document_title: DNA replication

question_text: where does the process of replication occur in the cell

text: DNA replication

text: DNA structures[edit]

text: DNA usually exists as a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double-helix. Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase. The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly abbreviated as A, C, G and T. Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nucleobases pointing inward (i.e., toward the opposing strand). Nucleobases are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and guanine pairs with cytosine (three hydrogen bonds).

text: DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the "3' (three-prime) end" and the "5' (five-prime) end". By convention, if the base sequence of a single strand of DNA is given, the left end of the sequence is the 5' end, while the right end of the sequence is the 3' end. The strands of the double helix are anti-parallel with one being 5' to 3', and the opposite strand 3' to 5'. These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a DNA strand.

text: The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the information contained within each strand is useless. phosphoodiester (intra-strand) bonds are stronger than hydrogen (inter-strand) bonds. This allows the strands to be separated from one another. The nucleotides on a single strand can therefore be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand.[4]

text: DNA polymerase[edit]

text: DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication.[6] DNA polymerases in general cannot initiate synthesis of new strands, but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand.

text: DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3' end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds. The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high-energy phosphate (phosphoanhydride) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base. Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides; in particular, bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates. When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphates as a pyrophosphate. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high-energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible.[Note 1]

text: In general, DNA polymerases are highly accurate, with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 107 nucleotides added.[7] In addition, some DNA polymerases also have proofreading ability; they can remove nucleotides from the end of a growing strand in order to correct mismatched bases. Finally, post-replication mismatch repair mechanisms monitor the DNA for errors, being capable of distinguishing mismatches in the newly synthesized DNA strand from the original strand sequence. Together, these three discrimination steps enable replication fidelity of less than one mistake for every 109 nucleotides added.[7]

text: The rate of DNA replication in a living cell was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage-infected E. coli.[8] During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phage T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 108.[9]

text: Replication process[edit]

text: DNA replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination.

text: Initiation[edit]

text: For a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA.[10] This process is initiated at particular points in the DNA, known as "origins", which are targeted by initiator proteins.[3] In E. coli this protein is DnaA; in yeast, this is the origin recognition complex.[11] Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be "AT-rich" (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair) and thus are easier to strand-separate.[12] Once the origin has been located, these initiators recruit other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, which unwinds the double-stranded DNA.

text: Elongation[edit]

text: DNA polymerase has 5'-3' activity. All known DNA replication systems require a free 3' hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (note: the DNA template is read in 3' to 5' direction whereas a new strand is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction—this is often confused). Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized:

text:
All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmids use a primase to synthesize a short RNA primer with a free 3' OH group which is subsequently elongated by a DNA polymerase.
The retroelements (including retroviruses) employ a transfer RNA that primes DNA replication by providing a free 3′ OH that is used for elongation by the reverse transcriptase.
In the adenoviruses and the φ29 family of bacteriophages, the 3' OH group is provided by the side chain of an amino acid of the genome attached protein (the terminal protein) to which nucleotides are added by the DNA polymerase to form a new strand.
In the single stranded DNA viruses — a group that includes the circoviruses, the geminiviruses, the parvoviruses and others — and also the many phages and plasmids that use the rolling circle replication (RCR) mechanism, the RCR endonuclease creates a nick in the genome strand (single stranded viruses) or one of the DNA strands (plasmids). The 5′ end of the nicked strand is transferred to a tyrosine residue on the nuclease and the free 3′ OH group is then used by the DNA polymerase to synthesize the new strand.

text: The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms. In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds RNA primers to the template strands. The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several. The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments. RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps. When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found. Ligase works to fill these nicks in, thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule.

text: The primase used in this process differs significantly between bacteria and archaea/eukaryotes. Bacteria use a primase belonging to the DnaG protein superfamily which contains a catalytic domain of the TOPRIM fold type.[13] The TOPRIM fold contains an α/β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann-like topology. This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD-family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the RecR protein.

text: The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes, in contrast, contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM). This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A/B/Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair. In eukaryotic replication, the primase forms a complex with Pol α.[14]

text: Multiple DNA polymerases take on different roles in the DNA replication process. In E. coli, DNA Pol III is the polymerase enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication. It assembles into a replication complex at the replication fork that exhibits extremely high processivity, remaining intact for the entire replication cycle. In contrast, DNA Pol I is the enzyme responsible for replacing RNA primers with DNA. DNA Pol I has a 5' to 3' exonuclease activity in addition to its polymerase activity, and uses its exonuclease activity to degrade the RNA primers ahead of it as it extends the DNA strand behind it, in a process called nick translation. Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions.

text: In eukaryotes, the low-processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with primase.[15] In eukaryotes, leading strand synthesis is thought to be conducted by Pol ε; however, this view has recently been challenged, suggesting a role for Pol δ.[16] Primer removal is completed Pol δ[17] while repair of DNA during replication is completed by Pol ε.

text: As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs. In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process creates a "theta structure" (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ). In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these.[18]

text: Replication fork[edit]

text: The replication fork is a structure that forms within the nucleus during DNA replication. It is created by helicases, which break the hydrogen bonds holding the two DNA strands together. The resulting structure has two branching "prongs", each one made up of a single strand of DNA. These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand template.

text: DNA is always synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. Since the leading and lagging strand templates are oriented in opposite directions at the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of nascent (new) lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork.

text: Leading strand[edit]

text: The leading strand is the strand of nascent DNA which is being synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork. A polymerase "reads" the leading strand template and adds complementary nucleotides to the nascent leading strand on a continuous basis.

text: Lagging strand[edit]

text: The lagging strand is the strand of nascent DNA whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. Because of its orientation, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated as compared to that of the leading strand. As a consequence, the DNA polymerase on this strand is seen to "lag behind" the other strand.

text: The lagging strand is synthesized in short, separated segments. On the lagging strand template, a primase "reads" the template DNA and initiates synthesis of a short complementary RNA primer. A DNA polymerase extends the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments. The RNA primers are then removed and replaced with DNA, and the fragments of DNA are joined together by DNA ligase.

text: Dynamics at the replication fork[edit]

text: As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate. This process results in a build-up of twists in the DNA ahead.[19] This build-up forms a torsional resistance that would eventually halt the progress of the replication fork. Topoisomerases are enzymes that temporarily break the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix.[20]

text: Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase. To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation.[21]

text: Clamp proteins form a sliding clamp around DNA, helping the DNA polymerase maintain contact with its template, thereby assisting with processivity. The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it. Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double-stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase. Clamp-loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers.[2]:274-5

text: DNA replication proteins[edit]

text: At the replication fork, many replication enzymes assemble on the DNA into a complex molecular machine called the replisome. The following is a list of major DNA replication enzymes that participate in the replisome:[22]

text:
Enzyme
Function in DNA replication

DNA Helicase
Also known as helix destabilizing enzyme. Helicase separates the two strands of DNA at the Replication Fork behind the topoisomerase.

DNA Polymerase
The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the addition of nucleotide substrates to DNA in the 5' to 3' direction during DNA replication. Also performs proof-reading and error correction. There exist many different types of DNA Polymerase, each of which perform different functions in different types of cells.

DNA clamp
A protein which prevents elongating DNA polymerases from dissociating from the DNA parent strand.

Single-Strand Binding (SSB) Proteins
Bind to ssDNA and prevent the DNA double helix from re-annealing after DNA helicase unwinds it, thus maintaining the strand separation, and facilitating the synthesis of the nascent strand.

Topoisomerase
Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature.

DNA Gyrase
Relieves strain of unwinding by DNA helicase; this is a specific type of topoisomerase

DNA Ligase
Re-anneals the semi-conservative strands and joins Okazaki Fragments of the lagging strand.

Primase
Provides a starting point of RNA (or DNA) for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis of the new DNA strand.

Telomerase
Lengthens telomeric DNA by adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. This allows germ cells and stem cells to avoid the Hayflick limit on cell division.[23]

text: Replication machinery[edit]

text: Replication machineries consist of factors involved in DNA replication and appearing on template ssDNAs. Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes; DNA polymerase, DNA helicases, DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases, and replication proteins; e.g. single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB). In the replication machineries these components coordinate. In most of the bacteria, all of the factors involved in DNA replication are located on replication forks and the complexes stay on the forks during DNA replication. These replication machineries are called replisomes or DNA replicase systems. These terms are generic terms for proteins located on replication forks. In eukaryotic and some bacterial cells the replisomes are not formed.

text: Since replication machineries do not move relatively to template DNAs such as factories, they are called a replication factory.[24] In an alternative figure, DNA factories are similar to projectors and DNAs are like as cinematic films passing constantly into the projectors. In the replication factory model, after both DNA helicases for leading strands and lagging strands are loaded on the template DNAs, the helicases run along the DNAs into each other. The helicases remain associated for the remainder of replication process. Peter Meister et al. observed directly replication sites in budding yeast by monitoring green fluorescent protein(GFP)-tagged DNA polymerases α. They detected DNA replication of pairs of the tagged loci spaced apart symmetrically from a replication origin and found that the distance between the pairs decreased markedly by time.[25] This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories. That is, couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other. Also, template DNAs move into the factories, which bring extrusion of the template ssDNAs and nascent DNAs. Meister’s finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model. Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis.[24]

text: The replication factories perform disentanglement of sister chromatids. The disentanglement is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication. Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by Cohesin rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication. Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the success rate of DNA replication. If replication forks move freely in chromosomes, catenation of nuclei is aggravated and impedes mitotic segregation.[25]

text: Termination[edit]

text: Eukaryotes initiate DNA replication at multiple points in the chromosome, so replication forks meet and terminate at many points in the chromosome. Because eukaryotes have linear chromosomes, DNA replication is unable to reach the very end of the chromosomes. Due to this problem, DNA is lost each replication cycle from the end of the chromosome. Telomeres are regions of repetitive DNA close to the ends and help prevent loss of genes due to this shortening. Shortening of the telomeres is a normal process in somatic cells. This shortens the telomeres of the daughter DNA chromosome. As a result, cells can only divide a certain number of times before the DNA loss prevents further division. (This is known as the Hayflick limit.) Within the germ cell line, which passes DNA to the next generation, telomerase extends the repetitive sequences of the telomere region to prevent degradation. Telomerase can become mistakenly active in somatic cells, sometimes leading to cancer formation. Increased telomerase activity is one of the hallmarks of cancer.

text: Termination requires that the progress of the DNA replication fork must stop or be blocked. Termination at a specific locus, when it occurs, involves the interaction between two components: (1) a termination site sequence in the DNA, and (2) a protein which binds to this sequence to physically stop DNA replication. In various bacterial species, this is named the DNA replication terminus site-binding protein, or Ter protein.

text: Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome. E. coli regulates this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, enable only one direction of replication fork to pass through. As a result, the replication forks are constrained to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome.[26]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: Eukaryotes[edit]

text: Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase). The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints. Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases.[27] Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus.[28]

text: The G1/S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division. Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA.

text: Replication of chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes occurs independently of the cell cycle, through the process of D-loop replication.

text: Replication focus[edit]

text: In vertebrate cells, replication sites concentrate into positions called replication foci.[25] Replication sites can be detected by immunostaining daughter strands and replication enzymes and monitoring GFP-tagged replication factors. By these methods it is found that replication foci of varying size and positions appear in S phase of cell division and their number per nucleus is far smaller than the number of genomic replication forks.

text: P. Heun et al.(2001) tracked GFP-tagged replication foci in budding yeast cells and revealed that replication origins move constantly in G1 and S phase and the dynamics decreased significantly in S phase.[25] Traditionally, replication sites were fixed on spatial structure of chromosomes by nuclear matrix or lamins. The Heun’s results denied the traditional concepts, budding yeasts don't have lamins, and support that replication origins self-assemble and form replication foci.

text: By firing of replication origins, controlled spatially and temporally, the formation of replication foci is regulated. D. A. Jackson et al.(1998) revealed that neighboring origins fire simultaneously in mammalian cells.[25] Spatial juxtaposition of replication sites brings clustering of replication forks. The clustering do rescue of stalled replication forks and favors normal progress of replication forks. Progress of replication forks is inhibited by many factors; collision with proteins or with complexes binding strongly on DNA, deficiency of dNTPs, nicks on template DNAs and so on. If replication forks stall and the remaining sequences from the stalled forks are not replicated, the daughter strands have nick obtained un-replicated sites. The un-replicated sites on one parent's strand hold the other strand together but not daughter strands. Therefore, the resulting sister chromatids cannot separate from each other and cannot divide into 2 daughter cells. When neighboring origins fire and a fork from one origin is stalled, fork from other origin access on an opposite direction of the stalled fork and duplicate the un-replicated sites. As other mechanism of the rescue there is application of dormant replication origins that excess origins don't fire in normal DNA replication.

text: Bacteria[edit]

text: Most bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication.[29] In E. coli, the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.

text: Because E. coli methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences. This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein SeqA, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, DnaA (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA. As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication.[30]

text: ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size. ATP competes with ADP to bind to DnaA, and the DnaA-ATP complex is able to initiate replication. A certain number of DnaA proteins are also required for DNA replication — each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for DnaA doubles, requiring the synthesis of more DnaA to enable another initiation of replication.

text: Polymerase chain reaction[edit]

text: Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase. Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region. At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template. Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these. As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially.[31]


document_title: Sweet Home Alabama

question_text: what films has the song sweet home alabama been in

root

text: Sweet Home Alabama

text: Creation and recording[edit]

text: At a band practice shortly after bassist Ed King had switched to guitar, he heard fellow guitarist Gary Rossington playing a guitar riff that inspired him (in fact, this riff is still heard in the final version of the song and is played during the verses as a counterpoint to the main D – C2 – G chord progression). In interviews, King has said that during the night following the practice session, the chords and two main guitar solos came to him in a dream, note for note. King then introduced the song to the band the next day. Also written at this session was the track that followed "Sweet Home Alabama" on the Second Helping album, "I Need You".[citation needed]

tag: p

text: A live version of the track on the compilation album Collectybles places the writing of the song during the late summer of 1973, as the live set available on the album is dated October 30, 1973.

text: The track was recorded at Studio One in Doraville, Georgia, using just King, bassist Wilkeson, and drummer Burns to lay down the basic backing track. King used a Marshall amp belonging to Allen Collins. The guitar used on the track was a 1972 Fender Stratocaster. King has said that the guitar was a pretty poor model and had bad pickups, forcing him to turn the amp up all the way to get decent volume out of it.[citation needed] This guitar is now displayed at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum in Cleveland, Ohio.

text: The famous "Turn it up" line uttered by Ronnie Van Zant at the beginning was actually not intended to be in the song. Van Zant was simply asking producer Al Kooper and engineer Rodney Mills to increase the volume in his headphones so that he could hear the track better.[citation needed]

text: There is a semi-hidden vocal line in the second verse after the line "Well, I heard Mr. Young sing about her". In the left channel, you can hear the phrase "Southern Man" being sung lightly (approximately at 0:55). This was producer Al Kooper doing a Neil Young impression and was just another instance of the band members amusing themselves in the studio while being recorded. According to Leon Wilkeson, it was Kooper's idea to continue and echo the lines from "Southern Man" after each of Van Zant's lines. "Better...keep your head"..."Don't forget what your / good book says", etc. But Van Zant insisted that Kooper remove it, not wanting to plagiarize or upset Young.[citation needed] Kooper left the one line barely audible in the left channel.

text: Following the two "woos" (Wilkeson's, the first; King's, the second) at the start of the piano solo (at approximately 4:08), Van Zant can be heard ad-libbing "My, Montgomery's got the answer." The duplicate "my" was produced by Kooper turning off one of the two vocal takes. For Lynyrd Skynyrd's 1976 film Free Bird, this final line was changed to "Mr. (Jimmy) Carter got the answer." in a reference to the 1976 Presidential Election.[citation needed] While this line has many variations, and was commonly sung as "My Montgomery's got the answer," in the original recording, the line was "Ma and Pop Stoneman got the answer," referring to Hattie and Ernest Stoneman, better known as Ma and Pop Stoneman of the bluegrass/country music group and a TV show of the same name, The Stoneman Family.

text: The count-in heard in the beginning of the track is spoken by King. The count-in to the first song on an album was a signature touch that producer Kooper usually put on albums that he made.

text: "Sweet Home Alabama" was a major chart hit for a band whose previous singles had "lazily sauntered out into release with no particular intent". The hit led to two TV rock show offers, which the band turned down.[2] In addition to the original appearance on Second Helping, the song has appeared on numerous Lynyrd Skynyrd collections and live albums.

text: None of the three writers of the song were from Alabama. Ronnie Van Zant and Gary Rossington were both born in Jacksonville, Florida. Ed King was from Glendale, California.

text: Controversy[edit]

text: "Sweet Home Alabama" was written as an answer to two songs, "Southern Man" and "Alabama" by Neil Young, which dealt with themes of racism and slavery in the American South. "We thought Neil was shooting all the ducks in order to kill one or two," said Ronnie Van Zant at the time.[2] The following excerpt shows the Neil Young mention in the song:

text:
Well, I heard Mister Young sing about her
Well, I heard ol' Neil put her down
Well, I hope Neil Young will remember
A Southern man don't need him around anyhow

text: In his 2012 autobiography Waging Heavy Peace, Young commented on his role in the song's creation, writing "My own song 'Alabama' richly deserved the shot Lynyrd Skynyrd gave me with their great record. I don't like my words when I listen to it. They are accusatory and condescending, not fully thought out, and too easy to misconstrue".[3]

text: Van Zant's other response was also controversial, with references to the Governor of Alabama, George Wallace (a noted supporter of segregation) and the Watergate scandal:

text:
In Birmingham, they love the governor (boo boo boo)
Now we all did what we could do
Now Watergate does not bother me
Does your conscience bother you?
Tell the truth
...
Sweet home Alabama, oh, sweet home baby
Where the skies are so blue and the governor's true

text: Music historians point out that the choice of Birmingham in connection with the governor (rather than the capital Montgomery) is significant for the controversy as "In 1963, the city was the site of massive civil rights activism, as thousands of demonstrators led by Martin Luther King, Jr. sought to desegregate downtown businesses... [and] was the scene of some of the most violent moments of the Civil Rights Movement. Segregationist police chief Bull Connor unleashed attack dogs and high-pressure water cannons against peaceful marchers, including women and children; just weeks later, Ku Klux Klansmen bombed a black church, killing four little girls."[4]

text: In 1975, Van Zant said: "The lyrics about the governor of Alabama were misunderstood. The general public didn't notice the words 'Boo! Boo! Boo!' after that particular line, and the media picked up only on the reference to the people loving the governor."[5] "The line 'We all did what we could do' is sort of ambiguous," Al Kooper notes. "'We tried to get Wallace out of there' is how I always thought of it."[5] Towards the end of the song, Van Zant adds "where the governor's true" to the chorus's "where the skies are so blue," a line rendered ironic by the previous booing of the governor. Journalist Al Swenson argues that the song is more complex than it is sometimes given credit for, suggesting that it only looks like an endorsement of Wallace.[5] "Wallace and I have very little in common," Van Zant himself said, "I don't like what he says about colored people."[5]

text: Music historians examining the juxtaposition of invoking Richard Nixon and Watergate after Wallace and Birmingham note that one reading of the lyrics is an "attack against the liberals who were so outraged at Nixon's conduct" while others interpret it regionally: "the band was speaking for the entire South, saying to northerners, we're not judging you as ordinary citizens for the failures of your leaders in Watergate; don't judge all of us as individuals for the racial problems of southern society".[4]

text: Muscle Shoals[edit]

text: One verse of the song includes the line, "Now Muscle Shoals has got the Swampers/And they've been known to pick a song or two." This refers to the town of Muscle Shoals, Alabama, a popular location for recording popular music because of the "sound" crafted by local recording studios and back-up musicians. "The Swampers" referred to in the lyrics are the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. These musicians, who crafted the "Muscle Shoals Sound", were inducted into the Alabama Music Hall of Fame in 1995[6] for a "Lifework Award for Non-Performing Achievement" and into the Musician's Hall Of Fame in 2008 (the performers inducted into the latter were the four founding Swampers—Barry Beckett, Roger Hawkins, David Hood, Jimmy Johnson—plus Pete Carr, Clayton Ivey, Randy McCormack, Will McFarlane, and Spooner Oldham).[7][8] The nickname "The Swampers" was given to the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section by producer Denny Cordell during a recording session by singer/songwriter Leon Russell, in reference to their 'swampy' sound.

text: Part of the reference comes from the 1971–1972 demo reels that Lynyrd Skynyrd had recorded in Muscle Shoals with Johnson as a producer/recording engineer. Johnson helped refine many of the songs first heard publicly on the Pronounced album, and it was Van Zant's "tip of the hat" to Johnson for helping out the band in the early years and essentially giving the band its first break.

text: Lynyrd Skynyrd remains connected to Muscle Shoals, having since recorded a number of works in the city and making it a regular stop on their concert tours.

text: The PBS show Independent Lens aired a documentary on Muscle Shoals and its place in music history in mid-April 2014.

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Lynyrd Skynyrd

text:
Ronnie Van Zant – lead vocals
Ed King – lead guitar, backing vocals (first "woo" at the end of the last chorus)
Leon Wilkeson – bass guitar, backing vocals (second "woo" at the end of the last chorus)
Bob Burns – drums
Billy Powell – piano
Allen Collins – rhythm guitar (left channel)
Gary Rossington – rhythm guitar (right channel), acoustic guitar (left channel)

tag: ul

text: Additional personnel

text:
Al Kooper – backing vocals (left channel)
Clydie King – background vocals[2]
Merry Clayton – background vocals[2]

text: Charts[edit]

text: Weekly charts[edit]

text:
Chart (1974-76)
Peak
position

Austrian Singles Chart
56

Canada RPM Top Singles
6

German Singles Chart
87

Swiss Singles Chart
51

UK Singles Chart
31

US Billboard Hot 100
9

Chart (2008)
Peak
position

UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[9]
44

tag: table

text: Year-end chart[edit]

text:
Chart (1974)
Peak
position

US Cashbox Top 100
58

Canadian RPM Top Singles
81

text: Sales and certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

Italy (FIMI)[10]
Platinum
50,000*

United Kingdom (BPI)[11]
Platinum
600,000

United States (RIAA)[12]
Gold
3,680,000 (digital)[13]

sales+streaming figures based on certification alone

text: "All Summer Long"[edit]

text: Kid Rock's 2008 song "All Summer Long" samples "Sweet Home Alabama" on the chorus and uses the guitar solo and piano outro, as well as the "turn it up" shout before the guitar solo; Billy Powell is featured on the track. "All Summer Long" also samples Warren Zevon's "Werewolves of London", which has similar chord progression to "Sweet Home Alabama". Since Kid Rock's release, the original song has charted in the UK charts at number 44.

text: The song is credited to Matthew Shafer, Waddy Wachtel, R.J. Ritchie, Leroy Marinell, Warren Zevon, Edward King, Gary Rossington and Ronald Vanzant.

text: Zevon apparently hated "Sweet Home Alabama" and referred to it as "that dead band's song". He surmised that those who listen to it only do so because their own lives are miserable, and his views on the song are articulated in "Play It All Night Long", which appears on his 1980 album Bad Luck Streak in Dancing School.[citation needed]

text: Other uses[edit]

text: In September 2007, Alabama Governor Bob Riley announced the phrase "Sweet Home Alabama" would be used to promote Alabama state tourism in a multimillion-dollar ad campaign.[14]

text: Before every race at the Talladega Superspeedway in Talladega, where two Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series races are annually held, the song plays before the green flag is waved. This tradition dates back to at least the late 1990s.

text: As of 2009, the State of Alabama has begun using the phrase "Sweet Home Alabama" as an official slogan on license plates for motor vehicles, with Governor Bob Riley noting that Lynyrd Skynyrd's anthem is the third most-played song referring to a specific destination.[15] (This is also the second Alabama license plate in a row to make reference to a popular song, with the state's previous plate having featured "Stars Fell on Alabama".)

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, the song played during warmups of the University of Alabama in Huntsville Charger Hockey team during home games. This song can also be heard before, during, and after many University of Alabama sporting events. Majority of the Alabama fan base have mixed the words "Roll Tide Roll" in the middle of the chorus to relate Alabama sports to the Great State of Alabama.

text:
It appears in a 2017 TV commercial for Chili's restaurants.[16]
In 1990, southern gangster rap group The Geto Boys sampled Lynyrd Skynyrd's "Sweet Home Alabama" on "Gangsta of Love". Contained on later versions of their self-titled LP, the mix uses a sample from "Sweet Home" instead of the Steve Miller Band's "The Joker" due to copyright issues. The version included on the original pressing of its 1989 album Grip It! On That Other Level had contained the Miller Band sample.[citation needed]
Used in the remake of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003), even though the story in the film takes place in 1973.[citation needed]
Used in the 2010 film Despicable Me and featured on its soundtrack album.

text: Recognition and awards[edit]

text:
In May 2006, National Review ranked the song number 4 on its list of "50 greatest conservative rock songs".[17]
In July 2006, CMT ranked it number 1 on the "20 Greatest Southern Rock songs".
In 2004, the song was ranked number 398 on Rolling Stone's list of "the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".
In 2007, the song was used on the Top Gear Greatest Driving Songs album.
In 1997, the song was used in movie Con Air. While the song plays in background, Garland Greene (by Steve Buscemi) says to Poe and Baby-O: "Define irony. Bunch of idiots dancing on a plane to a song made famous by a band that died in a plane crash", a reference to the band's 1977 plane crash. The song is also used briefly in the end credits beginning with Buscemi's character gambling until the end of the main cast credits.


document_title: The Santa Clause

question_text: who played santa claus in the santa clause movie

text: The Santa Clause

text: Plot[edit]

text: Scott Calvin (Tim Allen) is a successful executive at a toy company. However, he spends less and less time with his son Charlie (Eric Lloyd), to the point where Charlie is not too happy to spend Christmas with Scott. After Charlie is dropped off by Scott's ex-wife, Laura (Wendy Crewson) and her new husband Neil (Judge Reinhold), the two are left alone at Scott's residence. However, he burns their turkey meal and the two are forced to go to Denny's for dinner. After reading Charlie the book 'Twas the night before Christmas, Charlie wakes Scott up after hearing noises on the roof.

text: Rushing outside, Scott startles a man dressed as Santa on the roof, causing him to slip and fall. Attempting to help the man, Scott finds a card on him that states "If something should happen to me, put on my suit, the Reindeer will know what to do," after which the body disappears. Charlie comes outside and discovers reindeer and a sleigh on the roof. Pushed by his son, Scott puts on the Santa suit and delivers a few gifts before the reindeer take them to the North Pole. Bernard (David Krumholtz), the head elf, explains to Scott that, because he put on the suit, he is now Santa, and gives him one year to get his affairs in order before taking over Santa's duties. Overwhelmed, Scott changes into pajamas and falls asleep. Eventually waking up in his own bed, Scott believes he had an elaborate dream, until Charlie begins telling him events of the previous night.

text: Over the course of the next year, strange things begin to occur. Scott begins gaining a significant amount of weight, hitting 192 pounds, including forty-five pounds in a week. His facial hair regrows quickly after shaving and his hair turns stark white. As if he was pregnant, Scott begins craving sweets, adopting a diet consisting mainly of milk and cookies. Scott's rapid weight gain causes his clothes to stop fitting, requiring him to wear sweatpants and t-shirts that reveal his jiggly, swollen, and massive gut. This eventually leads to Laura and Neil visiting a judge and arranging to suspend Scott's visitation rights, thinking he is losing touch with reality. Scott eventually visits Charlie anyway, and is convinced that he is Santa. Bernard appears, and whisks both to the North Pole to begin preparations for Christmas.

text: Laura and Neil believe Scott has kidnapped Charlie and contact the police. At the North Pole, Scott sets out for Christmas with Charlie in tow. However, upon arriving at his old home, Scott is arrested. The elves eventually send a crack team of extraction elves to rescue him. Scott returns to Laura's house and reveals that he is Santa to them. Initially unbelieving, eventually both come around and believe that Scott is now Santa. After a very public departure, Scott travels the world delivering gifts. Using a magic snow globe given to him by Bernard, Charlie summons Scott back home. Laura agrees to let Charlie go with Scott to deliver the gifts and to the two head off into the night.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Tim Allen as Scott Calvin / Santa Claus
Eric Lloyd as Charlie Calvin
Wendy Crewson as Laura Miller
Judge Reinhold as Dr. Neil Miller
David Krumholtz as Bernard the Head Elf
Paige Tamada as Judy the Elf
Peter Boyle as Mr. Whittle
Larry Brandenburg as Detective Nunzio
Jayne Eastwood as Judy the Waitress
Kenny Vadas as the E.L.F.S. Leader
Chris Benson as Fireman O'Hara
Mary Gross as Mrs. Daniels

text: Production[edit]

text: This film was entirely shot in the Greater Toronto Area. Oakville served as the city of Lakeside, Illinois.[2] It was originally going to be released under the Hollywood Pictures banner, but was moved to Walt Disney Pictures after positive test screenings among children (despite Hollywood Pictures received a marquee credit—placement of the studio's production logo on marketing materials with the film's opening titles). Prior to filming, Tim Allen took up Santa's diet of milk and cookies to help him gain forty-five pounds for his role as Santa.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Santa Clause grossed over USD $144 million in the United States and Canada, and over $189 million worldwide, making it a box-office hit. The film has since gone on to become a Christmas classic. Freeform and AMC have played the film during the holiday season with record ratings.[3]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The film received generally positive reviews from the critics. The film currently holds a "Certified Fresh" rating of 75% on Rotten Tomatoes, with 39 positive reviews from 52 counted and an average rating of 6/10. The consensus from the site is "The Santa Clause is utterly undemanding, but it's firmly rooted in the sort of good old-fashioned holiday spirit missing from too many modern yuletide films."[4]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Note that songs listed here (and in the movie credits) cannot always be found on CD soundtracks.[5]

text:
"Oh Christmas Tree (O Tannenbaum)"; Arranged by John Neufeld
"Carol of the Bells"; Written by Peter Wilhousky
"White Christmas"; Written by Irving Berlin; Performed by The Drifters
"Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town"; Written by J. Fred Coots And Haven Gillespie; Performed by Alvin and the Chipmunks
"Think!" (Theme from Jeopardy!); Written by Merv Griffin
"Jingle Bell Ride"; Written and Performed by Johnny Hawksworth
"Gimme All Your Lovin'"; Written by Billy Gibbons, Dusty Hill, and Frank Beard; Performed by ZZ Top
"Jingle Bells"; Arranged by John Neufeld
"Christmas Will Return"; Written by Jimmy Webb; Performed by Brenda Russell and Howard Hewett
"The Bells of Christmas"; Written and Performed by Loreena McKennitt

text: The film's soundtrack was released on October 10, 1994 in the United States.

text:
Let's Go
Believing Is Seeing
Sash Completes the Ensemble
Flight
Weightless
Away to the Window
Bells of Christmas
Listen
Goodnight, Goodnight, Don’t Forget the Fire Extinguisher
Visitation
Rose Suchak Ladder
List
Elves with Attitude
Someone in Wrapping
Near Capture
Comfort and Joy
Not Over Any Oceans
Christmas Will Return

tag: ol

text: Home media[edit]

text: This film was first released on Home Video (VHS) on October 20, 1995. The first DVD was released in October 29, 2002. The Santa Clause along with its sequels were released in a three movie DVD collection in 2007. All three movies were released as a Blu-ray set on October 16, 2012.

text: Towards the beginning of the film a brief exchange between Scott and Laura takes place in which Laura hands Scott a piece of paper with Neil's mother's phone number on it. Scott then says "1-800-SPANK-ME. I know that number." In the United States, the exchange was removed from the 1999 DVD release as well as the 2002 Special Edition DVD and VHS releases and the 2012 Blu-ray release after a 1996 incident in which a child from Steilacoom, Washington called the number and racked up a $400 phone bill.[6] On television airings, the phone number is changed to "1-800-POUND". The line remains intact on the 1995 VHS release.

text: VHS, Laserdisc, DVD and Blu-ray history[edit]

text: Walt Disney Home Video (October 20, 1995 – present)


document_title: Eternity ring

question_text: when do you get given an eternity ring

question_tokens: when do you get given an eternity ring

text: Eternity ring

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
An eternity ring, also known as an infinity ring, is a woman's ring[citation needed] comprising a band of precious metal (usually gold) set with a continuous line of identically cut gemstones (usually diamonds)[1] to symbolize neverending love, usually given by a spouse to their wife on the occasion of a significant anniversary, typically after 1 or more years of marriage date[citation needed]
Because the presence of stones all the way round the eternity ring can make it cumbersome to wear, the alternative is to have the stones across the face of the ring only.  This is sometimes referred to as a "half-eternity" ring rather than a "full" eternity ring.[citation needed]

text: Eternity rings featuring paste gems, white topaz or a mix of stones appeared in the 18th century.[2]

text: History[edit]

text: The concept of the diamond eternity ring was created in the 1960s by diamond merchant De Beers.[3][4] American investigative journalist Edward Jay Epstein stated that at the time the company had a secret agreement with the Soviet Union which, in return for the creation of a "single channel" controlling the world's supply of diamonds, 'required' the purchase of 90-95% of the uncut gem diamonds produced by Russia.[4]  The prevailing fashion at the time, particularly for engagement rings, was for them to be set with a single, large diamond.  The Soviet gems, however, were small, often less than 0.25 carats.[3]  To avoid stockpiling, De Beers embarked on a campaign of promotion of jewelry containing a number of small diamonds culminating in the eternity ring, which was aimed at older, married women.[3]  One campaign slogan aimed at husbands was, "She married you for richer or poorer. Let her know how it’s going."[5]


document_title: Epistle of James

question_text: when was the book of james added to the bible

text: Epistle of James

text: Authorship[edit]

text: According to Robert J. Foster, "there is little consensus as to the genre, structure, dating, and authorship of the book of James."[4] There are four "commonly espoused" views concerning authorship and dating of the Epistle of James:[5]

text:
the letter was written by James before the Pauline Epistles,
the letter was written by James after the Pauline Epistles,
the letter is pseudonymous,
the letter comprises material originally from James but reworked by a later editor.[6]

text: The writer refers to himself only as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ."[Jas 1:1] As many as six different men in the Bible are named James, and if none of them wrote this letter, some other man not mentioned might be the author.[citation needed]

text: Jesus had two apostles named James: James, the son of Zebedee and James, the son of Alphaeus, but it is unlikely that either of these wrote the letter. According to the Book of Acts, James, the son of Zebedee, was martyred about 44 AD.[7] That would be very early for him to have been the writer. The other apostle James, the son of Alphaeus, is not prominent in the Scriptural record, and very little is known about him.[citation needed]

text: Rather, evidence points to James, the brother of Jesus, to whom Jesus evidently had made a special appearance after his resurrection described in the New Testament. This James was prominent among the disciples.[8][9] The writer of the letter of James identifies himself as "a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" in much the same way as did Jude, who introduced the Epistle of Jude by calling himself "a slave of Jesus Christ, but a brother of James" (Jas 1:1; Jude 1). Furthermore, the salutation of his letter concludes with the term “greetings" (Greek χαίρειν), much like the letter on circumcision that was sent to the congregations.[10] In the latter instance it was apparently Jesus's brother, James, who spoke prominently in the assembly of "the apostles and the older men" at Jerusalem.[11]

text: From the middle of the 3rd century, patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James, the brother of Jesus and a leader of the Jerusalem church.[3] Not numbered among the Twelve Apostles unless he is identified as James the Less,[12] James was nonetheless a very important figure: Paul described him as "the brother of the Lord" in Galatians 1:19 and as one of the three "pillars of the Church" in 2:9.

text: Pseudonymous authorship (3 above) implies that the person named "James" is respected and doubtless well known. Moreover, this James, brother of Jesus, is honored by the epistle written and distributed after the lifetime of James, the brother of Jesus.[13]

text: John Calvin and others suggested that the author was the Apostle James, son of Alphaeus, who is referred to as James the Less. The Protestant reformer Martin Luther denied it was the work of an apostle and termed it an "epistle of straw"[14] as compared to some other books in the New Testament, partly because of the conflict he thought it raised with Paul on the doctrine of justification (see below).[citation needed]

text: Dating[edit]

text: Many scholars consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries:[15]

text:
The author introduces himself merely as "a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" without invoking any special family relationship to Jesus.
The cultured Greek language of the Epistle, it is contended, could not have been written by a Jerusalem Jew. Some scholars argue for a primitive version of the letter composed by James and then later polished by another writer.[16]
The epistle was only gradually accepted into the canon of the New Testament.
Some see parallels between James and 1 Peter, 1 Clement, and the Shepherd of Hermas and take this to reflect the socio-economic situation Christians were dealing with in the late 1st or early 2nd century. It thus could have been written anywhere in the Empire that Christians spoke Greek. There are some scholars who argued for Syria.[16]

text: Other scholars, such as Luke Timothy Johnson, suggest an early dating for the Epistle of James:

text: "The Letter of James also, according to the majority of scholars who have carefully worked through its text in the past two centuries, is among the earliest of New Testament compositions. It contains no reference to the events in Jesus' life, but it bears striking testimony to Jesus' words. Jesus' sayings are embedded in James' exhortations in a form that is clearly not dependent on the written Gospels."[17]

text: If written by James the brother of Jesus, it would have been written sometime before AD 69 (or AD 62), when he was martyred. Jerusalem would also be the place of writing.[18][citation needed]

text: The earliest extant manuscripts of James usually date to the mid-to-late 3rd century.[6]

text: Genre[edit]

text: James is considered New Testament wisdom literature: "like Proverbs and Sirach, it consists largely of moral exhortations and precepts of a traditional and eclectic nature."[19]

text: The content of James is directly parallel, in many instances, to sayings of Jesus found in the gospels of Luke and Matthew, i.e., those attributed to the Q Source. Compare, e.g., "Do not swear at all, either by heaven...or by the earth....Let your word be 'Yes, Yes' or 'No, No'; anything more than this comes from the evil one" (Matthew 5:34, 37) and "...do not swear either by heaven or by earth or by any other oath, but let your 'Yes' be yes and your 'No' be no, so that you may not fall under condemnation" (James 5:12). According to James Tabor, the epistle of James contains "no fewer than thirty direct references, echoes, and allusions to the teachings of Jesus found in the Q source."[20]

text: Structure[edit]

text: Some view the epistle as having no overarching outline: "James may have simply grouped together small 'thematic essays' without having more linear, Greco-Roman structures in mind."[21] That view is generally supported by those who believe that the epistle may not be a true piece of correspondence between specific parties but an example of wisdom literature, formulated as a letter for circulation. The Catholic Encyclopedia says, "the subjects treated of in the Epistle are many and various; moreover, St. James not infrequently, whilst elucidating a certain point, passes abruptly to another, and presently resumes once more his former argument."[3]

text: Others view the letter as having only broad topical or thematic structure. They generally organize James under three (Ralph Martin[22]) to seven (Luke Johnson[23]) general key themes or segments.

text: A third group believes that James was more purposeful in structuring his letter, linking each paragraph theologically and thematically:

text: James, like the gospel writers, can be seen as a purposeful theologian, carefully weaving his smaller units together into larger fabrics of thought and using his overall structure to prioritize his key themes.

text: The third view of the structuring of James is a historical approach that is supported by scholars who are not content with leaving the book as "New Testament wisdom literature, like a small book of proverbs" or "like a loose collection of random pearls dropped in no particular order onto a piece of string."[24]

text: A fourth group uses modern discourse analysis or Greco-Roman rhetorical structures to describe the structure of James.[25]

text: The United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament divides the letter into the following sections:

text:
Salutation (1:1)
Faith and Wisdom (1:2–8)
Poverty and Riches (1:9-11)
Trial and Temptation (1:12–18)
Hearing and Doing the Word (1:19–27)
Warning against Partiality (2:1–13)
Faith and Works (2:14–26)[26]

The Tongue (3:1–12)
The Wisdom from Above (3:13–18)
Friendship with the World (4:1–10)
Judging a Brother (4:11–12)
Warning against Boasting (4:13–17)
Warning to the Rich (5:1–6)
Patience and Prayer (5:7–20)[27]

text: Historical context[edit]

text: Understanding the circumstances of James' writing helps scholars better understand James' organization of the letter. They view the epistle as having a legitimate purpose for its composition, a response to the suffering of its recipients.[citation needed]

text: A 2013 journal article[28] explores a violent historical background behind the epistle and offers the suggestion that it was indeed written by James, the brother of Jesus, and it was written before AD 62, the year he was killed.[29] The 50s saw the growth of turmoil and violence in Roman Judea, as Jews became more and more frustrated with corruption, injustice and poverty. It continued into the 60s, four years before James was killed. War broke out with Rome and would lead to the destruction of Jerusalem and the scattering of the people. The epistle is renowned for exhortations on fighting poverty and caring for the poor in practical ways (1:26–27; 2:1-4; 2:14-19; 5:1-6), standing up for the oppressed (2:1-4; 5:1-6) and not being "like the world" in the way one responds to evil in the world (1:26-27; 2:11; 3:13-18; 4:1-10). Worldly wisdom is rejected and people are exhorted to embrace heavenly wisdom, which includes peacemaking and pursuing righteousness and justice (3:13-18).

text: This approach sees the epistle as a real letter[30] with a real immediate purpose: to encourage Christian Jews not to revert to violence in their response to injustice and poverty but to stay focused on doing good, staying holy and to embrace the wisdom of heaven, not that of the world.[citation needed]

text: Doctrine[edit]

text: Justification[edit]

text: It contains the following famous passage concerning salvation and justification:

text: 14What good is it, my brothers, if someone says he has faith but does not have works? Can that faith save him?15If a brother or sister is poorly clothed and lacking in daily food, 16and one of you says to them, “Go in peace, be warmed and filled,” without giving them the things needed for the body, what good is that? 17So also faith by itself, if it does not have works, is dead.

text: 18But someone will say, “You have faith and I have works.” Show me your faith apart from your works, and I will show you my faith by my works. 19You believe that God is one; you do well. Even the demons believe—and shudder! 20Do you want to be shown, you foolish person, that faith apart from works is useless? 21Was not Abraham our father justified by works when he offered up his son Isaac on the altar? 22You see that faith was active along with his works, and faith was completed by his works; 23and the Scripture was fulfilled that says, “Abraham believed God, and it was counted to him as righteousness”—and he was called a friend of God. 24You see that a person is justified by works and not by faith alone. 25And in the same way was not also Rahab the prostitute justified by works when she received the messengers and sent them out by another way?26For as the body apart from the spirit is dead, so also faith apart from works is dead.[31]

text: That passage has been cited in Christian theological debates, especially regarding the doctrine of justification. Gaius Marius Victorinus (4th century) associated James's teaching on works with the heretical Symmachian sect, followers of Symmachus the Ebionite, and openly questioned whether James' teachings were heretical. This passage has also been contrasted with the teachings of Paul the Apostle on justification. Some scholars even believe that the passage is a response to Paul.[32] One issue in the debate is the meaning of the Greek word δικαιόω (dikaiόō) 'render righteous or such as he ought to be',[33] with some among the participants taking the view that James is responding to a misunderstanding of Paul.[34]

text: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have historically argued that the passage disproves the doctrine of justification by faith alone (or sola fide),[35][36] The early and many modern Protestants resolve the apparent conflict between James and Paul regarding faith and works in alternate ways from the Catholics and Orthodox:[37]

text: Paul was dealing with one kind of error while James was dealing with a different error. The errorists Paul was dealing with were people who said that works of the law were needed to be added to faith in order to help earn God's favor. Paul countered this error by pointing out that salvation was by faith alone apart from deeds of the law (Galatians 2:16; Romans 3:21-22). Paul also taught that saving faith is not dead but alive, showing thanks to God in deeds of love (Galatians 5:6 ['...since in Christ Jesus it is not being circumcised or being uncircumcised that can effect anything - only faith working through love.']). James was dealing with errorists who said that if they had faith they didn't need to show love by a life of faith (James 2:14-17). James countered this error by teaching that faith is alive, showing itself to be so by deeds of love (James 2:18,26). James and Paul both teach that salvation is by faith alone and also that faith is never alone but shows itself to be alive by deeds of love that express a believer's thanks to God for the free gift of salvation by faith in Jesus.[38]

text: Anointing of the Sick[edit]

text: The epistle is also the chief biblical text for the Anointing of the Sick. James wrote:

text: 14Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. 15And the prayer of faith will save the one who is sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.[39]

text: G. A. Wells suggested that the passage was evidence of late authorship of the epistle, on the grounds that the healing of the sick being done through an official body of presbyters (elders) indicated a considerable development of ecclesiastical organisation "whereas in Paul's day to heal and work miracles pertained to believers indiscriminately (I Corinthians, XII:9)."[40]

text: Canonicity[edit]

text: The Epistle was first explicitly referred to and quoted by Origen of Alexandria, and possibly a bit earlier by Irenaeus of Lyons[41] as well as Clement of Alexandria in a lost work according to Eusebius, although it was not mentioned by Tertullian, who was writing at the end of the Second Century.[40] It is also absent from the Muratorian fragment, the earliest known list of New Testament books.[citation needed]

text: The Epistle of James was included among the twenty-seven New Testament books first listed by Athanasius of Alexandria in his Thirty-Ninth Festal Epistle (AD 367)[42] and was confirmed as a canonical epistle of the New Testament by a series of councils in the Fourth Century. Today, virtually all denominations of Christianity consider this book to be a canonical epistle of the New Testament.[citation needed]

text: In the first centuries of the Church the authenticity of the Epistle was doubted by some, including Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia. Because of the silence of several of the western churches regarding it, Eusebius classes it among the Antilegomena or contested writings (Historia ecclesiae, 3.25; 2.23). Jerome gives a similar appraisal but adds that with time it had been universally admitted.[citation needed] Gaius Marius Victorinus, in his commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians, openly questioned whether the teachings of James were heretical.[43]

text: Its late recognition in the Church, especially in the West, may be explained by the fact that it was written for or by Jewish Christians, and therefore not widely circulated among the Gentile Churches. There is some indication that a few groups distrusted the book because of its doctrine. In Reformation times a few theologians, most notably Martin Luther in his early career,[44] argued that this epistle should not be part of the canonical New Testament.[45][46]

text: Martin Luther's description of the Epistle of James changes. In some cases, Luther argues that it was not written by an apostle; but in other cases, he describes James as the work of an apostle.[47] He even cites it as authoritative teaching from God[48] and describes James as "a good book, because it sets up no doctrines of men but vigorously promulgates the law of God."[49] Lutherans hold that the Epistle is rightly part of the New Testament, citing its authority in the Book of Concord,[44] however it remains part of the Lutheran antilegomena.[50]


document_title: Caldera

question_text: the geological term caldera comes from the spanish word for

text: Caldera

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word comes from Spanish caldera, and Latin caldaria, meaning "cooking pot". In some texts the English term cauldron is also used. The term caldera was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German geologist Leopold von Buch when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the Canary Islands,[note 1] where he first saw the Las Cañadas caldera on Tenerife, with Montaña Teide dominating the landscape, and then the Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma.

text: Caldera formation[edit]

text: A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, sometimes as the result of a large explosive volcanic eruption (see Tambora in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007) or in a connected fissure system (see Bárðarbunga in 2014–2015). If enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture, the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dykes. Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds or thousands of square kilometers.

text: Mineralization[edit]

text: Some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits. One of the world's best-preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario, Canada, which formed during the Neoarchean era[2] about 2,700 million years ago.[3]

text: Explosive caldera eruptions[edit]

text: If the magma is rich in silica, the caldera is often filled in with ignimbrite, tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous rocks. Silica-rich magma has a high viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like basalt. As a result, gases tend to become trapped at high pressure within the magma. When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the rapid off-loading of overlying material causes the trapped gases to decompress rapidly, thus triggering explosive destruction of the magma and spreading volcanic ash over wide areas. Further lava flows may be erupted.

text: If volcanic activity continues, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at Cerro Galán, Lake Toba, Yellowstone, etc., by subsequent intrusion of magma. A silicic or rhyolitic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883 or Mount Pinatubo in 1991, may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects.

text: When Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km3 of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris. By comparison, when Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, it released ~1.2 km3 (DRE) of ejecta. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia.

text: Toba[edit]

text: About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about 2,800 km3 DRE of ejecta, the largest known eruption within the Quaternary Period (last 1.8 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption within the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose[4] proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a population bottleneck (see Toba catastrophe theory). More recently several geneticists, including Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending have proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately five to ten thousand people.[5] However, there is no direct evidence that the theory is correct. And there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species.[6] There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption.[7] The theory in its strongest form may be incorrect.

text: Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, especially La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, where the 5,000-km3 Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a single major eruption about 27.8 million years ago.

text: At some points in geological time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene periods) or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the Proterozoic).

text: Non-explosive calderas[edit]

text: Some volcanoes, such as shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa (respectively the most active and second largest on Earth, are both on the island of Hawaii), form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas, and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island underwent a collapse in 1968, when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 meters.[9] Kilauea Caldera has an inner crater known as Halema‘uma‘u, which has often been filled by a lava lake.

text: During the April 2007 eruption of the Piton de la Fournaise on the island of Réunion, the floor of the main crater suddenly dropped about 300 m. This was attributed to the withdrawal of magma which was being erupted through a vent lower down on the southern flank of the volcano.

text: Another process that may allow a caldera to form can occur if molten lava can escape through a breach on the caldera's rim.

text: Extraterrestrial calderas[edit]

text: Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System. Through the use of manned and unmanned spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on Venus, Mars, the Moon, and Io, a satellite of Jupiter. None of these worlds have plate tectonics, which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to hotspot volcanism).[10] Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km. The average caldera diameter on Io is close to 40 km, and the mode is 6 km; Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of 290 km. The average caldera diameter on Mars is 48 km, smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6 to 80 km as a maximum.[11]

text: The Moon[edit]

text: The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but actually were formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form.[10] Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be a caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera.[12]

text: Mars[edit]

text: The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces: Tharsis and Elysium. Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas.[10] Mars has the largest volcano in the Solar System, Olympus Mons, which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest, with a diameter of 520 km (323 miles). The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas.[13]

text: Venus[edit]

text: Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus, heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150–400 km in diameter and 2–4 km high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km across.[10]

text: Io[edit]

text: Io, unusually, is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of Jupiter and Io's orbital resonance with neighboring large moons Europa and Ganymede, which keeps its orbit slightly eccentric. Unlike any of the planets mentioned, Io is continuously volcanically active. For example, the NASA Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing Io in 1979. Io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across.[10]

text: List of volcanic calderas[edit]

text:
Africa

Ngorongoro Crater (Tanzania)
Menengai Crater (Kenya)
Mount Elgon (Uganda/Kenya)
Mount Fogo (Cape Verde)
Mount Longonot (Kenya)
Mount Meru (Tanzania)
Erta Ale (Ethiopia)
Nabro Volcano (Eritrea)
Mallahle (Eritrea)
See Europe for calderas in the Canary Islands

Asia

East Asia

Dakantou Caldera (大墈头) (Shanhuyan Village, Taozhu Town, Linhai, Zhejiang, China)
Ma'anshan Caldera (马鞍山) (Shishan Town (石山镇), Xiuying, Hainan, China)
Yiyang Caldera (宜洋) (Shuangxi Town (双溪镇宜洋村), Pingnan County, Fujian, China)
Aira Caldera (Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan)
Kussharo (Hokkaido, Japan)
Kuttara (Hokkaido, Japan)
Mashū (Hokkaido, Japan)
Aso (Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan)
Kikai Caldera (Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan)
Towada (Aomori Prefecture, Japan)
Tazawa (Akita Prefecture, Japan)
Hakone (Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan)
Mount Halla (Jeju-do, South Korea)
Heaven Lake (Baekdu Mountain, North Korea)

Southeast Asia

Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

Mount Pinatubo (Luzon, Philippines)
Taal Volcano (Luzon, Philippines)
Laguna de Bay (Luzon, Philippines)
Batur (Bali, Indonesia)
Krakatoa (Sunda Strait, Indonesia)
Lake Maninjau (Sumatra, Indonesia)
Lake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia)
Mount Tondano (Sulawesi, Indonesia)
Mount Tambora (Sumbawa, Indonesia)
Tengger Caldera (Java, Indonesia)

Southwest Asia

Derik (Mardin, Turkey)
Nemrut (volcano) (Turkey)

Russia

Caldera of the island Yankicha/Ushishir, Kuril Islands

Akademia Nauk (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Golovnin (Kuril Islands)
Karymsky Caldera (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Khangar (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Ksudach (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Kurile Lake (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Lvinaya Past (Kuril Islands)
Tao-Rusyr Caldera (Kuril Islands)
Uzon (Kamchatka Peninsula)
Zavaritski Caldera (Kuril Islands)
Yankicha/Ushishir (Kuril Islands)
Chegem Caldera (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Northern Caucasus Region)

Americas

Argentina

Aguas Calientes, Salta Province
Caldera del Atuel, Mendoza Province
Galán, Catamarca Province

United States

Crater Lake, Oregon, formed around 5,680 BC

Mt. St. Helens-Caldera with the Lava dome

Aniakchak-caldera, Alaska

Mount Aniakchak (Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve) (Alaska)
Crater Lake on Mount Mazama (Crater Lake National Park, Oregon)
Mt. St. Helens (Washington)
Mount Katmai (Alaska)
La Garita Caldera (Colorado)
Long Valley (California)
Henry's Fork Caldera (Idaho)
Island Park Caldera (Idaho, Wyoming)
Newberry Volcano (Oregon)
McDermitt Caldera (Oregon)
Mount Okmok (Alaska)
Valles Caldera (New Mexico)
Yellowstone Caldera (Wyoming)

Canada

Silverthrone Caldera (British Columbia)
Mount Edziza (British Columbia)
Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex (British Columbia/Yukon)
Mount Pleasant Caldera (New Brunswick)
Sturgeon Lake Caldera (Ontario)
Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex (Yukon, Canada)
Blake River Megacaldera Complex (Quebec/Ontario)

New Senator Caldera (Quebec)
Misema Caldera (Ontario/Quebec)
Noranda Caldera (Quebec)

Colombia

Arenas crater caldera, Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Caldas Department
Laguna Verde caldera, Azufral volcano, Narino Department

Mexico

Amealco Caldera (Querétaro)
Las Cumbres Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla)
Los Azufres Caldera (Michoacán)
Los Humeros Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla)
Mazahua Caldera (Mexico State)

Chile

Chaitén
Cordillera Nevada Caldera
Laguna del Maule
Pacana Caldera
Sollipulli

Ecuador

Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve
Cuicocha
Quilotoa
Fernandina Island, Galápagos Islands
Sierra Negra (Galápagos)

El Salvador

Coatepeque Caldera, El Salvador crater lake

Lake Ilopango
Lake Coatepeque

Other

Masaya (Nicaragua)
Lake Atitlan (Guatemala)

Europe

3D CGI aerial spinning view over Santorini, Greece.

Banská Štiavnica (Slovakia)
Bakuriani/Didveli Caldera (Georgia)
Samsari (Georgia)
Santorini (Greece)
Nisyros (Greece)
Askja (Iceland)
Grímsvötn (Iceland)
Bárðarbunga (Iceland)
Katla (Iceland)
Krafla (Iceland)
Campi Flegrei (Italy)
Lake Bracciano (Italy)
Lake Bolsena (Italy)
Mount Somma which contains Mount Vesuvius (Italy)
Las Cañadas (Tenerife, Spain)
Glen Coe (Scotland)
Laacher See (Germany)
Lagoa das Sete Cidades & Furnas (São Miguel, the Azores, Portugal)

Oceania

Satellite photo of Lake Taupo

Lake Rotorua (New Zealand)
Okataina (New Zealand)
Kapenga (New Zealand)
Ohakuri (New Zealand)
Maroa (New Zealand)
Mount Warning (Australia)
Reporoa caldera (New Zealand)
Lake Taupo (New Zealand)
Kilauea (Hawaii, US)
Moku‘āweoweo Caldera on Mauna Loa (Hawaii, US)
Rano Kau (Easter Island, Chile)

Antarctica

Deception Island

Indian Ocean

Cirque de Mafate, Cirque de Salazie, Enclos Fouqué, and Cirque de Cilaos on Réunion

Mars

Olympus Mons caldera

Venus

Maat Mons caldera

text: Erosion calderas[edit]

text:
Americas

Guaichane-Mamuta (Chile)
Mount Tehama (California, US)

Europe

Caldera de Taburiente (Spain)
Scafell Caldera (Lake District, Great Britain)

Oceania

Tweed Valley (New South Wales, Queensland, Australia)

Asia

Chegem Caldera (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Northern Caucasus Region, Russia)
Taal volcano (Philippines) Batangas Province


document_title: A Very Merry Daughter of the Bride

question_text: where was very merry daughter of the bride filmed

text: A Very Merry Daughter of the Bride

text: Plot[edit]

text: A wedding planner named Roxanne (García) tries to foil her mother's plans to get married to a man she just met by sabotaging their Christmas wedding. But she soon finds herself falling in love just as quickly as her mother did.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Luke Perry as Charlie
JoAnna Garcia Swisher as Roxanne
Helen Shaver as Rose
Kenneth Welsh as Jack
Lucas Bryant as Dylan
Chantal Perron as Tish
Luke Perry as Charlie

text: Production[edit]

text: A Very Merry Daughter of the Bride was filmed in Calgary, Alberta, Canada