document_title: J.T. Hellstrom

question_text: who plays jt hellstrom on young and restless

text: J.T. Hellstrom

text: This article consists almost entirely of a plot summary. It should be expanded to provide more balanced coverage that includes real-world context. Please edit the article to focus on discussing the work rather than merely reiterating the plot. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
J.T. Hellstrom

The Young and the Restless character

Portrayed by
Thad Luckinbill

Duration

1999–2010
2017–

First appearance
August 27, 1999

Created by
Kay Alden

Introduced by

William J. Bell and Edward J. Scott (1999)
Mal Young (2017)

Classification
Present; regular

Profile

Other names
Jeffrey Todd Hellstrom

Occupation

Business executive
Private investigator

Residence
Genoa City, Wisconsin

[show]Family

Parents

Tom Hellstrom
Martha Hellstrom

Spouse

Victoria Newman (2008–10)
Mackenzie Browning (2010–)

Children

Reed Hellstrom
Dylan Hellstrom
Becca Hellstrom[1][2]

text: J.T. Hellstrom is a fictional character from The Young and the Restless, an American soap opera on the CBS network. The role was portrayed by actor Thad Luckinbill from August 27, 1999, to November 5, 2010.[3][4] Luckinbill originally appeared on a recurring basis until he was put on contract in November 2002.[5] On November 3, 2017, it was announced that Luckinbill would reprise the role of J.T., beginning December 12, 2017.[6]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: J.T. Hellstrom is introduced in 1999 as a high school friend of Billy Abbott, Raul Guittierez, Mackenzie Browning, Brittany Hodges and Rianna Miner. He has a reputation as a ladies' man. He dates Rianna, who he treats poorly and cheats on with Brittany. They break up and Rianna moves on with Raul.

text: J.T. begins a relationship with Billy's niece, Colleen Carlton. Colleen is heartbroken when J.T. has a one night stand with Brittany's mother, Anita, but they eventually reconcile. When Colleen feels she is getting in the way of J.T.'s budding music career, she leaves Genoa City and a heartbroken J.T.

text: J.T. develops unrequited feelings for Brittany. After she marries, he begins dating Mackenzie. Though he falls in love with her, he pretends to be the father of Brittany's baby in order to protect Brittany from her husband's enemies. The truth comes out, and he reunites with Mackenzie. Colleen returns to town wanting to reconcile with J.T. He is not interested in her because he is still devoted to Mac. He finds out Mac became pregnant with his baby, yet she did not tell him until she miscarried. He is angry that she confided in Kevin Fisher instead. Angry, he cheats on Mac with Victoria Newman. A broken-hearted Mac leaves town when he tells her. Colleen romantically pursues J.T. and is angry when she finds out he had sex with Victoria, who had recently become Colleen's stepmother. J.T. soon reconciles with Colleen. Their relationship is strained when his work as a private investigator forces him to keep secrets from her. J.T. breaks up with her after she has an affair with Adrian Korbel. He still harbors affection toward Colleen and investigates her disappearance, including breaking into Korbel's apartment where he finds one of Colleen's earrings. J.T. and Korbel save Colleen from a fire, which they falsely believe was started by Kevin Fisher, who previously tried to kill Colleen. They refuse to believe Kevin when he says the fire was started by Jana, his ex-girlfriend, who set him up. Colleen is put on a respirator due to her oxygen level, and J.T. sits with her many times, admitting to her how much he loves her and how he will never stop.

text: He becomes engaged to Victoria. At the time, Victoria was expecting a baby that may be either J.T.'s child or the child of her estranged husband, and Colleen's father, Brad Carlton. J.T. assures her that the paternity of Victoria's child will make no difference for him and his plans for their life together. When Victoria is hit by a fallen rock during the Clear Springs explosion, she is left comatose. The doctors suggest that they do an emergency C-section to save Victoria, leaving the baby's chances slim. Victor wants to save Victoria and her mother Nikki Newman wants to save the baby. J.T. is left frustrated, as he does not have a say in what happens to his fiance or "his" son. The decision is made after Victoria's condition takes a turn for the worse, and the baby is delivered via C-section while she is still comatose. A paternity test done when blood is removed for medical tests proved that J.T. is the father of Victoria's son. With Victoria still comatose, J.T. decides that their son needs a name. He names the baby Reed, after Victoria's mother's maiden name, and because a reed is strong and bends with the wind.

text: Victoria's father, Victor Newman, hires J.T. to investigate Nikki's fiance David Chow. When J.T. inadvertently tips Nikki off by the way he is questioning her, Victor fires J.T. He has some unease about the strong role Victor plays in the lives of the Newman family, but when Victor offers him a job as head of Newman Enterprises security, J.T. accepts. Victoria wakes up and reunites with J.T. and Reed. He and Victoria are married several days later. Victor then asks J.T. to investigate Colleen in order to take away her seat on the Newman Board. J.T quits his job at Newman and begins working with Paul. Colleen dies in October 2009 from drowning. J.T. is heartbroken and admits to Colleen that he loves her, which ultimately brings the end to his marriage with Victoria as they decide to divorce. During this time, he relies more and more on the pregnant Mackenzie, his former high school girlfriend for support. He seeks and receives full custody of his son, Reed. He especially does not want Reed to be around his maternal grandfather, Victor. Victoria has vowed to fight and overturn the judge's ruling, with the help of her family. J.T. reunites with Mac, however, J.T.'s current job, spying on Newman Enterprises and gaining information on it for Tucker McCall, puts a strain on their relationship. In September, Mac tells J.T. that she may be pregnant with their second child, the first ending in a miscarriage.

text: When a powerful storm/tornado hits the Genoa City area, J.T. gets into an accident, as his car hits a tree when he tries to get to Cane Ashby and Lily Winters at the lake retreat. After he regains consciousness, J.T. tries to get moving again but gets electrocuted when a power pole hits his car, causing him to fall back into his car. Mac and Reed are at the Athletic Club waiting for him to return. Lily and Cane discover him on the side of the road when they are returning to Genoa City. Lily goes to call for help, and Cane performs CPR. Earlier in the day, J.T. had proposed to Mac, but she had turned him down. When the tornado was over, while J.T. was hospitalized for electrocution, she realized life's unpredictability. After pleading with him to wake up, she whispers, "I love you," in his ear, and then accepts his proposal. J.T. and Mac move to Washington, D.C., taking Reed with them. In 2011, it's revealed that J.T. and Mackenzie welcomed a son, Dylan Hellstrom. The couple gets well wishes and congratulations from Victoria, Billy and Kevin.

text: In 2017, J.T. returns to Genoa City to investigate Victor's personal bank accounts, following some "sizable" transfers to off-shore accounts. He finds out that Nikki was stealing money from Victor but does not turn her in. He then reunites with Victoria when it is revealed that he and Mac are divorcing. Mac is suing for full custody of Becca and Dylan in the divorce. J.T. is hired by Victoria as head of security at Newman Enterprises but is also secretly working as a spy for Christine and Paul Williams to dig up incriminating evidence against Victor Newman and Newman Enterprises. He makes a deal that Victoria will be immune from any prosecution if he finds anything.

text: J.T. and Colleen[edit]

text: J.T.'s relationship with Colleen Carlton is regarded as one of the show's super couples. They were immensely popular despite their controversial age difference. J.T. was most popular when paired with Colleen, the tough yet innately sweet young sophomore.

text: In August 2009, J.T. and Colleen admit to still having feelings for each other and eventually kiss, leading J.T.'s wife at the time Victoria Newman to sleep with Deacon Sharpe.


document_title: Punjab and Haryana High Court

question_text: who is the chief justice of punjab high court

root

text: Punjab and Haryana High Court

text:
Punjab and Haryana High Court

High Court building

Established
1919, relocated in 1947

Country
India

Location
Sector 1, Chandigarh

Authorized by
Constitution of India

Decisions are appealed to
Supreme Court of India

Judge term length
mandatory retirement by age of 62

No. of positions
85 (64 permanent, 21 additional)

Website
http://www.highcourtchd.gov.in/

Chief Justice

Currently
Shiavax Jal Vazifdar

tag: table

text: Punjab and Haryana High Court is the common High Court for Indian states of Haryana and Punjab and Union Territory of Chandigarh based in Chandigarh, India. As of 21 March 2015, there are 55 judges in the High Court, comprising 45 permanent and 10 additional judges. Past judges include Jagdish Singh Khehar, who was elevated to the Supreme Court of India.[1][2][3]

tag: p

text: The court building is known as the Palace of Justice. Designed by Le Corbusier, it and several of his other works were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in July 2016.[4][5]

text: History[edit]

text: Punjab and Haryana High Court was formerly known as Lahore High Court, which was established on 21 March 1919. The jurisdiction of that court covered undivided Punjab and Delhi. From 1920 to 1943, the Court was conferred with extraterritorial jurisdiction over that part of China that formed part of the British consular district of Kashgar, which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the British Supreme Court for China.[6] This ceased upon the ratification of the British-Chinese Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China.[7]

text: Following the independence of India on 15 August 1947, a separate High Court of Punjab was created, based at Shimla. This had jurisdiction over Indian Punjab, Delhi and what are now Himachal Pradesh and Haryana. From 17 January 1955, the Court was moved to its present location in Chandigarh.

text: The creation of Himachal Pradesh on 15 August 1948 led to a separate Court of Judicial Commissioner (similar to a High Court) being established for that state and thus the jurisdiction of the Punjab court was reduced. A separate High Court was constituted for the Union Territory of Delhi under the Delhi High Court Act, 1966.[8] Three Judges of the Punjab High Court were transferred to the Delhi High Court, which was constituted on 31 October 1966.

text: The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 paved the way for the formation of Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh from 1 November 1966. Those formations also saw the renaming of the High Court of Punjab as the High Court of Punjab and Haryana. The Judges of the High Court of Punjab became Judges of the common High Court with all the powers and jurisdiction of the High Court of Punjab. However, the principal seat of the High Court remained at Chandigarh.

text: The High Court of Punjab and Haryana has operated since 1 November 1966 in its present form.


document_title: Air Canada destinations

question_text: where does air canada fly in south america

text: Air Canada destinations

text: Air Canada is the largest airline and flag carrier of Canada.[1] Founded in 1936 as Trans-Canada Airlines, it provides scheduled services to 194 destinations on five continents. Its largest hub is Toronto Pearson International Airport, followed by Montreal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport, Vancouver International Airport and Calgary International Airport. Air Canada is the world's 10th largest passenger airline by fleet size, and the airline is a founding member of Star Alliance. In 2014, Air Canada together with its Air Canada Express regional partners carried over 38 million passengers. Between them, they operate on average more than 1,500 scheduled flights daily.[2][3]

text: The list shows airports that are served by Air Canada as part of its scheduled service.[4] It excludes airports only operated by Air Canada Rouge, its Air Canada Express regional partners and other charter services. The list includes the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) code, city, province, country, the airport's name—with the airline's hubs and focus cities marked, airports served by main-haul operation of Air Canada, terminated and seasonal routes.

text:
Hub
Hub

^
Focus city

*
Future route

#
Seasonal service

[T]
Terminated route

text:
City
State or province
Country
IATA
ICAO
Airport
Notes/Refs

Abbotsford
British Columbia
Canada
YXX
CYXX
Abbotsford International Airport [T]

Acapulco
Guerrero
Mexico
ACA
MMAA
General Juan N. Álvarez International Airport [T]

Amsterdam
—
Netherlands
AMS
EHAM
Amsterdam Airport Schiphol

Anchorage
Alaska
United States
ANC
PANC
Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport #

Athens
—
Greece
ATH
LGAV
Athens International Airport [T]

Austin
Texas
United States
AUS
KAUS
Austin–Bergstrom International Airport

Bahías de Huatulco
—
Mexico
HUX
MMBT
Bahías de Huatulco International Airport [T]

Bangkok
—
Thailand
BKK
VTBS
Suvarnabhumi International Airport [T]

Barcelona
—
Spain
BCN
LEBL
Barcelona El-Prat International Airport [T]

Basseterre
—
Saint Kitts and Nevis
SKB
TKPK
Robert L. Bradshaw International Airport [T]

Beijing
—
People's Republic of China
PEK
ZBAA
Beijing Capital International Airport

Belfast
Northern Ireland
United Kingdom
BFS
EGAA
Belfast International Airport [T]

Berlin
—
Germany
TXL
EDDT
Berlin Tegel International Airport [T]

Birmingham
England
United Kingdom
BHX
EGBB
Birmingham Airport [T]

Bogotá
—
Colombia
BOG
SKBO
El Dorado International Airport [T]

Boston
Massachusetts
United States
BOS
KBOS
Boston Logan International Airport

Bridgetown
—
Barbados
BGI
TBPB
Grantley Adams International Airport

Brisbane
Queensland
Australia
BNE
YBBN
Brisbane Airport

Brussels
—
Belgium
BRU
EBBR
Brussels International Airport

Buenos Aires
—
Argentina
EZE
SAEZ
Ministro Pistarini International Airport

Calgary
Alberta
Canada
YYC
CYYC
Calgary International Airport Hub

Cancún
—
Mexico
CUN
MMUN
Cancún International Airport

Caracas
—
Venezuela
CCS
SVMI
Simón Bolívar International Airport [T]

Cayo Coco
—
Cuba
CCC
MUCC
Jardines del Rey Airport #

Cayo Largo del Sur
—
Cuba
CYO
MUCL
Vilo Acuña Airport [T]

Charleston
South Carolina
United States
CHS
KCHS
Charleston International Airport [T]

Charlotte
North Carolina
United States
CLT
KCLT
Charlotte Douglas International Airport

Chicago
Illinois
United States
ORD
KORD
Chicago O'Hare International Airport

Cleveland
Ohio
United States
CLE
KCLE
Cleveland Hopkins International Airport

Columbia
South Carolina
United States
CAE
KCAE
Columbia Metropolitan Airport [T]

Comox
British Columbia
Canada
YQQ
CYQQ
Comox Airport [T]

Copenhagen
—
Denmark
CPH
EKCH
Copenhagen International Airport

Curacao
—
Curacao
CUR
TNCC
Hato International Airport #

Cozumel
—
Mexico
CZM
MMCZ
Cozumel International Airport

Dallas
Texas
United States
DFW
KDFW
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport

Deer Lake
Newfoundland and Labrador
Canada
YDF
CYDF
Deer Lake Airport

Delhi
Delhi
India
DEL
VIDP
Indira Gandhi International Airport

Denver
Colorado
United States
DEN
KDEN
Denver International Airport

Dubai
Emirate of Dubai
United Arab Emirates
DXB
OMDB
Dubai International Airport

Dublin
Resumes 30 October 2017
—
Ireland
DUB
EIDW
Dublin Airport [T]
[5]

Düsseldorf
—
Germany
DUS
EDDL
Düsseldorf International Airport [T]

Vail
Colorado
United States
EGE
KEGE
Eagle County Regional Airport

Edmonton
Alberta
Canada
YEG
CYEG
Edmonton International Airport

Fort-de-France
—
Martinique
FDF
TFFF
Aimé Césaire International Airport

Fort Lauderdale
Florida
United States
FLL
KFLL
Fort Lauderdale – Hollywood International Airport

Fort McMurray
Alberta
Canada
YMM
CYMM
Fort McMurray Airport

Fort Myers
Florida
United States
RSW
KRSW
Southwest Florida International Airport

Frankfurt
—
Germany
FRA
EDDF
Frankfrut International Airport

Geneva
—
Switzerland
GVA
LSGG
Geneva International Airport

George Town, Exuma
—
Bahamas
GGT
MYEF
Exuma International Airport [T]

Freeport
—
Bahamas
FPO
MYGF
Grand Bahama International Airport [T]

George Town
—
Cayman Islands
GCM
MWCR
Owen Roberts International Airport

Glasgow
Scotland
United Kingdom
GLA
EGPF
Glasgow Airport [T]

Halifax
Nova Scotia
Canada
YHZ
CYHZ
Halifax International Airport ^

Hamilton
—
Bermuda
BDA
TXKF
Bermuda International Airport

Hamilton
Ontario
Canada
YHM
CYHM
John C. Munro International Airport [T]

Havana
—
Cuba
HAV
MUHA
José Martí International Airport

Holguín
—
Cuba
HOG
MUHG
Frank País Airport [T]

Honolulu
Hawaii
United States
HNL
PHNL
Honolulu International Airport [T]

Hong Kong
—
Hong Kong
HKG
VHHH
Hong Kong International Airport

Houston
Texas
United States
IAH
KIAH
George Bush Intercontinental Airport

Istanbul
—
Turkey
IST
LTBA
Istanbul Ataturk Airport #

Ixtapa/Zihuatanejo
—
Mexico
ZIH
MMZH
Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo International Airport #

Jacksonville
Florida
United States
JAX
KJAX
Jacksonville International Airport [T]

Kahului
Hawaii
United States
OGG
PHOG
Kahului Airport

Kelowna
British Columbia
Canada
YLW
CYLW
Kelowna International Airport

Kingston
—
Jamaica
KIN
MKJP
Norman Manley International Airport [T]

Kona
Hawaii
United States
KOA
PHKO
Kona International Airport #

La Romana
—
Dominican Republic
LRM
MDLR
La Romana International Airport [T]

Las Vegas
Nevada
United States
LAS
KLAS
McCarran International Airport [T]

Liberia
—
Costa Rica
LIR
MRLB
Daniel Oduber International Airport #

Lima
—
Peru
LIM
SPIM
Jorge Chávez International Airport [T]

Lisbon
—
Portugal
LIS
LPPT
Lisbon Portela International Airport [T]

London
Ontario
Canada
YXU
CYXU
London International Airport [T]

London
England
United Kingdom
LHR
EGLL
London Heathrow International Airport

Los Angeles
California
United States
LAX
KLAX
Los Angeles International Airport

Lyon
—
France
LYS
LFLL
Lyon-Saint Exupéry Airport

Madrid
—
Spain
MAD
LEMD
Madrid-Barajas International Airport

Manchester
England
United Kingdom
MAN
EGCC
Manchester Airport [T]

Memphis
Tennessee
United States
MEM
KMEM
Memphis International Airport [T]

Melbourne
Resumes 1 December 2017
—
Australia
MEL
YMML
Melbourne Airport *

Mexico City
—
Mexico
MEX
MMMX
Mexico City International Airport

Miami
Florida
United States
MIA
KMIA
Miami International Airport

Milan
—
Italy
MXP
LIMC
Milan Malpensa International Airport #

Montego Bay
—
Jamaica
MBJ
MKJS
Sangster International Airport

Montréal
Quebec
Canada
YUL
CYUL
Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport Hub

Montréal/Mirabel
Quebec
Canada
YMX
CYMX
Montréal–Mirabel International Airport [T]

Moscow
—
Russia
SVO
UUEE
Sheremetyevo International Airport [T]

Mumbai
Maharashtra
India
BOM
VABB
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport *

Munich
—
Germany
MUC
EDDM
Munich International Airport

Myrtle Beach
South Carolina
United States
MYR
KMYR
Myrtle Beach International Airport [T]

Nagoya
Aichi Prefecture
Japan
NGO
RJGG
Chūbu Centrair International Airport [T]

Nassau
—
Bahamas
NAS
MYNN
Lynden Pindling International Airport [T]

Newark
New Jersey
United States
EWR
KEWR
Newark Liberty International Airport

New York City
New York
United States
JFK
KJFK
John F. Kennedy International Airport [T]

New York City
New York
United States
LGA
KLGA
LaGuardia Airport

Nice
—
France
NCE
LFMN
Nice Côte d'Azur Airport [T]

Ontario
California
United States
ONT
KONT
LA/Ontario International Airport [T]

Orange County
California
United States
SNA
KSNA
John Wayne Airport [T]

Oranjestad
—
Aruba
AUA
TNCA
Queen Beatrix International Airport

Orlando
Florida
United States
MCO
KMCO
Orlando International Airport #

Osaka
Osaka Prefecture
Japan
KIX
RJBB
Kansai International Airport [T]

Ottawa
Ontario
Canada
YOW
CYOW
Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport ^

Panama City
—
Panama
PTY
MPTO
Tocumen International Airport

Paris
—
France
CDG
LFPG
Paris-Charles de Gaulle International Airport

Philadelphia
Pennsylvania
United States
PHL
KPHL
Philadelphia International Airport

Philipsburg
—
Sint Maarten
SXM
TNCM
Princess Juliana International Airport [T]

Phoenix
Arizona
United States
PHX
KPHX
Sky Harbor International Airport [T]

Pointe-à-Pitre
—
Guadeloupe
PTP
TFFR
Pointe-à-Pitre International Airport

Porlamar
—
Venezuela
PMV
SVMG
Del Caribe International Airport [T]

Port-au-Prince
—
Haiti
PAP
MTPP
Toussaint Louverture International Airport [T]

Port of Spain
—
Trinidad and Tobago
POS
TTPP
Piarco International Airport [T]

Portland
Oregon
United States
PDX
KPDX
Portland International Airport #

Prague
—
Czech Republic
PRG
LKPR
Václav Havel Airport Prague [T]

Providenciales
—
Turks and Caicos Islands
PLS
MBPV
Providenciales International Airport

Puerto Plata
—
Dominican Republic
POP
MDPP
Gregorio Luperón International Airport #

Puerto Vallarta
—
Mexico
PVR
MMPR
Lic. Gustavo Díaz Ordaz International Airport #

Punta Cana
—
Dominican Republic
PUJ
MDPC
Punta Cana International Airport #

Quebec City
Quebec
Canada
YQB
CYQB
Québec/Jean Lesage International Airport [T]

Regina
Saskatchewan
Canada
YQR
CYQR
Regina International Airport

Rio de Janeiro
—
Brazil
GIG
SBGL
Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport [T]

Rome
—
Italy
FCO
LIRF
Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino International Airport

Richmond
Virginia
United States
RIC
KRIC
Richmond International Airport [T]

Salt Lake City
Utah
United States
SLC
KSLC
Salt Lake City International Airport #
[6]

Samana
—
Dominican Republic
AZS
MDCY
Samaná El Catey International Airport #

Sacramento
California
United States
SMF
KSMF
Sacramento International Airport [T]

San Diego
California
United States
SAN
KSAN
San Diego International Airport [T]

San Francisco
California
United States
SFO
KSFO
San Francisco International Airport

San Jose
California
United States
SJC
KSJC
San Jose International Airport [T]

San José del Cabo
—
Mexico
SJD
MMSD
Los Cabos International Airport #

San José
—
Costa Rica
SJO
MROC
Juan Santamaría International Airport [T]

San Juan
—
Puerto Rico
SJU
TJSJ
Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport #

San Salvador
—
Bahamas
ZSA
MYSM
San Salvador Airport #

Santiago
—
Chile
SCL
SCEL
Comodoro Arturo Merino Benitez International Airport

Santa Clara
—
Cuba
SNU
MUSC
Abel Santa María Airport #

Santo Domingo
—
Dominican Republic
SDQ
MDSD
Las Américas International Airport [T]

São Paulo
—
Brazil
GRU
SBGR
São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport

Sarasota
Florida
United States
SRQ
KSRQ
Sarasota-Bradenton International Airport [T]

Saskatoon
Saskatchewan
Canada
YXE
CYXE
John G. Diefenbaker International Airport

Seattle/Tacoma
Washington
United States
SEA
KSEA
Seattle-Tacoma International Airport

Seoul
—
South Korea
ICN
RKSI
Incheon International Airport

Shanghai
—
People's Republic of China
PVG
ZSPD
Shanghai Pudong International Airport

Shannon
Resumes 2 June 2018
—
Ireland
SNN
EINN
Shannon Airport *

Singapore
—
Singapore
SIN
WSSS
Singapore Changi International Airport [T]

St. George's
—
Grenada
GND
TGPY
Maurice Bishop International Airport [T]

St. John's
—
Antigua and Barbuda
ANU
TAPA
VC Bird International Airport

St. John's
Newfoundland and Labrador
Canada
YYT
CYYT
St. John's International Airport

Sydney
New South Wales
Australia
SYD
YSSY
Sydney Kingsford-Smith International Airport

Taipei
—
Taiwan
TPE
RCTP
Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport

Tampa
Florida
United States
TPA
KTPA
Tampa International Airport

Tel Aviv
—
Israel
TLV
LLBG
Ben Gurion International Airport

Tokyo
Chiba Prefecture
Japan
NRT
RJAA
Narita International Airport

Tokyo
Tokyo Metropolis
Japan
HND
RJTT
Haneda International Airport

Toronto
Ontario
Canada
YYZ
CYYZ
Toronto Pearson International Airport Hub

Vancouver
British Columbia
Canada
YVR
CYVR
Vancouver International Airport Hub

Varadero
—
Cuba
VRA
MUVR
Juan Gualberto Gómez Airport

Venice
Veneto
Italy
VCE
LIPZ
Venice Marco Polo Airport [T]

Victoria
British Columbia
Canada
YYJ
CYYJ
Victoria International Airport

Vienna
—
Austria
VIE
LOWW
Vienna International Airport [T]

Vieux-Fort
—
Saint Lucia
UVF
TLPL
Hewanorra International Airport

Washington D.C.
—
United States
DCA
KDCA
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport

West Palm Beach
Florida
United States
PBI
KPBI
Palm Beach International Airport #

Whitehorse
Yukon
Canada
YXY
CYXY
Erik Nielsen International Airport #

Winnipeg
Manitoba
Canada
YWG
CYWG
James Armstrong Richardson International Airport ^

Zagreb
—
Croatia
ZAG
LDZA
Zagreb International Airporrt [T]

Zürich
—
Switzerland
ZRH
LSZH
Zürich International Airport


document_title: Smokey and the Bandit

question_text: what was dogs name in smokey and the bandit

text: Smokey and the Bandit

text: Plot[edit]

text: Wealthy Texan Big Enos Burdette and his son Little Enos seek a truck driver willing to bootleg Coors beer to Georgia for their refreshment. At the time, Coors was regarded as one of the finest beers in the United States,[4] but it could not be legally sold east of the Mississippi River. Truck drivers who had taken the bet previously had been caught and arrested by "Smokey" (CB slang for highway patrol officers, referring to the Smokey Bear–type hats worn in some states).

text: The Burdettes find legendary trucker Bo "Bandit" Darville competing in a truck rodeo at Lakewood Fairgrounds in Atlanta; they offer him $80,000 to haul 400 cases of Coors beer from Texarkana, Texas back to Atlanta in 28 hours; Big Enos has sponsored a driver running in the Southern Classic stockcar race and "when he wins I want to celebrate in style." Bandit accepts the bet and recruits his partner Cledus "Snowman" Snow to drive the truck, while Bandit drives the "blocker", a black Pontiac Trans Am bought on an advance from the Burdettes, to divert attention away from the truck and its illegal cargo.

text: The trip to Texas is mostly uneventful except for at least one pursuing Arkansas State Trooper whom Bandit evades with ease. They reach Texarkana an hour ahead of schedule, load their truck with the beer and head back toward Atlanta. Immediately upon starting the second leg of the run, Bandit picks up runaway bride Carrie, whom he eventually nicknames "Frog" because she is "kinda cute like a frog," she is "always hoppin' around," and because he "wants to jump" her.  But in so doing, Bandit makes himself a target of Texas Sheriff Buford T. Justice, a career lawman whose handsome but slow-witted son Junior was to have been Carrie's bridegroom. Ignoring his own jurisdiction, Sheriff Justice, with Junior in tow, chases Bandit all the way to Georgia, even as various mishaps cause his cruiser to disintegrate around them.

text: The remainder of the film is one lengthy high-speed chase, as Bandit's antics attract more and more attention from local and state police across Dixie while Snowman barrels on toward Atlanta with the contraband beer. Bandit and Snowman are helped along the way via CB radio by many colorful characters, including an undertaker with his hearse driver and their funeral procession, an elderly lady, a drive-in waitress and all her customers, a convoy of trucks, and even a madam who runs a brothel out of her RV.  Neither Sheriff Justice nor any other police officers have any knowledge of Snowman's illegal manifest.

text: The chase intensifies as Bandit and Snowman get closer to Atlanta; moments after crossing back into Georgia, Bandit comes to the rescue when Snowman is pulled over by a Georgia State Patrol motorcycle patrolman, and state and local police step up their pursuit with more cruisers, larger roadblocks, and even a police helicopter to track Bandit's movements. Discouraged by the unexpected mounting attention, and with just four miles left to go, Bandit is about to give up, but Snowman refuses to listen and takes the lead, smashing through the police roadblock at the entrance to the fairgrounds. They arrive back at Lakewood Speedway (while the Southern Classic race is being run) with only 10 minutes to spare, but instead of taking the payoff, Frog and Bandit accept a double-or-nothing offer from Little Enos — a challenge to run up to Boston and bring back clam chowder in 18 hours. They quickly escape in one of Big Enos' Cadillac convertibles as Georgia State Patrol cruisers flood the racetrack to confiscate the Trans Am and truck, passing Sheriff Justice's badly damaged police car by the side of the road. Bandit first directs Sheriff Justice to Big and Little Enos, but then in a gesture of respect, reveals his true location and invites Justice to give chase, leaving Junior behind.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Burt Reynolds as Bo Darville ("Bandit")
Sally Field as Carrie ("Frog")
Jerry Reed as Cledus Snow ("Snowman")
Jackie Gleason as Sheriff Buford T. Justice ("Smokey")
Mike Henry as Junior Justice
Pat McCormick as Big Enos Burdette
Paul Williams as Little Enos Burdette
Macon McCalman as Mr. B
Susan McIver as Hot Pants
George Reynolds as Sheriff George Branford
Laura Lizer Sommers as Little Beaver
Michael Mann as Branford's Deputy
Lamar Jackson as Sugar Bear
Ronnie Gay as Georgia Trooper
Quinnon Sheffield as Alabama Trooper
Alfie Wise as Alabama Patrolman
Pat Hustis as Tow Truck Driver
Ingeborg Kjeldsen as Foxy Lady
Ben Jones as Trucker #1
Joe Klecko as Trucker #2
Hank Worden as Trucker #3

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Director Hal Needham originally planned the film as a low-budget B movie with a production cost of $1 million,[3] with Jerry Reed as the Bandit. It was not until Needham's friend Burt Reynolds read the script, and said he would star, that the film was aimed at a more mainstream release; Reed would now portray Bandit's friend Snowman (Reed would eventually play the Bandit in Smokey and the Bandit Part 3). At that time Reynolds was the top box office star in the world. In the original script Carrie was called Kate while Big Enos and Little Enos were called Kyle and Dickey. Bandit's car was a second generation Ford Mustang and the prize for completing the run was a new truck rather than $80,000.[5]

text: Burt Reynolds revealed in his autobiography that Needham had written the first draft script on legal pads. Upon showing it to his friend, Reynolds told Needham that it was the worst script he had ever read but that he would still make the movie. Most of the dialogue was improvised on set.[6]

text: Universal Studios bankrolled Smokey and the Bandit for $5.3 million, figuring it was a good risk.[3] Just two days before production was to begin, Universal sent a "hatchet man" to Atlanta to inform Needham that the budget was being trimmed by $1 million. With Reynolds' salary at $1 million, Needham was left with only $3.3 million to make the film. Needham and assistant director David Hamburger spent 30 hours revising the shooting schedule.[3]

text: "Buford T. Justice" was the name of a real Florida Highway Patrolman known to Reynolds' father, who was once Police Chief of Riviera Beach, Florida. His father was also the inspiration for the word "sumbitch" used in the film, a variation of the phrase "son-of-a-bitch" that, according to Reynolds, he uttered quite often.

text: Jackie Gleason was given free rein to ad-lib dialogue and make suggestions. It was his idea to have Junior alongside him throughout.  In particular, the scene where Sheriff Justice unknowingly encounters the Bandit in the "choke and puke" (a roadside diner) was not in the original story, but rather was Gleason's idea.

text: Before Gleason was cast in the film, Richard Boone was originally considered for the role of Buford T. Justice.[6]

text: Sally Field only accepted the part after her agent advised her that she needed a big movie role on her resume. Reynolds actively pushed for her casting after Universal initially resisted, claiming Field was not attractive enough. Field enjoyed making the film, but remembers that virtually the entire project was improvised.

text: Reportedly, Needham had great difficulty getting any studios or producers to take his project seriously, as in the film industry, he was better known as a stuntman. He managed to obtain studio attention after his friend Reynolds agreed to portray the Bandit in the film.

text: The movie was primarily filmed in Georgia in the cities of McDonough, Jonesboro and Lithonia. The scenes set in Texarkana were filmed in Jonesboro and the surrounding area, and many of the chase scenes were filmed in the surrounding areas on Highway 54 between Fayetteville and Jonesboro for a majority of the driving scenes, Mundy's Mill Road, Main Street in Jonesboro, Georgia State Route 400, I-85 (Pleasant Hill exit), and in McDonough. However, the scene where they drive through the Shell gas station was filmed in Ojai, California on the corner of Ojai and El Paseo. Much of the surrounding scene comes from that immediate vicinity. The scene featuring the racetrack was filmed at Lakewood Speedway at the old Lakewood Fairgrounds on the south side of Atlanta. The roller coaster seen in the movie was the Greyhound. It had not been used for some time and was repainted for the film. It was destroyed in Smokey and the Bandit II and a flashback scene in Part 3.[7]

text: The film's theme song, "East Bound and Down", was written virtually overnight by Jerry Reed. He gave Needham a preview of the song, and when initially he got no reaction from the director, offered to rewrite the song. Needham, however, liked the song so much he assured Jerry not to change a word. It became one of Reed's biggest hits and his signature song.[8]

text: The area around Helen, Georgia was also used for some locations. The scene where Buford T. Justice's car has the door knocked off by a passing semi truck was shot on Georgia State Route 75, 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Helen. The tow truck driver was a local garage owner, Berlin Wike.

text: The film features the custom clothing and costuming of Niver Western Wear of Fort Worth, Texas.[9] Niver provided much of the western attire worn in the film, as well as the custom-made sheriff's uniforms (waist size 64 inches) that Jackie Gleason wore throughout the film.

text: Reynolds and Sally Field began dating during the filming of Smokey and the Bandit.

text: While made to take advantage of the ongoing 1970s CB radio fad, the film added to the craze.[10]

text: Though the film Moonrunners (1975) is the precursor to the television series The Dukes of Hazzard (1979-1985), from the same creator and with many identical settings and concepts, the popularity of Smokey and the Bandit and similar films helped get the Dukes series on the air. Three actors from the main cast of The Dukes of Hazzard appear in small uncredited roles in Smokey and the Bandit: Ben Jones, John Schneider and Sonny Shroyer (who played a police officer in both). In return, Reynolds portrayed the Dukes character Boss Hogg (originally portrayed by Sorrell Booke) in the film adaptation The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). Reynolds is also referenced by name in several early episodes of the series.

text: Vehicles[edit]

text: Needham saw an advertisement for the soon-to-be-released 1977 Pontiac Trans Am and knew right away that would be the Bandit's car, or, as Needham referred to it, a character in the movie. He contacted Pontiac and an agreement was made that four 1977 Trans Ams and two Pontiac LeMans 4-door sedans would be provided for the movie.[11] The Trans Ams were actually 1976-model cars with 1977 front ends. (From 1970 to 1976, both the Firebird/Trans Am and Chevrolet Camaro had two round headlights, and in 1977, the Firebird/Trans Am was changed to four rectangular headlights, while the Camaro remained unchanged.) The decals were also changed to 1977-style units, as evidenced by the engine size callouts on the hood scoop being in liters rather than cubic inches, as had been the case in 1976. The hood scoop on these cars says "6.6 LITRE", which in 1977 would have denoted an Oldsmobile 403-equipped car or a non W-72, 180 hp version of the 400 Pontiac engine. All four of the cars were badly damaged during production,[12] one of which was all but destroyed during the jump over the dismantled bridge. The Trans Am used for the dismantled bridge jump was equipped with a booster rocket, the same type that was used by Evel Knievel during his failed Snake River Canyon jump. Needham served as the driver for the stunt (standing in for Reynolds) while Lada St. Edmund was in the same car (standing in for Sally Field during the jump). By the movie's ending, the final surviving Trans Am and LeMans were both barely running and the other cars had become parts donors to keep them running. The Burdettes' car is a 1974 Cadillac Eldorado convertible painted in a "Candy Red" color scheme, and is seen briefly at the beginning of the movie and as Bandit, Snowman, Fred, and Frog make their escape in the final scene.

text: The film also made use of three Kenworth W900A short-frame semi trucks, which Jerry Reed can be seen driving, each equipped with 38-inch sleepers. Two units were 1974 models as evidenced by standard silver Kenworth emblems on the truck grille, and one unit was a 1973 model as evidenced by the gold-painted Kenworth emblem on the truck's grille signifying Kenworth's 50 years in business. The paint code for each truck was coffee brown with gold trims, and the 48-foot (15 m) mural trailer used was manufactured by Hobbs Trailers in Texas with a non-operational Thermo King Refrigeration unit. This is obvious, because there is no fuel tank on the underside of the trailer to power the refrigeration unit, and the unit is never heard running.[13]

text: Legal status of Coors beer[edit]

text: In 1977, Coors was unavailable for sale east of Oklahoma. A 1974 Time magazine article explains why Coors was so coveted that one would be willing to pay the Bandit such a high price to transport it. Coors Banquet Beer had a brief renaissance as certain people sought it out for its lack of stabilizers and preservatives. The article says that future Vice President Gerald Ford hid it in his luggage after a trip to Colorado in order to take it back to Washington. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had a steady supply airlifted to Washington by the Air Force. The article also mentions Frederick Amon, who smuggled it from Colorado to North Carolina and sold it for four times the retail price.[14] The lack of additives and preservatives meant that Coors had the potential for spoiling in a week if it were not kept cold throughout its transportation and in storage at its destination. This explains the 28-hour deadline.[15]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Smokey And The Bandit: Music from the Motion PictureSoundtrack album by Various artistsReleased
1977 (1977)Genre
Truck-driving countrycountry rockcountrybluegrassrockLength
41:11Label
MCA RecordsProducer
Sonny Burke
Singles from Smokey And The Bandit: Music from the Motion Picture

"East Bound and Down"Released: August 1, 1977

text: The theme music, "East Bound and Down", was sung and co-written by Reed (credited under his birth name, Jerry Hubbard) and Dick Feller. It became Reed's signature song and is found on multiple albums, including Country Legends and his live album Jerry Reed: Live Still. In 1991 it was arranged for orchestra by Crafton Beck and recorded by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra for their album Down on the Farm. Several other groups, such as US rock band Tonic, have also covered it. Reed also penned and performed the song for the opening credits, entitled "The Legend", which tells of some of The Bandit's escapades prior to the events of the film, and the ballad "The Bandit", which features in several versions in the movie and on the soundtrack. Reed's hit notwithstanding, Bill Justis is the first name on the credits for the soundtrack as he composed and arranged original music throughout the film. Musicians such as Beegie Adair and George Tidwell played on the soundtrack as part of long careers in music. Legendary five-string banjo player Bobby Thompson is also heard prominently towards the end of "East Bound and Down." The soundtrack album was released in 1977 on vinyl, cassette and 8-track through MCA Records.[16]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: No.TitleWriter(s)Length1."The Legend"Jerry R. Hubbard2:092."Incidental CB Dialogue" (Voice ["Bandit"] – Burt Reynolds, Voice ["Snowman"] – Jerry Reed) 0:283."West Bound And Down"Jerry R. Hubbard, Dick Feller2:454."Foxy Lady"Bill Justis2:515."Incidental CB Dialogue" (Voice ["Bandit"] – Burt Reynolds, Voice ["Smokey"] – Jackie Gleason, Voice ["Snowman"] – Jerry Reed) 0:566."Orange Blossom Special"Ervin T. Rouse2:407."The Bandit"Dick Feller3:008."March Of The Rednecks"Bill Justis2:229."If You Leave Me Tonight I'll Cry"Gerald Sanford, Hal Mooney2:4710."East Bound and Down (Incidental CB Dialogue Included)" (Voice ["Bandit"] – Burt Reynolds, Voice ["Snowman"] – Jerry Reed)Jerry R. Hubbard, Dick Feller4:4211."The Bandit"Dick Feller2:4812."And The Fight Played On!"Bill Justis2:2213."Ma Cousin Plays Steel"Bill Justis3:1114."Hot Pants Fuzz Parade"Bill Justis4:4815."Incidental CB Dialogue" (Voice ["Bandit"] – Burt Reynolds, Voice ["Snowman"] – Jerry Reed) 1:0516."The Bandit (Reprise)"Dick Feller2:17Total length:41:11

text: Reception[edit]

text: Smokey and the Bandit was a sleeper hit.[17] The film premiered at Radio City Music Hall in New York City where it performed badly.[18]  It then opened in just the South of the United States over the Memorial Day weekend and grossed $2,689,851 in 386 theatres.  By the end of June it had played in major Southern markets including Charlotte, Atlanta, Jacksonville, New Orleans, Memphis, Dallas and Oklahoma City grossing $11.9 million.  It opened in other Northern states at the end of July.[19]

text: With an original budget of $5.3 million (cut to $4.3 million two days before initial production),[3] the film eventually grossed $126,737,428 in North America,[20] making it the second-highest-grossing movie of 1977. The worldwide gross is estimated at over $300 million.[3]

text: Film critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a good rating (3 stars out of a possible 4) and characterized it as "About as subtle as The Three Stooges, but a classic compared to the sequels and countless rip-offs which followed."[21]

text: Gene Siskel, in his review in the Chicago Tribune, gave the film two stars and complained that the film failed to tell the audience when the clock started on the beer run, thus removing suspense throughout the film concerning how long remained to them. He also claimed that Bandit is never made aware of Frog's leaving Junior at the altar, which is why the Bandit continually asks why a Texas sheriff is chasing him. However, this is inaccurate: within seconds of Bandit picking her up, Frog tells him "there is a wedding in search of a bride", and goes on to explain her ill-advised romance with Junior, as Bandit holds up the CB mic for Snowman to hear.

text: The film's editors, Walter Hannemann and Angelo Ross, were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Film Editing. It currently holds a 79% "Fresh" rating on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 28 reviews.[22]

text: Burt Reynolds rated the film as the one he most enjoyed and had the most fun making in his career.[23]

text: Legendary film maker Alfred Hitchcock stated that the movie was one of his favorites.[24]

text: Upon meeting Burt Reynolds, Billy Bob Thornton told him that the picture was not considered a "film" in the south, so much as a documentary.[25]

text: Smokey and the Bandit was released in the United Kingdom on August 28, 1977 and was a sizeable success there, garnering positive reviews.[26]

text: American Film Institute Lists

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – Nominated
AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – Nominated
AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains:
Bandit (Bo Darville) – Nominated Hero

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Trans Am[edit]

text: After the debut of the film the Trans Am became wildly popular with sales almost doubling in two years of the film's release, to the delight of General Motors; in fact, it outsold its Camaro counterpart for the first time ever.[27] Reynolds was given the 1977 vehicle used during promotion of the film as a gift, though the car itself never actually appeared in the film. Because of the popularity of the movie and the sales success of the Trans Am, then President of Pontiac Alex Mair promised to supply Reynolds with a Trans Am each year. Owing to his financial difficulties, in 2014 Reynolds put his vast collection of artwork and memorabilia up for auction, including the Trans Am. High estimates for the car were up to $80,000, but that was dwarfed by the actual sale price of $450,000. Also up for auction was a go-kart replica of the car, which sold for nearly $14,000.[28] In 2016, Trans Am Depot, a Florida-based automobile customization company, announced that it would build 77 Trans Ams that would be modeled after the car that Reynolds drove in the 1977 original, despite Pontiac having been discontinued by GM in 2009. These new models were built off the Camaro platform (the very same one that the real Firebird and Trans Am used), came with Pontiac arrowhead, flaming bird and Bandit logos, as well as instrument panels, center consoles and hood scoops emulating their 1977 counterparts, and were signed by Reynolds. Some differences included the use of a supercharged 454-cid (7.4-liter) Chevrolet-sourced engine that put out 840 HP, and four round headlights, which appeared on the 1967-69 Firebirds/Trans Ams only; the actual 1977-81 models had rectangular headlights.[29]

text: Diablo sandwich[edit]

text: The diablo sandwich ordered by Sheriff Justice in the Arkansas barbecue restaurant scene has entered popular culture as a minor reference to the film. While no authoritative source identifies the composition of the sandwich, there are several possibilities. A segment of the CMT program Reel Eats used a sloppy joe-style recipe consisting of seasoned ground beef, corn and sour cream.[30] Another proposal, based more closely on images from the film and the shooting location of the scene (at an Old Hickory House restaurant in Georgia), is pulled pork and hot sauce on a hamburger bun.[31]

text: The Bandit Run[edit]

text: First run in 2007 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the movie, The Bandit Run was the brainchild of Dave Hall, owner of Restore A Muscle Car. A group of Trans Am owners and fans of the movie take part in an annual road trip from Texarkana to Jonesboro, Georgia, recreating the route taken by the characters in the film.

text: The Bandit Run quickly caught on and has become a fixture, most recently celebrating the 40th anniversary of the movie with a special screening of the film attended by Burt Reynolds and a recreation of the jump undertaken by Bandit and Frog across a river.[32]

text: Mobil 1 commercial[edit]

text: In 2014, petroleum company Mobil 1 produced television commercials, featuring NASCAR star Tony Stewart, closely based on the film. Called Smoke is the Bandit playing on Stewart's nickname, the commercials featured him as the Bandit opposite Darrell Waltrip who played Snowman and Jeff Hammond as Buford T. Justice. The story replaced the Coors beer with Mobil 1 products. The adverts poked fun at the film and even featured a Pontiac Trans Am and a cover version of the song East Bound and Down. The commercials were produced after Stewart mentioned that the movie was one of his favorites.[33]

text: Television censorship and alternative versions[edit]

text: When Smokey and the Bandit first aired on American network television in the early 1980s, censors were faced with the challenge of toning down the raw language of the original film. For this purpose, they overdubbed dialogue deemed offensive, which was (and remains, to an extent) common practice. The most noted change made for network broadcast was the replacing of Buford's often-spoken phrase "sumbitch" (a contraction of "son of a bitch"; usually in reference to the Bandit) with the phrase "scum bum". This phrase achieved a level of popularity with children, and the 2007 Hot Wheels release of the 1970s Firebird Trans Am has "scum bum" emblazoned on its tail. The TV prints of the first two Bandit films are still shown regularly on television, although a few TV stations aired the unedited version in recent years as some of the phraseology (i.e. "(son of a) bitch", "ass", etc.) became more acceptable on TV.

text: The original actors mostly redubbed their own lines for the television version, except for Gleason. Actor Henry Corden, who voiced Fred Flintstone after original performer Alan Reed died, was used to replace a considerable amount of Sheriff Justice's dialogue. This is fitting, as Fred Flintstone was a parody of/homage to Gleason's character Ralph Kramden and The Flintstones was a parody of/homage to The Honeymooners.

text: In the UK, the heavily dubbed version was shown for a number of years, particularly by the BBC. However, in more recent years, the original version has been shown (on ITV, a commercial channel), usually with the stronger language edited out, often quite awkwardly and noticeably.

text: The theatrical release itself had a few lines deleted, including a creative edit in which Sheriff Justice tells a state trooper to "fuck off." His expletive is obscured when a passing big rig sounds its horn. At the time, using the 'F' word would immediately require an R rating and this clever self-censorship allowed the film to avoid this rating and reach a much larger audience. However, the scene and the obscured expletive was played for comedy value and written as such, with the passing truck being the gag of the scene more than a way to avoid the censors.

text: In 2006, a DVD re-release was issued of Smokey and the Bandit featuring a digitally-remastered audio track with 5.1 Dolby-compatible surround sound. It should be noted however that many of the film's original sounds were replaced. For instance, the diesel engine start and run up sequence in the opening sequence of the film was completely dubbed over with a totally new sound. A few other examples of "sound effect replacement" occur when Bandit takes off after managing to get a reluctant Cledus involved in the bet, and after he comes to a screeching halt on a roadway moments before picking up Carrie. Some of the original sound effects (such as Cledus' dog Fred's barking) and music (such as the final chase to the Southern Classic) were removed and not replaced. (Note: earlier DVD releases and the 40th Anniversary Blu-ray of the film have the original soundtrack intact.)[34]

text: Major portions of the audio 'background' have been modified with different engine sounds or tire squeals from the original film. The updated version of the film features sounds inaccurate for what would be produced by the Trans Am or the numerous other Pontiac vehicles in the film. The original film had correct sounds that were usually recorded live as the action took place.

text: Some TV versions also feature a longer version of the scene where Cledus wades into the pond after Fred.[35]

text: Spinoff[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2013)

text: A series of television movies aired in 1994. The car featured was a Dodge Stealth.


document_title: Experimental psychology

question_text: the first experimental laboratory in psychology in the united states was founded by

question_tokens: the first experimental laboratory in psychology in the united states was founded by

text: Experimental psychology

text: History[edit]

text: Early experimental psychology[edit]

text: Wilhelm Wundt[edit]

text: Experimental psychology emerged as a modern academic discipline in the 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt introduced a mathematical and experimental approach to the field. Wundt founded the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.[2] Other experimental psychologists, including Hermann Ebbinghaus and Edward Titchener, included introspection among their experimental methods.

text: Charles Bell[edit]

text: Charles Bell was a British physiologist, whose main contribution was research involving nerves. He wrote a pamphlet summarizing his research on rabbits. His research concluded that sensory nerves enter at the posterior (dorsal) roots of the spinal cord and motor nerves emerge from the anterior (ventral) roots of the spinal cord. Eleven years later, a French physiologist Francois Magendie published the same findings without being aware of Bell’s research. Due to Bell not publishing his research, the discovery was called the Bell-Magendie law. Bell’s discovery disproved the belief that nerves transmitted either vibrations or spirits.

text: Ernst Heinrich Weber[edit]

text: Weber was a German physician who is credited with being one of the founders of experimental psychology. His main interests were the sense of touch and kinesthesis. His most memorable contribution is the suggestion that judgments of sensory differences are relative and not absolute. This relativity is expressed in "Weber's Law," which suggests that the just-noticeable difference, or jnd is a constant proportion of the ongoing stimulus level. Weber's Law is stated as an equation:

text:
where

I

{\displaystyle I\!}

 is the original intensity of stimulation,

Δ
I

{\displaystyle \Delta I\!}

 is the addition to it required for the difference to be perceived (the jnd), and k is a constant. Thus, for k to remain constant,

Δ
I

{\displaystyle \Delta I\!}

 must rise as I increases. Weber’s law is considered the first quantitative law in the history of psychology.[3]

text: Gustav Fechner[edit]

text: Fechner published in 1860 what is considered to be the first work of experimental psychology, "Elemente der Psychophysik."[4] Some historians date the beginning of experimental psychology from the publication of "Elemente." Weber was not a psychologist, and it was Fechner who realized the importance of Weber’s research to psychology. Fechner was profoundly interested in establishing a scientific study of the mind-body relationship, which became known as psychophysics. Much of Fechner's research focused on the measurement of psychophysical thresholds and just-noticeable differences, and he invented the psychophysical method of limits, the method of constant stimuli, and the method of adjustment, which are still in use.

text: Oswald Külpe[edit]

text: Oswald Külpe is the main founder of the Würzburg School in Germany. He was a pupil of Wilhelm Wundt for about twelve years. Unlike Wundt, Külpe believed experiments were possible to test higher mental processes. In 1883 he wrote Grundriss der Psychologie, which had strictly scientific facts and no mention of thought.[4] The lack of thought in his book is odd because the Würzburg School put a lot of emphasis on mental set and imageless thought.

text: Würzburg School[edit]

text: The work of the Würzburg School was a milestone in the development of experimental psychology. The School was founded by a group of psychologists led by Oswald Külpe, and it provided an alternative to the structuralism of Edward Titchener and Wilhelm Wundt. Those in the School focussed mainly on mental operations such as mental set (Einstellung) and imageless thought. Mental set affects perception and problem solving without the awareness of the individual; it can be triggered by instructions or by experience. Similarly, according to Külpe, imageless thought consists of pure mental acts that do not involve mental images. An example of mental set was provided by William Bryan, an American student working in Külpe’s laboratory. Bryan presented subjects with cards that had nonsense syllables written on them in various colors. The subjects were told to attend to the syllables, and in consequence they did not remember the colors of the nonsense syllables. Such results made people question the validity of introspection as a research tool, and let to a decline of voluntarism and structuralism. The work of the Würzburg School later influenced many Gestalt psychologists, including Max Wertheimer.

text: George Trumbull Ladd[edit]

text: Experimental psychology was introduced into the United States by George Trumbull Ladd, who founded Yale University's psychological laboratory in 1879. In 1887, Ladd published Elements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbook that extensively discussed experimental psychology. Between Ladd's founding of the Yale Laboratory and his textbook, the center of experimental psychology in the US shifted to Johns Hopkins University, where George Hall and Charles Sanders Peirce were extending and qualifying Wundt's work.

text: Charles Sanders Peirce[edit]

text: With his student Joseph Jastrow, Charles S. Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights.[5][6][7][8] Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s.[5][6][7][8] The Peirce–Jastrow experiments were conducted as part of Peirce's pragmatic program to understand human perception; other studies considered perception of light, etc. While Peirce was making advances in experimental psychology and psychophysics, he was also developing a theory of statistical inference, which was published in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–78) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883); both publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics. To Peirce and to experimental psychology belongs the honor of having invented randomized experiments, decades before the innovations of Jerzy Neyman and Ronald Fisher in agriculture.[5][6][7][8]

text: Peirce's pragmaticist philosophy also included an extensive theory of mental representations and cognition, which he studied under the name of semiotics.[9] Peirce's student Joseph Jastrow continued to conduct randomized experiments throughout his distinguished career in experimental psychology, much of which would later be recognized as cognitive psychology. There has been a resurgence of interest in Peirce's work in cognitive psychology.[10][11][12] Another student of Peirce, John Dewey, conducted experiments on human cognition, particularly in schools, as part of his "experimental logic" and "public philosophy."

text: 20th century[edit]

text: In the middle of the 20th century, behaviorism became a dominant paradigm within psychology, especially in the United States. This led to some neglect of mental phenomena within experimental psychology. In Europe this was less the case, as European psychology was influenced by psychologists such as Sir Frederic Bartlett, Kenneth Craik, W.E. Hick and Donald Broadbent, who focused on topics such as thinking, memory and attention. This laid the foundations for the subsequent development of cognitive psychology.

text: In the latter half of the 20th century, the phrase "experimental psychology" had shifted in meaning due to the expansion of psychology as a discipline and the growth in the size and number of its sub-disciplines. Experimental psychologists use a range of methods and do not confine themselves to a strictly experimental approach, partly because developments in the philosophy of science have affected the exclusive prestige of experimentation. In contrast, an experimental method is now widely used in fields such as developmental and social psychology, which were not previously part of experimental psychology. The phrase continues in use, however, in the titles of a number of well-established, high prestige learned societies and scientific journals, as well as some university courses of study in psychology.

text: Methodology[edit]

text: Sound methodology is essential to the study of complex behavioral and mental processes, and this implies, especially, the careful definition and control of experimental variables.

text: Some underlying assumptions of psychological science[edit]

text: [citation needed]

text: As a scientific endeavor, experimental psychology shares several assumptions with most other sciences. Among these are the following.

text: Empiricism[edit]

text: Perhaps the most basic assumption of science is that factual statements about the world must ultimately be based on observations of the world. This notion of empiricism requires that hypotheses and theories be tested against observations of the natural world rather than on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation.

text: Testability[edit]

text: Closely related to empiricism is the idea that, to be useful, a scientific law or theory must be testable with available research methods. If a theory cannot be tested in any conceivable way then many scientists consider the theory to be meaningless. Testability implies falsifiability, which is the idea that some set of observations could prove the theory to be incorrect .[13] Testability has been emphasized in psychology because influential or well-known theories like those of Freud have been difficult to test.

text: Determinism[edit]

text: Experimental psychologists, like most scientists, accept the notion of determinism. This is the assumption that any state of an object or event is determined by prior states. In other words, behavioral or mental phenomena are typically stated in terms of cause and effect. If a phenomenon is sufficiently general and widely confirmed, it may be called a "law"; psychological theories serve to organize and integrate laws.

text: Parsimony[edit]

text: Another guiding idea of science is parsimony, the search for simplicity. For example, most scientists agree that if two theories handle a set of empirical observations equally well, we should prefer the simpler or more parsimonious of the two. A notable early argument for parsimony was stated by the medieval English philosopher William of Occam, and for this reason the principle of parsimony is often referred to as Occam's razor.[14]

text: Operational definition[edit]

text: Some well-known behaviorists such as Edward C. Tolman and Clark Hull popularized the idea of operationism, or operational definition. Operational definition implies that a concept be defined in terms of concrete, observable procedures. Experimental psychologists attempt to define currently unobservable phenomena, such as mental events, by connecting them to observations by chains of reasoning.[15]

text: Experiments[edit]

text: In experiments, human participants often respond to visual, auditory or other stimuli, following instructions given by an experimenter; animals may be similarly "instructed" by rewarding appropriate responses. Since the 1990s, computers have commonly been used to automate stimulus presentation and behavioral measurement in the laboratory. Behavioral experiments with both humans and animals typically measure reaction time, choices among two or more alternatives, and/or response rate or strength; they may also record movements, facial expressions, or other behaviors. Experiments with humans may also obtain written responses before, during, and after experimental procedures. Psychophysiological experiments, on the other hand, measure brain or (mostly in animals) single-cell activation during the presentation of a stimulus using methods such as fMRI, EEG, PET or similar.

text: Control of extraneous variables, minimizing the potential for experimenter bias, counterbalancing the order of experimental tasks, adequate sample size, the use of operational definitions, emphasis on both the reliability and validity of results, and proper statistical analysis are central to experimental methods in psychology. Because an understanding of these matters is important to the interpretation of data in almost all fields of psychology, undergraduate programs in psychology usually include mandatory courses in research methods and statistics.

text: A crucial experiment is an experiment that is intended to test several hypotheses at the same time. Ideally, one hypothesis may be confirmed and all the others rejected. However, the data may also be consistent with several hypotheses, a result that calls for further research to narrow down the possibilities.

text: A pilot study may be run before a major experiment, in order to try out different procedures, determine optimal values of the experimental variables, or uncover weaknesses in experimental design. The pilot study may not be an experiment as usually defined; it might, for example, consist simply of self-reports.[16]

text: In a field experiment, participants are observed in a naturalistic setting outside the laboratory. Field experiments differ from field studies in that some part of the environment (field) is manipulated in a controlled way (for example, researchers give different kinds of toys to two different groups of children in a nursery school). Control is typically more lax than it would be in a laboratory setting.[17]

text: Other methods of research such as case study, interview, opinion polls and naturalistic observation, are often used by psychologists. These are not experimental methods, as they lack such aspects as well-defined, controlled variables, randomization, and isolation from unwanted variables.

text: Reliability and Validity[edit]

text: Reliability[edit]

text: Reliability measures the consistency or repeatability of an observation. For example, one way to assess reliability is the "test-retest" method, done by measuring a group of participants at one time and then testing them a second time to see if the results are consistent. Because the first test itself may alter the results of a second test, other methods are often used. For example, in the "split-half" measure, a groups of participants is divided at random into two comparable sub-groups, and reliability is measured by comparing the test results from these groups, It is important to note that a reliable measure need not yield a valid conclusion.[18]

text: Validity[edit]

text: Validity measures the relative accuracy or correctness of conclusions drawn from a study. To determine the validity of a measurement quantitatively, it must be compared with a criterion. For example, to determine the validity of a test of academic ability, that test might be given to a group of students and the results correlated with the grade-point averages of the individuals in that group. As this example suggests, there is often controversy in the selection of appropriate criteria for a given measure. In addition, a conclusion can only be valid to the extent that the observations upon which it is based are reliable.

text: Several types of validity have been distinguished, as follows:

text: Internal validity[edit]

text: Internal validity refers to the extent to which a set of research findings provides compelling information about causality.[19] High internal validity implies that the experimental design of a study excludes extraneous influences, such that one can confidently conclude that variations in the independent variable caused any observed changes in the dependent variable.

text: External validity[edit]

text: External Validity refers to the extent to which the outcome of an experiment can be generalized to apply to other situations than those of the experiment - for example, to other people, other physical or social environments, or even other cultures.[20][21]

text: Construct validity[edit]

text: Construct validity refers to the extent to which the independent and dependent variables in a study represent the abstract hypothetical variables of interest.[22] In other words, it has to do with whether the manipulated and/or measured variables in a study accurately reflect the variables the researcher hoped to manipulate. Construct validity also reflects the quality of one’s operational definitions. If a researcher has done a good job of converting the abstract to the observable, construct validity is high.

text: Conceptual validity[edit]

text: Conceptual validity refers to how well specific research maps onto the broader theory that it was designed to test. Conceptual and construct validity have a lot in common, but conceptual validity relates a study to broad theoretical issues whereas construct validity has more to do with specific manipulations and measures.

text: Scales of measurement[edit]

text: Measurement can be defined as "the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rules."[23][24] Almost all psychological experiments involve some sort of measurement, if only to determine the reliability and validity of results, and of course measurement is essential if results are to be relevant to quantitative theories.

text: The rule for assigning numbers to a property of an object or event is called a "scale". Following are the basic scales used in psychological measurement.[24]

text: Nominal measurement[edit]

text: In a nominal scale, numbers are used simply as labels – a letter or name would do as well. Examples are the numbers on the shirts of football or baseball players. The labels are more useful if the same label can be given to more than one thing, meaning that the things are equal in some way, and can be classified together.

text: Ordinal measurement[edit]

text: An ordinal scale arises from the ordering or ranking objects, so that A is greater than B, B is greater than C, and so on. Many psychological experiments yield numbers of this sort; for example, a participant might be able to rank odors such that A is more pleasant than B, and B is more pleasant than C, but these rankings ("1, 2, 3 ...") would not tell by how much each odor differed from another. Some statistics can be computed from ordinal measures – for example, median, percentile, and order correlation – but others, such as standard deviation, cannot properly be used.

text: Interval measurement[edit]

text: An interval scale is constructed by determining the equality of differences between the things measured. That is, numbers form an interval scale when the differences between the numbers correspond to differences between the properties measured. For instance, one can say that the difference between 5 and 10 degrees on a Fahrenheit thermometer equals the difference between 25 and 30, but it is meaningless to say that something with a temperature of 20 degrees Fahrenheit is "twice as hot" as something with a temperature of 10 degrees. (Such ratios are meaningful on an absolute temperature scale such as the Kelvin scale. See next section.) "Standard scores" on an achievement test are said to be measurements on an interval scale, but this is difficult to prove.[24]

text: Ratio measurement[edit]

text: A ratio scale is constructed by determining the equality of ratios. For example, if, on a balance instrument, object A balances two identical objects B, then one can say that A is twice as heavy as B and can give them appropriate numbers, for example "A weighs 2 grams" and "B weighs 1 gram". A key idea is that such ratios remain the same regardless of the scale units used; for example, the ratio of A to B remains the same whether grams or ounces are used. Length, resistance, and Kelvin temperature are other things that can be measured on ratio scales. Some psychological properties such as the loudness of a sound can be measured on a ratio scale.[24]

text: Research design[edit]

text: One-way designs[edit]

text: The simplest experimental design is a one-way design, in which there is only one independent variable. The simplest kind of one-way design involves just two-groups, each of which receives one value of the independent variable. A two-group design typically consists of an experimental group (a group that receives treatment) and a control group (a group that does not receive treatment).[25]

text: The one-way design may be expanded to a one-way, multiple groups design. Here a single independent variable takes on three or more levels.[26] This type of design is particularly useful because it can help to outline a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

text: Factorial designs[edit]

text: One-way designs are limited in that they allow researchers to look at only one independent variable at a time, whereas many phenomena of interest are dependent on multiple variables. Because of this, R.A Fisher popularized the use of factorial designs. Factorial designs contain two or more independent variables that are completely "crossed," which means that every level each independent variable appears in combination with every level of all other independent variables. Factorial designs carry labels that specify the number of independent variables and the number of levels of each independent variable there are in the design. For example, a 2x3 factorial design has two independent variables (because there are two numbers in the description), the first variable having two levels and the second having three.

text: Main effects and interactions[edit]

text: The effects of independent variables in factorial studies, taken singly, are referred to as main effects. This refers to the overall effect of an independent variable, averaging across all levels of the other independent variables. A main effect is the only effect detectable in a one-way design.[27] Often more important than main effects are "interactions", which occur when the effect of one independent variable on a dependent variable depends on the level of a second independent variable. For example, the ability to catch a ball (dependent variable) might depend on the interaction of visual acuity (independent variable #1) and the size of the ball being caught (independent variable #2). A person with good eyesight might catch a small ball most easily, and person with very poor eyesight might do better with a large ball, so the two variables can be said to interact.

text: Within- and between-subjects designs[edit]

text: Two basic approaches to research design are within-subjects design and between-subjects design. In within-subjects or repeated measures designs, each participant serves in more than one or perhaps all of the conditions of a study. In between-subjects designs each participant serves in only one condition of an experiment.[28] Within-subjects designs have significant advantages over between-subjects designs, especially when it comes to complex factorial designs that have many conditions. In particular, within-subjects designs eliminate person confounds, that is, they get rid of effects caused by differences among subjects that are irrelevant to the phenomenon under study. However, the within-subject design has the serious disadvantage of possible sequence effects. Because each participant serves in more than one condition, the passage of time or the performance of an earlier task may affect the performance of a later task. For example, a participant might learn something from the first task that affects the second. [29]

text: Experimental instruments[edit]

text: Instruments used in experimental psychology evolved along with technical advances and with the shifting demands of experiments. The earliest instruments, such as the Hipp Chronoscope and the kymograph, were originally used for other purposes. The list below exemplifies some of the different instruments used over the years.

text: Hipp chronoscope / chronograph[edit]

text: This instrument, dating from around 1850, uses a vibrating reed to tick off time in 1000ths of a second. Originally designed for experiments in physics, it was later adapted to study the speed of bullets.[30] After then being introduced to physiology, it was finally used in psychology to measure reaction time and the duration of mental processes.

text: Stereoscope[edit]

text: The first stereoscope was invented by Wheatstone in 1838.[31] It presents two slightly different images, one to each eye, at the same time. Typically the images are photographs of the same object taken from camera positions that mimic the position and separation of the eyes in the head. When one looks through the steroscope the photos fuse into a single image that conveys a powerful sense of depth and solidity.

text: Kymograph[edit]

text: Developed by Carl Ludwig in the 19th century, the kymograph is a revolving drum on which a moving stylus tracks the size of some measurement as a function of time. The kymograph is similar to the polygraph, which has a strip of paper moving under one or more pens. The kymograph was originally used to measure blood pressure and it later was used to measure muscle contractions and speech sounds. In psychology, it was often used to record response times.

text: Photokymographs[edit]

text: This device is a photographic recorder. It used mirrors and light to record the photos. Inside a small box with a slit for light there are two drive rollers with film connecting the two. The light enters through the slit to record on the film. Some photokymographs have a lens so an appropriate speed for the film can be reached.

text: Galvanometer[edit]

text: The galvanometer is an early instrument used to measure the strength of an electric current. Hermann von Helmholtz used it to detect the electrical signals generated by nerve impulses, and thus to measure the time taken by impulses to travel between two points on a nerve.

text: Audiometer[edit]

text: This apparatus was designed to produce several fixed frequencies at different levels of intensity. It could either deliver the tone to a subject’s ear or transmit sound oscillations to the skull. An experimenter would generally use an audiometer to find the auditory threshold of a subject. The data received from an audiometer is called an audiogram.

text: Colorimeters[edit]

text: These determine the color composition by measuring its tricolor characteristics or matching of a color sample. This type of device would be used in visual experiments.[24]

text: Algesiometers and algometers[edit]

text: Both of these are mechanical stimulations of pain. They have a sharp needle-like stimulus point so it does not give the sensation of pressure. Experimenters use these when doing an experiment on analgesia.

text: Olfactometer[edit]

text: An olfactometer is any device that is used to measure the sense of smell. The most basic type in early studies was placing a subject in a room containing a specific measured amount of an odorous substance. More intricate devices involve some form of sniffing device, such as the neck of a bottle. The most common olfactometer found in psychology laboratories at one point was the Zwaardemker olfactometer. It had two glass nasal tubes projecting through a screen. One end would be inserted into a stimulus chamber, the other end is inserted directly into the nostrils.

text: Mazes[edit]

text: Probably one of the oldest instruments for studying memory would be the maze. The common goal is to get from point A to point B, however the mazes can vary in size and complexity. Two types of mazes commonly used with rats are the radial arm maze and the Morris water maze.[32] The radial arm maze consists of multiple arms radiating from a central point. Each arm has a small piece of food at the end. The Morris water maze is meant to test spatial learning. It uses a large round pool of water that is made opaque. The rat must swim around until it finds the escape platform that is hidden from view just below the surface of the water.

text: Electroencephalograph (EEG)[edit]

text: The EEG is an instrument that can reflect the summed electrical activity of neural cell assemblies in the brain. It was originally used as an attempt to improve medical diagnoses. Later it became a key instrument to psychologists in examining brain activity and it remains a key instrument used in the field today.

text: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)[edit]

text: The fMRI is an instrument that can detect changes in blood oxygen levels over time. The increase in blood oxygen levels shows where brain activity occurs. These are rather bulky and expensive instruments which are generally found in hospitals. They are most commonly used for cognitive experiments.

text: Positron emission tomography (PET)[edit]

text: PET is also used to look at the brain. It can detect drugs binding neurotransmitter receptors in the brain. A down side to PET is that it requires radioisotopes to be injected into the body so the brain activity can be mapped out. The radioisotopes decay quickly so they do not accumulate in the body.

text: Some research areas that employ experimental methods[edit]

text: The use of experimental methods was perhaps the main characteristic by which psychology became distinguishable from philosophy in the late 19th century.[33] Ever since then experiments have been an integral part of most psychological research. Following is a sample of some major areas that use experimental methods.

text: Cognitive psychology[edit]

text: Some of the major topics studied by cognitive psychologists are memory, learning, problem solving, and attention. Most cognitive experiments are done in a lab instead of a social setting; this is done mainly to provide maximum control of experimental variables and minimal interference from irrelevant events and other aspects of the situation. A great many experimental methods are used; frequently used methods are described on the main pages of the topics just listed. In addition to studying behavior, experimenters may use fMRI or PET so they are able to see what areas of the brain are active during cognitive processing.

text: Animal cognition[edit]

text: Animal cognition refers to the mental capacities of non-human animals, and research in this field often focuses on matters similar to those of interest to cognitive psychologists using human participants. Cognitive studies using animals can often control conditions more closely and use methods not open to research with humans. In addition, processes such as conditioning my appear in simpler form in animals, certain animals display unique capacities (such as echo location in bats) that clarify important cognitive functions, and animal studies often have important implications for the survival and evolution of species.

text: Sensation and perception[edit]

text: Experiments on sensation and perception have a very long history in experimental psychology (See History above). Experimenters typically manipulate stimuli affecting vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste and proprioception. Sensory measurement plays a large role in the field, covering many aspects of sensory performance - for example, minimum discriminable differences in brightness or the detection of odors; such measurement involves the use of instruments such as the oscillator, attenuator, stroboscope, and many others listed earlier in this article. Experiments also probe subtle phenomena such as visual illusions, or the emotions aroused by stimuli of different sorts.

text: Behavioral psychology[edit]

text: The behavioristic approach to psychology reached its peak of popularity in the mid twentieth century but still underlies much experimental research and clinical application. Its founders include such figures as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Pavlov's experimental study of the digestive system in dogs led to extensive experiments through which he established the basic principles of classical conditioning. Watson popularized the behaviorist approach to human behavior; his experiments with Little Albert are particularly well known. Skinner distinguished operant conditioning from classical conditioning and established the experimental analysis of behavior as a major component in the subsequent development of experimental psychology.

text: Social psychology[edit]

text: Social psychologists use experimental methods, both within and outside the laboratory, in an attempt to understand human social interaction. Two widely cited experiments in social psychology experiment are the Stanford prison experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971 and the Milgram obedience experiment by Stanley Milgram. In both experiments ordinary individuals were induced to engage in remarkably cruel behavior, suggesting that such behavior can be very strongly influenced by social pressure. Because of possible negative effects on the participants, neither of these experiments could be legally performed in the United States today.

text: Institutional review board (IRB)[edit]

text: In the United States, Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) play an important role in monitoring the conduct of psychological experiments. Their presence is required by law at institutions such a universities where psychological research occurs. Their purpose is to make sure that experiments do not violate ethical codes or legal requirements; thus they protect human subjects from physical or psychological harm and assure the humane treatment of animal subjects. An IRB must review the procedure to be used in each experiment before that experiment may begin. The IRB also assures that human participants give informed consent in advance; that is, the participants are told the general nature of the experiment and what will be required of them. There are three types of review that may be undertaken by an IRB - exempt, expedited, and full review. More information is available on the main IRB page.[34]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: There have been several criticisms of experimental psychology.

text: Historians of psychology[edit]

text: Since the 1960s, historians have criticized psychology from postcolonial, social, cultural, and gender perspectives. Kurt Danziger, for instance, argues that psychological experiment had multiple origins, each embedded in a particular social relation. In the Leipzig model, the experimenter and the subject frequently interchanged their roles. In fact, the source of data, the subject, was afforded of a more important role than the experimenter. In the Paris hypnosis model was, in contrast, based on a clear differentiation of the roles of experimenter and of subject, which resembled a doctor-patient relation. The American model innovatively combined these two traditions. It inherited the clear distinction of roles in the Paris model, but turned its interest from analysis of psychological content to the distribution of individual characteristics.[35]

text: Frankfurt school[edit]

text: One school opposed to experimental psychology has been associated with the Frankfurt School, which calls its ideas "Critical Theory." Critical psychologists claim that experimental psychology approaches humans as entities independent of the cultural, economic, and historical context in which they exist. These contexts of human mental processes and behavior are neglected, according to critical psychologists, like Herbert Marcuse. In so doing, experimental psychologists paint an inaccurate portrait of human nature while lending tacit support to the prevailing social order, according to critical theorists like Theodor Adorno and Jürgen Habermas (in their essays in The Positivist Debate in German Sociology).

text: Critical theory has itself been criticized, however. While the philosopher Karl Popper "never took their methodology (whatever that may mean) seriously" (p. 289), Popper wrote counter-criticism to reduce the "'irrationalist' and 'intelligence-destroying'" "political influence" of critical theorists on students (Karl Popper pages 288–300 in [The Positivist Debate in German Sociology]). The critical theorists Adorno and Marcuse have been severely criticized by Alasdair MacIntyre in Herbert Marcuse: An Exposition and Polemic. Like Popper, MacIntyre attacked critical theorists like Adorno and especially Marcuse as obscurantists pontificating dogma in the authoritarian fashion of German professors of philosophy of their era—before World War II—(page 11); Popper made a similar criticism of critical theory's rhetoric, which reflected the culture of Hegelian social studies in German universities (pp. 293–94). Furthermore, MacIntyre ridiculed Marcuse as being a senile revival of the young Hegelian tradition criticized by Marx and Engels (pp. 18–19, 41, and 101); similarly, "critical theory"'s revival of young Hegelianism and its criticism by Karl Marx was noted by Popper (p. 293). Marcuse's support for the political re-education camps of Maoist China was also criticized as totalitarian by MacIntyre (pp. 101–05). More recently, the Critical Theory of Adorno and Marcuse has been criticized as being a degeneration of the original Frankfurt school, particularly the work of empirical psychologist Erich Fromm,[36] who did surveys and experiments to study the development of personality in response to economic stress and social change (Michael Macoby's Preface to Fromm's Social Character in a Mexican Village).