document_title: Nonpoint source water pollution regulations in the United States

question_text: how are point sources of pollution regulated by the cwa

text: Basis for controls and regulations[edit]

text: The basis for nonpoint source pollution regulation is the negative direct and indirect effects on both human health and the environment caused by the pollutants in NPS effluent.

text: Human health[edit]

text: Human health is most directly affected when polluted water is ingested into the body.  Nonpoint source pollution can often have toxic contaminants and chemicals present in the water.  Additionally, there can be both bacteria and viruses (aka pathogens) found in the water.

text: Toxic contaminants and chemicals[edit]

text: Effluent from nonpoint sources may include toxic contaminates and chemical compounds including heavy metals like lead, mercury, zinc, and cadmium, organics like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and  polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other substances resistant to breakdown .[3] There are many health effects associated with many of these toxic substances.

text:
Lead - can cause damage to the nervous connections as well as blood and brain disorders. Specific diseases include nephropathy, colic-like abdominal pains, and anemia.[4][5]
Mercury - Studies have shown effects such as chronic effects including tremors, impaired cognitive skills, and sleep disturbances.[6][7] Acute exposure has shown to cause chest pain, dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment of pulmonary function, and evidence of damage to the lung tissue.[8]
Zinc - The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has stated that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose, which can cause loss of the sense of smell. Additionally, zinc toxicosis can occur in high doses of zinc.[9]
Cadmium - Exposure to cadmium-containing substances can result initially in metal fume fever but can progress to chemical lung damage, pulmonary edema, and even death.[10]
PCBs - People exposed to high levels of PCBs can exhibit skin conditions, such as rashes and liver damage. Common symptoms include dermal and ocular lesions, irregular menstrual cycles and lowered immune responses.[11][12][13] Other symptoms include fatigue, headaches, coughs, and unusual skin sores.[14]
PAHs - The EPA has classified seven PAH compounds as probable human carcinogens: benz[a]anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, chrysene, dibenz(a,h)anthracene, and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene.[15]

text: Pathogens[edit]

text: Pathogens are bacteria and viruses that can be found in water and cause diseases in humans.[3] Pathogens found in contaminated runoff may include:

text:
Cryptosporidium parvum - Primary symptoms of C. parvum infection are diarrhoea. Other symptoms can include anorexia, nausea/vomiting and abdominal pain.[16]
Giardia lamblia - Symptoms of infection include diarrhea, malaise, excessive gas, steatorrhoea, epigastric pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, diminished interest in food, and weight loss.[17]
Salmonella - Symptoms are usually gastrointestinal. This can include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and bloody diarrhea with mucus, headache, and fatigue.[18]
Parasitic worms (helminths) - Conditions associated with intestinal helminth infection include intestinal obstruction, insomnia, vomiting, weakness, and stomach pains.[19]

text: Environment[edit]

text: The environment is impacted by nonpoint source pollution through the input of sediment and nutrients from multiple sources directly into the water system.

text: Toxic contaminants and chemicals[edit]

text: Toxic chemicals and contaminants, like motor oil, fuel, and industrial facility waste can enter the water system by storm water runoff.  These chemicals, many of which can contain heavy metals, can enter the water system and coat the species present in the water.[20] This can lead to death of the aquatic organisms which can cause increases in the amount of nutrients in the system from the decaying animals.

text: Sediment[edit]

text: Sediment or suspended sediment in the water is soil that would not normally be present in the water column.  When the sediment is suspended up in the water column, it blocks out the sunlight which is needed by bottom dwelling plants.  If these plants, called submerged aquatic vegetation, are deprived of sunlight for a significant amount of time, they will die. These plants are a significant source of food for many aquatic organisms as well as trap oxygen and sediment.[20]  When there is an excess of dying plants in an aquatic ecosystem, it can lead to eutophic or hypoxic conditions in the water body.

text: Nutrients[edit]

text: The primary nutrients found in water due to nonpoint source pollution are nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizers.  An influx of these nutrients can lead to eutrophication within the water.  This is when there is an excess of nutrients in water, thus leading to an explosion in the growth of algae.  The algae can cover the lake and block sunlight from reaching the organisms below, typically killing them.[20]

text: Legal framework[edit]

text: NPS water pollution is regulated at the federal, state, and local level. Yet, the pollution persists and remains a significant problem. There are a number of reasons why current regulations have failed to stem the flow of pollution. NPS water pollution comes from numerous and diverse sources, and control measures are expensive to implement.[21] Also, local governments are generally responsible for implementing NPS regulations. Coordination among localities can be difficult, and, furthermore, localities often lack the incentive to rigorously enforce NPS regulations because their NPS pollution is exported downriver, where other towns and cities must deal with the consequences.[21] This section will introduce the laws currently in place at the federal, state, and local level that regulate NPS water pollution. It will also discuss some of the successes and failures of those regulations.

text: Federal laws[edit]

text: There are three primary federal laws effecting NPS water pollution: the Clean Water Act, the Clean Water Action Plan, and the Coastal Zone Management Act.

text: Clean Water Act[edit]

text: The legal framework referred to as the "Clean Water Act" (CWA) has its statutory basis in the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which was the first federal regulation designed to address water pollution.[22]  The Clean Water Act has been amended many times, but the CWA amendments of 1972 provide the core statutory basis for the regulation of point source water pollution and created the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permit program.[23] The CWA amendments of 1972 were also the first instance where Congress acknowledged the problem of NPS water pollution through the passage of section 208 of the CWA.[24] Congress passed additional amendments to the CWA in 1987 that address NPS water pollution. This section will chronologically address the parts of the CWA that regulate NPS water pollution.

text: Defining NPS water pollution in the CWA[edit]

text: The definition of NPS water pollution is open to interpretation. However, federal regulation under the CWA provides a specific legal definition for the term. A "nonpoint source" is defined as any source of water pollution that is not a "point source" as defined in section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act.[25]  That definition states: "The term 'point source' means any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may be discharged. This term does not include agricultural storm water discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture."

text: There are important differences between point source pollution and NPS pollution. There are many more nonpoint sources than there are point sources, and they are more discrete than nonpoint sources. Furthermore, nonpoint source discharges are not always easily observed, and monitoring nonpoint pollution can be costly. Another difference is that NPS pollution will vary over time and space based on different weather and geographic conditions. All the above factors make nonpoint pollution more difficult to regulate than point sources.[26]

text: Section 208[edit]

text: Section 208 was Congress' first attempt to regulate NPS water pollution, and it directed states and local governments to create management plans that identified future waste treatment needs and identify and control NPS water pollution.[24] The section notes that any areawide management plan must discuss how to identify "agriculturally and silviculturally related nonpoint sources of pollution," and "runoff from manure disposal areas, and from land used for livestock and crop production."[27] Section 208 is in essence a federal funding mechanism for state programs that attempt to control NPS pollution, but its meager funding was completely used up by 1980.[24] Section 208 was widely considered a failure because it did little to actually reduce NPS pollution.[28] It created a voluntary provision that directs states to study whether regulatory controls are needed. The section placed full control over regulation of NPS water pollution with the states and did not provide any mechanisms to actually control NPS water pollution.[24]

text: Section 319[edit]

text: After section 208's failure to control NPS water pollution, in 1987 Congress passed the Water Quality Act and created the new section 319 to address the problem of nonpoint sources. However, some critics have argued that section 319 provides little improvement over section 208.[24] The section requires states to identify water bodies that cannot meet water-quality standards without control of nonpoint sources.[29]  The states must then identify best management practices and measures for those impaired sources, along with an implementation plan.[29] The EPA approves these plans, and if a state fails to develop a plan, the EPA must do so for the state. However, there are a number of problems with these provisions. Funding to develop the plans has been scarce.[24]  The section does not actually place limits on NPS pollution, and states are not even required implement the plans they create.[24] Another problem with 319 (and 208) is that there is no enforcement mechanism[30] In the case Natural Resource Defense Council v. EPA, 915 F.2d 1314, 1318 (9th Cir. 1990), the court held that "Section 319 does not require states to penalize nonpoint source polluters who fail to adopt best management practices; rather it provides for grants to encourage the adoption of such practices."

text: Section 404[edit]

text: Section 404 of the CWA requires that a permit be obtained from the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers for the "discharge of dredged and fill material into the navigable waters at specified disposal sites."[31] The 404 permit process is frequently used to protect wetlands, which are essential to the control of nonpoint pollution because they slow the rate of surface water runoff and remove sediment and other pollutants before they reach lakes and streams.[32]  While these permitting procedures may result in decreased NPS water pollution to wetlands, developers may simply relocate to an alternative location and still cause the release of NPS water pollution.[21]

text: Total maximum daily loads (TMDL)[edit]

text: CWA section 303(d)(1)(C) requires states to identify waterbodies that do not meet water quality standards after application of the technology-based standards for point source pollution. States must then establish a TMDL for those water bodies to bring them into compliance with water quality standards. The standards are submitted to the EPA for approval. As TMDLs are looking at the total amount of loading, this by definition includes nonpoint sources, so if nonpoint sources are impairing a body of water, the TMDL would have to address a way to reduce those nonpoint sources.[33] In the case of Pronsolinoz v. Nastri, 291 F.3d 1123 (9th Cir. 2002), the court held that TMDLs are required even if a body of water fails to meet quality standards entirely due to nonpoint sources.

text: Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations[edit]

text: Depending on the number of animals at a particular site, Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) may generate significant amounts of manure. One method to remove the manure is to apply it to land for fertilization. However, in an effort to dispose of manure at a reduced costs, some CAFOs have applied excess amounts of manure to land areas. The excess amounts of manure may then be washed away by rain into surface waters. This practice was a key feature in the U.S. Court of Appeals case Waterkeeper Alliance, et al. v. EPA, 399 F.3d 486 (2d Cir. 2005). Based on that case, the EPA created its 2008 CAFO Rule. The Rule notes that the CWA specifically exempts agricultural storm water runoff from being considered a point source, but, based on the Court of Appeals' decision in the Waterkeeper case, the EPA may treat land applications of excessive amounts of manure as a point source. So while in general agricultural storm water runoff from CAFOs is a nonpoint source, CAFOs may end up requiring a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permit under the CWA.

text: Clean Water Action Plans[edit]

text: There have been two "clean water action plans" proposed by federal authorities that would affect NPS water pollution. They are both executive orders, not pieces of legislation from Congress. The first was a proposal from President Bill Clinton in 1998.[34] The second, and more recent, proposal was from the Obama administration in 2009.[35]  Both proposals provide funding and guidance to address NPS water pollution.

text: Coastal Zone Management Act[edit]

text: The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) was passed in 1972 and provides for the management of the nation's coast lands and the Great Lakes.[36] When Congress reauthorized the CZMA in 1990, it identified NPS water pollution as a significant factor in the degradation of coastal waters.[37]  To address NPS water pollution in coastal areas, the 1990 amendments to the CZMA created the Coastal Zone Enhancement Grants (CZEG) Program.[38] The states must submit information on their programs to the Secretary of Commerce and the EPA Administrator, who are in charge of approving the plan. The plan is to be implemented in conjunction with the states NPS water pollution plan under section 319 of the CWA[39] and through changes in the overall coastal zone management program.[40] If a state does not submit an approved program, the state may lose a percentage of the grant money provided under the CZMA and under section 319 of the CWA.[41] The EPA is also to provide some guidance to states in developing their NPS coastal management plans through the publication of national guidelines on management measures.[42] These management measures must be economically achievable for new and existing NPS water pollution and must reduce pollution to the greatest extent achievable through the current best management practices.[43]

text: State & local laws[edit]

text: States have primary responsibility for implementing NPS water pollution regulations. Both the CZMA and the CWA direct the states to draft and implement NPS plans, and the federal government plays a limited role. As noted in the previous section on federal regulations, the CWA and CZMA provide financing for states to implement NPS programs, and those NPS programs have taken a variety of forms.[44]  The majority of state plans rely on education and technical assistance, including the development of best management practices, to reduce NPS water pollution.[45] Local governments also have an important role to play in NPS regulation. Local municipality, water conservation districts and other entities with land management responsibility provide planning, zoning, and technical and informational assistance to control NPS pollution.[46] While the approaches states and local governments have taken to regulating NPS water pollution are perhaps too numerous to count, a survey of a few state approaches can provide insight on common NPS implementation plans.

text: Indiana[edit]

text: Indiana uses a common approach to address NPS pollution known as the watershed approach.[47] A watershed includes "the total geographic area that drains storm water (and pollutants) to a particular stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body."[48]  The watershed approach to addressing NPS water pollution attempts to address all the relevant water bodies holistically in the context of their watershed while also considering all the potential sources of pollution within a watershed.

text: The Indiana Department of Environmental Management (IDEM) was required under section 303(d) of the CWA to create a list of impaired waters for which TMDLs would be required.[49] IDEM's NPS and watershed efforts concentrate on these impaired water resources.[47] Implementation of TMDLs is managed by local watershed organizations, and NPS pollution controls are only voluntary.[50]  Watershed groups use funding from IDEM to create incentive programs for the use of best management practices, as well as provide public information and education.[50] Funding sources for NPS pollution regulation in Indiana include CWA 319(h) grants; CWA 205(j) grants; grants from the Environmental Quality Incentives Program of the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008; and a wide variety of foundations and individual fundraising.[51] Zoning ordinances may also be structured in a way that limits NPS water pollution.

text: California[edit]

text:
California's NPS plan requires coordination from 28 different state agencies,[52]  which reveals the institutional challenges NPS regulation may encounter.[53]  The State Water Resources Control Board's Division of Water Quality and the California Coastal Commission (CCC), designed California's NPS plan pursuant to the CWA and the Federal Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments of 1990.[54] California's NPS plan for 1998-2013 is available here: http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/nps/docs/planvol1.pdf. The plan notes that California, like Indiana, uses a watershed management approach to controlling NPS pollution.[53]
The plan began by identifying roughly 1,500 water body-pollutant combinations that would require a TMDL under the CWA section 303(d).[53]

text: The plan takes a three tiered approach to implement management measures for NPS pollution. The first tier considers "self-determined implementation of best management practices."[53] This essentially considers voluntary programs, grants, and education. California has a number of educational programs designed to help alert local policymakers to the problems associated with NPS pollution, including the California Water and Land Use Partnership and the Model Urban Runoff Program.[52] Incentive programs under this tier include measure like financial assistance for local watershed stewardship projects through grants from the CWA section 319 and environmental quality incentives programs for implementation cost-sharing.[53] The first tier is less stringent than tiers two or three.[53] The second tier of the plan is called the "regulatory-based encouragement of management practices."[53] The second tier essentially works by allowing polluters to adopt certain managements measures that discourage NPS pollution rather than go through various permitting procedures. Regional water quality control boards may work with landowners and resource managers to waive the adoption of waste discharge requirements (WDRs), a type of effluent limitation, if a polluter adopts certain BMPs.[53] The third tier is called "effluent limitations and enforcement."[53] The effluent limitations may be set at a level where the only realistic manner of compliance is the adoption of BMPs.[53] These limitations are command and control requirements for some activities, including for example WDRs for commercial nurseries, WDRs for selenium for the San Joaquin River, permitted storm water programs, erosion Control for Lake Tahoe, and WDRs for dairies.[53]

text: A number of these regulations are derived from California's Porter-Cologne Act, which established the State Water Resources Control Board, along with nine regional boards that are tasked with implementing the Porter Cologne Act.[53] The Act created state water quality standards that the boards must enforce.[53] WDRs are one direct regulation California government agencies use under the Act to regulate NPS pollution.[53] California has a number of other pieces of legislation that address NPS pollution, like the California Coastal Act and the California Environmental Quality Act.[53]

text: Policy instruments and regulatory approaches[edit]

text: There are five primary stakeholders involved in NPS water pollution regulation: government agencies, environmental advocacy groups, potentially regulated entities, and the public. Government stakeholders are government agencies responsible for regulating NPS pollution. In addition to scientific results, agencies are concerned with how new regulations may influence their funding.  Environmental advocacy stakeholders are organizations that aim to solve environmental problems, such as the Natural Resources Defense Council.  These groups focus on the involvement of concerned citizens. The potentially regulated entities are the industries that will be regulated under new regulation.[55] The public is a key stackholder group, and various measures have been taken to engage the public on NPS water pollution, including the publication of citizen handbooks on NPS water pollution[56] and online information.[57]  Environmental regulations for nonpoint sources must be expressed in directives that are specifically understandable by the regulatory target and enforceable by subsequent government intervention. The legal section above noted a number of policy options that have been used for regulating NPS water pollution. Some of the options include: volunteerism, command and control regulations, incentive based instruments, design standards, emissions limits, product bans, trading systems, subsidies, liability rules, and other options.

text: Volunteerism[edit]

text: Volunteerism mainly depends on polluters' moral constraints and social pressure. Public education and information about nonpoint pollution provide control mechanism. This is a weak, but common, option for NPS regulation when compared to other regulatory options. It is weak because it doesn't require any action be taken; it relies on polluters taking action themselves.

text: Command and control[edit]

text: Command and control policies are direct government regulations.[58]   The Clean Water Act (CWA) is designed with this kind of direct command and control regulation for point source pollution. However, command and control regulations through the CWA apply to nonpoint source pollution a lesser extent. Total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) are one tool in the CWA that directly regulates NPS effluent. As noted earlier, the CWA requires state governments to set TMDLs based on both point source and NPS effluent. However, conventional command and control policies could potentially influence industry structure and cause political reluctance in the event that it could bankrupt businesses.[59]

text: Economic incentives[edit]

text: Incentive based instruments include performance incentives, like taxes on nonpoint pollution sources; design incentives, like subsidies on inputs and control technology; market-based approaches, like trading and/or abatement allowances. Economic incentives are frequently used to control NPS pollution, and include things like the CWA section 319 and 208 grants. Below, different economic incentives are listed along with explanations and how they apply to NPS pollution.

text: Design standards or technology specifications[edit]

text: These types of regulations specify how a certain plant, piece of machinery, or pollution control apparatus should be designed. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have written numerous design standards on the assumption that a particular technology exists whose performance can meet the regulations. A regulatory target may prudently decide its safest course to compliance is to install that technology.

text: Design-based standards are widely applied to agricultural nonpoint sources, including Best Management Practices (BMPs) on cropland. For example, there can be a mandatory establishment of riparian buffer strips between the cropland and neighboring water bodies. There are also restrictions on where and at what rates agricultural chemicals can be applied to crops. Design based standards require an effective measurement approach, like Best Management Practices, while performance standards require polluters to emit only a specified amount.[26][60]

text: Performance standards or emission limits[edit]

text: Performance standards or emission limits are types of regulations that set an objective or performance level for the regulatory target to meet. What makes these regulatory approaches unique is that they do not specify how the polluter must meet the standard. These regulations can include emission limits that specify the rate, amount, and kinds of pollutants that may be emitted from a given source over a specific period. The EPA's various effluent limitations for water pollution under the Clean Water Act are simply a few of the many environmental regulations that are nominally performance standards.

text: Product bans and use limitations[edit]

text: These prohibit a product or activity or limit its use. Product bans and limitations apply to NPS pollution through restrictions on things like chemicals, pesticides, and food additives. For example, farmers were banned from using the insecticide DDT in 1972 for their crops because it was found to be harmful to humans and wildlife.[61]

text: Marketable allowances and trading system[edit]

text: Marketable allowances are a regulatory approach that allows companies to buy and sell pollution rights. This type of regulation uses market forces to ensure that pollution is reduced in the least costly manner to the polluter. Under a marketable allowance system, there is a presumption that permits will be traded to those companies which have the highest pollution abatement costs. These companies would then sell their allowances to other companies for whom such reductions would be more expensive.

text: Auctions to effectively allocate resources, like public pollution control expenses, could increase competition and maximize revenues in private markets for pollution control. This mechanism could also used to improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of government programs. This mechanism provides better market-based information to allocate resources effectively with lower cost. The societal goal is to reduce pollution rather than to avoid paying for unsuccessful pollution control projects. Auctions for public pollution control expenses could be a way to deal with some of the most intractable sources of pollution including nonpoint pollution sources. The government could accept bids based on units of cost per units of pollution reduced and it could pay based on proof of actual pollution reductions based on a performance measurement.[60][62]

text: An optimal economical trading ratio for tradable permits, like through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), which defines allowable emissions or loading amount for polluters that hold a permit. The number of polluters then becomes the key factor for this instrument. Based on the stochastic nature of nonpoint pollution, NPDES permit system for point sources can not simply be used on nonpoint sources. Although many literature reviews mention tradable permits between point sources and nonpoint sources, unfortunately, current economic literature provides little guidance as to how to set trading ratios. Important factors like environmental risk and relative contributions to ambient pollution are critical to designing the appropriate ratio.[63]

text: Pollution taxes or emission charges[edit]

text: Pollution taxes and emission charges can internalize the social costs of activities that damage public health or the environment. Emission charges are based on the polluter pays principle, to provide added incentive for emission reduction.

text: A Pigouvian tax, levied on the pollution generated, uses a market mechanism to limit the amount of pollution, ultimately obtaining a socially optimal level. It not only aligns private interest with public efficiency, but also creates incentives for polluters to develop more efficient technologies to reduce nonpoint source pollution.

text: The application of a Pigouvian tax does generate some concern.  The first concern is regarding agriculture.  As stated by the EPA, agriculture is the leading source of nonpoint source pollution.  A tax on pollution will negatively financially impact agriculture to a greater extent, an industry that already suffers from low profit margins.

text: The second problem deals with monitoring nonpoint source pollution.  One of the most significant characteristics of NPS pollution is that its source cannot often be pinpointed, so monitoring may not be practically possible. In the case of agriculture, one basis for NPS controls would be to tax farmers based on the amount of erosion they cause. However, measuring erosion and topsoil is expensive. Another way is to impose special purpose district property taxes on farmland that does not adopt best management practices or employ methods to reduce nonpoint source pollution.[64]

text: Another option is to tax farmers based on the amount of fertilizer and pesticides they use.  Taxes on pesticides, however, would be limited by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) which takes into account economic impacts. However, a tax on pesticides would only reduce one source of agricultural NPS pollution and would ignore other important sources, such as livestock waste runoff from Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs).

text: Research done by Segerson  "demonstrated that taxes-based approaches on ambient water quality can achieve an efficient level of nonpoint pollution, with a uniform tax appropriate for heterogeneous farmers only when marginal benefits of abating pollution are constant." [65] When marginal damages from pollution are uncertain, a cost-effectiveness approach is often the most useful framework. The most cost-effective policy is one that has the smallest deadweight loss in achieving certain policy goals. One case study in Salinas Valley in California shows a water-only tax at about $0.21/mm-ha would achieve a 20% reduction, cost roughly $138 in tax payment; a nitrogen-only tax at $0.76/kg associated with a tax bill of $79 could also achieve a 20% reduction.[65]

text: Subsidies[edit]

text:
Subsidies are the converse of taxes. Corporate investments beneficial to the environment can be encouraged by providing companies with public funds, tax breaks, or other benefits to subsidize such activities. In the past, subsidies frequently promoted environmentally destructive activities. Elimination of such subsidies can be a means to promote environmental protections. However, subsidy programs are not without problems. They are often difficult to revise or abandon, may result in a freerider effect, and may have unintended effects that negate some benefits [66]
The federal government has provided a number of subsidies to state NPS programs. The CZMA, for example, provides funds for state coastal NPS programs.[67]

text: Deposit refund systems[edit]

text: A deposit-refund system for contaminants like pesticides, which is similar to current programs for beverage containers could potentially reduce uncontrolled disposal, over-use, and recycling for pesticides. For example, the retail dealer could pay a deposit when purchasing pesticides, and pass the deposit to consumers, who could receive a refund when he or she returned the container to dealers.[67]

text: Liability rules and insurance requirements[edit]

text:
Some statutes strengthen common law rules imposing liability for environmental damage. Regulations issued under other statutes are intended to increase the effectiveness of liability rules by requiring that facilities seeking permits to handle hazardous materials have sufficient insurance or other resources to pay for potential damage caused by their activities.
Liability guides compensation when polluters are sued. Liability could be strict (pay for any damages), or negotiable with the victims. However, private lawsuits are a difficult way to resolve nonpoint source pollution because it is difficult to prove NPS pollution was the proximate cause of damages.  The inability to trace nonpoint sources could greatly weaken the effectiveness of liability.[26] Agriculture is a major source for nonpoint pollution sources, including nutrients, sediments, pesticides and salts, etc. Disaster insurance for agricultural sector could be necessary for preventing nonpoint pollution based on its characteristics. The uncertainty associate with nonpoint pollution may demand an "insurance policy" to protect water quality.

text: Information and education[edit]

text: A number of policies have been developed that are intended to inform regulators and private citizens as to how NPS effluent can be better controlled. One example is with the CZMA mentioned earlier, the EPA is required to provide states with a listing of best management practices (BMPs) for controlling NPS coastal pollution. BMPs are state-of-the-art methods to treat NPS pollution. There is no shortage of BMPs to reduce NPS pollution. For agriculture, examples of BMPs include: conservation easements, cover crops, drainage management, grid sampling, manure injection, manure staging, reduced tillage practices, rotational grazing, and two stage ditches.[68]  Additional examples are offered in the nonpoint source pollution page. The obvious problem with educational and informational tools, however, is there is no guarantee they will be implemented.

text: Other potential policy instruments for nonpoint pollution[edit]

text:
To evaluate these tools' potential, some economic, distributional and political characteristics should be considered: economic performance, administration and enforcement costs, flexibility, incentives for innovation and political feasibility.
Challenge regulation or environmental contracting could also be applied. With challenge regulation, the government could establish a clear environmental performance target, while the regulated community could design and implement a program for achieving it. Environmental contracting involved an agreement between a government agency and a source to waive certain regulatory requirements in return for an enforceable commitment to achieve superior performances.

text: Challenges for regulation[edit]

text: Nonpoint source controls are difficult to coordinate because they are usually administered by local rather than state government. Local governments do not have an incentive to adopt nonpoint source controls because their nonpoint pollution usually is exported elsewhere. Another problem is the pervasiveness of nonpoint pollution. A major strategy controls nonpoint pollution at the source by reducing surface runoff through the use of best management practices (BMPs). But BMPs are fragmented and difficult to coordinate because of the great variety in nonpoint sources and because they are administered by local governments. Another obstacle to control nonpoint pollution is that the nonpoint source may be unable to internalize the cost of the control or pass it on to consumers.[21] Besides, policy instruments and policy combination should have strong legal enforcement like liability to insure transparency in transaction and prevent failure in market based instruments.

text: Characteristics of NPS and the differences from point source pollution indicated stricter and powerful control mechanism should be applied. Market-based approaches, design-based approaches, and command and control could be useful, and a policy tool combination or best suit tool depends on particular problem, local condition and policy goal, as well as costs and budget would be desired. The ultimate goal for controlling nonpoint pollution is to maximize environmental benefits, especially in some environmental sensitive areas, degraded areas, critical habitats for endangered species. The baseline for nonpoint pollution abatement should be attending acceptable water quality.

text: Collaboration among agencies is necessary. Federal agencies involved in nonpoint pollution control include Soil Conservation Service, US Forest Service, Office of Surface Mining, Bureau of Land Management, US Army Corps of Engineers, etc.[46] Effective management of NPS pollution requires a partnership among state, federal, local agencies as well as private interests and the public. Coordination among existing programs, especially governmental spending programs, should be performance objectives. Examples of coordination include the federal construction grant program under title II of the 1972 FWPCA Amendments, which reduce municipal sewage pollution by providing necessary funds, as well as governmental spending programs like the CWA and the Farm Bill [62] and other programs provided funding on a large number of discrete sources of nonpoint pollution sources could get a better connection to allocate funding resource effectively.


document_title: The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

question_text: who played the scarecrow in the wizard of oz 1939

question_tokens: who played the scarecrow in the wizard of oz 1939

root

text: The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The film begins in Kansas, which is depicted in a sepia tone. Dorothy Gale lives with her dog, Toto, on her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry's farm. Toto gets in trouble with a mean neighbor, Miss Almira Gulch, when he bites her. However, Dorothy's family and the farmhands are all too busy to listen to her troubles. Miss Gulch produces an order from the sheriff allowing her to have Toto put down. She takes him away, but he escapes and returns to Dorothy who, fearing that Miss Gulch will return, decides to run away from home.

tag: p

text: After some miles Dorothy and Toto encounter Professor Marvel, a kindly fortune teller who, realizing Dorothy has run away, uses his crystal ball to convince her that Aunt Em is ill. Dorothy races home just as a tornado approaches. Locked out of the storm cellar, she seeks safety in the house, where a wind-blown window sash knocks her out. She awakens to find the tornado has sent the house spinning into the sky. Outside the window during the flight she and Toto see farm animals, an old lady knitting in a chair, two men rowing a boat, and finally Miss Gulch, who transforms into a cackling witch riding a broomstick.

text: Suddenly the house strikes the ground and all is quiet. As Dorothy opens the door the film changes to Technicolor – she and Toto have landed in Munchkinland, part of the Land of Oz. Glinda the Good Witch of the North and the Munchkins welcome her as their heroine – the house has landed on and killed the Wicked Witch of the East, leaving only her feet poking out from under. In the middle of the celebration, the Wicked Witch of the West arrives in a ball of smoke and fire to claim her sister's ruby slippers, but Glinda transports them onto Dorothy's feet before the witch can get them. The witch swears revenge on Dorothy for her sister's death. Glinda tells Dorothy to follow the yellow brick road to the Emerald City, where the Wizard of Oz might be able to help her get back home.

text: On her way, Dorothy meets and befriends a Scarecrow, who wants a brain, and invites him to join her on her journey. Eventually they come to an apple orchard where they find and befriend a Tin Man, who desires a heart. After they invite him to come along, the Witch appears and makes threats to them. Deep in the woods, they meet a Cowardly Lion, who is in need of courage and invite him to come along as well. After the Witch attempts to stop them using an enchanted poppy field, they finally reach the Emerald City. Inside, after being initially rejected, they are permitted to see the Wizard, who appears as a large disembodied head surrounded by fire. He agrees to grant their wishes when they bring him the Witch of the West's broomstick, implying they must kill her to get it.

text: On their journey to the Witch's castle, they pass through the Haunted Forest, while the Witch views their progress in her crystal ball. She sends her winged monkeys to attack them; they capture Dorothy and Toto. At the castle, the Witch is stymied by magic when she tries to get the ruby slippers off Dorothy's feet, then remembers that she must be dead first. Toto escapes and leads the Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion to the castle. After ambushing three Winkie guards, they march inside wearing the stolen guards' uniforms and free her, but the Witch discovers and traps them. The Scarecrow provides a distraction and they attempt to escape, being chased by the Witch and her guards, but are finally surrounded. The Witch sets fire to the Scarecrow and Dorothy puts it out with a bucket of water and unwittingly melts and kills the witch as the water splashes on her. The guards rejoice that she is dead and give Dorothy the charred broomstick in gratitude.

text: Back at the Emerald City, they bring the broomstick to the Wizard. But when they ask him to keep his promises, the Wizard delays granting their requests much to their shock and frustration. During the argument, Toto pulls back a curtain and exposes the "Wizard" as a normal middle-aged man who has been projecting the fearsome image; he denies Dorothy's accusation that he is a bad man, but admits to being a humbug. He then gives the Scarecrow a diploma, the Lion a medal and the Tin Man a ticking heart-shaped clock, making them realize that they had what they wanted all along. They just did not know it yet. He then prepares to launch his hot air balloon to take Dorothy home but Toto runs off, and as she tries to get him back, the balloon leaves without them. Suddenly, Glinda returns and tells her that she can still return home by using the ruby slippers. After sharing a tearful farewell with her friends, Dorothy follows Glinda's instructions and taps her heels together three times and repeats, "There's no place like home". She wakes up in bed at her home in Kansas, surrounded by her family, the farmhands, Professor Marvel and Toto. Though they dismiss her adventure as a dream, she insists that it was all real, and that there is no place like home.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale
Frank Morgan as Professor Marvel/The Wizard/Doorman/Cabbie/Guard
Ray Bolger as Hunk/Scarecrow
Jack Haley as Hickory/Tin Man
Bert Lahr as Zeke/Cowardly Lion
Billie Burke as Glinda the Good Witch of the North
Margaret Hamilton as Miss Almira Gulch/The Wicked Witch of the West
Clara Blandick as Aunt Em
Charley Grapewin as Uncle Henry
Pat Walshe as Nikko (the Winged Monkey King)
Terry as Toto (though credited as Toto)
Mitchell Lewis as the Winkie Guard Captain (credited only in the IMAX version)

tag: ul

text: Munchkins[edit]

text:
Charlie Becker as Munchkin Mayor
Meinhardt Raabe as Munchkin Coroner
Jakob "Jackie" Gerlich as Lollipop Guild/Munchkin
Jerry Maren as Lollipop Guild/Munchkin
Harry Doll Earles as Lollipop Guild/Munchkin
Billy Curtis as Braggart Munchkin
Harry Monty as Soldier/Winged Monkey
Mickey Carroll as Fiddler/Town Crier/Soldier
Karl Slover as Lead trumpeter/Soldier/"Sleepyhead"/Villager
Olga C. Nardone as the Littlest Lullaby League
Margaret Pellegrini as "Sleepyhead"
Ruth Duccini as a Munchkin Villager
The Doll Family as Munchkin Villagers
The Singer Midgets as the Munchkins
William H. O'Docharty as Munchkin Carriage Footman

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and pre-production[edit]

text: Development began when Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) showed that films adapted from popular children's stories and fairytale folklore could be successful.[12][13] In January 1938, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer bought the rights to the hugely popular novel from Samuel Goldwyn, who had toyed with the idea of making the film as a vehicle for Eddie Cantor, who was under contract to the Goldwyn studios and whom Goldwyn wanted to cast as the Scarecrow.[13]

text: The script went through a number of writers and revisions before the final shooting.[14] Mervyn LeRoy's assistant William H. Cannon had submitted a brief four-page outline.[14] Because recent fantasy films had not fared well, he recommended that the magical elements of the story be toned down or eliminated. In his outline, the Scarecrow was a man so stupid that the only employment open to him was literally scaring crows from cornfields, and the Tin Woodman was a criminal so heartless he was sentenced to be placed in a tin suit for eternity; this torture softened him into someone gentle and kind.[14] His vision was similar to Larry Semon's 1925 film adaptation of the story, in which the magical element is absent.

text: After that, LeRoy hired screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, who soon delivered a 17-page draft of the Kansas scenes, and a few weeks later, a further 56 pages. Noel Langley and poet Ogden Nash were also hired to write separate versions of the story. None of these three knew about the others, and this was not an uncommon procedure. Nash delivered a four-page outline, Langley turned in a 43-page treatment and a full film script. He[who?] turned in three more, this time incorporating the songs that had been written by Harold Arlen and Yip Harburg. Florence Ryerson and Edgar Allan Woolf submitted a script and were brought on board to touch up the writing. They would be responsible for making sure the story stayed true to the Baum book. However, producer Arthur Freed was unhappy with their work and reassigned it to Langley.[15] During filming, Victor Fleming and John Lee Mahin revised the script further, adding and cutting some scenes. In addition, Jack Haley and Bert Lahr are known to have written some of their own dialogue for the Kansas sequence.

text: The final draft of the script was completed on October 8, 1938, following numerous rewrites.[16] All in all, it was a mish-mash of many creative minds, but Langley, Ryerson, and Woolf got the film credits. Along with the contributors already mentioned, others who assisted with the adaptation without receiving credit include: Irving Brecher, Herbert Fields, Arthur Freed, Yip Harburg, Samuel Hoffenstein, Jack Mintz, Sid Silvers, Richard Thorpe, Cukor and Vidor.[13]

text: In addition, songwriter Harburg's son (and biographer) Ernie Harburg reported:[17]

text: So anyhow, Yip also wrote all the dialogue in that time and the setup to the songs and he also wrote the part where they give out the heart, the brains, and the nerve, because he was the final script editor. And he – there was eleven screenwriters on that – and he pulled the whole thing together, wrote his own lines and gave the thing a coherence and unity which made it a work of art. But he doesn't get credit for that. He gets lyrics by E. Y. Harburg, you see. But nevertheless, he put his influence on the thing.

text: The original producers thought that a 1939 audience was too sophisticated to accept Oz as a straight-ahead fantasy; therefore, it was reconceived as a lengthy, elaborate dream sequence. Because of a perceived need to attract a youthful audience through appealing to modern fads and styles, the score had featured a song called "The Jitterbug", and the script had featured a scene with a series of musical contests. A spoiled, selfish princess in Oz had outlawed all forms of music except classical and operetta, and went up against Dorothy in a singing contest in which her swing style enchanted listeners and won the grand prize. This part was initially written for Betty Jaynes.[18] The plan was later dropped.

text: Another scene, which was removed before final script approval and never filmed, was a concluding scene back in Kansas after Dorothy's return. Hunk (the Kansan counterpart to the Scarecrow) is leaving for agricultural college and extracts a promise from Dorothy to write to him. The implication of the scene is that romance will eventually develop between the two, which also may have been intended as an explanation for Dorothy's partiality for the Scarecrow over her other two companions. This plot idea was never totally dropped, but is especially noticeable in the final script when Dorothy, just before she is to leave Oz, tells the Scarecrow, "I think I'll miss you most of all."[19]

text: In his book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Baum describes Kansas as being "in shades of gray". Further, Dorothy lived inside a farmhouse which had its paint blistered and washed away by the weather, giving it an air of grayness. The house and property were situated in the middle of a sweeping prairie where the grass was burnt gray by harsh sun. Aunt Em and Uncle Henry were "gray with age". Effectively, the use of monochrome sepia tones for the Kansas sequences was a stylistic choice that evoked the dull and gray countryside.[citation needed] Much attention was given to the use of color in the production, with the MGM production crew favoring some hues over others. Consequently, it took the studio's art department almost a week to settle on the final shade of yellow used for the yellow brick road.[20]

text: Casting[edit]

text: LeRoy had always insisted that he wanted to cast Judy Garland to play Dorothy from the start; however, evidence suggests that negotiations occurred early in pre-production for Shirley Temple to be cast as Dorothy, on loan from 20th Century Fox. A persistent rumor also existed that Fox, in turn, was promised Clark Gable and Jean Harlow as a loan from MGM. The tale is almost certainly untrue, as Harlow died in 1937, before MGM had even purchased the rights to the story. Despite this, the story appears in many film biographies (including Temple's own autobiography). The documentary The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: The Making of a Movie Classic states that Mervyn LeRoy was under pressure to cast Temple, then the most popular child star, but at an unofficial audition, MGM musical mainstay Roger Edens listened to her sing and felt that an actress with a different style was needed. Newsreel footage is included in which Temple wisecracks, "There's no place like home", suggesting that she was being considered for the part at that time.[21] A possibility is that this consideration did indeed take place, but that Gable and Harlow were not part of the proposed deal.

text: Actress Deanna Durbin, who was under contract to Universal Studios, was also considered for the part of Dorothy. Durbin, at the time, far exceeded Garland in film experience and fan base and both had co-starred in a 1936 two-reeler titled Every Sunday. The film was most notable for exhibiting Durbin's operatic style of singing against Garland's jazzier style. Durbin was possibly passed over once it was decided to bring on Jaynes, also an operatic singer, to rival Garland's jazz in the aforementioned discarded subplot of the film.

text: Ray Bolger was originally cast as the Tin Man and Buddy Ebsen was to play the Scarecrow.[16] Bolger, however, longed to play the Scarecrow, as his childhood idol Fred Stone had done on stage in 1902; with that very performance, Stone had inspired him to become a vaudevillian in the first place. Now unhappy with his role as the Tin Man (reportedly claiming, "I'm not a tin performer; I'm fluid"), Bolger convinced producer Mervyn LeRoy to recast him in the part he so desired.[22] Ebsen did not object; after going over the basics of the Scarecrow's distinctive gait with Bolger (as a professional dancer, Ebsen had been cast because the studio was confident he would be up to the task of replicating the famous "wobbly-walk" of Stone's Scarecrow), he recorded all of his songs, went through all the rehearsals as the Tin Man and began filming with the rest of the cast.[23]

text: Bert Lahr was signed for the Cowardly Lion on July 25, 1938; the next month, Charles Grapewin was cast as Uncle Henry on August 12.

text: W. C. Fields was originally chosen for the role of the Wizard, a role turned down by Ed Wynn as he thought the part was too small, but the studio ran out of patience after protracted haggling over Fields' fee; instead, another contract player, Frank Morgan, was cast on September 22.

text: Gale Sondergaard was originally cast as the Wicked Witch. She became unhappy when the witch's persona shifted from sly and glamorous (thought to emulate the wicked queen in Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs) into the familiar "ugly hag". She turned down the role and was replaced on October 10, 1938, just three days before filming started, by MGM contract player Margaret Hamilton. Sondergaard said in an interview for a bonus feature on the DVD that she had no regrets about turning down the part, and would go on to play a glamorous villain in Fox's version of Maurice Maeterlinck's The Blue Bird in 1940; Margaret Hamilton played a role remarkably similar to the Wicked Witch in the Judy Garland film Babes in Arms (1939).

text: According to Aljean Harmetz, the "gone-to-seed" coat worn by Morgan as the wizard was selected from a rack of coats purchased from a second-hand shop. According to legend, Morgan later discovered a label in the coat indicating it had once belonged to Baum, that Baum's widow confirmed this, and that the coat was eventually presented to her. But Baum biographer Michael Patrick Hearn says the Baum family denies ever seeing the coat or knowing of the story; Hamilton considered it a concocted studio rumor.[24]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Richard Thorpe as director[edit]

text: Filming commenced October 13, 1938, on the MGM lot in Culver City, California, under the direction of Richard Thorpe (replacing original director Norman Taurog, who filmed only a few early Technicolor tests and was then reassigned). Thorpe initially shot about two weeks of footage (nine days in total) involving Dorothy's first encounter with the Scarecrow, as well as a number of sequences in the Wicked Witch's castle, such as Dorothy's rescue (which, though unreleased, comprises the only footage of Ebsen's Tin Man).

text: According to most sources, ten days into the shoot, Ebsen suffered a reaction to the aluminum powder makeup he wore. He was hospitalized in critical condition, and subsequently was forced to leave the project; in a later interview (included on the 2005 DVD release of The Wizard of Oz), he recalled the studio heads appreciated the seriousness of his illness only after seeing him in the hospital. Filming halted while a replacement for him was found. No full footage of him as the Tin Man has ever been released – only photographs taken during filming and makeup test photos. His replacement, Jack Haley, simply assumed he had been fired.[25] Author and screen-writer George MacDonald Fraser offers an alternative story, told to him by Burt Lancaster's producing partner, Jim Hill, that Ebsen had refused to be painted silver and was fired.[26]

text: George Cukor's brief stint[edit]

text: LeRoy, after reviewing the footage and feeling Thorpe was rushing the production, adversely affecting the actors' performances, had Thorpe replaced. During reorganization on the production, George Cukor temporarily took over, under LeRoy's guidance. Initially, the studio had made Garland wear a blond wig and heavy "baby-doll" makeup, and she played Dorothy in an exaggerated fashion; now, Cukor changed Garland's and Hamilton's makeup and costumes, and told Garland to "be herself". This meant that all the scenes Garland and Hamilton had already completed had to be discarded and reshot. Cukor also suggested that the studio cast Jack Haley, on loan from Fox, as the Tin Man. To keep down on production costs, Haley only rerecorded "If I Only Had a Heart" and solo lines during "The Jitterbug" and "If I Only Had the Nerve"; as such, Ebsen's voice can still be heard in the remaining songs featuring the Tin Man in group vocals. The makeup used for Haley was quietly changed to an aluminum paste, with a layer of clown white greasepaint underneath to protect his skin; although it did not have the same dire effect on Haley, he did at one point suffer an eye infection from it.[citation needed]

text: In addition, Bolger's original recording of "If I Only Had a Brain" had been far more sedate compared to the version heard in the film; during this time, Cukor and LeRoy decided that a more energetic rendition would better suit Dorothy's initial meeting with the Scarecrow (initially, it was to contrast with his lively manner in Thorpe's footage), and was rerecorded as such. At first thought to be lost for over seven decades, a recording of this original version was rediscovered in 2009.[27]

text: Victor Fleming, the main director[edit]

text: Cukor did not actually shoot any scenes for the film, merely acting as something of a "creative advisor" to the troubled production, and, because of his prior commitment to direct Gone with the Wind, he left on November 3, 1938, when Victor Fleming assumed directorial responsibility. As director, Fleming chose not to shift the film from Cukor's creative realignment, as producer LeRoy had already pronounced his satisfaction with the new course the film was taking.

text: Production on the bulk of the Technicolor sequences was a long and cumbersome process that ran for over six months, from October 1938 to March 1939. Most of the cast worked six days a week and had to arrive as early as 4:00 a.m. to be fitted with makeup and costumes, and often did not leave until 7 pm or later. Cumbersome makeup and costumes were made even more uncomfortable by the daylight-bright lighting the early Technicolor process required, which could heat the set to over 100 °F (38 °C). Bolger later said that the frightening nature of the costumes prevented most of the Oz principals from eating in the studio commissary;[28] the toxicity of Hamilton's copper-based makeup forced her to eat a liquid diet on shoot days.[29] It took as many as twelve takes to have Toto run alongside the actors as they skipped down the yellow brick road.

text: All of the Oz sequences were filmed in three-strip Technicolor.[13][14] The opening and closing credits, as well as the Kansas sequences, were filmed in black and white and colored in a sepia-tone process.[13] Sepia-toned film was also used in the scene where Aunt Em appears in the Wicked Witch's crystal ball.

text: An extensive talent search produced over a hundred little people to play Munchkins; this meant that most of the film's Oz sequences would have to already be shot before work on the Munchkinland sequence could begin. According to Munchkin actor Jerry Maren, the little people were each paid over $125 a week. Meinhardt Raabe, who played the coroner, revealed in the 1990 documentary The Making of the Wizard of Oz that the MGM costume and wardrobe department, under the direction of designer Adrian, had to design over 100 costumes for the Munchkin sequences. They then had to photograph and catalog each Munchkin in his or her costume so that they could correctly apply the same costume and makeup each day of production.

text: In Hamilton's exit from the Munchkinland a concealed elevator was arranged to lower her below stage as fire and smoke erupted to dramatize and conceal her exit. The first take ran well but in the second take the timing of the elevator was off; the flames set fire to her greasy makeup, causing second-degree burns on her hands and face. She spent six weeks in the hospital.

text: King Vidor's finishing work as director[edit]

text: On February 12, 1939, Fleming hastily replaced Cukor in directing Gone with the Wind; the next day, King Vidor was assigned as director by the studio to finish the filming of The Wizard of Oz (mainly the sepia-toned Kansas sequences, including Garland's singing of "Over the Rainbow" and the tornado). In later years, when the film became firmly established as a classic, Vidor chose not to take public credit for his contribution until after the death of his friend Fleming in 1949.

text: Post-production[edit]

text: Principal photography concluded with the Kansas sequences on March 16, 1939; nonetheless, reshoots and pick-up shots were filmed throughout April and May and into June, under the direction of producer LeRoy. After the deletion of the "Over the Rainbow" reprise during subsequent test screenings in early June, Garland had to be brought back one more time to reshoot the "Auntie Em, I'm frightened!" scene without the song; the footage of Blandick's Aunt Em, as shot by Vidor, had already been set aside for rear-projection work, and was simply reused.

text: After Hamilton's torturous experience with the Munchkinland elevator, she refused to do the pick-ups for the scene in which she flies on a broomstick that billows smoke, so LeRoy chose to have stand-in Betty Danko perform the scene, instead; as a result, Danko was severely injured doing the scene due to a malfunction in the smoke mechanism.[30]

text: At this point, the film began a long arduous post-production. Herbert Stothart had to compose the film's background score, while A. Arnold Gillespie had to perfect the various special effects that the film required, including many of the rear projection shots. The MGM art department also had to create the various matte paintings for the background of many of the scenes.

text: One significant innovation planned for the film was the use of stencil printing for the transition to Technicolor. Each frame was to be hand-tinted to maintain the sepia tone; however, because this was too expensive and labor-intensive, it was abandoned and MGM used a simpler and less expensive variation of the process. During the reshoots in May, the inside of the farm house was painted sepia, and when Dorothy opens the door, it is not Garland, but her stand-in, Bobbie Koshay, wearing a sepia gingham dress, who then backs out of frame; once the camera moves through the door, Garland steps back into frame in her bright blue gingham dress (as noted in DVD extras), and the sepia-painted door briefly tints her with the same color before she emerges from the house's shadow, into the bright glare of the Technicolor lighting. This also meant that the reshoots provided the first proper shot of Munchkinland; if one looks carefully, the brief cut to Dorothy looking around outside the house bisects a single long shot, from the inside of the doorway to the pan-around that finally ends in a reverse-angle as the ruins of the house are seen behind Dorothy as she comes to a stop at the foot of the small bridge.

text: Test screenings of the film began on June 5, 1939.[31] Oz initially ran nearly two hours long. LeRoy and Fleming knew that at least a quarter of an hour needed to be deleted to get the film down to a manageable running time; the average film in 1939 running just about 90 minutes. Three sneak previews in Santa Barbara, Pomona and San Luis Obispo, California, helped guide LeRoy and Fleming in the cutting. Among the many cuts were "The Jitterbug" number, the Scarecrow's elaborate dance sequence following "If I Only Had a Brain", reprises of "Over the Rainbow" and "Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead", and a number of smaller dialogue sequences. This left the final, mostly serious portion of the film with no songs, only the dramatic underscoring.

text: One song that was almost deleted was "Over the Rainbow". MGM had felt that it made the Kansas sequence too long, as well as being far over the heads of the target audience of children. The studio also thought that it was degrading for Garland to sing in a barnyard. LeRoy, uncredited associate producer Arthur Freed and director Fleming fought to keep it in, and they all eventually won. The song went on to win the Academy Award for Best Song of the Year, and came to be identified so strongly with Garland herself that she made it her theme song. In 2004, the song was ranked no. 1 by the American Film Institute on AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs list.

text: After the preview in San Luis Obispo in early July, the film was officially released in August 1939 at its current 101-minute running time.

text: Music[edit]

text: The film is widely noted for its musical selections and soundtrack. The music was composed by Harold Arlen, and the lyrics were written by Yip Harburg, both of whom won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Over the Rainbow". The song was ranked first in two lists: the AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs and the Recording Industry Association of America's "365 Songs of the Century".

text: MGM composer Herbert Stothart, a well-known Hollywood composer and songwriter, won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in recognition of his original score.

text: Georgie Stoll was associate conductor and screen credit was given to George Bassman, Murray Cutter, Ken Darby and Paul Marquardt for orchestral and vocal arrangements (as usual, Roger Edens was also heavily involved as an unbilled musical associate to Freed.)

text: The song "The Jitterbug", written in a swing style, was intended for the sequence in which the group is journeying to the Witch's castle. Due to time constraints, the song was cut from the final theatrical version. The film footage for the song has been lost, although silent home film footage of rehearsals for the number has survived. The sound recording for the song, however, is intact and was included in the two-CD Rhino Records deluxe edition of the film soundtrack, as well as on the VHS and DVD editions of the film. A reference to "The Jitterbug" remains in the film: the Witch remarks to her flying monkeys that they should have no trouble apprehending Dorothy and her friends because "I've sent a little insect on ahead to take the fight out of them."

text: Another musical number cut before release occurred right after the Wicked Witch of the West was melted and before Dorothy and her friends returned to the Wizard. This was a reprise of "Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" (blended with "We're Off to See the Wizard" and "The Merry Old Land of Oz") with the lyrics altered to "Hail! Hail! The Witch is Dead!" This started with the Witch's guard saying "Hail to Dorothy! The Wicked Witch is dead!" and dissolved to a huge celebration of the citizens of the Emerald City singing the song as they accompany Dorothy and her friends to see the Wizard. Today, the film of this scene is also lost and only a few stills survive, along with a few seconds of footage used on several reissue trailers. The entire audio still exists and is included on the two-CD Rhino Record deluxe edition of the film soundtrack.[32]

text: In addition, a brief reprise of "Over the Rainbow" was intended to be sung by Garland while Dorothy is trapped in the Witch's castle, but it was cut because it was considered too emotionally intense. The original soundtrack recording still exists, however, and was included as an extra in all home media releases from 1993-onwards.[33]

text: The songs were recorded in the studio's scoring stage before filming. Several of the recordings were completed while Ebsen was still with the cast. Therefore, while he had to be dropped from the cast due to illness from the aluminum powder makeup, his singing voice remained in the soundtrack (as noted in the notes for the CD Deluxe Edition). In the group vocals of "We're Off to See the Wizard", his voice can be heard. Haley spoke with a distinct Boston accent, thus did not pronounce the r in wizard. By contrast, Ebsen was a Midwesterner, like Garland, and pronounced it. Haley rerecorded Ebsen's solo parts later.

text: Song list[edit]

text:
"Over the Rainbow" – Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale
Munchkinland Sequence:

"Come Out ..." – Billie Burke as Glinda, and the Munchkins
"It Really Was No Miracle" – Judy Garland as Dorothy, Billy Bletcher and the Munchkins
"We Thank You Very Sweetly" – Frank Cucksey and Joseph Koziel
"Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" – Billie Burke as Glinda (speaking) and the Munchkins
"As Mayor of the Munchkin City"
"As Coroner, I Must Aver"
"Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" (Reprise) – The Munchkins
"The Lullaby League"
"The Lollipop Guild"
"We Welcome You to Munchkinland" – The Munchkins

"Follow the Yellow Brick Road/You're Off to See the Wizard" – Judy Garland as Dorothy, and the Munchkins
"If I Only Had a Brain" – Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, and Judy Garland as Dorothy
"We're Off to See the Wizard" – Judy Garland as Dorothy, and Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow
"If I Only Had a Heart" – Jack Haley as the Tin Man
"If I Only Had a Heart" (original recording) – Buddy Ebsen as the Tin Man
"We're Off to See the Wizard" (Reprise 1) – Judy Garland as Dorothy, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, and Buddy Ebsen as the Tin Man
"If I Only Had the Nerve" – Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion, Jack Haley as the Tin Man, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, and Judy Garland as Dorothy
"We're Off to See the Wizard" (Reprise 2) – Judy Garland as Dorothy, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, Buddy Ebsen as the Tin Man, and Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion
"Optimistic Voices" – MGM Studio Chorus
"The Merry Old Land of Oz" – Frank Morgan as Cabby, Judy Garland as Dorothy, Ray Bolger as Scarecrow, Jack Haley as the Tin Man, Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion and the Emerald City townspeople
"If I Were King of the Forest" – Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion, Judy Garland as Dorothy, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow and Jack Haley as the Tin Man
"The Jitterbug" – Although this song was removed from the final film, it is still available on some extended edition CDs.[34]

text: Underscoring[edit]

text: Extensive edits in the film's final cut removed vocals from the last portion of the film. However, the film was fully underscored, with instrumental snippets from the film's various leitmotifs throughout. There was also some recognizable popular music, including:

text:
Excerpts from Schumann's "The Happy Farmer", at several points early in the film, including the opening scene when Dorothy and Toto are hurrying home after their encounter with Miss Gulch, when Toto escapes from her, and when the house is "riding" the tornado.
An excerpt of Mendelssohn's "Opus 16, #2", when Toto escapes from the Witch's castle.
An excerpt of Mussorgsky's "Night on Bald Mountain", when Dorothy, the Scarecrow, the Tin Man, and the Cowardly Lion are trying to escape from the Witch's castle.
"In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree", when Dorothy and the Scarecrow discover the anthropomorphic apple trees.
"Gaudeamus Igitur" during the Wizard's presentation of awards to the group.
"Home! Sweet Home!", in part of the underscore of the closing scene, at Dorothy's house in Kansas.

text: (The above list is excerpted from the liner notes on the Rhino Records collection.)

text: Release[edit]

text: The film's first sneak preview was held in San Bernardino, California.[35] The film was previewed in three test markets: on August 11, 1939, at Kenosha, Wisconsin and Cape Cod, Massachusetts,[36][37] and at the Strand Theatre in Oconomowoc, Wisconsin, on August 12.[38]

text: The Hollywood premiere was on August 15, 1939,[37] at Grauman's Chinese Theatre.[39] The New York City premiere, held at Loew's Capitol Theatre on August 17, 1939, was followed by a live performance with Garland and her frequent film co-star Mickey Rooney. They continued to perform there after each screening for a week, extended in Rooney's case for a second week and in Garland's to three (with Oz co-stars Ray Bolger and Bert Lahr replacing Rooney for the third and final week). The film opened nationwide on August 25, 1939.

text: Box office[edit]

text: According to MGM records, during the film's initial release, it earned $2,048,000 in the US and Canada and $969,000 in other countries throughout the world, resulting total earnings of $3,017,000. While these were considerable earnings, the high production cost, in association with various distribution and other costs, meant the movie initially recorded a loss of $1,145,000 for the studio.[3] It did not show what MGM considered a profit until a 1949 rerelease earned an additional $1.5 million (about $15 million today). However, for all the risks and cost that MGM undertook to produce the film, it was considered at least more successful than anyone thought it would be. According to Christopher Finch, author of the Judy Garland biography Rainbow: The Stormy Life Of Judy Garland, "Fantasy is always a risk at the box office. The film had been enormously successful as a book, and it had also been a major stage hit, but previous attempts to bring it the screen had been dismal failures." Finch also writes that after the success of the film, Garland signed a new contract with MGM giving her a substantial increase in salary, making her one of the top-ten box office stars in the United States.[40]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film received much acclaim upon its release. Frank Nugent considered the film a "delightful piece of wonder-working which had the youngsters' eyes shining and brought a quietly amused gleam to the wiser ones of the oldsters. Not since Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs has anything quite so fantastic succeeded half so well."[41] Nugent had issues with some of the film's special effects, writing, "with the best of will and ingenuity, they cannot make a Munchkin or a Flying Monkey that will not still suggest, however vaguely, a Singer's Midget in a Jack Dawn masquerade. Nor can they, without a few betraying jolts and split-screen overlappings, bring down from the sky the great soap bubble in which Glinda rides and roll it smoothly into place." According to Nugent, "Judy Garland's Dorothy is a pert and fresh-faced miss with the wonder-lit eyes of a believer in fairy tales, but the Baum fantasy is at its best when the Scarecrow, the Tin Man, and the Lion are on the move."[41]

text: Writing in Variety, John C. Flinn predicted that the film was "likely to perform some record-breaking feats of box-office magic," noting, "Some of the scenic passages are so beautiful in design and composition as to stir audiences by their sheer unfoldment." He also called Garland "an appealing figure" and the musical numbers "gay and bright."[42]

text: Harrison's Reports wrote, "Even though some persons are not interested in pictures of this type, it is possible that they will be eager to see this picture just for its technical treatment. The performances are good, and the incidental music is of considerable aid. Pictures of this caliber bring credit to the industry."[43]

text: "Leo the Lion is privileged to herald this one with his deepest roar - the one that comes from way down - for seldom if indeed ever has the screen been so successful in its approach to fantasy and extravaganza through flesh-and-blood," wrote Film Daily, adding that this "handsomely mounted fairy story in Technicolor, with its wealth of humor and homespun philosophy, its stimulus to the imagination, its procession of unforgettable settings, its studding of merry tunes should click solidly at the box-office."[44]

text: Not all reviews were positive. Some moviegoers felt that the 16-year-old Garland was slightly too old to play the little girl who Baum originally intended his Dorothy to be. Russell Maloney of The New Yorker wrote that the film displayed "no trace of imagination, good taste, or ingenuity" and declared it "a stinkeroo,"[45] while Otis Ferguson of The New Republic wrote, "It has dwarfs, music, Technicolor, freak characters, and Judy Garland. It can't be expected to have a sense of humor, as well - and as for the light touch of fantasy, it weighs like a pound of fruitcake soaking wet."[46] The film placed seventh on Film Daily's year-end nationwide poll of 542 critics naming the best films of 1939.[47]

text: Roger Ebert chose it as one of his Great Films, writing that "The Wizard of Oz has a wonderful surface of comedy and music, special effects and excitement, but we still watch it six decades later because its underlying story penetrates straight to the deepest insecurities of childhood, stirs them and then reassures them."[48]

text: Writer Salman Rushdie acknowledged "The Wizard of Oz was my very first literary influence" in his 2002 musings about the film.[49] He has written: "When I first saw The Wizard of Oz, it made a writer of me."[50] His first short story, written at the age of 10, was titled "Over the Rainbow".[50]

text: In a 2009 retrospective article about the film, San Francisco Chronicle film critic and author Mick LaSalle declared that the film's "entire Munchkinland sequence, from Dorothy's arrival in Oz to her departure on the yellow brick road, has to be one of the greatest in cinema history – a masterpiece of set design, costuming, choreography, music, lyrics, storytelling, and sheer imagination."[51]

text: On the film critic aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 99% based on 109 reviews, with an average score of 9.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "An absolute masterpiece whose groundbreaking visuals and deft storytelling are still every bit as resonant, The Wizard of Oz is a must-see film for young and old."[52] At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film received the maximum score of 100 out of 100, based on 4 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim",[53] which, as of August 2017, is matched only by five other films.

text: Re-releases[edit]

text: Although the 1949 reissue used sepia tone, as in the original release, beginning with the 1955 re-issue, and continuing until the film's 50th anniversary VHS release in 1989, these opening Kansas sequences were shown in black and white instead of the sepia tone as originally printed. (This includes television showings.)[54]

text: The MGM "Children's Matinees" series rereleased the film twice, in both 1970 and 1971.[55] It was for this release that the film received a G rating from the MPAA.

text: For the film's then-upcoming 60th anniversary, Warner Bros. Pictures released a "Special Edition" on November 6, 1998, digitally restored with remastered audio.

text: In 2002, the film had a very limited re-release in U.S. theaters, earning only $139,905.[56]

text: On September 23, 2009, the film was rereleased in select theaters for a one-night-only event in honor of its 70th anniversary and as a promotion for various new disc releases later in the month. An encore of this event was released in theaters on November 17, 2009.[57]

text: An IMAX 3D theatrical re-release played at 300 theaters in North America for one week only beginning September 20, 2013, as part of the film's 75th anniversary.[58] Warner Bros. spent $25 million on advertising. The studio hosted a premiere of the film's first IMAX 3D release on September 15, 2013, from the newly remodeled TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman's Chinese Theatre, the site of the film's Hollywood premiere) in Hollywood. It was the first to play at the new theater and served as the grand opening of Hollywood's first 3D IMAX screen. It was also shown as a special presentation at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival.[59] This re-release grossed $5.6 million at the North American box office.[60]

text: In 2013, in preparation for its IMAX 3D release, the film was submitted again to the MPAA for re-classification. According to MPAA rules, a film that has been altered in any way from its original version must be submitted for re-classification, as the 3-D conversion fell within that guideline. Surprisingly, the 3D version received a PG rating for "Some scary moments", although no change was made to the film's original story content. The 2D version still retains its G rating.[61]

text: The film was rereleased on January 11 and 14, 2015, as part of the "TCM Presents" series by Turner Classic Movies.[62]

text: Television[edit]

text: The film was first shown on television on November 3, 1956, by CBS, as the last installment of the Ford Star Jubilee.[63]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was among the first videocassettes (on both VHS and Betamax format for the 1980 release) by MGM/CBS Home Video in 1980;[64] all current home video releases are by Warner Home Video (via current rights holder Turner Entertainment). The first LaserDisc release of it was in 1982, with two versions of a second (one from Turner and one from The Criterion Collection with a commentary track) for the 50th anniversary release in 1989, a third in 1991, a fourth in 1993, a fifth in 1995 and a sixth and final LaserDisc release on September 11, 1996.[65]

text: Prior to the wide-home-video release in 1980, the film was also released multiple times for the home-video commercial market (on a limited scale) on Super 8 film (8 mm format) during the 1970s. These releases include an edited English version (roughly 10 minutes, and roughly 20 minutes), as well as edited Spanish versions of the classic. Also, a full commercial release of it was made on Super 8 (on multiple reels) that came out in the 1970s, as well, for the commercial market.[66]

text: In addition to VHS (and later, LaserDisc), the film has been released multiple times during the 1980s on the Betamax format, beginning in 1980 simultaneously with the VHS release.[67]

text: The film was released for the first and only time on the CED format in 1982 by MGM/UA Home Video.[68]

text: Outside of the North American and European markets, the film has also been released multiple times on the Video CD format since the 1990s in Asia.[69]

text: The first DVD release was on March 26, 1997, by MGM/Turner and contained no special features or supplements. It was re-released by Warner Bros. for its 60th anniversary on October 19, 1999, with its soundtrack presented in a new 5.1 surround sound mix. The monochrome-to-color transition was more smoothly accomplished by digitally keeping the inside of the house in monochrome while Dorothy and the reveal of Munchkinland are in color. [clarification needed] The DVD also contained a behind-the-scenes documentary, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: The Making of a Movie Classic, produced in 1990 and hosted by Angela Lansbury, which was originally shown on television immediately following the 1990 telecast of the film; it had been featured in the 1993 "Ultimate Oz" LaserDisc release. Outtakes, the deleted "Jitterbug" musical number, clips of pre-1939 Oz adaptations, trailers, newsreels, and a portrait gallery were also included, as well as two radio programs of the era publicizing the film.

text: In 2005, two DVD editions were released, both featuring a newly restored version of the film with an audio commentary and an isolated music and effects track. One of the two DVD releases was a "Two-Disc Special Edition", featuring production documentaries, trailers, various outtakes, newsreels, radio shows and still galleries. The other set, a "Three-Disc Collector's Edition", included these features, as well as the digitally restored 80th-anniversary edition of the 1925 feature-length silent film version of The Wizard of Oz, other silent Oz adaptations and a 1933 animated short version.

text: The film was released on Blu-ray on September 29, 2009, for its 70th anniversary in a four-disc "Ultimate Collector's Edition", including all the bonus features from the 2005 Collector's Edition DVD, new bonus features about Victor Fleming and the surviving Munchkins, the telefilm The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story, and the miniseries MGM: When the Lion Roars. For this edition, Warner commissioned a new transfer at 8K resolution from the original film negatives. The restoration job was given to Prime Focus World.[70] This restored version also features a lossless 5.1 Dolby TrueHD audio track.[71] A DVD version was also released as a Two-Disc Special Edition and a Five-Disc Ultimate Collector's Edition.[citation needed]

text: On December 1, 2009,[citation needed] three Blu-ray discs of the Ultimate Collector's Edition were repackaged as a less expensive "Emerald Edition", with an Emerald Edition four-disc DVD arriving the following week. A single-disc Blu-ray, containing the restored movie and all the extra features of the two-disc Special Edition DVD, also became available on March 16, 2010.[citation needed]

text: In 2013, the film was re-released on DVD, Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D and UltraViolet for the 90th anniversary of Warner Bros. and as part of its 75th anniversary.[58][72]

text: Also, multiple special editions were released in celebration of the film's the 75th anniversary in 2013, exclusively by both Best Buy (a SteelBook of the 3D Blu-ray) and another version that came with a keepsake lunch bag released by Target stores.[73][74]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: Academy Awards[edit]

text:
Awards

Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient
Outcome

Academy Awards[75]
February 29, 1940
Best Picture
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
Nominated

Best Cinematography, Color
Harold Rosson

Best Art Direction
Cedric Gibbons and William A. Horning

Best Effects, Special Effects
A. Arnold Gillespie and Douglas Shearer

Best Music, Original Score
Herbert Stothart
Won

Best Music, Original Song
"Over the Rainbow"
Music by Harold Arlen; Lyrics by E.Y. Harburg

Academy Juvenile Award
Judy Garland
For her outstanding performance as a screen juvenile during the past year. (She was jointly awarded for her performances in Babes in Arms and The Wizard of Oz).
Honorary

tag: table

text: American Film Institute lists[edit]

text: The American Film Institute (AFI) has compiled various lists which include this film or elements thereof.

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – No. 6
AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – No. 43
AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:

Wicked Witch of the West – No. 4 villain

AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:

"Over the Rainbow" – No. 1
"Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" – No. 82

AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:

"Toto, I've a feeling we're not in Kansas anymore." (Dorothy Gale) – No. 4
"There's no place like home." (Dorothy) – No. 23
"I'll get you, my pretty – and your little dog, too!" (Wicked Witch of the West) – No. 99

AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – No. 3
AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – No. 26
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 10
AFI's 10 Top 10 – No. 1 Fantasy film[76]

text: Other honors[edit]

text:
1999: Rolling Stone's 100 Maverick Movies – No. 20.[77]
1999: Entertainment Weekly's 100 Greatest Films – No. 32.[78]
2000: The Village Voice's 100 Best Films of the 20th Century – No. 14.[79]
2002: Sight & Sound's Greatest Film Poll of Directors – No. 41.[80]
2005: Total Film's 100 Greatest Films – No. 83.[81]
2005: ranked among the top ten of the BFI list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14.[82]
2007: Total Film's 23 Weirdest Films – No. 1.[83]
2007: The Observer ranked the film's songs and music at the top of its list of 50 greatest film soundtracks.[84]

text: Differences from the novel[edit]

text: Roughly 40 identifiable major differences exist between the original book and the MGM interpretation.[85][86]

text: Sequels and reinterpretations[edit]

text: The film was dramatized as a one-hour radio play on Lux Radio Theatre, which was broadcast on December 25, 1950, with Garland reprising her earlier role. In 1964, a one-hour animated cartoon called Return to Oz was shown as an afternoon weekend special on NBC.[citation needed] An official 1974 sequel, the animated Journey Back to Oz starring Liza Minnelli, daughter of Garland, was produced to commemorate the original film's 35th anniversary.[87]

text: In 1975, the stage show The Wiz premiered on Broadway. It was an African American version of The Wizard of Oz reworked for the stage. It starred Stephanie Mills and other Broadway stars and earned a number of Tony Awards. Its financing was handled by actor Geoffrey Holder. Its inspired revivals after it left the stage and an unsuccessful motion picture made in 1978, starring Diana Ross as Dorothy and Michael Jackson as the Scarecrow.[citation needed]

text: In 1985, Walt Disney Productions released the live-action fantasy film Return to Oz, which starred (and introduced) Fairuza Balk as a young Dorothy Gale.[88] Based loosely on The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904) and Ozma of Oz (1907), it fared rather poorly with critics who were unfamiliar with the Oz books and was not successful at the box office, although it has since become a popular cult film, with many considering it a more loyal and faithful adaptation of what L. Frank Baum envisioned.[89][90]

text: In 1995, Gregory Maguire published the novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West, which was adapted into the wildly successful Broadway musical Wicked. The story describes the life of the Wicked Witch of the West and other events prior to Dorothy's arrival.[citation needed]

text: For the film's 56th anniversary, a 1987 stage show also titled The Wizard of Oz was based upon it and the book by L. Frank Baum. It toured from 1995 to 2012, except for 2004.[citation needed]

text: In 2005, The Muppets Studio produced The Muppets' Wizard of Oz, a television film for ABC, starring Ashanti as Dorothy, Jeffrey Tambor as the Wizard, David Alan Grier as Uncle Henry, and Queen Latifah as Aunt Em. Kermit the Frog portrayed the Scarecrow, Gonzo portrayed the Tin Thing (Tin Man), Fozzie Bear portrayed the Lion and Miss Piggy portrayed all the Witches of the West, East, North and South.[citation needed]

text: In 2007, The Sci-Fi Channel released the three-part miniseries Tin Man, a science fiction continuation starring Zooey Deschanel as DG.

text: Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice wrote a stage musical of the same name, which opened in 2011 at the West End's London Palladium. It features all of the songs from the film plus new songs written by Lloyd Webber and Rice. Lloyd Webber also found Danielle Hope to play Dorothy on the reality show, Over the Rainbow. Another production opened in December 2012 at the Ed Mirvish Theatre in Toronto.[91] A reality TV show, also titled Over the Rainbow, found a Canadian girl, Danielle Wade, to play Dorothy.[92][93] The Canadian production then began a North American tour in September 2013.[94] An Australian tour will begin at the Lyric Theatre, Queensland Performing Arts Centre in November 2017, followed by a season at the Capitol Theatre, Sydney beginning December 2017.[95]

text: An animated film called Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz was released in 2011 by Warner Home Video, incorporating Tom and Jerry into the story as Dorothy's "protectors".[96] A sequel titled Tom and Jerry: Back to Oz was released on DVD on June 21, 2016.[97]

text: Writer-director Hugh Gross' independent film After the Wizard, produced in 2010, relates events after those of the film. It was released to DVD on August 7, 2012.[citation needed]

text: In 2013, Walt Disney Pictures released a spiritual prequel titled, Oz the Great and Powerful. It was directed by Sam Raimi, and starred James Franco, Mila Kunis, Rachel Weisz and Michelle Williams. It was the second film based on Baum's Oz series to be produced by Disney, after Return to Oz. It was a commercial success and received a mixed critical reception.[98][99]

text: In 2014, now-defunct independent film company Clarius Entertainment released a big-budget animated musical film, Legends of Oz: Dorothy's Return,[100] which follows Dorothy's second trip to Oz. The film was a box office bomb and was received negatively by critics largely for its plot and unmemorable musical numbers.

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Regarding the original Baum storybook, it has been said that "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is America's greatest and best-loved home grown fairytale. The first totally American fantasy for children, it is one of the most-read children's books ... and despite its many particularly American attributes, including a wizard from Omaha, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz has universal appeal."[101]

text: The film also has been deemed "culturally significant" by the United States Library of Congress, which selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1989. In June 2007, the film was listed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register.[102] The film placed at number 86 on Bravo's 100 Scariest Movie Moments.[103] In 1977, Aljean Harmetz wrote The Making of The Wizard of Oz, a detailed description of the creation of the film based on interviews and research; it was updated in 1989.[104]

text: Ruby slippers[edit]

text: Because of their iconic stature,[105] the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland in the film are now among the most treasured and valuable film memorabilia in movie history.[106] The silver slippers that Dorothy wore in the book series were changed to ruby to take advantage of the new Technicolor process. Adrian, MGM's chief costume designer, was responsible for the final design. A number of pairs were made, though no one knows exactly how many.

text: After filming, the slippers were stored among the studio's extensive collection of costumes and faded from attention. They were found in the basement of MGM's wardrobe department during preparations for a mammoth auction in 1970. One pair was the highlight of the auction, going for a then unheard of $15,000 to an anonymous buyer, who apparently donated them to the Smithsonian Institution in 1979. Four other pairs are known to exist; one sold for $666,000 at auction in 2000. A pair was stolen from the Judy Garland Museum in Grand Rapids, Minnesota and remains missing.[107]

text: Another, differently styled pair unused in the film was sold at auction with the rest of her collections by owner actress Debbie Reynolds for $510,000 (not including the buyer's premium) in June 2011.[108]

text: Impact upon LGBT culture[edit]