document_title: My Three Sons

question_text: when did robbie douglas leave my three sons

text: My Three Sons

text: History[edit]

text: ABC years[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The show began on ABC in black-and-white. The first season, consisting of 36 episodes, was directed in its entirety by Peter Tewksbury, who produced and occasionally scripted the programs.[2]

text: These early episodes held to no specific generic type, so that any episode from one week to the next might be either comedic or dramatic. Tewksbury's episodes are also unusual for their use of cross-talk (a way of having the voices of off-screen characters heard in the background of the soundtrack, just under the voices of the main characters). Using this clever directorial twist, Tewksbury realistically portrayed the chaotic, fast-paced, and ever-changing sequence of events; coordinate and conflicting, that was the daily routine of living in the Douglas household.

text: An example of Tewksbury's use of cross-talk is the fourth episode, "Countdown", written by David Duncan, which chronicles the Douglas family's attempts to wake up, prepare for the day, have breakfast, and get out of the house by a common, agreed-upon time, all carefully synchronized to a televised rocket launch countdown – to comical and often ironic effect. Tewksbury returned to directing feature films after concluding the season because the producers could not handle his perfectionist attitude, which was costing thousands of dollars in lost time and reshoots.

text: During the 1964 fall season, William Frawley, who played Bub, was declared too ill to work by Desilu Studios, as the company was informed that insuring the actor would be too costly. Frawley continued in the role until a suitable replacement could be found at midseason. He was replaced by William Demarest, who played his hard-nosed brother (great) Uncle Charley part way through the 1964-1965 season (the last on ABC). According to the storyline, Bub returns to Ireland to help his Auntie Kate celebrate her 104th birthday. Soon after, brother Charley visits and stays on. Charley, a cello-playing merchant sailor, was a soft-hearted curmudgeon, who proved to be a responsible caregiver. Frawley left the series before the end of the 1964-1965 season.

text: Directors[edit]

text: Peter Tewksbury directed the first season. The succeeding director, Richard Whorf, took over the reins for one season and was in turn followed by former actor-turned-director Gene Reynolds from 1962 to 1964. James V. Kern, an experienced Hollywood television director who had previously helmed the "Hollywood" and "Europe" episodes of I Love Lucy, continued in this role for two years until his untimely death in late 1966, aged 57. Director James Sheldon was also contracted to finish episodes that had been partly completed by Kern to complete that season. Fred De Cordova was the show's longest and most consistent director of the series (108 episodes) until he left in 1971 to produce The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Earl Bellamy rounded out the series as director of the show's final year.[3]

text: CBS years[edit]

text: My Three Sons moved to the CBS television network for the 1965-1966 season after ABC declined to underwrite the expense of producing the program in colour. Along with the change in networks and the transition to color, Tim Considine (who had earlier worked with Fred MacMurray on The Shaggy Dog), playing eldest son Mike, had chosen not to renew his contract due to a clash with executive producer Don Fedderson over Considine's wish to direct but not co-star in the series. (Considine did, however, direct one of the last black-and-white episodes for ABC.) In an August 1989 interview on the Pat Sajak Show, he explained that he was also devoted to automobile racing, which his contract forbade. His character was written out, along with Meredith MacRae, who had played his fiancée Sally, in a wedding episode that was the premiere of the 1965–1966 season on CBS. After this episode, Mike is mentioned briefly in only four succeeding episodes (including one in which Ernie becomes adopted), and is never seen again, even at Robbie and Steve's weddings. (Steve explains briefly in one of these episodes that he has another son, but "He lives away from home".) In the episode "Steve and the Huntress" (first aired January 27, 1966), Mike is specifically mentioned as teaching at a college. MacRae joined Petticoat Junction the following year, the last of three actresses to play Billie Jo Bradley.

text: To keep the show's title plausible, the show's head writer, George Tibbles fashioned a three-part story arc in which an orphaned friend of youngest brother Richard (Chip, played by Stanley Livingston), Ernie Thompson (played by his real-life brother, Barry Livingston), awaits adoption when his current foster parents are transferred to the Orient. Steve offers to adopt Ernie, but faces antagonism from Uncle Charley, who finds Ernie a bit grating, and forecasts major headaches over both the boy and his dog. It also transpires that a law requires a woman to live in the home of an adoptive family. A likable female social worker supervises the case, and the Douglases speculate that Steve might marry the woman, to make the adoption possible, but they both agree this is not reason enough for them to be married. The family also does not need to hire a housekeeper, since Uncle Charley already has things running smoothly. The family soon appears before a judge who researches the law, and determines that its intent is to ensure a full-time caregiver is in the household. With Charley meeting that role, and having had a change of heart about Ernie, Charley assents to a legal fiction declaring him "housemother" to the Douglas family.[4]

text: While the three sons were always central to the storyline, several major changes took place by the late 1960s. In the spring of 1967, the ratings for the series began to sag and My Three Sons finished its seventh season in 31st place in the Nielsen ratings. It was decided that the 1967-1968 season would bring the program not only a new time slot, but also new storylines to spice up the ratings. In the fall of 1967, CBS moved My Three Sons to Saturday night at 8:30 pm. In the season-premiere episode, "Moving Day", the Douglas family and Uncle Charley relocate from the fictional town of Bryant Park in the Midwest to Los Angeles. Robbie (Don Grady) marries his classmate/girlfriend, Katie Miller (Tina Cole). Tina Cole, in fact, had appeared in different roles on three previous episodes of My Three Sons:   "House For Sale" from the fourth season (February 13, 1964), "The Coffee House Set" from the fifth season (November 19, 1964), and "Robbie and the Little Stranger" from the sixth season (February 17, 1966). At the end of the 1967-1968 season, the ratings had improved from the previous year with the series placing at 24th in the Nielsens. The following season, the newlyweds discover that Katie is pregnant, and she gives birth to triplets named Robert, Steven, and Charles. Although originally played by sets of uncredited twins, these babies were played uncredited by Guy, Gunnar, and Garth Swanson. The most familiar triplets in the show's last two seasons are played by Michael, Daniel, and Joseph Todd.

text: The following year in the tenth season, 1969-1970, Steve remarries, taking widowed teacher Barbara Harper (Beverly Garland) as his wife; she brings with her a 5-year-old daughter, Dorothy "Dodie" (Dawn Lyn), so Steven now had a stepdaughter whom he also subsequently adopts. (Dodie is wary of Steve at first, believing that he wants her to simply forget her late father, until he explains that he wants her to always remember and love him, but since he's no longer alive, Steve wants to raise her in his place, and hopes she'll come to love him  also.) Also, the last year-and-a-half of the series feature fewer appearances of both Don Grady and Stanley Livingston. Grady's character was written out of the show at the end of the 11th season, which allowed for his wife Katie and their triplet sons to remain within the Douglas household the following season (as a structural engineer Robbie was working on a bridge construction in Peru). Chip and his teenaged wife Polly (Ronne Troup) (who eloped after Polly's disciplinarian father refused to sanction their marriage) move into their own apartment.

text: At the end of the 1970-1971 season (the show's 11th year), My Three Sons was still garnering healthy ratings. By the spring of 1971, it had finished in 19th place. A 1971 television pilot with Don Grady and Tina Cole called Three of a Kind, then retitled Robbie—about Robbie, Katie, and the triplets moving to San Francisco—was filmed but not picked up as a series.[5] The final episode of the 1970-1971 season, "After the Honeymoon", actually set up the premise for this pilot. The guest stars were Richard X. Slattery and Pat Carroll, who were featured as the landlords of the apartment block into which Robbie and Katie move. However, Don Grady had informed the producers of his intention to leave the series and pursue a new full-time career as a composer, which he ultimately did.

text: For the series' 12th season, CBS moved My Three Sons to Monday nights at 10:00 pm. In addition to the time changes for the 12th season, a new four-part story arc is introduced with MacMurray in a second role, that of his cousin, the Laird (Lord) Fergus McBain Douglas of Sithian Bridge. The voice of English actor Alan Caillou is awkwardly dubbed over MacMurray's.  The plot centers around Lord Douglas's arrival in Los Angeles from the family's native Scotland, in search of a first lady to marry and return with him to Scotland.

text: He finds Terri Dowling (Anne Francis), a waitress at the Blue Berry Bowling Alley. While initially reluctant to give up her life in America and return to Scotland as nobility, she finally accepts. This storyline is a continuation of a plot idea that originally began in the fourth season, when the Douglases visit Scotland on the pretense of having been told they had inherited a castle in the highlands.[6]

text: With a later time slot, the show finished the season outside the top 30. To save the series, CBS moved it in midseason back to Thursday nights at 8:30 pm, its old time slot. Nevertheless, My Three Sons ended its primetime run in the spring of 1972 after 12 years on the air. CBS also aired daytime reruns starting in September 1971 (only the CBS color shows), for about one season.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Fred MacMurray, Steve Douglas (1960–1972)
William Frawley, Michael Francis Aloysius "Bub" O'Casey (1960–1965)
William Demarest, Charles Leslie "Uncle Charley" O'Casey, Bub's brother (1965–1972)
Tim Considine, Mike Douglas (1960–1965)
Don Grady, Robbie Douglas (1960–1971)
Stanley Livingston, Richard "Chip" Douglas (1960–1972)
Barry Livingston, Ernie Thompson/Douglas (1963–1972)
Meredith MacRae, Sally Ann Morrison Douglas (1963–1965)
Tina Cole, Katie Miller Douglas (1967–1972)
Beverly Garland, Barbara Harper Douglas (1969–1972)
Dawn Lyn, Dorothy "Dodie" Harper Douglas (1969–1972)
Ronne Troup, Polly Williams Douglas (1970–1972)
Michael, Daniel, and Joseph Todd, playing Robbie, Stevie, and Charley Douglas respectively (1970–1972)

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Cynthia Pepper, Jean Pearson (1960–1961)
Peter Brooks, Hank Ferguson (1960–1963)
Cheryl Holdridge, Judy Doucette (1960–1961)
Ricky Allen, Hubert 'Sudsy' Pfeiffer (1961–1963)
Hank Jones, Pete (1964–1966)
Bill Erwin, Joe Walters (1962–1964)
Doris Singleton, Helen Morrison (1964–65) and Margaret Williams (1970)
John Howard, Dave Welch (1965–1967)
Joan Tompkins, Lorraine Miller (1967–1970)

text: Musical connections[edit]

text: The series' cast had several music connections. MacMurray began his career as a saxophone player during the 1930s, and sometimes played it on the series, as well as clarinet. Frawley had been a vaudeville actor and sang in the 1929 short film Fancy That as well as in the 1936 film The General Died at Dawn and in several episodes of I Love Lucy.  Actress Tina Cole (Katie) was born into the King Family, a popular 1950s–1960s group. Ronne Troup (Polly) was the step-daughter of singer Julie London and daughter of musician/composer Bobby Troup (who wrote the song Route 66 and also starred in the TV program Emergency! along with wife London), and Dawn Lyn is the younger sister of 1970s pop idol Leif Garrett. Don Grady (Robbie) composed and produced music, having created successful Las Vegas venues for Phantom of the Opera star Michael Crawford and pop star David Cassidy.

text: Grady also played drums in the '60s pop group Yellow Balloon. Musical arranger Frank De Vol, who did the toe-tapping theme, scored over thirty motion pictures and arranged for such vocalists as Sarah Vaughan, Jack Jones, Nat King Cole, Ella Fitzgerald, Tony Bennett, Vic Damone, Dinah Shore, Doris Day, and Jaye P. Morgan.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedNielsen ratings[7]First airedLast airedNetworkRankRatingTied with136September 29, 1960 (1960-09-29)June 8, 1961 (1961-06-08)ABC1325.877 Sunset Strip236September 28, 1961 (1961-09-28)June 7, 1962 (1962-06-07)1124.7N/A339September 20, 1962 (1962-09-20)June 20, 1963 (1963-06-20)2821.0N/A437September 19, 1963 (1963-09-19)May 28, 1964 (1964-05-28)2721.9N/A536September 17, 1964 (1964-09-17)May 20, 1965 (1965-05-20)1325.5N/A632September 16, 1965 (1965-09-16)April 28, 1966 (1966-04-28)CBS1523.8N/A732September 15, 1966 (1966-09-15)May 11, 1967 (1967-05-11)2920.2I SpyThe CBS Thursday Night MovieThe F.B.I.830September 9, 1967 (1967-09-09)March 30, 1968 (1968-03-30)2420.8N/A928September 28, 1968 (1968-09-28)April 19, 1969 (1969-04-19)1422.8N/A1026October 4, 1969 (1969-10-04)April 4, 1970 (1970-04-04)1521.8IronsideThe Johnny Cash Show1124September 19, 1970 (1970-09-19)March 20, 1971 (1971-03-20)1920.8N/A1224September 13, 1971 (1971-09-13)April 13, 1972 (1972-04-13)N/AN/AN/A

text: My Three Sons had 36 episodes each in the first two seasons. The series had more than thirty episodes in each of the first eight seasons; the episode output then decreased by two episodes until the eleventh season, which had twenty-four episodes, along with the twelfth season. The first five seasons were filmed in black & white, then after the move to CBS, it was filmed in color for the remainder of its run.

text: Production schedule[edit]

text: The series was initially filmed at Desilu Studios in Hollywood, but at the start of the 1967–68 season, the cast and crew began filming the series at the CBS Studio Center in Studio City, California. The reasons behind this move concerned the sale of actress-comedian Lucille Ball 's studios to the Gulf + Western conglomerate, which owned Paramount Pictures, so Don Fedderson Productions, who produced My Three Sons (along with Family Affair starring Brian Keith), had to quickly make other arrangements for filming. The move also necessitated moves in the show's storyline as well, hence the family's move from the fictitious town of Bryant Park (in the Midwestern United States) to North Hollywood, California, although the town is never officially mentioned, simply just the city of Los Angeles.

text: Fred MacMurray was the only actor to appear in every episode of the series. Reportedly, MacMurray's contract stipulated that he work only 65 days per year. His scenes for each season were produced in two blocks of filming. He would report to the Desilu-Gower lot in late May and work 35 days (five days per week, weekends off), then take off for 10 weeks. He would then return to complete his remaining 30 days of shooting and was finished altogether around Thanksgiving. MacMurray's ten-week hiatus in the middle of each season's production schedule freed up the actor to follow other pursuits, while the filming of scenes with the other cast members continued. In short, all episodes were filmed out of sequence. Evidence of this is very apparent in several episodes, where plotlines had MacMurray's character on a business trip (e.g. "Small Adventure") or spending much of his time at the office (e.g. "Soap Box Derby"). This allowed him to seemingly take part in the entire episode with limited or no interaction with the other regulars during filming. This sometimes produced noticeable continuity problems onscreen, especially as the boys grew and changed styles.

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Although Don Fedderson gets the credit, My Three Sons was created by George Tibbles and produced by Don Fedderson Productions throughout the show's run, with MCA Television co-distributing the series during its 1960–65 ABC airing. When the series moved to CBS in 1965, the latter network assumed full production responsibilities (in association with Fedderson Productions) until the end of the series in 1972. CBS now holds the series' copyright. CBS Television Distribution presently owns distribution rights to the entire series (including the more widely seen and aforementioned 1965–72 CBS episodes). The show did not get syndicated until September 1976 (although CBS did air reruns of the show in its daytime lineup from December 1971 until the fall of 1972), and even then, only the CBS color episodes aired, while the black and white ABC episodes did not air on broadcast TV at all.  At the time, the first half of season 11 was in the same syndication package as seasons 6-10, while season 12 and the second half of season 11 was distributed with seasons 1-5.

text: Nick at Nite aired My Three Sons from November 3, 1985 to October 28, 1991 with episodes from Seasons 1-5, the second half of season 11, and season 12. The Family Channel also aired only the black and white episodes from September 7, 1992 to July 30, 1993. The Seasons 1-3 episodes had the original Chevrolet closing credits. The Seasons 6–10 (and the first half of season 11) episodes were later aired on TV Land in the late 1990s. Odyssey ran all of the color episodes in the early 2000s.  They also briefly aired the black and white episodes. In 2000, TV Land briefly aired the black & white episodes again, using the same syndication episode rights that were on Nick at Nite during the 1980s.  In 2006 the Retro Television Network broadcast the show.  Only seasons 6-10 and the first half of season 11 were aired.

text: Since fall 2004, the standard US syndication package has been Seasons 6-10, though very few stations air the show anymore.

text: In 2009, FamilyNet began airing the program as a lead-in for its Happy Days and Family Ties program block, which ended in February 2010. From 2012-14, and also from October 2015-February 2016, MeTV aired the Season 6-10 episodes in heavy rotation, and most closing credits included the original sponsor tags, such as those for Kellogg's. In 2016, Decades began airing the CBS (color) episodes in its "binge" blocks on some weekends.

text: MeTV began airing the black and white episodes on May 29, 2017, and as of spring 2018 have aired the entire series into the 10th season.[8]  As of July 2018 the entire series has been aired into the 12th season.  This is the first time that the black and white episodes have aired on broadcast tv since they aired originally.

text: On August 3, 2018 MeTV aired the last episode in the series.  This is the first time any US television station aired the entire series straight through from beginning to end.  On August 6, 2018 MeTV started the series all over again.

text: Reunion special[edit]

text: This  does not cite any sources. Please help improve this  by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: MacMurray and most of the cast took part in Thanksgiving Reunion with The Partridge Family & My Three Sons, which aired on ABC on November 25, 1977. The retrospective special looked back at the history of My Three Sons and The Partridge Family (other than featuring single parents with a large family, the two series had no narrative, or even a studio, link). The special was notable for featuring footage from early black and white episodes of My Three Sons that, at this point in time, were not in syndication. While most of the collected casts gathered in a studio to reminisce, Demarest appeared in a brief pre-taped segment.

text: DVD releases[edit]

text: CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released the first two seasons of My Three Sons on DVD in Region 1.[9][10]  It is unknown if the remaining seasons will be released.

text: In most episodes, the soundtrack was edited to remove the background musical score, which were originally stock music from the Capitol Records library; the licensing agreement with Capitol only covered broadcast rights, not home video rights, and clearing the music for home video release with the individual composers who worked on the Capitol recordings was deemed cost-prohibitive.  The Capitol scores were replaced instead with more modern, synthesized music.[11] The original theme tune by Frank DeVol has been left unaltered; his musical scores in later seasons of the show, written specifically for the series, would less-likely be affected by licensing problems if the later seasons were released on DVD.[citation needed]

text:
DVD name

No. ofepisodes

Release date

The First Season: Volume 1

18

September 30, 2008

The First Season: Volume 2

18

January 20, 2009

The Second Season: Volume 1

18

February 23, 2010

The Second Season: Volume 2

18

June 15, 2010


document_title: Dairy cattle

question_text: how do cow produce milk all the time

question_tokens: how do cow produce milk all the time

root

text: Dairy cattle

text: Management[edit]

text: Dairy cows may be found either in herds or dairy farms where dairy farmers own, manage, care for, and collect milk from them, or on commercial farms. Herd sizes vary around the world depending on landholding culture and social structure. The United States has 9 million cows in 75,000 dairy herds, with an average herd size of 120 cows. The number of small herds is falling rapidly with the 3,100 herds with over 500 cows producing 51% of U.S. milk in 2007.[5] The United Kingdom dairy herd overall has nearly 1.5 million cows, with about 100 head reported on an average farm.[6] In New Zealand, the average herd has more than 375 cows, while in Australia, there are approximately 220 cows in the average herd.[7][8]

tag: p

text: Pasteurization is the process of heating milk to a high enough temperature for a short period of time to kill the microbes in the milk and increase keep time and decrease spoilage time by killing the microbes, decrease the transmission of infection and eliminates enzymes that reduce the quality and shelf life. Pasteurization is either completed at 63 °C for 30 minutes or a flash pasteurization is completed for 15 seconds at 72 °C.[9]

text: To maintain lactation, a dairy cow must be bred and produce calves. Depending on market conditions, the cow may be bred with a "dairy bull" or a "beef bull." Female calves (heifers) with dairy breeding may be kept as replacement cows for the dairy herd. If a replacement cow turns out to be a substandard producer of milk, she then goes to market and can be slaughtered for beef. Male calves can either be used later as a breeding bull or sold and used for veal or beef. Dairy farmers usually begin breeding or artificially inseminating heifers around 13 months of age.[10] A cow's gestation period is approximately nine months.[11] Newborn calves are removed from their mothers quickly, usually within three days, as the mother/calf bond intensifies over time and delayed separation can cause extreme stress on both cow and calf.[12]

text: Domestic cows can live to 20 years; however, those raised for dairy rarely live that long, as the average cow is removed from the dairy herd around age four and marketed for beef.[11][13] In 2014, approximately 9.5% of the cattle slaughtered in the U.S. were culled dairy cows: cows that can no longer be seen as an economic asset to the dairy farm.[14] These animals may be sold due to reproductive problems or common diseases of milk cows such as mastitis and lameness.[13]

text: Calf[edit]

text: Market calves are generally sold at two weeks of age and bull calves may fetch a premium over heifers due to their size, either current or potential. Calves may be sold for veal, or for one of several types of beef production, depending on available local crops and markets. Such bull calves may be castrated if turnout onto pastures is envisaged, in order to render the animals less aggressive. Purebred bulls from elite cows may be put into progeny testing schemes to find out whether they might become superior sires for breeding. Such animals may become extremely valuable.

text: Most dairy farms separate calves from their mothers within a day of birth to reduce transmission of disease and simplify management of milking cows. Studies have been done allowing calves to remain with their mothers for 1, 4, 7 or 14 days after birth. Cows whose calves were removed longer than one day after birth showed increased searching, sniffing and vocalizations. However, calves allowed to remain with their mothers for longer periods showed weight gains at three times the rate of early removals as well as more searching behavior and better social relationships with other calves.[15][16]

text: After separation, some young dairy calves subsist on commercial milk replacer, a feed based on dried milk powder. Milk replacer is an economical alternative to feeding whole milk because it is cheaper, can be bought at varying fat and protein percentages, and is typically less contaminated than whole milk when handled properly. Some farms pasteurize and feed calves milk from the cows in the herd instead of using replacer. A day-old calf consumes around 5 liters of milk per day.

text: Bull[edit]

text: A bull calf with high genetic potential may be reared for breeding purposes. It may be kept by a dairy farm as a herd bull, to provide natural breeding for the herd of cows. A bull may service up to 50 or 60 cows during a breeding season. Any more and the sperm count will decline, leading to cows "returning to service" (to be bred again). A herd bull may only stay for one season, as when most bulls reach over two years old their temperament becomes too unpredictable.

text: Bull calves intended for breeding commonly are bred on specialized dairy breeding farms, not production farms. These farms are the major source of stocks for artificial insemination.

text: Milk production levels[edit]

text: The dairy cow will produce large amounts of milk in its lifetime. Production levels peak at around 40 to 60 days after calving. Production declines steadily afterwards until milking is stopped at about 10 months. The cow is "dried off" for about sixty days before calving again. Within a 12 to 14-month inter-calving cycle, the milking period is about 305 days or 10 months long.[17][18][19] Among many variables, certain breeds produce more milk than others within a range of around 6,800 to 17,000 kg (15,000 to 37,500 lbs) of milk per year.[citation needed] The Holstein Friesian is the main breed of dairy cattle in Australia, and said to have the "world's highest" productivity, at 10000L of milk per year.[20] The average for a single dairy cow in the US in 2007 was 9164.4 kg (20,204 lbs) per year, excluding milk consumed by her calves,[2] whereas the same average value for a single cow in Israel was reported in the Philippine press to be 12,240 kg in 2009.[21] High production cows are more difficult to breed at a two-year interval. Many farms take the view that 24 or even 36 month cycles are more appropriate for this type of cow.[citation needed]

text: Dairy cows may continue to be economically productive for many lactation cycles. In theory a longevity of 10 lactations is possible. The chances of problems arising which may lead to a cow being culled are high, however; the average herd life of US Holstein is today fewer than 3 lactations. This requires more herd replacements to be reared or purchased. Over 90% of all cows are slaughtered for 4 main reasons:

text: Infertility - failure to conceive and reduced milk production.

tag: ul

text: Mastitis - a persistent and potentially fatal mammary gland infection, leading to high somatic cell counts and loss of production.

text: Lameness - persistent foot infection or leg problems causing infertility and loss of production.

text: Production - some animals fail to produce economic levels of milk to justify their feed costs.

text: Cow longevity is strongly correlated with production levels.[22] Lower production cows live longer than high production cows, but may be less profitable. Cows no longer wanted for milk production are sent to slaughter. Their meat is of relatively low value and is generally used for processed meat. Another factor affecting milk production is the stress the cow is faced with. Psychologists at the University of Leicester, UK, analyzed the musical preference of milk cows and found out that music actually influences the dairy cow's lactation. Calming music can improve milk yield, probably because it reduces stress and relaxes the cows in much the same way as it relaxes humans. [23]

text: Cow comfort and its effects on milk production[edit]

text: Certain behaviors such as eating, rumination, and lying down can be related to the health of the cow and cow comfort.[24] These behaviors can also be related to the productivity of the cows.[24] Likewise, stress, disease, and discomfort will have a negative effect on the productivity of the dairy cows.[24] Therefore, it can be said that it is in the best interest of the farmer to increase eating, rumination, and lying down and decrease stress, disease, and discomfort to achieve the maximum productivity possible.[24] Also, estrous behaviors such as mounting can be a sign of cow comfort, since if a cow is lame, nutritionally deficient, or are housed in an over crowded barn, the performance of estrous behaviors will be altered.[25]

text: Feeding behaviors are obviously important for the dairy cow, as feeding is how the cow will ingest dry matter, however, the cow must ruminate to fully digest the feed and utilize the nutrients in the feed.[26] Dairy cows with good rumen health will likely be more profitable than cows with poor rumen health, as a healthy rumen will aid in the digestion of nutrients.[24] An increase in the time a cow spends ruminating is associated with the increase in health and an increase in milk production.[24]

text: Cows have a high motivation to lie down [26] so farmers should be conscious of this, not only because they have a high motivation to lie down, but also because lying down can increase milk yield.[27] When the lactating dairy cow lies down, blood flow is increased to the mammary gland which in return results in a higher milk yield.[27]

text: To ensure that the dairy cows lie down as much as needed, the stalls must be comfortable.[28] Put very simply, a stall should have a rubber mat, bedding, and be large enough for the cow to lie down and get up comfortably.[28] Signs that the stalls may not be comfortable enough for the cows are the cows are standing, either ruminating or not, instead of lying down, or perching, which is when the cow has its front end in the stall and their back end out of the stall.[28]

text: There are 2 types of housing systems in dairy production, free style housing and tie stall. Free style housing is where the cow is free to walk around and interact with its environment and other members of the herd. Tie stall housing is when the cow is chained to a stantion stall with the milking units and feed coming to them.[29]

text: By-products[edit]

text: By-products of milk include butterfat, cream, curds, and whey. Butterfat is the fat in milk. The cream is the yellowish part of the milk. The cream contains 18–40% butterfat. Whey is the watery part of the milk.

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2016)

tag: table

text: The industry can be divided into 2 market territories; fluid milk and industrialized milk such as yogurt, cheeses, and ice cream.[30]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Since the 1950s, artificial insemination (AI) is used at most dairy farms; these farms may keep no bull. Artificial insemination uses estrus synchronization to indicate when the cow is going through ovulation and is susceptible to fertilization. Advantages of using AI include its low cost and ease compared to maintaining a bull, ability to select from a large number of bulls, elimination of diseases in the dairy industry, improved genetics and improved animal welfare [31] Rather than a large bull jumping on a smaller heifer or weaker cow, AI allows the farmer to complete the breeding procedure within 5 minutes with minimum stress placed on the individual female's body [31]

text: More recently, embryo transfer has been used to enable the multiplication of progeny from elite cows. Such cows are given hormone treatments to produce multiple embryos. These are then 'flushed' from the cow's uterus. 7-12 embryos are consequently removed from these donor cows and transferred into other cows who serve as surrogate mothers. The result will be between 3 and 6 calves instead of the normal single, or rarely, twins.

text: Hormone use[edit]

text: Hormone treatments are sometimes given to dairy cows in some countries to increase reproduction and to increase milk production.

text: The hormones are used to produce multiple embryos have to be administered at specific times to dairy cattle to induce ovulation. Frequently, for economic considerations, these drugs are also used to synchronise a group of cows to ovulate simultaneously. The hormones prostaglandin, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, and progesterone are used for this purpose and sold under the brand names Lutalyse, Cystorelin, Estrumate, Estroplan, Factrel, Prostamate, Fertagyl, Insynch, and Ovacyst. They may be administered by injection.[32]

text: About 17% of dairy cows in the United States are injected with Bovine somatotropin, also called recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), or artificial growth hormone.[33] The use of this hormone increases milk production from 11%–25%. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has ruled that rBST is harmless to people. The use of rBST is banned in Canada, parts of the European Union, as well as Australia and New Zealand.

text: In Canada, Canadian Dairy farmers have high screening procedures they have to go through every time the milk is retrieved from the farm; if the regulations are not met the milk does not get loaded onto the truck for further processing. There is to be no medication or hormones in the milk for safety reasons [9]

text: Nutrition[edit]

text: Nutrition plays an important role in keeping cattle healthy and strong.[34] Implementing an adequate nutrition program can also improve milk production and reproductive performance. Nutrient requirements may not be the same depending on the animal's age and stage of production.

text: Forages, which refer especially to hay or straw, are the most common type of feed used. Cereal grains, as the main contributors of starch to diets, are important in meeting the energy needs of dairy cattle. Barley is one example of grain that is extensively used around the world. Barley is grown in temperate to subarctic climates, and it is transported to those areas lacking the necessary amounts of grain. Although variations may occur, in general, barley is an excellent source of balanced amounts of protein, energy, and fiber.[35]

text: Ensuring adequate body fat reserves is essential for cattle to produce milk and also to keep reproductive efficiency. However, if cattle get excessively fat or too thin, they run the risk of developing metabolic problems and may have problems with calving.[36] Scientists have found that a variety of fat supplements can benefit conception rates of lactating dairy cows. Some of these different fats include oleic acids, found in canola oil, animal tallow, and yellow grease; palmitic acid found in granular fats and dry fats; and linolenic acids which are found in cottonseed, safflower, sunflower, and soybean.[37] It is also important to note that proper levels of fat also improve cattle longevity.

text: Using by-products is one way of reducing the normally high feed costs. However, lack of knowledge of their nutritional and economic value limits their use. Although the reduction of costs may be significant, they have to be used carefully because animal may have negative reactions to radical changes in feeds, (e.g. fog fever). Such a change must then be made slowly and with the proper follow up.[38]

text: Pesticide use[edit]

text: A survey of the primary dairy producing areas in the US indicated that 13 percent of lactating animals were treated with insecticides permethrin, pyrethrin, coumaphos, and dichlorvos primarily by daily or every-other-day coat sprays. Workers, particularly in stanchion barns, may be exposed to higher than recommended amounts of these pesticides.[39]

text: Breeds[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2014)

text: According to the Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, PDCA, there are 7 major dairy breeds in the United States. These are: Holstein, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Jersey, Red and White, and Milking Shorthorn.[40]

text: Holstein cows either have distinct white and black markings, or distinct red and white markings. Holstein cows are the biggest of all U.S. dairy breeds. A full mature Holstein cow usually weighs around 1,500 pounds (700 kg) and is 58 inches (147 cm) tall at the shoulder. They are known for their outstanding milk production among the main breeds of dairy cattle. An average Holstein cow produces around 23,000 pounds (10,000 kg) of milk each lactation. Of the 9 million dairy cows in the U.S., approximately 90% of them are of the Holstein descent.[41] The top breed of dairy cow within Canada's national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, have a production rate of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 lb) of milk per cow that contains 3.9% butter fat and 3.2% protein[4]

text: Brown Swiss cows are widely accepted as the oldest dairy cattle breed, originally coming from a part of northeastern Switzerland. Some experts think that the modern Brown Swiss skeleton is similar to one found that looks to be from around the year 4000 B.C. Also, there is evidence that monks started breeding these cows about 1000 years ago.[42]

text: The Ayrshire breed first originated in the County of Ayr in Scotland. It became regarded as a well established breed in 1812. The different breeds that were crossed to form the Ayrshire are not exactly known. However, there is evidence that several breeds were crossed with the native cattle to create the breed.[43]

text: Guernsey cows originated just off the coast of France on the small Isle of Guernsey. The breed was first known as a separate breed around 1700. Guernseys are known for their ability to produce very high quality milk from grass. Also, the term "Golden Guernsey" is very common as Guernsey cattle produce rich, yellow milk rather than the standard white milk other cow breeds produce.[44]

text: The Jersey breed of dairy cow originated on a small island located off the coast of France called Jersey.[45] Despite being one of the oldest breeds of dairy cattle they now only occupy 4% of the Canadian National Herd[46]. Purebred Jersey cows, according to available data, have been in the UK area since about the year 1741. When they were first bred in this area, they were not known as Jerseys, but rather as the related Alderneys. The period between 1860 and around 1914 was a popular time for Jerseys. In this time span, many countries other than the United States started importing this breed, including Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand, among others.[47] Among the smallest of the dairy breeds, the average Jersey cow matures at approximately 900 pounds (410 kg), with a typical weight range between 800 and 1,200 pounds (360–540 kg). According to North Dakota State University, the fat content of the Jersey cow's milk is 4.9 percent. It's also the highest in protein, at 3.8 percent.[48] This high fat content means the milk is often used for making ice cream and cheeses. According to the American Jersey Cattle Association, Jerseys are found on 20 percent of all US dairy farms and are the primary breed in about 4 percent of dairies.

text: Amongst the Bos indicus, the most popular dairy breed in the world is Sahiwal of the Indian subcontinent. It does not give as much milk as the Taurine breeds, but it is by far the most suitable breed for warmer climates. Australian Friesian Sahiwal and Australian Milking Zebu have been developed in Australia using Sahiwal genetics. Gir, another of the Bos Indicus breeds, has been improved in Brazil for its milk production and is widely used there for dairy.

text: Animal welfare[edit]

text: Animal welfare refers to both the physical and mental state of an animal, and how it is coping with its situation. An animal is considered in a good state of welfare if it is able to express its innate behaviour, comfortable, healthy, safe, well nourished, and is not suffering from negative states such as distress, fear and pain. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, and humane handling. If said animal is slaughtered then it is no longer "good animal welfare". [49]

text: Proper animal handling, or stockmanship, is crucial to dairy animals' welfare as well as the safety of their handlers. Improper handling techniques can stress cattle leading to impaired production and health, such as increased slipping injuries. Additionally, the majority of nonfatal worker injuries on a dairy farm are from interactions with cattle. Dairy animals are handled on a daily basis for a wide variety of purposes including health-related management practices and movement from freestalls to the milking parlor. Due to the prevalence of human-animal interactions on dairy farms, researchers, veterinarians, and farmers alike have focused on furthering our understanding of stockmanship and educating agriculture workers. Stockmanship is a complex concept that involves the timing, positioning, speed, direction of movement, and sounds and touch of the handler. A recent survey of Minnesota dairy farms revealed that 42.6% of workers learned stockmanship techniques from a family members, and 29.9% had participated in stockmanship training. However, as the growing U.S. dairy industry increasingly relies on an immigrant workforce, stockmanship training and education resources will become more pertinent. Clearly communicating and managing a large culturally diverse workforce brings new challenges such as language barriers and time limitations.[50] Organizations like the Upper Midwest Agriculture Safety and Health Center (UMASH) offer resources such as bilingual training videos, fact sheets, and informational posters for dairy worker training. Additionally the Beef Quality Assurance Program offer seminars, live demonstrations, and online resources for stockmanship training.

text: The practice of dairy production in a factory farm environment has been criticized by animal rights activists. Some of the ethical reasons regarding dairy production cited include how often the dairy cattle are impregnated, the separation of calves from their mothers, and the fact that the cows are considered "spent" and culled at a relatively young age, as well as environmental concerns regarding dairy production.

text: The production of milk requires that the cow be in lactation, which is a result of the cow having given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed by a "dry" period of about two months before calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry period that falls outside this time frames can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation.[51] Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised as steers for beef production or veal.

text: Animal rights groups such as Mercy for Animals also raise welfare concerns by citing undercover footage showing abusive practices at factory farms.[52]


document_title: Climate of Houston

question_text: when does it start warming up in houston

text: Climate of Houston

text: Seasonal observation[edit]

text:
[show]Climate data for Houston (Intercontinental Airport), 1981–2010 normals,[a] extremes 1888–present[b]

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
84
(29)
91
(33)
96
(36)
95
(35)
99
(37)
107
(42)
105
(41)
109
(43)
109
(43)
99
(37)
89
(32)
85
(29)
109
(43)

Mean maximum °F (°C)
78.4
(25.8)
80.8
(27.1)
84.8
(29.3)
88.9
(31.6)
93.6
(34.2)
97.0
(36.1)
98.4
(36.9)
100.4
(38)
96.9
(36.1)
91.8
(33.2)
85.0
(29.4)
80.0
(26.7)
101.0
(38.3)

Average high °F (°C)
62.9
(17.2)
66.3
(19.1)
73.0
(22.8)
79.6
(26.4)
86.3
(30.2)
91.4
(33)
93.7
(34.3)
94.5
(34.7)
89.7
(32.1)
82.0
(27.8)
72.5
(22.5)
64.3
(17.9)
79.7
(26.5)

Daily mean °F (°C)
53.1
(11.7)
56.4
(13.6)
62.7
(17.1)
69.5
(20.8)
76.9
(24.9)
82.4
(28)
84.4
(29.1)
84.6
(29.2)
79.8
(26.6)
71.5
(21.9)
62.3
(16.8)
54.4
(12.4)
69.9
(21.1)

Average low °F (°C)
43.2
(6.2)
46.5
(8.1)
52.5
(11.4)
59.4
(15.2)
67.6
(19.8)
73.5
(23.1)
75.1
(23.9)
74.8
(23.8)
69.8
(21)
60.9
(16.1)
52.1
(11.2)
44.6
(7)
60.0
(15.6)

Mean minimum °F (°C)
26.7
(−2.9)
29.5
(−1.4)
34.0
(1.1)
42.0
(5.6)
53.3
(11.8)
65.2
(18.4)
69.4
(20.8)
68.6
(20.3)
55.7
(13.2)
43.4
(6.3)
34.5
(1.4)
27.5
(−2.5)
23.5
(−4.7)

Record low °F (°C)
5
(−15)
6
(−14)
21
(−6)
31
(−1)
42
(6)
52
(11)
62
(17)
54
(12)
45
(7)
29
(−2)
19
(−7)
7
(−14)
5
(−15)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.38
(85.9)
3.20
(81.3)
3.41
(86.6)
3.31
(84.1)
5.09
(129.3)
5.93
(150.6)
3.79
(96.3)
3.76
(95.5)
4.12
(104.6)
5.70
(144.8)
4.34
(110.2)
3.74
(95)
49.77
(1,264.2)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
9.6
9.2
8.8
6.8
8.0
10.6
9.1
8.3
8.0
7.9
8.2
9.5
104.0

Average relative humidity (%)
74.7
73.4
72.7
73.1
75.0
74.6
74.4
75.1
76.8
75.4
76.0
75.5
74.7

Mean monthly sunshine hours
143.4
155.0
192.5
209.8
249.2
281.3
293.9
270.5
236.5
228.8
168.3
148.7
2,577.9

Percent possible sunshine
44
50
52
54
59
67
68
66
64
64
53
47
58

Source: NOAA (relative humidity 1969–1990, sun 1961–1990)[3][4][5]

text:
[show]Climate data for Houston (William P. Hobby Airport), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1941–present

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
85
(29)
87
(31)
96
(36)
94
(34)
100
(38)
105
(41)
104
(40)
106
(41)
108
(42)
96
(36)
90
(32)
84
(29)
108
(42)

Average high °F (°C)
63.0
(17.2)
66.0
(18.9)
72.4
(22.4)
78.8
(26)
85.4
(29.7)
90.1
(32.3)
92.1
(33.4)
92.6
(33.7)
88.4
(31.3)
81.2
(27.3)
72.4
(22.4)
64.5
(18.1)
78.9
(26.1)

Average low °F (°C)
45.1
(7.3)
48.5
(9.2)
54.3
(12.4)
60.9
(16.1)
68.7
(20.4)
73.9
(23.3)
75.5
(24.2)
75.7
(24.3)
71.7
(22.1)
63.1
(17.3)
53.9
(12.2)
46.7
(8.2)
61.5
(16.4)

Record low °F (°C)
10
(−12)
14
(−10)
22
(−6)
36
(2)
44
(7)
56
(13)
64
(18)
64
(18)
50
(10)
33
(1)
25
(−4)
9
(−13)
9
(−13)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.87
(98.3)
3.21
(81.5)
3.20
(81.3)
3.25
(82.6)
4.75
(120.7)
7.10
(180.3)
4.66
(118.4)
5.06
(128.5)
5.21
(132.3)
5.99
(152.1)
4.32
(109.7)
4.03
(102.4)
54.65
(1,388.1)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
9.2
9.0
8.0
7.1
7.3
9.9
9.1
9.8
9.1
7.6
8.5
9.1
103.7

Source: NOAA (sun 1961–1990)[3]

text: Summer[edit]

text: June through August in Houston is very hot and humid, often with scattered afternoon showers and thunderstorms. At George Bush Intercontinental Airport, the normal daily high temperature peaks at 95.0 °F (35.0 °C) on 5–12 August,[1] with a normal of 102.4 days per year at or above 90 °F (32 °C) and 3.5 days per year at or above 100 °F (38 °C).[1] The average relative humidity ranges from over 90 percent in the morning to around 60 percent in the afternoon.[6] Summer temperatures in Houston are very similar to average temperatures seen in tropical climates, such as in the Philippines and Central America.[7] The value of relative humidity results in a heat index higher than the actual temperature.[8] The highest temperature ever recorded at George Bush Intercontinental Airport was 109 °F (43 °C) on September 4, 2000[9] and on August 27, 2011.[10] On June 29, 2013, the temperature at George Bush Intercontinental Airport reached 107 °F (42 °C), the highest ever recorded in June.[11] Heat stroke can strike people who stay outdoors for long periods of time during the summer, making hydration essential for outdoor work and recreational activity.[12] The 2014 summer season did not yield 100+ degree weather in response to the monsoon-esque rainfall during late June to August during a period where the Pacific Coast off Central America was heating up which evolved into the 2014-16 El Nino event - this cycle one existed between 1971-76 during post-El Nino cycles.

text: Heat and humidity in Houston make air conditioning important in day-to-day life.[13] Most indoor workers spend the hottest part of the day in air conditioning. After World War II, air conditioning stimulated the growth of Houston, called the most air-conditioned city in the world in 1950.[14] For construction workers, landscapers, and others who must work outdoors, there is little relief from the summer heat and humidity. Industrial workers, automobile mechanics and others who usually work in non-air conditioned indoor spaces often rely on large electric fans to provide some relief.

text: Autumn[edit]

text: Autumn in Houston is warm, with temperatures averaging in the upper 60s to lower 80s °F (20-28 °C) during the day and in the 50s to lower 60s °F (10-17 °C) at night.[15] Cool fronts that move through the region during the fall can bring rain. Hurricanes can move into the area from the Gulf of Mexico, bringing heavy rains and high winds. However, most years see little or no significant hurricane activity. Flooding most frequently occurs in October and November.[16] Most of these flood events result from remnants of Eastern Pacific cyclones interacting with upper-level boundaries; October 2015 was the latest example of such an occurrence, wherein the remnants of Hurricane Patricia brought over 9 inches of rain to the city. [17] The latest hurricane to reach Texas was Hurricane Harvey in August 2017.

text: Winter[edit]

text: Winters in Houston are relatively mild and temperate compared to most areas of the United States, though Houston does get much colder than places like South Florida and South Texas. Houston is more prone to extreme variation in the winter months than cities like San Diego, California or Tampa, Florida. The average high in January, the coldest month, is 62.9 °F (17.2 °C) and the low 43.2 °F (6.2 °C), George Bush Intercontinental Airport sees an average of 9.6 days per year of freezing temperatures.[1] Cold fronts during the winter drop nighttime lows into the 30s but usually above freezing. The coldest weather of the season often includes a period about three weeks with temperatures in the low 30s to mid-40s at night. Hard freezes occur only uncommonly; however, George Bush Intercontinental Airport has recorded a freeze every winter since it opened in 1969. The coldest temperature ever recorded at George Bush Intercontinental Airport was 7 °F (−14 °C) on December 23, 1989. Elsewhere, the temperature in Houston dropped to 5 °F (−15 °C) on January 18, 1930.[18]

text: In December, southward-moving cold fronts [19] can bring cold rain, low wind chills, and, rarely, frozen precipitation. Early January is the coldest time of the year, with temperatures moderating slightly by February.

text: Spring[edit]

text: Spring comes with a gradual warm up from winter, lasting from March 20 through May. Temperatures are generally not hot yet, averaging from 75–82 °F (23.9–27.8 °C) in the day and 56–64 °F (13.3–17.8 °C) at night. Spring thunderstorms are common, often with spectacular lightning shows.[20] This rainfall prompts Houston's 10-month-long "growing season" to begin. April sees the return of many types of insects, including butterflies and mosquitoes, to Houston's warm climate.

text: Precipitation[edit]

text: Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation in Houston. The wettest month is June, with an average of 5.93 inches (151 mm) of rain.[1] Houston normally receives 49.77 inches (1,264 mm) of precipitation on 104.0 days annually.[1] The most precipitation to fall in one year was 83.02 inches (2,108.7 mm) which occurred in 1979. Houston has received less than 20 inches (510 mm) of rain only once: 17.66 inches in 1917.[21] Flash flood warnings are common all year, and due to the flat landscape, heavy rains often threaten life and property in the city. Sea breeze showers which are monsoon-like (especially during the summer months from a mesoscale convective cycle where the polar jet stream usually forms an omega block) are common throughout the Texas Gulf Coast area (from Brownsville to the Florida Peninsula) which has a similar climate to areas like Mumbai and Kolkata - locals refer to the sea breeze showers as the Gulf Coast Monsoon (also called the Gulf of Mexico or the Texas Monsoon), despite Houston being 50 feet above sea level. The sea breeze showers are also a contributor to the North American Monsoon.

text: Sleet, snow, and ice rarely occur during most winters. Hail can accumulate, but only in small quantities.

text: Extreme weather[edit]

text: Houston has occasional severe weather, mostly flooding. Hurricanes that have the potential to landfall bring severe damage to the area. Seven major hurricanes have hit the Galveston and Houston areas in the past 100 years. Four have done significant damage to Houston.

text: Hurricanes and tropical storms[edit]

text: Because Houston is on the Gulf of Mexico, the city has a small chance of being hit by hurricanes or tropical storms every hurricane season (June through November).

text: In 1837 the Racer's Storm passed just to the south of the town, raising water levels four feet.[22] The Great Hurricane of 1900 destroyed the nearby (and then much bigger) city of Galveston, which is situated on a barrier island 50 mi (80 km) southeast of downtown Houston. That hurricane weakened to a tropical storm by the time it reached Houston.[23] The periphery of Hurricane Carla hit the city in 1961, causing major damage to Houston. At the time of landfall, Carla was the most powerful tropical system to hit the Texas coast in over 40 years.[24] In 1983, the city was struck squarely by Hurricane Alicia, causing one billion dollars of damage to the city during a down period in the city's economy.

text: Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to 37 inches (940 mm) of rain on parts of the city over a five-day period in 2001, and was the most destructive and costly natural disaster in Houston history[25] prior to Hurricane Harvey. Area flooding was catastrophic and widespread. The storm completely overwhelmed the flood control system and caused 22 deaths in Houston and $6.05 billion (2006 USD) in damage. It is the only tropical storm in history to have its name retired.

text: Tropical Storm Erin made landfall in August 2007 with strong rains. A total of 9 inches (230 mm) of rain fell elsewhere than George Bush Intercontinental Airport on August 16, and many roads and neighborhoods were flooded. Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas, halted its light rail and bus services in view of the effects. Four deaths in the city were attributed to the storm. The Houston Fire Department reported 72 rescue operations.

text: Hurricane Ike made landfall near Galveston, Texas in September 2008. Although only a category 2 storm (out of 5), Ike brought moderate rain but high winds for an unusually long duration (upwards of nine hours). The roof of Reliant Stadium (home of the Houston Texans NFL team) was damaged and windows were blown out of several high-rise buildings in downtown Houston. Storm surge affected areas around Galveston Bay, stripping some coastal islands of homes. Devastated Galveston Island much resembled a war zone. Authorities prohibited non-emergency access to the island for many weeks. Hurricane Ike left ninety percent of people in the Houston Area without power.[26] Never before had the city experienced such widespread or long-term power outage: no air conditioning, no refrigeration, no lights, and no phones. Day-to-day business slowed immensely. Area grocery stores were stripped bare and sold water and ice for cash by flashlight. Trucks from around the country brought in emergency supplies, especially water and ice. Most of the city was without power for a week — some for 2 to 3 weeks.

text: Hurricane Harvey made landfall in Rockport, Texas on August 25, 2017. By August 30, Houston was flooded due to heavy rainfall from the hurricane.[27][28][29]

text: Flooding[edit]

text: Flooding is a recurring problem in Houston. It is especially severe in low-lying areas on the far east end of town along the San Jacinto River. The flat wetlands and paved-over coastal prairie around Houston drain slowly and easily flood. The area is drained by a network of bayous (small, slow-moving rivers, often dredged and enlarged to increase volume) and man-made drainage ditches, which are usually dry most of the year. In fall, cool fronts bring in rainstorms and flooding is not uncommon. This might flood certain low-lying intersections, but doesn't generally affect citizens or the business of the city. However, occasionally very heavy thunderstorms dump so much water on the city that widespread congestion and even property damage in low-lying areas result. Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 was so severe that many parts of town that had never flooded before were flooded seriously. Interstate 10 near downtown, which is below grade, was covered by over 10 ft (3.0 m) of water. Another storm happened in June 2015 (Tropical Storm Bill) that had a similar impact on Houston, causing several highways to be closed due to the bayou overflowing; this event followed flooding from May 24-26. Another similar storm in April 2016 resulted in widespread, severe flooding across Houston and surrounding suburbs in an event later known as the "Tax Day Floods". On August 25, 2017, Hurricane Harvey flooded Houston causing severe widespread damage and at least 14 deaths.

text: Tornadoes[edit]

text: Unlike Dallas, Houston is not in Tornado Alley, however smaller tornadoes can occur during severe weather. They are most likely to be found along frontal boundaries of an air mass during the spring months. Tornadoes in Houston usually measure a weak F1 on the older Fujita scale and cause light to moderate damage to well-constructed buildings. The strongest recorded tornado in Houston history was an F4 on November 21, 1992, part of a large outbreak of tornadoes in Harris County.[30]

text: Winter storms[edit]

text: There are usually a few days of freezing (<32 °F (0 °C)) temperatures each year, though the average low in January, the coldest month, is still only 43 °F (6 °C) or 24 °F (−4 °C).

text: Snow falls infrequently in the Magnolia City. When it does occur, it almost invariably melts immediately on the ground with light accumulation on roofs and raised surfaces. Since 1895, it has snowed 38 times in Houston at an average of about once every 10 years, though some decades have several instances of recorded snowfall while others have only one each (e.g., the 1930s and 1950s). The last recorded snowfall in Houston was on January 16, 2018.[31] There were more incidences of snow in the 1980s on average than any other decade recorded, but the 2000s also witnessed more frequent and record-breaking snows.

text:
February 14–February 15, 1895: 20 inches (51 cm) of snow, its largest snowfall from one storm on record.[32]
February 12, 1960: 4.4 inches (11 cm) of snow.[33]
January 11, 1973: 2.0 inches (5.1 cm) of snow.
December 22, 1989: 1.7 inches (4.3 cm) of snow with a record low of 7 °F (−14 °C) on December 23.[34]

text:
December 10, 2008: Tied the earliest snowfall record.[35]
December 4, 2009: Broke the earliest snowfall record.
December 7, 2017: 0.7 inches (2 cm) of snow.

text: The December 21–24, 2004 North American winter storm brought a white Christmas to the region. The average has the lowest recorded temperature for that month, 24 °F (−4 °C).

text: The 2004 Christmas Eve snowstorm brought a never-before-seen white Christmas to the region. Average annual snowfall is very, very little above zero, being less than the measurable amount of 0.1 inches (2.5 mm). In descending order of frequency, the most snow has fallen in January, followed by February, December, and finally a single occurrence on March 10, 1932,[37] which was also the lowest recorded temperature for that month, 22 °F (−6 °C).[38]

text: Occurrences of freezing rain, also known as ice storms, are slightly less rare than snow in Houston. Some of the most recent ice storms occurred in 1997, 2007, February 4, 2011, and January 16, 2018. An overnight event occurred from January 23, 2014 to January 24, another significant icing occurred a few days later on January 28, and a third event took place on March 4. These storms can be very disruptive since road crews are not equipped to handle such rare events over the city's expansive size.[39] When ice occurs, roads and schools are usually closed.[40][41] The city's Office of Emergency Management encourages driver's to "avoid driving unless absolutely necessary... if roadways are at risk of icing."[42] Typically, such ice storms affect mainly the northern/western areas of the metro, while the southern/eastern areas are left with just cold rain.[43]The ice storm that occurred on January 16, 2018 started as cold rain for several hours before changing to wintry mix and then eventually sleet and snow, Temps started in the low-mid 30's and quickly dropped to the 20's in the afternoon and then the teens by the evening/overnight hours which caused all the rain to turn to ice and thickness up to 1' on some roads, bridges and overpasses making it one of the worst winter storms in history.

text: El Niño[edit]

text: During El Niño, Houston winters are cooler and wetter than normal due to a stronger southern jet stream. Increased clouds during El Nino winters are what keep the temperatures from warming up. La Niña is where the jet stream is further north resulting in a warmer and drier winter. The chance of damage from tropical storms and hurricanes also goes up during La Niña events due to decreased Atlantic wind shear. Post-El Niño weather during the spring usually result in increased rainfall, as demonstrated with the Memorial Day 2015 and Tax Day/Memorial Day/early June 2016 flood events where the Houston Metro area (and the rest of the state) experienced a climate similar to the South Asian summer monsoon (in this case with the state of Texas where a stalled low pressure system [usually from an upper level low from the northeast Pacific Ocean which migrates east where the northern polar jet stream form the usual omega blocks] originates over the Four Corners region or the Sierra Madre Occidental/Sierra Madre Oriental mountain ranges in northern Mexico).

text: Environmental issues[edit]

text: Houston has had a troubled past with pollution of many types. This is due to the fact that Houston has been the home for the oil and gas industry since its inception in the early 1900s when there was little environmental regulation. Harris County, where the bulk of the city has been historically located, is home to 15 Environmental Protection Agency Superfund sites, more than any other area in Texas. The list contains numerous companies, streets and waterways that have been considered hazardous to humans in various ways.[44]

text: Air pollution[edit]

text: Houston is well known for its oil and petrochemical industries, which are leading contributors to the city's economy. The industries located along the ship channel,[45] coupled with a growing population, have caused a considerable increase in air pollution for the city each year. Houston has excessive ozone levels and is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States.[46] Ground-level ozone, or smog, is Houston's predominant air pollution problem. In 2011, Houston was ranked as the 17th most polluted city in the US, according to the American Lung Association.[47] A 2007 assessment found the following twelve air pollutants to be definite risks to health in Houston:[48]

text:
ozone - respiratory and cardiovascular effects
particulates less than 2.5 μm in diameter (PM2.5) - respiratory and cardiopulmonary effects
diesel particulate matter (DPM) - cancer
1,3-butadiene - cancer and reproductive effects
hexavalent chromium - cancer
benzene - cancer
ethylene dibromide - cancer
acrylonitrile - cancer
formaldehyde - cancer and respiratory effects
acrolein - respiratory effects
chlorine - respiratory effects
hexamethylene diisocyanate - pulmonary and respiratory effects

text: The State of Texas concluded that, since 2000, the Manchester neighborhood in eastern Houston had the highest annual averages of 1,3-Butadiene of any area in Texas.[49] Houston's air quality has often been compared to Los Angeles and Beijing.[45]

text: Houston has introduced many programs since the 2000 federal order to reduce air pollution in the city.[citation needed] The most notable project was the METRORail light rail system constructed in 2004. The light rail system was designed to encourage Houstonians to utilize public transportation instead of their automobiles. To date it has had limited success and been a source of controversy and cost overruns.

text: Water pollution[edit]

text: Houston has also seen recent improvements to the city's waterways. The banks of Buffalo Bayou have been cleaned of garbage and have been turned into jogging trails and parks. Since the mid-1990s, Houston has seen a great increase in wildlife along the bayou due to many successful cleaning attempts.[50] The Port of Houston has not seen any major cleaning attempts.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1981 to 2010.
Jump up ^ Official records for Houston were kept at the Weather Bureau in downtown from July 1888 to May 1969, and at Intercontinental since June 1969.[2]

tag: ol


document_title: Gull

question_text: where do canadian seagulls go in the winter

text: Gull

text: Description and morphology

text: Gulls range in size from the little gull, at 120 g (4.2 oz) and 29 cm (11 in), to the great black-backed gull, at 1.75 kg (3.9 lb) and 76 cm (30 in). They are generally uniform in shape, with heavy bodies, long wings, and moderately long necks. The tails of all but three species are rounded; the exceptions being Sabine's gull and swallow-tailed gulls, which have forked tails, and Ross's gull, which has a wedge-shaped tail. Gulls have moderately long legs, especially when compared to the similar terns, with fully webbed feet. The bill is generally heavy and slightly hooked, with the larger species having stouter bills than the smaller species. The bill colour is often yellow with a red spot for the larger white-headed species and red, dark red or black in the smaller species.[13]

text: The gulls are generalist feeders. Indeed, they are the least specialised of all the seabirds, and their morphology allows for equal adeptness in swimming, flying, and walking. They are more adept walking on land than most other seabirds, and the smaller gulls tend to be more manoeuvrable while walking. The walking gait of gulls includes a slight side to side motion, something that can be exaggerated in breeding displays. In the air, they are able to hover and they are also able to take off quickly with little space.[13]

text: The general pattern of plumage in adult gulls is a white body with a darker mantle; the extent to which the mantle is darker varies from pale grey to black. A few species vary in this, the ivory gull is entirely white, and some like the lava gull and Heermann's gull have partly or entirely grey bodies. The wingtips of most species are black, which improves their resistance to wear and tear, usually with a diagnostic pattern of white markings. The head of a gull may be covered by a dark hood or be entirely white. The plumage of the head varies by breeding season; in nonbreeding dark-hooded gulls, the hood is lost, sometimes leaving a single spot behind the eye, and in white-headed gulls, nonbreeding heads may have streaking.[13]

text: Distribution and habitat

text: The gulls have a worldwide cosmopolitan distribution. They breed on every continent, including the margins of Antarctica, and are found in the high Arctic, as well. They are less common on tropical islands, although a few species do live on islands such as the Galapagos and New Caledonia. Many species breed in coastal colonies, with a preference for islands, and one species, the grey gull, breeds in the interior of dry deserts far from water. Considerable variety exists in the family and species may breed and feed in marine, freshwater, or terrestrial habitats.[13]

text: Most gull species are migratory, with birds moving to warmer habitats during the winter, but the extent to which they migrate varies by species. Some migrate long distances, like Franklin's gull, which migrates from Canada to wintering grounds in the south of South America. Other species move much shorter distances and may simply disperse along the coasts near their breeding sites.[13]

text: Behaviour

text: Diet and feeding

text: Charadriiform birds drink salt water, as well as fresh water, as they possess exocrine glands located in supraorbital grooves of the skull by which salt can be excreted through the nostrils to assist the kidneys in maintaining electrolyte balance.[14]

text: Gulls are highly adaptable feeders that opportunistically take a wide range of prey. The food taken by gulls includes fish and marine and freshwater invertebrates, both alive and already dead, terrestrial arthropods and invertebrates such as insects and earthworms, rodents, eggs, carrion, offal, reptiles, amphibians, plant items such as seeds and fruit, human refuse, chips, and even other birds. No gull species is a single-prey specialist, and no gull species forages using only a single method. The type of food depends on circumstances, and terrestrial prey such as seeds, fruit, and earthworms are more common during the breeding season while marine prey is more common in the nonbreeding season when birds spend more time on large bodies of water.[13]

text: In addition to taking a wide range prey, gulls display great versatility in how they obtain prey. Prey can be obtained in the air, on water, or on land. In the air, a number of hooded species are able to hawk insects on the wing; larger species perform this feat more rarely. Gulls on the wing also snatch items both off water and off the ground, and over water they also plunge-dive to catch prey. Again, smaller species are more manoeuvrable and better able to hover-dip fish from the air. Dipping is also common when birds are sitting on the water, and gulls may swim in tight circles or foot paddle to bring marine invertebrates up to the surface. Food is also obtained by searching the ground, often on the shore among sand, mud or rocks. Larger gulls tend to do more feeding in this way. In shallow water gulls may also engage in foot paddling. A method of obtaining prey unique to gulls involves dropping heavy shells of clams and mussels onto hard surfaces.[13] Gulls may fly some distance to find a suitable surface on which to drop shells, and apparently a learned component to the task exists, as older birds are more successful than younger ones.[15] While overall feeding success is a function of age, the diversity in both prey and feeding methods is not. The time taken to learn foraging skills may explain the delayed maturation in gulls.[13]

text: Gulls have only a limited ability to dive below the water to feed on deeper prey. To obtain prey from deeper down, many species of gulls feed in association with other animals, where marine hunters drive prey to the surface when hunting.[13] Examples of such associations include four species of gulls feeding around plumes of mud brought to the surface by feeding grey whales,[16] and also between orcas (largest dolphin species) and kelp gulls (and other seabirds).[17]

text: Breeding

text: Gulls are monogamous and colonial breeders that display mate fidelity that usually lasts for the life of the pair. Divorce of mated pairs does occur, but it apparently has a social cost that persists for a number of years after the break-up. Gulls also display high levels of site fidelity, returning to the same colony after breeding there once and even usually breeding in the same location within that colony. Colonies can vary from just a few pairs to over a hundred thousand pairs, and may be exclusive to that gull species or shared with other seabird species. A few species nest singly, and single pairs of band-tailed gulls may breed in colonies of other birds. Within colonies, gull pairs are territorial, defending an area of varying size around the nesting site from others of their species. This area can be as large as a 5-m radius around the nest in the herring gull to just a tiny area of cliff ledge in the kittiwakes.[13]

text: Most gulls breed once a year and have predictable breeding seasons lasting for three to five months. Gulls begin to assemble around the colony for a few weeks prior to occupying the colony. Existing pairs re-establish their pair-bonds, and unpaired birds begin courting. Birds then move back into their territories and new males establish new territories and attempt to court females. Gulls defend their territories from rivals of both sexes through calls and aerial attacks.[13]

text: Nest building is also part of the pair-bonding. Gull nests are usually mats of herbaceous matter with a central nest cup. Nests are usually built on the ground, but a few species build nests on cliffs, including the kittiwakes, which almost always nest in such habitats, and in some cases in trees, and high places like Bonaparte's gulls. Species that nest in marshes must construct a nesting platform to keep the nest dry, particularly in species that nest in tidal marshes. Both sexes gather nesting material and build the nest, but the division of labour is not always exactly equal.[13] In coastal towns, many gulls nest on rooftops and can be observed by nearby human residents.

text: Clutch size is typically three eggs, although it is two in some of the smaller species and only one egg for the swallow-tailed gull. Within colonies, birds synchronise their laying, with synchronisation being higher in larger colonies, although after a certain point, this levels off. The eggs of gulls are usually dark tan to brown or dark olive with dark splotches and scrawl markings, and are well camouflaged. Both sexes incubate the eggs, with incubation bouts lasting between one and four hours during the day and one parent incubating through the night.[13] Research on various bird species including the gull suggests that females form pair bonds with other females to obtain alloparental care for their dependent offspring, a behavior seen in other animal species, like the elephants, wolves, and the fathead minnow.[18]

text: Incubation lasts between 22 and 26 days, and begins after laying the first egg, although it is discontinuous until the second egg is laid. This means the first two chicks are born close together, and the third chick some time later. Young chicks are brooded by their parents for about one or two weeks, and often at least one parent remains with them, until they fledge, to guard them. Both parents feed the chicks, although early on in the rearing period, the male does most of the feeding and the female most of the brooding and guarding.[13]

text: Taxonomy

text: The family Laridae was introduced (as Laridia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815.[19][20] The taxonomy of gulls is confused by their widespread distribution zones of hybridization leading to geneflow. Some have traditionally been considered ring species, but recent evidence suggests that this assumption is questionable.[21] Until recently, most gulls were placed in the genus Larus, but this arrangement is now known to be polyphyletic, leading to the resurrection of the genera Ichthyaetus, Chroicocephalus, Leucophaeus, Saundersilarus, and Hydrocoloeus.[1] Some English names refer to species complexes within the group:

text:
Large white-headed gull is used to describe the 18 or so herring gull-like species from California gull to lesser black-backed gull in the taxonomic list below.
White-winged gull is used to describe the four pale-winged, high Arctic-breeding taxa within the former group; these are Iceland gull, glaucous gull, Thayer's gull, and Kumlien's gull.

text: Hybridisation between species of gull occurs quite frequently, although to varying degrees depending on the species involved. The taxonomy of the large white-headed gulls is particularly complicated.

text: In common usage, members of various gull species are often referred to as sea gulls or seagulls; however, "seagull" is a layperson's term that is not used by most ornithologists and biologists. This name is used informally to refer to a common local species or all gulls in general, and has no fixed taxonomic meaning.[citation needed] In common usage, gull-like seabirds that are not technically gulls (e.g. albatrosses, fulmars, terns, and skuas) may also be referred to as seagulls by the layperson.

text: The American Ornithologists' Union combines the Sternidae, Stercorariidae, and Rhynchopidae as subfamilies in the family Laridae, but recent research[22][23][24] indicates this is incorrect.

text: List of species

text: This is a list of gull species, presented in taxonomic sequence.

text: Genus Larus

text:
Pacific gull, Larus pacificus
Belcher's gull, Larus belcheri
Olrog's gull, Larus atlanticus
Black-tailed gull, Larus crassirostris
Heermann's gull, Larus heermanni
Common gull or mew gull, Larus canus
Ring-billed gull, Larus delawarensis
California gull, Larus californicus
Great black-backed gull, Larus marinus
Kelp gull, Larus dominicanus (called "southern black-backed gull" or "karoro" in New Zealand)
Cape gull, Larus dominicanus vetula
Glaucous-winged gull, Larus glaucescens
Western gull, Larus occidentalis
Yellow-footed gull, Larus livens
Glaucous gull, Larus hyperboreus
Iceland gull, Larus glaucoides
Kumlien's gull, Larus glaucoides kumlieni
Thayer's gull, Larus thayeri
European herring gull, Larus argentatus
American herring gull, Larus smithsonianus
Caspian gull, Larus cachinnans
Yellow-legged gull, Larus michahellis
East Siberian herring gull, Larus vegae
Armenian gull, Larus armenicus
Slaty-backed gull, Larus schistisagus
Lesser black-backed gull, Larus fuscus
Heuglin's gull, Larus (fuscus) heuglini

text: Genus Ichthyaetus

text:
White-eyed gull, Ichthyaetus leucophthalmus
Sooty gull, Ichthyaetus hemprichii
Great black-headed gull or Pallas's gull, Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus
Audouin's gull, Ichthyaetus audouinii
Mediterranean gull, Ichthyaetus melanocephalus
Relict gull, Ichthyaetus relictus

text: Genus Leucophaeus

text:
Dolphin gull, Leucophaeus scoresbii
Laughing gull, Leucophaeus atricilla
Franklin's gull, Leucophaeus pipixcan
Lava gull, Leucophaeus fuliginosus
Gray gull, Leucophaeus modestus

text: Genus Chroicocephalus

text:
Silver gull, Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae
Red-billed gull, Chroicocephalus scopulinus
Hartlaub's gull, Chroicocephalus hartlaubii
Brown-hooded gull, Chroicocephalus maculipennis
Gray-headed gull, Chroicocephalus cirrocephalus
Andean gull, Chroicocephalus serranus
Black-billed gull, Chroicocephalus bulleri
Brown-headed gull, Chroicocephalus brunnicephalus
Black-headed gull, Chroicocephalus ridibundus
Slender-billed gull, Chroicocephalus genei
Bonaparte's gull, Chroicocephalus philadelphia
Saunders's gull, Chroicocephalus saundersi

text: Genus Hydrocoloeus (may include Rhodostethia)

text: Little gull, Hydrocoloeus minutus

text: Genus Rhodostethia

text: Ross's gull, Rhodostethia rosea

text: Genus Rissa

text:
Black-legged kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla
Red-legged kittiwake, Rissa brevirostris

text: Genus Pagophila

text: Ivory gull, Pagophila eburnea

text: Genus Xema

text: Sabine's gull, Xema sabini

text: Genus Creagrus

text: Swallow-tailed gull, Creagrus furcatus

text: Evolution

text: The Laridae are known from not-yet-published fossil evidence since the Early Oligocene, some 30–33 million years ago. Three gull-like species were described by Alphonse Milne-Edwards from the early Miocene of Saint-Gérand-le-Puy, France. A fossil gull from the Middle to Late Miocene of Cherry County, Nebraska, USA is placed in the prehistoric genus Gaviota;[25] apart from this and the undescribed Early Oligocene fossil, all prehistoric species were tentatively assigned to the modern genus Larus. Among those of them that have been confirmed as gulls, Milne-Edwards' "Larus" elegans and "L." totanoides from the Late Oligocene/Early Miocene of southeast France have since been separated in Laricola.[26]