document_title: Small intestine

question_text: where are most nutrients absorbed in the small intestine

text: Small intestine

text: Structure[edit]

text: Size[edit]

text: The length of the small intestine can vary greatly, from as short as 2.75 m (9.0 ft) to as long as 10.49 m (34.4 ft).[3] The typical length in a living person is 3m-5m.[4][5] The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured.[3] Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty.[3]

text: It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age,[6] and 2.5–3 cm (1 inch) in diameter in adults. On abdominal X-rays, the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm.[7][8] On CT scans, a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated.[7][9] The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa, due to enlargement caused by folds, villi and microvilli, averages 30 square meters.[10]

text: Parts[edit]

text: The small intestine is divided into three structural parts.

text:
The duodenum is a short structure ranging from 20 cm (7.9 inches) to 25 cm (9.8 inches) in length, and shaped like a "C".[11] It surrounds the head of the pancreas. It receives gastric chyme from the stomach, together with digestive juices from the pancreas (digestive enzymes) and the liver (bile). The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile emulsifies fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands, which produce a mucus-rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate. These secretions, in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme.
The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum. It is about 2.5 m long, and contains the plicae circulares, and villi that increase its surface area. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here. The suspensory muscle of duodenum marks the division between the duodenum and the jejunum.
The ileum: The final section of the small intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains villi similar to the jejunum. It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids, as well as any other remaining nutrients. The ileum joins to the cecum of the large intestine at the ileocecal junction.

text: The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery. The mesentery is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery.[12]

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery. These are both branches of the aorta. The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery. These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose.  The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery.[13] Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades, which may be several layers deep. Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves.[13]

text: Histology[edit]

text: The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The parts of the intestine are as follows:

text:
Layer
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum

Serosa
1st part serosa, 2nd–4th adventitia
Normal
Normal

Muscularis externa
Longitudinal and circular layers, with Auerbach's (myenteric) plexus in between
Same as duodenum
Same as duodenum

Submucosa
Brunner's glands and Meissner's (submucosal) plexus
No BG
No BG

Mucosa: muscularis mucosae
Normal
Normal
Normal

Mucosa: lamina propria
No PP
No PP
Peyer's patches

Mucosa: intestinal epithelium
Simple columnar. Contains goblet cells, Paneth cells
Similar to duodenum
?

text: Development[edit]

text: The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube.[14] By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.[14]

text: Function[edit]

text: Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter.

text: Digestion[edit]

text: The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.

text: The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:

text:
Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption.[15] Chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine. Proteolytic enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin, are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides. Carboxypeptidase, which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme, splits one amino acid at a time. Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the end amino acid products.
Lipids (fats) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol. Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them, which aids access by pancreatic lipase. This occurs because the lipase is water-soluble but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings. The bile salts emulsify the triglycerides in the watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that are able to enter the villi for absorption.
Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars, or monosaccharides (e.g., glucose). Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates (notably starch) into oligosaccharides. Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine and further handling by intestinal bacteria. Brush border enzymes take over from there. The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase, which further break down oligosaccharides. Other brush border enzymes are maltase, sucrase and lactase. Lactase is absent in some adult humans and, for them, lactose (a disaccharide), as well as most polysaccharides, is not digested in the small intestine. Some carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are not digested at all, despite being made of multiple glucose units. This is because the cellulose is made out of beta-glucose, making the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch, which consists of alpha-glucose. Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta-glucose-bonds, something reserved for herbivores and bacteria from the large intestine.

text: Absorption[edit]

text: Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for "shaggy hair"). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.

text: Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.

text: Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:

text:
Iron is absorbed in the duodenum.
Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum.
Water is absorbed by osmosis and lipids by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine.

text:
Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport
Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.

text: Immunological[edit]

text:
The small intestine supports the body's immune system.[16]  The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host's immune system.
Peyer's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.[17]

text: Gene and protein expression[edit]

text: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum.[18][19] Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa, such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6.  Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum, for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells.[20]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: The small intestine is a complex organ, and as such, there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel. A few of them are listed below, some of which are common, with up to 10% of people being affected at some time in their lives, while others are vanishingly rare.

text:
Small intestine obstruction or obstructive disorders
Meconium ileus
Paralytic ileus
Volvulus
Hernia
Intussusception
Adhesions
Obstruction from external pressure
Obstruction by masses in the lumen (foreign bodies, bezoar, gallstones)
Infectious diseases
Giardiasis
Ascariasis
Tropical sprue
Tape worm (Diphyllobothrium latum, Taenia solium, Hymenolepsis nana)
Hookworm (e.g. Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale)
Nematodes (e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides)
Other Protozoa (e.g. Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora, Microsporidia, Entamoeba histolytica)
Bacterial infections
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
Salmonella enterica
Campylobacter
Shigella
Yersinia
Clostridium difficile (antibiotic-associated colitis, Pseudomembranous colitis)
Mycobacterium (Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis, disseminated Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
Whipple's disease
Vibrio (cholera)
Enteric (typhoid) fever (Salmonella enterica var. typhii) and paratyphoid fever
Bacillus cereus
Clostridium perfringens (gas gangrene)
Viral infections
Rotavirus
Norovirus
Astrovirus
Adenovirus
Calicivirus
Neoplasms (cancers)
Adenocarcinoma
Carcinoid
Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)
Lymphoma
Sarcoma
Leiomyoma
Metastatic tumors, especially SCLC or melanoma
Developmental, congenital or genetic conditions
Duodenal (intestinal) atresia
Hirschsprung's disease
Meckel's diverticulum
Pyloric stenosis
Pancreas divisum
Ectopic pancreas
Enteric duplication cyst
Situs inversus
Cystic fibrosis
Malrotation
Persistent urachus
Omphalocele
Gastroschisis
Disaccharidase (lactase) deficiencies
Primary bile acid malabsorption
Gardner syndrome
Familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome (FAP)
Other conditions
Crohn's disease, and the more general inflammatory bowel disease
Typhlitis (neutropenic colitis in the immunosuppressed
Coeliac disease (sprue or non-tropical sprue)
Mesenteric ischemia
Embolus or thrombus of the superior mesenteric artery or the superior mesenteric vein
Arteriovenous malformation
Gastric dumping syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome
Duodenal (peptic) ulcers
Gastrointestinal perforation
Hyperthyroidism
Diverticulitis
Radiation enterocolitis
Mesenteric cysts
Peritoneal Infection
Sclerosing retroperitonitis
Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth
Endometriosis

text: Other animals[edit]

text:
The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch-like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu
[21]

text: In tetrapods, the ileocaecal valve is always present, opening into the colon. The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts, but is especially so in herbivores, as well as in mammals and birds, which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles. The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates, but only in mammals do these develop into true villi.[21]

text: The boundaries between the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans, and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals, or are essentially arbitrary.[21]

text: There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods.[21]

text: In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.[21]

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: In traditional Chinese medicine, the small intestine is a yang organ.[22]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Small intestine in situ, greater omentum folded upwards.

Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400

Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.

First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.


document_title: Climate of Texas

question_text: where does it rain the most in texas

question_tokens: where does it rain the most in texas

root

text: Climate of Texas

text: Characteristics by region[edit]

text: Northern area[edit]

text:
Monthly normal high and low temperatures (°F) for various Northern Plains cities[1]

City
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Abilene
55/32
61/37
69/44
77/52
85/61
91/69
95/72
94/71
87/64
78/54
65/42
57/34

Amarillo
49/23
54/27
62/34
71/42
79/52
87/61
91/65
89/64
82/56
72/45
58/32
50/24

Lubbock
52/24
58/29
66/36
75/45
83/56
90/64
92/68
90/66
83/58
74/47
62/35
53/26

Midland
60/29
66/34
74/41
82/48
89/58
94/65
96/68
94/67
88/61
80/51
68/39
61/31

San Angelo
58/29
63/34
71/42
79/50
86/59
91/66
95/70
94/68
88/63
79/51
67/39
59/31

Wichita Falls
52/29
58/34
67/41
76/49
84/59
92/68
97/72
96/71
88/64
77/52
64/40
54/31

tag: table

text: The Northern Plains' climate is semi-arid and is prone to drought, annually receiving between 16 and 32 inches (810 mm) of precipitation, and average annual snowfall ranging between 15 and 30 inches, with the greatest snowfall amounts occurring in the Texas panhandle and areas near the border with New Mexico. During the summer, this area of state sees the most clear days.[2] Winter nights commonly see temperatures fall below the freezing mark, or 32 °F (0 °C). The wettest months of the year are April and May.[3] Tornadoes, caused by the convergence of westerly and southerly prevailing winds during the late spring, are common, making the region part of Tornado Alley.[4] Poor land management, drought, and high wind speeds can cause large dust storms, minimized in modern times by improved land-management practices, but most troublesome in the 1930s during the Dust Bowl period.[5] The panhandle region, farthest from the Gulf of Mexico, experiences colder winters than the other regions of Texas, where occasional wintertime Arctic blasts can cause temperatures to plunge to well below freezing and bring snowy conditions.[6]

tag: p

text: Trans Pecos Region[edit]

text: The Trans-Pecos region, also known as Big Bend Country, is in the west-central and western parts of the state, consisting of the Chihuahuan Desert and isolated mountain ranges. During fall, winter, and spring, it experiences the most clear days statewide.[2] It is also the driest receiving an average annual rainfall of only 16 inches (410 mm) or less. Snowfall is rare at lower elevations, although the highest mountain peaks are prone to heavy snowfalls during winter. The arid climate is the main reason for desertification of the land, but overgrazing is slowly widening the land area of that desert. In the mountain areas one can see coniferous forests in a wetter and more temperate environment. The wettest months in this region occur during the summer.[3] Winds are strengthened as they are forced to push through canyons and valleys. In the flatter areas these winds are harvested into usable electricity.

text:
[show]Climate data for El Paso Int'l, Texas (1981–2010 normals, extremes 1879–present)[a]

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
80
(27)
86
(30)
93
(34)
98
(37)
105
(41)
114
(46)
112
(44)
108
(42)
104
(40)
96
(36)
87
(31)
80
(27)
114
(46)

Average high °F (°C)
57.7
(14.3)
63.1
(17.3)
70.3
(21.3)
78.6
(25.9)
87.8
(31)
95.5
(35.3)
94.7
(34.8)
92.4
(33.6)
87.6
(30.9)
78.2
(25.7)
66.2
(19)
57.1
(13.9)
77.4
(25.2)

Daily mean °F (°C)
45.1
(7.3)
50.1
(10.1)
56.6
(13.7)
64.7
(18.2)
73.9
(23.3)
82.0
(27.8)
82.8
(28.2)
81.0
(27.2)
75.5
(24.2)
65.1
(18.4)
53.2
(11.8)
44.8
(7.1)
64.5
(18.1)

Average low °F (°C)
32.5
(0.3)
37.1
(2.8)
42.9
(6.1)
50.7
(10.4)
60.0
(15.6)
68.0
(20)
70.9
(21.6)
69.7
(20.9)
63.3
(17.4)
52.0
(11.1)
40.1
(4.5)
32.5
(0.3)
51.6
(10.9)

Record low °F (°C)
−8
(−22)
1
(−17)
14
(−10)
23
(−5)
31
(−1)
46
(8)
56
(13)
52
(11)
41
(5)
25
(−4)
1
(−17)
−5
(−21)
−8
(−22)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
0.40
(10.2)
0.46
(11.7)
0.26
(6.6)
0.23
(5.8)
0.47
(11.9)
0.94
(23.9)
1.55
(39.4)
2.01
(51.1)
1.51
(38.4)
0.61
(15.5)
0.49
(12.4)
0.78
(19.8)
9.71
(246.6)

Average snowfall inches (cm)
1.3
(3.3)
0.6
(1.5)
0.3
(0.8)
0.8
(2)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
trace
0.8
(2)
3.1
(7.9)
6.9
(17.5)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
3.8
3.4
2.4
1.9
2.7
3.9
8.3
8.7
6.3
4.7
3.1
3.9
53.1

Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in)
1.0
0.4
0.1
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0.1
0.3
1.1
3.2

Average relative humidity (%)
50.5
41.6
32.4
26.9
27.1
29.9
43.9
48.4
50.5
47.1
46.1
51.5
41.3

Mean monthly sunshine hours
254.5
263.0
326.0
348.0
384.7
384.1
360.2
335.4
304.1
298.6
257.6
246.3
3,762.5

Percent possible sunshine
80
85
88
89
90
90
83
81
82
85
82
79
85

Source: NOAA (relative humidity 1962–1990, sun 1961–1990)[7][8][9]

text: Hill Country[edit]

text:
Monthly normal high and low temperatures (°F) for Hill Country cities[1]

City
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Austin
60/40
65/44
73/51
79/58
85/65
91/71
95/73
96/73
90/69
81/60
70/49
62/42

San Antonio
62/39
67/43
74/50
80/57
86/66
91/72
95/74
95/74
90/69
82/59
71/49
64/41

Waco
57/33
62/38
70/46
78/53
84/63
91/70
96/74
96/73
90/66
79/57
68/45
59/36

text: The Texas Hill Country, or central Texas is shaped by its many rivers and hills. The climate is semi-arid west of Brady through Junction to Rocksprings, but it is sub-humid east and south of that area; both areas have hot summers and mild winters with occasional cold spells. Humidity is high during the warm season, though afternoons especially further northwest can see a wind shift and drier air before Gulf air returns after sunset. The vegetation is both deciduous in the river valleys, and coniferous where there is greater elevation. Dry savannas, open woodlands, and shorter grasses dominate the northwest, while closed woodlands and moist savannas mix with taller grasses in the east and south. In a single year the region can receive up to 48 inches (1,200 mm) of precipitation, and flooding is common near rivers and in low-lying areas, while drier years might receive only 12 inches (300 mm) of precipitation; average annual precipitation ranges from 21 inches (530 mm) in western sections up to 35 inches (890 mm) in southeast. The wettest months of the year are April and May.[3]

text: Piney Woods[edit]

text:
Monthly normal high and low temperatures (°F) for various Piney Woods locations[1]

City
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Dallas
55/36
61/41
69/49
77/56
84/65
92/73
96/77
96/76
89/69
79/58
66/47
57/39

Fort Worth
55/31
61/36
68/44
76/52
83/61
91/69
97/72
96/72
89/65
79/55
67/44
58/35

Galveston
62/50
64/52
70/58
75/65
81/72
87/78
89/80
89/79
87/76
80/68
71/59
64/52

Houston
63/45
67/48
74/55
79/61
86/68
91/74
94/75
93/75
89/72
82/62
73/53
65/47

Port Arthur
61/43
65/46
72/52
78/59
84/66
89/72
92/74
92/73
88/69
80/60
71/51
64/45

text: The Piney Woods is the eastern region of Texas and is within the humid subtropical climate zone. It receives the most rainfall; more than 60 inches (1,500 mm) annually in the far east.[1] This is due to the gulf currents that carry humid air to the region, where it condenses and precipitates out in the vicinity of sea breeze fronts as well as when extratropical cyclones move by. While coastal sections see the most cloudy days statewide and year-round, northern sections see the most clear days during the summer.[2] The wettest months of the year are April and May.[3] The area is prone to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes when the proper conditions exist, generally in the springtime. Hurricanes also strike the region, the most disastrous of which was the Galveston Hurricane of 1900.[10] More recently Hurricane Rita pummeled the Golden Triangle of southeast Texas.[11] The higher humidity of the region amplifies the feeling of heat during the summer. During winter and spring along the immediate coast, temperatures are kept cool by relatively cool gulf waters. Dense advection fog can form when warm air moves over the cool shelf waters during February and March, stopping ship traffic for days.

text: South[edit]

text:
Monthly normal high and low temperatures (°F) for southern Texas cities[1]

City
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Brownsville
69/50
72/53
78/59
82/65
87/72
91/75
92/75
93/75
89/73
84/66
77/59
70/52

Corpus Christi
66/46
70/49
76/56
81/62
86/69
90/74
93/74
93/75
90/72
84/64
75/55
68/48

Del Rio
63/40
68/44
76/52
83/59
89/67
94/72
96/74
96/74
91/69
82/61
71/49
63/41

Laredo
68/44
73/48
82/56
89/63
95/70
100/74
102/75
99/75
93/71
86/63
76/53
68/45

Victoria
63/44
67/47
73/54
79/60
85/68
90/73
93/75
94/75
90/70
83/62
73/52
65/45

text: The region of South Texas includes the semiarid ranch country and the wetter Rio Grande Valley. Considered to be the southernmost tip of the American Great Plains region, the inland region has rainfall that is similar to that of the Northern Plains. The coastal areas are nearly warm most of the year due to currents of the Gulf of Mexico, but can get cold in winter if a strong front comes in, and sometimes even causing snow at sea level. Summers are hot and humid. Rain in the coastal region is more abundant than in the inland region, and subtropical forests line the Rio Grande. The wettest months of the year are April and May in western areas, but approaching the Gulf Coast, September becomes the year's wettest month on average. This owes to the threat from tropical weather systems, including hurricanes, which can bring torrential rains of 5-10+ inches in one or two days. The resulting September monthly rainfall maximum prevails, for example, at Corpus Christi, South Padre Island and Brownsville.[3] Inland, where it is drier, ranches dominate the landscape, characterized by thick spiny brush and grasslands. The winters in the inland region are variable, but usually mild, but are subject to Arctic air outbreaks from Canada, Snow is a rare occurrence due to the lack of humidity in winter, and the summers are for the most part hot and dry, but at times can be humid when winds come off the Gulf of Mexico. Tornadoes can occur in this region, but are less frequent than in other parts of the state.

text: The southernmost part of the state falls just within the tropical climate classification. Occasional years of above average temperatures result in an abundance of tropical flora in the lower Rio Grande Valley, typical of a Tropical savanna climat.

text: Cold and snow[edit]

text: Northern and western sections of the state average snowfall annually due to their colder average readings each winter. For one week in February 1956, a snow storm of historic proportions struck northern Texas. The maximum amount measured was 61 inches (150 cm) at Vega with Plainview receiving 24 inches (61 cm) in one day.[12] El Paso, in Far West Texas, received 22.4 in (57 cm) of snow during a 24-hour period December 13–14, 1987.[13] For central and southern sections, snowfall is considerably more unusual. In February 1895, a large area of southeastern Texas received over 12 inches (30 cm) of snow, with peak amounts near 30 inches (76 cm) at Port Arthur.[14] More recently around Christmas of 2004, up to 13 inches (33 cm) of snow fell along the middle coast, with the maximum occurring at Victoria.[15]

text: The worst cold snap to occur statewide occurred during the last half of December in 1983. Four stations recorded their longest continuous readings at or below 32 °F (0 °C) on record. At Austin, the temperature remained at or below freezing for 139 hours. At Abilene, the period at or below freezing totaled 202 hours. Lubbock saw temperatures at or below freezing for 207 hours. The Dallas-Fort Worth airport measured temperatures at or below freezing for a total of 296 consecutive hours. Snow which fell on December 14 and 15 across northern Texas stayed on the ground until New Year's Day of 1984.[16]

text: Severe weather[edit]

text: Thunderstorms are very common in Texas, especially the eastern and northern portion. Texas is part of the Tornado Alley section of the country. The state experiences the most tornadoes in the Union, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle.[4] Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in April, May, and June.[17]

text: Hurricanes[edit]

text: Texas's position at the northwestern end of the Gulf of Mexico makes it vulnerable to hurricanes. Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed approximately 400 people in Indianola, followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town, which was at the time the most important port city in the state. This allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city, but it was subsequently devastated by a hurricane in 1900 that killed approximately 8,000 people (possibly as many as 12,000), making it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history. Other devastating Texan hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston Hurricane, Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Beulah in 1967, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, Hurricane Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Ike in 2008.[18]

text: The climatology of where tropical cyclone strikes are most likely within the state appears to be changing. In the early 1980s, the most favored region during the previous century was the middle coast.[3] However, that region of the coastline has been rarely impacted since the 1960s, and a recent study indicates that the most vulnerable location to a tropical cyclone strike since 1851 is the upper coast, which has received 56 percent of all tropical cyclone landfalls, of which 66 percent originate from the Gulf of Mexico. This is in contrast with Louisiana and the lower Texan coast, where only 39 percent of the landfalls are from tropical cyclones of Gulf of Mexico origin.[19]

text: Flooding[edit]

text: The most serious threat from tropical cyclones for Texans is from flooding. The worst aspect about tropical cyclones is that the weaker they are, the more efficient they can be at producing heavy rains and catastrophic flooding. Systems with sprawling circulations, such as Hurricane Beulah, also tend to make good rainmakers.[20] Slow moving systems, such as Tropical Storm Amelia (1978) and Hurricane Harvey (2017) can produce significant rainfall.[21] Tropical cyclones from the eastern Pacific and Atlantic Basins can impact the Lone Star State.[22] In general, flooding across Texas is more common during the spring and early autumn months, and it can also be due to nearby stationary fronts interacting with strong upper level cyclones.[23] The most likely location for floods statewide is the Balcones Escarpment, an area of steep elevation gradient in central Texas at the boundary between the Edwards Plateau and the coastal plain.[24]

text: Extreme temperatures[edit]

text: The highest temperature ever measured in Texas was 120 °F (48.9 °C), recorded on August 12, 1936 in Seymour, during the 1936 North American Heatwave, and again on June 28, 1994 in Monahans. The lowest temperature ever measured in Texas was −23 °F (−30.6 °C), recorded on February 8, 1933 in Seminole.[25]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Texas

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
98
(37)
104
(40)
108
(42)
113
(45)
116
(47)
120
(49)
119
(48)
120
(49)
116
(47)
110
(43)
102
(39)
98
(37)
120
(49)

Record low °F (°C)
−22
(−30)
−23
(−31)
−12
(−24)
5
(−15)
15
(−9)
32
(0)
40
(4)
39
(4)
25
(−4)
8
(−13)
−10
(−23)
−16
(−27)
−23
(−31)

Source: [26][27]

text: El Niño–Southern Oscillation[edit]

text: The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle is a huge impact on the weather in Texas. During the El Niño phase, the jet stream is located west-to-east across the southern portion of the United States. Therefore, winters in Texas are colder and receive more snowfall than normal. Texas is also less likely to get impacted by hurricanes due to the increased wind shear across the Atlantic. Spring to early summer yields increased rainfall especially where a low pressure system is located over the Four Corners region or northern Mexico which yields monsoon-like climate (which was exacerbated during the 2015 and 2016 spring season where the City of Houston was the hardest hit as if the climate was similar to Mumbai or Kolkata, India with heavy rainfall usually from moisture from the Gulf of Mexico). During the opposite phase, La Niña, the jet stream is much further north, therefore winter is milder and drier than normal. Hurricanes are more likely to impact Texas during La Niña due to decreased wind shear in the Atlantic. Droughts in Texas are much more likely during La Niña. The 2010-11 La Niña is mostly to blame for one of the worst droughts in Texas history.

text: Climate change[edit]

text: Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the US.[28][29] The state's annual carbon dioxide emissions are nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg). Texas would be the world's seventh-largest producer of greenhouse gases if it were an independent nation.[29][30][31] The primary factors in Texas' greenhouse gas emissions are the state's large number of coal power plants and the state's refining and manufacturing industries which provides the bulk of the United States' petroleum products.[29]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ Official records for El Paso kept January 1879 to June 1947 at downtown and at El Paso Int'l since July 1947. For more information, see Threadex

tag: ol


document_title: Super Mario Bros. (film)

question_text: who played mario in the super mario movie

text: Super Mario Bros. (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Sixty-five million years ago, a meteorite crashes into the Earth, killing the dinosaurs and causing the universe to split into two parallel dimensions. The surviving dinosaurs cross over into this new dimension and evolve into a humanoid race.

text: In the present, Italian American plumbers Mario and Luigi live in Brooklyn, New York, running their own plumbing business. They are currently being driven out of business by the mafia-like Scapelli Construction Company led by Anthony Scapelli. Later, Luigi falls in love with an orphaned NYU student named Daisy, who is digging under the Brooklyn Bridge for dinosaur bones. After a date, Daisy takes Luigi back to the bridge only to witness two of Scapelli's men sabotaging it by leaving the water pipes open. Unable to fix the flooding, Luigi and Daisy rush back to his apartment where they inform Mario about the incident. The trio returns to the flooding where the Mario Bros. manage to fix it but are knocked unconscious by Iggy and Spike, who proceed to capture Daisy.

text: Moments later, Mario and Luigi awaken and head deeper into the caves following Daisy's screams and discover an interdimensional portal allowing the Mario Bros. to follow Daisy. It turns out that Iggy and Spike are henchmen (and cousins) of the other world's germophobic and obsessive–compulsive dictator, King Koopa, who descended from the Tyrannosaurus Rex. Iggy and Spike realize they didn't bring Daisy's rock, a meteorite fragment which Koopa is trying to get in order to merge his world with the human world. It is then revealed that Daisy is the long-lost Princess of the other dimension. When Koopa overthrew Daisy's father (and devolved him into fungus), her mother took her to Brooklyn using the interdimensional portal. The portal was then closed, with Daisy's mother killed in the process, but Scapelli's men inadvertently reopened the portal when they blasted the cave. Upon hearing this, Koopa sends Spike and Iggy to find both Daisy and the rock to merge the dimensions and make him dictator of both worlds. However, after Koopa subjects them to one of his experiments to make them more intelligent, Spike and Iggy realize Koopa's evil intentions and side with the Mario Bros. in the desert. Daisy is taken to Koopa-Tower, where she meets a young Yoshi. Koopa informs Daisy that she descended from the dinosaurs, believing only Daisy can merge the worlds because of her royal heritage. Eventually, the Mario Bros. rescue Daisy with the help of Toad, a good-natured guitarist who was punished by Koopa for performing music that protests his reign (for which he is devolved into a Goomba).

text: Eventually, the two worlds merge and Koopa devolves Scapelli into a chimpanzee before going after Mario, but Luigi and Daisy manage to remove the fragment from the meteorite and the worlds separate again. In Dinohattan, Mario confronts Koopa and eventually defeats him when he and Luigi fire their devolution guns at Koopa and blast him with a Bob-omb. Koopa, now transformed into a ferocious, semi-humanoid Tyrannosaurus attempts to kill the Mario Bros., but they destroy him once and for all by transforming him into an actual T. rex, which is too intense for him to live through and instead turns him into primeval slime. With Daisy's father restored after Koopa's defeat, he reclaims control over the kingdom. The citizens celebrate and immediately destroy anything under Koopa's influence. Luigi professes his love for Daisy and wants her to come to Brooklyn with him, but Daisy cannot come until the damage caused by Koopa is repaired and thus, she wants to spend more time with her father. Heartbroken, Luigi kisses Daisy goodbye as he and Mario return home to Brooklyn, with Daisy watching them leave. Three weeks later, the Mario Bros. are getting ready for dinner when their story comes on the news and the anchorman says they should be called the "Super Mario Bros." Daisy then arrives and asks the Mario Bros. to help her and says, "You're never gonna believe this!"

text: In a post-credits scene, two Japanese business executives propose making a video game based on Iggy and Spike, who decide on the title The Super Koopa Cousins.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Bob Hoskins as Mario Mario
John Leguizamo as Luigi Mario
Dennis Hopper as King Koopa
Samantha Mathis as Princess Daisy
Fisher Stevens as Iggy
Richard Edson as Spike
Fiona Shaw as Lena
Mojo Nixon as Toad
Dana Kaminski as Daniella
Francesca Roberts as Big Bertha
Gianni Russo as Anthony Scapelli
Don Lake as Sgt. Simon
Lance Henriksen as The King
Frank Welker as Creature Voices
Dan Castellaneta as Narrator

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: The suggestion for a film based on the Super Mario Bros. was first put forward by Roland Joffé during a script meeting at his production company Lightmotive. Joffé met the Nintendo of America president and Hiroshi Yamauchi's son-in law Minoru Arakawa. He presented Arakawa with an initial draft of the script. One month after their meeting, Joffé went to Nintendo's corporate headquarters in Kyoto spending 10 days waiting to meet Hiroshi Yamauchi. After some time, Joffé received a phone call summoning him to Yamauchi's office. He pitched to Yamauchi the storyline which led to Nintendo receiving interest in the project. When Joffé was questioned about Nintendo having to sell the rights to a small studio company instead of a major company, he believed that Nintendo would have more control over the film.[7] Joffé left with a $2 million contract giving the temporary control of the character of Mario over to Joffé.[8]

text: Four drafts of the script were made. The first draft written by Jim Jennewein and Tom S. Parker focused on a comedic take on fairy tale themes on a story focusing on Mario and Luigi attempting to rescue a princess named Hildy from Koopa.[9]

text: Joffé visited Harold Ramis to offer him the job of being director. Ramis took up the meeting as he was a fan of the Super Mario Bros. game but declined the offer.[10] Rocky Morton and Annabel Jankel were hired to direct based on their work on the television series Max Headroom.[8]

text: Casting[edit]

text: After securing the rights to the film, Lightmotive went to work finding the casting for the characters. Danny DeVito was approached to play Mario and direct the film but wanted to read the script before signing.[11] Arnold Schwarzenegger and Michael Keaton were both approached to play the part of King Koopa. All three actors decided not to accept the offers. Lightmotive managed to secure Tom Hanks for the role of Mario with some film executives believing that Hanks was worth more than the studio could afford.[12] Hanks was later dismissed and replaced with Bob Hoskins, who was believed to be a more profitable actor.[8]

text: Release[edit]

text: Critical reaction[edit]

text: As of September 2, 2017, review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 15% of critics gave positive reviews based on 34 reviews and an average rating of 3.7/10. The site's consensus states: "Despite flashy sets and special effects, Super Mario Bros. is too light on story and substance to be anything more than a novelty."[5]

text: Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune and Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two thumbs down on the television program Siskel & Ebert At the Movies,[13] and the film was on their list for one of the worst films of 1993.[14] Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times disapproved of the film's script.[15] Hal Hinson of the Washington Post praised the film for its spirit and later went on to say, "In short, it's a blast."[16] Janet Maslin of The New York Times said that the film "doesn't have the jaunty hop-and-zap spirit of the Nintendo video game from which it takes – ahem – its inspiration."[17]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: In the Nintendo Power 20th anniversary retrospective issue, as they chronicled the games and other related releases over the magazine's life span, the film's release was listed. The issue stated that despite the film's poor quality, the fact that it was made shows how much the game series had impacted popular culture.[18]

text: Hoskins spoke critically of Super Mario Bros., saying that it was "the worst thing I ever did" and that "the whole experience was a nightmare" in a 2007 interview with The Guardian.[19] In another interview with The Guardian, Hoskins was asked, "What is the worst job you've done?", "What has been your biggest disappointment?", and "If you could edit your past, what would you change?" His answer to all three was Super Mario Bros.[20]

text: Leguizamo also admitted in 2007 that he, too, disliked his role as Luigi in the film, and expressed dissatisfaction with the film's direction. He said in his biography that perhaps the reason why the film turned out the way it did was that the studio wanted a more family friendly film while the directors wanted it to be more adult-like. He also said that both he and Hoskins did not enjoy working on the film, frequently getting drunk to go through it, knowing that it would turn out bad.[21]

text: Hopper was also disparaging of the production, "It was a nightmare, very honestly, that movie. It was a husband and wife directing team who were both control freaks and wouldn't talk before they made decisions. Anyway, I was supposed to go down there for five weeks, and I was there for 17. It was so over budget."[22]

text: Shigeru Miyamoto, Mario's creator, stated, "[In] the end, it was a very fun project that they put a lot of effort into," but also said, "The one thing that I still have some regrets about is that the movie may have tried to get a little too close to what the Mario Bros. video games were. And in that sense, it became a movie that was about a video game, rather than being an entertaining movie in and of itself."[23] Nintendo has not produced any more live-action theatrical films based from their video game franchises. Since then, a Metroid film was put into development but plans eventually fell through.[24] A live action/CGI hybrid Pokémon film is also in development at Legendary Pictures, set to be released by Universal Pictures.[25]

text: Co-director Rocky Morton reflected on the movie in 2016 as a "harrowing" experience. He explained that he and Annabel Jenkel, along with the rest of the cast, agreed to make the movie based on the script originally written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, which focused on Mario and Luigi's complicated but loving family dynamic that they had developed in the absence of their parents. A few weeks before shooting was to begin, the studio financing the film demanded significant rewrites to make the film more childlike and comedic. The final result, according to Morton, was a script that was not at all like the script that he, Jenkel, and the cast had signed on to film, and that the tone of the new script was not at all compatible with the sets, which had already been built. Morton also reflected that he felt very uneasy being put in the position of having to defend the new script. In addition, working with Dennis Hopper was "really, really hard. Really hard. I don’t think [Dennis Hopper] had a clue what was going on." Despite describing the overall experience as humiliating,[26] Morton is proud of the film considering the chaos created as a result of the late and unexpected script rewrites.[27]

text: In 2013, Steven Applebaum and Ryan Hoss teamed with one of the original film's writers to create a Webcomic sequel to the film, published to the internet the same year. The comic sees Mario and Luigi returning to Dinohattan with Daisy to tend to her revived father, only to find out that Wart is planning to overthrow the city.[28][29]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was first released on Blu-ray by independent distributor Second Sight Films in the United Kingdom on November 3, 2014.[30][31][32] The film was re-released on Blu-ray in February 2017.[33]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Super Mario Bros.

Soundtrack album by Various Artists

Released
May 10, 1993

Genre
Pop
Rock
Metal
Funk
Hip hop
Soul
Jazz rap

Length
55:16

Label
Capitol Records

Producer
Various Artists

Singles from Super Mario Bros.

"Almost Unreal"
Released: 10 May 1993

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[34]

Entertainment Weekly
D[35]

text: The soundtrack, released on May 10, 1993 by Capitol Records, featured two songs from Roxette: "Almost Unreal" which was released as a single, and "2 Cinnamon Street" which is an alternate version of the song "Cinnamon Street" from Roxette's album "Tourism". The music video for "Almost Unreal" was inspired by the film, featuring scenes from the film and a de-evolution theme. "Almost Unreal" was originally written for the film Hocus Pocus but was never used and ended up attached to the Mario film instead. The change angered Roxette co-founder Per Gessle.[36]

text: The film's score was composed by Alan Silvestri. It has not been officially released, though bootleg copies do exist.

text: George Clinton (who covered the Was (Not Was) song - "Walk The Dinosaur") released a single in 1993 that contained various other versions of the same song, including a Club Remix, a "Funky Goomba" Remix, a "Goomba Dub Mix" and an Instrumental version.

text:
Track listing

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Performed by
Length

1.
"Almost Unreal"
Per Gessle
Roxette
3:59

2.
"Love Is the Drug" (Originally performed by Roxy Music)
Bryan Ferry, Andy Mackay
Divinyls
4:35

3.
"Walk the Dinosaur" (Originally performed by Was (Not Was))
Randy Jacobs, David Was, Don Was
George Clinton & The Goombas
4:06

4.
"I Would Stop the World"
Mick Leeson, Peter Vale
Charles & Eddie
4:24

5.
"I Want You"
Donnie Wahlberg
Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch
6:11

6.
"Where Are You Going?"

Extreme
4:34

7.
"Speed of Light"
Joe Satriani
Joe Satriani
5:10

8.
"Breakpoint"
Dave Mustaine, David Ellefson, Nick Menza
Megadeth
3:29

9.
"Tie Your Mother Down"
Brian May
Queen
3:46

10.
"Cantaloop (Flip Fantasia)"
Herbie Hancock, Rahsaan Kelly, Mel Simpson, Geoff Wilkinson
Us3 Featuring Rahsaan & Gerrard Prescencer
4:29

11.
"Don't Slip Away [ * ]"
Tracie Spencer, Narada Michael Walden, Sylvester Jackson
Tracie Spencer
5:19

12.
"2 Cinnamon Street [ * ]"

Roxette
5:06

Total length:
55:16

text: * These tracks were not included in the U.S. and Canada releases, only on the international versions of the album.[37]

text: Note: "2 Cinnamon Street" (sung by Marie Fredriksson) is an alternative version of "Cinnamon Street" sung by Per Gessle on Roxette's 1992 album "Tourism".[38]

text:
Mario portal
Film in the United States portal
Science fiction portal
Comedy portal
1990s portal
Nintendo portal

text: Future Mario film[edit]

text: On November 14, 2017, Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment announced they will release a computer-animated Mario film.[39] On January 31, 2018, Nintendo of America announced their partnership with Illumination, stating that the film will be co-produced by Shigeru Miyamoto and Chris Meledandri.[40]


document_title: Wish You Well (film)

question_text: where was the movie wish you well filmed

text: Wish You Well (film)

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Wish You Well is a 2013 theatrical family film directed by Darnell Martin, written by David Baldacci from his novel, and starring Mackenzie Foy, Josh Lucas and Ellen Burstyn.  The movie is set in rural Virginia during the 1940s.  Foy and Burstyn, who play granddaughter and grandmother in this film, both portrayed "Murph" Cooper at radically different ages in Interstellar the following year.  The supporting cast features Ned Bellamy and Laura Fraser, the cinematographer was Frank Prinzi, and the music was by Paul Cantelon.  The film was shot in Giles County, Virginia, near the southeastern border of West Virginia.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Mackenzie Foy	...
Lou Cardinal
Josh Lucas	...
Cotton Longfellow
Ellen Burstyn	...
Louisa Mae Cardinal
Ned Bellamy	...
George Davis
JP Vanderloo ...	Oz Cardinal
Alano Miller	...
Eugene Randall
Seamus Davey-Fitzpatrick	...
Diamond Skinner
Antonio Ducrot	...
Billy Davis
Laura Fraser	...
Amanda Cardinal