document_title: Poldark (2015 TV series)

question_text: how many episodes of poldark in series 3

text: Poldark (2015 TV series)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the late 18th century, Ross Poldark returns from the American War of Independence to his Cornish copper mines after spending three years in the army to avoid charges of smuggling. When he gets home, he finds his father dead, his estate in ruins, and his old sweetheart Elizabeth engaged to his cousin Francis. He rescues a young woman, Demelza, from a beating, and takes her on as a kitchen maid while trying to help the people of the village and attempting to gain control of the mines sought after by his rival, the greedy and arrogant George Warleggan.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Aidan Turner as Captain Ross Poldark
Eleanor Tomlinson as Demelza Poldark (née Carne)
Heida Reed as Elizabeth Warleggan (previously Poldark, née Chynoweth)
Ruby Bentall as Verity Blamey (née Poldark)
Jack Farthing as George Warleggan
Luke Norris as Dr Dwight Enys
Beatie Edney as Prudie Paynter

text:
Caroline Blakiston as Aunt Agatha Poldark (series 1–3)
Kyle Soller as Francis Poldark (series 1–2)
Phil Davis as Jud Paynter (series 1–2)
Warren Clarke as Charles Poldark (series 1)
Gabriella Wilde as Caroline Enys (née Penvenen) (series 2–)

text:
John Nettles as Ray Penvenen (series 2–3)
Christian Brassington as Reverend Osborne Whitworth (series 3)
Ellise Chappell as Morwenna Whitworth (née Chynoweth) (series 3)
Sean Gilder as Tholly Tregirls (series 3)
Harry Richardson as Drake Carne (series 3)
Josh Whitehouse as Lieutenant Hugh Armitage (series 3)
Tom York as Sam Carne (series 3)

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Rory Wilton as Richard Tonkin
Richard Harrington as Captain Andrew Blamey
Robin Ellis as the Reverend Dr Halse
Richard Hope as Harris Pascoe
Gracee O'Brien as Jinny Carter (series 1–2)
Tristan Sturrock as Captain Zacky Martin
Emma Spurgin Hussey as Mrs Zacky Martin
Ed Browning as Paul Daniel
Matthew Wilson as Mark Daniel
Pip Torrens as Cary Warleggan
Sally Dexter as Mrs Chynoweth
John Hollingworth as Captain William Henshawe (series 1–3)
Henry Garrett as Captain MacNeil
Mark Frost as Tom Carne (series 1–3)
Crystal Leaity as Margaret Vosper
Patrick Ryecart as Sir Hugh Bodrugan
Michael Culkin as Horace Treneglos
Jason Thorpe as Sanson (series 1)
Robert Daws as Dr Choake (series 1)
Alexander Arnold as Jim Carter (series 1)
Sabrina Bartlett as Keren Daniel (née Smith) (series 1)
Harriet Ballard as Ruth Treneglos (née Teague) (series 1)
Mary Woodvine as Mrs Teague (series 1)
Daniel Cook as John Treneglos (series 1)
Jason Squibb as Reverend Odgers (series 1, 3)
Sebastian Armesto as Tankard (series 2)
Hugh Skinner as Unwin Trevaunance MP (series 2)
Ross Green as Charlie Kempthorne (series 2)
Amelia Clarkson as Rosina Hoblyn (series 2)
Lewis Peek as Ted Carkeek (series 2)
Rose Reynolds as Betty Carkeek (series 2)
Alexander Morris as James Blamey (series 2)
Isabella Parriss as Esther Blamey (series 2)
Turlough Convery as Tom Harry (series 2–)
Richard McCabe as Mr Trencrom (series 2–)
Harry Marcus as Geoffrey Charles Poldark (series 3)
John Hopkins as Sir Francis Bassett (series 3)
James Wilby as Lord Falmouth (series 3)
Ciara Charteris as Emma Tregirls (series 3)
Esme Coy as Rowella Chynoweth (series 3)
Will Merrick as Arthur Solway (series 3)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Series
Episodes
Originally aired
Average UK viewers
(millions)

First aired
Last aired

1
8
8 March 2015 (2015-03-08)
26 April 2015 (2015-04-26)
8.11

2
10
4 September 2016 (2016-09-04)
6 November 2016 (2016-11-06)
6.94

3
9
11 June 2017 (2017-06-11)
6 August 2017 (2017-08-06)
6.68

text: Series 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
series
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
UK viewers
(millions) [6]

1
1
"Episode 1"
Ed Bazalgette
Debbie Horsfield
8 March 2015 (2015-03-08)
9.51

Ross Poldark, a British veteran of the American War of Independence, returns home to Cornwall to discover his father has died. He calls at his uncle's home to discover his inheritance in ruins and his sweetheart Elizabeth betrothed to another—his cousin Francis Poldark. Having sold some of his family's possessions, he goes to market and comes across an urchin, Demelza Carne, being attacked by ruffians who want to steal her dog. Demelza has left home after being beaten by her father. Ross's uncle tries to persuade him to leave Cornwall; Ross becomes more determined to stay and work his inheritance.

2
2
"Episode 2"
Ed Bazalgette
Debbie Horsfield
15 March 2015 (2015-03-15)
8.74

Bailiffs are closing mines, putting hundreds out of work. Ross hopes to go into business with Francis to reopen a mine, but Francis declines after tensions between him, his wife Elizabeth, and Ross are fanned by business rival George Warleggan. Ross manages to obtain financing for his mine from other businessmen. At a dance, Ross's spinster cousin, Verity, falls in love with disgraced sea captain, Captain Blamey. Ross assists her to meet Blamey secretly, against her father's wishes, leading to a duel between Francis and Blamey. When Francis is wounded, Elizabeth announces that she is pregnant.

3
3
"Episode 3"
Ed Bazalgette
Debbie Horsfield
22 March 2015 (2015-03-22)
8.42

Ross opens his mine and the search begins for a vein of copper. Elizabeth bears a baby son, but her relationship with her husband deteriorates. Young employee Jim Carter, whom Ross helped when Jim's girlfriend was pregnant, continues to poach pheasants after they are married and is caught red-handed; his punishment is transportation, and Ross's pleas for leniency result in two years' imprisonment despite Jim and Ross's hopes for acquittal. Rumours circulate as to Ross and Demelza's relationship, and her father, now a reformed character, demands that she return home. Ross and Demelza become lovers. Feeling she is in an impossible position, Demelza decides to return to her family, but Ross goes after her, and they marry.

4
4
"Episode 4"
Ed Bazalgette
Debbie Horsfield
29 March 2015 (2015-03-29)
8.29

The gentry and locals are shocked by Ross and Demelza's marriage; his judgment is questioned when he seeks more financing from his shareholders for his mine. Ross' uncle, Charles Poldark, has a heart attack and on his deathbed asks Ross to look after his family, realizing that Francis is not cut out for business. Verity, still pining for Captain Blamey, comes to stay and teaches Demelza the finer points of society, so that she is able to make a good impression when she and Ross are invited for Christmas to Francis and Elizabeth's home. The occasion, initially strained, is spoiled by the arrival of the uninvited Warleggans. Copper is finally discovered in Ross's mine, and Demelza announces to Ross she is pregnant; Ross finally tells her he loves her.

5
5
"Episode 5"
William McGregor
Debbie Horsfield
5 April 2015 (2015-04-05)
7.56

Ross's friend, Doctor Enys, arrives to study lung disease in miners. Demelza gives birth to a girl. George Warleggan buys shares in Ross's mine. Low copper prices from the smelting companies force the mine owners to secretly organize their own smelting company with Ross in charge. Demelza tries to organize a reunion between Verity and Captain Blamey. Mark, one of Ross's workers, falls in love with a travelling player, Keren, who has expectations that outweigh his means. Francis, deeply in debt from his mismanagement of the mine, gambling, and spending on prostitute Margaret, finally gambles his mine. He loses, forcing its closure.

6
6
"Episode 6"
William McGregor
Debbie Horsfield
12 April 2015 (2015-04-12)
7.68

Mark's new wife, Keren, sets her sights on Dr Enys. Deadly jail pestilence sweeps Bodmin Jail, and Ross and Dr Enys illegally remove Jim Carter to treat his fever, unsuccessfully. The Warleggans hold a ball at which Demelza blossoms, while a drunken Ross becomes involved in a card game with the judge who incarcerated Jim Carter and the gambler who took Francis' mine. Verity is horrified when Captain Blamey also attends the party, and she is forbidden to see him again. George Warleggan discovers where the mine owners have been secretly smelting their copper.

7
7
"Episode 7"
William McGregor
Debbie Horsfield
19 April 2015 (2015-04-19)
6.84

Verity elopes with Captain Blamey, and Francis blames Ross. George Warleggan, seeking to undermine Ross's smelting operation, returns some of the money out of which Francis was cheated when gambling with Warleggan's cousin. In return, Francis gives George the identities of Ross's partners, most of whom owe money to the Warleggans, and George then calls in their debts. Dr Enys is seduced by Keren, who is then confronted by a distraught Mark about her infidelity, with tragic consequences. After learning of Francis' anger towards Ross, Demelza confesses her part in Verity's elopement, and Ross realises how Warleggan has gained the information to bankrupt his business partners.

8
8
"Episode 8"
William McGregor
Debbie Horsfield
26 April 2015 (2015-04-26)
7.86

Warleggan's plan to close Ross's smelting company comes to fruition when the company is outbid for the available copper. George Warleggan celebrates by buying a ship. An epidemic of putrid throat (diphtheria) strikes down peasants and gentry alike, including Francis, Elizabeth, and their son. Demelza goes to their aid, and she and her own baby, Julia, also contract the disease. This results in Julia's death and Demelza's lengthy illness, though she recovers with the help of Dr Enys. Warleggan's ship is wrecked off the coast of Ross's land, and starving mine workers descend upon the beach to take food and cargo that washes ashore. Ross rescues the surviving passengers and crew, and takes them to his home. George's cousin Matthew died in the wreck, and Ross is arrested for murder and wrecking, leaving Demelza distraught.

text: Series 2 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
series
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
UK viewers
(millions) [6]

9
1
"Episode 1"
Will Sinclair
Debbie Horsfield
4 September 2016 (2016-09-04)
7.29

As Ross awaits his trial in Bodmin, Demelza and Elizabeth try to rally support for him. Ross refuses all aid. Francis sinks into depression and attempts suicide. Dr Enys meets a colourful heiress, Caroline Penvenen, whose fiancé Unwin has arrived to contest local elections.

10
2
"Episode 2"
Will Sinclair
Debbie Horsfield
11 September 2016 (2016-09-11)
6.88

Francis survives his suicide attempt. Demelza attempts to influence the judge in Ross's trial, but is thwarted by George Warleggan. George's agents also bribe potential witnesses, including Jud, and spread material damaging to Ross's reputation. Despite these events, Ross is found not guilty. Demelza discovers she is pregnant.

11
3
"Episode 3"
Will Sinclair
Debbie Horsfield
18 September 2016 (2016-09-18)
6.75

Francis and Elizabeth hold a harvest party, at which Ross indicates he still has feelings for Elizabeth. Demelza is wooed by Captain McNeil, but rejects his advances. Jud is beaten by Warleggan's men for testifying in Ross's favour at the trial. Ross and Demelza are forced to sell nearly all their belongings to pay an urgent debt. Dr Enys and Caroline are attracted. Francis and Ross reconcile, with Ross realizing their enmity aids George's machinations.

12
4
"Episode 4"
Will Sinclair
Debbie Horsfield
25 September 2016 (2016-09-25)
7.13

His debts force Ross to sell his shares in Wheal Leisure (bought up by George) and to enter into a deal with smugglers. Ross uses the money to re-open Wheal Grace mine, in partnership with Francis. George informs Ross that Francis gained the money for the venture by betraying him (Season One, Episode Seven), and Ross punches George. Ross later uses the information to pressure Francis into blessing Verity's marriage to Captain Blamey. Caroline and Dr Enys's growing relationship faces some hurdles over their differing values. Caroline is forced to return to London. Demelza gives birth to a boy.

13
5
"Episode 5"
Charles Palmer
Debbie Horsfield
2 October 2016 (2016-10-02)
6.60

George buys up Ross's debt, forcing Ross to Truro to seek a loan. An apparent informant in the smuggling ring makes Demelza nervous about Ross's involvement. Caroline returns to Cornwall, apparently to announce she is engaged to Unwin; but she rejects him and pursues Dr Enys. Elizabeth suggests she has feelings for Ross. Francis is drowned following an accident in the Wheal Grace mine.

14
6
"Episode 6"
Charles Palmer
Debbie Horsfield
9 October 2016 (2016-10-09)
6.72

Ross faces debtor's prison, but is saved by an anonymous loan from Caroline Penvenen. Ross spends time with the widowed Elizabeth and uses his little remaining money to buy the Wheal Grace shares owned by Francis's son, Geoffrey Charles, angering Demelza. Thwarted in his plan to imprison Ross, George turns his attentions to Elizabeth, to the dismay of Aunt Agatha. Caroline's uncle and benefactor disapproves of her marrying Dr Enys.

15
7
"Episode 7"
Charles Palmer
Debbie Horsfield
16 October 2016 (2016-10-16)
6.77

Ross joins a smuggling party, hoping to gain information about Wheal Grace from Mark, formerly a miner and Keren's husband. But it proves a dead-end. Caroline and Dr Enys plan to elope, but Dr Enys experiences doubts and is called away by a medical emergency. Upset, Caroline returns to London. Dr Enys learns the identity of the smugglers' informant and warns Demelza. With her aid, Ross narrowly escapes the soldiers intercepting the smugglers, but is recognized.

16
8
"Episode 8"
Charles Palmer
Debbie Horsfield
23 October 2016 (2016-10-23)
6.94

Ross and Dr Enys face trial for their part in aiding smugglers. Dr Enys's relationship with Caroline appears ended, and he considers joining the navy. Following a fatal cave-in, the apparently worthless Wheal Grace may be closed. Under pressure from debt and bogus tin prospectors (hired by George), Elizabeth agrees to marry George Warleggan. Enraged, Ross rides to Trenwith and forces himself upon Elizabeth.

17
9
"Episode 9"
Richard Senior
Debbie Horsfield
30 October 2016 (2016-10-30)
7.10

Ross and Demelza's relationship founders following his tryst with Elizabeth. Elizabeth postpones her wedding to George, expecting Ross desires to become her husband, but Ross does not contact her in the days after "that night". Angered and heartbroken, Demelza accepts an invitation to a ball where she attempts to seduce Captain McNeil, but conscience prevents her. Ross digs past the cave-in at Wheal Grace and discovers an enormous tin deposit.

18
10
"Episode 10"
Richard Senior
Debbie Horsfield
6 November 2016 (2016-11-06)
7.19

Elizabeth marries George and informs him she is pregnant. Ross is summoned to Trenwith by George, who regards the sale of Geoffrey Charles's Wheal Grace shares as fraudulent. George plans to pursue the matter through the courts; he and Ross fist-fight until George's servants intervene. Dr Enys learns Caroline is engaged and decides to join the navy, but Ross arranges for them to meet in a tavern before Dr Enys embarks, where Caroline and Dr Enys pledge their love. She promises to wait for his return. George erects wooden fencing and barriers around Trenwith, barring a common path, and has his men beat and shoot at 'trespassers' including Demelza. Ross attempts to re-enlist in the army, but withdraws at the last moment upon hearing of a planned attack on Trenwith by angered villagers, led by Jud. Ross talks the villagers out of their attack, sweeps Demelza upon his horse and carries her home where the two are reconciled.

text: Series 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
series
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
UK viewers
(millions) [6]

19
1
"Episode 1"
Joss Agnew
Debbie Horsfield
11 June 2017 (2017-06-11)
7.29

Elizabeth Warleggan pretends that having fallen down the stairs has induced the birth of her baby. George Warleggan names the boy Valentine. Aunt Agatha describes the boy as cursed, born under a black moon as Demelza and Elizabeth separately ponder the true identity of the child's father. George hires Morwenna Chenowyth (Elizabeth's cousin) as governess for Geoffrey Charles. Dr Dwight Enys marries Caroline Penvenen during a brief shore-leave, but is called away shortly after to deliver Elizabeth's baby. On his death-bed, Caroline's Uncle Ray gives their marriage his blessing. Demelza's brothers Drake and Sam arrive and Ross takes them in. Ross and George have reached an apparent truce in their feud, agreeing to not see each other's families.

20
2
"Episode 2"
Joss Agnew
Debbie Horsfield
18 June 2017 (2017-06-18)
6.59

Drake and Sam Carne ignore Ross's warnings and become George's tenants. Drake and Morwenna are falling in love while Sam wishes to use the church to preach. After the Carnes and their Methodist followers provoke George during a service, George has them banned from the church. Ross is offered the position as local magistrate, but rejects it; George ultimately becomes the magistrate. The French revolution leads to a number of English navy ships reported missing, including those of Captain Blamey and Dr Enys. Ross engages an old friend of his fathers', Tholly Tregirls, to find out more. It emerges that Capt. Blamey is safe, but when Ross learns that Dr Enys's ship was captured by the French, he sets out with Tholly to search for his friend.

21
3
"Episode 3"
Stephen Woolfenden
Debbie Horsfield
25 June 2017 (2017-06-25)
6.49

Ross and Tholly arrive in revolutionary France, gaining information that Dr Enys is alive in a French prison. They are eventually forced to flee after being accused of spying. Sam leads his flock in loud song just outside the church, and George retaliates by evicting the Carnes from his land. Demelza, angered by Ross's prolonged absence in France, allows her brothers and their followers to use one of Ross's Nampara barns. Drake and Morwenna's relationship advances. George, Elizabeth and Valentine move to Truro in association with George's magistrate position, leaving Geoffrey Charles behind with Morwenna and Aunt Agatha. George frees an aristocrat charged with rape, in order to curry favor with Lord Godolphin. An unhappy Elizabeth begins to take opium.

22
4
"Episode 4"
Stephen Woolfenden
Debbie Horsfield
2 July 2017 (2017-07-02)
6.46

An exceedingly poor harvest leads to widespread famine. George stockpiles grain and uses his power as a magistrate to punish heavily those caught stealing food. Meanwhile, Ross rallies the local gentry to feed the starving miners and farmers and clashes with George. The repugnant, libidinous and recently widowed Rev. Osborne Whitworth, a member of the Godolphin family, set his sights on Morwenna and the ambitious George encourages their union. In France, Dr Enys tends the wounded in prison including a young lieutenant, Hugh Armitage. Demelza gives birth to baby girl, Clowance.

23
5
"Episode 5"
Stephen Woolfenden
Debbie Horsfield
9 July 2017 (2017-07-09)
6.61

Ross takes a small raiding party to France and, amid gunfights, rescues Dr Enys and Lt. Armitage. Drake joins the raiding party after being rejected by Morwenna, advised that Drake is socially unacceptable. Valentine Warleggan contracts rickets, much to George's chagrin. George attempts to win the favor of local political kingmaker Lord Falmouth, but is thwarted when it emerges Lt. Armitage is Lord Falmouth's nephew, bringing Ross to the Lord's attention.

24
6
"Episode 6"
Joss Agnew
Debbie Horsfield
16 July 2017 (2017-07-16)
6.61

Dr Enys struggles to adjust to civilian life with Caroline, following his ordeal. He is counseled by Lt. Armitage. Ross gifts some land to unemployed miners. Drake resumes his pursuit of Morwenna, who realizes she is in love with him. George has Drake falsely arrested for stealing, a capital offence, and forces Morwenna to marry Rev. Whitworth in exchange for Drake's freedom. Geoffrey Charles is sent to boarding school.

25
7
"Episode 7"
Joss Agnew
Debbie Horsfield
23 July 2017 (2017-07-23)
7.11

Aunt Agatha looks forward to her 100th birthday party. The desperately unhappy Morwenna is pregnant with Rev. Whitworth's child; her sister Rowella comes to stay with them. Ross is asked to stand for the vacant local MP position by both the rebellious Whig politician, Sir Francis Bassett and his Tory equivalent Lord Falmouth, but rejects them both as he views MPs as 'puppets'. Eventually, George becomes Sir Francis's candidate. Demelza is frustrated by Ross's apparent lack of ambition, and is flattered by the advances of the poetic Lt. Armitage. Ross sets up Drake as the local blacksmith. George, upon learning Agatha is only 98, cancels the party. In a fit of anger, Agatha shouts at George that he is not Valentine's father. Agatha dies shortly afterwards.

26
8
"Episode 8"
Joss Agnew
Debbie Horsfield
30 July 2017 (2017-07-30)
6.42

Ross, alone, buries Aunt Agatha. George is elected MP for the district; he is suspicious of Valentine’s parentage and makes inquiries with Dr Enys, while acting coldly towards Elizabeth and his son. Ross secretly meets Elizabeth regarding the matter. Ross and Demelza’s marriage comes under further pressure as Hugh Armitage continues to openly pursue Demelza. Ross considers talking through his feelings with Demelza, but does not. Morwenna gives birth to a son and her health suffers, particularly from Rev. Whitworth’s immediate resumption of marital relations, which outrages Dr Enys. Sam Carne struggles with his religious faith and his attraction to free-spirited local girl Emma Tregirls. Rowella seduces Rev. Whitworth.

27
9
"Episode 9"
Joss Agnew
Debbie Horsfield
6 August 2017 (2017-08-06)
6.50

After French ships are sighted off the coast, Ross is asked to organize and lead the local militia. George has his henchman vandalize Drake's blacksmith premises; when Drake complains to Elizabeth, George's men beat him savagely. Following a confrontation, Elizabeth swears that George is Valentine's father; George swears never to doubt Elizabeth again. Rowella informs Rev. Whitworth she is pregnant with his child and extorts 500 pounds from him so she can marry Arthur Solway, a local librarian. Drake's treatment and the high price of grain leads an angry mob to storm George's grain stores; Ross's militia is ordered to defend the stores. Ross avoids a potentially violent confrontation by promising to stand for parliament. Hugh Armitage learns his eyesight is rapidly failing, and asks Demelza to make love with him. Ross lies in bed alone; Demelza joins him eventually.

text: Production[edit]

text: The series was one of the final commissions by former BBC One controller Danny Cohen.[7][8][9] Filming began in Cornwall and Bristol in April 2014.[10][11][12][13] The production company is Mammoth Screen.[14]

text: Filming locations include the north Cornwall coast at St Agnes Head, which represents the 'Nampara Valley', and the Botallack Mine near St Just in Penwith, which is featured as 'Wheal Leisure', the mine that Ross Poldark attempts to resurrect. The beach of Church Cove, Gunwalloe on the Lizard Peninsula was used as a location for a shipwreck scene.[15] Town scenes were filmed at Corsham in Wiltshire.[16] and in Frome, Somerset. The underground scenes were filmed at Poldark Mine in Cornwall. Some interior scenes were shot at Prior Park College in Bath, Somerset.[17] Charlestown near St Austell stood in for the city of Truro. Other film locations include Porthgwarra on the St Aubyn Estates, Porthcothan beach near Newquay, Bodmin Moor, St Breward, the coast between Botallack and Levant, cliffs in the Padstow area, Porthcothan near Newquay, Holywell Bay, Porthcurno, Kynance Cove, Predannack Wollas on The Lizard and Park Head near Porthcothan, all in Cornwall.[18]

text: Broadcasts[edit]

text: In the United States, the series began to be broadcast in June 2015 on PBS, shown as part of the series Masterpiece.[19][20] Poldark commenced screening on ABC TV in Australia on 12 April 2015, and in New Zealand on 22 April 2015 on Prime.[citation needed] The series has also been airing since 2015 on the UK-based Persian language satellite television network Manoto 1 which beams into different areas in Europe and the Middle East for Persian speakers.[21] It was shown on SVT in Sweden, first season autumn 2015, second season spring 2017, and on YLE in Finland, first and second season shown October 2016 to February 2017. And the series was also shown on NRK in Norway, starting September 2015.[22]


document_title: Rolling Stone

question_text: how did rolling stone magazine get it's name

question_tokens: how did rolling stone magazine get it 's name

root

text: Rolling Stone

text: History[edit]

text: Rolling Stone magazine was founded in San Francisco in 1967 by Jann Wenner and Ralph Gleason.[3] To get it off the ground, Wenner borrowed $7,500 from his own family and from the parents of his soon-to-be wife, Jane Schindelheim.[4] The first issue carried a cover date of November 9, 1967,[5] and was in newspaper format with a lead article on the Monterey Pop Festival.[6] The cover price was 25¢ (equivalent to $1.80 in 2016).

tag: p

text: In the first issue, Wenner explained that the title of the magazine referred to the 1950 blues song, "Rollin' Stone", recorded by Muddy Waters, the rock and roll band the Rolling Stones, and Bob Dylan's hit single "Like a Rolling Stone".[a 1][7] Some authors have attributed the name solely to Dylan's hit single: "At [Ralph] Gleason's suggestion, Wenner named his magazine after a Bob Dylan song."[8] Rolling Stone initially identified with and reported the hippie counterculture of the era. However, it distanced itself from the underground newspapers of the time, such as Berkeley Barb, embracing more traditional journalistic standards and avoiding the radical politics of the underground press. In the very first edition, Wenner wrote that Rolling Stone "is not just about the music, but about the things and attitudes that music embraces".

text: In the 1970s, Rolling Stone began to make a mark with its political coverage, with the likes of gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson writing for the magazine's political section. Thompson first published his most famous work Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas within the pages of Rolling Stone, where he remained a contributing editor until his death in 2005.[9] In the 1970s, the magazine also helped launch the careers of many prominent authors, including Cameron Crowe, Lester Bangs, Joe Klein, Joe Eszterhas, Patti Smith and P. J. O'Rourke. It was at this point that the magazine ran some of its most famous stories, including that of the Patty Hearst abduction odyssey. One interviewer, speaking for a large number of his peers, said that he bought his first copy of the magazine upon initial arrival on his college campus, describing it as a "rite of passage".[2]

text: In 1977, the magazine moved its headquarters from San Francisco to New York City. Editor Jann Wenner said San Francisco had become "a cultural backwater".[10]

text: During the 1980s, the magazine began to shift towards being a general "entertainment" magazine. Music was still a dominant topic, but there was increasing coverage of celebrities in television, films and the pop culture of the day. The magazine also initiated its annual "Hot Issue" during this time.

text: Rolling Stone was initially known for its musical coverage and for Thompson's political reporting. In the 1990s, the magazine changed its format to appeal to a younger readership interested in youth-oriented television shows, film actors and popular music. This led to criticism that the magazine was emphasizing style over substance.[2] In recent years, the magazine has resumed its traditional mix of content, including in-depth political stories. It has also expanded content to include coverage of financial and banking issues. As a result, the magazine has seen its circulation increase and its reporters invited as experts to network television programs of note.[11]

text: The printed format has gone through several changes. The first publications, in 1967–72, were in folded tabloid newspaper format, with no staples, black ink text, and a single color highlight that changed each edition. From 1973 onwards, editions were produced on a four-color press with a different newsprint paper size. In 1979, the bar code appeared. In 1980, it became a gloss-paper, large format (10"×12") magazine. As of edition of October 30, 2008, Rolling Stone has had a smaller, standard-format magazine size.[12]

text: After years of declining readership, the magazine experienced a major resurgence of interest and relevance with the work of two young journalists in the late 2000s, Michael Hastings and Matt Taibbi.[citation needed]

text: In 2005, Dana Leslie Fields, former publisher of Rolling Stone, who had worked at the magazine for 17 years, was an inaugural inductee into the Magazine Hall of Fame.[13]

text: In 2009, Taibbi unleashed an acclaimed series of scathing reports on the financial meltdown of the time. He famously described Goldman Sachs as "a great vampire squid".

text: Bigger headlines came at the end of June 2010. Rolling Stone caused a controversy in the White House by publishing in the July issue an article by journalist Michael Hastings entitled, "The Runaway General",[14] quoting criticism by General Stanley A. McChrystal, commander of the International Security Assistance Force and U.S. Forces-Afghanistan commander, about Vice President Joe Biden and other Administration members of the White House. McChrystal resigned from his position shortly after his statements went public.[15][16][17][18]

text: In 2010, Taibbi documented illegal and fraudulent actions by banks in the foreclosure courts, after traveling to Jacksonville, Florida and sitting in on hearings in the courtroom. His article, Invasion of the Home Snatchers also documented attempts by the judge to intimidate a homeowner fighting foreclosure and the attorney Taibbi accompanied into the court.[19][20]

text: In January 2012, the magazine ran exclusive excerpts from Hastings' book just prior to publication.[21] The book, The Operators: The Wild and Terrifying Inside Story of America's War in Afghanistan, provided a much more expansive look at McChrystal and the culture of senior American military and how they become embroiled in such wars. The book reached Amazon's bestseller list in the first 48 hours of release, and it received generally favorable reviews. Salon's Glenn Greenwald described it as "superb," "brave" and "eye-opening".[22]

text: In 2012, Taibbi, through his coverage of the Libor scandal,[23] emerged as an expert on that topic, which led to media appearances outside Rolling Stone.[24][25]

text: On November 9, 2012, the magazine published its first Spanish-language section on Latino music and culture, in the issue dated November 22.[26][27]

text: In September 2016, Advertising Age reported that Wenner is in the process of selling a 49% stake of the magazine to a company from Singapore called BandLab. The new investor will have no direct involvement in the editorial content of the magazine.[28]

text: Website[edit]

text: Rolling Stone's website features selected current articles, reviews, blogs, MP3s and other features, such as searchable and free encyclopedic articles about artists, with images and sometimes sound clips of their work. The articles and reviews are sometimes in a revised form of the published versions. The website also carries political and cultural articles and entries selected from the magazine's archives.

text: The site at one time had an extensive message-board forum. By the late 1990s, this had developed into a thriving community, with a large number of regular members and contributors worldwide. However, the site was also plagued with numerous Internet trolls and malicious code-hackers, who vandalized the forum substantially.[29] The magazine abruptly deleted the forum in May 2004, then began a new, much more limited message board community on their site in late 2005, only to remove it again in 2006. In March 2008, the website started a new message board section once again, then deleted it in April 2010.

text: Rolling Stone devotes one of its table of contents pages to promoting material currently appearing on its website, listing detailed links to the items. The magazine also has a page at MySpace, Facebook and Twitter.

text: On April 19, 2010, the website was updated drastically and now features the complete archives of Rolling Stone.[30] The archive was first launched under a for-pay model, but has since transitioned to a free-with-print-subscription model.[31] In the spring of 2012, Rolling Stone launched a federated search feature which searches both the website and the archive.[32]

text: The website has become an interactive source of biographical information on music artists in addition to historical rankings from the magazine. Users can cross-reference lists and they are also provided with historical insights. For example, one group that is listed on both Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time is Toots and the Maytals, with biographical details from Rolling Stone that explain how Toots and the Maytals are responsible for coining the term "reggae" in their song "Do the Reggay".[33][34] For biographical information on all artists, the website contains a directory listed alphabetically.[35]

text: Glixel[edit]

text: In May 2016, Wenner Media announced plans to create a separate online publication dedicated to the coverage of video games and their culture. Gus Wenner, Jann Wenner's son, stated that "gaming is today what rock 'n' roll was when Rolling Stone was founded". Glixel was originally hosted on Rolling Stone's website and transitioned to its own domain by October 2016. Stories from Glixel are included on the Rolling Stone website, while writers for Rolling Stone were also able to contribute to Glixel. The site is headed by John Davison, and its offices were located in San Fransciso.[36][37] Rolling Stone closed down the offices in June 2017, citing the difficulties of working with the remote site from their main New York office; content will still be developed for the site but from the main New York office.[38]

text: Restaurant[edit]

text: In December 2009, the Los Angeles Times reported that the owners of Rolling Stone magazine planned to open a Rolling Stone restaurant in the Hollywood & Highland Center in Hollywood in the spring of 2010.[39] The expectation was that the restaurant could become the first of a national chain if it was successful.[40] As of November 2010, the "soft opening" of the restaurant was planned for December 2010.[41] In 2011, the restaurant was open for lunch and dinner as well as a full night club downstairs on the weekends.[42] The restaurant closed in February 2013.[43]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: One major criticism of Rolling Stone involves its generational bias toward the 1960s and 1970s. One critic referred to the Rolling Stone list of the "99 Greatest Songs" as an example of "unrepentant rockist fogeyism".[44] In further response to this issue, rock critic Jim DeRogatis, a former Rolling Stone editor, published a thorough critique of the magazine's lists in a book called Kill Your Idols: A New Generation of Rock Writers Reconsiders the Classics, which featured differing opinions from many younger critics.[45]

text: Rolling Stone magazine has been criticized for reconsidering many classic albums that it had previously dismissed, and for frequent use of the 3.5-star rating. For example, Led Zeppelin was largely written off by Rolling Stone magazine critics during the band's most active years in the 1970s, but by 2006, a cover story on the band honored them as "the Heaviest Band of All Time".[46] A critic for Slate magazine described a conference at which 1984's The Rolling Stone Record Guide was scrutinized. As he described it, "The guide virtually ignored hip-hop and ruthlessly panned heavy metal, the two genres that within a few years would dominate the pop charts. In an auditorium packed with music journalists, you could detect more than a few anxious titters: How many of us will want our record reviews read back to us 20 years hence?"[44]

text: The hiring of former FHM editor Ed Needham further enraged critics who alleged that Rolling Stone had lost its credibility.[47]

text: The 2003 Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Guitarists of all Time article, which named only two female musicians, resulted in Venus Zine answering with their own list, entitled "The Greatest Female Guitarists of All Time".[48]

text: Conservative columnist Jonah Goldberg stated that Rolling Stone had "essentially become the house organ of the Democratic National Committee".[49] Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner has made all of his political donations to Democrats.[50]

text: Rolling Stone's film critic, Peter Travers, has been criticized for his high number of repetitively used blurbs.[51][52]

text: Tsarnaev cover[edit]

text: The August 2013 Rolling Stone cover, featuring then-accused (later convicted) Boston Marathon bomber Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, drew widespread criticism that the magazine was "glamorizing terrorism" and that the cover was a "slap in the face to the great city of Boston".[53] The online edition of the article was accompanied by a short editorial stating that the story "falls within the traditions of journalism and Rolling Stone's long-standing commitment to serious and thoughtful coverage of the most important political and cultural issues of our day".[54] The controversial cover photograph that was used by Rolling Stone had previously featured on the front page of The New York Times on May 5, 2013.[55]

text: In response to the outcry, New England-based CVS Pharmacy and Tedeschi Food Shops banned their stores from carrying the issue.[56] Also refusing to sell the issue were Walgreens,[57] Rite-Aid,[58] Roche Bros.,[59] Kmart,[58] H-E-B,[60] Walmart,[60] 7-Eleven,[61] Hy-Vee,[62] Rutter's Farm,[62] United Supermarkets,[62] Cumberland Farms,[63] Market Basket,[63] Shaw's[64] and Stop & Shop.[59] Boston mayor Thomas Menino sent a letter to Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner, calling the cover "ill conceived, at best ...[it] reaffirms a message that destruction gains fame for killers and their 'causes'." Menino also wrote, "To respond to you in anger is to feed into your obvious market strategy", and that Wenner could have written about the survivors or the people who came to help after the bombings instead. In conclusion he wrote, "The survivors of the Boston Marathon deserve Rolling Stone cover stories, though I no longer feel that Rolling Stone deserves them."[65]

text: UVA false rape story[edit]

text: In the November 19, 2014 issue, the story "A Rape on Campus" was run about an alleged gang rape on the campus of the University of Virginia.[66] Separate inquiries by Phi Kappa Psi, the fraternity accused by Rolling Stone of facilitating the alleged rape, and The Washington Post revealed major errors, omissions and discrepancies in the story.[67][68] Reporter Sabrina Erdely's story was subject to intense media criticism.[67][69] The Washington Post and Boston Herald issued calls for magazine staff involved in the report to be fired.[70] Rolling Stone subsequently issued three apologies for the story. Some suggested that legal action against the magazine by persons accused of the rape might result.[71]

text: On December 5, 2014, Rolling Stone's managing editor, Will Dana, apologized for not fact-checking the story.[72] Rolling Stone commissioned an outside investigation of the story and its problems by the dean of the Columbia School of Journalism. The report uncovered journalistic failure in the UVA story and institutional problems with reporting at Rolling Stone.[73] Rolling Stone retracted the story on April 5, 2015.[74] On April 6, 2015, following the investigation and retraction of the story, Phi Kappa Psi announced plans to pursue all available legal action against Rolling Stone, including claims of defamation.[75]

text: On May 12, 2015, UVA associate dean Nicole Eramo, chief administrator for handling sexual assault issues at the school, filed a $7.5 million defamation lawsuit in Charlottesville Circuit Court against Rolling Stone and Erdely, claiming damage to her reputation and emotional distress. Said the filing, "Rolling Stone and Erdely's highly defamatory and false statements about Dean Eramo were not the result of an innocent mistake. They were the result of a wanton journalist who was more concerned with writing an article that fulfilled her preconceived narrative about the victimization of women on American college campuses, and a malicious publisher who was more concerned about selling magazines to boost the economic bottom line for its faltering magazine, than they were about discovering the truth or actual facts."[76] On November 4, 2016, after 20 hours of deliberation,[77] a jury consisting of eight women and two men found Rolling Stone, the magazine's publisher and Erdely liable for defaming Eramo.[78]

text: On July 29, 2015, three graduates of the fraternity Phi Kappa Psi filed a lawsuit against Rolling Stone, its publisher Wenner Media, and a journalist for defamation and infliction of emotional distress.[79] The same day, and just months after the controversy began, The New York Times reported that managing editor Will Dana was departing the magazine with his last date recorded as August 7, 2015.[80] On November 9, 2015, the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity filed suit for $25 million for damages to its reputation caused by the magazine's publication of this story, "with reckless disregard for the truth".[81][82]

text: Notable current and former staff[edit]

text:
Robert Altman
Michael Azerrad
Lester Bangs
Robert Christgau
J. D. Considine
Brian Cookman
Timothy Crouse
Cameron Crowe
Anthony DeCurtis
Jancee Dunn
Eric Ehrmann
Sabrina Erdely
Joe Eszterhas
Owen Fegan
Timothy Ferris
Dana Leslie Fields[83]
Ben Fong-Torres
David Fricke
Ralph J. Gleason
William Greider
Michael Hastings
Erik Hedegaard
Jerry Hopkins
Michael Salisbury
Lenny Kaye
Caroline Kennedy
Joe Klein
David LaChapelle
Jon Landau
Annie Leibovitz
Steven Levy
Kurt Loder
Greil Marcus
Dave Marsh
Richard Meltzer
John Mendelsohn
Paul Nelson
P. J. O'Rourke
Rob Sheffield
Ralph Steadman
Neil Strauss
Matt Taibbi
Hunter S. Thompson
Nick Tosches
Touré
Peter Travers
Jann Wenner
Baron Wolman
Evan Wright
Lina Lecaro

tag: ul

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: George Harrison's song "This Guitar" (1975), a lyrical sequel to his Beatles track "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" (1968), references the magazine in its second verse: "Learned to get up when I fall / Can even climb Rolling Stone walls". The song was written in response to some highly unfavorable reviews from Rolling Stone and other publications for Harrison's 1974 North American tour and the Dark Horse album.[84][85]

text: Covers[edit]

text: Some artists have been featured on the cover many times, and some of these pictures went on to become iconic. The Beatles, for example, have appeared on the cover more than 30 times, either individually or as a band.[86] The first 10 issues featured, in order of appearance, the following:

text:
John Lennon
Tina Turner
The Beatles
Jimi Hendrix, Donovan & Otis Redding
Jim Morrison
Janis Joplin
Jimi Hendrix
Monterey Pop Festival
John Lennon and Paul McCartney
Eric Clapton

text: Reference works[edit]

text:
Bashe, Patricia R.; George-Warren, Holly; Pareles, Jon, eds. (2005) [1983]. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll. New York: Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-9201-4.
Brackett, Nathan; Hoard, Christian, eds. (2004) [1979, 1983, 1992]. The New Rolling Stone Album Guide. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0169-8.
Miller, Jim (1980) [1976]. The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-51322-3.
Rolling Stone Cover to Cover – the First 40 Years: Searchable Digital Archive-Every Page, Every Issue. Renton, WA: Bondi Digital Pub. 2007. ISBN 978-0-9795261-0-7.
Swenson, John (1985). The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide. New York: Rolling Stone. ISBN 0-394-72643-X.

text: International editions[edit]

text:
Argentina – Published by Publirevistas S. A. since April 1998. This edition also circulates in Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay.
Australia – Rolling Stone Australia began as a supplement in 1969 in Revolution magazine. It became a full title in 1971 published by Phillip Frazer. It was published by Silvertongues from 1974 to 1987 and by Nextmedia Pty Ltd, Sydney until 2008. Notable editors and contributors include Phillip Frazer, Alistair Jones, Paul and Jane Gardiner, Toby Creswell, Clinton Walker and Kathy Bail. It is now published by Bauer Media Group and is the longest running international edition.
Brazil – Published in Brazil since October 2006 by Spring Comunicações.
Bulgaria – Published in Bulgaria since November 2009 by Sivir Publications. Ceased publication as of the August/September 2011 issue.
Chile – Published by Edu Comunicaciones from May 2003 to December 2005. Published by El Mercurio from January 2006 to December 2011.
China – Rolling Stone in mainland China was licensed to One Media Group of Hong Kong and published in partnership with China Record Corporation in 2006. The magazine was in Chinese with translated articles and local content. It halted publication after one year.
Croatia – Published since October 2013 – 2015 by S3 Mediji. This edition also circulates in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia.
Colombia – Edited in Bogotá for Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Panama and Venezuela, since 1991.
France – Launched 2002. This edition temporarily ceased in 2007 and was relaunched in May 2008 under license with 1633SA publishing group.
Germany – Published in Germany since 1994 by Axel Springer AG.
India – Launched in March 2008 by MW Com, publishers of Man's World magazine.
Indonesia – Published in Indonesia since June 2005 by a&e Media.
Italy – Published in Italy since 1980. After ceasing publication in 1982, it was relaunched in November 2003, first by IXO Publishing, and then by Editrice Quadratum until April 2014. The magazine is currently published by Luciano Bernardini de Pace Editore.[87]
Japan – Launched in March 2007 by International Luxury Media Co., Ltd. (ILM). Published by atomixmedia Inc. (株式会社アトミックスメディア, KK atomikkusumedia) since 2011.
Mexico – Published by PRISA Internacional from 2002 until May 2009; from June 2009 it is published by Editorial Televisa (subsidiary of Televisa) under license.
Middle East – Published in Dubai by HGW Media since November 2010.
Russia – Published since 2004. Currently by OOO "Motor Media»
Spain – Published by PROGRESA (subsidiary of PRISA Group) in Madrid, since 1999.
Turkey – Published since June 2006 by GD Gazete Dergi.
South Africa – Published since November 2011.
United Kingdom – Published under the title Friends from 1969 to 1972.


document_title: Greek alphabet

question_text: what is the 5th letter of the greek alphabet

question_tokens: what is the 5th letter of the greek alphabet

text: Greek alphabet

text: Letters

text:
Letter
Name

Sound

Ancient[7]

Modern[8]

Α α
alpha, άλφα
[a] [aː]
[a]

Β β
beta, βήτα
[b]
[v]

Γ γ
gamma, γάμμα
[ɡ], [ŋ][ex 1]
[ɣ] ~ [ʝ], [ŋ][ex 2] ~ [ɲ][ex 3]

Δ δ
delta, δέλτα
[d]
[ð]

Ε ε
epsilon, έψιλον
[e]

Ζ ζ
zeta, ζήτα
[zd]A
[z]

Η η
eta, ήτα
[ɛː]
[i]

Θ θ
theta, θήτα
[tʰ]
[θ]

Ι ι
iota, ιώτα
[i] [iː]
[i], [ç],[ex 4] [ʝ],[ex 5] [ɲ][ex 6]

Κ κ
kappa, κάππα
[k]
[k] ~ [c]

Λ λ
lambda, λάμδα
[l]

Μ μ
mu, μυ
[m]
  A Or [dz].[9]

Letter
Name

Sound

Ancient[7]

Modern[8]

Ν ν
nu, νυ
[n]

Ξ ξ
xi, ξι
[ks]

Ο ο
omicron, όμικρον
[o]

Π π
pi, πι
[p]

Ρ ρ
rho, ρώ
[r]

Σ σ/ς[note 1]

sigma, σίγμα
[s]
[s] ~ [z]

Τ τ
tau, ταυ
[t]

Υ υ
upsilon, ύψιλον
[y] [yː]
[i]

Φ φ
phi, φι
[pʰ]
[f]

Χ χ
chi, χι
[kʰ]
[x] ~ [ç]

Ψ ψ
psi, ψι
[ps]

Ω ω
omega, ωμέγα
[ɔː]
[o]

tag: table

text:
Jump up ^ For example, ἀγκών.

Jump up ^ For example, εγγραφή.

Jump up ^ For example, εγγεγραμμένος.

Jump up ^ For example, ηλίθιος.

Jump up ^ For example, βια.

Jump up ^ For example, μια.

tag: ol

text: Sound values

text: In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.[11]

text: Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants (/b, d, g/) and aspirated plosives (/pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows:

text:
Former voiced plosives

Former aspirates

Letter

Ancient

Modern

Letter

Ancient

Modern

Labial

Β β

/b/

/v/

Φ φ

/pʰ/

/f/

Dental

Δ δ

/d/

/ð/

Θ θ

/tʰ/

/θ/

Dorsal

Γ γ

/ɡ/

[ɣ] ~ [ʝ]

Χ χ

/kʰ/

[x] ~ [ç]

text: Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.

text: The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers:

text:
Letter
Ancient
Modern
Letter
Ancient
Modern

Η η
ɛː
> i
Ω ω
ɔː
> o

Ι ι
i(ː)
Ο ο
o

ΕΙ ει
eː
Ε ε
e
> e

Υ υ
u(ː) > y
ΑΙ αι
ai

ΟΙ οι
oi > y

ΥΙ υι
yː > y

text: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.

text: Digraphs and letter combinations

text: Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above (⟨ει, αι, οι, υι⟩), there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/. The Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced [av], [ev] and [iv] in Modern Greek. In some environments they are devoiced to [af], [ef] and [if] respectively.[12] The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for [b] and [d] (or [mb] and [nd]) respectively; ⟨τζ⟩ stands for [dz] and ⟨τσ⟩ stands for [t͡s]. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal [ŋ]; thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. In analogy to ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩, ⟨γκ⟩ is also used to stand for [g]. There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩.

text:
Combination

Pronunciation

Devoiced pronunciation

⟨αυ⟩

[av]

[af]

⟨ευ⟩

[ev]

[ef]

⟨ηυ⟩

[iv]

[if]

⟨μπ⟩

[b]

⟨ντ⟩

[d]

⟨τζ⟩

[dz]

⟨τσ⟩

[t͡s]

text: Diacritics

text: In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (ά), the grave accent (ὰ), or the circumflex accent (α̃ or α̑). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the rough breathing (ἁ), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (ἀ), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing  (ῤῥ) leading to the transiliteration rrh.

text: The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨ι⟩ below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩ (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/), which became monophthongized during antiquity.

text: Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (¨), indicating a hiatus.

text: In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as tonos, i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek.

text: Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, "whatever") from ότι (óti, "that").[13]

text: Romanization

text: There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ (or ⟨æ,œ⟩) respectively; and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, ⟨κ⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨k⟩, and the vowel combinations ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩ respectively. The letters ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨φ⟩ are generally rendered as ⟨th⟩ and ⟨ph⟩; ⟨χ⟩ as either ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨kh⟩; and word-initial ⟨ρ⟩ as ⟨rh⟩.

text: For Modern Greek, there are multiple different transcription conventions. They differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843),[14] by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names,[15] by the Library of Congress,[16] and others.

text: History

text: Origins

text: During the Mycenaean period, from around the 16th century to the 12th century BC, Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the 13th century BC. In the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC, the Greek alphabet emerged.[2] The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense,[6] as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants.[17]

text: Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants /j/ (yodh) and /w/ (waw) were used for [i] (Ι, iota) and [u] (Υ, upsilon) respectively; the glottal stop consonant /ʔ/ (|aleph) was used for [a] (Α, alpha); the pharyngeal /ʕ/ (ʿayin) was turned into [o] (Ο, omicron); and the letter for /h/ (he) was turned into [e] (Ε, epsilon). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal /ħ/ (heth) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long /ɛː/ (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long /ɔː/ (Ω, omega) was introduced.

text: Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (phi) for /pʰ/, Χ (chi) for /kʰ/ and Ψ (psi) for /ps/. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for /ks/ and Ψ for /kʰ/. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.

text:
Phoenician

Greek

aleph

/ʔ/

Α

alpha

/a/, /aː/

beth

/b/

Β

beta

/b/

gimel

/ɡ/

Γ

gamma

/ɡ/

daleth

/d/

Δ

delta

/d/

he

/h/

Ε

epsilon

/e/, /eː/[note 2]

waw

/w/

Ϝ

(digamma)

/w/

zayin

/z/

Ζ

zeta

[zd](?)

heth

/ħ/

Η

eta

/h/, /ɛː/

teth

/tˤ/

Θ

theta

/tʰ/

yodh

/j/

Ι

iota

/i/, /iː/

kaph

/k/

Κ

kappa

/k/

lamedh

/l/

Λ

lambda

/l/

mem

/m/

Μ

mu

/m/

nun

/n/

Ν

nu

/n/

text:
Phoenician

Greek

samekh

/s/

Ξ

xi

/ks/

ʿayin

/ʕ/

Ο

omicron

/o/, /oː/[note 2]

pe

/p/

Π

pi

/p/

ṣade

/sˤ/

Ϻ

(san)

/s/

qoph

/q/

Ϙ

(koppa)

/k/

reš

/r/

Ρ

rho

/r/

šin

/ʃ/

Σ

sigma

/s/

taw

/t/

Τ

tau

/t/

(waw)

/w/

Υ

upsilon

/u/, /uː/

–

Φ

phi

/pʰ/

–

Χ

chi

/kʰ/

–

Ψ

psi

/ps/

–

Ω

omega

/ɔː/

text: Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ (san), which had been in competition with Σ (sigma) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ (qoppa), which was redundant with Κ (kappa) for /k/, and Ϝ (digamma), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period.

text: Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called boustrophedon, literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line.

text: Archaic variants

text: There were initially numerous local (epichoric) variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. A form of western Greek native to Euboea, which among other things had Χ for /ks/, was transplanted to Italy by early Greek colonists, and became the ancestor of the Old Italic alphabets and ultimately, through Etruscan, of the Latin alphabet. Athens used a local form of the alphabet until the 5th century BC; it lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. The classical 24-letter alphabet that became the norm later was originally the local alphabet of Ionia; this was adopted by Athens in 403 BC under archon Eucleides and in most other parts of the Greek-speaking world during the 4th century BC.

text: Letter names

text: When the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph, the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop /ʔ/, bet, or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma.

text: The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of beta, ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as λάβδα besides λάμβδα;[18] in Modern Greek the spelling is often λάμδα, reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled γιώτα in Modern Greek ([ʝ] is conventionally transcribed ⟨γ{ι,η,υ,ει,οι}⟩ word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and /a/). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.

text:
Greek alphabet

The names of the letters in spoken Standard Modern Greek
Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
Letter

Name

Pronunciation

Greek

Phoenician original

English

Greek (Ancient)

Greek (Modern)

English

Α

ἄλφα
aleph
alpha

[alpʰa]
[ˈalfa]
/ˈælfə/ ( listen)

Β

βῆτα
beth
beta

[bɛːta]
[ˈvita]
/ˈbiːtə/, US: /ˈbeɪtə/

Γ

γάμμα
gimel
gamma

[ɡamma]
[ˈɣama]
/ˈɡæmə/

Δ

δέλτα
daleth
delta

[delta]
[ˈðelta]
/ˈdɛltə/

Η

ἦτα
heth
eta

[hɛːta], [ɛːta]
[ˈita]
/ˈiːtə/, US: /ˈeɪtə/

Θ

θῆτα
teth
theta

[tʰɛːta]
[ˈθita]
/ˈθiːtə/, US: /ˈθeɪtə/ ( listen)

Ι

ἰῶτα
yodh
iota

[iɔːta]
[ˈʝota]
/aɪˈoʊtə/ ( listen)

Κ

κάππα
kaph
kappa

[kappa]
[ˈkapa]
/ˈkæpə/ ( listen)

Λ

λάμβδα
lamedh
lambda

[lambda]
[ˈlamða]
/ˈlæmdə/ ( listen)

Μ

μῦ
mem
mu

[myː]
[mi]
/mjuː/ ( listen); occasionally US: /muː/

Ν

νῦ
nun
nu

[nyː]
[ni]
/njuː/

Ρ

ῥῶ
reš
rho

[rɔː]
[ro]
/roʊ/ ( listen)

Τ

ταῦ
taw
tau

[tau]
[taf]
/taʊ, tɔː/

text: In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.

text:
Letter

Name

Pronunciation

Greek

Phoenician original

English

Greek (Ancient)

Greek (Modern)

English

Ζ

ζῆτα
zayin
zeta

[zdɛːta]
[ˈzita]
/ˈziːtə/, US: /ˈzeɪtə/

Ξ

ξεῖ, ξῖ
samekh
xi

[kseː]
[ksi]
/zaɪ, ksaɪ/

Σ

σίγμα
šin
siɡma

[siɡma]
[ˈsiɣma]
/ˈsɪɡmə/

text: In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with -εῖ, indicating an original pronunciation with -ē. In Modern Greek these names are spelled with -ι.

text:
Letter

Name

Pronunciation

Greek

English

Greek (Ancient)

Greek (Modern)

English

Ξ

ξεῖ, ξῖ
xi

[kseː]
[ksi]
/zaɪ, ksaɪ/

Π

πεῖ, πῖ
pi

[peː]
[pi]
/paɪ/

Φ

φεῖ, φῖ
phi

[pʰeː]
[fi]
/faɪ/

Χ

χεῖ, χῖ
chi

[kʰeː]
[çi]
/kaɪ/ ( listen)

Ψ

ψεῖ, ψῖ
psi

[pseː]
[psi]
/saɪ/, /psaɪ/ ( listen)

text: The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔ. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters ⟨ο⟩ and ⟨ω⟩, pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o") and o mega ("big o") respectively. The letter ⟨ε⟩ was called e psilon ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨αι⟩, while, similarly, ⟨υ⟩, which at this time was pronounced [y], was called y psilon ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨οι⟩.

text:
Letter

Name

Pronunciation

Greek (Ancient)

Greek (Medieval)

Greek (Modern)

English

Greek (Ancient)

Greek (Modern)

English

Ε

εἶ
ἐ ψιλόν
ἔψιλον
epsilon

[eː]
[ˈepsilon]
/ˈɛpsɪlɒn/, some UK: /ɛpˈsaɪlən/

Ο

οὖ
ὀ μικρόν
ὄμικρον
omicron

[oː]
[ˈomikron]
/ˈɒmɪkrɒn/ ( listen), traditional UK: /oʊˈmaɪkrɒn/

Υ

ὖ
ὐ ψιλόν
ὔψιλον
upsilon

[uː], [yː]
[ˈipsilon]
/juːpˈsaɪlən, ˈʊpsɪlɒn/, also UK: /ʌpˈsaɪlən/, US: /ˈʌpsɪlɒn/

Ω

ὦ
ὠ μέγα
ὠμέγα
omega

[ɔː]
[oˈmeɣa]
US: /oʊˈmeɪɡə/,  traditional UK: /ˈoʊmɪɡə/

text: Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce [ˈɣamːa] and [ˈkapʰa]; also, ήτα has come to be pronounced [ˈitʰa] in Cypriot.[19]

text: Letter shapes

text: Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting.

text: The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes.[20] The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters.

text: In the 9th and 10th century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive.[20] This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages.

text:
Inscription

Manuscript

Modern print

Archaic
Classical
Uncial
Minuscule
Lowercase
Uppercase

α

Α

β

Β

γ

Γ

δ

Δ

ε

Ε

ζ

Ζ

η

Η

θ

Θ

ι

Ι

κ

Κ

λ

Λ

μ

Μ

ν

Ν

ξ

Ξ

ο

Ο

π

Π

ρ

Ρ

σς

Σ

τ

Τ

υ

Υ

φ

Φ

χ

Χ

ψ

Ψ

ω

Ω

text: Derived alphabets

text: The Greek alphabet was the model for various others:[6]

text:
The Latin alphabet, together with various other ancient scripts in Italy, adopted from an archaic form of the Greek alphabet brought to Italy by Greek colonists in the late 8th century BC, via Etruscan
The Gothic alphabet, devised in the 4th century AD to write the Gothic language, based on a combination of Greek and Latin uncial models[21]
The Glagolitic alphabet, devised in the 9th century AD for writing Old Church Slavonic
The Cyrillic script, which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards

text: It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, which in turn influenced the development of the Georgian alphabet.[22]

text: Other uses

text: Use for other languages

text: Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.[23] For some of them, additional letters were introduced.

text: Antiquity

text:
Most of the alphabets of Asia Minor, in use c. 800–300 BC to write languages like Lydian and Phrygian, were the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications – as were the original Old Italic alphabets.
Some Paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as Ancient Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
The Greco-Iberian alphabet was used for writing the ancient Iberian language in parts of modern Spain.
Gaulish inscriptions (in modern France) used the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest
The Hebrew and Aramaic text of the Bible was written in Greek letters in Origen's Hexapla.
The Bactrian language, an Iranian language spoken in what is now Afghanistan, was written in the Greek alphabet during the Kushan Empire (65–250 AD). It adds an extra letter ⟨þ⟩ for the sh sound [ʃ].[24]
The Coptic alphabet adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write Coptic, the liturgical language of Egyptian Christians. Letters usually retain an uncial form different from the forms used for Greek today.

text: Middle Ages

text:
An 8th-century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.
An Old Ossetic inscription of the 10th–12th centuries found in Arxyz, the oldest known attestation of an Ossetic language.
The Old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from Meroitic script, and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the velar nasal sound.
Various South Slavic dialects, similar to the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, have been written in Greek script.[25][26][27][28] The modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets.

text: Early modern

text:
Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called Karamanlidika.
Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500.[29] The printing press at Moschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.
Aromanian (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the Romanian orthography will be adopted.
Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans.
Surguch, a Turkic language spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece.
Urum or Greek Tatar.
Pomak language in Western Thrace.
Judaeo-Spanish language, a Jewish dialect of Spanish, has occasionally been published in Greek characters in Greece.[30]

text: In mathematics and science

text: Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences.  Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation.

text: Astronomy

text: Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

text: International Phonetic Alphabet

text: Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).[31] Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:[32]

text:
β
beta
U+03B2
voiced bilabial fricative

θ
theta
U+03B8
voiceless dental fricative

χ
chi
U+03C7
voiceless uvular fricative

text: On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.

text:
Greek letter

Phonetic letter

Uppercase

φ
phi
ɸ
U+0278
Latin small letter phi
Voiceless bilabial fricative
–

γ
gamma
ɣ
U+0263
Latin small letter gamma
Voiced velar fricative
Ɣ U+0194

ε
epsilon
ɛ
U+025B
Latin small letter open e(alias: epsilon)
Open-mid front unrounded vowel
Ɛ U+0190

α
alpha
ɑ
U+0251
Latin small letter alpha
Open back unrounded vowel
Ɑ U+2C6D

υ
upsilon
ʊ
U+028A
Latin small letter upsilon
near-close near-back rounded vowel
Ʊ U+01B1

ι
iota
ɩ
U+0269
Latin small letter iota
Obsolete for near-close near-front unrounded vowel now ɪ
Ɩ U+0196

text: The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda ⟨λ⟩, but ⟨ɬ⟩ in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is ⟨ʎ⟩, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase y.

text: Use as numerals

text: Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma ⟨Ϝ⟩ for 6, koppa ⟨Ϙ⟩ for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called sampi ⟨Ͳ⟩, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as ⟨ϛ⟩, ⟨ϟ⟩ and ⟨ϡ⟩ respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called keraia is added to the right of it.

text:
Αʹ αʹ
alpha
1

Βʹ βʹ
beta
2

Γʹ γʹ
gamma
3

Δʹ δʹ
delta
4

Εʹ εʹ
epsilon
5

ϛʹ
digamma (stigma)
6

Ζʹ ζʹ
zeta
7

Ηʹ ηʹ
eta
8

Θʹ θʹ
theta
9

text:
Ιʹ ιʹ
iota
10

Κʹ κʹ
kappa
20

Λʹ λʹ
lambda
30

Μʹ μʹ
mu
40

Νʹ νʹ
nu
50

Ξʹ ξʹ
xi
60

Οʹ οʹ
omicron
70

Πʹ πʹ
pi
80

ϟʹ
koppa
90

text:
Ρʹ ρʹ
rho
100

Σʹ σʹ
sigma
200

Τʹ τʹ
tau
300

Υʹ υʹ
upsilon
400

Φʹ φʹ
phi
500

Χʹ χʹ
chi
600

Ψʹ ψʹ
psi
700

Ωʹ ωʹ
omega
800

ϡʹ
sampi
900

text: Use in naming student fraternities and sororities

text: In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, in 1776.[33]

text: Glyph variants

text: Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode.

text:
The symbol ϐ ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of beta (β).  In the French tradition of Ancient Greek typography, β is used word-initially, and ϐ is used word-internally.
The letter delta has a form resembling a cursive capital letter D; while not encoded as its own form, this form is included as part of the symbol for the drachma (a Δρ digraph) in the Currency Symbols block, at U+20AF (₯).
The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped

ϵ

{\displaystyle \epsilon \,\!}

 ('lunate epsilon', like a semicircle with a stroke) or

ε

{\displaystyle \varepsilon \,\!}

 (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol ϵ (U+03F5) is designated specifically for the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϑ ("script theta") is a cursive form of theta (θ), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϰ ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of kappa (κ), used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϖ ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of pi (π), also used as a technical symbol.
The letter rho (ρ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or curled to the right. The symbol ϱ (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
The letter sigma, in standard orthography, has two variants: ς, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form ϲ ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without the final/non-final distinction.
The capital letter upsilon (Υ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like a Latin Y, or slightly curled. The symbol ϒ (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, (

Υ

{\displaystyle \,\Upsilon }

) used as a technical symbol, e.g. in physics.
The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as

ϕ

{\displaystyle \textstyle \phi \,\!}

 (a circle with a vertical stroke through it) or as

φ

{\displaystyle \textstyle \varphi \,\!}

 (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol ϕ (U+03D5) is designated specifically for the closed form, used as a technical symbol.
The letter omega (Ω) has at least three stylistic variants of its capital form. The "open omega," resembling an open partial circle with the opening downward and the ends curled outward, is the standard. The two other stylistic variants, seen more often in modern typography, resemble an underscored full circle, where the underscore may or may not be touching the circle on a tangent (in the former case it resembles a superscript omicron similar to that found in the numero sign or masculine ordinal indicator; in the latter, it closely resembles some forms of the Latin letter Q). The open omega is always used in symbolic settings and is encoded in Letterlike Symbols (U+2126) as a separate code point for backward compatibility.

text: Computer encodings

text: For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947.

text: The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies.

text: ISO/IEC 8859-7

text: For the range A0–FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex).

text: Greek in Unicode

text: Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be represented as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: ᾱ́.[citation needed]

text: There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.

text: This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF).

text: To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).

text:
Greek and Coptic[1][2]Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+037x

Ͱ

ͱ

Ͳ

ͳ

ʹ

͵

Ͷ

ͷ

ͺ

ͻ

ͼ

ͽ

;

Ϳ

U+038x

΄

΅

Ά

·

Έ

Ή

Ί

Ό

Ύ

Ώ

U+039x

ΐ

Α

Β

Γ

Δ

Ε

Ζ

Η

Θ

Ι

Κ

Λ

Μ

Ν

Ξ

Ο

U+03Ax

Π

Ρ

Σ

Τ

Υ

Φ

Χ

Ψ

Ω

Ϊ

Ϋ

ά

έ

ή

ί

U+03Bx

ΰ

α

β

γ

δ

ε

ζ

η

θ

ι

κ

λ

μ

ν

ξ

ο

U+03Cx

π

ρ

ς

σ

τ

υ

φ

χ

ψ

ω

ϊ

ϋ

ό

ύ

ώ

Ϗ

U+03Dx

ϐ

ϑ

ϒ

ϓ

ϔ

ϕ

ϖ

ϗ

Ϙ

ϙ

Ϛ

ϛ

Ϝ

ϝ

Ϟ

ϟ

U+03Ex

Ϡ

ϡ

Ϣ

ϣ

Ϥ

ϥ

Ϧ

ϧ

Ϩ

ϩ

Ϫ

ϫ

Ϭ

ϭ

Ϯ

ϯ

U+03Fx

ϰ

ϱ

ϲ

ϳ

ϴ

ϵ

϶

Ϸ

ϸ

Ϲ

Ϻ

ϻ

ϼ

Ͻ

Ͼ

Ͽ

Notes
1.^  As of Unicode version 11.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text:
Greek Extended[1][2]Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
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F

U+1F0x

ἀ

ἁ

ἂ

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ἄ

ἅ

ἆ

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Ἂ

Ἃ

Ἄ

Ἅ

Ἆ

Ἇ

U+1F1x

ἐ

ἑ

ἒ

ἓ

ἔ

ἕ

Ἐ

Ἑ

Ἒ

Ἓ

Ἔ

Ἕ

U+1F2x

ἠ

ἡ

ἢ

ἣ

ἤ

ἥ

ἦ

ἧ

Ἠ

Ἡ

Ἢ

Ἣ

Ἤ

Ἥ

Ἦ

Ἧ

U+1F3x

ἰ

ἱ

ἲ

ἳ

ἴ

ἵ

ἶ

ἷ

Ἰ

Ἱ

Ἲ

Ἳ

Ἴ

Ἵ

Ἶ

Ἷ

U+1F4x

ὀ

ὁ

ὂ

ὃ

ὄ

ὅ

Ὀ

Ὁ

Ὂ

Ὃ

Ὄ

Ὅ

U+1F5x

ὐ

ὑ

ὒ

ὓ

ὔ

ὕ

ὖ

ὗ

Ὑ

Ὓ

Ὕ

Ὗ

U+1F6x

ὠ

ὡ

ὢ

ὣ

ὤ

ὥ

ὦ

ὧ

Ὠ

Ὡ

Ὢ

Ὣ

Ὤ

Ὥ

Ὦ

Ὧ

U+1F7x

ὰ

ά

ὲ

έ

ὴ

ή

ὶ

ί

ὸ

ό

ὺ

ύ

ὼ

ώ

U+1F8x

ᾀ

ᾁ

ᾂ

ᾃ

ᾄ

ᾅ

ᾆ

ᾇ

ᾈ

ᾉ

ᾊ

ᾋ

ᾌ

ᾍ

ᾎ

ᾏ

U+1F9x

ᾐ

ᾑ

ᾒ

ᾓ

ᾔ

ᾕ

ᾖ

ᾗ

ᾘ

ᾙ

ᾚ

ᾛ

ᾜ

ᾝ

ᾞ

ᾟ

U+1FAx

ᾠ

ᾡ

ᾢ

ᾣ

ᾤ

ᾥ

ᾦ

ᾧ

ᾨ

ᾩ

ᾪ

ᾫ

ᾬ

ᾭ

ᾮ

ᾯ

U+1FBx

ᾰ

ᾱ

ᾲ

ᾳ

ᾴ

ᾶ

ᾷ

Ᾰ

Ᾱ

Ὰ

Ά

ᾼ

᾽

ι

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U+1FCx

῀

῁

ῂ

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Έ

Ὴ

Ή

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῍

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U+1FDx

ῐ

ῑ

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ΐ

ῖ

ῗ

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Ῑ

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Ί

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U+1FEx

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ῦ

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U+1FFx

ῲ

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ῶ

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Ό

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´

῾

Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 11.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text: Combining and letter-free diacritics

text: Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:

text:
Combining
Spacing
Sample
Description

U+0300
U+0060
(  ̀)
"varia / grave accent"

U+0301
U+00B4, U+0384
(  ́)
"oxia / tonos / acute accent"

U+0304
U+00AF
(  ̄)
"macron"

U+0306
U+02D8
(  ̆)
"vrachy / breve"

U+0308
U+00A8
(  ̈)
"dialytika / diaeresis"

U+0313
U+02BC
(  ̓)
"psili / comma above" (spiritus lenis)

U+0314
U+02BD
(  ̔)
"dasia / reversed comma above" (spiritus asper)

U+0342

(  ͂)
"perispomeni" (circumflex)

U+0343

(  ̓)
"koronis" (= U+0313)

U+0344
U+0385
(  ̈́)
"dialytika tonos" (deprecated, = U+0308 U+0301)

U+0345
U+037A
(  ͅ)
"ypogegrammeni / iota subscript".

text: Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet

text: IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternate interpretation for ß).

text: Chapter letters

text: Not to be confused with the Greek-letter acronyms for the names of entire fraternities (or sororities), different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) named using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each respective organization is its A Chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B Chapter, a Γ Chapter, and so on and so forth.

text: In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω Chapter is AA Chapter, followed by AB Chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "Chapter Letter," albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization.


document_title: Jeff Fischer (actor)

question_text: who does jeff fisher's voice on american dad

question_tokens: who does jeff fisher 's voice on american dad

text: Jeff Fischer (actor)

text: This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (June 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Jeff Fischer

Born
Jeffrey Todd Fischer
1968 (age 49–50)
United States

Occupation
Voice actor, vintner

Years active
1998–present

text: Jeffrey Todd "Jeff" Fischer (born 1968) is an American voice actor known for his work in commercials, cartoons, and video games. Since 2005, he has eponymously provided the voice of an American Dad! character based on himself (character Jeff Fischer).

text: Beyond American Dad!, Fischer's other animation credits include the role of MC Cobra in Jackie Chan Adventures and a guest-starring role as Doug Reisman in Spider-Man: The New Animated Series. Fischer played Lewis in a stage production of Blockage.[1] In 2005, he announced the Teen Choice Awards.

text: Fischer has voiced several characters in video games such as Pimp My Ride, Tony Hawk's Underground and the Final Fantasy series, and has supplied voiceovers for hundreds of television commercials.[1]

text: In addition to his acting work, Fischer is also a vintner and founded Habit Winery in Santa Barbara, California.[2]

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Whisper of the Heart (1995) – Additional Voices (2006 Disney dub)
Melrose Place – Gus (1998)
Dinosaur (2000) – Additional Voices
City Boys (2001) – Caller N#2
Lilo and Stich (2002) – Additional Voices
Sommerhitze (2003) – Jorg
Spider-Man: The New Animated Series (2003) – Doug Reisman
Tony Hawk's Underground (2003) (VG) – Additional Voices
Tony Hawk's Underground 2 (2004) (VG) – Additional Voices
Sommersturm (2004) – Flasche
Death and Texas (2004) – Football Guard
Case Closed (2004) – Season 1 Episode 11 - Hotel Receptionist
Innoventions – Piggy Bank Adventure voice
Jackie Chan Adventures (2002–2005) – MC Cobra
Buzz Lightyear Astro Blasters (2005) – Distressed Star Command Member
Der Feigling (2005) – Gang Member
Homerun (2005 short film) – Additional Voices
American Dad! (2005–present) – Jeff Fischer
Happy Feet (2006) – Additional Voices
Pimp My Ride (2006) (VG)
Onkel Dieter (2008 short) – Additional Voices
Garfield's Pet Force – Additional Voices
Infamous – Additional Voices
Lego Indiana Jones 2: The Adventure Continues (2009) (VG) – Coronado Sailor
Doc McStuffins (2011) – Lenny
Final Fantasy XIII (2010) (VG) – Yuj
Final Fantasy XIII-2 (2011) (VG) – Yuj
Chronicle (2012) – Thug #3
Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2012–2013) – Petro
Final Fantasy Type-0 HD (2015) (VG) – Eight
Bob's Burgers (2016) – Walla
Smurfs: The Lost Village (2017) – Additional Voices
Izombie (2015-16) – ep: 17 season 2 Additional voice


document_title: Machine Gun Preacher

question_text: where was the movie machine gun preacher filmed

text: Machine Gun Preacher

text: Plot[edit]

text: In South Sudan the LRA are attacking a village and force a young boy to attack a woman.

text: Sam Childers (Gerard Butler) is an alcoholic drug-using biker from Pennsylvania. On his release from prison, he finds that his wife (Michelle Monaghan) has given up her job as a stripper, because she has since accepted Christ as her saviour. Initially infuriated by his wife's decision, he returns to his routine of partying and using drugs like heroin with his fellow biker friend Donnie (Michael Shannon). One night while on a bender with Donnie, he almost kills a vagrant. He is shaken by the experience, and the day after allows his wife to persuade him to go to church with her, where he is eventually baptized and offered salvation.

text: Sam soon finds a stable job as a construction worker and later starts his own construction company. Later, on a missionary trip to Uganda to build homes for refugees, he asks one of the SPLA soldiers watching over them to take him on a trip to the north, to Sudan. The soldier warns him that it is a war zone, but upon Sam's insistence they go. They arrive at a medical tent in Sudan. As the soldier moves off to talk to some people, Sam is roped in by a female doctor to help lift a lipless Sudanese woman onto the examination table. That night as they lay on their beds at the relief station, they hear noises outside, and when they look out, Sam and the soldier see large numbers of Sudanese children swarming around to sleep outside the building.

text: The soldier explains that their parents send them to sleep over here because it is safer than staying in their own village. Sam wakes up the children and gets as many as he can fit to sleep in their room for the night. The next day Sam and the soldier follow the children back to their village only to find that the LRA has burnt it down and killed their parents. One of the children runs after his dog and is killed by a hidden landmine. Sam cradles the dead child and cries, the experience traumatizes and changes Sam. After returning home, Sam has a "vision from God" and decides to build an orphanage for the children of South Sudan, as well as a church in his own neighborhood that will be "open to all" without judgement. After its completion he begins preaching at his church, and helps his old friend Donnie get sober and find God as well. He soon returns to Africa and despite vocal opposition, builds the orphanage. One night after it is built, the LRA attack it and burn it to the ground. Sam then phones home, telling his wife what has happened and that he is giving up. She reminds him that the orphans have been through worse but they have not given up, and that he should not give up and tells him to rebuild the orphanage.

text: After the orphanage has been rebuilt, he and his friends from the SPLA are attacked on the road by the LRA, they manage to chase off the small force of the LRA that attacked them. They search the area and discover a large group of Sudanese children hiding in a ditch not far from the road. Since they can not take all the children in one trip, Sam chooses to take the ones who need medical attention along with a few others on their first trip back to the orphanage. However, upon returning to the spot as quickly as he could, he finds that the LRA killed and burnt those he had left behind. This causes Childers to lead armed raids to rescue children from the LRA.[4]

text: He returns home to the U.S. disgruntled and exasperated about the lack of money for the project. He also feels disconnected from his community; he is disgusted by the excess displayed and petty "problems" of his family and friends, as well as their apparent apathy toward the children of Sudan. Meanwhile his friend Donnie breaks his sobriety and ends up dying from an overdose, this pushes Sam further into negativity and despair. He sells his business and boards a plane for Sudan. His faith and mission is revitalised when an orphan boy tells his personal story to Sam. The boy tells him that if he allows hatred to fester in his heart, his fight against injustice fails. Sam also rekindles his emotional attachment with his family over the phone. The next day he engages with the camp actively. Later he goes out with SPLA and rescues a caravan full of children who were kidnapped by LRA. The end credits include black and white pictures of the real Sam Childers, his wife, daughter, and his orphanage in Sudan. The pictures are followed by a short black and white home video clip of Sam talking about his work.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gerard Butler as Sam Childers
Michelle Monaghan as Lynn Childers[5]
Michael Shannon as Donnie
Madeline Carroll as Paige
Kathy Baker as Daisy
Souléymane Sy Savané as Deng
Rhema Marvanne as Rik Oskam
Mandalynn Carlson as Paige's Friend

text: Production[edit]

text: Filming commenced in June 2010 in Michigan.[6] The film had a gala premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2011[7] and limited release on September 23, 2011.

text: Sam Childers has shown a shortened and edited version of the film at Christian charity events.[original research?]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 29% of 112 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 4.9 out of 10. The site's consensus is: "There's a complex man at the center of Machine Gun Preacher but the movie is too shapeless and emotionally vacant to bring his story to life."[8] The film has a score of 43 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 32 reviews.[9]

text: Machine Gun Preacher was produced on a budget of $30 million and made $3,338,690 worldwide.[2]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Date of ceremony
Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result

January 15, 2012

Golden Globe Awards[10]

Best Original Song
Chris Cornell
Nominated