorial Day
MidPoint Music Festival
Cincinnati May Festival
Cincinnati Reds Opening Day Parade from Findlay Market to Fountain Square

text: List of landmarks[edit]

text: Most of Over-the-Rhine's landmarks are related to the arts and are clustered in one area near Downtown.

text:
Art Academy of Cincinnati, founded in 1869, is a four-year arts college with its campus centered around 12th and Jackson streets.[36]
Cincinnati Music Hall, built in 1878, is a concert theatre that hosts the Cincinnati Opera, the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra, and the Cincinnati May Festival.
Emery Theatre was built as the original home of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. Famous conductor Leopold Stokowski considered its acoustics comparable to Carnegie Hall.[37][38] It is currently closed for renovations.
Ensemble Theatre of Cincinnati In Over The Rhine since 1988, a theatre that presents new works and works that are new to the region.
Findlay Market is the oldest continuously operated public market in Ohio.[39] It is also the site of special events and a farmers' market.[40]
Know Theatre of Cincinnati a theatre that produces contemporary theatre with new works and regional premeieres. Know Theatre produces the annual Cincinnati Fringe Festival - the largest performing arts festival in Cincinnati.
Memorial Hall is the home of the Cincinnati Chamber Orchestra, the progressive MusicNow festival, and the American Classical Music Hall of Fame and Museum.
School for Creative and Performing Arts is the first K-12 selective arts school in the United States.[41] In 2009 the school was the subject of the MTV reality television series Taking the Stage.
Washington Park, the second oldest park in the city behind Piatt Park, originally established as a burial ground for several small churches.
Cincinnati Ballet

text: List of historic churches[edit]

text:
St. Paulus Kirche, 1419 Race Street, German Evangelical Protestant (Oldest Protestant church in the city)
German Baptist Church, Walnut and Liberty Streets
Old St. Mary's Church, 123 E. Thirteenth Street
Philippus United Church of Christ, West Mcmicken and Ohio Avenues
St. John the Baptist Church, Green and Bremen Streets
Saint Francis Seraph Church, Vine and Liberty Streets
St. Paul Church, East 12th and Spring Streets
Salem United Church of Christ, 1425 Sycamore Street
Nast Trinity United Methodist Church, 1310 Race Street (Known as Over-the-Rhine Community Methodist Church since 2015)
Wesley Chapel, 76 E. McMicken Avenue
Prince of Peace Lutheran Church, 1528 Race Street
First Lutheran Church, 1208 Race Street

text: List of community organizations[edit]

text:
Over-the-Rhine Community Housing - Formed in April 2006 by the merger of two organizations supporting affordable housing.
Drop Inn Center a homeless shelter which offers chemical dependency treatment. Removed from neighborhood October 2015. [42]
Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless is an advocacy organization started in 1984 to advocate for people experiencing homelessness, affordable housing, and other solutions to eradicating homelessness.
Contact Center.
St. Francis Seraph.
Mary Magdalen House.
Imani Community Center.
Peaslee Neighbhorhood Center.
Over-the-Rhine Foundation, works to protect OTR's endangered historic structures, preserve its cultural heritage, and promote a physically and socially sustainable neighborhood.
Brewery District Community Urban Redevelopment Corp. works to develop the northern half of the neighborhood, with an emphasis on OTR's brewing heritage and the mixed-use neighborhood created by use of the nineteenth-century brewery building stock.
Cincinnati Center City Development Corporation The primary funnel of public dollars to displace and gentrify.
Over-the-Rhine Community Council - Since 1970, the council has represented the interests of residents and partnered with other organizations in service to our neighbors in our unique, historic neighborhood.
Mercy Health - St. John began as St. John Social Service Center in 1936. Now the agency is a comprehensive social service agency providing: shelter for homeless families, emergency food, emergency financial assistance for rent, mortgage and utility, job training and computer instruction, case management, youth development and health care. (Closed 2015)
Our Daily Bread[43]
Wesley Chapel- an after school program for children in the neighborhood

text: List of notable residents[edit]

text:
Levi Coffin, "President of the Underground Railroad"
Nick Clooney, journalist and game show host and father of George Clooney
Ronald Howes, American toy inventor, created the Easy-Bake Oven.[44]
Venus Ramey, 1944 Miss America winner
Buddy Gray, community activist
Anna Marie Hahn, female serial killer
Chris Seelbach, Cincinnati City Councilman elected in 2011
Jim_Tarbell, Former City Council member and former owner of Arnold's Bar and Grill & Grammers

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d National Park Service (2007-06-30). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
^ Jump up to: a b c Over-the-Rhine Foundation. Guide to OTR Architecture. Accessed on 2009-08-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Over-the-Rhine Foundation. OTR History Archived 2009-05-28 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed on June 13, 2009
Jump up ^ Kenny (1875), pg. 130.
Jump up ^ Pulszky, Francis; Theresa Pulszky (1853). White, Red, Black: Sketches of American Society in the United States. New York: Redfield. p. 297.
Jump up ^ Kenny (1875), pg. 129.
Jump up ^ Market History | Findlay Market of Cincinnati, Ohio
Jump up ^ OTR Brewery District | Cincinnati, OH
^ Jump up to: a b Skirtz, Alice (2012). Econocide: Elimination of the Urban Poor. NASW Press. ISBN 978-0-87101-424-5.
Jump up ^ OTR Brewery District | Cincinnati, OH
Jump up ^ Over-the-Rhine, Cincinnati, OH - iRhine.com - Brewery District
Jump up ^ Newberry, Jon (2010-12-17). "Christian Moerlein brews new 'Arnold's' beer in OTR".
^ Jump up to: a b c d Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, Bridging the Economic Divide: Cincinnati's Crisis Presents New Opportunities Archived 2011-07-08 at the Wayback Machine.. Fall 2001. Retrieved on 2009-01-11
Jump up ^ http://www.urbancincy.com/tag/liberty-street-road-diet/
^ Jump up to: a b c d MAAG, CHRISTOPHER (November 25, 2006). "In Cincinnati, Life Breathes Anew in Riot-Scarred Area". New York Times.  |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ OTR Foundation Why OTR Matters. Accessed on 2010-08-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Over-the-Rhine Foundation. Historic Preservation. Accessed on 2009-08-13.
Jump up ^ iRhine.com, Over-the-Rhine History, Part 2. Accessed on 2009-08-13
^ Jump up to: a b c d National Trust for Historic Preservation, 11 Most Endangered: Over-the-Rhine Neighborhood. Accessed on June 13, 2009.
Jump up ^ Philip J. Trounstine (May 9, 1976). "Evans Woollen: Struggles of a 'Good Architect'". [Indianapolis] Star Magazine. Indianapolis, Indiana: 23.
Jump up ^ "Pilot Center Filling in Over-the-Rhine". Architectural Record. New York City: McGrall-Hill. 158 (5): 81. October 1975.
Jump up ^ "2011 This Place Matters Community Challenge". 2011 This Place Matters Community Challenge. National Trust for Historic Preservation. Retrieved July 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Now, not soon, is the time to save OTR's historic treasures". Cincinnati Enquirer. January 14, 2010. Retrieved February 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Hughes, Holly; West, Larry. 500 Places to See Before They Disappear. Frommer's. pp. 346–47. ISBN 0-470-18986-X.
Jump up ^ Quinlivan (2001) 27:58
Jump up ^ Quinlivan (2001) 28:30
Jump up ^ Quinlivan (2001) 12:10
Jump up ^ "OTR, West End a quagmire for census". Cincinnati Enquirer. March 1, 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-14.
Jump up ^ http://www.uc.edu/cdc/urban_database/citywide_regional/cinti_drilldown_report.pdf
Jump up ^ http://news.cincinnati.com/article/AB/20110403/NEWS01/104030305/A-different-struggle
Jump up ^ "Cincinnati Neighborhood Market DrillDown" (PDF). Social Compact Inc. June 2007. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ Over-the-Rhine Film Synopsis
Jump up ^ Kiesewetter, John (January 17, 2011). "Laying down the 'Harry's Law'" (Press release). WCPO.
Jump up ^ William Horberg (November 7, 2008). "The Last Chester Himes Movie? pt 2". Typepad. Retrieved 2010-11-05.
Jump up ^ Art The Academy of Cincinnati. About The Art Academy of Cincinnati Archived 2009-09-04 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed on 2009-08-23.
Jump up ^ "$3 Million Projected to Reopen the Emery Theatre" (Press release). Emery Center Corporation. October 29, 2008. Retrieved December 7, 2008.
Jump up ^ Gelfand, Janelle (August 31, 1999). "Emery fix-up in the wings : Team works to bring 1911 gem into the 21st century". Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved July 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ Findlay Market. About Findlay Market. Accessed on 2009-08-23.
Jump up ^ Findlay Market-Historic renovated Cincinnati Public Market and Farmers Market Corporation for Findlay Market, 2007. Accessed 27 May 2007.
Jump up ^ School for Creative and Performing Arts. The New SCPA. Accessed on 2009-08-23.
Jump up ^ Over the Rhine Community Housing — About Archived 2011-07-25 at the Wayback Machine. Over-the-Rhine Community Housing, Accessed 27 May 2007
Jump up ^ http://ourdailybread.us
Jump up ^ Horstman, Barry M. (2010-02-19). "Ronald Howes, inventor of Easy-Bake Oven, dies at 83". Cincinnati Enquirer. Archived from the original on 2010-02-23. Retrieved 2010-03-04.

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