document_title: Satellite

question_text: when did the us send its first satellite into space

text: Satellite

text: History[edit]

text: Early conceptions[edit]

text: "Newton's cannonball", presented as a "thought experiment" in A Treatise of the System of the World, by Isaac Newton was the first published mathematical study of the possibility of an artificial satellite.

text: The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit was a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon.[5][6] The idea surfaced again in Jules Verne's The Begum's Fortune (1879).

text: In 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices (in Russian: Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами), which is the first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft. He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit, and that a multi-stage rocket fuelled by liquid propellants could achieve this.

text: In 1928, Herman Potočnik (1892–1929) published his sole book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Motor (German: Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums — der Raketen-Motor). He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for observation of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments.

text: In a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917–2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications.[7] He suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet.

text: The US military studied the idea of what was referred to as the "earth satellite vehicle" when Secretary of Defense James Forrestal made a public announcement on 29 December 1948, that his office was coordinating that project between the various services.[8]

text: Artificial satellites[edit]

text: The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer. This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.

text: Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.

text: Sputnik 2 was launched on 3 November 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named Laika.[9]

text: In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century."[10] The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of Aeronautics of the United States Navy. The United States Air Force's Project RAND eventually released the report, but considered the satellite to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda, rather than a potential military weapon. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program."[11] In February 1954 Project RAND released "Scientific Uses for a Satellite Vehicle," written by R.R. Carhart.[12] This expanded on potential scientific uses for satellite vehicles and was followed in June 1955 with "The Scientific Use of an Artificial Satellite," by H.K. Kallmann and W.W. Kellogg.[13]

text: In the context of activities planned for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58), the White House announced on 29 July 1955 that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On 31 July, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.

text: Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation, and the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Army and Navy were working on Project Orbiter, two competing programs: the army's which involved using a Jupiter C rocket, and the civilian/Navy Vanguard Rocket, to launch a satellite. At first, they failed: initial preference was given to the Vanguard program, whose first attempt at orbiting a satellite resulted in the explosion of the launch vehicle on national television. But finally, three months after Sputnik 2, the project succeeded; Explorer 1 became the United States' first artificial satellite on 31 January 1958.[14]

text: In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used resources of the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.[15]

text: Early satellites were constructed as "one-off" designs. With growth in geosynchronous (GEO) satellite communication, multiple satellites began to be built on single model platforms called satellite buses. The first standardized satellite bus design was the HS-333 GEO commsat, launched in 1972.

text: The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space Station.

text: Space Surveillance Network[edit]

text: The United States Space Surveillance Network (SSN), a division of the United States Strategic Command, has been tracking objects in Earth's orbit since 1957 when the Soviet Union opened the Space Age with the launch of Sputnik I. Since then, the SSN has tracked more than 26,000 objects. The SSN currently tracks more than 8,000 man-made orbiting objects. The rest have re-entered Earth's atmosphere and disintegrated, or survived re-entry and impacted the Earth. The SSN tracks objects that are 10 centimeters in diameter or larger; those now orbiting Earth range from satellites weighing several tons to pieces of spent rocket bodies weighing only 10 pounds. About seven percent are operational satellites (i.e. ~560 satellites), the rest are space debris.[16] The United States Strategic Command is primarily interested in the active satellites, but also tracks space debris which upon reentry might otherwise be mistaken for incoming missiles.

text: Non-military satellite services[edit]

text: There are three basic categories of non-military satellite services:[17]

text: Fixed satellite services[edit]

text: Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data, and video transmission tasks across all countries and continents between certain points on the Earth's surface.

text: Mobile satellite systems[edit]

text: Mobile satellite systems help connect remote regions, vehicles, ships, people and aircraft to other parts of the world and/or other mobile or stationary communications units, in addition to serving as navigation systems.

text: Scientific research satellites (commercial and noncommercial)[edit]

text: Scientific research satellites provide meteorological information, land survey data (e.g. remote sensing), Amateur (HAM) Radio, and other different scientific research applications such as earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research.

text: Types[edit]

text:
Astronomical satellites are satellites used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects.
Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally for scientific experimentation.
Communications satellites are satellites stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits.
Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making etc. (See especially Earth Observing System.)
Navigational satellites are satellites which use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics, allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time.
"Killer Satellites" are satellites that are designed to destroy enemy warheads, satellites, and other space assets.
Crewed spacecraft (spaceships) are large satellites able to put humans into (and beyond) an orbit, and return them to Earth. Spacecraft including spaceplanes of reusable systems have major propulsion or landing facilities. They can be used as transport to and from the orbital stations.
Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low masses and small sizes.[18] New classifications are used to categorize these satellites: minisatellite (500–100 kg), microsatellite (below 100 kg), nanosatellite (below 10 kg).[citation needed]
Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications. Very little is known about the full power of these satellites, as governments who operate them usually keep information pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified.
Recovery satellites are satellites that provide a recovery of reconnaissance, biological, space-production and other payloads from orbit to Earth.

text:
Space stations are artificial orbital structures that are designed for human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is distinguished from other crewed spacecraft by its lack of major propulsion or landing facilities. Space stations are designed for medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even years.
Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a tether.
Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth's weather and climate.[19]

text: Orbit types[edit]

text: The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around Earth and was therefore in geocentric orbit. By far this is the most common type of orbit with approximately 1,459[20] artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their altitude, inclination and eccentricity.

text: The commonly used altitude classifications of geocentric orbit are Low Earth orbit (LEO), Medium Earth orbit (MEO) and High Earth orbit (HEO). Low Earth orbit is any orbit below 2,000 km. Medium Earth orbit is any orbit between 2,000 and 35,786 km. High Earth orbit is any orbit higher than 35,786 km.

text: Centric classifications[edit]

text:
Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. Currently there are approximately 1,459[20] artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.
Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent planet.
Areocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Mars, such as by moons or artificial satellites.

text: The general structure of a satellite is that it is connected to the earth stations that are present on the ground and connected through terrestrial links.

text: Altitude classifications[edit]

text:
Low Earth orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 180 km - 2,000 km (1,200 mi)
Medium Earth orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2,000 km (1,200 mi) - 35,786 km (22,236 mi). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit.
Geosynchronous orbit (GEO): Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi). The period of the orbit equals one sidereal day, coinciding with the rotation period of the Earth. The speed is approximately 3,000 metres per second (9,800 ft/s).
High Earth orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi).

text: Inclination classifications[edit]

text:
Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane is not zero degrees.

Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of the planet on each revolution. Therefore, it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees.
Polar sun synchronous orbit: A nearly polar orbit that passes the equator at the same local time on every pass. Useful for image taking satellites because shadows will be nearly the same on every pass.

text: Eccentricity classifications[edit]

text:
Circular orbit: An orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a circle.

Hohmann transfer orbit: An orbit that moves a spacecraft from one approximately circular orbit, usually the orbit of a planet, to another, using two engine impulses. The perihelion of the transfer orbit is at the same distance from the Sun as the radius of one planet's orbit, and the aphelion is at the other. The two rocket burns change the spacecraft's path from one circular orbit to the transfer orbit, and later to the other circular orbit. This maneuver was named after Walter Hohmann.

Elliptic orbit: An orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse.

Geosynchronous transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit.
Geostationary transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geostationary orbit.
Molniya orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of half of a sidereal day (roughly 12 hours). Such a satellite spends most of its time over two designated areas of the planet (specifically Russia and the United States).
Tundra orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of one sidereal day (roughly 24 hours). Such a satellite spends most of its time over a single designated area of the planet.

text: Synchronous classifications[edit]

text:
Synchronous orbit: An orbit where the satellite has an orbital period equal to the average rotational period (earth's is: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds) of the body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation as that body. To a ground observer such a satellite would trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.
Semi-synchronous orbit (SSO): An orbit with an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,600 mi) and an orbital period equal to one-half of the average rotational period (Earth's is approximately 12 hours) of the body being orbited
Geosynchronous orbit (GSO): Orbits with an altitude of approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi). Such a satellite would trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.

Geostationary orbit (GEO): A geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.[21]

Clarke orbit: Another name for a geostationary orbit. Named after scientist and writer Arthur C. Clarke.

Supersynchronous orbit: A disposal / storage orbit above GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift west. Also a synonym for Disposal orbit.
Subsynchronous orbit: A drift orbit close to but below GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift east.
Graveyard orbit: An orbit a few hundred kilometers above geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end of their operation.

Disposal orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.
Junk orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.

Areosynchronous orbit: A synchronous orbit around the planet Mars with an orbital period equal in length to Mars' sidereal day, 24.6229 hours.
Areostationary orbit (ASO): A circular areosynchronous orbit on the equatorial plane and about 17000 km (10557 miles) above the surface. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.
Heliosynchronous orbit: A heliocentric orbit about the Sun where the satellite's orbital period matches the Sun's period of rotation. These orbits occur at a radius of 24,360 Gm (0.1628 AU) around the Sun, a little less than half of the orbital radius of Mercury.

text: Special classifications[edit]

text:
Sun-synchronous orbit: An orbit which combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planets' surface at the same local solar time. Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites.
Moon orbit: The orbital characteristics of Earth's Moon. Average altitude of 384,403 kilometers (238,857 mi), elliptical–inclined orbit.

text: Pseudo-orbit classifications[edit]

text:
Horseshoe orbit: An orbit that appears to a ground observer to be orbiting a certain planet but is actually in co-orbit with the planet. See asteroids 3753 (Cruithne) and 2002 AA29.
Exo-orbit: A maneuver where a spacecraft approaches the height of orbit but lacks the velocity to sustain it.

Suborbital spaceflight: A synonym for exo-orbit.

Lunar transfer orbit (LTO)
Prograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of less than 90°. Or rather, an orbit that is in the same direction as the rotation of the primary.
Retrograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of more than 90°. Or rather, an orbit counter to the direction of rotation of the planet. Apart from those in sun-synchronous orbit, few satellites are launched into retrograde orbit because the quantity of fuel required to launch them is much greater than for a prograde orbit. This is because when the rocket starts out on the ground, it already has an eastward component of velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the planet at its launch latitude.
Halo orbit and Lissajous orbit: Orbits "around" Lagrangian points.

text: Satellite subsystems[edit]

text: The satellite's functional versatility is imbedded within its technical components and its operations characteristics. Looking at the "anatomy" of a typical satellite, one discovers two modules.[17] Note that some novel architectural concepts such as Fractionated spacecraft somewhat upset this taxonomy.

text: Spacecraft bus or service module[edit]

text: The bus module consists of the following subsystems:

text: Structural subsystem[edit]

text: The structural subsystem provides the mechanical base structure with adequate stiffness to withstand stress and vibrations experienced during launch, maintain structural integrity and stability while on station in orbit, and shields the satellite from extreme temperature changes and micro-meteorite damage.

text: Telemetry subsystem[edit]

text: The telemetry subsystem (aka Command and Data Handling, C&DH) monitors the on-board equipment operations, transmits equipment operation data to the earth control station, and receives the earth control station's commands to perform equipment operation adjustments.

text: Power subsystem[edit]

text: The power subsystem consists of solar panels to convert solar energy into electrical power, regulation and distribution functions, and batteries that store power and supply the satellite when it passes into the Earth's shadow. Nuclear power sources (Radioisotope thermoelectric generator have also been used in several successful satellite programs including the Nimbus program (1964–1978).[22]

text: Thermal control subsystem[edit]

text: The thermal control subsystem helps protect electronic equipment from extreme temperatures due to intense sunlight or the lack of sun exposure on different sides of the satellite's body (e.g. optical solar reflector)

text: Attitude and orbit control subsystem[edit]

text: The attitude and orbit control subsystem consists of sensors to measure vehicle orientation, control laws embedded in the flight software, and actuators (reaction wheels, thrusters). These apply the torques and forces needed to re-orient the vehicle to a desired attitude, keep the satellite in the correct orbital position, and keep antennas pointed in the right directions.

text: Communication payload[edit]

text: The second major module is the communication payload, which is made up of transponders. A transponder is capable of :

text:
Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth satellite transmission stations (antennas).
Amplifying received radio signals
Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals through input/output signal multiplexers to the proper downlink antennas for retransmission to earth satellite receiving stations (antennas).

text: End of life[edit]

text: When satellites reach the end of their mission (this normally occurs within 3 or 4 years after launch), satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958, Vanguard 1, the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of March 2015[update], as well as the upper stage of its launch rocket.[23][24]

text: Instead of being de-orbited, most satellites are either left in their current orbit or moved to a graveyard orbit.[25] As of 2002, the FCC requires all geostationary satellites to commit to moving to a graveyard orbit at the end of their operational life prior to launch.[26] In cases of uncontrolled de-orbiting, the major variable is the solar flux, and the minor variables the components and form factors of the satellite itself, and the gravitational perturbations generated by the Sun and the Moon (as well as those exercised by large mountain ranges, whether above or below sea level). The nominal breakup altitude due to aerodynamic forces and temperatures is 78 km, with a range between 72 and 84 km. Solar panels, however, are destroyed before any other component at altitudes between 90 and 95 km.[27]

text: Launch-capable countries[edit]

text: This list includes countries with an independent capability to place satellites in orbit, including production of the necessary launch vehicle. Note: many more countries have the capability to design and build satellites but are unable to launch them, instead relying on foreign launch services. This list does not consider those numerous countries, but only lists those capable of launching satellites indigenously, and the date this capability was first demonstrated. The list includes the European Space Agency, a multi-national state organization, but does not include private consortiums.

text:
First launch by country

Order
Country
Date of first launch
Rocket
Satellite(s)

1
 Soviet Union
4 October 1957
Sputnik-PS
Sputnik 1

2
 United States
1 February 1958
Juno I
Explorer 1

3
 France
26 November 1965
Diamant-A
Astérix

4
 Japan
11 February 1970
Lambda-4S
Ōsumi

5
 China
24 April 1970
Long March 1
Dong Fang Hong I

6
 United Kingdom
28 October 1971
Black Arrow
Prospero

7
 India
18 July 1980
SLV
Rohini D1

8
 Israel
19 September 1988
Shavit
Ofeq 1

- [1]
 Russia
21 January 1992
Soyuz-U
Kosmos 2175

- [1]
 Ukraine
13 July 1992
Tsyklon-3
Strela

9
 Iran
2 February 2009
Safir-1
Omid

10
 North Korea
12 December 2012
Unha-3
Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2

11
 New Zealand
21 January 2018
Electron
Dove Pioneer, Lemur-2 (x2)

text: Attempted first launches[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2012)

text:
The United States tried in 1957 to launch the first satellite using its own launcher before successfully completing a launch in 1958.
Japan tried four times in 1966–1969 to launch a satellite with its own launcher before successfully completing a launch in 1970.
China tried in 1969 to launch the first satellite using its own launcher before successfully completing a launch in 1970.
India, after launching its first national satellite using a foreign launcher in 1975, tried in 1979 to launch the first satellite using its own launcher before succeeding in 1980.
Iraq have claimed an orbital launch of a warhead in 1989, but this claim was later disproved.[31]
Brazil, after launching its first national satellite using a foreign launcher in 1985, tried to launch a satellite using its own VLS 1 launcher three times in 1997, 1999, and 2003, but all attempts were unsuccessful.
North Korea claimed a launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1 and Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 satellites in 1998 and 2009, but U.S., Russian and other officials and weapons experts later reported that the rockets failed to send a satellite into orbit, if that was the goal. The United States, Japan and South Korea believe this was actually a ballistic missile test, which was a claim also made after North Korea's 1998 satellite launch, and later rejected.[by whom?] The first (April 2012) launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 was unsuccessful, a fact publicly recognized by the DPRK. However, the December 2012 launch of the "second version" of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 was successful, putting the DPRK's first confirmed satellite into orbit.
South Korea (Korea Aerospace Research Institute), after launching their first national satellite by foreign launcher in 1992, unsuccessfully tried to launch its own launcher, the KSLV (Naro)-1, (created with the assistance of Russia) in 2009 and 2010 until success was achieved in 2013 by Naro-3.
The First European multi-national state organization ELDO tried to make the orbital launches at Europa I and Europa II rockets in 1968–1970 and 1971 but stopped operation after failures.

text: Other notes[edit]

text:
^ Russia and the Ukraine were parts of the Soviet Union and thus inherited their launch capability without the need to develop it indigenously. Through the Soviet Union they are also on the number one position in this list of accomplishments.
France, the United Kingdom, and Ukraine launched their first satellites by own launchers from foreign spaceports.
Some countries such as South Africa, Spain, Italy,[citation needed] Germany, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Egypt and private companies such as OTRAG, have developed their own launchers, but have not had a successful launch.
Only twelve, countries from the list below (USSR, USA, France, Japan, China, UK, India, Russia, Ukraine, Israel, Iran and North Korea) and one regional organization (the European Space Agency, ESA) have independently launched satellites on their own indigenously developed launch vehicles.
Several other countries, including Brazil, Argentina, Pakistan, Romania, Taiwan, Indonesia, Australia,[citation needed] New Zealand, Malaysia, Turkey and Switzerland are at various stages of development of their own small-scale launcher capabilities.

text: Launch capable private entities[edit]

text:
Private firm Orbital Sciences Corporation, with launches since 1982, continues very successful launches of its Minotaur, Pegasus, Taurus and Antares rocket programs.
On 28 September 2008, late comer and private aerospace firm SpaceX successfully launched its Falcon 1 rocket into orbit. This marked the first time that a privately built liquid-fueled booster was able to reach orbit.[32] The rocket carried a prism shaped 1.5 m (5 ft) long payload mass simulator that was set into orbit. The dummy satellite, known as Ratsat, will remain in orbit for between five and ten years before burning up in the atmosphere.[32]

text: A few other private companies are capable of sub-orbital launches.

text: First satellites of countries[edit]

text:
First satellites of countries including those launched indigenously or with the help of others[33]

Country
Year of first launch
First satellite
Payloads in orbit as of April 2016[34][needs update]

 Soviet Union
( Russia)
1957
(1992)
Sputnik 1
(Kosmos 2175)
1457

 United States
1958
Explorer 1
1252

 United Kingdom
1962
Ariel 1
0040

 Canada
1962
Alouette 1
0043

 Italy
1964
San Marco 1
0022

 France
1965
Astérix
0060

 Australia
1967
WRESAT
0014

 Germany
1969
Azur
0049

 Japan
1970
Ōsumi
0153

 China
1970
Dong Fang Hong I
0210

 Netherlands
1974
ANS
0005

 Spain
1974
Intasat
0009

 India
1975
Aryabhata
00173

 Indonesia
1976
Palapa A1
0013

 Czechoslovakia
1978
Magion 1
0005

 Bulgaria
1981
Intercosmos Bulgaria 1300
0001

 Saudi Arabia
1985
Arabsat-1A
0012

 Brazil
1985
Brasilsat-A1
0015

 Mexico
1985
Morelos 1
0009

 Sweden
1986
Viking
0011

 Israel
1988
Ofeq 1
00011

 Luxembourg
1988
Astra 1A
005

 Argentina
1990
Lusat[35]
009

 Hong Kong
1990
AsiaSat 1
0009

 Pakistan
1990
Badr-1
0003

 South Korea
1992
Kitsat A
0011

 Portugal
1993
PoSAT-1
0001

 Thailand
1993
Thaicom 1
0007

 Turkey
1994
Turksat 1B
0008

 Czech Republic
1995
Magion 4
0005

 Ukraine
1995
Sich-1
0006

 Malaysia
1996
MEASAT
0006

 Norway
1997
Thor 2
9

 Philippines
1997
Mabuhay 1
0002

 Egypt
1998
Nilesat 101
0004

 Chile
1998
FASat-Bravo
0002

 Singapore
1998
ST-1[36][37]
0003

 Taiwan
1999
ROCSAT-1
0008

 Denmark
1999
Ørsted
0004

 South Africa
1999
SUNSAT
0002

 United Arab Emirates
2000
Thuraya 1
0006

 Morocco
2001
Maroc-Tubsat
0001

 Tonga[38]
2002
Esiafi 1 (former Comstar D4)
1

 Algeria
2002
Alsat 1
0001

 Greece
2003
Hellas Sat 2
0002

 Cyprus
2003
Hellas Sat 2
0002

 Nigeria
2003
Nigeriasat 1
0004

 Iran
2005
Sina-1
0001

 Kazakhstan
2006
KazSat 1
0002

 Colombia
2007
Libertad 1
0001

 Mauritius
2007
Rascom-QAF 1
0002

 Vietnam
2008
Vinasat-1
0003

 Venezuela
2008
Venesat-1
0002

  Switzerland
2009
SwissCube-1[39]
0002

 Isle of Man
2011
ViaSat-1
0001

 Poland[40]
2012
PW-Sat
00002

 Hungary
2012
MaSat-1
0001

 Romania
2012
Goliat[41]
0001

 Belarus
2012
BKA (BelKA-2)[42]
2

 North Korea
2012
Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2
1

 Azerbaijan
2013
Azerspace[43]
1

 Austria
2013
TUGSAT-1/UniBRITE[44][45]
2

 Bermuda[46]
2013
Bermudasat 1 (former EchoStar VI)
1

 Ecuador
2013
NEE-01 Pegaso
1

 Estonia
2013
ESTCube-1
1

 Jersey
2013
O3b-1, -2, -3, -4
4

 Qatar
2013
Es'hailSat1
1

 Peru
2013
PUCPSAT-1[47]
1

 Bolivia
2013
TKSat-1
1

 Lithuania
2014
LituanicaSAT-1 and LitSat-1
2

 Belgium
2014
QB50P1 and QB50P2
2

 Uruguay
2014
Antelsat
1

 Iraq
2014
Tigrisat[48]
1

 Turkmenistan
2015
TurkmenAlem52E/MonacoSAT
1

 Laos
2015
Laosat-1
1

 Finland
2017
Aalto-2
1

 Bangladesh
2017
BRAC Onnesha
1

 Ghana
2017
GhanaSat-1[49]
1

 Mongolia
2017
Mazaalai
1

 Latvia
2017
Venta-1
1

 Slovakia
2017
skCUBE
1

Asgardia
2017
Asgardia-1
1

 Angola
2017
AngoSat 1
1

text: While Canada was the third country to build a satellite which was launched into space,[50] it was launched aboard an American rocket from an American spaceport. The same goes for Australia, who launched first satellite involved a donated U.S. Redstone rocket and American support staff as well as a joint launch facility with the United Kingdom.[51] The first Italian satellite San Marco 1 launched on 15 December 1964 on a U.S. Scout rocket from Wallops Island (Virginia, United States) with an Italian launch team trained by NASA.[52] By similar occasions, almost all further first national satellites was launched by foreign rockets.

text: Attempted first satellites[edit]

text:
United States tried unsuccessfully to launch its first satellite in 1957; they were successful in 1958.
 China tried unsuccessfully to launch its first satellite in 1969; they were successful in 1970.
 Iraq under Saddam Hussein fulfilled in 1989 an unconfirmed launch of warhead on orbit by developed Iraqi vehicle that intended to put later the 75 kg first national satellite Al-Ta’ir, also developed.[53][54]
 Chile tried unsuccessfully in 1995 to launch its first satellite FASat-Alfa by foreign rocket; in 1998 they were successful.†
 North Korea has tried in 1998, 2009, 2012 to launch satellites, first successful launch on 12 December 2012.[55]
 Libya since 1996 developed its own national Libsat satellite project with the goal of providing telecommunication and remote sensing services[56] that was postponed after the fall of Gaddafi.
 Belarus tried unsuccessfully in 2006 to launch its first satellite BelKA by foreign rocket.†

text: †-note: Both Chile and Belarus used Russian companies as principal contractors to build their satellites, they used Russian-Ukrainian manufactured rockets and launched either from Russia or Kazakhstan.

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2015)

text: Planned first satellites[edit]

text:
Afghanistan announced in April 2012 that it is planning to launch its first communications satellite to the orbital slot it has been awarded. The satellite Afghansat 1 was expected to be obtained by a Eutelsat commercial company in 2014.[57][58]
 Armenia in 2012 founded Armcosmos company[59] and announced an intention to have the first telecommunication satellite ArmSat. The investments estimates as $250 million and country selecting the contractor for building within 4 years the satellite amongst Russia, China and Canada[60][61][62]
 Cambodia's Royal Group plans to purchase for $250–350 million and launch in the beginning of 2013 the telecommunication satellite.[63]
 Democratic Republic of the Congo ordered at November 2012 in China (Academy of Space Technology (CAST) and Great Wall Industry Corporation (CGWIC)) the first telecommunication satellite CongoSat-1 which will be built on DFH-4 satellite bus platform and will be launched in China till the end of 2015.[64]
 Croatia has a goal to construct a satellite by 2013–2014. Launch into Earth orbit would be done by a foreign provider.[65]
 Ethiopian Space Science Society[66] planning the QB50-family research CubeSat ET-SAT by help of Belgian Von Karman Institute till 2015[67] and the small (20–25 kg) Earth observation and remote sensing satellite Ethosat 1 by help of Finnish Space Technology and Science Group till 2019.[68]
 Ireland's team of Dublin Institute of Technology intends to launch the first Irish satellite within European University program CubeSat QB50.[69]
 Jordan's first satellite to be the private amateur pocketqube SunewnewSat.[70][71][72]
 Kenyan University of Nairobi has plans to create the microsatellite KenyaSat by help of UK's University of Surrey.[73]
 Moldova's first remote sensing satellite plans to start in 2013 by Space centre at national Technical University.[74]
 Myanmar plans to purchase for $200 million the own telecommunication satellite.[75]
   Nepal stated that planning to launch of own telecommunication satellite before 2015 by help of India or China.[76][77][78]
 New Zealand's private Satellite Opportunities company since 2005 plans to launch in 2010 or later a commercial satellite NZLSAT for $200 million.[79] Radio enthusiasts federation at Massey University [2] since 2003 hopes for $400,000 to launch a nano-satellite KiwiSAT to relay a voice and data signals[80] Also another RocketLab company works under suborbital space launcher and may use a further version of one to launch into low polar orbit a nano-satellite.[81][82]
 Nicaragua ordered for $254 million at November 2013 in China the first telecommunication satellite Nicasat-1 (to be built at DFH-4 satellite bus platform by CAST and CGWIC), that planning to launch in China at 2016.[83]
 Paraguay under new Aaepa airspace agency plans first Eart observation satellite.[84][85]
 Serbia's first satellite Tesla-1 was designed, developed and assembled by nongovermental organisations in 2009 but still remains unlaunched.
 Slovenia's Earth observation microsatellite for the Slovenian Centre of Excellence for Space Sciences and Technologies (Space-SI) now under development for $2 million since 2010 by University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies – Space Flight Laboratory (UTIAS – SFL) and planned to launch in 2015–2016.[86][87]
 Sri Lanka has a goal to construct two satellites beside of rent the national SupremeSAT payload in Chinese satellites. Sri Lankan Telecommunications Regulatory Commission has signed an agreement with Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd to get relevant help and resources. Launch into Earth orbit would be done by a foreign provider.[88][89]
 Syrian Space Research Center developing CubeSat-like small first national satellite since 2008.[90]
 Tunisia is developing its first satellite, ERPSat01. Consisting of a CubeSat of 1 kg mass, it will be developed by the Sfax School of Engineering. ERPSat satellite is planned to be launched into orbit in 2013.[91]
 Uzbekistan's State Space Research Agency (UzbekCosmos) announced in 2001 about intention of launch in 2002 first remote sensing satellite.[92] Later in 2004 was stated that two satellites (remote sensing and telecommunication) will be built by Russia for $60–70 million each[93]

text: Attacks on satellites[edit]

text: In recent times[timeframe?], satellites have been hacked by militant organizations to broadcast propaganda and to pilfer classified information from military communication networks.[94][95]

text: For testing purposes, satellites in low earth orbit have been destroyed by ballistic missiles launched from earth. Russia, the United States and China have demonstrated the ability to eliminate satellites.[96] In 2007 the Chinese military shot down an aging weather satellite,[96] followed by the US Navy shooting down a defunct spy satellite in February 2008.[97]

text: Jamming[edit]

text: Due to the low received signal strength of satellite transmissions, they are prone to jamming by land-based transmitters. Such jamming is limited to the geographical area within the transmitter's range. GPS satellites are potential targets for jamming,[98][99] but satellite phone and television signals have also been subjected to jamming.[100][101]

text: Also, it is very easy to transmit a carrier radio signal to a geostationary satellite and thus interfere with the legitimate uses of the satellite's transponder. It is common for Earth stations to transmit at the wrong time or on the wrong frequency in commercial satellite space, and dual-illuminate the transponder, rendering the frequency unusable. Satellite operators now have sophisticated monitoring that enables them to pinpoint the source of any carrier and manage the transponder space effectively.[citation needed]

text: Satellite services[edit]

text:
Satellite crop monitoring
Satellite Internet access
Satellite navigation
Satellite phone
Satellite radio
Satellite television


document_title: Go Set a Watchman

question_text: how old is scout in go set a watchman

question_tokens: how old is scout in go set a watchman

root

text: Go Set a Watchman

text: Plot

text: Jean Louise "Scout" Finch, now 26, returns from New York to the fictional town of Maycomb, Alabama, on her annual two-week visit. She is met by her childhood sweetheart and suitor, Henry "Hank" Clinton, who works for her father, Atticus, a lawyer and former state legislator. Jack, her father's brother, a retired doctor, is her mentor. Their sister, Aunt Alexandra, runs the house since Calpurnia's retirement. The Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) are introduced as sources of controversy in the community.

tag: p

text: Returning from a trip to Finch's Landing, Jean Louise and Henry are passed by a car of black men travelling dangerously at high speed. Henry mentions that the black people in the county now have money for cars but neglect to get licenses and insurance. The next day is spent dealing with the minor scandal the previous evening has caused, and there are sequences during Jean Louise's youth, spent with "Dill" Harris, and her older brother Jeremy "Jem" Finch, who has since died of a heart condition which also killed her mother.

text: After finding a pamphlet titled "The Black Plague" among her father's papers, Jean Louise follows him to a Citizens' Council meeting where Atticus introduces a man who delivers a racist speech. Jean Louise watches in secret from the balcony and is horrified. She is unable to forgive him for betraying her and flees from the hall.

text: After having a dream about her old family black maid Calpurnia, whom she sees as a mother figure, Jean Louise has breakfast with her father. They soon learn that Calpurnia's grandson killed a drunk pedestrian the previous night while speeding in his car. Atticus agrees to take the case in order to stop the NAACP from getting involved. Jean Louise visits Calpurnia and is treated politely but coldly, causing her to leave, devastated.

text: At lunch with her Uncle Jack, Jean Louise questions why Atticus was at the meeting. Jack says that Atticus hasn't suddenly become racist but is trying to slow federal government intervention into state politics. Her uncle lectures her on the complexity of history, race, and politics in the South, trying to get Jean Louise to come to a conclusion, which she struggles to grasp. She has a flashback to when she was a teenager and recalls an incident where Atticus planted the seed for an idea in Henry's brain, then let him come to the right conclusion on his own.

text: While having coffee with Henry, Jean Louise tells him she doesn't love him and will never marry him. She expresses her disgust at seeing him and her father at the council meeting. Henry explains that sometimes people have to do things they don't want to do. Henry then defends his own case by saying that the reason that he is still part of the Citizens' Council is because he wants to use his intelligence to make an impact for his hometown of Maycomb and to make money to raise a family. She screams that she could never live with a hypocrite, only to notice that Atticus is standing behind them, smiling.

text: During a discussion with his daughter, Atticus argues that the blacks of the South are not ready for full civil rights, and the Supreme Court's decision was unconstitutional and irresponsible. Although Jean Louise agrees that the South is not ready to be fully integrated, she says the court was pushed into a corner by the NAACP and had to act. She is confused and devastated by her father's positions as they are contrary to everything he has ever taught her.

text: She returns to the family home furious and packs her things. As she is about to leave town, her uncle comes home. She angrily complains to him, and her uncle slaps her across the face. He tells her to think of all the things that have happened over the past two days and how she has processed them. When she says she can now stand them, he tells her it is bearable because she is her own person. He says that at one point she had fastened her conscience to her father's, assuming that her answers would always be his answers. Her uncle tells her that Atticus was letting her break her idols so that she could reduce him to the status of a human being.

text: Jean Louise returns to the office and makes a date with Henry for the evening. She reflects that Maycomb has taught him things she had never known and rendered her useless to him except as his oldest friend. She goes to apologize to Atticus, but he tells her how proud of her he is. He hoped that she would stand for what she thinks is right. She reflects that she didn't want her world disturbed but that she tried to crush the man who is trying to preserve it for her. She tells him that she thinks she loves him very much. As she follows him to the car, she silently welcomes him to the human race, seeing him as just a man for the first time.

text: Development history

text: Although promoted by its publisher and initially described in media reports as a sequel to Lee's best-selling novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, which was published in 1960, Go Set a Watchman is actually that novel's first draft.[2][13] The novel was finished in 1957[13] and purchased by the J.B. Lippincott Company. Lee's editor, Tay Hohoff, although impressed with elements of the story, saying that "the spark of the true writer flashed in every line",[13] thought it was by no means ready for publication. It was, as she described it, "more a series of anecdotes than a fully conceived novel". As Jonathan Mahler recounts in his Times article on Hohoff, she thought the strongest aspect of Lee's novel was the flashback sequences featuring a young Scout, and thus requested that Lee use those flashbacks as a basis for a new novel. Lee agreed, and "during the next couple of years, Hohoff led Lee from one draft to the next until the book finally achieved its finished form and was retitled To Kill a Mockingbird".[13]

text: According to Mahler, "Ms. Hohoff also references a more detailed characterization of the development process, found in the Lippincott corporate history: 'After a couple of false starts, the story-line, interplay of characters, and fall of emphasis grew clearer, and with each revision — there were many minor changes as the story grew in strength and in her own vision of it—the true stature of the novel became evident.' (In 1978, Lippincott was acquired by Harper & Row, which became HarperCollins, publisher of Watchman.)"[13] Mahler remarks that "there appeared to be a natural give and take between author and editor. 'When she disagreed with a suggestion, we talked it out, sometimes for hours,' Ms. Hohoff wrote. 'And sometimes she came around to my way of thinking, sometimes I to hers, sometimes the discussion would open up an entirely new line of country.'"[13]

text: In terms of the initial characterization of Atticus as a segregationist, an element to his character that was dropped in the later draft, there are various theories already offered. Mahler offers that it could have been Hohoff that inspired the change.[13] Raised "in a multigenerational Quaker home near Prospect Park in Brooklyn, Hohoff attended a Quaker school, Brooklyn Friends. Such an upbringing suggests certain progressive values. But probably the clearest window into her state of mind when she was coaching Ms. Lee through the rewrite of Mockingbird is the book she was writing herself at the time: a biography of John Lovejoy Elliott, a social activist and humanist in early-20th-century New York who had committed his life to helping the city's underclass. The book, A Ministry to Man, was published in 1959, one year before Mockingbird."[13]

text: Michiko Kakutani made note of the changes between the two versions: "Some plot points that have become touchstones in Mockingbird are evident in the earlier Watchman. Scout's older brother, Jem, vividly alive as a boy in Mockingbird, is dead in Watchman; the trial of a black man accused of raping a young white woman, while a main story line in Mockingbird, is only a passing aside in Watchman. (Interestingly, the trial results in a guilty verdict for the accused man, Tom Robinson, in Mockingbird, but leads to an acquittal in Watchman.)" She continues, "Students of writing will find Watchman fascinating for these reasons: How did a lumpy tale about a young woman's grief over her discovery of her father's bigoted views evolve into a classic coming-of-age story about two children and their devoted widower father? How did a distressing narrative filled with characters spouting hate speech (from the casually patronizing to the disgustingly grotesque—and presumably meant to capture the extreme prejudice that could exist in small towns in the Deep South in the 1950s) mutate into a redemptive novel associated with the civil rights movement, hailed, in the words of the former civil rights activist and congressman Andrew Young, for giving us "a sense of emerging humanism and decency"?[14]

text: Kakutani also goes on to describe that not only are characterizations and plot points different, the motivation behind the novel shifts as well, stating: "Somewhere along the way, the overarching impulse behind the writing also seems to have changed. Watchman reads as if it were fueled by the alienation of a native daughter—who, like Lee, moved away from small-town Alabama to New York City—might feel upon returning home. It seems to want to document the worst in Maycomb in terms of racial and class prejudice, the people's enmity and hypocrisy and small-mindedness. At times, it also alarmingly suggests that the civil rights movement roiled things up, making people who "used to trust each other" now "watch each other like hawks".[14]

text: According to Kakutani, "Mockingbird, in contrast, represents a determined effort to see both the bad and the good in small-town life, the hatred and the humanity; it presents an idealized father-daughter relationship (which a relative in Watchman suggests has kept Jean Louise from fully becoming her own person) and views the past not as something lost but as a treasured memory. In a 1963 interview, Lee, whose own hometown is Monroeville, Ala., said of Mockingbird: 'The book is not an indictment so much as a plea for something, a reminder to people at home.'"[14]

text: The papers of Harper Lee's literary agents in the 1950s, Annie Laurie Williams and Maurice Crain, are held by Columbia University's Rare Book & Manuscript Library. Their records show that Go Set a Watchman was an early draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, and underwent significant changes in story and characters during the revision process. Harper Lee was writing Go Set a Watchman in January 1957, and sold the manuscript to the publisher J. B. Lippincott in October 1957. She then continued to work on the manuscript for the next two years, submitting revised manuscript to her literary agents. At some point in that two-year period, Lee renamed her book To Kill a Mockingbird. Some of these records have been copied and posted online.[15]

text: Discovery

text: The manuscript for the novel was originally thought to be lost. According to The New York Times, the typed manuscript of Go Set a Watchman was first found during an appraisal of Lee's assets in 2011 in a safe deposit box in Lee's hometown of Monroeville.[16][17] Lee's lawyer, Tonja Carter, later revealed that she had first assumed the manuscript to be an early draft of To Kill a Mockingbird. Later, upon learning in the middle of 2014 of the existence of a second novel at a family gathering, she then re-examined Lee's safe-deposit box and found the manuscript for Go Set a Watchman. After contacting Lee and reading the manuscript, she passed it on to Lee’s agent, Andrew Nurnberg.

text: Lee released a statement through her attorney in regards to the discovery.[18] "In the mid-1950s, I completed a novel called Go Set a Watchman. It features the character known as Scout as an adult woman and I thought it a pretty decent effort. My editor, who was taken by the flashbacks to Scout's childhood, persuaded me to write a novel from the point of view of the young Scout. I was a first-time writer, so I did as I was told. I hadn't realized it had survived, so was surprised and delighted when my dear friend and lawyer Tonja Carter discovered it. After much thought and hesitation I shared it with a handful of people I trust and was pleased to hear that they considered it worthy of publication. I am humbled and amazed that this will now be published after all these years."[18]

text: Controversy

text: Some publications have called the timing of the book "suspicious", citing Lee's declining health, statements she had made over several decades that she would not write or release another novel, and the recent death of her sister and caregiver—two months before the announcement.[19][20] NPR reported on the news of her new book release, with circumstances "raising questions about whether she is being taken advantage of in her old age".[21] Some publications have even called for fans to boycott the work.[22] News sources, including NPR[21] and BBC News,[23] have reported that the conditions surrounding the release of the book are unclear and posit that Lee may not have had full control of the decision. Investigators for the state of Alabama interviewed Lee in response to a suspicion of elder abuse in relation to the publication of the book.[24] However, by April 2015 the investigation had found that the claims were unfounded.[25]

text: Historian and Lee's longtime friend Wayne Flynt told Associated Press that the "narrative of senility, exploitation of this helpless little old lady is just hogwash. It's just complete bunk." Flynt said he found Lee capable of giving consent and believes no one will ever know for certain the terms of said consent.[26]

text: Marja Mills, author of The Mockingbird Next Door: Life with Harper Lee, a friend and former neighbor of Lee and her sister Alice paints a very different picture. In her piece for The Washington Post "The Harper Lee I knew",[8] she quotes Lee's sister Alice, whom she describes as "gatekeeper, advisor, protector" for most of Lee's adult life, as saying "Poor Nelle Harper can't see and can't hear and will sign anything put before her by anyone in whom she has confidence." She makes note that Watchman was announced just two and a half months after Alice's death and that all correspondence to and from Lee goes through her new attorney. She describes Lee as "in a wheelchair in an assisted living center, nearly deaf and blind, with a uniformed guard posted at the door" and her visitors "restricted to those on an approved list".[8]

text: New York Times columnist Joe Nocera continues this argument.[7] He also takes issue with how the book has been promoted by the 'Murdoch Empire' as a "Newly discovered" novel, attesting that the other people in the Sotheby's meeting insist that Lee's attorney was present in 2011, when Lee's former agent (whom she subsequently fired) and the Sotheby's specialist found the manuscript. They say she knew full well that it was the same one submitted to Lippencott in the '50s that was reworked into Mockingbird, and that Carter had been sitting on the discovery, waiting for the moment when she, and not Alice, would be in charge of Harper Lee's affairs.[7] He questions how commentators are treating the character of Atticus as though he were a real person and are deliberately trying to argue that the character evolved with age as opposed to evolved during development of the novel. He quotes Lee herself from one of her last interviews in 1964 where she said "I think the thing that I most deplore about American writing—is a lack of craftsmanship. It comes right down to this—the lack of absolute love for language, the lack of sitting down and working a good idea into a gem of an idea."[7][27] He states that, "a publisher that cared about Harper Lee's legacy would have taken those words to heart, and declined to publish Go Set a Watchman—the good idea that Lee eventually transformed into a gem. That HarperCollins decided instead to manufacture a phony literary event isn't surprising. It's just sad."[7]

text: Others have questioned the context of the book's release, not in matters of consent, but that it has been publicized as a sequel as opposed to an unedited first draft.[8] There is no foreword to the book, and the dust jacket, although noting that the book was written in the mid-1950s, gives the impression that the book was written as a sequel or companion to Mockingbird, which was never Lee's intention.[8][13] Edward Burlingame, who was an executive editor at Lippincott at the time of Mockingbird's release, has stated there was never any intention, then or after, on the part of Lee or Hohoff, to publish Watchman. It was simply regarded as a first draft.[13] "Lippincott’s sales department would have published Harper Lee’s laundry list", Burlingame said. "But Tay really guarded Nelle like a junkyard dog. She was not going to allow any commercial pressures or anything else to put stress on her to publish anything that wouldn’t make Nelle proud or do justice to her. Anxious as we all were to get another book from Harper Lee, it was a decision we all supported." He said that in all his years at Lippincott, "there was never any discussion of publishing Go Set a Watchman".[13]

text: Brilliant Books, an independent bookstore in Michigan, made headlines by offering full refunds to customers who felt duped by the marketing of the book, calling it "shameful" and "exploitative". They released a statement shortly after Go Set a Watchman was released, comparing the book to James Joyce's Stephen Hero and condemning its publication.[28]

text: Reception

text: Go Set a Watchman received mixed reviews. Michiko Kakutani in The New York Times described Atticus' characterization as "shocking", as he "has been affiliating with raving anti-integration, anti-black crazies, and the reader shares [Scout's] horror and confusion".[14] Aside from this reveal, Kakutani does make note that Watchman is the first draft of Mockingbird and discusses how students of writing will find Watchman fascinating for those reasons.[14] A reviewer for The Wall Street Journal described the key theme of the book as disillusionment.[29] Despite Atticus' bigotry in the novel, he wins a case similar to the one he loses in To Kill a Mockingbird.[30]

text: Entertainment Weekly panned the book as "a first draft of To Kill a Mockingbird" and said "Though Watchman has a few stunning passages, it reads, for the most part, like a sluggishly-paced first draft, replete with incongruities, bad dialogue, and underdeveloped characters".[31] "Ponderous and lurching", wrote William Giraldi in The New Republic, "haltingly confected, the novel plods along in search of a plot, tranquilizes you with vast fallow patches, with deadening dead zones, with onslaughts of cliché and dialogue made of pamphleteering monologue or else eye-rolling chitchat".[32] In The New Yorker, Adam Gopnik commented that the novel could be seen as "a string of clichés", although he went on to remark that "some of them are clichés only because, in the half century since Lee's generation introduced them, they've become clichés; taken on their own terms, they remain quite touching and beautiful".[33] Maureen Corrigan in NPR Books called the novel "kind of a mess".[34] In The Spectator, Philip Hensher called Go Set a Watchman "an interesting document and a pretty bad novel", as well as a "piece of confused juvenilia".[35] "Go Set A Watchman is not a horrible book, but it's not a very good one, either", judged the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, citing among other flaws its "overly simplistic" plot.[36]

text: Alexandra Petri wrote in The Washington Post, "It is an inchoate jumble ... Go Set a Watchman is not, by any stretch of the imagination, a good, or even a finished book. For the first 100 pages it lacks anything that could even charitably be described as a plot. ... [T]he writing is laughably bad. ... I flung the book down and groaned audibly and I almost did not pick it back up even though I knew I had fewer than 100 pages to go. ... This should not have been published. It’s 280 pages in desperate need of an editor. ... If you were anywhere in the vicinity of me when I was reading the thing, you heard a horrible bellowing noise, followed by the sound of a book being angrily tossed down. ..."[37]

text: Author Ursula K. Le Guin wrote that "Harper Lee was a good writer. She wrote a lovable, greatly beloved book. But this earlier one, for all its faults and omissions, asks some of the hard questions To Kill a Mockingbird evades."[38]

text: Go Set a Watchman set a record for the highest adult novel one-day sales at Barnes & Noble, which included digital sales and pre-orders made before July 14. Barnes & Noble declined to release the exact number.[39]

text: Some translations of the novel have appeared. In the Finnish translation of the novel by Kristiina Drews "nigger" is translated as if "negro" or "black" had been used. Drews stated that she interpreted what was meant each time, and used vocabulary not offensive to black people.[40]

text: The book won the primary Goodreads Choice Award in 2015.[41]


document_title: Competition (economics)

question_text: what happens to a resource when competition for it increases

text: Competition (economics)

text: Role in market success[edit]

text: Competition is generally accepted as an essential component of markets, and results from scarcity—there is never enough to satisfy all conceivable human wants—and occurs "when people strive to meet the criteria that are being used to determine who gets what." In offering goods for exchange, buyers competitively bid to purchase specific quantities of specific goods which are available, or might be available if sellers were to choose to offer such goods. Similarly, sellers bid against other sellers in offering goods on the market, competing for the attention and exchange resources of buyers.[1]:105

text: The competitive process in a market economy exerts a sort of pressure that tends to move resources to where they are most needed, and to where they can be used most efficiently for the economy as a whole. For the competitive process to work however, it is "important that prices accurately signal costs and benefits." Where externalities occur, or monopolistic or oligopolistic conditions persist, or for the provision of certain goods such as public goods, the pressure of the competitive process is reduced.[2]

text: In any given market, the power structure will either be in favor of sellers or in favor of buyers. The former case is known as a seller's market; the latter is known as a buyer's market or consumer sovereignty.[3] In either case, the disadvantaged group is known as price-takers and the advantaged group known as price-setters.[citation needed]

text: Historical views[edit]

text: In his 1776 The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith described it as the exercise of allocating productive resources to their most highly valued uses and encouraging efficiency, an explanation that quickly found support among liberal economists opposing the monopolistic practices of mercantilism, the dominant economic philosophy of the time.[4][5] Smith and other classical economists before Cournot were referring to price and non-price rivalry among producers to sell their goods on best terms by bidding of buyers, not necessarily to a large number of sellers nor to a market in final equilibrium.[6]

text: Later microeconomic theory distinguished between perfect competition and imperfect competition, concluding that perfect competition is Pareto efficient while imperfect competition is not. Conversely, by Edgeworth's limit theorem, the addition of more firms to an imperfect market will cause the market to tend towards Pareto efficiency.[citation needed]

text: Appearence in real markets[edit]

text: Real markets are never perfect. Economists who believe that in perfect competition as a useful approximation to real markets classify markets as ranging from close-to-perfect to very imperfect. Examples of close-to-perfect markets typically include share and foreign exchange markets; an example of an imperfect market typically includes the real estate market is an example of a very imperfect market. In such markets, the theory of the second best proves that, even if one optimality condition in an economic model cannot be satisfied, the next-best solution can be achieved by changing other variables away from otherwise-optimal values.[7]:217

text: Time variation[edit]

text: Within competitive markets, markets are often defined by their sub-sectors, such as the "short term" / "long term", "seasonal" / "summer", or "broad" / "remainder" market. For example, in otherwise competitive market economies, a large majority of the commercial exchanges may be competitively determined by long-term contracts and therefore long-term clearing prices. In such a scenario, a “remainder market” is one where prices are determined by the small part of the market that deals with the availability of goods not cleared via long term transactions. For example, in the sugar industry, about 94-95% of the market clearing price is determined by long-term supply and purchase contracts. The balance of the market (and world sugar prices) are determined by the ad hoc demand for the remainder; quoted prices in the "remainder market" can be significantly higher or lower than the long-term market clearing price.[citation needed] Similarly, in the US real estate housing market, appraisal prices can be determined by both short-term or long-term characteristics, depending on short-term supply and demand factors. This can result in large price variations for a property at one location.[citation needed]

text: Anti-competitive pressures and practices[edit]

text: Competition requires the existing of multiple firms, so it duplicates fixed costs. In a small number of goods and services, the resulting cost structure means that producing enough firms to effect competition may itself be inefficient. These situations are known as natural monopolies and are usually publicly provided or tightly regulated.[8]

text: International competition also differentially affects sectors of national economies. In order to protect political supporters, governments may introduce protectionist measures such as tariffs to reduce competition.[9]

text: Anti-competitive practices[edit]

text: A practice is anti-competitive if it unfairly distorts free and effective competition in the marketplace. Examples include cartelization and evergreening.[10]