document_title: History of measurement

question_text: who used the first standardized system of measurement

text: History of measurement

text: Sources of information[edit]

text: Weights and measures have taken a great variety of forms over the course of history, from simple informal expectations in barter transactions to elaborate state and supranational systems that integrate measures of many different kinds.  Weights and measures from the oldest societies can often be inferred at least in part from archaeological specimens, often preserved in museums.[citation needed] The comparison of the dimensions of buildings with the descriptions of contemporary writers is another source of information. An interesting example of this is the comparison of the dimensions of the Greek Parthenon with the description given by Plutarch from which a fairly accurate idea of the size of the Attic foot is obtained. Because of the comparative volume of artifacts and documentation, we know much more about the state-sanctioned measures of large, advanced societies than we do about those of smaller societies or about the informal measures that often coexisted with official ones throughout history. In some cases, we have only plausible theories and we must sometimes select the interpretation to be given to the evidence.

text: By studying the evidence given by all available sources, and by correlating the relevant facts, we obtain some idea of the origin and development of the units. We find that they have changed more or less gradually with the passing of time in a complex manner because of a great variety of modifying influences.[citation needed] It is possible to group official measurement systems for large societies into historical systems that are relatively stable over time, including: the Babylonian system, the Egyptian system, the Phileterian system of the Ptolemaic age, the Olympic system of Greece, the Roman system, the British system, and the metric system.

text: Earliest known systems[edit]

text: The earliest known uniform systems of weights and measures seem all to have been created at some time in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC among the ancient peoples of Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, and perhaps also Elam (in Iran) as well.

text: Early Babylonian and Egyptian records and the Hebrew Bible indicate that length was first measured with the forearm, hand, or finger and that time was measured by the periods of the sun, moon, and other heavenly bodies. When it was necessary to compare the capacities of containers such as gourds or clay or metal vessels, they were filled with plant seeds which were then counted to measure the volumes. When means for weighing were invented, seeds and stones served as standards. For instance, the carat, still used as a unit for gems, was derived from the carob seed.

text: History of units[edit]

text: Units of length[edit]

text: The Egyptian cubit, the Indus Valley units of length referred to above and the Mesopotamian cubit were used in the 3rd millennium BC and are the earliest known units used by ancient peoples to measure length. The units of length used in ancient India included the dhanus, or dhanush (bow), the krosa (cry, or cow-call) and the yojana (stage).

text: The common cubit was the length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It was divided into the span of the hand or the length between the tip of little finger to the tip of the thumb (one-half cubit), the palm or width of the hand (one sixth), and the digit or width of the middle finger (one twenty-fourth).  The Royal Cubit, which was a standard cubit enhanced by an extra palm—thus 7 palms or 28 digits long—was used in constructing buildings and monuments and in surveying in ancient Egypt.  The inch, foot, and yard evolved from these units through a complicated transformation not yet fully understood. Some believe they evolved from cubic measures; others believe they were simple proportions or multiples of the cubit. In whichever case, the Greeks and Romans inherited the foot from the Egyptians. The Roman foot (~296 mm) was divided into both 12 unciae (inches) (~24.7 mm) and 16 digits (~18.5 mm). The Romans also introduced the mille passus (1000 paces) or double steps, the pace being equal to five Roman feet (~1480 mm). The Roman mile of 5000 feet (1480 m) was introduced into England during the occupation. Queen Elizabeth I (reigned from 1558 to 1603) changed, by statute, the mile to 5280 feet (~1609 m) or 8 furlongs, a furlong being 40 rod (unit)s (~201 m) of 5.5 yards (~5.03 m) each.

text:
The introduction of the yard (0.9144 m) as a unit of length came later, but its origin is not definitely known. Some believe the origin was the double cubit, others believe that it originated from cubic measure. Whatever its origin, the early yard was divided by the binary method into 2, 4, 8, and 16 parts called the half-yard, span, finger, and nail. The association of the yard with the "gird" or circumference of a person's waist or with the distance from the tip of the nose to the end of the thumb of King Henry I (reigned 1100–1135) are probably standardizing actions, since several yards were in use in Britain.
There were also Rods, Poles and Perches for measurements of length. The following table lists the equivalents.

text:
components

unit

12 lines

1 inch

12 inches

1 foot

3 feet

1 yard

1760 yards

1 mile

36 inches

1 yard

440 yards

quarter-mile

880 yards

half-mile

100 links

1 chain

10 chains

1 furlong

8 furlongs

1 mile

4 inches

1 hand

22 yards

1 chain

5.5 yards

1 rod, pole or perch

4 poles

1 chain

40 poles

1 furlong

text: Units of mass[edit]

text: The grain was the earliest unit of mass and is the smallest unit in the apothecary, avoirdupois, Tower, and troy systems. The early unit was a grain of wheat or barleycorn used to weigh the precious metals silver and gold. Larger units preserved in stone standards were developed that were used as both units of mass and of monetary currency. The pound was derived from the mina used by ancient civilizations.  A smaller unit was the shekel, and a larger unit was the talent. The magnitude of these units varied from place to place. The Babylonians and Sumerians had a system in which there were 60 shekels in a mina and 60 minas in a talent. The Roman talent consisted of 100 libra (pound) which were smaller in magnitude than the mina. The troy pound (~373.2 g) used in England and the United States for monetary purposes, like the Roman pound, was divided into 12 ounces, but the Roman uncia (ounce) was smaller. The carat is a unit for measuring gemstones that had its origin in the carob seed, which later was standardized at 1/144 ounce and then 0.2 gram.

text: Goods of commerce were originally traded by number or volume.  When weighing of goods began, units of mass based on a volume of grain or water were developed. The diverse magnitudes of units having the same name, which still appear today in our dry and liquid measures, could have arisen from the various commodities traded.  The larger avoirdupois pound for goods of commerce might have been based on volume of water which has a higher bulk density than grain.

text: The stone, quarter, hundredweight, and ton were larger units of mass used in Britain.  Today only the stone continues in customary use for measuring personal body weight.  The present stone is 14 pounds (~6.35 kg), but an earlier unit appears to have been 16 pounds (~7.25 kg).  The other units were multiples of 2, 8, and 160 times the stone, or 28, 112, and 2240 pounds (~12.7 kg, 50.8 kg, 1016 kg), respectively.  The hundredweight was approximately equal to two talents.  The ton of 2240 pounds is called the "long ton".  The "short ton" is equal to 2000 pounds (~907 kg).  A tonne (t) is equal to 1000 kg.

text: Units of time and angle[edit]

text: The division of the circle into 360 degrees and the day into hours, minutes, and seconds can be traced to the Babylonians who had sexagesimal system of numbers.  The 360 degrees may have been related to a year of 360 days.  Many other systems of measurement divided the day differently -- counting hours, decimal time, etc. Other calendars divided the year differently.

text: Metric conversion[edit]

text: The metric system was first described in 1668 and officially adopted by France in 1799.  Over nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it became the dominant system worldwide, although several countries, including the United States and China, continue to use their customary units. Among the numerous customary systems, many have been adapted to become an integer multiple of a related metric unit: The Scandinavian mile is now defined as 10 km, the Chinese jin is now defined as 0.5 kg, and the Dutch ons is now defined as 100 g. The American system is unusual in that its units have not been adapted in such a manner.


document_title: When pigs fly

question_text: where does the expression when pigs fly come from

root

text: When pigs fly

text: Meaning[edit]

text: "When pigs fly" is an adynaton, a way of saying that something will never happen. The phrase is often used for humorous effect, to scoff at over-ambition. There are numerous variations on the theme; when an individual with a reputation for failure finally succeeds, onlookers may sarcastically claim to see a flying pig. ("Hey look! A flying pig!") [1] Other variations on the phrase include "And pigs will fly", this one in retort to an outlandish statement.

tag: p

text: An example occurs in the film The Eagle Has Landed: an Irish secret agent working for the Nazis replies to a German general speaking of Germany's shortly winning World War II, "Pigs may fly, General, but I doubt it!" Later, when the Irishman sees German soldiers parachuting before an attack, he says to himself, "Mother of God! Flying pigs!"

text: An identical phrase, used to express impossibilities, exists in Romanian, Când o zbura porcul, literally meaning "When the pig shall fly"; an equivalent also implying an animal is La Paștele cailor, literally: "on horses' Easter". Similar phrases in English include "when hell freezes over", the Latin expression "to the Greek calends", and "and monkeys might fly out of my butt", popularized in Wayne's World skits and movies. They are examples of adynata.[2] In Finnish, the expression "kun lehmät lentävät" (when cows fly) is used because of its alliteration. In French, the most common expression is "quand les poules auront des dents" (when hens will have teeth).

text: In Polish, a similar expression is "See a tank rolling in here?", while simultaneously lowering a lower eyelid with a finger. Sometimes, when in return to this a slightly more limited, but still improbable answer is given, the speaker repeats the gesture, stating: "Maybe at least a gun barrel sticks out?":

text:
"I'm sure that the cows will make a permanent colony on the Moon by the end of 2012."
"Yeah, sure. See a tank rolling in here?" (lowering the eyelid)
"Well, maybe not 2012, but 2013, surely."
"Maybe at least a gun barrel sticks out?" (repeating the gesture.)

tag: ul

text: The idiom is apparently derived from a centuries-old Scottish proverb, though some other references to pigs flying or pigs with wings are more famous. At least one appears in the works of Lewis Carroll:

text:
"Thinking again?" the Duchess asked, with another dig of her sharp little chin.
"I've a right to think," said Alice sharply, for she was beginning to feel a little worried.
"Just about as much right," said the Duchess, "as pigs have to fly...." — Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Chapter 9.

text: American literature author John Steinbeck was told by his professor that he would be an author when pigs flew. When he eventually became a novelist, he started to print every book he wrote with the insignia "Ad astra per alas porci" (to the stars on the wings of a pig).[3] He sometimes added an image of a flying pig, called "Pigasus".

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
In Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass (1872), the poem "The Walrus and the Carpenter" poses the question of "whether pigs have wings".
Pigasus was a flying pig character in the Oz books written by Ruth Plumly Thompson in the 1930s.[4]
Because of the historical importance of the pig industry to the city, prominent in the local iconography of Cincinnati[5] (nicknamed 'Porkopolis') are such events as the Big Pig Gig and the Flying Pig Marathon. Public art around town features flying pigs.
In Grand Prairie, Texas, the semi-pro baseball team is the (Grand Prairie AirHogs). In advertising, they have used the slogan "Where Hogs fly".
In the 1968 movie The Lion in Winter, King Henry II tells his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine "When pigs have wings!". She replies "There'll be pork in the trees come morning!"
Pink Floyd had a flying pig on the cover of the Animals album. This clearly ties in with the album's songs "Pigs On The Wing". Since then the group has used a flying pig as a prop for concerts. See Pink Floyd pigs.

This album cover is one of the many cultural references in the game Jet Set Willy; the Emergency Power Generator is a miniature indoor version of Battersea Power Station with a pig flying over it. That flying-pig sprite is also used in several other rooms.

In Alice, a popular TV series based on the 1974 movie Alice Doesn't Live Here Any More. Alice (Linda Lavin) worked at Mel's Diner along with a spunky waitress named Flo (Polly Holliday). Flo spoke with a southern twang, and one of her favorite sayings was, "When Pigs Fly!"
In The Simpsons episode, "Lisa the Vegetarian", Lisa pushes Homer's prize pig down a hill into a river, where it ends up getting shot through the air by a dam's spillway suction. In his office Mr. Burns says to Smithers he would like to do something charitable with his wealth, donating a million dollars to the orphanage. Smithers becomes confused at this, and Burns answers "when pigs fly". The pig then passes his window in flight, much to their surprise, at which point he admits he would still like to keep his money.
In the Scott Pilgrim vs. the World: The Game subspace highway screens, players may be rewarded with money by destroying flying Piggy Banks.
In Hexen, the player can be turned into a pig and use wings of wrath, this results in a flying pig.
Arjen Anthony Lucassen's second solo album, Lost in the New Real features a track titled "Where pigs fly".
In the UK BBC One series called ShakespeaRe-Told adaptation of Macbeth, the character Joe Macbeth's monologue "Is that a [police] helicopter? Is it landing on this building? Pigs will fly! Pigs will fly!" It is the film's translation of "The Birnam Wood" reference to the warning given to Macbeth in the Shakespeare play of the same name, in which he is warned that "Macbeth shall never vanquish'd be until / Great Birnam wood to high Dunsinane hill / Shall come against him."
After the New Orleans Saints, long known for their lack of success, won the 2009 NFC Championship Game by making a field goal in sudden death overtime, longtime Saints radio announcer Jim Henderson exclaimed, "Pigs have flown! Hell has frozen over! The Saints are on their way to the Super Bowl!"[6]
Flying pigs were seen in the film Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang and were a large part of the promotion related to it, including its major promotional posters. The original Nanny McPhee film had featured the phrase "snow in August" as a similar reference to something that was supposed to be impossible.
The cover of Stephen Colbert's adult-targeted picture book I Am a Pole (And So Can You!) features an emblem stating that it is a "Caldecott Eligible Book" and a picture of Colbert riding a flying pig, a tongue-in-cheek reference to the book's actual likelihood of being nominated for this award.
In the third season of the Canadian sketch comedy series The Kids in the Hall, a flying pig (portrayed by Bruce McCulloch) appeared in several sketches to entertain people who had been waiting in long lines.[7]
In Eminem's 2013 song "Legacy", a variant phrase of this is said: "The day you beat me, pigs will fly out my ass into a flying saucer full of Italian sausage!"
In The 7D episode "When Pigs Fly", Hildy and Grim Gloom use a spell to give the pigs owned by the farmer Zoinky McZoinks wings and control them as part of their plan to eat all the food in Jollywood in order to cause its citizens to head to Hildegard Estates to become their minions. The 7D managed to thwart the plan by coating the Glooms' house in chocolate. By the end of the episode, the flying pigs were returned to Zoinky McZoinks who managed to make some money off the flying pigs.
In Star vs. the Forces of Evil episode "Brittney's Party", Brittney Wong told Star that she will be invited to her birthday party "when pigs fly". Star took it literally and used her wand to create an actual flying pig in order to get invited.
On the wall of a building along Biscayne Blvd. near 81st St. in Miami, Florida (see illustration).
In a self-effacing reference to their less-than-stellar record, the log canoe Edmee S. has adopted a flying pig as their mascot.


document_title: Bones (season 10)

question_text: when does brennan find out she's pregnant again

question_tokens: when does brennan find out she 's pregnant again

text: Bones (season 10)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Emily Deschanel as Dr. Temperance "Bones" Brennan, a forensic anthropologist, and wife of Seeley Booth
David Boreanaz as FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth, who is the official FBI liaison with the Jeffersonian, and husband of Temperance Brennan
Michaela Conlin as Angela Montenegro, a forensic artist and wife of Jack Hodgins
Tamara Taylor as Dr. Camille Saroyan, a forensic pathologist, the head of the forensic division and girlfriend of the intern Arastoo Vaziri
T. J. Thyne as Dr. Jack Hodgins, an entomologist, mineralogist, palynologist, and forensic chemist, and husband of Angela Montenegro
John Francis Daley as Dr. Lance Sweets, an FBI psychologist who provides psychological reports on criminals and staff including Brennan and Booth[a]
John Boyd as James Aubrey, a junior FBI agent working under Booth

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Sunnie Pelant as Christine Booth, Seeley and Temperance's daughter
Patricia Belcher as Caroline Julian, a prosecutor who often works with the team
Andrew Leeds as Christopher Pelant, a hacker
Sterling Macer, Jr. as Victor Stark, the FBI Deputy Director
Ryan O'Neal as Max Keenan, Brennan's father
Sam Anderson as Hugo Sanderson, the owner of a powerful organization that may be the origin of the FBI conspiracy
Michael Badalucco as Scott Starret, a previous Jeffersonian intern
Billy Gibbons as Angela's father
Cyndi Lauper as Avalon Harmonia, a psychic
Danny Woodburn as Alex Radziwill, a Diplomatic immunity and State Department official
Mather Zickel as Aldo Clemens, an ex-priest who counseled Booth when he was a sniper

text:
Carla Gallo as Daisy Wick
Michael Grant Terry as Wendell Bray
Eugene Byrd as Dr. Clark Edison
Laura Spencer as Jessica Warren
Pej Vahdat as Arastoo Vaziri
Ignacio Serricchio as Rodolfo Fuentes
Brian Klugman as Dr. Oliver Wells

text: Production[edit]

text: The series was renewed for a tenth season on January 29, 2014.[2] Series creator Hart Hanson stepped down as showrunner for the tenth season to focus on his new TV series, Backstrom; longtime executive producer and writer Stephan Nathan took over the role of showrunner.[2] In January 2014, Fox Entertainment President Kevin Reilly commented that season 10 would possibly be the final season, but in July 2014, Fox chairman and CEO Peter Rice commented, "I hope it's not the last year ... it's a fantastic series, it's famously moved all over our schedule for 10 years ... It's [Emily Deschanel and David Boreanaz's] last year contractually, so we have to have that conversation ... but I hope that they will come back."[3] The tenth season features the series' 200th episode, written by Stephen Nathan and directed by series star David Boreanaz, which is an Alfred Hitchcock homage set in the 1950s.[4]

text: In July 2014, John Boyd was cast in a recurring role of James Aubrey, a junior FBI agent working under Booth.[5] However, it was later revealed that Boyd would be a series regular.[6] The character of Lance Sweets, portrayed by John Francis Daley who joined the cast in the third season, is killed off in the season premiere episode. The decision to kill off the character was because Daley needed a break from the series to direct the upcoming National Lampoon's Vacation remake, Vacation, and executive producer Stephan Nathan thought killing off the character instead of just writing him off would be more impactful.[7] With the series' 206th episode, Bones became the longest-running one-hour drama for producing studio 20th Century Fox Television, and the episode also names all 206 bones in the human body.[8] Emily Deschanel's real-life pregnancy was written into the show (like her first pregnancy), and the season features the reveal that Brennan is pregnant with her and Booth's second child.[9] The season finale was written as a potential series finale, as it was written before the writers knew the series was renewed for another season.[10]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)1911"The Conspiracy in the Corpse"Ian ToyntonStephen Nathan & Jonathan CollierSeptember 25, 2014 (2014-09-25)AAKY016.34[11]
The team attempt to find the identities of the people responsible for framing Booth and sending him to prison. Booth is introduced to his new junior agent James Aubrey (John Boyd). Near the end of the episode, Lance Sweets is killed in a parking garage as the conspiracy continues to grow, and the Jeffersonian team vows to solve the case and find out who killed him.
1922"The Lance to the Heart"Dwight LittleTeleplay by: Nkechi Okoro Carroll & Keith FoglesongStory by: Michael PetersonOctober 2, 2014 (2014-10-02)AAKY026.41[12]
As the team mourn the loss of Sweets, they must piece together the final clues in order to find the identity of his killer and thus another piece in the conspiracy that sent Booth to prison.
1933"The Purging of the Pundit"Tim SouthamMichael PetersonOctober 9, 2014 (2014-10-09)AAKY036.39[13]
After a right-wing radio host's remains are found in a storm drain, the team narrow the list of suspects after learning about his surprising extracurricular activities, while Agent Aubrey and Brennan both express concern over Booth's state of mind.
1944"The Geek in the Guck"Milan CheylovGene HongOctober 16, 2014 (2014-10-16)AAKY046.56[14]
A body dumped in a river proves to be a wealthy games designer with a history of manipulating others, leaving the team with no shortage of suspects. Meanwhile, Booth and Brennan begin to consider Christine's future.
1955"The Corpse at the Convention"Chad LoweDave ThomasOctober 30, 2014 (2014-10-30)AAKY055.60[15]
A forensic scientist convention becomes complicated when all the attendees want to help determine cause of death for a body found in a stairwell, with the subsequent investigation revealing that Hodgins is a potential suspect. Brennan encounters a rival after making a speech and Wendell returns with an update on his health.
1966"The Lost Love in the Foreign Land"Allison Liddi-BrownEmily SilverNovember 6, 2014 (2014-11-06)AAKY065.64[16]
The body of a murdered maid proves complicated when they discover that she was an undocumented immigrant, and Arastoo's preparation for his dissertation coincides with talk of marriage between him and Cam.
1977"The Money Maker on the Merry-Go-Round"Michael LangeKeith FoglesongNovember 13, 2014 (2014-11-13)AAKY075.50[17]
Aubrey is troubled by an emotional connection to the case of a murdered hedge-fund trader, and Booth and Brennan face a parental conflict over their contrasting reactions to Christine swearing for the first time.
1988"The Puzzler in the Pit"Chad LoweNkechi Okoro CarrollNovember 20, 2014 (2014-11-20)AAKY085.26[18]
The team is called in after a crossword puzzle master is discovered in an urban fracking site. Meanwhile, Daisy goes into labor.
1999"The Mutilation of the Master Manipulator"Tim SouthamHilary Weisman GrahamDecember 4, 2014 (2014-12-04)AAKY095.70[19]
The team investigates the murder of a college professor. Wendell meets a girl during his clinical trial.  Booth has to pass a drivers test after getting too many traffic tickets.
20010"The 200th in the 10th"David BoreanazStephen NathanDecember 11, 2014 (2014-12-11)AAKY105.49[20]
In the 200th episode, Bones pays tribute to Alfred Hitchcock, by reimagining the Jeffersonian and FBI teams in 1950s Hollywood.
20111"The Psychic in the Soup"Jeannot SzwarcLena D. WaitheMarch 26, 2015 (2015-03-26)AAKY115.84[21]
The team investigate the death of a psychic whose body is found in a tree. They are assisted by Angela's psychic friend, Avalon Harmonia, however some of the team are skeptical regarding her having real psychic powers. Meanwhile, the team remember Sweets, and it would have been his 30th birthday.
20212"The Teacher in the Books"Anne RentonTaylor MartinApril 2, 2015 (2015-04-02)AAKY124.74[22]
The team investigate the death of a school teacher whose body is discovered in a bookstore. Meanwhile, Brennan joins Twitter as encouraged by her publisher to expand her fan base for her novels.
20313"The Baker in the Bits"Michael LangeJonathan CollierApril 9, 2015 (2015-04-09)AAKY135.03[23]
An ex-con's body is found in pieces after being blown up in a mine explosion, which leads the team to investigate a bakery which is known for hiring ex-felons. Meanwhile, Arastoo learns that his brother is dying from cancer, and must decide whether to return to Iran, his birth country from which he fled as a teenager.
20414"The Putter in the Rough"Milan CheylovDave ThomasApril 16, 2015 (2015-04-16)AAKY144.88[24]
The team investigate the death of a professional mini-golfer. Brennan's father, Max, returns, however she becomes suspicious when he says he has to leave town. Meanwhile, Wendell has Hodgins assist him after he accidentally breaks a family heirloom of his girlfriend's.
20515"The Eye in the Sky"Arlene SanfordGene HongApril 23, 2015 (2015-04-23)AAKY154.65[25]
When the remains of a high-stakes gambler are found in an industrial shredder, Booth goes undercover in an underground poker game, much to the dismay of Brennan, and risks relapsing into his gambling addiction. Meanwhile, Hodgins invents an unbreakable material which keeps glass from breaking when dropped, and Brennan and Booth find out they're expecting a second child. Later, Booth, affected by going undercover, breaks his gambling sobriety and makes a bet.
20616"The Big Beef at the Royal Diner"Alex ChappleHilary Weisman GrahamApril 30, 2015 (2015-04-30)AAKY164.29[26]
The death of a TV celebrity chef leads Booth and Brennan to investigate the Royal Diner, a local restaurant the Jeffersonian team frequent for lunch every day. Meanwhile, Hodgins sells his invention for millions, and Cam receives word from Arastoo who is in Iran. Booth buys Brennan a golden necklace with the money he won from the bet, and Brennan becomes skeptical of his behavior when she discovers his misplaced gambling sobriety chip, an item he always has.
20717"The Lost in the Found"Jeannot SzwarcEmily SilverMay 7, 2015 (2015-05-07)AAKY174.49[27]
When the remains of a girl are discovered in a ditch, it leads Booth and Brennan to a private high school where they discover she was a victim of bullying. They discover that the girl committed suicide, but made her own death to look like a murder and planted evidence so that the other girls who bullied her would be blamed for her death. Meanwhile, the rest of the Jeffersonian team discover Brennan is pregnant and Daisy ponders whether to start dating again, still reeling from the death of Sweets.
20818"The Verdict in the Victims"Michael LangeNkechi Okoro CarrollMay 7, 2015 (2015-05-07)AAKY184.49[27]
After Brennan re-examines an old case and finds new evidence, she believes Alex Rockwell, a man she and Booth convicted as a serial killer in "The Baker in the Bits" did not actually commit the murders. The team races to prove who the serial killer is as Rockwell will be put to death in 48 hours. Meanwhile, Angela and Hodgins contemplate their future, possibly moving to Paris.  Linda Lavin guest stars as the judge approached to stop the execution.[28]
20919"The Murder in the Middle East"Milan CheylovMichael PetersonMay 14, 2015 (2015-05-14)AAKY194.71[29]
Booth and Cam travel to Tehran, Iran, when they learn Arastoo has been kidnapped by a member of the Iranian parliament to assist in a murder investigation. They must identify the killer for Arastoo to be released. Meanwhile, Brennan learns Booth has been gambling again when his bookie shows up at their home telling her he owes money. When Booth returns from Iran, Brennan confronts him and tells him to leave.
21020"The Woman in the Whirlpool"Dwight LittleKathy Reichs & Kerry ReichsMay 28, 2015 (2015-05-28)AAKY205.42[30]
Booth and Aubrey investigate the murder of a woman who was a collector of cookie jars. Meanwhile, Booth, who is no longer living at home with Brennan, begins to attend Gamblers Anonymous hoping to overcome his addiction. Also, Aubrey gets close with Jeffersonian intern, Jessica.
21121"The Life in the Light"Randy ZiskKeith FoglesongJune 4, 2015 (2015-06-04)AAKY215.21[31]
The team investigate the death of a yoga instructor, who was previously a biker gang member. Meanwhile, Booth reaches his 30th day clean and continues to make progress with healing his relationship with Brennan. Angela and Hodgins decide to move to Paris and Hodgins finally learns Angela's birth name.
21222"The Next in the Last"Ian ToyntonStephen Nathan & Jonathan CollierJune 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)AAKY225.11[32]
The team investigates the remains of a possible protégé of serial killer Christopher Pelant. Angela and Hodgins decide not to move to Paris and stay at the Jeffersonian. Meanwhile, Brennan and Booth move on from their careers at the Jeffersonian and the FBI.

tag: table

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Live +7 DVR ratings[edit]

text: Live +7 ratings is the number of viewers who watched a particular episode live, plus the number of viewers via DVR over a seven-day period from the original broadcast.

text:
No.

Episode

Air date

Time slot (ET)

18–49 ratingincrease

Viewers increase(millions)

Total 18–49

Total viewers(millions)

Ref

1

"The Conspiracy in the Corpse"

September 25, 2014 (2014-09-25)

Thursdays8:00 p.m.

0.8

2.49

2.4

8.83

2

"The Lance to the Heart"

October 2, 2014 (2014-10-02)

0.9

2.75

2.4

9.16

[33]

3

"The Purging of the Pundit"

October 9, 2014 (2014-10-09)

0.8

2.35

2.4

8.74

[34]

4

"The Geek in the Guck"

October 16, 2014 (2014-10-16)

0.8

2.58

2.5

9.14

[35]

5

"The Corpse at the Convention"

October 30, 2014 (2014-10-30)

0.8

2.57

2.1

8.17

[36]

6

"The Lost Love in the Foreign Land"

November 6, 2014 (2014-11-06)

0.9

2.69

2.2

8.33

[37]

7

"The Money Maker on the Merry-Go-Round"

November 13, 2014 (2014-11-13)

0.8

2.53

2.1

8.03

[38]

8

"The Puzzler in the Pit"

November 20, 2014 (2014-11-20)

0.8

2.31

2.1

7.58

[39]

9

"The Mutilation of the Master Manipulator"

December 4, 2014 (2014-12-04)

0.8

2.63

2.3

8.33

[40]

10

"The 200th in the 10th"

December 11, 2014 (2014-12-11)

0.8

1.85

2.0

7.34

[40]

11

"The Psychic in the Soup"

March 26, 2015 (2015-03-26)

0.7

2.36

2.0

8.20

[41]

12

"The Teacher in the Books"

April 2, 2015 (2015-04-02)

0.8

2.68

1.9

7.42

[42]

13

"The Baker in the Bits"

April 9, 2015 (2015-04-09)

0.6

2.21

1.7

7.24

[43]

14

"The Putter in the Rough"

April 16, 2015 (2015-04-16)

0.7

2.48

1.7

7.36

[44]

15

"The Eye in the Sky"

April 23, 2015 (2015-04-23)

0.6

2.13

1.6

6.78

[45]

16

"The Big Beef at the Royal Diner"

April 30, 2015 (2015-04-30)

0.7

2.25

1.7

6.54

[46]

17

"The Lost in the Found"

May 7, 2015 (2015-05-07)

0.5

1.93

1.6

6.64

[47]

18

"The Verdict in the Victims"

May 7, 2015 (2015-05-07)

0.5

1.84

1.6

6.11

[47]

19

"The Murder in the Middle East"

May 14, 2015 (2015-05-14)

0.6

1.91

1.6

6.62

[48]

20

"The Woman in the Whirlpool"

May 28, 2015 (2015-05-28)

0.6

2.01

1.8

7.43

[49]

21

"The Life in the Light"

June 4, 2015 (2015-06-04)

0.7

1.97

1.8

7.17

[50]

22

"The Next in the Last"

June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

0.7

2.25

1.9

7.36

[51]

text: DVD release[edit]

text: The tenth season of Bones was released on DVD (subtitled "Blackmail & Jail Edition") in region 1 on September 29, 2015,[52] and in region 2 on October 12, 2015.[53] The set includes all 22 episodes of season ten on a 6-disc DVD set presented in anamorphic widescreen. Special features include deleted scenes, a gag reel, and two featurettes—"Sweets' Sweetest Moments" and "From Script to Screen: Creating the 200th Episode".[52]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ John Francis Daley only appears in the season premiere and is removed from the opening credits in the second episode. John Boyd guest stars in the season premiere and is then added to the opening credits beginning with the second episode.

tag: ol


document_title: Pride and Prejudice (1995 TV series)

question_text: who plays lydia in bbc pride and prejudice

text: Pride and Prejudice (1995 TV series)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Episode 1 – Part One: Mr. Charles Bingley, a rich man from the north of England, settles down at Netherfield estate near Meryton village in Hertfordshire for the autumn. Mrs Bennet, unlike her husband, is excited at the prospect of marrying off one of her five daughters (Jane, Elizabeth, Mary, Kitty, and Lydia) to the newcomer. Bingley takes an immediate liking to Jane at a local country-dance, while his best friend Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy, rumoured to be twice as rich, refuses to dance with anyone including Elizabeth. Elizabeth's poor impression of his character is confirmed at a later gathering at Lucas Lodge, and she and Darcy verbally clash on the two nights she spends at Netherfield caring for the sick Jane.

text: Episode 2 – Part Two: A sycophantic clergyman named Mr. William Collins visits his cousins, the Bennets. He is the entailed heir of their home and estate, Longbourn, and intends to marry one of Mr. Bennet's daughters. This is meant, on his part, as an act of benign goodwill towards the Bennets, because Mrs. Bennet and her unwed daughters will be rendered homeless once Mr. Bennet dies and Mr. Collins inherits the estate. He therefore invites himself for a two-week visit, to get to know the Bennets better and select a wife from among the daughters of the family. However, the Bennet girls judge Mr. Collins to be a rather ridiculous man, an "oddity" with many peculiarities of speech and deportment. They are nevertheless civil to him, and take him to balls and social events in Meryton. One day, while on a walk around Meryton village, they meet members of a newly arrived militia, including a Mr George Wickham. At a social event, Wickham befriends Elizabeth and tells her that Darcy, who is the son of Wickham's late father's employer, has denied Wickham a living (a curacy) which had been assured to him by Mr. Darcy's father. At another social event, Darcy surprises Elizabeth with a dance offer at a ball at Netherfield, which she grudgingly but politely accepts. Mr Collins proposes to Elizabeth the next day, but she resoundingly rejects him. While Mrs Bennet disagrees about Elizabeth's decision, her close friend Charlotte Lucas invites Mr Collins to stay at Lucas Lodge.

text: Episode 3 – Part Three: Elizabeth is stunned and appalled when she learns that Charlotte Lucas has accepted a proposal from Mr Collins. When the Netherfield party departs for London in autumn, Jane stays with her modest London relatives, the Gardiners, but she soon notices that the Bingleys ignore her. After befriending Mr Wickham, Elizabeth departs for the Collinses' home in Kent in the spring. They live near Rosings, the estate of the formidable Lady Catherine de Bourgh, and as Lady Catherine is Darcy's aunt, Elizabeth meets Darcy several times. Shortly after Elizabeth learns of Darcy's direct responsibility for Jane and Bingley's separation, Darcy unexpectedly proposes to her, expressing his ardent admiration and love despite Elizabeth's inferior family connections. Elizabeth flatly rejects him, noting his arrogant, disagreeable, and proud character, and his involvement in her sister's failed romance and Mr Wickham's misfortune.

text: Episode 4 – Part Four: Darcy justifies his previous actions in a long letter to Elizabeth: he misjudged Jane's affection for Bingley and exposes Wickham as a gambler who once attempted to elope with his young sister, Georgiana, to obtain her inheritance. Back at Longbourn, Mr Bennet allows Lydia to accompany the militia to Brighton as a personal friend of the militia colonel's wife. Elizabeth joins the Gardiners on a sightseeing trip to Derbyshire and visits Pemberley, Darcy's estate, during his absence. Greatly impressed by the immense scale and richness of the estate, Elizabeth listens to the housekeeper's earnest tales of her master's lifelong goodness, while Darcy refreshes from his unannounced journey home by taking a swim in a lake. After an unexpected and awkward encounter with Elizabeth, a damp Darcy is able to prevent the party's premature departure with an unusual degree of friendliness and politeness.

text: Episode 5 – Part Five: Elizabeth and the Gardiners receive an invitation to Pemberley, where Darcy and Elizabeth share significant glances. The next morning, Elizabeth receives two letters from Jane, discussing Lydia's elopement with Wickham. As Elizabeth is about to return to Longbourn, Darcy walks in and offers his help, but, upon digesting the bad news, gradually appears more remote, and soon takes his leave. Elizabeth supposes she will never see him again. Mr and Mrs Bennet try to deal with the possible scandal until they receive a letter from Mr Gardiner, saying that Lydia and Wickham have been found and are not married, but will be soon under the Gardiners' care. After Mr Bennet states his surprise at how easily the issue has been resolved, Elizabeth informs Jane about her last meeting with Darcy, including her ambivalent feelings for him.

text: Episode 6 – Part Six: After Lydia carelessly mentions Darcy's involvement in her wedding, Mrs Gardiner enlightens Elizabeth how Darcy found the errant couple and paid for all the expenses. When Bingley and Darcy return to Netherfield in the autumn, Darcy apologises to Bingley for intervening in his relationship with Jane and gives his blessing for the couple to wed. Lady Catherine de Bourgh, who has heard rumours of an engagement between Darcy and Elizabeth but wants him to marry her sickly daughter Anne, pays Elizabeth an unannounced visit. She insists that Elizabeth renounce Darcy, but Elizabeth does not rule out a future engagement. When Elizabeth thanks Darcy for his role in Lydia's marriage, Lady Catherine's story encourages Darcy to reconfirm his feelings for Elizabeth. Elizabeth admits the complete transformation of her feelings and agrees to an engagement, which takes her family by surprise. The series ends with a double wedding in the winter months: Jane with Bingley, and Elizabeth to Fitzwilliam Darcy.

text: Cast[edit]

text: When casting the many characters of Pride and Prejudice, the producer Sue Birtwistle and director Simon Langton were looking for actors with wit, charm and charisma, who could also play the Regency period. Their choices for the story's protagonists, 20-year-old Elizabeth Bennet and 28-year-old Mr Darcy, determined the other actors cast. Hundreds of actresses between 15 and 28 auditioned, and those with the right presence were screen-tested, performing several prepared scenes in period costumes and makeup in a television studio. Straight offers were made to several established actors.[3]

text: Actress Jennifer Ehle was chosen out of half a dozen serious candidates to play Elizabeth, the second Bennet daughter, the brightest girl, and her father's favourite. At the time in her mid-20s, Ehle had first read Pride and Prejudice at the age of 12 and was the only actor to be present throughout the whole filming schedule.[3][4][5] Sue Birtwistle particularly wanted Colin Firth, a relatively unknown British actor in his mid-30s at the time, to play the wealthy and aloof Mr. Darcy.[6] Birtwistle had worked with him on the mid-1980s comedy film Dutch Girls, but he repeatedly turned down her offer as he neither felt attracted to Austen's feminine perspective nor believed himself to be right for the role. Birtwistle's persistent coaxing and his deeper looks into the Darcy character finally convinced him to accept the role.[7][8] Firth and Ehle began a romantic relationship during the filming of the series, which only received media attention after the couple's separation.[9]

text: Benjamin Whitrow and BAFTA-nominated Alison Steadman were cast to play Mr and Mrs Bennet, Elizabeth's distinguished but financially imprudent and occasionally self-indulgent parents. Steadman was offered the role without auditions or screen tests. Elizabeth's four sisters, whose ages ranged between 15 and 22, were cast to look dissimilar from each other. Susannah Harker portrayed Elizabeth's beautiful older sister Jane, who desires to only see good in others. Lucy Briers, Polly Maberly, and Julia Sawalha played Elizabeth's younger sisters – the plain Mary, the good-natured but flighty and susceptible Kitty, and frivolous and headstrong Lydia. Being 10 years older than 15-year-old Lydia, Julia Sawalha, of Absolutely Fabulous fame, had enough acting experience to get the role without screen tests. Joanna David and Tim Wylton appeared as the Gardiners, Elizabeth's maternal aunt and uncle. David Bamber played the sycophantic clergyman, Mr Collins, a cousin of Mr Bennet. Lucy Scott portrayed Elizabeth's best friend and Mr Collins's wife, Charlotte Lucas, and David Bark-Jones portrayed Lt. Denny.[3]

text: The producers found Crispin Bonham-Carter to have the best physical contrast to Firth's Darcy and gave him his first major television role as the good-natured and wealthy Mr Charles Bingley.[3] Bonham-Carter had originally auditioned for the part of Mr George Wickham,[10] a handsome militia lieutenant whose charm conceals his licentiousness and greed, but Adrian Lukis was cast instead. Anna Chancellor, of Four Weddings and a Funeral fame, played Mr Bingley's sister Caroline Bingley. (Chancellor is also Jane Austen's six-times-great-niece)[11] Mr Bingley's other sister and his brother-in-law were played by Lucy Robinson (Louisa Hurst) and Rupert Vansittart (Mr Hurst). Casting the role of Darcy's young sister, Georgiana, proved hard as the producers were looking for a young actress who appeared innocent, proud and yet shy, had class and could also play the piano. After auditioning over 70 actresses, Simon Langton suggested Emilia Fox, the real-life daughter of Joanna David (Mrs Gardiner), for the part. Barbara Leigh-Hunt was cast as Darcy's meddling aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh, without auditions or screen tests.[3]

text: Production[edit]

text: Conception and adaptation[edit]

text: Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice had already been the subject of numerous television and film adaptations, including BBC television versions in 1938, 1952, 1958, 1967 and 1980. In the autumn of 1986, after watching a preview of Austen's Northanger Abbey, Sue Birtwistle and Andrew Davies agreed to adapt Pride and Prejudice, one of their favourite books, for television.[12][13] Birtwistle in particular felt that a new adaptation on film would serve the drama better than the previous videotaped Pride and Prejudice television adaptations, which looked too "undernourished" and "unpoetic".[12] The needs of TV scheduling forced Davies to change his original plan of a five-episode adaptation to six.[14] Birtwistle and Davies then offered the first three scripts to ITV in late 1986 to build on the guaranteed BBC audience, but the recent TV adaptation led to a delay. When ITV announced its renewed interest in 1993, Michael Wearing of the BBC commissioned the final scripts with co-funding from the American A&E Network.[12] Director Simon Langton and the art department joined pre-production in January and February 1994.[5][15]

text:
"We treated the story with great respect, but if we wanted to be utterly faithful, we would have got someone to recite it over the radio."

—Director Simon Langton[16]

tag: div

text: Although Birtwistle and Davies wished to remain true to the tone and spirit of the novel,[14] they wanted to produce "a fresh, lively story about real people",[12] not an "old studio-bound BBC drama that was shown in the Sunday teatime slot".[7] Emphasising sex and money as the themes of the story,[12] Davies shifted the focus from Elizabeth to Elizabeth and Darcy and foreshadowed Darcy's role in the narrative resolution. To portray the characters as real human beings, Davies added short backstage scenes such as the Bennet girls dressing up to advertise themselves in the marriage market. New scenes where men pursue their hobbies with their peers departed from Jane Austen's focus on women.[14] The biggest technical difficulty proved to be adapting the long letters in the second half of the story. Davies employed techniques such as voice-overs, flashbacks, and having the characters read the letters to themselves and to each other. Davies added some dialogue to clarify events from the novel to a modern audience but left much of the novel's dialogue intact.[14]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Film locations of Pride and Prejudice (1995).

text: Director of photography John Kenway used Super 16mm film, which has a slightly smaller widescreen aspect ratio than 16:9, but the series was originally broadcast 4:3 pan and scan.[17]

text: The budget of about £1 million per episode (totalling US$9.6 million) allowed 20 shooting weeks of five days to film six 55-minute episodes. Production aimed for 10.5-hour shooting days plus time for costume and make-up.[4][16] Two weeks before filming began, about 70 of the cast and crew gathered for the script read-through, followed by rehearsals, lessons for dancing, horse-riding, fencing, and other skills that needed to be ready ahead of the actual filming.[18] Filming took place between June 1994 and 1 November 1994 to reflect the changing seasons in the plot, followed by post-production until mid-May 1995.[5] Scenes in the same place were grouped in the filming schedule.[4]

text: Twenty-four locations, most of them owned by the National Trust, and eight studio sets were used for filming.[15][18] Reflecting the wealth differences between the main characters, the filming location for Longbourn showed the comfortable family house of the Bennet family, whereas Darcy's Pemberley needed to look like the "most beautiful place", showing good taste and the history of the aristocracy.[6]

text: The first location that the producers agreed on was Lacock in Wiltshire to represent the village of Meryton. Luckington Court nearby served as the interior and exterior of Longbourn. Lyme Hall in Cheshire was chosen as Pemberley but management problems forced production to film Pemberley's interiors at Sudbury Hall in Sudbury, Derbyshire.[19]

text: The producers found Belton House in Grantham, Lincolnshire the best match for Rosings, Lady Catherine de Bourgh's estate,[19] which needed to appear "over-the-top" to reflect her disagreeableness.[6] Old Rectory at Teigh in Rutland was chosen as Hunsford parsonage, Mr Collins's modest home. Edgcote House in south-west Northamptonshire served as the interior and exterior of Bingley's Netherfield, along with Brocket Hall in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire as the Netherfield ballroom. The London streets were filmed in Lord Leycester Hospital in Warwick, Warwickshire. Wickham's and Georgiana's planned elopement in Ramsgate was filmed in the English seaside resort Weston-super-Mare in Somerset.[19] Wickham's wedding takes place in St Paul's in Deptford, London.

text: Costumes and make-up[edit]

text: Because Pride and Prejudice was a period drama, the design required more research than contemporary films. The personality and wealth of the characters were reflected in their costumes; the wealthy Bingley sisters were never shown in print dresses and they wore big feathers in their hair.[6] As the BBC's stock of early 19th century costumes was limited, costume designer Dinah Collin designed most of the costumes, visiting museums for inspiration while trying to make the clothes attractive to a modern audience (although some costumes, mostly worn by extras, were re-used from earlier BBC productions or hired). Elizabeth's clothes had earthy tones and were fitted to allow easy and natural movements in line with the character's activity and liveliness. In contrast, Collin chose pale or creamy white colours for the clothes of the other Bennet girls to highlight their innocence and simplicity and richer colours for Bingley's sisters and Lady Catherine de Bourgh. Colin Firth participated in the wardrobe decisions and wanted his character to wear darker colours, leaving the warmer colours for Bingley.[20]

text: The producers imagined Darcy to be dark despite no such references in the novel and asked Firth to dye black his light-brown hair, eyebrows and lashes; they instructed all male actors to let their hair grow before filming and shave off their moustaches. Three brunette wigs were made to cover Ehle's short, blonde hair and one wig for Alison Steadman (Mrs. Bennet) because of her thick, heavy hair. Susannah Harker's (Jane) hair was slightly lightened to contrast with Elizabeth's and was arranged in a classic Greek style to highlight the character's beauty. Mary's plainness was achieved by painting spots on Lucy Briers's face; her hair was greased to suggest an unwashed appearance and was arranged to emphasise the actress's protruding ears. As Kitty and Lydia were too young and wild to have their hair done by the maids, the actresses' hair was not changed much. Makeup artist Caroline Noble had always considered Mr. Collins a sweaty character with a moist upper lip; she also greased David Bamber's hair and gave him a low parting to suggest baldness.[20]

text: Music and choreography[edit]

text: Carl Davis had been writing scores for BBC adaptations of classic novels since the mid-1970s and approached Sue Birtwistle during pre-production. Aiming to communicate the wit and vitality of the novel and its theme of marriage and love in a small town in the early 19th century, he used contemporary classical music as inspiration, in particular a popular Beethoven septet of the period, as well as a theme strongly reminiscent of the finale of Beethoven's Emperor Concerto. For control over the sound, the music was recorded in six hours by a group of up to 18 musicians and was then fed into tiny earpieces of the screen musicians, who mimed playing the instruments. The actresses whose characters played the piano, Lucy Briers (Mary) and Emilia Fox (Georgiana), were already accomplished pianists and were given the opportunity to practise weeks ahead of filming.[21] Among the songs and movements that were played in the serial were Handel's "Air con Variazioni" from Suite No. 5 in E Major HWV 430 and "Slumber, Dear Maid" from his opera Xerxes, Mozart's "Rondo Alla Turca", "Voi Che Sapete" and other music from his operas The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni, Beethoven's Andante Favori, the second movement from Muzio Clementi's Sonatina No.4 and the traditional folk song "The Barley Mow". A soundtrack with Davis's themes was released on CD in 1995.

text: Many scenes in the book were set at dances or balls. Jane Gibson based her choreography on The Apted Book of Country Dances (1966) by W.S. Porter, which had several late-18th-century dances by Charles and Samuel Thompson such as "The Shrewsbury Lasses", "A Trip to Highgate" and "Mr. Beveridge's Maggot". Although these dances gave the story an impression of authenticity, they were anachronistic, being out of fashion by the time of the story. Some fifteen dances were choreographed and rehearsed before filming. Polly Maberly and Julia Sawalha, the dance-mad Kitty and Lydia, had three days to learn the dances. Three days were allotted for the filming of the ball at Netherfield, whose pace and style concentrated on elegance rather than the community enjoying themselves as at the dance at Meryton.[22] The musicians and dancers had earpieces with music playing to allow dialogue recording.[5] Many wide-shots of Elizabeth's and Darcy's dance at Netherfield later turned out to be unusable because of a hair in front of a lens so the editors resorted to close-up shots and material provided by a steadicam.[23]

text: Themes and style[edit]

text: The adaptation received praise for its faithfulness to the novel,[2][24] which highlights the importance of environment and upbringing on peoples' development, although privilege is not necessarily advantageous.[25] Describing the adaptation as "a witty mix of love stories and social conniving, cleverly wrapped in the ambitions and illusions of a provincial gentry",[2] critics noted that Davies's focus on sex and money and Austen's wry, incisive humour and the "deft" characterisation, prevented the television adaptation from "descending into the realm of a nicely-costumed, brilliantly-photographed melodrama".[26]

text:
"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife."

—First line of Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice

text: To avoid a narrator, the serial delegates the novel's first ironic sentence to Elizabeth in an early scene.[27][28] The adaptation opens with a view of Darcy's and Bingley's horses as they race across a field toward the Netherfield estate, expressing vitality; Elizabeth watches them before breaking into a run. While the novel indicates Elizabeth's independence and energy in her three-mile trek to Netherfield, the adaptation of this scene also shows her rebelliousness and love of nature.[29]

text: In what is "perhaps the most radical revision of Austen's text",[30] the BBC drama departs from a late 18th-century vision of emotional restraint and portrays emotions in a "modern" interpretation of the story.[30] The novel leaves Elizabeth and the reader uncertain of Darcy's emotions and the adaptation uses additional scenes to hint at Darcy's inability to physically contain or verbally express his emotional turmoil.[31] On the other hand, whereas the climax of the novel describes Darcy expressing his ardent love for Elizabeth at length (though Austen leaves his actual words to the reader's imagination), the adaptation elides this moment and passes directly to the next lines of dialogue. Scholars argue that activities such as billiards, bathing, fencing and swimming (see the lake scene) offer Darcy to a female gaze; he is often presented in profile by a window or a fireplace when his friends discuss Elizabeth. Many passages relating to appearance or characters' viewpoints were lifted from the novel.[32]

text: The novel shows irony with "unmistakable strains of cynicism, ... laughing at human nature without any real hope of changing it".[33] Laughter in the story, which ranges from irresponsible laughter to laughter at people and laughter of amusement and relief, can also be linked to the sexual tensions among the different characters. Despite their appeal to modern audiences, laughter and wit were seen as vulgar and irreverent in Austen's time.[34] The BBC drama made changes "with a view to exposing a character, or adding humour or irony to a situation".[28] The adaptation comically exaggerates the characters of Mrs. Bennet, Miss Bingley and Mr. Collins, even showing Mrs. Bennet on the verge of hysteria in many of the early scenes.[28]

text: The serial expands on Austen's metaphorical use of landscapes, reinforcing beauty and authenticity. Elizabeth takes every opportunity to enjoy nature and to escape exposure to Mr. Collins and Lady Catherine. The most symbolic use of nature in the novel is Elizabeth and the Gardiners' visit to Pemberley in Derbyshire,[29] where Elizabeth becomes conscious of her love for Darcy. The story makes nature integral in the form of Old England.[35] Elizabeth's appreciation of the beauties of Derbyshire elevates Darcy in her and her relatives' opinion.[29] Darcy's gaze through the window works as a movie screen, projecting Elizabeth's actions for him and the viewer. His participation in the English landscape is his redemption.[36]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Between 10 and 11 million people watched the original six-episode broadcast on BBC One on Sunday evenings from 24 September to 29 October 1995.[37][38] The episodes were repeated each week on BBC Two.[4] The final episode of Pride and Prejudice had a market share of about 40 percent in Britain,[7] by which time eight foreign countries had bought the rights to the serial.[38] 3.7 million Americans watched the first broadcast on the A&E Network, which aired the serial in double episodes on three consecutive evenings beginning 14 January 1996.[37][39]

text: Home release and merchandise[edit]

text: The serial was released on VHS in the UK in the week running up to the original transmission of the final episode. The entire first run of 12,000 copies of the double-video set sold out within two hours of release. 70,000 copies had been sold by the end of the first week of sales,[40] increasing to 200,000 sold units within the first year of the original airing.[41] A BBC spokeswoman called the initial sale results "a huge phenomenon", as "it is unheard of for a video to sell even half as well, especially when viewers are able to tape the episodes at home for free".[40] The CD soundtrack was also popular, and 20,000 copies of an official making-of book were sold within days.[38] The serial was released on DVD four times, initially in 2000, as a digitally remastered "Tenth Anniversary Edition" in September 2005, and in April 2007 as part of a "Classic Drama DVD" magazine collection. A high-definition transfer was produced from the original negatives and released as a Blu-ray in October 2008. The HD version has not been broadcast on television; the BBC refuses to broadcast anything shot in 16mm in HD. The same restored version was released on DVD in March 2009.[42] The Blu-ray was released on 14 April 2009.[43]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The critical response to Pride and Prejudice was overwhelmingly positive.[44] Gerard Gilbert of The Independent recommended the opening episode of the serial one day before the British premiere, saying the television adaptation is "probably as good as it [can get for a literary classic]. The casting in particular deserves a tilt at a BAFTA, Firth not being in the slightest bit soft and fluffy – and Jennifer Ehle showing the right brand of spirited intelligence as Elizabeth." He considered Benjamin Whitrow a "real scene-stealer with his Mr. Bennet", but was undecided about Alison Steadman's portrayal of Mrs. Bennet.[45] Reviewing the first episode for the same newspaper on the day after transmission, Jim White praised Andrew Davies for "injecting into the proceedings a pace and energy which at last provides a visual setting to do justice to the wit of the book. With everyone slinging themselves about at high speed (the dances, in a first for the genre, actually involve a bit of sweat), it looks like people are doing something you would never have suspected they did in Austen's time: having fun."[46]

text: A few days before the American premiere, Howard Rosenberg of the Los Angeles Times considered the adaptation "decidedly agreeable" despite its incidental liberties with Austen's novel, and named Elizabeth's parents and Mr. Collins as the main source of humour.[47] John O'Connor of The New York Times lauded the serial as a "splendid adaptation, with a remarkably faithful and sensitively nuanced script". He commented on Jennifer Ehle's ability to make Elizabeth "strikingly intelligent and authoritative without being overbearing", and noted how Firth "brilliantly captures Mr. Darcy's snobbish pride while conveying, largely through intense stares, that he is falling in love despite himself". O'Connor praised Barbara Leigh-Hunt's portrayal of Lady Catherine as "a marvellously imperious witch" and considered her scenes with David Bamber (Mr. Collins) "hilarious".[2]

text: However, O'Connor remarked that American audiences might find the "languorous walks across meadows" and "ornately choreographed dances" of the British production too slow.[2] In one of the most negative reviews, People Magazine considered the adaptation "a good deal more thorough than necessary" and "not the best Austen on the suddenly crowded market". Although the reviewer thought Firth "magnificent", he rebuked the casting of Jennifer Ehle as her oval face made her "look like Anaïs Nin in period clothes, and that ain't right".[48] The official A&E Network magazine summarised a year later that "critics praised the lavish production, audiences adored it, and women everywhere swooned over Darcy. So much, in fact, that newspapers began to joke about 'Darcy fever.'"[8] Commendation for the serial continued in the years following its original transmission.

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Pride and Prejudice received BAFTA Television Award nominations for "Best Drama Serial", "Best Costume Design", and "Best Make Up/Hair" in 1996. Jennifer Ehle was honoured with a BAFTA for "Best Actress", while Colin Firth and Benjamin Whitrow, nominated for "Best Actor", lost to Robbie Coltrane of Cracker.[49] Firth won the 1996 Broadcasting Press Guild Award for "Best Actor", complemented by the same award for "Best Drama Series/Serial".[50] The serial was recognised in the United States with an Emmy for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Costume Design for a Miniseries or a Special", and was Emmy-nominated for its achievements as an "Outstanding Miniseries" as well as for choreography and writing.[51] Among other awards and nominations, Pride and Prejudice received a Peabody Award,[52] a Television Critics Association Award,[53] and a Golden Satellite Award nomination[54] for outstanding achievements as a serial.

text: Influence and legacy[edit]

text: As one of the BBC's and A&E's most popular presentations ever,[38][55] the serial was "a cultural phenomenon, inspiring hundreds of newspaper articles and making the novel a commuter favourite".[56] With the 1995 and 1996 films Persuasion, Sense and Sensibility and Emma, the serial was part of a wave of Jane Austen enthusiasm which caused the membership of the Jane Austen Society of North America to jump fifty percent in 1996 and to over 4,000 members in the autumn of 1997.[41] Some newspapers like The Wall Street Journal explained this "Austen-mania" as a commercial move of the television and film industry, whereas others attributed Austen's popularity to escapism.[57]

text: While Jennifer Ehle refused to capitalise on the success of the serial and joined the Royal Shakespeare Company at Stratford-upon-Avon,[58] the role of Mr. Darcy unexpectedly elevated Colin Firth to stardom.[9] Although Firth did not mind being recognised as "a romantic idol as a Darcy with smouldering sex appeal"[59] in a role that "officially turned him into a heart-throb",[60] he expressed the wish to not be associated with Pride and Prejudice forever[8] and was reluctant to accept similar roles. He took on diverse roles and co-starred in productions such as The English Patient (1996), Shakespeare in Love (1998), Bridget Jones's Diary (2001), Girl with a Pearl Earring (2003), Love Actually (2003) and Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason (2004).[9][60]

text: Pride and Prejudice continued to be honoured years later. A 2000 poll of industry professionals conducted by the British Film Institute ranked the serial at 99 in the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century, which the BFI attributed to its "managing to combine faithfulness to the novel with a freshness that appealed across the generations".[24] Radio Times included the serial in their list of "40 greatest TV programmes ever made" in 2003.[61] It was also named by Entertainment Weekly as one of the 20 best miniseries of all time.[62] In 2007, the UK Film Council declared Pride and Prejudice one of the television dramas that have become "virtual brochures" for British history and society. Lyme Hall, Cheshire, which had served as the exterior of Pemberley, experienced a tripling in its visitor numbers after the series' broadcast and is still a popular travel destination.[61]

text: Lake scene[edit]

text: The adaptation is famous for a scene in its fourth episode where a fully dressed Darcy, having emerged from a swim in a lake at Pemberley, accidentally encounters Elizabeth. While many critics attributed the scene's appeal to Firth's sexual attractiveness,[59][63][64] Andrew Davies thought that it unwittingly "rerobed, not disrobed, Austen".[65] When Davies wrote the scene (it was not part of Austen's novel), he did not intend a sexual connection between Elizabeth and Darcy but to create "an amusing moment in which Darcy tries to maintain his dignity while improperly dressed and sopping wet".[59] The BBC opposed Davies's plan to have Darcy naked but the producers discarded the alternative of using underpants as fatuous.[66] According to Davies, Firth had "a bit of the usual tension about getting [his] kit off",[65] the scene was filmed with Firth in linen shirt, breeches and boots. A stuntman, who appears in midair in a very brief shot, was hired because of the risk of infection with Weil's disease at Lyme Park.[66] A short underwater segment was filmed separately with Firth in a tank at Ealing Studios in west London.[6]

text: The Guardian declared the lake scene "one of the most unforgettable moments in British TV history".[1] The sequence also appeared in Channel 4's Top 100 TV Moments in 1999, between the controversial programme Death on the Rock and the Gulf War.[67] The New York Times compared the scene to Marlon Brando shouting "Stella!" in his undershirt in A Streetcar Named Desire[68] and Firth's projects began alluding to it – screenwriter-director Richard Curtis added in-joke moments of Firth's characters falling into the water to Love Actually and Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason,[69] and Firth's character from the 2007 film St Trinian's emerges from a fountain in a soaking wet shirt before meeting up with an old love.[70] The creators of the 2008 ITV production Lost in Austen emulated the lake scene in their Pride and Prejudice through their contemporary heroine who cajoles Darcy into recreating the moment.[71]

text: Cheryl L. Nixon suggested in Jane Austen in Hollywood that Darcy's dive is a "revelation of his emotional capabilities", expressing a "Romantic bond with nature, a celebration of his home where he can 'strip down' to his essential self, a cleansing of social prejudices from his mind, or ... a rebirth of his love for Elizabeth".[72] Linda Troost and Sayre Greenfield wrote that the scene "tells us more about our current decade's obsession with physical perfection and acceptance of gratuitous nudity than it does about Austen's Darcy, but the image carves a new facet into the text".[73]

text: Bridget Jones[edit]

text: The fictional journalist Bridget Jones (in reality Helen Fielding of The Independent) wrote of her love of the serial in the paper's Bridget Jones's Diary column during the original British broadcast,[9] mentioning her "simple human need for Darcy to get off with Elizabeth" and regarding the couple as her "chosen representatives in the field of shagging, or rather courtship".[74] Fielding loosely reworked the plot of Pride And Prejudice in her 1996 novel of the column, naming Bridget's uptight love interest "Mark Darcy" and describing him exactly like Colin Firth.[9][75] Following a first meeting with Firth during his filming of Fever Pitch in 1996, Fielding asked Firth to collaborate in what would become a multi-page interview between Bridget Jones and Firth in her 1999 sequel novel, Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason. Conducting the real interview with Firth in Rome, Fielding lapsed into Bridget Jones mode and obsessed over Darcy in his wet shirt for the fictional interview. Firth participated in the editing of what critics called "one of the funniest sequences in the diary's sequel".[60][76] Both novels make various other references to the BBC serial.[77]

text: Andrew Davies collaborated on the screenplays for the 2001 and 2004 Bridget Jones films, in which Crispin Bonham-Carter (Mr. Bingley) and Lucy Robinson (Mrs. Hurst) appeared in minor roles. The self-referential in-joke between the projects convinced Colin Firth to accept the role of Mark Darcy,[9] as it gave him an opportunity to ridicule and liberate himself from his Pride and Prejudice character.[78] Film critic James Berardinelli would later state that Firth "plays this part [of Mark Darcy] exactly as he played the earlier role, making it evident that the two Darcys are essentially the same".[26] The producers never found a way to incorporate the Jones-Firth interview in the second film but shot a spoof interview with Firth as himself and Renée Zellweger staying in character as Bridget Jones after a day's wrap. The scene, which extended Bridget's Darcy obsession to cover Firth's lake scene in Love Actually, is available as a bonus feature on the DVD.[79]

text: Other adaptations[edit]

text: For almost a decade, the 1995 TV serial was considered "so dominant, so universally adored, [that] it has lingered in the public consciousness as a cinematic standard".[80] Comparing six Pride and Prejudice adaptations in 2005, the Daily Mirror gave 9/10 to the 1995 serial ("what may be the ultimate adaptation") and the 2005 film adaptation, leaving the other adaptations such as the 1940 film behind with six or fewer points.[63] The 2005 film was "obviously [not as] daring or revisionist" as the 1995 adaptation[81] but the youth of the film's leads, Keira Knightley and Matthew Macfadyen, was mentioned favourably over the 1995 cast, as Jennifer Ehle had formerly been "a little too 'heavy' for the role".[82] The president of the Jane Austen Society of North America noted in an otherwise positive review that the casting of the 2005 leads was "arguably a little more callow than Firth and Ehle" and that "Knightley is better looking than Lizzy should strictly be".[81] The critical reception of MacFadyen's Darcy, whose casting had proven difficult because "Colin Firth cast a very long shadow",[83] ranged from praise to pleasant surprise and dislike.[82][84] Several critics did not observe any significant impact of Macfadyen's Darcy in the following years. Garth Pearce of The Sunday Times noted in 2007 that "Colin Firth will forever be remembered as the perfect Mr. Darcy",[64] and Gene Seymour stated in a 2008 Newsday article that Firth was "'universally acknowledged' as the definitive Mr. Darcy".[85]


document_title: Dutch colonization of the Americas

question_text: who did the dutch government allow to settle in their colony

text: Dutch colonization of the Americas

text: Mainland In North America[edit]

text: In 1602, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands chartered a young and eager Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or "VOC") with the mission of exploring North America's Rivers and Bays for a direct passage through to the Indies.  Along the way, Dutch explorers were charged to claim any uncharted areas for the United Provinces, which led to several significant expeditions and, over time, Dutch explorers founded the province of New Netherland. By 1610, the VOC had already commissioned English explorer Henry Hudson who, in an attempt to find the so-called northwest passage to the Indies, discovered and claimed for the VOC parts of the present-day United States and Canada.  Hudson entered the Upper New York Bay by sailboat, heading up the Hudson River, which now bears his name.

text: On March 27, 1614, the States General would move away from traditional monopolistic endeavors and take a new and freer approach to exploration and commercial development of the New World; the issuance of the General Charter for Those who Discover Any New Passages, Havens, Countries, or Places stated that "the said undertaking to be laudable, honorable, and serviceable for the prosperity of the United Provinces and wishing that the experiment be free and open to all and every of the inhabitants of this country, have invited and do hereby invite all and every of the inhabitants of the United Netherlands to the aforesaid search."[1]

text: In 1614, Adriaen Block led an expedition to the lower Hudson River in the Tyger, and then explored the East River aboard the Onrust, becoming the first known European to navigate the Hellegat in order to gain access to Long Island Sound. Block Island and Block Island Sound are befittingly named in his honor. Upon his return to Amsterdam in 1614, Block compiled a map, and applied the name 'New Netherland' for the first time to the area between English Virginia and French Canada, where he was later granted exclusive trading rights by the Dutch government.  Block quickly ascended and became Manhattan's first monopolist.

text: After some early trading expeditions, the first Dutch settlement in the Americas was founded in 1615: Fort Nassau, on Castle Island along the Hudson, near present-day Albany. The settlement served mostly as an outpost for trading in fur with the native Lenape tribespeople, but was later replaced by Fort Orange. Both forts were named in honor of the House of Orange-Nassau.

text: By 1621, the United Provinces had charted a new company, a trading monopoly in the Americas and West Africa: the Dutch West India Company (Westindische Compagnie or WIC). The WIC sought recognition as founders of the New World – which they ultimately did as founders of a new Province in 1623, New Netherland.  That year, another Fort Nassau was built on the Delaware River near Gloucester City, New Jersey.

text: In 1624, the first  colonists, mostly Walloons and their slaves-bound servants, arrived to New Netherland by the shipload, landing at Governors Island and initially dispensed to Fort Orange, Fort Wilhelmus and Kievets Hoek. In 1626, Director of the WIC Peter Minuit purchased the island of Manhattan from the Lenape natives and started construction of Fort Amsterdam, which grew to become the main port and capital, New Amsterdam. The colony expanded to outlying areas at Pavonia,  Brooklyn, Bronx, and Long Island.

text: On the Connecticut River, Fort Huys de Goede Hoop was completed in 1633 at present day Hartford. By 1636, the English from Newtown (now Cambridge, Massachusetts) settled on the north side of the Little River. In the Treaty of Hartford, the border of New Netherland was retracted to western Connecticut and by 1653, the English had overtaken the Dutch trading post.

text: Expansion along the Delaware River beyond Fort Nassau did not begin until the 1650s, after the takeover of a Swedish colony, obviously called New Sweden which had been established at Fort Christina in 1638. Settlements at Fort Nassau and the short-lived Fort Beversreede were abandoned and consolidated at Fort Casimir.  By 1655 Fort Christina, sitting in what is today Wilmington, had already been renamed Fort Altena.

text: Not all inhabitants of New Netherlands, Manahattan's first European colonizers, were ethnically Dutch, but in reality came from many European countries.  Along with the large number of African native peoples—originally brought over bound by the shackles of slavehood—many New Netherlanders were Walloons, Huguenots, Germans, Scandinavian and English relocated from New England.[citation needed]

text: In 1664, an English naval expedition ordered by Prince James, Duke of York and of Albany (later King James II & VII) sailed in the harbor at New Amsterdam, threatening to attack. Being greatly outnumbered, Director-General Peter Stuyvesant surrendered after negotiating favorable articles of capitulation. The Province then took a new name, New York (from James's English title). Fort Orange was renamed Fort Albany (from James's Scottish title). The region between the lower Hudson and the Delaware was deeded to proprietors and called New Jersey.

text: The loss of New Netherland led to the Second Anglo–Dutch War during 1665–1667. This conflict ended with the Treaty of Breda, which stipulated that the Dutch give up their claim to New Netherlands in exchange for Suriname.

text: From 1673 to 1674, the territories were once again briefly captured by the Dutch in the Third Anglo–Dutch War, only to be returned to England at the Treaty of Westminster. In 1674, Dutch navy captain Jurriaen Aernoutsz also briefly captured two forts in the French colony of Acadia, which he claimed as Dutch territory the new colony of New Holland. However, Aernoutsz's appointed administrator, John Rhoades, quickly lost control of the territory after Aernoutsz himself left for Curaçao to seek out new settlers, and with effective control of Acadia remaining in the hands of France, Dutch sovereignty existed only on paper until the Netherlands surrendered their claim in the Treaties of Nijmegen.

text: Caribbean Sea[edit]

text: Netherlands (Dutch) Antilles[edit]

text: Dutch colonization in the Caribbean started in the 1634 on St. Croix and Tobago (1628), followed in 1631 with settlements on Tortuga (now Île Tortue) and Sint Maarten. When the Dutch lost Sint Maarten (and Anguilla where they had built a fort shortly after arriving in Sint Maarten) to the Spanish, they settled Curaçao and Sint Eustatius. They regained half of Sint Maarten in 1648, from then on sharing the island with France. The border between the two portions of the island continued to be modified periodically, before being set for good in 1816

text:
Sint Maarten in 1618
Bonaire in 1634
Curaçao in 1634
Sint Eustatius in 1636
Aruba in 1637
Saba in 1640
Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Jost van Dyke before 1640

text: Until deep into the 19th century, the now Venezuelan islands of Aves, the Aves archipelago, Los Roques and La Orchila were also considered by the Dutch government to be part of the Dutch West Indies.

text: The Netherlands Antilles remained an overseas territory of the Netherlands. It was granted self-rule in 1954. In 1986, Aruba was granted autonomy, separately from the other islands. On October 10, 2010, the Netherlands Antilles was dismantled. Like Aruba, the islands Curaçao and Sint Maarten became constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius became special municipalities of the Netherlands.

text: Tobago[edit]

text: The Netherlands made numerous attempts to colonize Tobago (Nieuw-Walcheren) in the 17th century. Each time, the settlements were destroyed by rival European powers. Dutch settlements on Tobago:[2]

text:
1628 – 1 Jan 1637: Fort Vlissingen; massacred by the Spanish
Sept 1654 – Jan 1666: Forts Lampsinsberg, Beveren, and Bellavista; conquered by British, destroyed by French
1667 – 18 Dec 1672: Nieuw-Vlissingen; destroyed by British
1 Sept 1676 – 6 Dec 1677: Fort Sterreschans; destroyed by French

text: Virgin Islands[edit]

text: As a group, the islands are known as the Maagdeneilanden in Dutch. The Dutch established a base on St. Croix (Sint-Kruis) in 1625, the same year that the British did. French Protestants joined the Dutch but conflict with the British colony led to its abandonment before 1650. The Dutch established a settlement on Tortola (Ter Tholen) before 1640 and later on Anegada, Saint Thomas (Sint-Thomas) and Virgin Gorda. The British took Tortola in 1672 and Anegada and Virgin Gorda in 1680.

text: South America[edit]

text: Brazil[edit]

text: From 1630 onward, the Dutch Republic gained control of a large portion of northeastern Brazil from the Portuguese. The Dutch West India Company set up their headquarters in Recife. The governor, Johan Maurits, invited artists and scientists in order to help promote migration to the new South-American colony. However, the Portuguese fought back and won a significant victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649. On 26 January 1654, the Dutch Republic surrendered and signed a capitulation returning control of all the northeastern Brazil colony to the Portuguese. After the end of the First Anglo-Dutch War in May 1654, the Dutch Republic demanded that Nieuw Holland (Dutch Brazil) be returned to Dutch control. Under threat of an occupation of Lisbon and a reoccupation of northeastern Brazil, the Portuguese, already involved in a war against Spain, acceded to the Dutch demand. However, the new Dutch political leader Johan de Witt deemed commerce more important than territory, and saw to it that New Holland was sold back to Portugal on August 6, 1661, through the Treaty of the Hague.[3]

text: After the devastation caused by World War II, the Dutch government stimulated emigration to Australia, Brazil, and Canada. Brazil was the only nation to allow the arrival of large groups of Catholics. With the consent of the Brazilian government, the Catholic Dutch Farmers and Market-gardeners Union (Dutch: Katholieke Nederlandse Boeren- en Tuindersbond) coordinated the emigration process. A group of approximately 5000 migrants from the province of North Brabant arrived in Brazil, establishing their first colony at the farm of Fazenda Ribeirão in the state of São Paulo. Holambra I was founded in 14 July 1948. After a referendum in 1991 where 98 % of the population voted in favor of political autonomy for the area, Holambra gained city status in January 1993.

text: Famous for its large production of flowers and plants and for the yearly event Expoflora, Holambra receives thousands of tourists each year. In April 1998 this fact was recognized as Holambra gained the status of Estância Turística, touristic location. Further immigration from the Netherlands, ended up creating the cities in Brazil where the majority of the population descends from these Dutch immigrants. These cities are Holambra, Castrolanda, Carambei, Não me Toque, Witmarsum (where most of the population are descendent of Dutch Frisian immigrants), Arapoti and Campos de Holambra.

text: Chile[edit]

text: In 1600, the Chilean city of Valdivia was conquered by the Dutch pirate Sebastian de Cordes.[4] He left the city after a few months. In 1642, the VOC and WIC sent a fleet to Chile to conquer Valdivia and its supposed gold mines. This expedition was led by Hendrik Brouwer, a Dutch admiral. In 1643, Brouwer died before effecting the conquest of the Chiloé Archipelago; his lieutenant Elias Herckmans succeeded in capturing the ruins of the city, which he refortified and named Brouwershaven.[5][6] Finding no gold but many hostile natives, the Dutch soon abandoned the outpost.

text: The second emigration from the Netherlands to Chile was in 1895. Under the so-called "Inspector General of Colonization and Immigration Chilean", a dozen Dutch families settled between 1895 and 1897 in Chiloé, particularly in Mechaico, Huillinco and Chacao. In the same period Hageman Egbert arrived in Chile.[7] with his family, 14 April 1896, settling in Rio Gato, near Puerto Montt. In addition, family Wennekool which inaugurated the Dutch colonization of Villarrica.[8]

text: In the early twentieth century, there arrived in Chile a large group of Dutch people from South Africa, which had been established where they worked mainly in construction of the railway. When the Boer War, which would eventually lead to the British annexation of both republics in 1902. These emigrants decided to emigrate to Chile with the help of the Chilean government.

text: On 4 May 1903, a group of over 200 Dutch emigrants sailed on the steamship "Oropesa" shipping company "Pacific Steam Navigation Company, from La Rochelle (La Pallice) in France. The majority of migrants were born in the Netherlands: 35% was from North Holland and South Holland, 13% of North Brabant, 9% of Zeeland and equal number of Gelderland.

text: On June 5, arrived by train to their final destination, the city of Pitrufquén, located south of Temuco, near the hamlet of Donguil. Another group of Dutchmen arrived shortly after to Talcahuano, in the "Oravi" and the "Orissa". The Netherlands colony in Donguil was christened "New Transvaal Colony. There were established more than 500 families in order to start a new life. Between 7 February 1907 and February 18, 1909 above the last group of families Boers.

text: It is currently estimated at about 50,000 descendants of Dutch, mostly located in Malleco, Gorbea, Pitrufquén, Faja Maisan and around Temuco and Osorno.[9][10]

text: Guyanas[edit]

text: The Dutch West Indian Company built a fort in 1616 on the Essequibo River. The Dutch traded with the Indian peoples and, as in Suriname, established sugar plantations worked by African slaves. While the coast remained under Dutch control, the English established plantations west of the Suriname River. Conflict between the two countries meant parts of the region changed hands a number of times, but by 1796 Britain had control of the region. The Netherlands ceded the colonies of Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice to Britain in 1814.

text: The colony in Suriname had originally been founded in the 1650s by Lord Francis Willoughby, the British governor of Barbados. It was captured by the Dutch under Abraham Crijnsen during the Second Anglo–Dutch War. On July 31, 1667, under the Treaty of Breda the Dutch offered New Netherland (including New Amsterdam, modern-day New York City) in exchange for their sugar factories on the coast of Suriname. In 1683 Suriname was sold to the Dutch West India Company. The colony developed an agricultural economy based on African slavery.  England controlled Suriname during the Napoleonic Wars from 1799 until 1816, when it was returned to the Dutch. The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863 and later imported indentured labor from the British Raj and the Dutch East Indies to keep the economy going. Internal self governance was granted in 1954 and full independence in 1975. The prospect of independence prompted many to migrate to the Netherlands. Political instability and economic decline after independence resulted in even more migration to the Netherlands. The Surinamese community in the Netherlands is now almost as large as half of the population in the country itself (about 350,000).