document_title: The Good Place

question_text: who plays real eleanor in the good place

text: The Good Place

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: After she is struck by a collection of runaway shopping carts, pushed into traffic and run over by a truck, Eleanor Shellstrop (Bell) is welcomed into the afterlife by Michael (Danson), the facilitator and architect of Eleanor's new neighborhood in a "perfect utopia" called "The Good Place". When Michael tells Eleanor she made it into "The Good Place" as reward for her life of selfless devotion to helping others, she realizes she must have been mistaken for someone else. She also learns that each person in "The Good Place" has a soulmate with whom she or he is matched and (accordingly) with whom she or he will live for eternity.

text: Hoping to stay in The Good Place, Eleanor decides to hide her morally imperfect past behavior from everyone else, confessing only to her assigned soulmate, Chidi Anagonye (Harper), a university ethics professor. Chidi agrees to teach Eleanor to become a better person and avoid eternal torture in "The Bad Place". She also interacts closely with a particular group of other people in "The Good Place", notably Tahani Al-Jamil (Jamil), a wealthy philanthropist who dedicated her life to helping the poor and raised billions through charities, and Tahani's soulmate Jianyu Li (Jacinto), seemingly a silent Buddhist monk from Taiwan, who turns out to be Jason Mendoza, a misplaced music DJ from Florida. Michael and the inhabitants are assisted by Janet (Carden), an artificial being in charge of helping and informing the inhabitants.

text: Each episode of the first season features flashbacks from one of the main characters and ends with a cliffhanger leading into the following episode. In the first-season finale's twist ending, Michael reveals that he is really a demon and that "The Good Place" is actually a new experimental form of "The Bad Place" that he has designed himself. Every resident there is also a demon, except for Eleanor, Chidi, Tahani, and Jason who are the only human inhabitants. They were placed together with the idea that they would torment each other. The plan backfires when they become friends and Eleanor realizes the truth.

text: In season 2, Michael erases their memories and attempts the experiment again, but Eleanor (and on one occasion, Jason) figures out the truth over and over again. Because it is disallowed by his supervisors, Michael is lying to them and pretending to still be on the second attempt, even though he wipes their memories and reboots them repeatedly. As his demon colleagues also demand changes, one of them (Vicky) blackmails Michael, demanding he wipe the humans' memories and reset the neighborhood again, but putting her in charge and enacting all the demands of the other demons. Desperate to retain control and avoid "retirement" Michael offers to work with the foursome and not erase their memories if they agree to work with him. Eleanor reluctantly agrees (after Michael says he can get them to the real Good Place if they do so), but says that she will only do so if Michael agrees to join them for Chidi's ethics lessons. Since he has no choice, Michael agrees.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Kristen Bell as Eleanor Shellstrop, a deceased saleswoman from Arizona who entered an afterlife utopia called "The Good Place" seemingly after being mistaken for a human rights lawyer by the same name.[3] With the aid of her alleged soulmate, Chidi, she attempts to reform by learning about ethics, believing she still has a chance to earn a legitimate spot in The Good Place. Now that Eleanor knows about Michael's experiments and the memory wipes, Eleanor became the de facto leader in the group "Team Cockroach" after she makes a truce with Michael to keep Shawn from finding out about the reboots in exchange for helping the humans get to the Real Good Place.
William Jackson Harper as Chidi Anagonye, a deceased ethics professor who was born in Nigeria and raised in Senegal, supposed to be Eleanor's soulmate. Reluctantly, he had hope to meet a soulmate he could bond with, but soon discovers that he and Eleanor were meant to be soulmates because he was always there for her. He is the first person to learn her secret and begins teaching her about ethics to reform both her and Jason. He died on earth when an air conditioner fell on his head outside his apartment building.[4] Chidi speaks French, but in this afterlife, his speech is translated into whatever languages people who listen to him speak; therefore, he appears to speak English to Eleanor and the audience.
Jameela Jamil as Tahani Al-Jamil, a deceased, wealthy philanthropist who traveled extensively around the world. She was born in Pakistan, raised in England, and went to school in France. Tahani, whose full name means "Congratulations Beautiful," is a seemingly-good-natured soul with a cheerful and helpful attitude who was constantly overshadowed by her younger sister, Kamilah during her time on Earth. She died on Earth when a statue of her sister fell on her at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. She gradually learns the truth about Eleanor and Jason following Eleanor's arrival. Initially, Eleanor dislikes Tahani, finding her positive attitude, condescending manner, and her tendency to name drop obnoxious, but the two eventually become friends.[5]
D'Arcy Carden as Janet, a programmed guide who acts as the neighborhood's main source of information, analogous to an intelligent personal assistant. She is the 25th generation of "Janet" programs like her, dating back to a predecessor featuring a click-wheel. She has infinite knowledge of the universe, can provide residents anything they desire, and details everything of what is happening in the Good Place but does have some flaws. Since she is the only individual who came from a true Good Place (Michael admits to having stolen her in the season 1 finale), Janet is subject to numerous reboots; she pleads with whomever tries to push a red button that shuts her down not to kill her, even going as far as showing pictures (like an ultrasound of an unborn baby or showing off her "children") before she falls to the ground. These reboots give Janet increased abilities as well as programming capabilities that compel her to make humans happy, as she'll only answer to what the humans want her to do, including keeping their secrets to escaping the Bad Place. Janet is incompatible with lies and must tell the objective truth. In season 1, after she was rebooted the first time, Jason and Janet fell in love with each other and got married. It is revealed in season 2 that her feelings for Jason have intensified with each reboot.

Carden also plays "Bad Janet", Janet's counterpart from The Bad Place.[6]

Manny Jacinto as "Jianyu Li", a supposedly silent Buddhist monk from Taiwan and Tahani's soulmate. Eleanor discovers he is actually Jason Mendoza from Jacksonville, Florida, an amateur DJ and backup dancer who sold fake drugs to high school students.[7] At first, Jason develops feelings for Janet because she is the only one who is nice to him but later forgot after they rebooted everybody's memories, but later ended up sleeping with Tahani in season 2.
Ted Danson as Michael, the architect of The Good Place where Eleanor and her fellow humans reside. In the first-season finale, it is discovered that he is a Bad Place demon who constructed a fake "Good Place" to torture Eleanor, Chidi, Tahani, and Jason. Unfortunately, he ends up repeatedly restarting his experiment due to Eleanor (and one time Jason) always figuring out that "The Good Place" is "The Bad Place," leading to his routine failure, as well as hiding the constant resets from Shawn in order to avoid "retirement". As part of a truce he makes with Eleanor so his failing project will not be exposed and a chance to reform his behavior, Michael agrees to let the humans keep their memories and help them get into the true Good Place as well as to take Chidi's ethics lessons.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Tiya Sircar as the "real Eleanor Shellstrop", a human rights lawyer mistakenly sent to The Bad Place, who was killed trying to save Eleanor from a traffic accident, causing confusion because the two Eleanors were close to one another and died almost simultaneously. In the finale of season 1, she is revealed to be a demonic colleague of Michael's named Vicky, who is part of the experiment. In season 2, in one of many reboots, Michael gives Vicky a significantly smaller role as Denise, a restaurant owner, to Vicky's dissatisfaction. After having to go through hundreds of Michael's failed attempts, Vicky blackmails him, saying he will reboot the neighborhood and blank the memories of the humans again, and put her in charge of the new neighborhood, saying that if he does not agree to her terms (and to meet the demands of the other demons, who all want something different out of this newest attempt), she will alert Shawn to her documentation of his many failures, and request that he initiate Michael's retirement. This makes Michael desperate enough to team up with the humans, whose memories he only pretends to blank.
Adam Scott as Trevor. In season 1, he is portrayed as a sinister figure representing The Bad Place, sent upon Eleanor's true identity being revealed, vowing to take her with him. He leads an entourage of demons that parties endlessly and bullies Michael.[8]
Marc Evan Jackson as Shawn, an all-powerful Eternal Judge who decides on matters between the two realms. He is called in to hear Eleanor's fate. In the season 1 finale, his true nature was revealed: he is Michael's boss. He believes Michael will fail in his second attempt, and he makes it clear that Michael's failure in this regard will result in Michael's retirement, and that only one more chance will be given.
Maribeth Monroe as Mindy St. Claire, the only resident of The Medium Place, a neutral plane of existence between The Good Place and The Bad Place. She is a former real-estate lawyer, cocaine addict, and is somewhat sexually depraved, as evidenced by the fact that she has taped and kept track of times when Eleanor and Chidi shared intimacy during their repeated visits. Regarding those visits, she told a reluctant and disbelieving Eleanor that she (Eleanor) and Chidi have been romantically linked for a long time, even though it may seem to Eleanor as if she and Chidi just met. Because of her location and existence, Mindy is a real person and not subjected to the experimental nature in which both places are being run. It is implied that Mindy died in the 1980s as evidenced in her environmental surroundings (such as having a TV set with recordable VHS tapes which enabled her to record one of the sex tapes over Cannonball Run 2; she also has a People magazine cover featuring Pierce Brosnan that she keeps reading).

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
13
September 19, 2016 (2016-09-19)
January 19, 2017 (2017-01-19)

2
13
September 20, 2017 (2017-09-20)
TBA

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and casting[edit]

text: NBC issued a press release on August 13, 2015, announcing it had given the then untitled show a 13-episode order based purely on a pitch by Michael Schur.[9] On January 12, 2016, it was announced that Kristen Bell and Ted Danson had been cast in the lead roles for the series. The first synopsis of the show was also released, stating that the show was set to revolve around Eleanor designing her own self-improvement course with Michael acting as her guide[3] – although the afterlife element had always been a part of the series, as Kristen Bell has stated she was aware of the first-season finale twist when she signed onto the show.[10]

text: William Jackson Harper was cast as Chris on February 11, 2016,[4] though the character was renamed Chidi. Jameela Jamil was cast as Tessa on February 25, 2016,[5] and her character was renamed Tahani. On March 3, 2016, Manny Jacinto was revealed to have been cast as a "sweet and good-natured Jason" whose "dream is to make a living as a DJ in Southern Florida."[7] On March 14, 2016, D'Arcy Carden was cast in the final series regular role as Janet Della-Denunzio, a violin salesperson with a checkered past[6] – though the character was completely reworked, she retained her original first name in the series.

text: The final premise for the show, including the afterlife element, was ultimately announced on May 15, 2016, when NBC announced its schedule for the 2016–17 TV season.[11]

text: Filming[edit]

text: According to Schur, the premise and idea was to include religious elements into the series after doing research on various faiths and groups, but he decided to scrap the plans, instead going for a concept that included all faiths that was diverse and free of religious views. "I stopped doing research because I realized it's about versions of ethical behavior, not religious salvation," he says. "The show isn't taking a side, the people who are there are from every country and religion." Schur also points out that the setting (shot in San Marino, California's Huntington Gardens) already had the feeling of a pastiche of different cultures, stating that the neighborhoods will feature people who are part of nondenominational and interdenominational backgrounds that interact with each other regardless of religion.[12]

text: The series' setting and premises, as well as the serialized cliffhangers were modeled on Lost, a favorite of Schur. One of the first people he called when he developed the series was Lost co-creator Damon Lindelof. "I took him to lunch and said, 'We're going to play a game [of] 'Is this anything?'" He then added "I imagine this going in the Lost way," with cliffhangers and future storylines".[13]

text: The first season's surprise twist, that the Good Place was the Bad Place, and Chidi, Eleanor, Jason and Tahani were the four souls chosen because they were best suited to torture each other indefinitely, is very similar in premise to philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre's stage play No Exit, in which three strangers die, are escorted to a single room by a friendly bellhop where they are informed they must co-exist together, but ultimately determine they are entirely incompatible and thus come to the conclusion that "hell is other people". The only actors who knew the truth from the start were Danson and Bell.[14]

text: Critics have also suggested resemblances to 1960s surreal TV show The Prisoner in its isolated, rule-bound setting.[15][16][17]

text: Broadcast and release[edit]

text: Since the start of season two in September 2017, Netflix distributes the show to various international markets with new episodes being released a few hours after their original American airing.[18]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on October 17, 2017.[19]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Time slot (ET)
Episodes
Season premiere
Season finale
TV season
Rank
Viewers
(in millions)

Date
Viewers
(in millions)
Date
Viewers
(in millions)

1
Monday 10:00 pm (premiere)
Thursday 8:30 pm
13
September 19, 2016
8.04[20]
January 19, 2017
3.93[21]
2016–17
#77
5.72[22]

2
Wednesday 10:00 pm (premiere)
Thursday 8:30 pm
13
September 20, 2017
5.28[23]
TBA
TBA
2017–18
TBA
TBA

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The Good Place has received positive reviews from television critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has a rating of 90%, based on 52 reviews, with an average rating of 7.84/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Kristen Bell and Ted Danson knock it out of the park with supremely entertaining, charming performances in this absurd, clever and whimsical portrayal of the afterlife."[24] On Metacritic, the first season has a score of 78 out of 100, based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[25]

text: The editors of TV Guide placed The Good Place second among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016–17 season. In its review from writer Liam Matthews, "NBC's new comedy has an impressive pedigree" (referring to Mike Schur, and stars Kristen Bell and Ted Danson, the latter cited as "arguably the greatest sitcom actor of all time"). Matthews concludes that "The hope is that their combined star power can restore NBC's tarnished comedy brand to its former glory. It won't be the next Friends, but it's something even better: a network comedy that feels different than anything that's come before."[26]

text: Jason Martin, a critic for Outkick the Coverage, placed The Good Place on his list of best comedies of the year for 2016.[27]

text: The second season has received highly positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has a rating of 100%, based on 22 reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "By voluntarily blowing up its premise, The Good Place sets up a second season that proves even funnier than its first."[28] On Metacritic, the second season has a score of 87 out of 100, based on reviews from 9 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[29]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Association
Category
Nominee
Result

2016
TV Guide[26]
Most Exciting TV Series
The Good Place
Runner-up

Critics' Choice Television Awards[30]
Most Exciting New Series
The Good Place
Won

IGN Awards[31]
Best TV Comedy Series
Nominated

2017
Gold Derby Awards[32]
Comedy Lead Actor
Ted Danson
Nominated

People's Choice Awards[33]
Favorite New Comedy Series
The Good Place
Nominated

Television Critics Association[34]
Outstanding Achievement in Comedy
Nominated

Outstanding New Program
Nominated

Individual Achievement in Comedy
Kristen Bell
Nominated

Saturn Awards[35]
Best Fantasy Television Series
The Good Place
Nominated


document_title: Mamba

question_text: what type of snake is green and black

question_tokens: what type of snake is green and black

root

text: Mamba

text: Behaviour[edit]

text: The three species of green mambas are arboreal, whereas the black mamba is largely terrestrial. All four species are active diurnal hunters, preying on birds, lizards, and small mammals. At nightfall some species, especially the terrestrial black mamba, shelter in a lair. A mamba may retain the same lair for years.

tag: p

text: Mambas and cobras are in the same family: the Elapidae. Like cobras, a mamba may rear and form a hood as part of its threat display, but the mamba's hood is narrower and is longer than the broader hood of some species of cobra, such as say, the spectacled cobras of parts of Asia. In their threat display mambas commonly gape; the black mamba's mouth is black within, which renders the threat more conspicuous. Typically also, a rearing mamba tends to lean well forward, instead of standing erect as a cobra does.

text: Stories of black mambas that chase and attack humans are common, but in fact the snakes generally avoid contact with humans.[5] Most apparent cases of pursuit probably are examples of where witnesses have mistaken the snake's attempt to retreat to its lair when a human happens to be in the way.[6]  The black mamba usually uses its speed to escape from threats, and humans actually are their main predators, rather than prey.[2]

text: Venom[edit]

text: All mambas are highly venomous. Their venoms consist mostly of neurotoxins (known as dendrotoxins). Besides the neurotoxins, they also carry cardiotoxins[2][7] and fasciculins.[8][9] Other components may include calcicludine, which is a known component of the eastern green mamba's venom and calciseptine, which is a component of black mamba venom. Toxicity of individual specimens within the same species and subspecies can vary greatly based on several factors, including geographical region. Even the weather and altitude can influence toxicity (Ernst and Zug et al. 1996). A bite can be fatal to humans without access to proper first aid and subsequent antivenom treatment, as it shuts down the lungs and heart. The western green mamba (D. viridis), eastern green mamba (D. angusticeps), and Jameson's mamba (D. jamesoni) possess venom similar in composition and effects to that of the black mamba's (D. polylepis). However, as their venoms are less toxic (based upon LD50 studies), and their temperaments generally not as aggressive or as explosive when provoked, and as none of the three injects as much venom as the black mamba, their bites are materially less dangerous.[citation needed]

text: Before antivenom was available, envenomations by mambas carried a high fatality rate. Untreated black mamba bites have a mortality rate of 100%,[5][10] but presently, fatalities have become much rarer due to wide availability of antivenom.

text: Mamba toxins[edit]

text: Mamba toxin (or dendrotoxin) consists of several components, with different targets. Examples are:

text:
Dendrotoxin 1, which inhibits the K+ channels at the pre and post-synaptic level in the intestinal smooth muscle. It also inhibits Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels from rat skeletal muscle‚ incorporated into planar bilayers (Kd = 90 nM in 50 mM KCl).[11])
Dendrotoxin 3, which inhibits acetylcholine M4 receptors.[12]
Dendrotoxin 7, commonly referred to as muscarinic toxin 7 (MT7) inhibits acetylcholine M1 receptors.[12]
Dendrotoxin K, structurally homologous to Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitors [13] with activity as a selective blocker of voltage-gated potassium channels [14]

tag: ul

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: Dendroaspis, derives from Ancient Greek dendro (δένδρο), meaning "tree",[15] and aspis (ασπίς), which is understood to mean "shield",[16] but also denotes "cobra" or simply "snake", in particular "snake with hood (shield)". Via Latin aspis, it is the source of the English word "asp". In ancient texts, aspis or asp often referred to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje), in reference to its shield-like hood.[17] Thus, "Dendroaspis" literally means tree asp, reflecting the arboreal nature of most of the species within the genus. The genus was first described by the German ornithologist and herpetologist Hermann Schlegel in 1848.[18] Evidence suggests that Dendroaspis, Ophiophagus, Bungarus, and Hemibungarus form a solid non-coral snake Afro-Asiatic clade.[19]

text: Of the currently recognized mamba species, three are green and the other is the "black mamba", so called in spite of its generally brown or grey body.

text:
Species[20]

Authority[20]

Image

Subsp.*[20]

Common name

Geographic range

Dendroaspis angusticepsT

(Smith, 1849)

0

Eastern green mamba

Found in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, eastern South Africa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan, Sudan, Niger, Central African Republic, Chad

Dendroaspis jamesoni

(Traill, 1843)

2

Jameson's mamba

Found in Central Africa in Sudan, Gabon, Angola, Zambia, Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Central African Republic, Benin, Ghana

Dendroaspis polylepis

Günther, 1864

0

Black mamba

Found in eastern Africa and southern Africa in northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo, southwestern Sudan to Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, eastern Uganda, Tanzania, southwards to Mozambique, Swaziland, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Rwanda, Djibouti and Botswana to KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, and Namibia; then northeasterly through Angola to the southeastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo

Dendroaspis viridis

(Hallowell, 1844)

0

Western green mamba

Found only in western Africa in southern Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and southwest Nigeria

tag: table

text:
* Including the nominate subspecies.
T Type species.


document_title: Dhadkan

question_text: who is the singer of dulhe ka sehra

question_tokens: who is the singer of dulhe ka sehra

text: Dhadkan

text: Plot[edit]

text: Anjali  (Shilpa Shetty) is a young woman who hails from an extremely rich and influential family. Her father Mr. Chauhan (Kiran Kumar) is a renowned businessman and has many dreams for his daughter. Anjali is in love with Dev (Sunil Shetty) who is very poor and often cannot even afford to clothe himself properly. Dev loves Anjali and wants to marry her, so he has to meet her father.

text: When Anjali puts forward to her parents the proposal of marrying Dev, she is rebuked and gets an outright refusal. Because her father does not like Dev for his bad manners and arrogant outlook. Moreover, her parents have chosen for her a wealthy suitor from Delhi; and the boy is very religious minded. Not wanting to hurt her parents, Anjali finally gives in and marries Ram (Akshay Kumar) who her parents believe will be a perfect match for her.

text: Ram is a man of great ideals, who believes in giving a rightful place to his wife and respects her sensibilities. Despite this, he is unable to win Anjali's love at first and their marriage remains on the edge. However, after seeing the magnanimity of her husband’s heart in forgiving and accepting her, she realises she has fallen in love with him.

text: Anjali leads a life of bliss and becomes an ideal wife.

text: But suddenly, at their third wedding anniversary party, Dev returns and reveals his intent of winning Anjali back. Dev is now a wealthy businessman, and Anjali finds herself at a crossroads where she would stand-for her husband or with her former flame/love. Anjali chooses to stand for her husband and has no wish to return to her former flame/lover even though it pains her to know how hurt he is.

text: When she tells him this, Dev can not stand rejection for a second time and sets out to ruin Ram's life. This goes on for some time, causing turbulence and turmoil in Anjali's life.

text: In the end, when Anjali tells Dev she is pregnant with Ram's child and begs him to leave her alone, Dev realises his folly and decides to marry his current friend and business partner Sheetal Varma (Mahima Chaudhry) who is his new companion and secretly loved him for a long time.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Akshay Kumar as Ram
Shilpa Shetty as Anjali
Suniel Shetty  as Dev
Mahima Chaudhry as Sheetal Varma
Sharmila Tagore as Dev's mother (special appearance)
Sushma Seth as Ram's stepmother
Parmeet Sethi as Bob (Ram's stepbrother)
Manjeet Kullar as Nikki (Ram's stepsister)
Kiran Kumar as Anjali's father
Anjana Mumtaz as Anjali's mother
Anupam Kher as Sheetal's father (special appearance)
Kader Khan as Singer (special appearance in song "Dulhe Ka Sehra"

text: Music[edit]

text:
DhadkanSoundtrack album by Nadeem–ShravanReleased
2 July 2000Recorded
1997-1999Genre
FilmiLength
59:14Language
HindiLabel
VenusProducer
Nadeem–ShravanNadeem–Shravan chronology

Sirf Tum(1999)

Dhadkan(2000)

Kasoor(2001)

text: The music of the album has been composed by Nadeem–Shravan in the span of three years. Dulhe Ka Sehra sung by Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was composed in 1997. The other songs were also recorded in 1997-98, with the exception of Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein, which was recorded in 2000 at London. Dil Ne Yeh Kaha Hai Dil Se and Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein became legendary love tracks and Dulhe Ka Sehra a popular wedding song of the era. The other successful songs are Aksar Is Duniya Mein and Na Na Karte Pyaar. The album was listed at second position in the yearly music charts. It became a big hit among the masses. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, around 45,00,000 albums were sold.[2]

text: All lyrics written by Sameer Anjaan; all music composed by Nadeem–Shravan.

text: Track listingNo.TitleSinger(s)Length1."Dil Ne Yeh Kaha Hai Dil Se"Udit NarayanAlka YagnikKumar Sanu7:062."Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein"Abhijeet BhattacharyaAlka Yagnik5:513."Dulhe Ka Sehra" (male version)Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan8:324."Dil Ne Yeh Kaha Hai Dil Se"Alka YagnikSonu Nigam5:475."Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein" (sad version)Kumar Sanu5:146."Na Na Karte Pyar"Alka YagnikUdit Narayan6:367."Aksar Is Duniya Mein"Alka Yagnik5:428."Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein" (instrumental) 5:529."Dulhe Ka Sehra" (female version)Jaspinder Narula8:34Total length:59:14

text: Reception[edit]

text: Taran Adarsh wrote of the film:

text: Dhadkan is an intense love story and director Dharmesh Darshan has handled it with the sensitivity it deserves ... Despite the flaws, one has to acknowledge the fact that Dharmesh Darshan succeeds in melting the heart at several places. The entire marriage song-sequence in the initial reels, prior to it the scenes involving Sharmila Tagore, Sunil's portions in the second half, clearly indicate that the director knows his job well. He relies more on close-ups to capture expressions, which is the hallmark of a seasoned technician.

text:
Adarsh described Shilpa Shetty as the "life of the enterprise", adding that she "looks good, delivers her lines effectively and emotes with utmost conviction."He said Sunil Shetty performance is one of his best especially the scenes between Sunil and Shilpa are fabulous'."He also said "Akshay Kumar shows vast improvement as an actor. He is very controlled and handles this difficult role with sincerity."
[3]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Best Female Playback - Alka Yagnik - "Dil Ne Yeh Kaha Hai"
Best Villain - Sunil Shetty

text: Nominated

text:
Best Choreography
Best Director - Dharmesh Darshan
Best Movie - Dharmesh Darshan
Best Lyricist - Sameer - "Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein".
Best Music Director - Nadeem–Shravan
Best Male Playback  - Udit Narayan - "Dil Ne Yeh Kaha Hai".
Best Supporting Actress - Mahima Chaudhry

text: Nominated

text:
Best Actor - Akshay Kumar
Best Actress  - Shilpa Shetty
Best Supporting Actress - Mahima Chaudhry
Best Movie - Dharmesh Darshan
Best Story - Dharmesh Darshan
Best Director - Dharmesh Darshan
Best Female - Alka Yagnik - "Dil Ne Yeh Kaha Hai".
Best Lyricist - Sameer - "Dil Ne Yeh Kaha Hai".
Best Lyricist - Sameer - "Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein".
Best Male Playback - Abhijeet- "Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein".
Best Music Director - Nadeem–Shravan
Best Villain - Sunil Shetty

text: Won

text:
Best Publicity Design — Himanshu Nanda, Rahul Nanda
Best Negative Role Film Fare Award - Sunil Shetty .

text: Nominated

text:
Best Lyricist - Sameer - "Dil Ne Ye Kaha Hai".
Best Music Director - Nadeem–Shravan
Best Female Playback - Alka Yagnik - "Dil Ne Ye Kaha Hai".
Best Male Playback - Abhijeet- "Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan".
Best Male Playback - Udit Narayan - "Dil Ne Ye Kaha Hai".
Best Supporting Actress - Mahima Chaudhry

text: Sequel[edit]

text: Director Darshan announced the sequel Dhadkan 2 - The Heart Beats Again. It will have a fresh cast, crew and music directors. The release date is yet to be announced, but is possibly 2018.


document_title: The Conjuring 2

question_text: who played the crooked man in the conjuring 2

text: The Conjuring 2

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1976, paranormal investigators Ed and Lorraine Warren document the Amityville murders at the Amityville house, to determine if a demonic presence was truly responsible for Ronald DeFeo Jr. murdering his family on November 13, 1974, and the subsequent haunting incident involving the Lutz family. During a seance, Lorraine is drawn into a vision where she relives the murders. A demonic nun figure appears and lures her to the basement, where she witnesses Ed being impaled before breaking out of the vision.

text: In 1977, the Hodgson family begins to experience strange occurrences in their home in the London suburb of Enfield. Janet, the second oldest of four children, is seen sleepwalking and conversing in her dreams with an entity in the form of an angry elderly man, who insists that the house is his. Eventually, all the Hodgson siblings and their mother Peggy witness paranormal events occurring right before their eyes, forcing them to seek refuge with their neighbors. When the media attempts to interview the Hodgsons, Janet is possessed by the spirit of the elderly man, Bill Wilkins, who is revealed to have previously lived and died in the house. During the possession, Wilkins states that he enjoys tormenting the family and wants to reclaim his home. As Janet begins to show more signs of demonic possession, the story eventually reaches the Warrens, and their assistance is requested to assist the local church in an investigation to prove whether or not Janet's possession is a hoax. Lorraine, fearful that her vision of Ed's death may become reality, warns him not to get too involved in the case, but she reluctantly agrees to travel to London with him. She has yet another vision of the demonic nun in Ed's study wherein the demon says its name, which Lorraine scribbles in her Bible.

text: While staying at the Hodgson residence, Ed and Lorraine consult with other paranormal investigators, including Maurice Grosse and Anita Gregory, on the legitimacy of the case. They also attempt to communicate with Wilkins' spirit, hoping to convince him to stop haunting the family. One night, after the Hodgsons witness Janet being possessed, Gregory presents video evidence of Janet purposely wrecking the kitchen as if for a practical joke, thereby discrediting the haunting. Based on this discovery, Ed and Lorraine feel they have no choice but to leave the family on their own but soon discover that the spirit of Wilkins is only a pawn being manipulated by the demonic nun, to haunt Janet and break her will. Lorraine then realizes that her abilities have been blocked by the demonic nun, preventing her from grasping the truth of Janet's possession.

text: Ed and Lorraine quickly return to the Hodgson residence, only to find Janet being possessed once more and the rest of the Hodgsons locked outside the house. Ed ventures inside the house alone. A lightning strike hits a tree near the house, leaving a jagged stump resembling the object that impaled Ed in Lorraine's vision. Ed finds Janet standing near the window, ready to leap onto the stump and commit suicide. He manages to grab Janet in time, but finds himself holding onto a curtain that is being torn from its rings by his and Janet's weight. Lorraine remembers that she wrote the demon's name – Valak – in her Bible. She enters the house and confronts Valak, addressing it by name and successfully condemns it back to Hell. Janet is freed of its possession, and Lorraine pulls her and Ed to safety.

text: After returning home to the United States, Ed adds an item to his and Lorraine's collection – "The Crooked Man" zoetrope toy owned by Peggy's youngest child Billy – placing it near April's music box and the Annabelle doll.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Patrick Wilson as Ed Warren
Vera Farmiga as Lorraine Warren
Madison Wolfe as Janet Hodgson
Frances O'Connor as Peggy Hodgson
Lauren Esposito as Margaret Hodgson
Benjamin Haigh as Billy Hodgson
Patrick McAuley as Johnny Hodgson
Simon McBurney as Maurice Grosse
Maria Doyle Kennedy as Peggy Nottingham
Simon Delaney as Vic Nottingham
Franka Potente as Anita Gregory
Bob Adrian as Bill Wilkins
Robin Atkin Downes as Demon Voice
Bonnie Aarons as Valak (Demon Nun)
Javier Botet as Crooked Man
Steve Coulter as Father Gordon
Abhi Sinha as Harry Whitmark
Chris Royds as Graham Morris
Sterling Jerins as Judy Warren
Kent Allen as Daniel Wolfe
Annie Young as Constable Heeps
Elliot Joseph as Constable Joseph
Cory English as Skeptic Kaplan
Joseph Bishara as Demon
Shannon Kook as Drew

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In July 2013, prior to The Conjuring's release, Variety reported that New Line Cinema was already in the early stages of development of a sequel, following the positive test screenings and reviews of the first film.[5] The film deals with the case of the Enfield Poltergeist, which took place in the London Borough of Enfield from 1977 to 1979, and involved the alleged haunting of two sisters, aged 11 and 13, at their mother's council house.[6] The Conjuring 2 also touches on the Warrens' most famous and most documented case, The Amityville Horror.[7]

text: Pre-production[edit]

text:
I've been working very heavily on the script, and the idea of continuing the saga of Ed and Lorraine Warren is actually very exciting. So the idea of going back to kind of nurture my baby that I created is part of the reason why I'm going back to do The Conjuring 2.

– James Wan, explaining his reasons for returning to direct the sequel.[8]

tag: div

text: In July 2013, it was reported that Vera Farmiga and Patrick Wilson had signed on to reprise their roles from The Conjuring.[9] This was confirmed in February 2014.[10] On October 21, 2014, it was announced that James Wan would return to direct the sequel, and production would begin in the summer of 2015.[11] In early July 2015, lead actors Farmiga and Wilson visited Lorraine Warren at the New England Paranormal Research Center in Connecticut in preparation for their roles.[12] On July 28, 2015, Wan officially began pre-production for the film.[13] In August 2015, the film was granted $5.6 million in tax credits from the California Film Commission for bringing the production to the state.[14]

text: On September 13, 2015, Don Burgess was confirmed as the film's director of photography.[15] In September 2015, Frances O'Connor, Simon McBurney, newcomer Lauren Esposito, and Madison Wolfe joined the cast.[16][17][18][19] Franka Potente, Simon Delaney, Maria Doyle Kennedy, and newcomers Patrick McAuley and Benjamin Haigh were also reported to have been cast in late September 2015.[20] In November 2015, it was announced that Abhi Sinha had joined the cast of the film.[21] On December 1, 2015, it was confirmed that Sterling Jerins would reprise her role as the Warrens' daughter Judy.[22]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography for The Conjuring 2 began on September 21, 2015, in Los Angeles, California.[23] Due to an inexplicable series of events during production of the first film, a priest from the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Santa Fe was brought in to bless the set of the sequel by the film's producers.[24][25] Production moved to London on November 18, 2015, with filming taking place in and around The Warrington, a pub in the residential district of Maida Vale. On November 22, filming took place at Marylebone station.[26] Filming concluded on December 1, 2015.[27][28] Production lasted for 50 days, with 40 days filming on sound stages at Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank,[29] and 10 days on location in London.[30]

text: Music[edit]

text: The original musical score for The Conjuring 2 was written by Joseph Bishara and was released on June 3, 2016, by WaterTower Music.[31][32] Bishara, a recurring collaborator of director James Wan, composed the score after having previously written the music for The Conjuring and the Insidious film series.[33] Lead actor Patrick Wilson performs Elvis Presley's "Can't Help Falling in Love" on a guitar in the film, while songs such as The Clash's "London Calling", Bee Gees's "I Started A Joke" and the traditional nursery rhymes "This Old Man" and "There Was a Crooked Man" are also featured. Composer Mark Isham's family themes from the first film, "Photograph" and "Happy Family", were also used in The Conjuring 2.[34]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: In December 2015, Entertainment Weekly released the first image from the film, introducing the character portrayed by Madison Wolfe.[35] On January 6, 2016, James Wan posted a teaser clip to his social media accounts revealing that the first official trailer would debut the following day.[36] Also on January 6, Yahoo! Movies exclusively released two stills from the film, featuring Vera Farmiga and Patrick Wilson.[25] On March 26, 2016, Wan premiered the full-length trailer at WonderCon.[37] In the weeks leading up to the film's premiere, TV spots began airing.[38] This was followed by a featurette titled Strange Happenings in Enfield, in which the Hodgson sisters and Lorraine Warren discuss their experiences with the case.[39] Two weeks prior to The Conjuring 2's premiere, fans were given the opportunity to take a 360-degree virtual reality tour of the film's Enfield house setting.[40] Following that, another featurette was released, titled Audio Recordings, which featured a recording of the demon that inspired the film.[41]

text: Theatrical release[edit]

text: The Conjuring 2 was originally scheduled to be released on October 23, 2015,[42] but in October 2014, Warner Bros. pulled the film from the schedule and set the film for an unspecified 2016 release date.[43] In November 2014, the release date was pushed back from its original release date of October 23, 2015, to June 10, 2016.[44] The Conjuring 2 had its red carpet world premiere at the TCL Chinese Theatre on June 7, 2016, as part of the Los Angeles Film Festival's program, three days prior to its wide release.[45]

text: On June 17, 2016, a 65-year-old man died of a heart attack while watching the film at a cinema in Tiruvannamalai, India.[46]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Conjuring 2 was released as a digital download on August 30, 2016, and on DVD and Blu-ray on September 13, 2016.[47] Bonus features include behind the scenes footage, featurettes, and deleted scenes.[48]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Conjuring 2 became a huge financial success like its predecessor, grossing $102.5 million in the United States and Canada and $217.9 million in other territories for a worldwide total gross of $320.4 million.[3] Although it earned less in North America than the first film, it fared better internationally and overall, making 0.5% more than the first film.[49][50] The film was the highest-grossing horror film of the year and the second-highest-grossing horror film overall of all time, behind only 1973's The Exorcist ($441.3 million).[51][52][53] It was partly credited for the success of fellow Warner Bros. horror film Lights Out, which was released a month later.[54][55] Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $98.3 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the 14th-most profitable release of 2016.[56]

text: In North America, the film opened on June 10, 2016, alongside Warcraft and Now You See Me 2, and was projected to gross $35–40 million from 3,343 theaters in its opening weekend.[2][57] The film grossed $3.4 million from its Thursday night previews, besting the $3.3 million made by its predecessor, and $16.4 million in its first day.[58][59] In its opening weekend, the film grossed $40.4 million from 3,434 theaters (almost matching its predecessor's $41.9 million opening),[60] making it the biggest opening for a horror film since the original film in 2013, the biggest-ever for the month of June (breaking The Purge's record),[61] and the fifth-biggest for a horror film of all time, behind the first film, the second and third installments in the Paranormal Activity franchise ($40.6 million and $52.5 million, respectively), and Friday the 13th ($40.6 million).[51] Following a first-place finish in its first weekend of release, the film faced a steep decline of 63.2% in its second weekend (earning $14.8 million from 3,356 theaters); this was a much larger drop than The Conjuring (46.9%) and Annabelle (57.3%). As a result, it slipped to third place behind newcomers Finding Dory and Central Intelligence, another film from New Line Cinema.[62] It began to lose a considerable number of theaters by its third weekend as a result of numerous newly released films. Forbes magazine noted that The Conjuring 2 was falling faster than the previous film, but had already made more than Insidious: Chapter 2, Annabelle, and both The Purge and The Purge: Anarchy had done at that point in their releases.[63] Unlike its predecessor, The Conjuring 2 proved to be more front-loaded, earning 2.5 times its opening weekend, compared to the original film earning 3.22 times its debut numbers.[64]

text: Outside North America, the film has been released across 60 countries.[65] It became a big hit in Latin America and performed exceptionally well in other Catholic countries due to its spiritual themes, while it also did well in the U.K., where the film is set.[53] It was released across 44 countries the same weekend as its United States release, and grossed $51.5 million in its opening weekend from 10,400 screens, debuting in second place behind Warcraft.[66][67] It added another $43.1 million in its second weekend from a total of 57 countries as well as passing the $100 million threshold. However, it still remained in second place at the international box office, behind then-newcomer Finding Dory.[68]

text: It recorded the biggest opening day of all time for a horror film in 24 markets, including Mexico ($1.6 million), Brazil ($735,000), Australia ($401,000), and all of Latin America.[69] Moreover, in terms of opening weekend, the film scored the biggest opening for a horror film in 26 markets, including Mexico ($9 million), Brazil ($4.1 million), and Australia ($3 million).[67] In Argentina, the film scored the second-biggest opening for Warner Bros. with $2.85 million, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[70] In South Korea, the film opened to $4 million,[67] France to $3.7 million,[65] Spain to $1.85 million, Russia to $1.75 million,[68] and Italy to $1.1 million.[71] The film faced stiff competition against Central Intelligence in Germany, making $2.1 million in its opening weekend, placing in second behind the aforementioned film.[68] In the United Kingdom, the film earned an opening weekend of £4.6 million ($6.8 million) from 504 theaters, over twice its predecessor's opening ($3.3 million).[72] In terms of total earnings, its biggest markets outside of North America were in Mexico ($20.3 million), the United Kingdom ($15.3 million), South Korea ($11.5 million) and India ($11.5 million).[71][73][55] It has become the highest-grossing Warner Bros. film in Chile with a total gross of $5.4 million.[73]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 80% based on 226 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Conjuring 2 can't help but lose a bit of its predecessor's chilly sting through familiarity, but what remains is still a superior ghost story told with spine-tingling skill."[74] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[4] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale, the same grade earned by its predecessor.[75]

text: In her review for The Hollywood Reporter, Sheri Linden praised the film, saying, "Three years after The Conjuring rattled the multiplex with old-school horror, director James Wan ups the ante with an excellent sequel."[76] Owen Gleiberman of Variety gave the film a mixed review, writing, "On one level, The Conjuring 2 is just a not-bad megaplex funhouse movie, no more and no less, but on another level it offers its potential fans a helping of reassurance to go along with the fear. If there are ghost demons out there, then God must be out there as well. Audiences, it was long ago proven, will pay to see both."[77] TheWrap's Alonso Duralde gave the film a positive review, stating, "Frightening rarely strikes twice in the same place, despite the efforts of so many horror sequels, but even if The Conjuring 2 doesn't deliver the delightful jolts of its predecessor, it maintains a consistent chill throughout, with a slow and steady dread that creeps up on you over time."[78]

text: In a mixed review, Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B-, writing, "There are some solid scares (Wan is too gifted in the dark art of gotcha manipulation to not make you leap a few times), but there's nothing on par with the first film's brilliant hide-and-clap scene with Lili Taylor."[79] Jacob Wilkins of The Cavalier Daily lauded the film, calling Wan a "master of horror" and remarked that the film was "fresh, original and unsettling".[80] Pete Hammond of Deadline.com wrote that he was "pleasantly surprised" by the sequel and what Wan has accomplished with the film, stating, "Wan knows the tricks of this trade (heightened sound effects, moving furniture, dark corners) but somehow miraculously he really puts a fresh spin on it all here. It's riveting stuff, even if in a familiar cinematic environment." He added, "It is one hell of a movie."[81]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of Ceremony
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref(s)

Empire Awards
March 19, 2017
Best Horror
The Conjuring 2
Nominated
[82]

Golden Tomato Awards
January 12, 2017
Best Horror Movie of 2016
5th Place
[83]

Golden Trailer Awards
May 4, 2016
Best Horror
New Line Cinema
Nominated
[84][85]

Best Horror TV Spot
Won

People's Choice Awards
January 18, 2017
Favorite Thriller Movie
The Conjuring 2
Nominated
[86]

Saturn Awards
June 28, 2017
Best Horror Film
Nominated
[87]

text: Future[edit]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: Wan has stated on further potential sequels, "There could be many more [Conjuring] movies because the Warrens have so many stories". Screenwriters Chad and Carey Hayes have also expressed interest in working on a story for another sequel.[88] However, Wan stated that he may be unable to direct the film due to his commitments to other projects.[89] He stated to Collider, "Assuming we are lucky enough to have a third chapter, there are other filmmakers that I would love to sort of continue on the Conjuring world, if we are lucky enough".[90] Wan has also stated that, if a third film was to be made, it would ideally take place in the 1980s.[91] Wan later stated that the sequel could include lycanthropy, "Maybe we can go and do it like a classic American Werewolf in London style. That would be awesome! The Warrens set against the backdrop of The Hound of Baskerville".[92] In May 2017, Safran said it would be unlikely that a third installment would be a "haunted house" film.[93] In June 2017, it was announced a third installment was in development, with The Conjuring 2 co-writer David Leslie Johnson hired to write the screenplay.[94] In August 2017, Wan told Entertainment Weekly that the filmmakers have "been working hard on The Conjuring 3", and that "we're in the midst of working on the script, and still hashing [it] out. We want to make sure that the script is in a really good place. With how much people have loved the first two [Conjuring films], I don't want to rush in to the third one if possible".[95]

text: Spin-off films[edit]

text: The Nun[edit]

text: On June 15, 2016, it was reported that a spin-off film titled The Nun, focusing on the "Demon Nun" character Valak, was in development with Johnson writing the script. Safran and Wan are producing.[96] Corin Hardy was hired to direct the film, with a screenplay by Wan and Gary Dauberman.[97] It is scheduled to be released on July 13, 2018,[98] with Demián Bichir and Taissa Farmiga cast in the lead roles.[99][100] Bonnie Aarons will reprise her role in the film,[101] and Charlotte Hope, Jonas Bloquet, and Ingrid Bisu are set to co-star.[102][103][104] Filming began in May 2017 in Bucharest, Romania.[105]

text: The Crooked Man[edit]

text: On May 31, 2017, Peter Safran said there was a possibility of a Crooked Man film.[106] On June 14, 2017, it was reported that a spin-off film titled The Crooked Man, featuring the character of the same name from The Conjuring 2, was in development with Mike Van Waes writing the screenplay from a story by James Wan, with Safran and Wan set to produce the project.[107]


document_title: Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States

question_text: how many votes needed to confirm a supreme court justice

text: Nomination[edit]

text: Article Two of the United States Constitution requires the President of the United States to nominate Supreme Court Justices and, with Senate confirmation, requires Justices to be appointed. This was for the division of power between the President and Senate by the founders, who wrote:

text: he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint ... Judges of the supreme Court...

text: Upon the election of a new President, incoming White House staff prepare profiles of possible candidates for the Supreme Court, considering not only judges but also politicians and other individuals whom they consider appropriate for the role. Besides considering national figures whose views are well-known, they consider others who are less recognized. They go through published rulings, articles, speeches, and other background material to get an idea of candidates' values and views on constitutional issues. Age, health, race, gender, and likelihood of confirmation are also factored into considerations. Once a Supreme Court vacancy opens, the President discusses the candidates with advisors. Senators also call the President with suggestions. After a first choice is decided, the candidate is contacted and called on by the President to serve on the highest court. Staffers send a vetting form for the candidate to fill out. They visit the candidate to go over tax records and payments to domestic help. Candidates whom the President has never met are interviewed by White House officials before being sent to the White House to be interviewed in person by the President. After making a final decision, the President calls the candidate, who is told to prepare a statement for an appearance in front of the national press for the President's formal announcement.

text: Most Presidents nominate individuals who broadly share their ideological views.[1] In many cases, however, a Justice's decisions may be contrary to what the nominating President anticipated. A famous instance was Chief Justice Earl Warren; President Dwight D. Eisenhower expected him to be a conservative judge, but his decisions are arguably among the most liberal in the Court's history. Eisenhower later called the appointment "the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made".[2] Another Justice whose decisions ran contrary to what was believed to be his ideology was David Souter, who was nominated to the high court in 1990 by President George H. W. Bush. Many pundits and politicians at the time expected Souter to be a conservative; however, after becoming a Justice, his opinions generally fell on the liberal side of the political spectrum.

text: Because the Constitution does not set any qualifications for service as a Justice, the President may nominate any individual to serve on the Court. However, that person must receive the confirmation of the Senate.

text: Confirmation[edit]

text: In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from special-interest groups, many of which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee, depending on whether the nominee's track record aligns with the group's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings, questioning nominees to determine their suitability. By convention, nominees avoid revealing too much about their views on potential cases that may come before the Court. At the close of confirmation hearings, the Committee votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report.

text: The Committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent, beginning with Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925. Some western senators were concerned with his links to Wall Street and expressed their opposition when Stone was nominated. Stone proposed what was then the novelty of appearing before the Judiciary Committee to answer questions; his testimony helped secure a confirmation vote with very little opposition. The second nominee to appear before the Committee was Felix Frankfurter, who only addressed (at the Committee's request) what he considered to be slanderous allegations against him.[3] The modern practice of the Committee questioning nominees on their judicial views began with the nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in 1955; the nomination came shortly after the Court handed down the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, and several Southern senators attempted to block Harlan's confirmation, hence the decision to testify.[4][5]

text: Once the Committee reports out the nomination, the whole Senate considers it. A simple majority vote is required to confirm or to reject a nominee. Prior to 2017, a successful filibuster threat could add the requirement of a supermajority of 60 needed in favor of cloture, which would allow debate to end and force a final vote on confirmation. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees in its history. The most recent rejection of a nominee by vote of the full Senate came in 1987, when the Senate refused to confirm Robert Bork.

text: Not everyone nominated by the President has received a floor vote in the Senate. Prior to 2017 a nominee could be filibustered once debate on the nomination had begun in the full Senate. A filibuster indefinitely prolongs the debate, preventing a final vote on the nominee. President Lyndon Johnson's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President Donald Trump's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up Obama's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy.[6][7][8] This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.[9]

text: Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006 before Committee hearings had begun, citing concerns about Senate requests during her confirmation process for access to internal Executive Branch documents resulting from her position as White House Counsel. In 1987, President Ronald Reagan withdrew the nomination of Douglas H. Ginsburg because of news reports containing marijuana use allegations.

text: The Senate may also fail to act on the nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, the Senate failed to act on President Barack Obama's nomination of Merrick Garland in March 2016 to fill the vacancy left by the death of Antonin Scalia; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump's appointment of Neil Gorsuch.[10]

text: Before 1981 the approval process of Justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, Justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).[11][12] Some believe this is because Congress sees Justices as playing a more political role than in the past.[13] The perceived politicization of the process has drawn criticism. For example, columnist George F. Will termed the defeat of Robert Bork's nomination "unjust" and, more generally, that the nomination process does "not delve deeply into the nominee's jurisprudential thinking."[14] Supreme Court nominations have caused media speculation about whether the judge leans to the left, middle, or right.[15] One indication of the politicized selection process is how much time each nominee spends being questioned under the glare of media coverage; before 1925, nominees were never questioned;[16] after 1955, every nominee has been required to appear before the Senate Judiciary Committee and answer questions; and the hours spent being grilled have lengthened from single digits (before 1980) to double digits today.[17] Another example of the politicization of the process was the Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination, which remained before the Senate far longer than any other nominee.

text: Following is a table of the approximate number of hours that media sources estimate were spent on the questioning of Supreme Court nominees since 1925:

text:
Year
Nominee
# Hours

1925
Harlan Fiske Stone
7000500000000000000♠5

1938
Felix Frankfurter
–

1955
John Marshall Harlan II
–

1957
William J. Brennan, Jr.
7000300000000000000♠3

1967
Thurgood Marshall
7000700000000000000♠7

1971
William H. Rehnquist
7000700000000000000♠7

1975
John Paul Stevens
7000600000000000000♠6

1981
Sandra Day O'Connor
7001120000000000000♠12

1987
Robert Bork (not confirmed)
7001300000000000000♠30

1987
Anthony Kennedy
7001110000000000000♠11

1990
David H. Souter
7001200000000000000♠20

1991
Clarence Thomas
7001250000000000000♠25

1993
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
7001200000000000000♠20

1994
Stephen G. Breyer
7001200000000000000♠20

2005
John G. Roberts, Jr.
7001200000000000000♠20

2016
Merrick Garland (not confirmed)
5000000000000000000♠0

2017
Neil Gorsuch
7001200000000000000♠20

Sources: The New York Times (2005, 2009), MSNBC (2005)[3][4][17]

text: Once the Senate confirms the nomination by an affirmative vote, the Secretary of the Senate attests to a resolution of confirmation and transmits it to the White House.[18] The President then prepares and signs a commission, and causes the Seal of the United States Department of Justice to be affixed to the document before the new Justice can take office.[19] The date of commission determines a Justice's seniority.[20] A ceremony is held in which the Justice must take the Constitutional Oath, which is used for every federal and state officeholder below the President, and the Judicial Oath used for federal judges before entering into the execution of their office.

text: Recess appointments[edit]

text: Article II, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution provides that:

text: The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

text: Thus, when the Senate is in recess, the President may make a temporary appointment to any office requiring Senate approval, including filling vacancies on the Supreme Court, without the Senate's advice and consent. Such a recess appointee to the Supreme Court holds office only until the end of the next Senate session (always less than two years). To continue to serve thereafter and be compensated for his or her service, the nominee must be formally nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Of the ten Justices who have received recess appointments - two Chief Justices and eight Associate Justices - only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed for a regular appointment. No president since Dwight Eisenhower (who made three such appointments) has made a recess appointment to the Supreme Court and the practice has become highly controversial even when applied to lower federal courts. During the 110th Congress, the Democratic leadership of the Senate specifically blocked Republican President George W. Bush from making any recess appointments with the use of pro forma sessions.

text: In 1960 the Senate passed a resolution stating that it was the sense of the Senate that recess appointments to the Supreme Court should not be made except under unusual circumstances.[21] Being a resolution, it has no legally binding effect, but was intended as an expression of the position of the Senate and as a guide to executive actions. The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines.[21] [22]

text: Following is a list of recess appointments that have been made to the Supreme Court:[23]

text:
Justice
Appointed by
Date of
Appointment
Date of
Nomination
Date of
Senate action
Senate
action

Johnson, ThomasThomas Johnson
Washington
000000001791-08-05-0000August 5, 1791
000000001791-10-31-0000October 31, 1791
000000001791-11-07-0000November 7, 1791
Confirmed

Rutledge, JohnJohn Rutledge
(as Chief Justice)
Washington
000000001795-07-01-0000July 1, 1795
000000001795-12-10-0000December 10, 1795
000000001795-12-15-0000December 15, 1795
Rejected

Washington, BushrodBushrod Washington
J. Adams
000000001798-09-29-0000September 29, 1798
000000001798-12-19-0000December 19, 1798
000000001798-12-20-0000December 20, 1798
Confirmed

Livingston, Henry BrockholstHenry Brockholst Livingston
Jefferson
000000001806-11-10-0000November 10, 1806
000000001806-12-15-0000December 15, 1806
000000001806-12-17-0000December 17, 1806
Confirmed

Thompson, SmithSmith Thompson
Monroe
000000001823-09-01-0000September 1, 1823
000000001823-12-05-0000December 5, 1823
000000001823-12-09-0000December 9, 1823
Confirmed

McKinley, JohnJohn McKinley
Van Buren
000000001837-04-22-0000April 22, 1837
000000001837-09-18-0000September 18, 1837
000000001837-09-25-0000September 25, 1837
Confirmed

Woodbury, LeviLevi Woodbury
Polk
000000001845-09-20-0000September 20, 1845
000000001845-12-23-0000December 23, 1845
000000001846-01-03-0000January 3, 1846
Confirmed

Curtis, Benjamin RobbinsBenjamin Robbins Curtis
Fillmore
000000001851-09-22-0000September 22, 1851
000000001851-12-11-0000December 11, 1851
000000001851-12-20-0000December 20, 1851
Confirmed

Davis, DavidDavid Davis
Lincoln
000000001862-10-17-0000October 17, 1862
000000001862-12-01-0000December 1, 1862
000000001862-12-08-0000December 8, 1862
Confirmed

Warren, EarlEarl Warren
(as Chief Justice)
Eisenhower
000000001953-10-02-0000October 2, 1953
000000001954-03-01-0000March 1, 1954
000000001954-03-01-0000March 1, 1954
Confirmed

Brennan, Jr., William J.William J. Brennan, Jr.
Eisenhower
000000001956-10-15-0000October 15, 1956
000000001957-01-14-0000January 14, 1957
000000001957-03-19-0000March 19, 1957
Confirmed

Stewart, PotterPotter Stewart
Eisenhower
000000001958-10-14-0000October 14, 1958
000000001959-01-17-0000January 17, 1959
000000001959-12-05-0000December 5, 1959
Confirmed

text: Tenure and vacancies[edit]

text: The ability of a president to appoint new justices depends on the occurrence of a vacancy on the Court. The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is well understood to mean Justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, although they can voluntarily resign or retire. A Justice can also be removed by Congressional impeachment and conviction. However, only one Justice has been impeached by the House (Samuel Chase, in 1805) and he was acquitted in the Senate. Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, once in 1953 and again in 1970), but they have not reached a vote in the House. No mechanism presently exists for removing a Justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, both unable to resign and unable to resume service.[24]

text: Because Justices have indefinite tenure, it is impossible to know when a vacancy will next occur. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William H. Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer's nomination in 1994 and the departures of Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justice Sandra Day O'Connor (by death and retirement, respectively) in 2005 and 2006.

text: It is also theoretically possible for Congress to create additional vacancies by expanding the Court itself. The United States Constitution does not specify the size of the Supreme Court, but in Article III it authorizes the Congress to fix the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six justices. As the country grew geographically, Congress increased the number of justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits. In 1807, the court was expanded to seven members, allowing Thomas Jefferson to appoint Thomas Todd as a new Justice. The expansion to nine members in 1837 allowed Andrew Jackson to appoint John Catron, and Martin Van Buren to appoint John McKinley; and the addition of a tenth seat in 1863 allowed Abraham Lincoln to name Stephen Johnson Field to the Court. However, at the request of Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, Congress passed the Judicial Circuits Act (1866) which provided that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced; thus, the size of the Court should have eventually reached seven by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. However, this law did not play out to completion, for in the Judiciary Act of 1869,[25] also known as the Circuit Judges Act, the number of justices was again set at nine, where it has since remained. The new seat created in 1869 was filled the following year by Ulysses S. Grant's appointment of Joseph P. Bradley - the last justice to be appointed to a newly created seat on the Court.

text: President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937, seeking to appoint an additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement; under Roosevelt's proposal, such appointments would continue until the Court reached a maximum size of 15 justices. Ostensibly, the proposal was made to ease the burdens of the docket on the elderly judges, but the President's actual purpose was to pack the Court with justices who would support New Deal policies and legislation.[26] This plan, usually called the "Court-packing Plan", failed in Congress and proved a political disaster for Roosevelt.[27] The balance of the Court shifted with the retirement of Willis Van Devanter and the confirmation of Hugo Black in August 1937. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven Supreme Court justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.[28]

text: Despite the variability, nearly all Presidents so far have been able to appoint at least one Justice. The four exceptions are William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Andrew Johnson, and Jimmy Carter. Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Taylor likewise died early in his presidential term, although his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Johnson was denied the opportunity to appoint a Justice by a contraction in the size of the Supreme Court, which Congress may dictate. Jimmy Carter is the only President who completed at least one full term in office without making a nomination to the Court during his presidency.


document_title: MTN Uganda

question_text: when was mtn mobile money launched in uganda

text: MTN Uganda

text: Location[edit]

text: The headquarters of MTN Uganda are located at 22 Hannington Road on Nakasero Hill in the Kampala Central Division, one of the administrative units of the city of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda.[4] The coordinates of the company headquarters are 0°19'10.0"N, 32°35'17.0"E (Latitude:0.319434; Longitude:32.588051).[5]

text: Overview[edit]

text: MTN Uganda is a subsidiary of MTN Group, a multinational telecommunications group connecting approximately 232 million people in 22 countries across Africa and the Middle East.[6] In 2009, MTN Uganda introduced its mobile telephone-based banking product known as Mobile Money. As of March 2015, MTN controlled 80 percent of the mobile money market in the country.[7]

text: In November 2015, MTN Uganda switched off 3.7 million of its 11.5 million customers to comply with the Uganda Communications Commission's new SIM card registration requirements.[8][9]

text: In May 2016, MTN Uganda borrowed US$114 million (UGX:385.8 or 380 billion, depending on the source) to expand its network and build a new headquarters building on Jinja Road in Kampala. Funding was in the form of a syndicated loan by a consortium of four Ugandan banks, namely Stanbic Bank Uganda, Standard Chartered Uganda, Citibank Uganda, and Barclays Bank of Uganda.[10][11]

text: In August 2016, MTN Uganda in partnership with Commercial Bank of Africa (Uganda) introduced a new product that allows customers to save money and access microloan products, using their cell phone. The product, called MoKash is available on personal accounts and on accounts for small and medium-sized enterprises.[12]

text: Governance[edit]

text: Wim Vanhelleputte is the chief executive officer.[2]


document_title: Human iron metabolism

question_text: where does the iron in your blood come from

text: Human iron metabolism

text: Importance of iron regulation[edit]

text: Iron is an essential bioelement for most forms of life, from bacteria to mammals. Its importance lies in its ability to mediate electron transfer. In the ferrous state, iron acts as an electron donor, while in the ferric state it acts as an acceptor. Thus, iron plays a vital role in the catalysis of enzymatic reactions that involve electron transfer (reduction and oxidation, redox). Proteins can contain iron as part of different cofactors, such as iron-sulfur clusters (Fe-S) and heme groups, both of which are assembled in mitochondria.

text: Cellular respiration[edit]

text: Human cells require iron in order to obtain energy as ATP from a multi-step process known as cellular respiration, more specifically from oxidative phosphorylation at the mitochondrial cristae. Iron is present in the iron-sulfur clusters and heme groups of the electron transport chain proteins that generate a proton gradient that allows ATP synthase to synthesize ATP (chemiosmosis).

text: Heme groups are part of hemoglobin, a protein found in red blood cells that serves to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Heme groups are also present in myoglobin to store and diffuse oxygen in muscle cells.

text: Oxygen transport[edit]

text: The human body needs iron for oxygen transport. Oxygen (O2) is required for the functioning and survival of nearly all cell types. Oxygen is transported from the lungs to the rest of the body bound to the heme group of hemoglobin in erythrocytes. In muscles cells, iron binds myoglobin, which regulates its release.

text: Toxicity[edit]

text: Iron is also potentially toxic. Its ability to donate and accept electrons means that it can catalyze the conversion of hydrogen peroxide into free radicals. Free radicals can cause damage to a wide variety of cellular structures, and ultimately kill the cell.[1]

text: Iron bound to proteins or cofactors such as heme is safe. Also, there are virtually no truly free iron ions in the cell, since they readily form complexes with organic molecules. However, some of the intracellular iron is bound to low-affinity complexes, and is termed labile iron or "free" iron. Iron in such complexes can cause damage as described above.[2]

text: To prevent that kind of damage, all life forms that use iron bind the iron atoms to proteins. This binding allows cells to benefit from iron while also limiting its ability to do harm.[1][3] Typical intracellular labile iron concentrations in bacteria are 10-20 micromolar,[4] though they can be 10-fold higher in anaerobic environment,[5] where free radicals and reactive oxygen species are scarcer. In mammalian cells, intracellular labile iron concentrations are typically smaller than 1 micromolar, less than 5 percent of total cellular iron.[2]

text: Bacterial protection[edit]

text: In response to a systemic bacterial infection, the immune system initiates a process known as iron withholding. If bacteria are to survive, then they must obtain iron from their environment. Disease-causing bacteria do this in many ways, including releasing iron-binding molecules called siderophores and then reabsorbing them to recover iron, or scavenging iron from hemoglobin and transferrin. The harder they have to work to get iron, the greater a metabolic price they must pay. That means that iron-deprived bacteria reproduce more slowly. So our control of iron levels appears to be an important defense against most bacterial infections; there are some exceptions however. TB causing bacterium can reside within macrophages which are an iron rich environment and Borrelia burgdorferi utilises manganese in place of iron. People with increased amounts of iron, like people with hemochromatosis, are more susceptible to some bacterial infection.[6]

text: Although this mechanism is an elegant response to short-term bacterial infection, it can cause problems when inflammation goes on for longer. Since the liver produces hepcidin in response to inflammatory cytokines, hepcidin levels can increase as the result of non-bacterial sources of inflammation, like viral infection, cancer, auto-immune diseases or other chronic diseases. When this occurs, the sequestration of iron appears to be the major cause of the syndrome of anemia of chronic disease, in which not enough iron is available to produce enough hemoglobin-containing red blood cells.[3]

text: Body iron stores[edit]

text: Most well-nourished people in industrialized countries have 4 to 5 grams of iron in their bodies (∼38 mg iron/kg body weight for women and ∼50 mg iron/kg body for men).[7] Of this, about 6997250000000000000♠2.5 g is contained in the hemoglobin needed to carry oxygen through the blood, and most of the rest (approximately 2 grams in adult men, and somewhat less in women of childbearing age) is contained in ferritin complexes that are present in all cells, but most common in bone marrow, liver, and spleen. The liver's stores of ferritin are the primary physiologic source of reserve iron in the body. The reserves of iron in industrialized countries tend to be lower in children and women of child-bearing age than in men and in the elderly. Women who must use their stores to compensate for iron lost through menstruation, pregnancy or lactation have lower non-hemoglobin body stores, which may consist of 6996500000000000000♠500 mg, or even less.

text: Of the body's total iron content, about 6996399999999999999♠400 mg is devoted to cellular proteins that use iron for important cellular processes like storing oxygen (myoglobin) or performing energy-producing redox reactions (cytochromes). A relatively small amount (3–4 mg) circulates through the plasma, bound to transferrin.[8] Because of its toxicity, free soluble iron is kept in low concentration in the body.

text: Iron deficiency first affects the storage iron in the body, and depletion of these stores is thought to be relatively non-symptomatic, although some vague and non-specific symptoms have been associated with it. Since iron is primarily required for hemoglobin, iron deficiency anemia is the primary clinical manifestation of iron deficiency. Iron-deficient people will suffer or die from organ damage well before cells run out of the iron needed for intracellular processes like electron transport.

text: Macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system store iron as part of the process of breaking down and processing hemoglobin from engulfed red blood cells. Iron is also stored as a pigment called hemosiderin which is an ill-defined deposit of protein and iron, created by macrophages where excess iron is present, either locally or systemically for example among people with iron overload due to frequent blood cell destruction and transfusions. If the systemic iron overload is corrected, over time the hemosiderin is slowly resorbed by macrophages.

text: Mechanisms of iron regulation[edit]

text: Human iron homeostasis is regulated at two different levels. Systemic iron levels are balanced by the controlled absorption of dietary iron by enterocytes, the cells that line the interior of the intestines, and the uncontrolled loss of iron from epithelial sloughing, sweat, injuries and blood loss. In addition, systemic iron is continuously recycled. Cellular iron levels are controlled differently by different cell types due to the expression of particular iron regulatory and transport proteins.

text: Systemic iron regulation[edit]

text: Dietary iron uptake[edit]

text: The absorption of dietary iron is a variable and dynamic process. The amount of iron absorbed compared to the amount ingested is typically low, but may range from 5% to as much as 35% depending on circumstances and type of iron. The efficiency with which iron is absorbed varies depending on the source. Generally the best-absorbed forms of iron come from animal products. Absorption of dietary iron in iron salt form (as in most supplements) varies somewhat according to the body’s need for iron, and is usually between 10% and 20% of iron intake. Absorption of iron from animal products, and some plant products, is in the form of heme iron, and is more efficient, allowing absorption of from 15% to 35% of intake. Heme iron in animals is from blood and heme-containing proteins in meat and mitochondria, whereas in plants, heme iron is present in mitochondria in all cells that use oxygen for respiration.

text: Like most mineral nutrients, the majority of the iron absorbed from digested food or supplements is absorbed in the duodenum by enterocytes of the duodenal lining. These cells have special molecules that allow them to move iron into the body. To be absorbed, dietary iron can be absorbed as part of a protein such as heme protein or iron must be in its ferrous Fe2+ form. A ferric reductase enzyme on the enterocytes’ brush border, duodenal cytochrome B (Dcytb), reduces ferric Fe3+ to Fe2+.[9] A protein called divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), which can transport several divalent metals across the plasma membrane, then transports iron across the enterocyte’s cell membrane into the cell.

text: These intestinal lining cells can then either store the iron as ferritin, which is accomplished by Fe3+ binding to apoferritin (in which case the iron will leave the body when the cell dies and is sloughed off into feces), or the cell can release it into the body via the only known iron exporter in mammals, ferroportin. Hephaestin, a ferroxidase that can oxidize Fe2+ to Fe3+ and is found mainly in the small intestine, helps ferroportin transfer iron across the basolateral end of the intestine cells. In contrast, ferroportin is post-translationally repressed by hepcidin, a 25-amino acid peptide hormone. The body regulates iron levels by regulating each of these steps. For instance, enterocytes synthesize more Dcytb, DMT1 and ferroportin in response to iron deficiency anemia.[10] Iron absorption from diet is enhanced in the presence of vitamin C and diminished by excess calcium, zinc, or manganese.[11][citation needed]

text: The human body’s rate of iron absorption appears to respond to a variety of interdependent factors, including total iron stores, the extent to which the bone marrow is producing new red blood cells, the concentration of hemoglobin in the blood, and the oxygen content of the blood. The body also absorbs less iron during times of inflammation, in order to deprive bacteria of iron. Recent discoveries demonstrate that hepcidin regulation of ferroportin is responsible for the syndrome of anemia of chronic disease.

text: Iron recycling and loss[edit]

text: Most of the iron in the body is hoarded and recycled by the reticuloendothelial system, which breaks down aged red blood cells. In contrast to iron uptake and recycling, there is no physiologic regulatory mechanism for excreting iron. People lose a small but steady amount by gastrointestinal blood loss, sweating and by shedding cells of the skin and the mucosal lining of the gastrointestinal tract. The total amount of loss for healthy people in the developed world amounts to an estimated average of 6994100000000000000♠1 mg a day for men, and 1.5–2 mg a day for women with regular menstrual periods.[citation needed] People with gastrointestinal parasitic infections, more commonly found in developing countries, often lose more.[1] Those who cannot regulate absorption well enough get disorders of iron overload. In these diseases, the toxicity of iron starts overwhelming the body's ability to bind and store it.[12]

text: Cellular iron regulation[edit]

text: Iron import[edit]

text: Most cell types take up iron primarily through receptor-mediated endocytosis via transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1), transferrin receptor 2 (TFR2) and GAPDH. TFR1 has a 30-fold higher affinity for transferrin-bound iron than TFR2 and thus is the main player in this process.[13][14] The higher order multifunctional glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) also acts as a transferrin receptor.[15][16] Transferrin-bound ferric iron is recognized by these transferrin receptors, triggering a conformational change that causes endocytosis. Iron then enters the cytoplasm from the endosome via importer DMT1 after being reduced to its ferrous state by a STEAP family reductase.[17]

text: Alternatively, iron can enter the cell directly via plasma membrane divalent cation importers such as DMT1 and ZIP14 (Zrt-Irt-like protein 14).[18] Again, iron enters the cytoplasm in the ferrous state after being reduced in the extracellular space by a reductase such as STEAP2, STEAP3 (in erythrocytes), Dcytb (in enterocytes) and SDR2.[17]

text: The labile iron pool[edit]

text: In the cytoplasm, ferrous iron is found in a soluble, chelatable state which constitutes the labile iron pool (~0.001 mM).[19] In this pool, iron is thought to be bound to low-mass compounds such as peptides, carboxylates and phosphates, although some might be in a free, hydrated form (aqua ions).[19] Alternatively, iron ions might be bound to specialized proteins known as metallochaperones.[20] Specifically, poly-r(C)-binding proteins (PCBPs) appear to mediate transfer of free iron to ferritin (for storage) and non-heme iron enzymes (for use in catalysis).[18][21] The labile iron pool is potentially toxic due to iron's ability to generate reactive oxygen species. Iron from this pool can be taken up by mitochondria via mitoferrin to synthesize Fe-S clusters and heme groups.[17]

text: The storage iron pool[edit]

text: Iron can be stored in ferritin as ferric iron due to the ferroxidase activity of the ferritin heavy chain.[22] Dysfunctional ferritin may accumulate as hemosiderin, which can be problematic in cases of iron overload.[23] The ferritin storage iron pool is much larger than the labile iron pool, ranging in concentration from 0.7 mM to 3.6 mM.[19]

text: Iron export[edit]

text: Iron export occurs in a variety of cell types, including neurons, erythrocytes, macrophages and enterocytes. The latter two are especially important since systemic iron levels depend upon them. There is only one known iron exporter, ferroportin.[24] It transports ferrous iron out of the cell, generally aided by ceruloplasmin and/or hephaestin (mostly in enterocytes), which oxidize iron to its ferric state so it can bind ferritin in the extracellular medium.[17] Hepcidin causes the internalization of ferroportin, decreasing iron export. Besides, hepcidin seems to downregulate both TFR1 and DMT1 through an unknown mechanism.[25] Another player assisting ferroportin in effecting cellular iron export is GAPDH.[26] A specific post translationally modified isoform of GAPDH is recruited to the surface of iron loaded cells where it recruits apo-transferrin in close proximity to ferroportin so as to rapidly chelate the iron extruded.[27]

text: The expression of hepcidin, which only occurs in certain cell types such as hepatocytes, is tightly controlled at the transcriptional level and it represents the link between cellular and systemic iron homeostasis due to hepcidin's role as "gatekeeper" of iron release from enterocytes into the rest of the body.[17] Erythroblasts produce erythroferrone, a hormone which inhibits hepcidin and so increases the availability of iron needed for hemoglobin synthesis.[28]

text: Translational control of cellular iron[edit]

text: Although some control exists at the transcriptional level, the regulation of cellular iron levels is ultimately controlled at the translational level by iron-responsive element-binding proteins IRP1 and especially IRP2.[29] When iron levels are low, these proteins are able to bind to iron-responsive elements (IREs). IREs are stem loop structures in the untranslated regions (UTRs) of mRNA.[17]

text: Both ferritin and ferroportin contain an IRE in their 5' UTRs, so that under iron deficiency their translation is repressed by IRP2, preventing the unnecessary synthesis of storage protein and the detrimental export of iron. In contrast, TFR1 and some DMT1 variants contain 3' UTR IREs, which bind IRP2 under iron deficiency, stabilizing the mRNA, which guarantees the synthesis of iron importers.[17]

text: Iron-related pathology[edit]

text: Iron deficiency[edit]

text: Functional or actual iron deficiency can result from a variety of causes. These causes can be grouped into several categories:

text:
Increased demand for iron, which the diet cannot accommodate.
Increased loss of iron (usually through loss of blood).
Nutritional deficiency. This can result due to a lack of dietary iron or consumption of foods that inhibit iron absorption, including calcium, phytates and tannins. Black tea steeped for long has high tannins.
Inability to absorb iron: A common cause of iron deficiency is the widespread use of acid reducing medications, the strongest of which are proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) such as omeprazole.[citation needed]
Damage to the intestinal lining. Examples of causes of this kind of damage include surgery involving the duodenum, or diseases like Crohn's or celiac sprue which severely reduce the surface area available for absorption.
Inflammation leading to hepcidin-induced restriction on iron release from enterocytes (see above).

text: Iron overload[edit]

text: The body is able to substantially reduce the amount of iron it absorbs across the mucosa. It does not seem to be able to entirely shut down the iron transport process. Also, in situations where excess iron damages the intestinal lining itself (for instance, when children eat a large quantity of iron tablets produced for adult consumption), even more iron can enter the bloodstream and cause a potentially deadly syndrome of iron overload. Large amounts of free iron in the circulation will cause damage to critical cells in the liver, the heart and other metabolically active organs.

text: Iron toxicity results when the amount of circulating iron exceeds the amount of transferrin available to bind it, but the body is able to vigorously regulate its iron uptake. Thus, iron toxicity from ingestion is usually the result of extraordinary circumstances like iron tablet over-consumption[1][30] rather than variations in diet. The type of acute toxicity from iron ingestion causes severe mucosal damage in the gastrointestinal tract, among other problems.

text: Chronic iron toxicity is usually the result of more chronic iron overload syndromes associated with genetic diseases, repeated transfusions or other causes. In such cases the iron stores of an adult may reach 50 grams (10 times normal total body iron) or more. Classic examples of genetic iron overload includes hereditary hemochromatosis (HH) and the more severe disease juvenile hemochromatosis (JH) caused by mutations in either the gene RGMc gene, a member of a three gene repulsive guidance molecule family,[31] (also called hemojuvelin (HJV), and HFE2), Hemojuvelin, or the HAMP gene that encodes (an iron regulatory peptide). The exact mechanisms of most of the various forms of adult hemochromatosis, which make up most of the genetic iron overload disorders, remain unsolved. So while researchers have been able to identify genetic mutations causing several adult variants of hemochromatosis, they now must turn their attention to the normal function of these mutated genes.