document_title: Government of Karnataka

question_text: how many departments are there in karnataka government

text: Government of Karnataka

text: Administrative divisions[edit]

text:
Karnataka State has been divided into four revenue divisions, 49 sub-divisions, 30 districts, 176 taluks and 747 hoblies/revenue circles and 5628 gram panchayats for administrative purposes.[1]
The state has 281 towns and 7 municipal corporations. Bangalore is the fifth largest urban agglomeration out of 23 metropolis, urban agglomerations and cities in India. It is among the fastest growing cities in the world.

text: Political and administrative reorganisation[edit]

text: Karnataka took its present shape in 1956, when the states of Mysore and Coorg (Kodagu) were merged with the Kannada-speaking districts of the former states of Bombay and Hyderabad, and Madras. Mysore state was made up of 10 districts: Bangalore, Kolar, Tumkur, Mandya, Mysore, Hassan, Chikmagalur (Kadur), Shimoga and Chitradurga; Bellary had been transferred from Madras state to Mysore in 1953, when the new Andhra State was created out of Madras' northern districts. Kodagu became a district, and Dakshina Kannada (South Kanara) district was transferred from Madras state, Uttara Kannada (North Kanara), Dharwad, Belgaum District, and  Bijapur District from Bombay state, and Bidar District, Kalaburgi District, and Raichur District from Hyderabad state.

text: In 1989, Bangalore rural district was split from Bangalore and, in 1997, Bagalkot district split from Vijayapur, Chamrajnagar district split from Mysore, Gadag district split from Dharwad, Haveri district split from Dharwad, Koppal district split from Raichur, Udupi district split from Dakshina Kannada, and Davanagere district was created from parts of Bellary, Chitradurga, Dharwad, and Shimoga.

text: Legislature[edit]

text: The state legislature is bicameral and consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. The Legislative Assembly consists of 224 members with one member nominated by the governor to represent the Anglo-Indian community. The term of office of the members is five years and the term of a member elected to the council is six years.[2] The Legislative Council is a permanent body with one-third of its members retiring every two years.[3]

text: Ministry[edit]

text: The government is headed by the governor who appoints the chief minister and his council of ministers. The governor is appointed for five years and acts as the constitutional head of the state. Even though the governor remains the ceremonial head of the state, the day-to-day running of the government is taken care of by the chief minister and his council of ministers in whom a great deal of legislative powers is vested..

text: The secretariat headed by the secretary to the governor assists the council of ministers. The council of ministers consists of cabinet ministers, ministers of state and deputy ministers. The chief minister is assisted by the chief secretary, who is the head of the administrative services.

text: As of June 2018, the Government of Karnataka consists of 27 ministers including Chief Minister and a Deputy Chief Minister.

text: Chief Minister[edit]

text:
The present Chief Minister of Karnataka is H. D. Kumaraswamy
(List of Chief Ministers of Karnataka)

text: Cabinet[edit]

text:
Designation/Portfolio

Minister

Chief minister (including portfolios like Finance, Energy, Textiles, Cabinet Affairs, Personnel and Administrative Reforms, Intelligence Wing, Planning and Statistics, Small Scale Industries and Sugar, and other portfolios not allocated to or vacated by any ministers)

H. D. Kumaraswamy

Deputy Chief Minister (Home, Bangalore City Development)

G. Parameshwara

Public Works Department excluding Ports & Inland Transport

H. D. Revanna

Revenue excluding Muzrai, Skill Development and Entrepreneurship

R. V. Deshpande

Co-operation

Bandeppa Kashempur

Medium and Major Irrigation and Medical Education

D. K. Shivakumar

Forest, Ecology & Environment Department

Ramesh Jarkiholi

Transport

D. C. Thammanna

Large & Medium Scale Industries, IT and BT, Science and Technology

K. J. George

Higher Education

GT Devegowda

Horticulture and
Agricultural marketing

Srinivas

Rural Development and Panchayat Raj, Parliamentary Affairs, Law, Justice and Human Rights

Krishna Byregowda

Social Welfare (excluding Minority Welfare), Backward Classes

Priyank M. Kharge

Municipalities & local bodies, Public Enterprises

Ramesh Jarkiholi

Urban development (excluding Bangalore), City Corporations (excluding BBMP), Urban Land Transport, KUWSDB & KUIDFC, Housing

U. T. Khader

Health and Family Welfare (excluding Medical Education)

Shivanand Patil

Labour

Venkataramanappa

Primary and Secondary Education,

N. Mahesh

Mujarayi

Rajashekar Patil

Food and Civil Supplies, Consumer Affairs, Haj Information and Wakf

Zameer Ahmed Khan

Women & Child Welfare and Kannada & Culture

Jayamala

Minor Irrigation,

C. S. Puttaraju

Fisheries and Youth services & Sports

Venkataramanappa

Agriculture

N. H. Shivashankar Reddy

Mines and Geology

Rajshekhar Baswaraj Patil

Animal Husbandry, Sericulture

Venkatarao Nadagowda

text: Karnataka Panchayat Raj[edit]

text: (Rule of Village Committee) is a three-tier system in the state with elected bodies at the village, taluk and district levels. It ensures greater participation of people and more effective implementation of rural development programmes. There will be a Grama Panchayat for a village or group of villages, a taluk level and the Zilla Panchayat at the district level.

text:
All the three institutions will have elected representatives and there is no provision for nomination by the government to any of these councils. s the first in the country to enact new Panchayat Raj Act incorporating all provisions of 73rd Amendment to the Constitution.
In 2014 Karantaka State Grama Panchayats Delimitation committee constituted By govt. of Karnataka. Chairmen S G Nanjaiahna mutt and 6 members. joint secretory of the committee Dr.Revaiah Odeyar. Report Submitted 2014 October 30. This report implemented 2015 Gram Panchayath Elections.

text: Executive[edit]

text: A district of an Indian state is an administrat, headed by a deputy commissioner or district magistrate, an officer belonging to the Indian Administrative Service. The district magistrate or the deputy commissioner is assisted by a number of officers belonging to Karnataka Civil Service and other Karnataka state services.

text: A Deputy Commissioner of Police, an officer belonging to the Indian Police Service is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues of the district. The commissioner is assisted by the officers of the Karnataka Police Service and other Karnataka Police officials. A Deputy Conservator of Forests, an officer belonging to the Indian Forest Service, is responsible for managing the forests, environment and wildlife related issues of the district. He is assisted by the officers of the Karnataka Forest Service and other Karnataka forest and wildlife officials. Sectoral development is looked after by the district head of each development department such as PWD, Health, Education, Agriculture, Animal husbandry, etc. These officers belong to the State Services.

text: Police Administration[edit]

text: The state is divided into 20 police districts, 77 sub-divisions, 178 circles, State Police consists of 20 police districts, 5 Police Commissioners at Bangalore, Mysore, Mangalore, belgaum and Hubli-Dharwad cities, 77 sub-divisions, 178 circles, 696 police stations, and 317 police outposts. There are six ranges: Central Range at Bangalore, Eastern Range at Davanagere, Northern Range at Gulbarga, Southern Range at Mysore and Western Range at Mangalore. The government Railway Police is headed by a D.I.G. of Police.[4]

text: Units that assist the state in law and order include Criminal Investigation Department (Forest Cell, Anti-Dowry Cell, etc.), Dog Squad, Civil Rights Enforcement Wing, Police Wireless and Police Motor Transport Organization and special units. Village Defence Parties protect persons and property in the village and assist the police when necessary. The police force is at times supplemented by Home Guards.

text: Politics[edit]

text: Karnataka politics is dominated by the Indian National Congress (INC), Janata Dal (Secular) (JDS) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).

text: Current politics of Karnataka has roots in 2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly elections. It saw unstable coalition governments of JDS and Congress, JDS and BJP during 2004 to 2007 period. The Karnataka Government for an initial term of 20 months was led by N. Dharam Singh then by  H. D. Kumaraswamy of JDS and the post was supposed to subsequently be transferred to BJP's B. S. Yeddyurappa with JDS and BJP making 20-20 agreement to topple Congress government in 2006. A political fall out, due to the failure in transfer of power to Yeddyurappa broke the coalition. The state was then under President's rule until the elections in May 2008. As a result of the BJP victory in those elections B. S. Yeddyurappa became chief minister of Karnataka opening southern gateway to BJP for the first time. But he resigned on 31 July 2011, following his indictment by the Karnataka Lokayukta in illegal iron ore export scam.  D. V. Sadananda Gowda was sworn in as the 26th chief minister of the state on 4 August 2011. Sadananda Gowda resigned in 2012. Jagadish Shettar replaced him as new chief minister of Karnataka and administered until general assembly elections May 2013. The assembly elections held to choose new assembly in May 2013 and INC got a clear majority with winning 121 of 224 seats in the assembly of Karnataka. Siddaramaiah was sworn in as the new chief minister of Karnataka. In recent election conducted in May 2018 BJP emerged as single largest party with 104 seats leaving behind INC with 79 , JDS with 38 and others 2. B. S. Yeddyurappa took oath as Chief Minister on 17th May 2018 and he could not prove the majority. After his resignation current Chief Minister Shri. H. D. Kumaraswamy was sworn in on 23rd May 2018.

text: Elections[edit]

text: Last assembly elections: Karnataka Legislative Assembly election, 2018

text: LNG Terminal in Karawar, Karnataka (India)[edit]

text: Asia's Biggest LNG Terminal in Karawar, Karnataka (India). MOU Between Fox Petroleum and Govt of Karnataka worth $1,038 Million USD has been signed between Ajay Kumar and Minister of Industry - Government of Karnataka (India Govt).

text: Asia’s largest FSRU planned for Karnataka[edit]

text: NEW DELHI, January 6, 2017 – Fox Petroleum has signed a deal with Hyundai Heavy Industries for the construction of a floating storage and regasification unit (FSRU).

text: The USD 560-million contract will see Hyundai construct Asia’s biggest FSRU, with a processing capacity of 28.3 mcm (1 bcf). It is expected to be completed by late 2018, after which it will moored n 40 metres of water

text:
The vessel is intended to serve Fox’s USD 1.05-billion Karnataka LNG development in southwest India. A memorandum of understanding was signed with the state government in April 2016 for the project, which includes 330,000 square metres of storage capacity and an LNG plant at Karawar in Karnataka. The mix of facilities is expected to create around 3,000 jobs, 90% of which are intended for local workers.
Among the other entities vying for the FSRU contract were Samsung, Excelerate and Exmar.


document_title: Path dependence

question_text: what is the definition of a social path

question_tokens: what is the definition of a social path

root

text: Path dependence

text: Illustration[edit]

text: The videotape format war is an example. Three mechanisms independent of product quality could explain how VHS achieved dominance over Betamax from a negligible early adoption lead:

tag: p

text:
A network effect: videocassette rental stores observed more VHS rentals and stocked up on VHS tapes, leading renters to buy VHS players and rent more VHS tapes, until there was complete vendor lock-in.
A VCR manufacturer bandwagon effect of switching to VHS-production because they expected it to win the standards battle.
Sony, the original developer of Betamax, was not very interested in supporting the pornographic video industry, which made nearly all pornographic motion pictures released on video to use VHS format.

tag: ul

text: (An alternative analysis is that VHS was better-adapted to market demands (e.g. having a longer recording time). In this interpretation, path dependence had little to do with VHS's success, which would have occurred even if Betamax had established an early lead.[5])

text: Positive feedback mechanisms, like bandwagon and network effects, are at the origin of path dependence.[citation needed] They lead to a reinforcing pattern, in which industries 'tip' towards one or another product design. Uncoordinated standardisation can be observed in many other situations.

text: Economics[edit]

text: Path dependence theory was originally developed by economists to explain technology adoption processes and industry evolution. The theoretical ideas have had a strong influence on evolutionary economics.[6]

text: There are many models and empirical cases where economic processes do not progress steadily toward some pre-determined and unique equilibrium, but rather the nature of any equilibrium achieved depends partly on the process of getting there. Therefore, the outcome of a path-dependent process will often not converge towards a unique equilibrium, but will instead reach one of several equilibria (sometimes known as absorbing states).

text: This dynamic vision of economic evolution is very different from the tradition of neo-classical economics, which in its simplest form assumed that only a single outcome could possibly be reached, regardless of initial conditions or transitory events. With path dependence, both the starting point and 'accidental' events (noise) can have significant effects on the ultimate outcome. In each of the following examples it is possible to identify some random events that disrupted the ongoing course, with irreversible consequences:

text:
In economic development, it is said (initially by Paul David in 1985)[7] that a standard that is first-to-market can become entrenched (like the QWERTY layout in typewriters still used in computer keyboards). He called this "path dependence",[8] and said that inferior standards can persist simply because of the legacy they have built up. That QWERTY vs. Dvorak is an example of this phenomenon, has been re-asserted,[9] questioned,[10] and continues to be argued.[11] Economic debate continues on the significance of path dependence in determining how standards form.[12]
Economists from Adam Smith to Paul Krugman have noted that similar businesses tend to congregate geographically ("agglomerate"); opening near-similar companies attracts workers with skills in that business, which draws in more businesses seeking experienced employees. There may have been no reason to prefer one place to another before the industry developed, but as it concentrates geographically, participants elsewhere are at a disadvantage, and will tend to move into the hub, further increasing its relative efficiency. This network effect follows a statistical power law in the idealized case,[13] though negative feedback can occur (through rising local costs).[14]
Buyers often cluster around sellers, and related businesses frequently form business clusters, so a concentration of producers (initially formed by accident and agglomeration) can trigger the emergence of many dependent businesses in the same region.[15]
In the 1980s, the US dollar exchange rate appreciated, lowering the world price of tradable goods below the cost of production in many (previously successful) U.S. manufacturers. Some of the factories that closed as a result, could later have been operated at a (cash-flow) profit after dollar depreciation, but reopening would have been too expensive. This is an example of hysteresis, switching barriers, and irreversibility.
If the economy follows adaptive expectations, future inflation is partly determined by past experience with inflation, since experience determines expected inflation and this is a major determinant of realized inflation.
A transitory high rate of unemployment during a recession can lead to a permanently higher unemployment rate because of the skills loss (or skill obsolescence) by the unemployed, along with a deterioration of work attitudes. In other words, cyclical unemployment may generate structural unemployment. This structural hysteresis model of the labour market differs from the prediction of a "natural" unemployment rate or NAIRU, around which 'cyclical' unemployment is said to move without influencing the "natural" rate itself.

text: Liebowitz and Margolis distinguish types of path dependence;[3] some do not imply inefficiencies and do not challenge the policy implications of neoclassical economics. Only "third-degree" path dependence — where switching gains are high, but transition is impractical — involves such a challenge. They argue that such situations should be rare for theoretical reasons, and that no real-world cases of private locked-in inefficiencies exist.[16] Vergne and Durand qualify this critique by specifying the conditions under which path dependence theory can be tested empirically.[17]

text: Technically, a path-dependent stochastic process has an asymptotic distribution that "evolves as a consequence (function of) the process's own history".[18] This is also known as a non-ergodic stochastic process.

text: In The Theory of the Growth of the Firm (1959), Edith Penrose analyzed how the growth of a firm both organically and through acquisition is strongly influenced by the experience of its managers and the history of the firm's development.

text: History[edit]

text: Recent methodological work in comparative politics and sociology has adapted the concept of path dependence into analyses of political and social phenomena. Path dependence has primarily been used in comparative-historical analyses of the development and persistence of institutions, whether they be social, political, or cultural. There are arguably two types of path-dependent processes:

text:
One is the "critical juncture" framework, most notably utilized by Ruth and David Collier in political science. In the critical juncture, antecedent conditions allow contingent choices that set a specific trajectory of institutional development and consolidation that is difficult to reverse. As in economics, the generic drivers are: lock-in, positive feedback, increasing returns (the more a choice is made, the bigger its benefits), and self-reinforcement (which creates forces sustaining the decision).[19]
The other path-dependent process deals with "reactive sequences" where a primary event sets off a temporally-linked and causally-tight deterministic chain of events that is nearly uninterruptible. These reactive sequences have been used to link the death of Martin Luther King, Jr. with welfare expansion and the industrial revolution in England with the development of the steam engine.

text: The critical juncture framework has been used to explain the development and persistence of welfare states, labor incorporation in Latin America, and the variations in economic development between countries, among other things. Scholars such as Kathleen Thelen caution that the historical determinism in path-dependent frameworks is subject to constant disruption from institutional evolution.

text: Social sciences[edit]

text: Paul Pierson's influential attempt[specify] to rigorously formalize path dependence within political science, draws partly on ideas from economics. Herman Schwartz has questioned those efforts, arguing that forces analogous to those identified in the economic literature are not pervasive in the political realm, where the strategic exercise of power gives rise to, and transforms, institutions.

text: The path-dependence of emergent strategy has been observed in behavioral experiments with individuals and groups.[20]

text: In the social sciences, especially sociology and organizational theory, a distinct yet closely related concept to path dependence is the concept of "imprinting", which captures how initial environmental conditions leave a persistent mark (or imprint) on organizations and organizational collectives (such as industries and communities), thus continuing to shape organizational behaviours and outcomes in the long run, even as external environmental conditions change.[21]

text: Other examples[edit]

text:
A general type of path dependence is a typological vestige.

In typography, for example, some customs persist, although the reason for their existence no longer applies; for example, the placement of the period inside a quotation in U.S. spelling. In metal type, pieces of terminal punctuation, such as the comma and period, are comparatively small and delicate (as they must be x-height for proper kerning.) Placing the full-height quotation mark on the outside protected the smaller cast metal sort from damage if the word needed to be moved around within or between lines. This would be done even if the period did not belong to the text being quoted.

Evolution is considered by some to be path-dependent: mutations occurring in the past have had long-term effects on current life forms, some of which may no longer be adaptive to current conditions. For instance, there is a controversy about whether the panda's thumb is a leftover trait or not.
In the computer and software markets, legacy systems indicate path dependence: customers' needs in the present market often include the ability to read data or run programs from past generations of products. Thus, for instance, a customer may need not merely the best available word processor, but rather the best available word processor that can read Microsoft Word files. Such limitations in compatibility contribute to lock-in, and more subtly, to design compromises for independently developed products, if they attempt to be compatible. Also see embrace, extend and extinguish.


document_title: Obstetric ultrasonography

question_text: when is the first us done in pregnancy

question_tokens: when is the first us done in pregnancy

text: Obstetric ultrasonography

text: Terminology[edit]

text: Below are useful terms on ultrasound:[4]

text:
Echogenic — giving rise to reflections (echoes) of ultrasound waves
Hyperechoic – more echogenic (brighter) than normal
Hypoechoic – less echogenic (darker) than normal
Isoechoic – the same echogenicity as another tissue
Transvaginal ultrasonography - Ultrasound is performed through the vagina
Transabdominal ultrasonography - Ultrasound is performed across the abdominal wall or through the abdominal cavity

text: In normal state, each body tissue type, such as liver, spleen or kidney, has a unique echogenicity. Fortunately, gestational sac, yolk sac and embryo are surrounded by hyperechoic (brighter) body tissues.

text: Types[edit]

text: Traditional obstetric sonograms are done by placing a transducer on the abdomen of the pregnant woman.  One variant, a transvaginal sonography, is done with a probe placed in the woman's vagina.  Transvaginal scans usually provide clearer pictures during early pregnancy and in obese women. Also used is Doppler sonography which detects the heartbeat of the fetus.  Doppler sonography can be used to evaluate the pulsations in the fetal heart and bloods vessels for signs of abnormalities.[5]

text: 3D ultrasound[edit]

text: Modern 3D ultrasound images provide greater detail for prenatal diagnosis than the older 2D ultrasound technology.[6] While 3D is popular with parents desiring a prenatal photograph as a keepsake,[7] both 2D and 3D are discouraged by the FDA for non-medical use,[8] but there are no definitive studies linking ultrasound to any adverse medical effects.[9]  The following 3D ultrasound images were taken at different stages of pregnancy:

text:
Play media

3D Ultrasound of fetal movements at 12 weeks

75-mm fetus (about 14 weeks' gestational age)

Fetus at 17 weeks

Fetus at 20 weeks

text: Medical uses[edit]

text: Early pregnancy[edit]

text: A gestational sac can be reliably seen on transvaginal ultrasound by 5 weeks' gestational age (approximately 3 weeks after ovulation).The embryo should be seen by the time the gestational sac measures 20 mm, about five-and-a-half weeks. The heartbeat is usually seen on transvaginal ultrasound by the time the embryo measures 5 mm, but may not be visible until the embryo reaches 7 mm, around 7 weeks' gestational age.[5][10][11] Coincidentally, most miscarriages also happen by 7 weeks' gestation. The rate of miscarriage, especially threatened miscarriage,  drops significantly if normal heartbeat is detected.[12]

text:
Contents in the cavity of the uterus seen at approximately 5 weeks of gestational age.

Artificially colored, showing gestational sac, yolk sac and embryo (measuring 3 mm as the distance between the + signs).

Embryo at 5 weeks and 1 day of gestational age (at top left) with discernible heartbeat.

Embryo at 5 weeks and 5 days of gestational age with discernible heartbeat.

text: First trimester[edit]

text: In the first trimester, a standard ultrasound examination typically includes:[11]

text:
Gestational sac size, location, and number
Identification of the embryo and/or yolk sac
Measurement of fetal length (known as the crown-rump length)
Fetal number, including number of amnionic sacs and chorionic sacs for multiple gestations
Embryonic/fetal cardiac activity
Assessment of embryonic/fetal anatomy appropriate for the first trimester
Evaluation of the maternal uterus, tubes, ovaries, and surrounding structures
Evaluation of the fetal nuchal fold, with consideration of fetal nuchal translucency assessment

text: Second and third trimester[edit]

text: In the second trimester, a standard ultrasound exam typically includes:[11]

text:
Fetal number, including number of amnionic sacs and chorionic sacs for multiple gestations
Fetal cardiac activity
Fetal position relative to the uterus and cervix
Location and appearance of the placenta, including site of umbilical cord insertion when possible
Amnionic fluid volume
Gestational age assessment
Fetal weight estimation
Fetal anatomical survey
Evaluation of the maternal uterus, tubes, ovaries, and surrounding structures when appropriate

text: Dating and growth monitoring[edit]

text: Gestational age is usually determined by the date of the woman's last menstrual period, and assuming ovulation occurred on day fourteen of the menstrual cycle.  Sometimes a woman may be uncertain of the date of her last menstrual period, or there may be reason to suspect ovulation occurred significantly earlier or later than the fourteenth day of her cycle.  Ultrasound scans offer an alternative method of estimating gestational age.  The most accurate measurement for dating is the crown-rump length of the fetus, which can be done between 7 and 13 weeks of gestation.  After 13 weeks of gestation, the fetal age may be estimated using the biparietal diameter (the transverse diameter of the head, across the two parietal bones), the head circumference, the length of the femur, the crown-heel length (head to heel), and other fetal parameters.Template:Medical citation nedded  Dating is more accurate when done earlier in the pregnancy; if a later scan gives a different estimate of gestational age, the estimated age is not normally changed but rather it is assumed the fetus is not growing at the expected rate.[5]

text: Not useful for dating, the abdominal circumference of the fetus may also be measured.  This gives an estimate of the weight and size of the fetus and is important when doing serial ultrasounds to monitor fetal growth.[5]

text: Fetal sex discernment[edit]

text: The sex of the fetus may be discerned by ultrasound as early as 11 weeks' gestation. The accuracy is relatively imprecise when attempted early.[14][15][16] After 13 weeks' gestation, a high accuracy of between 99% and 100% is possible if the fetus does not display intersex external characteristics.[17]

text: The following is accuracy data from two hospitals:

text:
Gestational Age
King's College Hospital Medical School[15]
Taipei City Hospital & Li Shin Hospital[16]

11 weeks
70.3%
71.9%

12 weeks
98.7%
92%

13 weeks
100%
98.3%

tag: table

text: Influencing factors[edit]

text: The accuracy of fetal sex discernment depends on:[14]

text:
Gestational age
Precision of sonographic machine
Expertise of the operator
Fetal posture

text: Ultrasonography of the cervix[edit]

text: Obstetric sonography has become useful in the assessment of the cervix in women at risk for premature birth.  A short cervix preterm is undesirable: At 24 weeks' gestation a cervix length of less than 25 mm defines a risk group for preterm birth, further, the shorter the cervix the greater the risk.[18] It also has been helpful to use ultrasonography in women with preterm contractions, as those whose cervix length exceed 30 mm are unlikely to deliver within the next week.[19]

text: Abnormality screening[edit]

text: In most countries, routine pregnancy sonographic scans are performed to detect developmental defects before birth.  This includes checking the status of the limbs and vital organs, as well as (sometimes) specific tests for abnormalities.  Some abnormalities detected by ultrasound can be addressed by medical treatment in utero or by perinatal care, though indications of other abnormalities can lead to a decision regarding abortion.

text: Perhaps the most common such test uses a measurement of the nuchal translucency thickness ("NT-test", or "Nuchal Scan").  Although 91% of fetuses affected by Down syndrome exhibit this defect, 5% of fetuses flagged by the test do not have Down syndrome.

text: Ultrasound may also detect fetal organ anomaly.  Usually scans for this type of detection are done around 18 to 23 weeks of gestational age (called the "anatomy scan", "anomaly scan," or "level 2 ultrasound"). Some resources indicate that there are clear reasons for this and that such scans are also clearly beneficial because ultrasound enables clear clinical advantages for assessing the developing fetus in terms of morphology, bone shape, skeletal features, fetal heart function, volume evaluation, fetal lung maturity,[20] and general fetus well being.[21]

text: Second-trimester ultrasound screening for aneuploi- dies is based on looking for soft markers and some predefined structural abnormalities. Soft markers are variations from normal anatomy, which are more common in aneuploid fetuses compared to euploid ones. These markers are often not clinically significant and do not cause adverse pregnancy outcomes.[22]

text: Safety issues[edit]

text: Current evidence indicates that diagnostic ultrasound is safe for the unborn child, unlike radiographs, which employ ionizing radiation. Randomized controlled trials have followed children up to ages 8–9, with no significant differences in vision, hearing, school performance, dyslexia, or speech and neurologic development by exposure to ultrasound.[23] In one randomized trial, the children with greater exposure to ultrasound had a reduction in perinatal mortality, and was attributed to the increased detection of anomalies in the ultrasound group.[23]

text: The 1985 maximum power allowed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of 180 milliwatts per square cm[24] is well under the levels used in therapeutic ultrasound, but still higher than the 30-80 milliwatts per square cm range of the Statison V veterinary LIPUS device.[25]

text: Doppler ultrasonography examinations has a thermal index (TI) of about five times that of regular (B-mode) ultrasound examinations.[23] Several randomized controlled trials have reported no association between Doppler exposure and birth weight, Apgar scores, and perinatal mortality. One randomized controlled trial, however, came to the result of a higher perinatal death rate of normally formed infants born after 24 weeks exposed to Doppler ultrasonography (RR 3.95, 95% CI 1.32–11.77), but this was not a primary outcome of the study, and has been speculated to be due to chance rather than a harmful effect of Doppler itself.[23]

text: The FDA discourages its use for non-medical purposes such as fetal keepsake videos and photos, even though it is the same technology used in hospitals.[26]

text: The American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine recommends spectral Doppler only if M-mode sonography is unsuccessful, and even then only briefly, due to the acoustic intensity delivered to the fetus.[27]

text: History[edit]

text: Scottish physician Ian Donald was one of the pioneers of medical use of ultrasound. His article "Investigation of Abdominal Masses by Pulsed Ultrasound" was published in The Lancet in 1958.[28] Donald was Regius Professor of Midwifery at the University of Glasgow.[29]

text: In 1961, David Robinson and George Kossoff's work at the Australian Department of Health, resulted in the first commercially practical water path ultrasonic scanner[30]. In 1962, David Robinson, George Kossoff, George Radovanovich,and Dr William Garrett were the first in the world to identify a number of foetal anatomical structures from high frequency sound wave imaging.[31][32]

text: In 1962, after about two years of work, Joseph Holmes, William Wright, and Ralph Meyerdirk developed the first compound contact B-mode scanner.  Their work had been supported by U.S. Public Health Services and the University of Colorado. Wright and Meyerdirk left the university to form Physionic Engineering Inc., which launched the first commercial hand-held articulated arm compound contact B-mode scanner in 1963.[33] This was the start of the most popular design in the history of ultrasound scanners.

text: Obstetric ultrasound has played a significant role in the development of diagnostic ultrasound technology in general.  Much of the technological advances in diagnostic ultrasound technology are due to the drive to create better obstetric ultrasound equipment. Acuson Corporation's pioneering work on the development of Coherent Image Formation helped shape the development of diagnostic ultrasound equipment as a whole.[citation needed]

text: In March and April 2015, a post by a pregnant woman named Jen Martin (née Cardinal) and her husband to YouTube, which had been viewed at least 2 million times and had many likes, showed the 14-week-old fetus clapping repeatedly to the song, sung by the parents, "If You're Happy And You Know It." It was later revealed that the video- while not a fake- had been somewhat edited to show more fetal claps than likely occurred. It is not unprecedented for fetuses of that age to make momentary movements that could be repeated once or twice beyond the initial movement, according to experts, but to repeat such a movement more than that- especially purposefully- would not likely be feasible at that point.[34][35][36]

text: Social and culture[edit]

text: The increasingly widespread use of ultrasound technology in monitoring pregnancy has had a great impact on the way in which women and societies at large conceptualise and experience pregnancy and childbirth.[37] The pervasive spread of obstetric ultrasound technology around the world and the conflation of its use with creating a ‘safe’ pregnancy as well as the ability to see and determine features like the sex of the fetus affect the way in which pregnancy is experienced and conceptualised.[37] This “technocratic takeover”[37] of pregnancy is not limited to western or developed nations but also affects conceptualisations and experiences in developing nations and is an example of the increasing medicalisation of pregnancy, a phenomenon that has social as well as technological ramifications.[37] Ethnographic research concerned with the use of ultrasound technology in monitoring pregnancy can show us how it has changed the embodied experience of expecting mothers around the globe.[37]

text: Recent studies have stressed the importance of framing “reproductive health matters cross-culturally”, particularly when understanding the “new phenomenon” of “the proliferation of ultrasound imaging” in developing countries.[38] In 2004, Tine Gammeltoft interviewed 400 women in Hanoi’s Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital; each “had an average of 6.6 scans during her pregnancy”, much higher than five years ago when “a pregnant woman might or might not have had a single scan during her pregnancy” in Vietnam.[38] Gammeltoft explains that “many Asian countries” see “the foetus as an ambiguous being” unlike in Western medicine where it is common to think of the foetus as “materially stable”.[38] Therefore, although women, particularly in Asian countries, “express intense uncertainties regarding the safety and credibility of this technology”, it is overused for its “immediate reassurance”.[38]


document_title: Mining in Australia

question_text: how many jobs does mining provide in australia

text: Mining in Australia

text: History[edit]

text: Mining contributed significantly to preventing potential bankruptcy for the early colonies in Australia. Silver and later copper were discovered in South Australia in the 1840s, leading to the export of ore and the immigration of skilled miners and smelters. The first economic minerals in Australia were silver and lead in February 1841 at Glen Osmond, now a suburb of Adelaide in South Australia. Mines including Wheal Gawler and Wheal Watkins opened soon after.[1] The value of these mines was soon overshadowed by the discovery of copper at Kapunda (1842),[2] Burra (1845)[3] and in the Copper Triangle (Moonta, Kadina and Wallaroo) area at the top of Yorke Peninsula (1861).[4]

text: Gold rushes[edit]

text: In 1851, gold was found near Ophir, New South Wales. Weeks later, gold was found in the newly established colony of Victoria. Australian gold rushes, in particular the Victorian Gold Rush, had a major lasting impact on Victoria, and on Australia as a whole. The influx of wealth that gold brought soon made Victoria Australia's richest colony by far, and Melbourne the island's largest city. By the middle of the 1850s, 40% of the world's gold was produced in Australia.[5]

text: Australia's population changed dramatically as a result of the gold rushes: in 1851 the population was 437,655 and a decade later it was 1,151,957; the rapid growth was predominantly a result of the new chums (recent immigrants from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth states) who contributed the 'rush'.[6] Although most Victorian goldfields were exhausted by the end of the 19th century, and although much of the profit was sent back to the UK, sufficient wealth remained to fund substantial development of industry and infrastructure.

text: Location[edit]

text: Australia has mining activity in all of its states and territories. The Minerals Council of Australia estimates that 0.02% of Australia's land surface is directly impacted by mining.[7]

text: Particularly significant areas today include the Goldfields, Peel and Pilbara regions of Western Australia, the Hunter Region in New South Wales, the Bowen Basin in Queensland and Latrobe Valley in Victoria and various parts of the outback. Places such as Kalgoorlie, Mount Isa, Mount Morgan, Broken Hill and Coober Pedy are known as mining towns.

text: Major active mines in Australia include:

text:
Olympic Dam in South Australia, a copper, silver and uranium mine believed to have the world's largest uranium resource.
Super Pit gold mine, which has replaced a number of underground mines near Kalgoorlie, Western Australia

text: Minerals and resources[edit]

text: Large quantities of minerals and resources :

text:
Iron ore – Australia was the world's second largest supplier in 2015 after China, supplying 824 million metric tonnes, 25% of the world's output.[8]
Nickel – Australia was the world's fourth largest producer in 2015, producing 9% of world output.[9]
Aluminium – Australia was the world's largest producer of bauxite in 2015 (29% of world production), and the second largest producer of alumina after China.[10]
Copper – Australia was the world's 5th largest producer in 2015[11]
Gold – Australia is the second largest producer after China, producing 287.3 metric tonnes in 2016, 9.2% of the world's output.[12]
Silver – In 2015 Australia was the fourth largest producer, producing 1,700 metric tonnes, 6% of the world's output.[13]
Uranium – Australia is responsible for 11% of the world's production and was the world's third largest producer in 2010 after Kazakhstan and Canada.[14]
Diamond – Australia has the third largest commercially viable deposits after Russia and Botswana.[citation needed] Australia also boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons (41 LT/46 ST) per year in the 1990s.[citation needed]
Opal – Australia is the world's largest producer of opal, being responsible for 95% of production.[15]
Zinc – Australia was second only to China in zinc production in 2015, producing 1.58 million tonnes, 12% of world production.[16]
Coal – Australia is the world's largest exporter of coal and fourth largest producer of coal behind China, USA and India.[17]
Oil shale – Australia has the sixth largest defined oil shale resources.[18]
Petroleum – Australia is the twenty-ninth largest producer of petroleum.[citation needed]
Natural gas – Australia is world's third largest producer of LNG and forecast to be world leader by 2020.
Silica
Rare earth elements – In 2015 Australia was the second largest producer after China, with 8% of the world's output.[19]

text: Much of the raw material mined in Australia is exported overseas to countries such as China for processing into refined product. Energy and minerals constitute two-thirds of Australia's total exports to China, and more than half of Australia's iron ore exports are to China.[20]

text: Statistical chart of Australia's major mineral resources[21][edit]

text: Australia ranks among the top 5 in proven reserves for 22 primary industrial minerals, more than any other nation.

text: Units of measurement: t = tonne; kt = kilotonne (1,000 t); Mt = million tonne (1,000,000 t); Mc = million carat (1,000,000 c)

text: Statistics are from data gathered in December 2015

text:
Mineral
Unit of
Measurment

Proven
Economic
Reserves

World
Ranking
Reserves

% of World
Reserves

Production
(2015)

World
Ranking
Production

% of World
Production

Years of Reserves
at Current
Production Rate

Antimony
kt content
159
4
8
3.7
6
2
43

Bauxite
Mt ore
6,021
2
22
80.9
1
29
74

Coal, Black
Mt
61,428
5
10
539
4
8
114

Coal, Brown (lignite)
Mt
66,439
2
24
65.4
3
8
1,016

Cobalt
kt content
1,033
2
15
6.2
5
5
167

Copper
Mt content
88.75
2
12
.97
6
5
91

Diamond (industrial)
Mc
209
1
30
13.6
2
24
15

Gold
t content
9,516
1
17
278
2
9
34

Iron ore
Mt ore
51,545
1
28
811
2
25
64

Lead
Mt content
35.29
1
40
.65
2
14
54

Lithium
kt content
1,610
4
11
14.3
1
41
113

Manganese
Mt ore
233
2
17
7.5
3
16
31

Nickel
Mt content
18.8
1
24
.235
4
9
80

Rare Earth Elements
Mt ore
3.44
3
3
.14
2
9
25

Silver
kt content
88.68
2
15
1.37
6
5
65

Tin
kt content
434
4
9
7.2
7
3
60

Titanium
(Ilmenite & Rutile)

Mt ore
177.4
2
20
1.27
2
10
140

Tungsten
kt content
403
2
12
.35
12
.40
1,151

Uranium
kt content
1,217
1
29
5.64
3
9
216

Vanadium
kt content
1,802
4
12
0
0
NA
NA

Zinc
Mt content
62.58
1
31
1.61
2
12
39

Zircon
Mt ore
48.2
1
67
.60
1
31
80

text: Coal mining[edit]

text: Coal is mined in every state of Australia. It is used to generate electricity and is exported. 54% of the coal mined in Australia is exported, mostly to eastern Asia. In 2000/01, 258.5 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 193.6 million tonnes exported, rising to 261 million tonnes of exports in 2008–09.[17] Coal also provides about 85% of Australia's electricity production.[22] Australia is the world's leading coal exporter.[23]

text: Uranium mining[edit]

text: Uranium mining in Australia began in the early 20th century in South Australia. Australia contains 23% of the world's proven estimated uranium reserves. In recent decades opposition to uranium mining in Australia has increased, resulting in many government inquiries into its extraction. The three largest uranium mines in the country are Olympic Dam, Ranger Uranium Mine and Beverley Uranium Mine. Future production is expected from Honeymoon Uranium Mine and the planned Four Mile uranium mine.

text: Natural gas[edit]

text: Based on 2008 CSIRO report, Australia estimated to have stranded gas reserves with about 140 trillion cubic feet or enough to fulfil the needs of a city with one million people for 2,800 years.[24]

text: Entrepreneurs and magnates[edit]

text: At various stages in the history of the mining industry in Australia, individual mining managers, directors and investors have gained significant wealth and the subsequent publicity. In most cases the individuals are designated Mining Magnates or Australian mining entrepreneurs.

text: Economics[edit]

text: A number of large multinational mining companies including BHP Billiton, Newcrest, Rio Tinto, Alcoa, Chalco, Shenhua (a Chinese mining company), Alcan and Xstrata operate in Australia. There are also a lot of small mining and mineral exploration companies listed on the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). Overall, the resources sector represents almost 20% of the ASX market by capitalisation, and almost one third of the companies listed.[25]

text: Mining contributes about 5.6% of Australia's Gross Domestic Product. This is up from only 2.6% in 1950, but down from over 10% at the time of federation in 1901.[26] In contrast, mineral exports contribute around 35% of Australia's exports. Australia is the world's largest exporter of coal (35% of international trade), iron ore, lead, diamonds, rutile, zinc and zirconium, second largest of gold and uranium, and third largest of aluminium.[27] Japan was the major purchaser of Australian mineral exports in the mid-1990s.[5]

text: Of the developed countries, perhaps only Canada and Norway have mining as such a significant part of the economy; for comparison, in Canada mining represents about 3.6% of the Canadian economy and 32% of exports,[28] and in Norway mining, dominated by petroleum, represents about 19% of GDP and 46% of exports.[29] By comparison, in the United States mining represents only about 1.6% of GDP.[30]

text: Despite its export importance, the mining sector employs only a small proportion of the workforce – roughly 129,000 Australians, representing only about 2.2% of the total labour force.[31]

text: Technology and services[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Australia's high labour costs and first-world safety regulations, distinctive geology, and the importance placed on mining research by successive governments and businesses has meant that the Australian mining sector is quite technologically advanced.[citation needed] A large proportion of mines worldwide make use of Australian-developed computer software, such as specialised Geological Database and Resource Estimation Modelling software by Micromine and geology/mine planning software by RungePincockMinarco and Maptek Pty Ltd.[citation needed] Australia is also home to other tech companies that offer mine planning software, such as Paradyn. Mines in Australia are leading the market globally[according to whom?] deploying mine production data management software such as Corvus developed by Intov8 Pty Ltd, which displays real-time production data from multiple source systems on dashboards, and includes comprehensive dynamic analysis and reporting, driving process and cost efficiencies at the shift level. Caterpillar's proprietary end-to-end mine management and information management system, MineStar, is also developed in its Brisbane office. Australia's mining services, equipment, and technology exports are over $2 billion annually.[32]

text: The world first large scale remote operations centre for operation of the Rio Tinto mines in the Pilbara is located in the airport precinct in Perth – operating mines sites, ports, rail and logistics from a central remote location.

text: Lifestyle[edit]

text: Many mines in remote areas have a traditional company town (for example Roxby Downs or Leigh Creek), or support towns that used to be company towns such as Broken Hill and Mount Isa.

text: Most mines in remote areas are operated on a fly-in-fly-out basis where the miners' "home" and family remains in a major city, and the miners fly out to their mine for two weeks of 12 hours a day solid work, then fly home for one week of rest.[citation needed] The rosters vary from company to company and from site to site. Every site has people on different rosters, mainly due to the fact that many aspects of a whole mine operation are carried out by contracting companies and they may / will offer different working conditions. 3 weeks on / 1 week off rosters are not uncommon and the working away period can be, but seldom is, for much longer than 2 or 3 weeks.

text: However, in recognition of the stresses and strains that "fly in fly out" rosters can often put upon the miners' social and family life, and in an attempt to retain staff for the medium to long term, rosters of 9 days work followed by 5 days off ("9 & 5") and 8 days work with 6 off ("8 & 6") are becoming more widespread. A fly-in-fly-out roster is normal on offshore oil platforms,(not least because people cannot live there permanently, unlike many onshore mining towns ) as well as minesites located inland of Australia, such as Century, Challenger, Bronzewing and Yandicoogina minesites.

text: Free meals and motel style accommodation are provided as is any work related transport, including air fares. Breakfast, lunch and dinner are consumed and collected from the mess hall at the mining camp. Living quarters provided at camp sites range from 2 by 4-metre portable homes to permanent 6 by 8-metre rooms with ensuites. Fridges, single beds, television, electricity and water are also provided with rooms. Every camp has a bar facility and a gym, most have swimming pools and some have outdoor sports courts / fields too.

text: Environment and politics[edit]

text: Mining has created major economic benefits for the country, but has also had a substantial environmental impact in some areas of Australia. Historically, the Victorian gold rush was the start of the economic growth of the country, leading to major increases in population. However, it also resulted in deforestation, consequent erosion, and pollution in the areas that were mined.[33] The effects on the landscape near Bendigo and Ballarat can still be seen today. Queenstown, Tasmania's mountains were also completely denuded through a combination of logging and pollution from a mine smelter, and remain bare today. It is estimated that 10 million hectares of land have been affected throughout the history of mining in Australia.[7] Because Australia's mines are distributed across varying climates the knowledge gained from one mine's restoration does not easily extrapolate to other sites.[7]

text: Uranium mining has been controversial, partly for its alleged environmental impact but more so because of its end uses in nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The Australian Labor Party, one of Australia's two major parties, maintains a policy of "no new uranium mines". As of 2006, the increased world demand for uranium has seen some pressure, both internally and externally on the ALP, for a policy change.[34] Australia is a participant in international anti-proliferation efforts designed to ensure that no exported uranium is used in nuclear weapons.[35]

text: Mining disasters[edit]

text: New Australian Gold Mine[edit]

text: Creswick in the Victorian goldfields was the site of The New Australasian No.2 Deep Lead Gold Mine. At 4:45 am, Tuesday 12 December 1882, 29 miners became trapped underground by flood waters that came from the flooded parallel-sunk No.1 mine shaft, only five men survived and made it to the surface. Despite two days of frantic pumping the waters filled the mine shaft. The trapped men scrawled last notes to their loved ones on billy cans before they drowned. Some of these have been kept and still bear the messages. The men that perished left 17 widows and 75 dependent children.[36]

text: Mount Kembla[edit]

text: In 1883 a coal mine was opened near Mount Kembla in the Illawarra District of New South Wales. In 1902 there was an explosion in the mine and 96 men and boys lost their lives, either while at work or in the course of trying to save the lives of others. Every family in the village lost a relative. A service of commemoration is held annually on 31 July at the Mount Kembla Soldiers' and Miners' Memorial Church. This is the worst mining disaster in Australia's history.[37]

text: Balmain Colliery[edit]

text: Balmain Colliery was located in Birchgrove, New South Wales and produced coal from 1897 until 1931 and natural gas until 1945. During this period, 10 miners lost their lives in three separate incidents:

text: 1900 On 17 March 1900, six miners were being lowered down the Birthday shaft. At 1,424 feet the bucket they were travelling in caught on a projection, tipped over and five of the six men fell to their death in the shaft. As a result of this accident, the Mining Act was amended to provide guide rails in shafts to prevent bucket swinging or overturning.[38]

text: 1932 In 1932, a year after the mine closed, a six-inch bore was sunk below the Birthday shaft to pipe Natural Gas to the surface. During the sinking of the bore, two men were killed when the gas ignited and exploded.[38]

text: 1945 During the sealing of the Birthday shaft on 20 April 1945, a rudimentary test was being undertaken which ignited escaping gas and caused an explosion below the seal. The company manager and two men were killed in the accident and another two men injured.[38]

text: North Mount Lyell[edit]

text: On 12 October 1912, the North Mount Lyell Fire caused the death of 42 miners, and required breathing apparatus to be transported from Victorian mines at great speed, to rescue trapped miners. The subsequent royal commission was inconclusive as to the cause

text: Mount Mulligan[edit]

text: The 1921 Mount Mulligan mine disaster occurred in Far North Queensland. The coal dust explosion killed seventy-five men.

text: Moura[edit]

text: Four serious accidents have occurred at mines in the Central Queensland town of Moura. The first accident took the lives of 13 men in September 1975. In July 1986 there was an explosion at Moura Number 4 Mine. 12 coal miners lost their lives in this disaster that sparked controversy after experts claimed the accident was avoidable. Another explosion killed two men in January 1994 and just eight months later another explosion deep underground took the lives of 11 men.[39]

text: Bronzewing[edit]

text: On 26 June 2000, at the Bronzewing Gold Mine in Western Australia (400 kilometres from Kalgoorlie), 18,000 cubic metres of sand-slurry, sludge, mud and rock broke through a storage wall. Two men (Timothy Lee Bell, 21, Shane Hamill, 45) were killed and eight escaped the 'accident'. It took over a month to retrieve the men from the site.

text: Beaconsfield[edit]

text: On 25 April 2006, part of an underground gold mine at Beaconsfield in Tasmania collapsed. One miner, Larry Knight, was killed by the rock fall, and two others, Brant Webb and Todd Russel, were trapped, leading to a rescue mission that took two weeks to get them out alive.

text: Bulli[edit]

text: 1887 At 2.30 pm on 23 March 1887, an explosion at the mine in Bulli in New South Wales killed 81 people.[40] A special commission was set up to investigate the explosion and concluded:

text: ..that the explosion was caused by marsh gas or carbonic hydrate that had accumulated at the face. That the immediate cause was probably the flame from an overcharged shot fired by a miner in the coal in No. 2 Heading.

text: This gas explosion propagated a coal dust explosion and travelled towards the fresh air at the surface. The commission was also of the opinion that the Deputy, Overman and to a lesser extent the Manager, were all guilty of contributing negligence.[41]

text: 1965 On 9 November 1965, a pocket of gas ignited in a panel several hundred yards from the main shaft and killed four miners. Ten mining rescue teams and the Southern Mines Rescue Station worked all night to extinguish the fire.[42]

text: Box Flat Mine[edit]

text: At the Box Flat Mine in Swanbank, South East Queensland, 17 miners were lost after an underground gas explosion occurred on 31 July 1972.[43] Another man died later from injuries sustained in the explosion. The mine tunnel mouths were sealed and the mine closed shortly after.[43]

text: Australian mining in literature, art and film[edit]

text:
Henry Lawson, His Father's Mate from While The Billy Boils, 1896 (short story)
Nickel Queen, based on the Western Australian nickel boom of the late 1960s
Colin Thiele, The Fire in the Stone (book which became a film)
Wendy Richardson, Windy Gully 1989 Currency Press (play)
Conal Fitzpatrick, Kembla- The Book of Voices 2002 Kemblawarra Press (poetry) ISBN 0-9581287-0-7
Henry Handel Richardson, The Fortunes of Richard Mahony: Australia Felix Takes place in the chaos of the early Ballarat goldrush.
Richard Lowenstein, Strikebound (1984 film).
Tim Burstall, The Last of the Knucklemen (1979 film, based on the play by John Power, who also wrote a novelisation of the film).
Kriv Stenders, Red Dog (2011 film, based on the true story).