document_title: Wine bottle

question_text: what do you call a 6l bottle of wine

question_tokens: what do you call a 6l bottle of wine

text: Wine bottle

text: Sizes[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Many traditional wine bottle sizes are named for Biblical kings and historical figures.[5] The chart below[6] lists the sizes of various wine bottles in multiples relating to a standard bottle of wine, which is 0.75 litres (0.20 US gal; 0.16 imp gal) (six 125 ml servings). The "wineglassful"—an official unit of the apothecaries' system of weights—is much smaller at 2.5 imp fl oz (71 ml).

text: Most champagne houses are unable to carry out secondary fermentation in bottles larger than a magnum due to the difficulty in riddling large, heavy bottles. After the secondary fermentation completes, the champagne must be transferred from the magnums into larger bottles, which results in a loss of pressure. Some believe this re-bottling exposes the champagne to greater oxidation and therefore results in an inferior product compared to champagne which remains in the bottle in which it was fermented.[7]

text:
Volume (litres)
Ratio
Name
Notes
Champagne
Bordeaux
Burgundy

0.1875
0.25
Piccolo
"Small" in Italian. Also known as a quarter bottle, pony, snipe or split.
Yes

0.2
0.2667
Quarter
Used for Champagne
Yes[8]

0.25
0.33
Chopine
Traditional French unit of volume

Yes

0.375
0.5
Demi
"Half" in French. Also known as a half bottle.
Yes "Half"[8]
Yes
Yes

0.378
0.505
Tenth
One tenth of a US gallon*

0.5
0.67

Also known as a 50 cl bottle. Used for Tokaj, Sauternes, Jerez, as well as several other types of sweet wines, also common for cheaper wines in Switzerland.
Yes "Demie" or "Pinte"[8]

0.620
0.83
Clavelin
Primarily used for vin jaune.

0.750
1
Standard

Yes[8]
Yes
Yes

0.757
1.01
Fifth
One-fifth of a US gallon* (before 1979)

1.0
1.33
Litre
Popular size for Austrian wines.

1.5
2
Magnum

Yes[8]
Yes
Yes

2.25
3
Marie Jeanne
Also known as a Tregnum or Tappit Hen in the port wine trade.

Yes

3.0
4
Jeroboam
Biblical, first king of Northern Kingdom. "Jeroboam" has different meanings (that is, indicates different sizes) for different regions in France.[9]
Yes[8]
Yes
Yes

4.5
6

Yes

4.5
6
Rehoboam
Biblical, First king of separate Judea
Yes[8]

Yes

5.0
6.67
McKenzie
Uncommon, primarily found in France

Yes

6.0
8
Imperial

Yes

6.0
8
Methuselah
Biblical, Oldest Man
Yes[8]

Yes

9.0
12
Salmanazar
Biblical, Assyrian King
Yes[8]
Yes
Yes

12.0
16
Balthazar or Belshazzar [10]
Balthazar—one of three Wise Men to present gifts at Jesus' nativity; Belshazzar can also denote the co-regent of Babylon during the madness of Nebuchadnezzar, for whom the next-larger bottle size is named.
Yes[8]
Yes
Yes

15.0
20
Nebuchadnezzar[11]
Biblical, King of Babylon
Yes[8]
Yes
Yes

18.0
24
Melchior
One of three Wise Men to present gifts at Jesus' nativity
Yes
Yes
Yes

18.0
24
Solomon
Biblical, King of Israel, Son of David
Yes[8]

26.25
35
Sovereign
Reportedly created by Taittinger in 1988 for the launch of the then world's largest cruise liner Sovereign of the Seas[12]
Yes[8]

27.0
36
Primat or Goliath
"Primat" likely from the Late Latin prīmās (chief, noble); Goliath—Biblical, killed by David
Yes[8]
Yes

30.0
40
Melchizedek or Midas
Melchizedek—Biblical, King of Salem; Midas may refer to the mythical king of Phrygia in Greek mythology
Yes[8]

text: * For many years, the US standard (non-metric) wine and liquor bottle was the "fifth", meaning one-fifth of a US gallon, or 25.6 US fluid ounces (757 ml; 26.6 imp fl oz). Some beverages also came in tenth-gallon, half-gallon and one-gallon sizes. In 1979, the US adopted the metric system for wine bottles, with the basic bottle becoming 750 ml, as in Europe.[citation needed]

text: Shapes[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Wine producers in Portugal, Italy, Spain, France and Germany follow the tradition of their local areas in choosing the shape of bottle most appropriate for their wine.

text:
Port, sherry, and Bordeaux varieties: straight-sided and high-shouldered with a pronounced punt. Port and sherry bottles may have a bulbous neck to collect any residue.
Burgundies and Rhône varieties: tall bottles with sloping shoulders and a smaller punt.
Schlegel variety, predominantly used in German wine growing regions: similar to Burgundy bottles, but more slender and elongated.
Rhine (also known as hock or hoch), Mosel, and Alsace varieties: narrow and tall with little or no punt.
Champagne and other sparkling wines: thick-walled and wide with a pronounced punt and sloping shoulders.
German wines from Franconia: the Bocksbeutel bottle.
The Chianti and some other Italian wines: the fiasco, a round-bottomed flask encased in a straw basket. This is more often used for everyday table wines; many of the higher-grade Chianti producers have switched to Bordeaux-type bottles.[13]

text: Many North and South American, South African, and Australasian wine producers select the bottle shape with which they wish to associate their wines. For instance, a producer who believes his wine is similar to Burgundy may choose to bottle his wine in Burgundy-style bottles.[citation needed]

text: Other producers (both in and out of Europe) have chosen idiosyncratic bottle styles for marketing purposes. Pere-Anselme markets its Châteauneuf-du-Pape in bottles that appear half-melted. The Moselland company of Bernkastel-Kues in Germany has a Riesling with a bottle in the shape of a stylized cat.[14]

text: The home wine maker may use any bottle, as the shape of the bottle does not affect the taste of the finished product. The sole exception is in producing sparkling wine, where thicker-walled bottles should be used to handle the excess pressure.

text: Most wine bottles standards have a bore (inner neck) diameter of 18.5 at the mouth of the bottle and increase to 21 mm before expanding into the full bottle.

text:
A basic 750 ml bottle in the Bordeaux style of Pinot noir rosé wine

Side-by-side comparison of various sizes of champagne bottles (left to right), on the ladder: magnum, full, half, and quarter; on the floor: Balthazar, Salmanazar, Methuselah, and Jeroboam.

Bocksbeutel shaped wine bottle

Burgundy bottles

Comparison of Standard and McKenzie Bordeaux bottles

text: Colors[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The traditional colors used for wine bottles are:

text:
Bordeaux: dark green for reds, light green for dry whites, colorless for sweet whites.
Burgundy and the Rhone: dark green.
Mosel and Alsace: dark to medium green, although some producers have traditionally used amber.
Rhine: amber, although some producers have traditionally used green.
Champagne: Usually dark to medium green. Rosé champagnes are usually a colorless or green.

text: Clear colorless bottles have recently become popular with white wine producers in many countries, including Greece, Canada and New Zealand. Dark-colored bottles are most commonly used for red wines, but many white wines also still come in dark green bottles. The main reason for using colored or tinted glass is that natural sunlight can break down desirable antioxidants such as vitamin c and tannins in a wine over time, which affects storability and can cause a wine to prematurely oxidise. Dark glass can prevent oxidation and increase storage life. It is therefore mostly ready-to-drink white wines with a short anticipated storage lifespan which are bottled in clear colorless bottles.

text: Foils and netting[edit]

text: Commercial corked wine bottles typically have a protective sleeve called a foil (commonly referred to as a "capsule") covering the top of the bottle, the purpose of which is to protect the cork from being gnawed away by rodents or infested with the cork weevil and to serve as collar to catch small drips when pouring. The foil also serves as a decorative element of the bottle's label. Foils were historically made of lead; however, because of research showing that trace amounts of toxic lead could remain on the lip of the bottle and mix with the poured wine,[15] lead foil bottleneck wrapping was slowly phased out, and by the 1990s,[16] most foils were made of tin, heat-shrink plastic (polyethylene or PVC), or aluminium or polylaminate aluminium.

text: Sealing wax is sometimes used, or the foil can be omitted entirely.[17] In the US, the FDA officially banned lead foils on domestic and imported wine bottles as of 1996.[18]

text: Some bottles of wine have a paper strip beneath the foil, as a seal of authenticity, which must be broken before the bottle can be uncorked. Bottles of high-end Rioja wine may have a covering of gold wire netting, Spaniard Camilo Hurtado de Amézaga, Marqués de Riscal founded a winery in Rioja, in 1858, naming it after his own noble title, which had been created in 1708 by Philip V.[citation needed] He produced award-winning wines which became the preferred wines of King Alfonso XII. Camilo Hurtado de Amézaga invented a wire netting that covered his bottle, thereby preventing counterfeiters from substituting the wine, since it was impossible to remove the netting without breaking it. Modern day bottles of Rioja carry a much finer wire netting as a decoration.[19]

text: Punts[edit]

text: A punt, also known as a kick-up, is the dimple at the bottom of a wine bottle. There is no consensus explanation for its purpose[citation needed]. The more commonly cited explanations include:[2]

text:
It is a historical remnant from the era when wine bottles were free blown using a blowpipe and pontil. This technique leaves a punt mark on the base of the bottle; by indenting the point where the pontil is attached, this scar would not scratch the table or make the bottle unstable.
It had the function of making the bottle less likely to topple over—a bottle designed with a flat bottom only needs a small imperfection to make it unstable—the dimple historically allowed for a larger margin of error.[citation needed]
It consolidates sediment deposits in a thick ring at the bottom of the bottle, preventing much/most of it from being poured into the glass; this may be more historical than a functional attribute, since most modern wines contain little or no sediment.[20]
It increases the strength of the bottle, allowing it to hold the high pressure of sparkling wine/champagne.[21]
It provides a grip for riddling a bottle of sparkling wine manually in the traditional champagne production process.
It consumes some volume of the bottle, allowing the bottle to appear larger for the same amount of wine, which may impress the purchaser.[22]
Taverns had a steel pin set vertically in the bar. The empty bottle would be thrust bottom-end down onto this pin, puncturing a hole in the top of the punt, guaranteeing the bottle could not be refilled [folklore].
It prevents the bottle from resonating as easily, decreasing the likelihood of shattering during transportation[citation needed].
It allows bottles to be more easily stacked end to end.[22]
Bottles could be stacked in cargo holds on ships without rolling around and breaking.[citation needed]
It makes the bottle easier to clean prior to filling with wine. When a stream of water is injected into the bottle and impacts the punt, it is distributed throughout the bottom of the bottle and removes residues[citation needed].

text: Environmental impact[edit]

text: Glass retains its color on recycling, and the United Kingdom has a large surplus of green glass because it imports a large quantity of wine but produces very little. 1.4 million tons are sent to landfill annually.[23]

text: Glass is a relatively heavy packing material and wine bottles use quite thick glass, so the tare weight of a full wine bottle is a relatively high proportion of its gross weight. The average weight of an empty 750 ml wine bottle is 500 g (and can range from 300 to 900 g), which makes the glass 40% of the total weight of the full bottle.[24] This has led to suggestions that wine should be exported in bulk from producer regions and bottled close to the market. This would reduce the cost of transportation and its carbon footprint, and provide a local market for recycled green glass.[25][26]

text: Less radically, box wine is sold in large-size light cardboard and foil containers, though its use has been restricted to cheaper products in the past and as such retains a stigma. Following declining sales of wine boxes in the UK, in 2009 the Office for National Statistics removed them from its Consumer Price Index measure of inflation.[27] Some wine producers are exploring more alternative packagings such as plastic bottles and tetra packs.[28]


document_title: List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders

question_text: who has the most career points in nba history

root

text: Scoring leaders[edit]

text: The following is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular season points scored.

tag: p

text:
^
Active NBA player

*
Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

†
Not yet eligible for Hall of Fame consideration[2]

§
1st time nominee for Hall of Fame in 2018[3]

text:
Rank
Player
Position(s)
Team(s) played for (years)[4]
Total points
Games
played
Points
per game
average[5]
Field goals
made
Three-point
field goals
made[6]
Free
throws
made

1
Abdul-Jabbar, KareemKareem Abdul-Jabbar*[7]
C
Milwaukee Bucks (1969–1975)
Los Angeles Lakers (1975–1989)
38,387
1,560
24.6
15,837
1
6,712

2
Malone, KarlKarl Malone*
PF
Utah Jazz (1985–2003)
Los Angeles Lakers (2003–2004)
36,928
1,476
25.0
13,528
85
9,787

3
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant†
SG
Los Angeles Lakers (1996–2016)
33,643
1,346
25.0
11,719
1,827
8,378

4
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
SG
Chicago Bulls (1984–1993, 1995–1998)
Washington Wizards (2001–2003)
32,292
1,072
30.1
12,192
581
7,327

5
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
C
Philadelphia/San Francisco Warriors (1959–1965)
Philadelphia 76ers (1965–1968)
Los Angeles Lakers (1968–1973)
31,419
1,045
30.1
12,681
0
6,057

6
Nowitzki, DirkDirk Nowitzki^
PF/C
Dallas Mavericks (1999–present)
30,963
1,451
21.3
10,949
1,879
7,186

7
James, LeBronLeBron James^
SF/PF
Cleveland Cavaliers (2003–2010, 2014–present)
Miami Heat (2010–2014)
30,273
1,117
27.1
10,992
1,565
6,724

8
O'Neal, ShaquilleShaquille O'Neal*
C
Orlando Magic (1992–1996)
Los Angeles Lakers (1996–2004)
Miami Heat (2004–2008)
Phoenix Suns (2008–2009)
Cleveland Cavaliers (2009–2010)
Boston Celtics (2010–2011)
28,596
1,207
23.7
11,330
1
5,935

9
Malone, MosesMoses Malone*
C
Buffalo Braves (1976)
Houston Rockets (1976–1982)
Philadelphia 76ers (1982–1986, 1993–1994)
Washington Bullets (1986–1988)
Atlanta Hawks (1988–1991)
Milwaukee Bucks (1991–1993)
San Antonio Spurs (1994–1995)
27,409
1,329
20.6
9,435
8
8,531

10
Hayes, ElvinElvin Hayes*
PF/C
San Diego/Houston Rockets (1968–1972, 1981–1984)
Baltimore/Capital/Washington Bullets (1972–1981)
27,313
1,303
21.0
10,976
5
5,356

11
Olajuwon, HakeemHakeem Olajuwon*[8]
C
Houston Rockets (1984–2001)
Toronto Raptors (2001–2002)
26,946
1,238
21.8
10,749
25
5,423

12
Robertson, OscarOscar Robertson*
PG
Cincinnati Royals (1960–1970)
Milwaukee Bucks (1970–1974)
26,710
1,040
25.7
9,508
0
7,694

13
Wilkins, DominiqueDominique Wilkins*
SF
Atlanta Hawks (1982–1994)
Los Angeles Clippers (1994)
Boston Celtics (1994–1995)
San Antonio Spurs (1996–1997)
Orlando Magic (1999)
26,668
1,074
24.8
9,963
711
6,031

14
Duncan, TimTim Duncan†
PF/C
San Antonio Spurs (1997–2016)
26,496
1,392
19.0
10,285
30
5,896

15
Pierce, PaulPaul Pierce†
SF/SG
Boston Celtics (1999–2013)
Brooklyn Nets (2013–2014)
Washington Wizards (2014–2015)
Los Angeles Clippers (2015–2017)
26,397
1,343
19.7
8,668
2,143
6,918

16
Havlicek, JohnJohn Havlicek*
SF/SG
Boston Celtics (1962–1978)
26,395
1,270
20.8
10,513
0
5,369

17
Garnett, KevinKevin Garnett†
PF/C
Minnesota Timberwolves (1995–2007, 2015–2016)
Boston Celtics (2007–2013)
Brooklyn Nets (2013–2015)
26,071
1,462
17.8
10,505
174
4,887

18
English, AlexAlex English*
SF
Milwaukee Bucks (1976–1978)
Indiana Pacers (1978–1980)
Denver Nuggets (1980–1990)
Dallas Mavericks (1990–1991)
25,613
1,193
21.5
10,659
18
4,277

19
Miller, ReggieReggie Miller*
SG
Indiana Pacers (1987–2005)
25,279
1,389
18.2
8,241
2,560
6,237

20
West, JerryJerry West*
PG/SG
Los Angeles Lakers (1960–1974)
25,192
932
27.0
9,016
0
7,160

21
Anthony, CarmeloCarmelo Anthony^
SF
Denver Nuggets (2003–2011)
New York Knicks (2011–2017)
Oklahoma City Thunder (2017–present)
25,115
1,032
24.3
8,976
1,288
5,875

22
Ewing, PatrickPatrick Ewing*
C
New York Knicks (1985–2000)
Seattle SuperSonics (2000–2001)
Orlando Magic (2001–2002)
24,815
1,183
21.0
9,702
19
5,392

23
Carter, VinceVince Carter^
SG/SF
Toronto Raptors (1999–2004)
New Jersey Nets (2004–2009)
Orlando Magic (2009–2010)
Phoenix Suns (2010–2011)
Dallas Mavericks (2011–2014)
Memphis Grizzlies (2014–2017)
Sacramento Kings (2017–present)
24,745
1,385
17.9
8,945
2,085
4,770

24
Allen, RayRay Allen§
SG
Milwaukee Bucks (1996–2003)
Seattle SuperSonics (2003–2007)
Boston Celtics (2007–2012)
Miami Heat (2012–2014)
24,505
1,300
18.9
8,567
2,973
4,398

25
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson*
SG/PG
Philadelphia 76ers (1996–2006, 2009–2010)
Denver Nuggets (2006–2008)
Detroit Pistons (2008–2009)
Memphis Grizzlies (2009)
24,368
914
26.7
8,467
1,059
6,375

26
Barkley, CharlesCharles Barkley*
PF
Philadelphia 76ers (1984–1992)
Phoenix Suns (1992–1996)
Houston Rockets (1996–2000)
23,757
1,073
22.1
8,435
538
6,349

27
Parish, RobertRobert Parish*
C
Golden State Warriors (1976–1980)
Boston Celtics (1980–1994)
Charlotte Hornets (1994–1996)
Chicago Bulls (1996–1997)
23,334
1,611
14.5
9,614
0
4,106

28
Dantley, AdrianAdrian Dantley*
SF
Buffalo Braves (1976–1977)
Indiana Pacers (1977)
Los Angeles Lakers (1977–1979)
Utah Jazz (1979–1986)
Detroit Pistons (1986–1989)
Dallas Mavericks (1989–1990)
Milwaukee Bucks (1991)
23,177
955
24.3
8,169
7
6,832

29
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor*
SF
Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers (1958–1971)
23,149
846
27.4
8,693
0
5,763

30
Drexler, ClydeClyde Drexler*
SG
Portland Trail Blazers (1983–1995)
Houston Rockets (1995–1998)
22,195
1,086
20.4
8,335
827
4,698

31
Wade, DwyaneDwyane Wade^
SG
Miami Heat (2003–2016, 2018–present)
Chicago Bulls (2016–2017)
Cleveland Cavaliers (2017–2018)
21,851
964
22.7
7,946
455
5,504

32
Payton, GaryGary Payton*
PG
Seattle SuperSonics (1990–2003)
Milwaukee Bucks (2003)
Los Angeles Lakers (2003–2004)
Boston Celtics (2004–2005)
Miami Heat (2005–2007)
21,813
1,335
16.3
8,708
1,132
3,265

33
Bird, LarryLarry Bird*
SF/PF
Boston Celtics (1979–1992)
21,791
897
24.3
8,591
649
3,960

34
Greer, HalHal Greer*
SG/PG
Syracuse Nationals/Philadelphia 76ers (1958–1973)
21,586
1,122
19.2
8,504
0
4,578

35
Bellamy, WaltWalt Bellamy*
C
Chicago Packers/Zephyrs/Baltimore Bullets (1961–1965)
New York Knicks (1965–1968)
Detroit Pistons (1968–1970)
Atlanta Hawks (1970–1974)
New Orleans Jazz (1974)
20,941
1,043
20.1
7,914
0
5,113

36
Pettit, BobBob Pettit*
PF/C
Milwaukee/St. Louis Hawks (1954–1965)
20,880
792
26.4
7,349
0
6,182

37
Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson*
C
San Antonio Spurs (1989–2003)
20,790
987
21.1
7,365
25
6,035

38
Gervin, GeorgeGeorge Gervin*
SG/SF
San Antonio Spurs (1976–1985)
Chicago Bulls (1985–1986)
20,708
791
26.2
8,045
77
4,541

39
Gasol, PauPau Gasol^
C/PF
Memphis Grizzlies (2001–2008)
Los Angeles Lakers (2008–2014)
Chicago Bulls (2014–2016)
San Antonio Spurs (2016–present)
20,599
1,175
17.5
7,872
168
4,687

40
Richmond, MitchMitch Richmond*
SG
Golden State Warriors (1988–1991)
Sacramento Kings (1991–1998)
Washington Wizards (1999–2001)
Los Angeles Lakers (2001–2002)
20,497
976
21.0
7,305
1,326
4,561

41
Durant, KevinKevin Durant^
SF/SG
Seattle SuperSonics/Oklahoma City Thunder (2007–2016)
Golden State Warriors (2016–present)
20,420
753
27.1
6,924
1,388
5,184

42
Johnson, JoeJoe Johnson^
SG/SF
Boston Celtics (2001–2002)
Phoenix Suns (2002–2005)
Atlanta Hawks (2005–2012)
Brooklyn Nets (2012–2016)
Miami Heat (2016)
Utah Jazz (2016–2018)
Houston Rockets (2018–present)
20,275
1,254
16.2
7,773
1,962
2,767

43
Chambers, TomTom Chambers
PF
San Diego Clippers (1981–1983)
Seattle SuperSonics (1983–1988)
Phoenix Suns (1988–1993)
Utah Jazz (1993–1995)
Charlotte Hornets (1997)
Philadelphia 76ers (1997)
20,049
1,107
18.1
7,378
227
5,066

44
Jamison, AntawnAntawn Jamison
PF/SF
Golden State Warriors (1999–2003)
Dallas Mavericks (2003–2004)
Washington Wizards (2004–2010)
Cleveland Cavaliers (2010–2012)
Los Angeles Lakers (2012–2013)
Los Angeles Clippers (2013–2014)
20,042
1,083
18.5
7,679
1,163
3,521

45
Stockton, JohnJohn Stockton*
PG
Utah Jazz (1984–2003)
19,711
1,504
13.1
7,039
845
4,788

46
King, BernardBernard King*
SF
New Jersey Nets (1977–1979, 1993)
Utah Jazz (1979)
Golden State Warriors (1980–1982)
New York Knicks (1982–1985, 1987)
Washington Bullets (1987–1991)
19,655
874
22.5
7,830
23
3,972

47
Robinson, CliffordClifford Robinson
PF/SF
Portland Trail Blazers (1989–1997)
Phoenix Suns (1997–2001)
Detroit Pistons (2001–2003)
Golden State Warriors (2003–2005)
New Jersey Nets (2005–2007)
19,591
1,380
14.2
7,389
1,253
3,560

48
Davis, WalterWalter Davis
SG/SF
Phoenix Suns (1977–1988)
Denver Nuggets (1988–1991, 1991–1992)
Portland Trail Blazers (1991)
19,521
1,033
18.9
8,118
157
3,128

49
Cummings, TerryTerry Cummings
PF
San Diego Clippers (1982–1984)
Milwaukee Bucks (1984–1989, 1995–1996)
San Antonio Spurs (1989–1995)
Seattle SuperSonics (1996–1997)
Philadelphia 76ers (1997–1998)
New York Knicks (1998)
Golden State Warriors (1999–2000)
19,460
1,183
16.4
8,045
44
3,326

50
Lanier, BobBob Lanier*
C
Detroit Pistons (1970–1980)
Milwaukee Bucks (1980–1984)
19,248
959
20.1
7,761
2
3,724

text: Progressive list of scoring leaders[edit]

text: This is a progressive list of scoring leaders showing how the record increased through the years.[1]

text:
Team abbreviations
Team(s) listed is the one player was on when he established the record.

ATL
Atlanta Hawks
DET
Detroit Pistons
MIL
Milwaukee Bucks
PHX
Phoenix Suns

BOS
Boston Celtics
FTW
Fort Wayne Pistons
MIN
Minnesota Timberwolves
PHW
Philadelphia Warriors

BUF
Buffalo Braves
GSW
Golden State Warriors
MNL
Minneapolis Lakers
SAS
San Antonio Spurs

CHI
Chicago Bulls
HOU
Houston Rockets
NOJ
New Orleans Jazz
SDR
San Diego Rockets

CHS
Chicago Stags
IND
Indiana Pacers
NOP
New Orleans Pelicans
SFW
San Francisco Warriors

CLE
Cleveland Cavaliers
KCO
Kansas City-Omaha Kings
OKC
Oklahoma City Thunder
STL
St. Louis Hawks

DAL
Dallas Mavericks
LAL
Los Angeles Lakers
ORL
Orlando Magic
SYR
Syracuse Nationals

DEN
Denver Nuggets
MIA
Miami Heat
PHI
Philadelphia 76ers
UTA
Utah Jazz

text:
Scoring Leader at the end of every season

Season
Year-by-year leader
Points
Active player points leader
Total points
Career points record
Total points
Single-season points record
Points
Season

1946–47
Joe Fulks*000PHW
1,389
Joe Fulks*000PHW
1,389
Joe Fulks*000PHW
1,389
Joe Fulks*000PHW
1,389
1946–47

1947–48
Max Zaslofsky000CHS
1,007
2,338
2,338
1947–48

1948–49
George Mikan*000MNL
1,698
3,898
3,898
George Mikan*000MNL
1,698
1948–49

1949–50
1,865
4,863
4,863
1,865
1949–50

1950–51
1,932
6,099
6,099
1,932
1950–51

1951–52
Paul Arizin*000PHW
1,674
7,021
7,021
1951–52

1952–53
Neil Johnston*000PHW
1,564
George Mikan*000MNL
8,460
George Mikan*000MNL
8,460
1952–53

1953–54
1,759
9,766
9,766
1953–54

1954–55
1,631
Max Zaslofsky000FTW
7,902
1954–55

1955–56
Bob Pettit*000STL
1,849
George Mikan*000MNL
10,156
10,156
1955–56

1956–57
Paul Arizin*000PHW
1,817
Ed Macauley*000STL
10,150
1956–57

1957–58
George Yardley*000DET
2,001
Dolph Schayes*000SYR
11,764
Dolph Schayes*000SYR
11,764
George Yardley*000DET
2,001
1957–58

1958–59
Bob Pettit*000STL
2,105
13,298
13,298
Bob Pettit*000STL
2,105
1958–59

1959–60
Wilt Chamberlain*
000PHW 1959–62
000SFW 1962–65
000PHI 1965–66
2,707
14,987
14,987
Wilt Chamberlain*000PHW
2,707
1959–60

1960–61
3,033
16,855
16,855
3,033
1960–61

1961–62
4,029
17,677
17,677
4,029
1961–62

1962–63
3,586
18,304
18,304
1962–63

1963–64
2,948
Bob Pettit*000STL
19,756
Bob Pettit*000STL
19,756
1963–64

1964–65
2,534
20,880
20,880
1964–65

1965–66
2,649
Wilt Chamberlain*
000PHI 1965–68
000LAL 1968–73
21,486
Wilt Chamberlain*
000PHI 1965–68
000LAL 1968–73
21,486
1965–66

1966–67
Rick Barry*000SFW
2,775
23,442
23,442
1966–67

1967–68
Dave Bing*000DET
2,142
25,434
25,434
1967–68

1968–69
Elvin Hayes*000SDR
2,327
27,098
27,098
1968–69

1969–70
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar*000MIL
2,361
27,426
27,426
1969–70

1970–71
2,596
29,122
29,122
1970–71

1971–72
2,822
30,335
30,335
1971–72

1972–73
Tiny Archibald*000KCO
2,719
31,419
31,419
1972–73

1973–74
Bob McAdoo*000BUF
2,261
Oscar Robertson*000MIL
26,710
1973–74

1974–75
2,831
John Havlicek*000BOS
22,389
1974–75

1975–76
2,427
23,678
1975–76

1976–77
Pete Maravich*000NOJ
2,273
25,073
1976–77

1977–78
George Gervin*000SAS
2,232
26,395
1977–78

1978–79
2,365
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar*
000LAL
22,141
1978–79

1979–80
2,585
24,175
1979–80

1980–81
Adrian Dantley*000UTA
2,452
26,270
1980–81

1981–82
George Gervin*000SAS
2,551
28,088
1981–82

1982–83
Alex English*000DEN
2,326
29,810
1982–83

1983–84
Adrian Dantley*000UTA
2,418
31,527
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar*000LAL
31,527
1983–84

1984–85
Michael Jordan*000CHI
2,313
33,262
33,262
1984–85

1985–86
Alex English*000DEN
2,414
35,108
35,108
1985–86

1986–87
Michael Jordan*000CHI
3,041
36,474
36,474
1986–87

1987–88
2,868
37,639
37,639
1987–88

1988–89
2,633
38,387
38,387
1988–89

1989–90
2,753
Moses Malone*
000ATL 1989–91
000MIL 1991–93
000PHI 1993–94
000SAS 1994–95
24,868
1989–90

1990–91
2,580
25,737
1990–91

1991–92
2,404
27,016
1991–92

1992–93
2,541
27,066
1992–93

1993–94
David Robinson*000SAS
2,383
27,360
1993–94

1994–95
Shaquille O'Neal*000ORL
2,315
27,409
1994–95

1995–96
Michael Jordan*000CHI
2,491
Michael Jordan*000CHI
24,489
1995–96

1996–97
2,431
26,920
1996–97

1997–98
2,357
29,277
1997–98

1998–99
Shaquille O'Neal*000LAL
1,289
Karl Malone*
000UTA 1998–2003
000LAL 2003–04
28,946
1998–99

1999–00
2,344
31,041
1999–00

2000–01
Jerry Stackhouse00DET
2,380
32,919
2000–01

2001–02
Paul Pierce†000BOS
2,144
34,707
2001–02

2002–03
Kobe Bryant†000LAL
2,461
36,374
2002–03

2003–04
Kevin Garnett†000MIN
1,987
36,928
2003–04

2004–05
Allen Iverson*000PHI
2,302
Reggie Miller*000IND
25,279
2004–05

2005–06
Kobe Bryant†000LAL
2,832
Shaquille O'Neal*
000MIA 2005–08
000PHO 2008–09
000CLE 2009–10
000BOS 2010–11
24,764
2005–06

2006–07
2,430
25,454
2006–07

2007–08
2,323
26,286
2007–08

2008–09
Dwyane Wade^000MIA
2,386
27,619
2008–09

2009–10
Kevin Durant^000OKC
2,472
28,255
2009–10

2010–11
2,161
28,596
2010–11

2011–12
1,850
Kobe Bryant†
000LAL
29,484
2011–12

2012–13
2,280
31,617
2012–13

2013–14
2,593
31,700
2013–14

2014–15
James Harden^000HOU
2,217
32,482
2014–15

2015–16
2,376
33,643
2015–16

2016–17
Russell Westbrook^000OKC
2,558
Dirk Nowitzki^000DAL
30,260
2016–17

2017–18
James Harden^000HOU
1,565
30,963
Abdul-Jabbar*0 35 yrs
38,387
Chamberlain*059 yrs
4,029
2017–18

Season
Year-by-Year Leader
Points
Active Player Points Leader
Total points
Career Points Record
Total points
Single Season Points Record
Points
Season


document_title: Vertebrate

question_text: in addition to fishes the subphylum vertebrata includes

text: Vertebrate

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word origin of vertebrate derives from the Latin word vertebratus (Pliny), meaning joint of the spine.[9] The Proto-Indo-European language origins are still unclear.

text: Vertebrate is derived from the word vertebra, which refers to any of the bones or segments of the spinal column.[10]

text: Anatomy and morphology[edit]

text: All vertebrates are built along the basic chordate body plan: a stiff rod running through the length of the animal (vertebral column and/or notochord),[11] with a hollow tube of nervous tissue (the spinal cord) above it and the gastrointestinal tract below.

text: In all vertebrates, the mouth is found at, or right below, the anterior end of the animal, while the anus opens to the exterior before the end of the body. The remaining part of the body continuing after the anus forms a tail with vertebrae and spinal cord, but no gut.[12]

text: Vertebral column[edit]

text: The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, in which the notochord (a stiff rod of uniform composition) found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of stiffer elements (vertebrae) separated by mobile joints (intervertebral discs, derived embryonically and evolutionarily from the notochord).

text: However, a few vertebrates have secondarily lost this anatomy, retaining the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon[13] and coelacanth. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages (fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost), but this trait is not required in order for an animal to be a vertebrate.

text: Gills[edit]

text: All basal vertebrates breathe with gills. The gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of openings from the pharynx to the exterior. Each gill is supported by a cartilagenous or bony gill arch.[14] The bony fish have three pairs of arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven. The vertebrate ancestor no doubt had more arches than this, as some of their chordate relatives have more than 50 pairs of gills.[12]

text: In amphibians and some primitive bony fishes, the larvae bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches.[15] These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes and by lungs in most amphibians. Some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods.[16]

text: While the more derived vertebrates lack gills, the gill arches form during fetal development, and form the basis of essential structures such as jaws, the thyroid gland, the larynx, the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals) and, in mammals, the malleus and incus.[12]

text: Central nervous system[edit]

text: The central nervous system of vertebrates is based on a hollow nerve cord running along the length of the animal. Of particular importance and unique to vertebrates is the presence of neural crest cells. These are progenitors of stem cells, and critical to coordinating the functions of cellular components.[17] Neural crest cells migrate through the body from the nerve cord during development, and initiate the formation of neural ganglia and structures such as the jaws and skull.[18][19][20]

text: The vertebrates are the only chordate group to exhibit cephalisation, the concentration of brain functions in the head. A slight swelling of the anterior end of the nerve cord is found in the lancelet, a chordate, though it lacks the eyes and other complex sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalisation.[12]

text: A peripheral nervous system branches out from the nerve cord to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles: The prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups.[21] Two laterally placed eyes form around outgrowths from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss.[22][23] The forebrain is well developed and subdivided in most tetrapods, while the midbrain dominates in many fish and some salamanders. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the cerebral hemispheres in mammals.[21]

text: The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single hollow nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles, is unique to vertebrates. All invertebrates with well-developed brains, such as insects, spiders and squids, have a ventral rather than dorsal system of ganglions, with a split brain stem running on each side of the mouth or gut.[12]

text: Evolutionary history[edit]

text: First vertebrates[edit]

text: Vertebrates originated about 525 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion, which saw the rise in organism diversity. The earliest known vertebrate is believed to be the Myllokunmingia.[1] Another early vertebrate is Haikouichthys ercaicunensis. Unlike the other fauna that dominated the Cambrian, these groups had the basic vertebrate body plan: a notochord, rudimentary vertebrae, and a well-defined head and tail.[24] All of these early vertebrates lacked jaws in the common sense and relied on filter feeding close to the seabed.[25] A vertebrate group of uncertain phylogeny, small-eel-like conodonts, are known from microfossils of their paired tooth segments from the late Cambrian to the end of the Triassic.[26]

text: From fish to amphibians[edit]

text: The first jawed vertebrates appeared in the latest Ordovician and became common in the Devonian, often known as the "Age of Fishes".[27] The two groups of bony fishes, the actinopterygii and sarcopterygii, evolved and became common.[28] The Devonian also saw the demise of virtually all jawless fishes, save for lampreys and hagfish, as well as the Placodermi, a group of armoured fish that dominated the entirety of that period since the late Silurian. The Devonian also saw the rise of the first labyrinthodonts, which was a transitional form between fishes and amphibians.

text: Mesozoic vertebrates[edit]

text: Amniotes branched from labyrinthodonts in the subsequent Carboniferous period. The Parareptilia and synapsid amniotes were common during the late Paleozoic, while diapsids became dominant during the Mesozoic. In the sea, the bony fishes became dominant; the birds, a derived form of dinosaurs, evolved in the Jurassic.[29] The demise of the non-avian dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous allowed for the expansion of mammals, which had evolved from the therapsids, a group of synapsid amniotes, during the late Triassic Period.

text: After the Mesozoic[edit]

text: The Cenozoic world has seen great diversification of bony fishes, frogs, birds and mammals.

text: Over half of all living vertebrate species (about 32,000 species) are fish (non-tetrapod craniates), a diverse set of lineages that inhabit all the world's aquatic ecosystems, from snow minnows (Cypriniformes) in Himalayan lakes at elevations over 4,600 metres (15,100 feet) to flatfishes (order Pleuronectiformes) in the Challenger Deep, the deepest ocean trench at about 11,000 metres (36,000 feet). Fishes of myriad varieties are the main predators in most of the world's water bodies, both freshwater and marine. The rest of the vertebrate species are tetrapods, a single lineage that includes amphibians (with roughly 7,000 species); mammals (with approximately 5,500 species); and reptiles and birds (with about 20,000 species divided evenly between the two classes). Tetrapods comprise the dominant megafauna of most terrestrial environments and also include many partially or fully aquatic groups (e.g., sea snakes, penguins, cetaceans).

text: Classification[edit]

text: There are several ways of classifying animals. Evolutionary systematics relies on anatomy, physiology and evolutionary history, which is determined through similarities in anatomy and, if possible, the genetics of organisms.[30] Phylogenetic classification is based solely on phylogeny.[31] Evolutionary systematics gives an overview; phylogenetic systematics gives detail. The two systems are thus complementary rather than opposed.[32]

text: Traditional classification[edit]

text: Conventional classification has living vertebrates grouped into seven classes based on traditional interpretations of gross anatomical and physiological traits. This classification is the one most commonly encountered in school textbooks, overviews, non-specialist, and popular works. The extant vertebrates are:[12]

text:
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Agnatha (jawless fishes)
Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)
Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes)
Class Amphibia (amphibians)
Class Reptilia (reptiles)
Class Aves (birds)
Class Mammalia (mammals)

tag: ul

text: In addition to these, there are two classes of extinct armoured fishes, the Placodermi and the Acanthodii.

text: Other ways of classifying the vertebrates have been devised, particularly with emphasis on the phylogeny of early amphibians and reptiles. An example based on Janvier (1981, 1997), Shu et al. (2003), and Benton (2004)[33] is given here:

text:
Subphylum Vertebrata
Palaeospondylus
Superclass Agnatha or Cephalaspidomorphi (lampreys and other jawless fishes)
Infraphylum Gnathostomata (vertebrates with jaws)
Class †Placodermi (extinct armoured fishes)
Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)
Class †Acanthodii (extinct spiny "sharks")
Superclass Osteichthyes (bony vertebrates)
Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned bony fishes)
Class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes, including the tetrapods)
Class Amphibia (amphibians, some ancestral to the amniotes)- now a paraphyletic group
Class Synapsida (mammals and the extinct mammal-like reptiles)
Class Sauropsida (reptiles and birds)

text: While this traditional classification is orderly, most of the groups are paraphyletic, i.e. do not contain all descendants of the class's common ancestor.[33] For instance, descendants of the first reptiles include modern reptiles, as well as mammals and birds. Most of the classes listed are not "complete" (and are therefore paraphyletic) taxa, meaning they do not include all the descendants of the first representative of the group. For example, the agnathans have given rise to the jawed vertebrates; the bony fishes have given rise to the land vertebrates; the traditional "amphibians" have given rise to the reptiles (traditionally including the synapsids, or mammal-like "reptiles"), which in turn have given rise to the mammals and birds. Most scientists working with vertebrates use a classification based purely on phylogeny[citation needed], organized by their known evolutionary history and sometimes disregarding the conventional interpretations of their anatomy and physiology.

text: Phylogenetic relationships[edit]

text: In phylogenetic taxonomy, the relationships between animals are not typically divided into ranks, but illustrated as a nested "family tree" known as a phylogenetic tree. The one below is based on studies compiled by Philippe Janvier and others for the Tree of Life Web Project and Delsuc et al.[34][35]

text:
Vertebrata/

Agnatha/

Hyperoartia (lampreys)

Myxini

Cyclostomes

?†Euconodonta

unnamed

†Pteraspidomorphi

?†Thelodonti

unnamed

?†Anaspida

unnamed

†Galeaspida

unnamed

?†Pituriaspida

†Osteostraci

Gnathostomata

†Placodermi (armoured fishes)

unnamed

Acanthodians, incl. Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)

Euteleostomi

Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)

Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish)

?†Onychodontiformes

Actinistia (coelacanths)

unnamed

†Porolepiformes

Dipnoi (lungfishes)

unnamed

†Rhizodontimorpha

†Tristichopteridae

Tetrapoda

Chordata

text: Number of extant species[edit]

text: The number of described vertebrate species are split evenly between tetrapods and fish. The following table lists the number of described extant species for each vertebrate class as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2014.3.[4]

text:
Vertebrate groups

Image

Class

Estimated number ofdescribed species[4]

Grouptotals[4]

Anamniotelackamnioticmembraneso need toreproducein water

Jawless

Fish

Myxini(hagfish)

32,900

Hyperoartia(lamprey)

Jawed

cartilaginousfish

ray-finnedfish

lobe-finnedfish

Tetrapods

amphibians

7,302

33,278

Amniotehaveamnioticmembraneadapted toreproducingon land

reptiles

10,711

birds

10,425

mammals

5,513

Total described species

66,178

text: The IUCN estimates that 1,305,075 extant invertebrate species have been described,[4] which means that less than 5% of the described animal species in the world are vertebrates.

text: Vertebrate species databases[edit]

text: The following databases maintain (more or less) up-to-date lists of vertebrate species:

text:
Fish: Fishbase
Amphibians: Amphibiaweb
Reptiles: Reptile Database
Birds: Avibase
Mammals: Mammal species of the World

text: Reproductive systems[edit]

text: Nearly all vertebrates undergo sexual reproduction. They produce haploid gametes by meiosis. The smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are ova. These fuse by the process of fertilisation to form diploid zygotes, which develop into new individuals.

text: Inbreeding[edit]

text: During sexual reproduction, mating with a close relative (inbreeding) often leads to inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression is considered to be largely due to expression of deleterious recessive mutations.[36] The effects of inbreeding have been studied in many vertebrate species.

text: In several species of fish, inbreeding was found to decrease reproductive success.[37][38][39]

text: Inbreeding was observed to increase juvenile mortality in 11 small animal species.[40]

text: A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings).[41] This practice generally has a negative effect on measures of reproductive success, including decreased litter size and puppy survival.[42][43][44]

text: Incestuous matings in birds result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (e.g. reduction in hatchability of eggs and reduced progeny survival).[45][46][47]

text: Inbreeding avoidance[edit]

text: As a result of the negative fitness consequences of inbreeding, vertebrate species have evolved mechanisms to avoid inbreeding. Numerous inbreeding avoidance mechanisms operating prior to mating have been described.

text: Toads and many other amphibians display breeding site fidelity. Individuals that return to natal ponds to breed will likely encounter siblings as potential mates. Although incest is possible, Bufo americanus siblings rarely mate.[48] These toads likely recognize and actively avoid close kins as mates. Advertisement vocalizations by males appear to serve as cues by which females recognize their kin.[48]

text: Inbreeding avoidance mechanisms can also operate subsequent to copulation. In guppies, a post-copulatory mechanism of inbreeding avoidance occurs based on competition between sperm of rival males for achieving fertilization.[49] In competitions between sperm from an unrelated male and from a full sibling male, a significant bias in paternity towards the unrelated male was observed.[49]

text: When female sand lizards mate with two or more males, sperm competition within the female's reproductive tract may occur. Active selection of sperm by females appears to occur in a manner that enhances female fitness.[50] On the basis of this selective process, the sperm of males that are more distantly related to the female are preferentially used for fertilization, rather than the sperm of close relatives.[50] This preference may enhance the fitness of progeny by reducing inbreeding depression.

text: Outcrossing[edit]

text: Mating with unrelated or distantly related members of the same species is generally thought to provide the advantage of masking deleterious recessive mutations in progeny[51] (and see Heterosis). Vertebrates have evolved numerous diverse mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding and promoting outcrossing[52] (and see Inbreeding avoidance).

text: Outcrossing as a way of avoiding inbreeding depression, has been especially well studied in birds. For instance, inbreeding depression occurs in the great tit when the offspring are produced as a result of a mating between close relatives. In natural populations of the great tit (Parus major), inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative.[53]

text: The purple-crowned fairywren females paired with related males may undertake extra-pair matings that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding. However, there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings. Nevertheless, 46% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra-pair young.[47]

text: Southern pied babblers (Turdoides bicolor) appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways. The first is through dispersal, and the second is by avoiding familiar group members as mates.[54] Although both males and females disperse locally, they move outside the range where genetically related individuals are likely to be encountered. Within their group, individuals only acquire breeding positions when the opposite-sex breeder is unrelated.

text: Cooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin.[55] Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to join unrelated groups.

text: Parthenogenesis[edit]

text: Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization.

text: Reproduction in squamate reptiles is ordinarily sexual, with males having a ZZ pair of sex determining chromosomes, and females a ZW pair. However, various species, including the Colombian Rainbow boa (Epicrates maurus), Agkistrodon contortrix (copperhead snake) and Agkistrodon piscivorus (cotton mouth snake) can also reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis -that is, they are capable of switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode- resulting in production of WW female progeny.[56][57] The WW females are likely produced by terminal automixis.

text: Mole salamanders are an ancient (2.4-3.8 million year-old) unisexual vertebrate lineage.[58] In the polyploid unisexual mole salamander females, a premeiotic endomitotic event doubles the number of chromosomes. As a result, the mature eggs produced subsequent to the two meiotic divisions have the same ploidy as the somatic cells of the female salamander. Synapsis and recombination during meiotic prophase I in these unisexual females is thought to ordinarily occur between identical sister chromosomes and occasionally between homologous chromosomes. Thus little, if any, genetic variation is produced. Recombination between homeologous chromosomes occurs only rarely, if at all.[59] Since production of genetic variation is weak, at best, it is unlikely to provide a benefit sufficient to account for the long-term maintenance of meiosis in these organisms. However, meiosis may have been maintained during evolution by the efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages that meiosis provides, an advantage that could be realized at each generation.[60]

text: Self-fertilization[edit]

text: The mangrove killifish (Kryptolebias marmoratus) produces both eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduces by self-fertilisation. The capacity for selfing in these fishes has apparently persisted for at least several hundred thousand years.[61] Each individual hermaphrodite normally fertilizes itself when an egg and sperm that it has produced by an internal organ unite inside the fish's body.[62] In nature, this mode of reproduction can yield highly homozygous lines composed of individuals so genetically uniform as to be, in effect, identical to one another.[63][64]  Although inbreeding, especially in the extreme form of self-fertilization, is ordinarily regarded as detrimental because it leads to expression of deleterious recessive alleles, self-fertilization does provide the benefit of fertilization assurance (reproductive assurance) at each generation.[63]


document_title: Private Eyes (TV series)

question_text: where does the tv series private eyes take place

text: Private Eyes (TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Jason Priestley as Matt Shade, a former hockey player now private investigator
Cindy Sampson as Angie Everett, Shade's feisty boss

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Barry Flatman as Don Shade, Matt's father
Jordyn Negri as Juliet "Jules" Shade, Matt's visually impaired daughter.
Clé Bennett as Detective Derek Nolan
Ennis Esmer as Detective Kurtis Mazhari
Nicole de Boer as Becca Dorasay, Matt's ex-wife, and a host of a TV breakfast show.
Bree Williamson as Melanie Parker (season 2)
Mark Ghanimé as Dr. Ken Graham (season 2)
Samantha Wan as Zoe Chow, a former client who is hired in season 2 as a secretary.

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Mimi Kuzyk as Nora Everett, Angie's mother. A degenerate gambler and thorn in Angie's side.
Adam Copeland as Ben Fisk[3]
William Shatner as Norm Glinski, a rival P.I. and old nemesis of Angie.
Charlotte Arnold as Jen
Doug Gilmour as Himself
Daniel Negreanu as Himself
Kardinal Offishall as Himself

text: Production and broadcast[edit]

text: A second season of 18 episodes was confirmed,[4][5] and production started in the Fall of 2016 in Toronto. On March 27, 2017, Ion Television picked up the exclusive rights to broadcast the series in the United States,[6] where it is presented as an original series for the network.[7]

text: The first half of the second season premiered in Canada on May 25 and concluded on July 20, 2017.[8] The second half is expected to air in the summer of 2018.[9]

text: On September 21, 2017, Global ordered a 12 episode third season set to start production in spring 2018.[10]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
10
May 26, 2016 (2016-05-26)
July 28, 2016 (2016-07-28)

2
18
May 25, 2017 (2017-05-25)
TBA

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Canada viewers
(millions)

1
1
"The Code"
Kelly Makin
Tim Kilby & Shelley Eriksen
May 26, 2016 (2016-05-26)
1.44[11]

Matt "Shadow" Shade, a former pro hockey player connects with private detective Angie Everett to solve a case of one of his protege's careers being sabotaged.

2
2
"Mise En Place"
Kelly Makin
Alan McCullough
June 2, 2016 (2016-06-02)
1.36[12]

When an old friend of Shade's finds the body of a celebrity chef and is not sure how she got there, he and Everett must work while avoiding an antagonistic detective to clear her name and find the right killer. Meanwhile, Shade's daughter wants to get a braille tattoo.

3
3
"The Money Shot"
Anne Wheeler
Tara Armstrong
June 9, 2016 (2016-06-09)
1.06[13]

Shade and Everett are called to investigate a diamond heist, which turns out to be the disappearance of a prized race horse. Things take an interesting turn when Angie's mother turns up and must deal with her bookie. Shade also takes the PI exam.

4
4
"The Devil's Playground"
Shawn Piller
Derek Schreyer
June 16, 2016 (2016-06-16)
1.23[14]

When a famous author is a victim of arson, Shade and Everett follow several leads including his estranged daughter and 2 gay fashion designers who are not what they seem. Meanwhile, Shade and Jules clash over her new study partner/boyfriend.

5
5
"The Six"
Charles Officer
Tassie Cameron & Marsha Greene
June 23, 2016 (2016-06-23)
0.93[15]

In Toronto's hip-hop scene, full of ego and unreliable witnesses, Shade and Angie must find, and try to protect, a 14-year-old witness to a violent nightclub shooting. Meanwhile, Shade drives himself crazy, and Angie too, trying to find out which mystery man Angie spent the night with, while simultaneously struggling to keep a promise to his daughter.

6
6
"Partners in Crime / The Two-Minute You[16]"
Robert Lieberman
Tim Kilby
June 30, 2016 (2016-06-30)
0.95[17]

When Angies friend is bankrupted by identity thieves, she and Matt discover the thief uses Speed Dating events to gather personal information quickly, so they go in as customers, with a side wager as to who can get the most date requests. Meanwhile, after realizing Jules is pulling away from him, Matt meets Simone at a book store.

7
7
"Karaoke Confidential / Big Trouble In Little Korea[18]"
Jerry Ciccoritti
Shelley Eriksen & Derek Schreyer
July 7, 2016 (2016-07-07)
0.92[19]

Shade brings in a client without asking Angie: Jay, the owner of a Karaoke bar who suspects he is being followed after his friend disappeared. Angie is skeptical, especially after they quickly discover that Jay is a drug dealer, though while he maintains his innocence, he isn't very forthcoming. But as Shade and Angie put the pieces together, they realize Jay is trapped between a kingpin and a shady cop. Meanwhile, Jules is excited when some seniors become her friends, but she soon learns some hard lessons.

8
8
"I Do, I Do"
Robert Lieberman
Marcus Robinson
July 14, 2016 (2016-07-14)
0.86[20]

Matt and Angie are hired by a distressed husband to confirm whether his wife has a stalker. Meanwhile, Jules' mother and Matt's ex-wife Becca returns from Italy and stays with them, causing some turbulence in the Shade household.

9
9
"Disappearing Act"
Kelly Makin
Alan McCullough & Marsha Greene
July 21, 2016 (2016-07-21)
0.93[21]

Detective Mazhari asks Angie to find a magician who vanished from police custody and prevent any fallout. Meanwhile, Becca confirms she's staying in Toronto and starts complicating Matt's life when she lines it up for him to co-host a show with her.

10
10
"Family Jewels / Four Weddings And A Tribunal[22]"
James Genn
Shelley Eriksen
July 28, 2016 (2016-07-28)
0.88[23]

Angie's cousin's wedding is disrupted when the grooms heirloom tiara is stolen. Angie's mother Nora is the police's prime suspect. Angie doesn't want to get involved but Shade sets out to prove her innocence. Meanwhile, Becca starts manipulating Matt into a new custody agreement over Jules where he has far less time, and he must decide whether to show her as an uncaring, manipulative, career-driven mother or let Jules keep her mother.
In the final moments, Angie goes on vacation with Detective Nolan, giving Matt the keys to her father's office. Inside, he falls off his chair and finds an envelope from her father taped under the desk.

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Canada viewers
(millions)

11
1
"The Extra Mile"
Jason Priestley
Alan McCullough
May 25, 2017 (2017-05-25)
0.86[24]

Angie returns from vacation to find Shade being thrown out of the window, and that he has a new case. A friend of his has had her racing team's property vandalized, and the driver has been receiving death threats. While investigating the world of racing, they learn that the case ties to a hit-and-run from months earlier, and that there are more secrets than anyone realised. Matt meanwhile comes to terms with the new custody arrangement Becca has forced on him, but realises Becca may not have Jules' well being at heart.
Angie is given the letter that Matt found under his desk, and inside discovers a key.

12
2
"Boardwalk Empire"
Rob Lieberman
Marcus Robinson
June 1, 2017 (2017-06-01)
0.86[25]

Angie and Shade are called by Zoe Chow, a resident of a small building who thinks someone is moving her things around to spook her. They are skeptical upon realising she has no money to pay them, but when other residents report similar issues, they begin to suspect the building manager is trying to force them out as part of a Blockbusting scheme. Don meanwhile is being offered a retirement package, and must try to work out if he wants it.
Meanwhile, Angie finds the key belongs to a safety deposit box, and gets a surprise from her father. In the end, Zoe is hired by Everett Investigations as an assistant.

13
3
"The Frame Job"
Gail Harvey
Thomas Pound
June 8, 2017 (2017-06-08)
0.78[26]

The Principal of Jules' school asks Shade to determine the validity of an allegation that a female teacher is in a sexual relationship with a student, before she has to report it to the Board of Directors. Things initially don't look good, but they soon suspect the work of an elusive school club. Meanwhile, Matt meets Jules new boyfriend Liam, while Zoe tries to hide a hole in Angie's wall she made.

14
4
"Crimes of Fashion"
Shawn Piller
Tim Kilby
June 15, 2017 (2017-06-15)
0.88[27]

Becca sets Everett Investigations up with a simple job - escort new clothing for a fashion show she's reporting on for a up-and-coming designer. However the clothes are hijacked, and Shade and Angie now have 48 hours to find the clothing to save the designers future, Becca's career and their own reputation. However they soon realise they are not the only ones looking, and that the van may have been stolen for something other than the clothes.

15
5
"Now You See Her"
Kelly Makin
James Thorpe
June 22, 2017 (2017-06-22)
0.82[28]

16
6
"The P.I. Code"
Sudz Sutherland
Derek Schreyer
June 29, 2017 (2017-06-29)
0.93[29]

17
7
"Between a Doc and a Hard Place"
Kelly Makin
Jackie May
July 6, 2017 (2017-07-06)
0.97[30]

18
8
"Six Feet Blunder"
Jill Carter
Katrina Saville
July 13, 2017 (2017-07-13)
0.87[31]

19
9
"The Good Soldier"
Lee Rose
Alan McCullough
July 20, 2017 (2017-07-20)
1.04[32]