document_title: Trans fat

question_text: how does one convert poly-unsaturated fats into saturated fat

question_tokens: how does one convert poly-unsaturated fats into saturated fat

text: Trans fat

text: History[edit]

text: Nobel laureate Paul Sabatier worked in the late 1890s to develop the chemistry of hydrogenation, which enabled the margarine, oil hydrogenation, and synthetic methanol industries.[20] Whereas Sabatier considered hydrogenation of only vapors, the German chemist Wilhelm Normann showed in 1901 that liquid oils could be hydrogenated, and patented the process in 1902.[21][22][23] During the years 1905–1910, Normann built a fat-hardening facility in the Herford company. At the same time, the invention was extended to a large-scale plant in Warrington, England, at Joseph Crosfield & Sons, Limited. It took only two years until the hardened fat could be successfully produced in the plant in Warrington, commencing production in the autumn of 1909. The initial year's production totalled nearly 3,000 tonnes.[24] In 1909, Procter & Gamble acquired the United States rights to the Normann patent;[25] in 1911, they began marketing the first hydrogenated shortening, Crisco (composed largely of partially hydrogenated cottonseed oil). Further success came from the marketing technique of giving away free cookbooks in which every recipe called for Crisco.

text: Normann's hydrogenation process made it possible to stabilize affordable whale oil or fish oil for human consumption, a practice kept secret to avoid consumer distaste.[24]

text: Prior to 1910,[where?] dietary fats consisted primarily of butterfat, beef tallow, and lard. During Napoleon's reign in France in the early 19th century, a type of margarine was invented to feed the troops using tallow and buttermilk; it did not gain acceptance in the United States. In the early 20th century, soybeans began to be imported into the United States as a source of protein; soybean oil was a by-product. What to do with that oil became an issue. At the same time, there was not enough butterfat available for consumers. The method of hydrogenating fat and turning a liquid fat into a solid one had been discovered, and now the ingredients (soybeans) and the "need" (shortage of butter) were there. Later, the means for storage, the refrigerator, was a factor in trans fat development. The fat industry found that hydrogenated fats provided some special features to margarines, which allowed margarine, unlike butter, to be taken out of the refrigerator and immediately spread on bread. By some minor changes to the chemical composition of hydrogenated fat, such hydrogenated fat was found to provide superior baking properties compared to lard. Margarine made from hydrogenated soybean oil began to replace butterfat. Hydrogenated fat such as Crisco and Spry, sold in England, began to replace butter and lard in the baking of bread, pies, cookies, and cakes in 1920.[26]

text: Production of hydrogenated fats increased steadily until the 1960s, as processed vegetable fats replaced animal fats in the United States and other Western countries. At first, the argument was a financial one due to lower costs; advocates also said that the unsaturated trans fats of margarine were healthier than the saturated fats of butter.[27]

text: As early as 1956 there were suggestions in the scientific literature that trans fats could be a cause of the large increase in coronary artery disease but after three decades the concerns were still largely unaddressed.[27][28] In fact, by the 1980s, fats of animal origin had become one of the greatest concerns of dieticians. Activists, such as Phil Sokolof, who took out full page ads in major newspapers, attacked the use of beef tallow in McDonald's french fries and urged fast-food companies to switch to vegetable oils. The result was an almost overnight switch by most fast-food outlets to switch to trans fats.

text: Studies in the early 1990s, however, brought renewed scrutiny and confirmation of the negative health impact of trans fats. In 1994, it was estimated that trans fats caused 20,000 deaths annually in the United States from heart disease.[29]

text: Mandatory food labeling for trans fats was introduced in several countries.[30] Campaigns were launched by activists to bring attention to the issue and change the practices of food manufacturers.[31] In January 2007, faced with the prospect of an outright ban on the sale of their product, Crisco was reformulated to meet the United States Food and Drug Administration definition of "zero grams trans fats per serving" (that is less than one gram per tablespoon, or up to 7% by weight; or less than 0.5 grams per serving size)[32][33][34][35] by boosting the saturation and then diluting the resulting solid fat with unsaturated vegetable oils.

text: A University of Guelph research group has found a way to mix oils (such as olive, soybean, and canola), water, monoglycerides, and fatty acids to form a "cooking fat" that acts the same way as trans and saturated fats.[36][37]

text: Chemistry[edit]

text: In chemical terms, trans fat is a fat (lipid) molecule that contains one or more double bonds in trans geometric configuration.

text: A double bond may exhibit one of two possible configurations: trans or cis. In trans configuration, the carbon chain extends from opposite sides of the double bond, whereas, in cis configuration, the carbon chain extends from the same side of the double bond. The trans molecule is a straighter molecule. The cis molecule is bent.[38]

text:
Trans (Elaidic acid)
Cis (Oleic acid)
Saturated (Stearic acid)

Elaidic acid is the principal trans unsaturated fatty acid often found in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils.[39]
Oleic acid is a cis unsaturated fatty acid making up 55–80% of olive oil.[40]
Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid found in animal fats and is the intended product in full hydrogenation. Stearic acid is neither cis nor trans because it has no carbon-carbon double bonds.

These fatty acids are geometric isomers (structurally identical except for the arrangement of the double bond).
This fatty acid contains no carbon-carbon double bonds and is not isomeric with the previous two.

text: A fatty acid is characterized as either saturated or unsaturated based on the presence of double bonds in its structure. If the molecule contains no double bonds, it is said to be saturated; otherwise, it is unsaturated to some degree.[41][42]

text: Only unsaturated fats can be trans or cis fat, since only a double bond can be locked to these orientations. Saturated fatty acids are never called trans fats because they have no double bonds. Therefore, all their bonds are freely rotatable. Other types of fatty acids, such as crepenynic acid, which contains a triple bond, are rare and of no nutritional significance.[citation needed]

text: Carbon atoms are tetravalent, forming four covalent bonds with other atoms, whereas hydrogen atoms bond with only one other atom. In saturated fatty acids, each carbon atom (besides the last) is connected to its two neighbour carbon atoms as well as two hydrogen atoms. In unsaturated fatty acids, the carbon atoms that are missing a hydrogen atom are joined by double bonds rather than single bonds so that each carbon atom participates in four bonds.

text: Hydrogenation of an unsaturated fatty acid refers to the addition of hydrogen atoms to the acid, causing double bonds to become single ones, as carbon atoms acquire new hydrogen partners (to maintain four bonds per carbon atom). Full hydrogenation results in a molecule containing the maximum amount of hydrogen (in other words, the conversion of an unsaturated fatty acid into a saturated one). Partial hydrogenation results in the addition of hydrogen atoms at some of the empty positions, with a corresponding reduction in the number of double bonds. Typical commercial hydrogenation is partial in order to obtain a malleable mixture of fats that is solid at room temperature, but melts upon baking (or consumption).

text: In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bonds of the carbon chain (cis configuration — from the Latin, meaning "on the same side"). However, partial hydrogenation reconfigures most of the double bonds that do not become chemically saturated, twisting them so that the hydrogen atoms end up on different sides of the chain. This type of configuration is called trans, from the Latin, meaning "across".[43] The trans configuration is the lower energy form, and is favored when catalytically equilibrated as a side reaction in hydrogenation.

text: The same molecule, containing the same number of atoms, with a double bond in the same location, can be either a trans or a cis fatty acid depending on the configuration of the double bond. For example, oleic acid and elaidic acid are both unsaturated fatty acids with the chemical formula C9H17C9H17O2.[44] They both have a double bond located midway along the carbon chain. It is the configuration of this bond that sets them apart. The configuration has implications for the physical-chemical properties of the molecule. The trans configuration is straighter, while the cis configuration is noticeably kinked as can be seen from the three-dimensional representation shown above.

text: The trans fatty acid elaidic acid has different chemical and physical properties, owing to the slightly different bond configuration. It has a much higher melting point, 45 °C, than oleic acid, 13.4 °C, due to the ability of the trans molecules to pack more tightly, forming a solid that is more difficult to break apart.[44] This notably means that it is a solid at human body temperatures.

text: In food production, the goal is not to simply change the configuration of double bonds while maintaining the same ratios of hydrogen to carbon. Instead, the goal is to decrease the number of double bonds and increase the amount of hydrogen in the fatty acid. This changes the consistency of the fatty acid and makes it less prone to rancidity (in which free radicals attack double bonds). Production of trans fatty acids is therefore an undesirable side effect of partial hydrogenation.

text: Catalytic partial hydrogenation necessarily produces trans-fats, because of the reaction mechanism. In the first reaction step, one hydrogen is added, with the other, coordinatively unsaturated, carbon being attached to the catalyst. The second step is the addition of hydrogen to the remaining carbon, producing a saturated fatty acid. The first step is reversible, such that the hydrogen is readsorbed on the catalyst and the double bond is re-formed. The intermediate with only one hydrogen added contains no double bond and can freely rotate. Thus, the double bond can re-form as either cis or trans, of which trans is favored, regardless the starting material. Complete hydrogenation also hydrogenates any produced trans fats to give saturated fats.

text: Researchers at the United States Department of Agriculture have investigated whether hydrogenation can be achieved without the side effect of trans fat production. They varied the pressure under which the chemical reaction was conducted — applying 1400 kPa (200 psi) of pressure to soybean oil in a 2-liter vessel while heating it to between 140 °C and 170 °C. The standard 140 kPa (20 psi) process of hydrogenation produces a product of about 40% trans fatty acid by weight, compared to about 17% using the high-pressure method. Blended with unhydrogenated liquid soybean oil, the high-pressure-processed oil produced margarine containing 5 to 6% trans fat. Based on current U.S. labeling requirements (see below), the manufacturer could claim the product was free of trans fat.[45] The level of trans fat may also be altered by modification of the temperature and the length of time during hydrogenation.

text: Trans fat levels may be measured. Measurement techniques include chromatography (by silver ion chromatography on thin layer chromatography plates, or small high-performance liquid chromatography columns of silica gel with bonded phenylsulfonic acid groups whose hydrogen atoms have been exchanged for silver ions). The role of silver lies in its ability to form complexes with unsaturated compounds. Gas chromatography and mid-infrared spectroscopy are other methods in use.

text: Presence in food[edit]

text:
Trans fat contents in various foods, ranked in g per 100 g[46]

food type
trans fat content

shortenings
10 to 33 g

margarine/spreads
0.2[47] to 26 g

butter
2 to 7 g

whole milk
0.07 to 0.1 g

breads/cake products
0.1 to 10 g

cookies and crackers
1 to 8 g

salty snacks
0 to 4 g

cake frostings and sweets
0.1 to 7 g

animal fat
0 to 5 g[18]

ground beef
1 g

text: A type of trans fat occurs naturally in the milk and body fat of ruminants (such as cattle and sheep) at a level of 2–5% of total fat.[18] Natural trans fats, which include conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and vaccenic acid, originate in the rumen of these animals. CLA has two double bonds, one in the cis configuration and one in trans, which makes it simultaneously a cis- and a trans-fatty acid.[citation needed]

text: Animal-based fats were once the only trans fats consumed, but by far the largest amount of trans fat consumed today is created by the processed food industry as a side effect of partially hydrogenating unsaturated plant fats (generally vegetable oils). These partially hydrogenated fats have displaced natural solid fats and liquid oils in many areas, the most notable ones being in the fast food, snack food, fried food, and baked goods industries.[48]

text: Partially hydrogenated oils have been used in food for many reasons. Hydrogenation increases product shelf life and decreases refrigeration requirements. Many baked foods require semi-solid fats to suspend solids at room temperature; partially hydrogenated oils have the right consistency to replace animal fats such as butter and lard at lower cost. They are also an inexpensive alternative to other semi-solid oils such as palm oil.[citation needed]

text: Up to 45% of the total fat in those foods containing artificial trans fats formed by partially hydrogenating plant fats may be trans fat.[18] Baking shortenings, unless reformulated, contain around 30% trans fats compared to their total fats. High-fat dairy products such as butter contain about 4%. Margarines not reformulated to reduce trans fats may contain up to 15% trans fat by weight,[49] but some reformulated ones are less than 1% trans fat.

text: It has been established that trans fats in human milk fluctuate with maternal consumption of trans fat, and that the amount of trans fats in the bloodstream of breastfed infants fluctuates with the amounts found in their milk. In 1999, reported percentages of trans fats (compared to total fats) in human milk ranged from 1% in Spain, 2% in France, 4% in Germany, and 7% in Canada and the United States.[50]

text: Trans fats are used in shortenings for deep-frying in restaurants, as they can be used for longer than most conventional oils before becoming rancid. In the early 21st century, non-hydrogenated vegetable oils that have lifespans exceeding that of the frying shortenings became available.[51] As fast-food chains routinely use different fats in different locations, trans fat levels in fast food can have large variations. For example, an analysis of samples of McDonald's French fries collected in 2004 and 2005 found that fries served in New York City contained twice as much trans fat as in Hungary, and 28 times as much as in Denmark, where trans fats are restricted. At KFC, the pattern was reversed, with Hungary's product containing twice the trans fat of the New York product. Even within the United States there was variation, with fries in New York containing 30% more trans fat than those from Atlanta.[52]

text: Nutritional guidelines[edit]

text: The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) advises the United States and Canadian governments on nutritional science for use in public policy and product labeling programs. Their 2002 Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids[53] contains their findings and recommendations regarding consumption of trans fat (summary).

text: Their recommendations are based on two key facts. First, "trans fatty acids are not essential and provide no known benefit to human health",[5] whether of animal or plant origin.[54] Second, while both saturated and trans fats increase levels of LDL, trans fats also lower levels of HDL;[55] thus increasing the risk of coronary artery disease. The NAS is concerned "that dietary trans fatty acids are more deleterious with respect to coronary artery disease than saturated fatty acids".[55] This analysis is supported by a 2006 New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) scientific review that states "from a nutritional standpoint, the consumption of trans fatty acids results in considerable potential harm but no apparent benefit."[56]

text: Because of these facts and concerns, the NAS has concluded there is no safe level of trans fat consumption. There is no adequate level, recommended daily amount or tolerable upper limit for trans fats. This is because any incremental increase in trans fat intake increases the risk of coronary artery disease.[55]

text: Despite this concern, the NAS dietary recommendations have not recommended the elimination of trans fat from the diet. This is because trans fat is naturally present in many animal foods in trace quantities, and therefore its removal from ordinary diets might introduce undesirable side effects and nutritional imbalances if proper nutritional planning is not undertaken. The NAS has, therefore, "recommended that trans fatty acid consumption be as low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet".[57] Like the NAS, the World Health Organization has tried to balance public health goals with a practical level of trans fat consumption, recommending in 2003 that trans fats be limited to less than 1% of overall energy intake.[18]

text: The US National Dairy Council has asserted that the trans fats present in animal foods are of a different type than those in partially hydrogenated oils, and do not appear to exhibit the same negative effects.[58] While a recent scientific review agrees with the conclusion (stating that "the sum of the current evidence suggests that the Public health implications of consuming trans fats from ruminant products are relatively limited"), it cautions that this may be due to the low consumption of trans fats from animal sources compared to artificial ones.[56]

text: More recent inquiry (independent of the dairy industry) has found in a 2008 Dutch meta-analysis that all trans fats, regardless of natural or artificial origin equally raise LDL and lower HDL levels.[59] Other studies though have shown different results when it comes to animal based trans fats like conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Although CLA is known for its anticancer properties, researchers have also found that the cis-9, trans-11 form of CLA can reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and help fight inflammation.[60][61]

text: Health risks[edit]

text: Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils have been an increasingly significant part of the human diet for about 100 years (in particular, since the later half of the 20th century and where more processed foods are consumed),[62] and some deleterious effects of trans fat consumption are scientifically accepted, forming the basis of the health guidelines discussed above.

text: The exact biochemical process by which trans fats produce specific health problems are a topic of continuing research. One theory is that the human lipase enzyme works only on the cis configuration and cannot metabolize a trans fat although this theory has been overturned by the recognition that trans fat is metabolized but competitively inhibits the metabolism of other fatty acids.[63] Intake of dietary trans fat perturbs the body's ability to metabolize essential fatty acids (EFAs including Omega 3) leading to changes in the phospholipid fatty acid composition in the aorta, the main artery of the heart, thereby increasing risk of coronary artery disease.[64]

text: While the mechanisms through which trans fats contribute to coronary artery disease are fairly well understood, the mechanism for trans fat's effect on diabetes is still under investigation. Trans fatty acids may impair the metabolism of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs),[65] but maternal pregnancy trans fatty acid intake has been inversely associated with LCPUFAs levels in infants at birth thought to underlie the positive association between breastfeeding and intelligence.[66]

text: High intake of trans fatty acids can lead to many health problems throughout one's life.[67] Trans fat is abundant in fast food restaurants.[62] It is consumed in greater quantities by people who do not have access to a diet consisting of fewer hydrogenated fats, or who often consume fast food. A diet high in trans fats can contribute to obesity, high blood pressure, and a greater risk for heart disease[citation needed]. Trans fat has also been implicated in the development of Type 2 diabetes.[68]

text: Coronary artery disease[edit]

text: The primary health risk identified for trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of coronary artery disease (CHD).[69] A 1994 study estimated that over 30,000 cardiac deaths per year in the United States are attributable to the consumption of trans fats.[29] By 2006 upper estimates of 100,000 deaths were suggested.[70] A comprehensive review of studies of trans fats published in 2006 in the New England Journal of Medicine reports a strong and reliable connection between trans fat consumption and CHD, concluding that "On a per-calorie basis, trans fats appear to increase the risk of CHD more than any other macronutrient, conferring a substantially increased risk at low levels of consumption (1 to 3% of total energy intake)".[56][71]

text: The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the Nurses' Health Study — a cohort study that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's population during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled (relative risk of 1.93, CI: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (relative risk of 1.17, CI: 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates."[72] Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of food energy from trans fat with non-trans unsaturated fats more than halves the risk of CHD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.[72]

text: Another study considered deaths due to CHD, with consumption of trans fats being linked to an increase in mortality, and consumption of polyunsaturated fats being linked to a decrease in mortality.[69][73]

text: There are two accepted tests that measure an individual's risk for coronary artery disease, both blood tests. The first considers ratios of two types of cholesterol, the other the amount of a cell-signalling cytokine called C-reactive protein. The ratio test is more accepted, while the cytokine test may be more powerful but is still being studied.[69] The effect of trans fat consumption has been documented on each as follows:

text:
Cholesterol ratio: This ratio compares the levels of LDL to HDL. Trans fat behaves like saturated fat by raising the level of LDL, but, unlike saturated fat, it has the additional effect of decreasing levels of HDL. The net increase in LDL/HDL ratio with trans fat is approximately double that due to saturated fat.[74][75][76] (Higher ratios are worse.) One randomized crossover study published in 2003 comparing the effect of eating a meal on blood lipids of (relatively) cis and trans fat rich meals showed that cholesteryl ester transfer (CET) was 28% higher after the trans meal than after the cis meal and that lipoprotein concentrations were enriched in apolipoprotein(a) after the trans meals.[77]
C-reactive protein (CRP): A study of over 700 nurses showed that those in the highest quartile of trans fat consumption had blood levels of CRP that were 73% higher than those in the lowest quartile.[78]

text: Other health risks[edit]

text: There are suggestions that the negative consequences of trans fat consumption go beyond the cardiovascular risk. In general, there is much less scientific consensus asserting that eating trans fat specifically increases the risk of other chronic health problems:

text:
Alzheimer's Disease: A study published in Archives of Neurology in February 2003 suggested that the intake of both trans fats and saturated fats promote the development of Alzheimer disease,[79] although not confirmed in an animal model.[80] It has been found that trans fats impaired memory and learning in middle-age rats. The trans-fat eating rats' brains had fewer proteins critical to healthy neurological function. Inflammation in and around the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for learning and memory. These are the exact types of changes normally seen at the onset of Alzheimer's, but seen after six weeks, even though the rats were still young.[81]
Cancer: There is no scientific consensus that consumption of trans fats significantly increases cancer risks across the board.[69] The American Cancer Society states that a relationship between trans fats and cancer "has not been determined."[82] One study has found a positive connection between trans fat and prostate cancer.[83] However, a larger study found a correlation between trans fats and a significant decrease in high-grade prostate cancer.[84] An increased intake of trans fatty acids may raise the risk of breast cancer by 75%, suggest the results from the French part of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.[85][86]
Diabetes: There is a growing concern that the risk of type 2 diabetes increases with trans fat consumption.[69] However, consensus has not been reached.[56] For example, one study found that risk is higher for those in the highest quartile of trans fat consumption.[87] Another study has found no diabetes risk once other factors such as total fat intake and BMI were accounted for.[88]
Obesity: Research indicates that trans fat may increase weight gain and abdominal fat, despite a similar caloric intake.[89] A 6-year experiment revealed that monkeys fed a trans fat diet gained 7.2% of their body weight, as compared to 1.8% for monkeys on a mono-unsaturated fat diet.[90][91] Although obesity is frequently linked to trans fat in the popular media,[92] this is generally in the context of eating too many calories; there is not a strong scientific consensus connecting trans fat and obesity, although the 6-year experiment did find such a link, concluding that "under controlled feeding conditions, long-term TFA consumption was an independent factor in weight gain. TFAs enhanced intra-abdominal deposition of fat, even in the absence of caloric excess, and were associated with insulin resistance, with evidence that there is impaired post-insulin receptor binding signal transduction."[91]
Liver dysfunction: Trans fats are metabolized differently by the liver than other fats and interfere with delta 6 desaturase. Delta 6 desaturase is an enzyme involved in converting essential fatty acids to arachidonic acid and prostaglandins, both of which are important to the functioning of cells.[93]
Infertility in women: One 2007 study found, "Each 2% increase in the intake of energy from trans unsaturated fats, as opposed to that from carbohydrates, was associated with a 73% greater risk of ovulatory infertility...".[94]
Major depressive disorder: Spanish researchers analysed the diets of 12,059 people over six years and found those who ate the most trans fats had a 48 per cent higher risk of depression than those who did not eat trans fats.[95] One mechanism may be trans-fats' substitution for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Very high intake of trans-fatty acids (43% of total fat) in mice from 2 to 16 months of age was associated with lowered DHA levels in the brain (p=0.001).[80] When the brains of 15 major depressive subjects who had committed suicide were examined post-mortem and compared against 27 age-matched controls, the suicidal brains were found to have 16% less (male average) to 32% less (female average) DHA in the OFC. The OFC controls reward, reward expectation, and empathy (all of which are reduced in depressive mood disorders) and regulates the limbic system.[96]
Behavioral irritability and aggression: a 2012 observational analysis of subjects of an earlier study found a strong relation between dietary trans fat acids and self-reported behavioral aggression and irritability, suggesting but not establishing causality.[97]
Diminished memory: In a 2015 article, researchers re-analyzing results from the 1999-2005 UCSD Statin Study argue that "greater dietary trans fatty acid consumption is linked to worse word memory in adults during years of high productivity, adults age <45".[98]

text: Public response and regulation[edit]

text: International[edit]

text: The international trade in food is standardized in the Codex Alimentarius. Hydrogenated oils and fats come under the scope of Codex Stan 19.[99] Non-dairy fat spreads are covered by Codex Stan 256-2007.[100] In the Codex Alimentarius, trans fat to be labelled as such is defined as the geometrical isomers of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids having non-conjugated [interrupted by at least one methylene group (−CH2−)] carbon-carbon double bonds in the trans configuration. This definition excludes specifically the trans fats (vaccenic acid and conjugated linoleic acid) that are present especially in human milk, dairy products, and beef.[citation needed]

text: Argentina[edit]

text: Since August 2006 food products should be labelled with the amount of trans fat in them.[101] Since 2010 vegetable oils and fats directly sold to consumers must only contain 2% of trans fat over total fat, and other food must contain less than 5% of their total fat.[102] Starting on 10 December 2014, Argentina has on effect a total ban on food with trans fat, a move that could save the government more than US$100 million a year on healthcare.[103]

text: Australia[edit]

text: The Australian federal government has indicated that it wants to pursue actively a policy of reducing trans fats from fast foods. The former federal assistant health minister, Christopher Pyne, asked fast food outlets to reduce their trans fat usage. A draft plan was proposed, with a September 2007 timetable, in order to reduce reliance on trans fats and saturated fats.[104]

text: Currently, Australia's food labeling laws do not require trans fats to be shown separately from the total fat content. However, margarine in Australia has been mostly free of trans fat since 1996.[105]

text: Austria[edit]

text: Trans fat content limited to 4% of total fat, 2% on products that contain more than 20% fat.[106]

text: Belgium[edit]

text: The Conseil Supérieur de la Santé has published in 2012 a science-policy advisory report on industrially produced trans fatty acids that focuses on the general population. Its recommendation to the legislator was to prohibit more than 2 g of trans fatty acids / 100 g of fat in food products.[107]

text: Brazil[edit]

text: Resolution 360 of 23 December 2003 by the Brazilian ministry of health required for the first time in the country that the amount of trans fat to be specified in labels of food products. On 31 July 2006, such labelling of trans fat contents became mandatory. In 2007 the ministry established a target to reduce the total amount of trans fat in any industrialized food sold in Brazil to a maximum of 2% by the end of 2010.[citation needed]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In November 2004, an opposition day motion seeking a ban similar to Denmark's was introduced by Jack Layton of the New Democratic Party, and passed through the House of Commons by an overwhelming 193–73 vote.[108] Like all Commons motions, it served as an expression of the views of the House but was not binding on the government and has no force under the law.

text: Since December 2005, Health Canada has required that food labels list the amount of trans fat in the nutrition facts section for most foods. Products with less than 0.2 grams of trans fat per serving may be labeled as free of trans fats.[109] These labelling allowances are not widely known, but as an awareness of them develops, controversy over truthful labelling is growing. In Canada, trans fat quantities on labels include naturally occurring trans fats from animal sources.[110]

text: In June 2006, a task force co-chaired by Health Canada and the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada recommended a limit of 5% trans fat (of total fat) in all products sold to consumers in Canada (2% for tub margarines and spreads).[18] The amount was selected such that "most of the industrially produced trans fats would be removed from the Canadian diet, and about half of the remaining trans fat intake would be of naturally occurring trans fats". This recommendation has been endorsed by the Canadian Restaurant and Foodservices Association[111] and Food & Consumer Products of Canada has congratulated the task force on the report,[112] although it did not recommend delaying implementation to 2010 as they had previously advocated.[113]

text: Ten months after submitting their report the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada and Toronto Public Health issued a plea to the government of Canada: "to act immediately on the task force's recommendations and to eliminate harmful trans fat from Canada's food supply."[114]

text: On 20 June 2007, the federal government announced its intention to regulate trans fats to the June 2006 standard unless the food industry voluntarily complied with these limits within two years.[115][116]

text: On 1 January 2008, Calgary became the first city in Canada to reduce trans fats from restaurants and fast food chains. Trans fats present in cooking oils may not exceed 2% of the total fat content.[117] However, the replacement of local health regions with the Alberta Health Services Board in 2009 has temporarily eliminated all enforcement of the law.[118]

text: Effective 30 September 2009, British Columbia became the first province in Canada to mandate the June 2006 recommendation in provincially regulated food services establishments.[119][120]

text: On 15 September 2017, Health Canada announced that trans fat will be completely banned effective on 15 September 2018.[121]

text: Public perception[edit]

text: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Regina, Saskatchewan in February 2009 at 3 different grocery stores located in 3 different regions that had the same median income before taxes of around $30,000. Of the 211 respondents to the study, most were women who purchased most of the food for their household. When asked how they decide what food to buy, the most important factors were price, nutritional value, and need. When looking at the nutritional facts, however, they indicated that they looked at the ingredients, and neglected to pay attention to the amount of trans fat. This means that trans fat is not on their minds unless they are specifically told of it. When asked if they ever heard about trans fat, 98% said, "Yes." However, only 27% said that it was unhealthy. Also, 79% said that they only knew a little about trans fats, and could have been more educated. Respondents aged 41–60 were more likely to view trans fat as a major health concern, compared to ages 18–40. When asked if they would stop buying their favorite snacks if they knew it contained trans fat, most said they would continue purchasing it, especially the younger respondents. Also, of the respondents that called trans fat a major concern, 56% of them still wouldn't change their diet to non-trans fat snacks. This is because taste and food gratification take precedence over perceived risk to health. "The consumption of trans fats and the associated increased risk of CHD is a public health concern regardless of age and socioeconomic status".[122]

text: Denmark[edit]

text: Denmark became the first country to introduce laws strictly regulating the sale of many foods containing trans fats[123] in March 2003, a move that effectively bans partially hydrogenated oils. The limit is 2% of fats and oils destined for human consumption. This restriction is on the ingredients rather than the final products. This regulatory approach has made Denmark the only country in which it is possible to eat "far less" than 1 g of industrially produced trans fats daily, even with a diet including prepared foods.[124] It is hypothesized that the Danish government's efforts to decrease trans fat intake from 6 g to 1 g per day over 20 years is related to a 50% decrease in deaths from ischemic heart disease.[125]

text: European Union[edit]

text: In 2004, the European Food Safety Authority produced a scientific opinion on trans fatty acids, surmising that "higher intakes of TFA may increase risk for coronary heart disease".[126]

text: Greece[edit]

text: Law in Greece limits content of trans fats sold in school cantines to 0.1% (Ministerial Decision Υ1γ/ΓΠ/οικ 81025/ΦΕΚ 2135/τ.Β’/29-08-2013 as modified by Ministerial Decision Υ1γ/ Γ.Π/οικ 96605/ΦΕΚ 2800 τ.Β/4-11-201).[127]

text: Iceland[edit]

text: Total trans fat content was limited in 2010 to 2% of total fat content.[128][129]

text: Israel[edit]

text: Since 2014, It is obligatory to mark food products with more than 2% (by weight) fat. The nutritional facts must contain the amount of trans fats.[130]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: The parliament gave the government a mandate in 2011 to submit without delay a law prohibiting the use of industrially produced trans fats in foods, as of 2017 the law has not yet been implemented.[131][132]

text: Switzerland[edit]

text: Switzerland followed Denmark's trans fats ban, and implemented its own beginning in April 2008.[133]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In October 2005, the Food Standards Agency (FSA) asked for better labelling in the UK.[134] In the edition of 29 July 2006 of the British Medical Journal, an editorial also called for better labelling.[135] In January 2007, the British Retail Consortium announced that major UK retailers, including Asda, Boots, Co-op, Iceland, Marks and Spencer, Sainsbury's, Tesco and Waitrose intended to cease adding trans fatty acids to their own products by the end of 2007.[136]

text: Sainsbury's became the first UK major retailer to ban all trans fat from all their own brand foods.

text: On 13 December 2007, the Food Standards Agency issued news releases stating that voluntary measures to reduce trans fats in food had already resulted in safe levels of consumer intake.[137][138]

text: On 15 April 2010, a British Medical Journal editorial called for trans fats to be "virtually eliminated in the United Kingdom by next year".[139]

text: The June 2010 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) report Prevention of cardiovascular disease declared that 40,000 cardiovascular disease deaths in 2006 were "mostly preventable".[140] To achieve this, NICE offered 24 recommendations including product labelling, public education, protecting under–16s from marketing of unhealthy foods, promoting exercise and physically active travel, and even reforming the Common Agricultural Policy to reduce production of unhealthy foods. Fast-food outlets were mentioned as a risk factor, with (in 2007) 170 g of McDonald's fries and 160 g nuggets containing 6 to 8 g of trans fats, conferring a substantially increased risk of coronary artery disease death.[141] NICE made three specific recommendation for diet: (1) reduction of dietary salt to 3 g per day by 2025; (2) halving consumption of saturated fats; and (3) eliminating the use of industrially produced trans fatty acids in food. However, the recommendations were greeted unhappily by the food industry, which stated that it was already voluntarily dropping the trans fat levels to below the WHO recommendations of a maximum of 2%.[citation needed]

text: Rejecting an outright ban, the Health Secretary Andrew Lansley launched on 15 March 2012 a voluntary pledge to remove artificial trans fats by the end of the year. Asda, Pizza Hut, Burger King, Tesco, Unilever and United Biscuits are some of 73 businesses who have agreed to do so.[citation needed] Lansley and his special Adviser Bill Morgan previously worked for firms with interests in the food industry and some journalists have alleged that this results in a conflict of interest.[142] Many health professionals are not happy with the voluntary nature of the deal. Simon Capewell, Professor of Clinical Epidemiology at the University of Liverpool, felt that justifying intake on the basis of average figures was unsuitable since some members of the community could considerably exceed this.[143]

text: United States[edit]

text: Before 2006, consumers in the United States could not directly determine the presence (or quantity) of trans fats in food products. This information could only be inferred from the ingredient list, notably from the partially hydrogenated ingredients. In 2010, according to the FDA, the average American consumed 5.8 grams of trans fat per day (2.6% of energy intake).[144] Monoglycerides and diglycerides are not considered fats by the FDA, despite their nearly equal calorie per weight contribution during actual ingestion.[145]

text: On 11 July 2003, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a regulation requiring manufacturers to list trans fat on the Nutrition Facts panel of foods and some dietary supplements.[32][33] The new labeling rule became mandatory across the board, even for companies that petitioned for extensions, on 1 January 2008. However, unlike in many other countries, trans fat levels of less than 0.5 grams per serving can be listed as 0 grams trans fat on the food label.[146] According to a study published in the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, without an interpretive footnote or further information on recommended daily value, many consumers do not know how to interpret the meaning of trans fat content on the Nutrition Facts panel. In fact, without specific prior knowledge about trans fat and its negative health effects, consumers, including those at risk for heart disease, may misinterpret nutrient information provided on the panel.[34] The FDA did not approve nutrient content claims such as "trans fat free" or "low trans fat", as they could not determine a "recommended daily value". Nevertheless, the agency is planning a consumer study to evaluate the consumer understanding of such claims and perhaps consider a regulation allowing their use on packaged foods.[147] However, there is no requirement to list trans fats on institutional food packaging; thus bulk purchasers such as schools, hospitals, jails and cafeterias are unable to evaluate the trans fat content of commercial food items.[148]

text: Critics of the plan, including FDA advisor Dr. Carlos Camargo, have expressed concern that the 0.5 gram per serving threshold is too high to refer to a food as free of trans fat. This is because a person eating many servings of a product, or eating multiple products over the course of the day may still consume a significant amount of trans fat.[35] Despite this, the FDA estimates that by 2009, trans fat labeling will have prevented from 600 to 1,200 cases of coronary artery disease and 250 to 500 deaths each year. This benefit is expected to result from consumers choosing alternative foods lower in trans fats, as well as manufacturers reducing the amount of trans fats in their products.

text: The American Medical Association supports any state and federal efforts to ban the use of artificial trans fats in U.S. restaurants and bakeries.[149]

text: The American Public Health Association adopted a new policy statement regarding trans fats in 2007. These new guidelines, entitled Restricting Trans Fatty Acids in the Food Supply, recommend that the government require nutrition facts labeling of trans fats on all commercial food products. They also urge federal, state, and local governments to ban and monitor use of trans fats in restaurants. Furthermore, the APHA recommends barring the sales and availability of foods containing significant amounts of trans fat in public facilities including universities, prisons, and day care facilities etc.[148]

text: On 7 November 2013, the FDA issued a preliminary determination that trans fats are not "generally recognized as safe", which was widely seen as a precursor to a reclassification of trans fats as a "food additive," meaning they could not be used in foods without specific regulatory authorization. This would have the effect of virtually eliminating trans fats from the US food supply.[150][151] The ruling was formally enacted on 16 June 2015, requiring that within three years, all food prepared in the United States must not include trans fats, unless approved by the FDA.[152]

text: State and local regulation[edit]

text: Even before the federal ban, the state of California and several U.S. cities took action to reduce consumption of trans fats.

text: In 2005, Tiburon, California, became the first American city where all restaurants voluntarily cook with trans fat-free oils.[153] In 2007, Montgomery County, Maryland, approved a ban on partially hydrogenated oils, becoming the first county in the nation to restrict trans fats.[154]

text: New York City embarked on a campaign in 2005 to reduce consumption of trans fats, noting that heart disease is the primary cause of resident deaths. This has included a Public education campaign and a request to restaurant owners to eliminate trans fat from their offerings voluntarily.[155] Finding that the voluntary program was not successful, New York City's Board of Health in 2006 solicited public comments on a proposal to ban artificial trans fats in restaurants.[156] The board voted to ban trans fat in restaurant food on 5 December 2006. New York was the first large US city to strictly limit trans fats in restaurants. Restaurants were barred from using most frying and spreading fats containing artificial trans fats above 0.5 g per serving on 1 July 2007, and were supposed to have met the same target in all of their foods by 1 July 2008.[157]

text: The Philadelphia City Council unanimously voted to enacted a ban in February 2007, and the measure was signed into law by Mayor John F. Street.[158][159] The ordinance does not apply to prepackaged foods sold in the city, but did require restaurants in the city to stop frying food in trans fats by September 1, 2007. The ordinance also contained a provision going into effect one hear later that barred trans fat from being used as an ingredient in commercial kitchens. The law On 10 October 2007, the Philadelphia City Council approved the use of trans fats by small bakeries throughout the city.[160]

text: Nassau County, a suburban county on Long Island, New York, banned trans fats in restaurants effective 1 April 2008. Bakeries were granted an extension until 1 April 2011.

text: Albany County of New York passed a ban on trans fats. The ban was adopted after a unanimous vote by the county legislature on 14 May 2007. The decision was made after New York City's decision, but no plan has been put into place. Legislators received a letter from Rick J. Sampson, president and CEO of the New York State Restaurant Association, calling on them to "delay any action on this issue until the full impact of the New York City ban is known."

text: San Francisco officially asked its restaurants to stop using trans fat in January 2008. The voluntary program will grant a city decal to restaurants that comply and apply for the decal.[161] Legislators say the next step will be a mandatory ban.

text: Chicago also passed partial ban on oils and posting requirements for fast food restaurants.[162][163]

text: Trans fat bans were also introduced in the state legislatures of Massachusetts, Maryland, and Vermont.[164][165][166]

text: In March 2008, the Boston Public Health Commission's Board of Health passed a regulation food service establishments from selling foods containing artificial trans fats at more than 0.5 grams per serving, which is similar to the New York City regulation; there are some exceptions for clearly labeled packaged foods and charitable bake sales.[167]

text: King County, Washington passed a ban on artificial trans fats effective 1 February 2009.[168]

text: In July 2008, California became the first state to ban trans fats in restaurants effective 1 January 2010; Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed the bill into law.[169] California restaurants are prohibited from using oil, shortening, and margarine containing artificial trans fats in spreads or for frying, with the exception of deep frying doughnuts.[169][170][171] As of 1 January 2011, doughnuts and other baked goods have been prohibited from containing artificial trans fats.[169][170][171] Packaged foods are not covered by the ban and can legally contain trans fats.[172]

text: In 2007, the American Heart Association launched its "Face the Fats" campaign to help educate the public about the negative effects of trans fats, and bring it into the large picture.[citation needed]

text: 2015–2018 phaseout[edit]

text: In 2009, at the age of 97, University of Illinois professor Fred Kummerow, a trans fat researcher who had campaigned for decades for a federal ban on the substance, filed a petition with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) seeking elimination of artificial trans fats from the U.S. food supply.[173] The FDA did not act on his petition for four years, and in 2013 Kummerow filed a lawsuit against the FDA and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, seeking to compel the FDA to respond to his petition and "to ban partially hydrogenated oils unless a complete administrative review finds new evidence for their safety."[173] Kummerow's petition stated that "Artificial trans fat is a poisonous and deleterious substance, and the FDA has acknowledged the danger."[174]

text: Three months after the suit was filed,[173] on June 16, 2015, the FDA moved to eliminate artificial trans fats from the U.S. food supply, giving manufacturers a deadline of three years.[175] The FDA specifically ruled that trans fat was not generally recognized as safe and "could no longer be added to food after June 18, 2018, unless a manufacturer could present convincing scientific evidence that a particular use was safe."[176][177][178] Kummerow stated: "Science won out."[179]

text: The ban is believed to prevent about 90,000 premature deaths annually.[176] The FDA estimates the ban will cost the food industry $6.2 billion over 20 years as the industry reformulates products and substitutes new ingredients for trans fat. The benefits are estimated at $140 billion over 20 years mainly from lower health care spending. Food companies can petition the FDA for approval of specific uses of partially hydrogenated oils if the companies submit data proving the oils' use is safe.[180]

text: Food industry response[edit]

text: Manufacturer response[edit]

text: Palm oil, a natural oil extracted from the fruit of oil palm trees that is semi-solid at room temperature (15–25 degrees Celsius), can potentially serve as a substitute for partially hydrogenated fats in baking and processed food applications, although there is disagreement about whether replacing partially hydrogenated fats with palm oil confers any health benefits. A 2006 study supported by the National Institutes of Health and the USDA Agricultural Research Service concluded that palm oil is not a safe substitute for partially hydrogenated fats (trans fats) in the food industry, because palm oil results in adverse changes in the blood concentrations of LDL and apolipoprotein B just as trans fat does.[181][182]

text: In May 2003, BanTransFats.com Inc., a U.S. non-profit corporation, filed a lawsuit against the food manufacturer Kraft Foods in an attempt to force Kraft to remove trans fats from the Oreo cookie. The lawsuit was withdrawn when Kraft agreed to work on ways to find a substitute for the trans fat in the Oreo.

text: The J.M. Smucker Company, American manufacturer of Crisco (the original partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening), in 2004 released a new formulation made from solid saturated palm oil cut with soybean oil and sunflower oil. This blend yielded an equivalent shortening much like the previous partially hydrogenated Crisco, and was labelled zero grams of trans fat per 1 tablespoon serving (as compared with 1.5 grams per tablespoon of original Crisco).[183] As of 24 January 2007, Smucker claims that all Crisco shortening products in the US have been reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving while keeping saturated fat content less than butter.[184] The separately marketed trans fat free version introduced in 2004 was discontinued.

text: On 22 May 2004, Unilever, the corporate descendant of Joseph Crosfield & Sons (the original producer of Wilhelm Normann's hydrogenation hardened oils) announced that they have eliminated trans fats from all their margarine products in Canada, including their flagship Becel brand.[185]

text: Agribusiness giant Bunge Limited, through their Bunge Oils division, are now producing and marketing an NT product line of non-hydrogenated oils, margarines and shortenings, made from corn, canola, and soy oils.[186]

text: Since 2003,[187] Loders Croklaan, a wholly owned subsidiary of Malaysia's IOI Group has been providing trans fat free bakery and confectionery fats, made from palm oil, for giant food companies in the United States to make margarine.[188]

text: Major users' response[edit]

text: This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2012)

text: Some major food chains have chosen to remove or reduce trans fats in their products. In some cases these changes have been voluntary. In other cases, however, food vendors have been targeted by legal action that has generated a lot of media attention.

text: Major fast food chain menus and product lines with significant artificial trans fat include Popeyes[189] [190]

text: The following major fast food chain menus and product lines are artificial trans fat free (that is, < 0.5 g/serving) : Taco Bell, Chick-fil-A, Girl Scout Cookies, KFC (eliminated from all but Mac and cheese, biscuits and chicken potpie in '07, the rest in '09[191] ), McDonald's, Burger King and Wendy's have greatly reduced Partialy Hydrogenated Oils (containing artificial trans fats) in their food; most of the remaining trans fat is naturally occurring, in the form of about a gram per 1/4 lb. burger patty, and smaller amounts in fatty dairy products such as cheese, butter and cream. Naturally occurring trans fat causes the Baconator, for example, to have 2.5 grams; each 1/4 lb.* hamburger patty has a gram. A large chain's large fries typically had about 6 grams until around 2007.[192][193][194][195][196][197][198][199][200]

text: These reformulations can be partially attributed to '06 Center for Science in the Public Interest class action complaints, and to New York's trans fat ban, with companies such as McDonald's's stating they would not be selling a unique product just for New York customers but would implement a nationwide or worldwide change.[201][202]

text: Although IHOP restaurants pledged in a 2007 press release to eliminate transfat from their food,[203] the nutrition information on the company website for the Summer/Fall 2015 Core Menu shows that they still have a considerable amount of trans fat in their food, including 4.5 grams in their "mega monster cheeseburger".[204]

text: The Girl Scouts of the USA announced in November 2006 that all of their cookies contain less than 0.5 g trans fats per serving, thus meeting or exceeding the FDA guidelines for the "zero trans fat" designation.[205] High levels of trans fats remain common in packaged baked goods.[189]

text: Health Canada's monitoring program, which tracks the changing amounts of TFA and SFA in fast and prepared foods shows considerable progress in TFA reduction by some industrial users while others, as of 2007, lag behind. In many cases, SFAs have been substituted for the TFAs.[206][207][needs update]


document_title: Leonard Hofstadter

question_text: why did penny and leonard break up in season 3

root

text: Leonard Hofstadter

text: Creation and casting[edit]

text: Leonard is named after actor/producer Sheldon Leonard,[5] and Nobel Prize in Physics Laureate Robert Hofstadter.[6] Johnny Galecki was originally asked to play the role of Sheldon Cooper, but thought he would be "better suited" for the character of Leonard. Leonard is one of four characters to appear in every episode of the series, along with Sheldon, Howard Wolowitz and Raj Koothrappali.

tag: p

text: Personality[edit]

text: Originally from New Jersey and  a graduate of Princeton University,  Leonard works as a Caltech experimental physicist, mainly working with lasers, and shares an apartment with colleague Sheldon Cooper in Pasadena, California. He is usually seen wearing his characteristic black thick-framed glasses, low-cut black Converse All Stars sneakers, pastel hoodies or neutral-colored sweat jackets (i.e. jackets with integrated hoodies) or a combination of the two, brown or red trousers (or, less frequently, jeans), and physics-themed T-shirts. His various girlfriends have tried to change his outfits: Penny had no success while Stephanie got him to wear dress shirts and sweaters (which he found uncomfortable), and Priya got him to briefly switch to dress shirts, waistcoats and dark slacks; he reverted to his original outfits after she left for India, but started eschewing his hoodies in favor of button-down shirts and non-hooded jackets towards the end of the seventh season, a trend that continued into successive seasons.

text: Although Leonard feels at home with his geek colleagues, he wants to be more social. Among the main characters, he is the one who has almost no difficulty interacting with "non-geek" individuals.  He is instantly captivated by Penny, and from the beginning sets out to date her.[7]

text: In early episodes, Leonard is reluctant to let Penny know about his recreational activities (such as Klingon Boggle), as he does not want her to see him as a geek. While certainly a geek by most definitions, he is far less socially inept than Sheldon (who is unable to grasp social norms and is often even dismissive of them), Raj (who was unable to talk to women unless he was under the influence of alcohol or anti-anxiety prescription drugs, and even after getting over his handicap still tended to speak inappropriately), and Howard (who was often seen as "creepy" when flirting with women, including Penny).

text: Leonard is also musically inclined, as he can play the cello, although he holds the bow upside down and plays on the finger board. As seen in the season 1 episode "The Hamburger Postulate", he and Leslie Winkle practice their instruments and then leave to have intercourse, which Leonard calls "a little musical foreplay".

text: Despite his attempts to not appear to be a geek, Leonard owns, among other things, Star Wars hygiene products, a prop of the One Ring, Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation officer's uniforms, an expansive Superman comic book collection (and wears Clark Kent-type glasses) and a Battlestar Galactica Colonial warrior's flight suit. Early in the series, Leonard tried to get rid of his collectables to impress Penny with his maturity. However, he changed his mind when he saw that Penny was already dating another man.[8]

text: Because he has lived with Sheldon for several years, Leonard knows him better than his other colleagues: this has led Sheldon to believe (slightly erroneously) that Leonard is his best friend. Nevertheless, Leonard often finds himself explaining Sheldon's behavior or serving as a mediator between him and other people in many situations. For instance, when Penny and Sheldon engaged in a fierce dispute, Leonard gave Penny Sheldon's mother's phone number so she would call her son and scold him for his behavior, thus ending the fight.[9] "The Staircase Implementation" features a flashback to when Leonard first moved in with Sheldon. Leonard explains to Penny that he moved in despite the difficulty of living with Sheldon because the rent was so reasonable. Shortly after moving in, during a rocketry experiment Leonard, Raj and Howard conducted, Sheldon observed miscalculations Leonard made in mixing the rocket fuel and managed to avert disaster by grabbing the fuel and placing it in their apartment building's elevator. The resulting explosion disabled the elevator, thus explaining why the elevator is out of order for the duration of the series. Leonard explains that Sheldon, despite his tendency to alienate others, kept quiet about Leonard's destruction of the elevator. (Leonard cites: "He didn't rat me out to the landlord, or the police.... or Homeland Security.")

text: Despite Leonard's reasonable and friendly personality, he occasionally demonstrates a mean streak. These include deliberately triggering Sheldon's obsessive compulsive problems, mocking Howard and Raj whenever they slip up, and making sniping comments when Penny's commitment issues flare up. He is also prone to jealousy, often feeling insecure and defensive whenever Penny interacts with another guy, and on one occasion trying to frighten off a British college student she was doing a project with, because Penny commented positively on his accent.

text: Leonard's primary health concern is his lactose intolerance: his consuming melon or any dairy products (and according to the pilot episode, even corn) results in flatulence. Leonard wears eyeglasses because of myopia, and cannot see without them. On one occasion, when his glasses were broken at the movie theater, he had to surreptitiously return to his apartment and retrieve his backup glasses. In order to avoid detection by a sick Sheldon and Penny, who was nursing him, Howard and Raj helped him to navigate through the living room by using a helmet camera.[10] Leonard also states in one episode that he suffers from sleep apnea. During his relationship with Leslie Winkle, he tells her that many members of his family have died from heart disease and thus he has a genetic disposition to the condition.

text: Family[edit]

text: All of the members of Leonard's family are accomplished scientists, except for his younger brother Michael, who is a tenured law professor at Harvard University.

text: Leonard's mother, Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, is a psychiatrist and neuroscientist. She has a personality almost identical to Sheldon's, including strict speech patterns, lack of social conventions, and attention to detail, and she is principally responsible for Leonard's difficult childhood. Sheldon and Beverly have a friendly relationship where they share details of each other's lives, with Sheldon often failing to pass on significant information to Leonard such as Leonard's parents divorcing and the family dog Mitsy's death. Leonard is upset with the fact that she tells Sheldon more than she tells him, but later decides it's okay. After a night out of bonding and drinking with Penny in which she notices an attractive busboy, Beverly kisses Sheldon but realizes she "would rather have the busboy".

text: Due to his mother's views, Leonard never celebrated his birthday or Christmas when he was a child,[11] and when she visited him she was not impressed with his unoriginal research. Leonard revealed to Penny that he built a "hugging machine" when he was young in order to compensate for the lack of affection from his mother. He further stated that his father used to borrow it. Beverly also belittles Leonard by pointing out that his brother and sister are more successful in their respective fields than he is. Leonard's brother, Michael, is a Harvard law professor and is engaged to the youngest appellate court judge in New Jersey history (and has since gone on to work with a Habitat for Humanity-esque organisation), and his older sister, whose name is unknown, is a cutting-edge medical researcher working with gibbons to cure diabetes.[12]  However, Beverly admits in season 11 that Leonard married the best out of his siblings, after she develops a genuine friendship with Penny.  Leonard also dislikes his memories of Christmas, not just because he never celebrated it, but also because instead of gifts the Hofstadter kids had to turn in papers to "Santa" which were graded the next day. Over the course of six years he never got over a "C minus", which according to Sheldon was a true gift, because by Sheldon's lights he never deserved anything better. It is implied that at the end of the episode "The Peanut Reaction", Leonard begins to celebrate his birthday after Penny decided to throw him one after hearing that he had never had one; And one implication is at the end of the episode "The Russian Rocket Reaction" when Leonard asked Brent Spiner to come to his birthday party. As for Christmas, Leonard has learned and come to love it as an adult, unlike Sheldon. Leonard had two childhood pets, a cat named Dr. Boots Hofstadter and a dog named Mitsy.

text: Leonard's father, Dr. Alfred Hofstadter is an anthropologist. Sheldon reveals that Leonard's middle name, "Leakey", comes from famed anthropologist Louis Leakey, with whom Leonard's father had worked.[13] Leonard is embarrassed by his middle name and its humorous connotations, and rarely mentions it, as the name is an obvious embarrassment. Apparently his father was not very affectionate towards him either; he mentions that he had to compete with the bones of an Etruscan boy for his father's attention, but this was likely because his father was away from home a lot for work and wasn't able to get to know his children well.  However, they seem to have developed a good, affectionate rapport by the time of Leonard and Penny's impending second wedding ceremony in the season 9 finale.

text: Though little is known about Leonard's extended family, a few references to it have been made. In the first episode, Sheldon and Leonard discuss Leonard's grandmother, who had visited them on Thanksgiving the year before. She has Alzheimer's disease and apparently "had an episode" during her visit, which resulted in her stripping off her clothes and carving the turkey. On Beverly's first visit, she tells Leonard that his uncle Floyd has died, which greatly upsets him (according to him, Floyd was the only family member he really liked and of whom Leonard has warm memories from his childhood). Leonard also has several other uncles, whom Sheldon says are all very bald; when they gather together, they look "like a half carton of eggs."[14] Leonard describes his aunt, however, as "one of the hairiest women you'll ever meet".[15] He also mentioned an Aunt Nancy, apparently a "crazy cat lady" who had 25 cats, died, and was eaten by them.[16]

text: Work[edit]

text: Leonard has an IQ of 173,[7][10] and was 24 years old when he received his PhD from Princeton University.[17] Leonard also received a dissertation of the year award for his doctoral paper on experimental particle physics.[18]

text: Leonard has been established to have been a child prodigy, and a gifted scientist with an impressive knowledge of theoretical physics. His work as an experimental physicist often includes the use of lasers, such as a helium–neon laser or free-electron laser, and his research topics have varied from Bose–Einstein condensates and foundations of quantum mechanics to soft cosmic rays at sea level and development of novel rocket propellants. Leonard designs experiments in order to test theories but, according to Sheldon, his work is mostly derivative and thus unimportant.[19]

text: Although Leonard's attempts to disprove the existence of dark matter were made moot by the work of another physicist, Leonard helped to solidify proof of the hypothetical matter's existence with a photomultiplier, and was invited as keynote speaker to a topical conference by the Institute of Experimental Physics for his successful research on super solids.[20]

text: From the season 6 finale, "The Bon Voyage Reaction" Leonard heads to the United Kingdom to work on a physics project seeking the hydrodynamics equivalent of the Unruh effect, sponsored by Professor Stephen Hawking, for three months on a ship in the North Sea.

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Leonard became interested in Penny almost immediately after seeing her for the first time.[7] His infatuation with Penny becomes the major force that drives the series during the first few seasons. By the end of the first season, Leonard finally manages to ask Penny out, and they have their first date.[21] Subsequently, they break up because Penny felt she was not as smart as Leonard would like.[19]

text: Besides Penny, Leonard has been involved with only a few other women. One of Leonard's former girlfriends who is mentioned on several occasions is Joyce Kim, who did not appear until the third season. Leonard's friends recalled on many occasions that they were together for only 27 days, after which Joyce, later revealed to be a spy, defected to North Korea.[22]

text: Initially, after feeling that Penny was not for him, Leonard turned his attention to fellow scientist Leslie Winkle. The first time Leonard asks Leslie out, she rejects him,[23] and his further relationships with her proved to be only short-lived casual sexual encounters that only happened to satisfy Leslie's libido.[24][25] Leslie briefly started dating Leonard in Season 2, but when he failed to back her up in an argument with Sheldon, she dumped him.

text: In the second season, Leonard began a stable relationship with a physician named Stephanie Barnett.[26] Although the relationship went well, even earning Sheldon's approval, Leonard felt uncomfortable with Stephanie moving in with him, and the relationship ended.[27]

text: On another occasion, when Leonard's mother was visiting, he and Penny came very close to having sex, but Leonard ruined the moment by suggesting that they were burying their lifelong issues with their parents by doing so, which offended Penny.[12] In the second-season finale, when Leonard, Sheldon, Howard, and Raj were due to leave for a three-month scientific expedition to the North Pole, Penny privately expresses sadness, and wishes that he would not leave.[28]

text: In the third season premiere, Leonard and Penny finally started a romantic relationship and had intercourse for the first time.[29] However, the relationship ended after eight months,[30] after Leonard told Penny he loved her and took umbrage at her inability to reciprocate, which led to friction that was exploited by guest star Wil Wheaton who appeared as a fictionalized version of himself, who observed and exacerbated it in order to break them up in the middle of a bowling match Wheaton's team was having against Leonard, Penny, Sheldon, Howard and Raj.

text: Shortly after his breakup with Penny, in "The Plimpton Stimulation", Leonard has a one-night stand with Dr. Elizabeth Plimpton (Judy Greer), a physicist he admires, when Sheldon invited her to stay in their apartment for a brief visit. This encounter causes some tension between Leonard and Penny, who is somewhat judgmental of Leonard's doing so. However, the two later resolve their feelings and their friendship continues.

text: In the third-season finale, "The Lunar Excitation", after Penny's failed attempts to move on from her relationship with Leonard, she becomes intoxicated and has sex with him. In the morning, Leonard believes that their relationship has resumed, though Penny tells him that the previous night was a mistake. This causes a strain on their friendship; at the end of the episode, Leonard becomes intoxicated and tries to have intercourse with her, prompting Penny to push him out of her apartment, to which Leonard suspects a double standard. He immediately makes the same advances towards Leslie Winkle, who replies, 'Let me think about it" and slams the door in his face.[31]

text: Throughout the fourth season, it becomes obvious that Penny is still in love with Leonard. It is unclear whether or not Leonard has noticed this, though he clearly is still interested in Penny. In "The Benefactor Factor", an older rich woman propositions Leonard in exchange for a large donation to the physics department; he initially resists and she admits that she planned to make the donation anyway, after which they engage in a one-night stand. Leonard arrives home the next morning, whereupon Penny recognizes his "walk of shame" and Sheldon thinks Leonard has a future in becoming a gigolo to rich ladies in exchange for donations.[18]

text: Leonard also has an affair with Raj's younger sister Priya (apparently every time she comes to town), despite a pinky swear with Howard that neither of them would attempt to make a move on her, and Raj giving his strong disapproval.[32] When Priya returns, she and Leonard begin a relationship. Raj strongly opposes this, and Penny is secretly uncomfortable with Leonard dating someone else, eventually breaking down and crying while talking with her friend Amy Farrah Fowler. Once again, Leonard is unaware of Penny's true feelings. Subsequently, Priya pressures Leonard into ending his friendship with Penny, which he attempts with extreme reluctance. Penny complies, though it is clear that she does not want Leonard out of her life.[33] Penny eventually resolves to stay in Leonard's life by ingratiating herself to Priya.[34]

text: In the Season 4 finale, Leonard runs into Penny and Raj as they come out of his room in the morning, just after Leonard and Priya appear to break up upon Leonard's learning that Priya is soon moving back to India. At the start of Season 5, Leonard and Priya are trying to maintain a long-distance relationship via Skype (including a failed attempt at cybersex) with Priya continuing to treat Leonard like a submissive partner. Despite being the most eager to have sex, Leonard proves he is quite awkward in these situations. Leonard later goes to a wedding with Amy, and they seem to take a liking to each other, though Sheldon disapproves, karate-chopping Leonard and saying, "She's not for you...not for you!".[35] Later, despite feeling that he and Priya were in love and might get married, Leonard finds himself attracted to a comic book artist named Alice. The attraction is mutual, and they even share a kiss. Right when they are about to have sex, however, he tells Alice that he has a girlfriend, thus ending the relationship. Leonard then decides to confess his behavior to Priya via Skype, but he is shocked to learn that Priya has also betrayed him, sleeping with her former boyfriend; Priya defends that they both slipped up a little, but Leonard corrects her saying that he slipped a little, while she slipped a lot, bringing the conversation to a strained end. In the next episode, Leonard tells Sheldon that he is single, implying that he and Priya have broken up; his actions since then have confirmed their split occurred.

text: Through the fourth and fifth seasons, Penny was still single and dating, though when intoxicated, she has confessed that she regrets breaking up with Leonard. In "The Ornithophobia Diffusion", Leonard and Penny go to the movies as friends. Leonard decides that since they are no longer dating, he can be honest and does not have to pay for everything or do whatever Penny wants. The two bicker all evening and sabotage each other's attempts to chat up people in the bar. Penny admits that she likes the new, more assertive Leonard. Leonard sees this as another opportunity to grovel and try to get Penny to sleep with him, so she leaves.

text: On the spur of the moment in "The Recombination Hypothesis", Leonard asks Penny out on a date after he imagines what getting back with her might be like. Their real date ends successfully and they agree to take their relationship slow in "The Beta Test Initiation." During their renewed relationship Penny has dismissed comments about him ever leaving or dumping her or about worrying about his unfaithfulness around other women and strippers as in the episode "The Stag Convergence". After Penny suggested having sex in "The Launch Acceleration", Leonard breaks the mood by proposing to her accidentally. They later meet and Penny does have the courage to tell him "no" and not break up with him as she did two years previously when he told her that he loved her. However, their relationship is still obviously strained. In season 5, Leonard and Penny watch Howard being launched into space while holding hands to comfort each other. With the start of season 6, he wants a reluctant Penny to define their relationship in "The Date Night Variable".

text: Penny finally does admit her love to Leonard, in "The 43 Peculiarity". Penny and Leonard awkwardly stare at each other before running off in opposite directions. Leonard, though, is buoyed by optimism over Penny's admission. Alex Jensen asks Leonard out to dinner in "The Egg Salad Equivalency", which boosts Leonard's ego because two beautiful women are interested in him, however, Alex's interest makes Penny insecure. After another dispute with Sheldon, Leonard tries to move in with Penny in "The Spoiler Alert Segmentation", however she is not ready. During their Valentine's Day dinner in "The Tangible Affection Proof", Leonard again tries to propose to Penny and she cuts him off quickly. She admits that she is very happy with him, but she also admits to commitment issues and the thought of being married forever really "freaks" her out. Leonard then tells her that when she is ready to get married, she can propose to him. In the season finale, Leonard leaves for an overseas job for four months and Penny is confident enough in their relationship to wait for him.  In "The Gorilla Dissolution", Leonard and Penny become engaged.[4] Throughout season 8, a running gag is their reluctance to decide upon a wedding date. In the season 8 finale, Penny asks Leonard to marry her that night in Las Vegas. Leonard happily accepts, but during the journey, after Penny expresses happiness that they will get married while knowing everything about each other, Leonard confesses to having shared a drunken kiss with another woman while on the boat in Europe, though he adds that the woman started it and he rejected her. Penny becomes hurt by the revelation, and even though she claims to forgive Leonard, there is clearly tension between them, leaving the season ending in a cliffhanger as to whether or not they will go through with the wedding.

text: At the beginning of season 9, Leonard and Penny marry, although not without some initial problems. They both reveal that they were subconsciously trying to sabotage their relationship, feeling unworthy of the other. Leonard, concerned that he was trying to sabotage his relationship with Penny, meets with the woman he kissed on the boat. She barely remembers the incident and quickly grows bored with Leonard's ramblings, taking a sarcastic and dismissive tone toward him. From that meeting Leonard comes to terms with his insecurities and he and Penny are able to become more comfortable in dealing with their mutual fears about their relationship. Leonard seriously tries to move into Penny's apartment though Sheldon has serious objections and makes them compromise to spend multiple nights a week in Leonard's old room. Early in season 10, the couple is very happy to be finally living alone after Sheldon moves in with Amy.


document_title: Criminal Minds (season 7)

question_text: who gets married in criminal minds season 7

text: Criminal Minds (season 7)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Joe Mantegna as David Rossi
Paget Brewster as Emily Prentiss
Shemar Moore as Derek Morgan
Matthew Gray Gubler as Dr. Spencer Reid
A. J. Cook as Jennifer "JJ" Jareau
Kirsten Vangsness as Penelope Garcia
Thomas Gibson as Aaron "Hotch" Hotchner

tag: ul

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Bellamy Young as Beth Clemmons
Jayne Atkinson as Erin Strauss
Cade Owens as Jack Hotchner
Nicholas Brendon as Kevin Lynch
Josh Stewart as William "Will" LaMontagne Jr.
Mekhai Andersen as Henry LaMontagne

text: Guest stars[edit]

text: In the season premiere "It Takes a Village", Timothy V. Murphy reprises as Ian Doyle, and Robin Atkin Downes guest-starred as Lachlan McDermott, an international criminal who seeks vengeance against Doyle for murdering his brother Jimmy. In the episode "Proof", Andy Milder guest-starred as Ben Bradstone, a mentally challenged serial killer who removes his victims' five senses with sulfuric acid. Johanna Braddy guest-starred as Ben's niece, Tammy, and Tracy Middendorf guest-starred as Tammy's mother, Lyla, who Ben had a secret obsession over. In the episode "Dorado Falls", Max Martini guest-starred as Luke Dolan, a former U.S. Navy Seal suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder who goes on a murderous rampage. Sarah Aldrich guest-starred as Luke's wife, Jenna.

text: In the episode "Painless", Eric Jungmann guest-starred as Robert Adams, a survivor of a high school shooting who copied the murders committed by Randy Slade. Julia Campbell guest-starred as Randy's mother, Martha Slade, and Aaron Hill guest-starred as Jerry Holtz, another survivor of the shooting who is murdered by Robert. In the episode "From Childhood's Hour", Isabella Hofmann guest-starred as Carolyn Baker, David Rossi's first wife who dies of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Heather Tom guest-starred as Connie Barton, a mother who is abducted by George Kelling. In the episode "There's No Place Like Home", Alex Weed guest-starred as Travis James, a serial killer who abducted male prostitutes.

text: In the episode "Hope", Brigid Brannagh guest-starred as Monica Kingston, a mother whose daughter was abducted and murdered by Bill Rogers, played by Jack Coleman. In the episode "Self-Fulfilling Prophecy", René Auberjonois guest-starred as Colonel Ronald Massey, the leader of the Somerville Military Academy and criminal accomplice of Josh Redding. In the episode "The Bittersweet Science", Shawn Hatosy guest-starred as Jimmy Hall, a professional boxer and spree killer whose son dies of leukemia. Charles S. Dutton guest-starred as Tony Cole, Jimmy's boxing trainer. Danny Goldman guest-starred as Detective Bob Zablonsky, who leads the investigation of the murders.

text: In the episode "Unknown Subject", Jay Karnes guest-starred as Hamilton Bartholomew, aka "The Piano Man", a serial rapist who is assaulting the victims he previously raped. In the episode "Snake Eyes", Dean Cain guest-starred as Curtis Banks, a serial killer with a gambling problem. Vanessa Branch guest-starred as Curtis' wife, Teri. In the episode "Closing Time", Geoffrey Blake guest-starred as Michael Janeczco, a serial killer who targeted men who have been divorced, which reflected Michael's own background. Tyler Neitzel guest-starred as Michael's stepson, Hunter Wright. In the episode "A Thin Line", Paul Johansson guest-starred as Clark Preston, a mayoral candidate and criminal accomplice of hate crime serial killer Trevor Mills.

text: In the episode "A Family Affair", Kathy Baker and William Russ guest-starred as Donald and Linda Collins, the parents of paraplegic serial killer Jeffrey Collins. In the episode "I Love You, Tommy Brown", Teri Polo guest-starred as Margaret Hollman, a mentally unstable high school teacher who fell in love with one of her students, Thomas Brown, with whom she had a son. In the episode "Foundation", Hedy Burress guest-starred as Samantha Allen, the daughter of pedophilic abductor J.B. Allen. In the episode "Heathridge Manor", Juliet Landau guest-starred as Catherine Heathridge, a textile heiress who suffered a psychotic reaction to a Shakespeare play that convinced her that the lead actresses were "The Devil's Wives", prompting her to murder them. Kyle Gallner and Madeleine Martin guest-starred as Catherine's children, James and Lara, who followed in her footsteps.

text: In the episode "The Company", Shanola Hampton guest-starred as Cindi Burns, Derek Morgan's cousin who suffered from stockholm syndrome after marrying and giving birth to the son of her abductor, Malcolm Ford. In the episode "Divining Rod", Mackenzie Astin guest-starred as Dylan Kohler, the copycat killer of serial killer Rodney Baines Garrett. In the two-part season finale "Hit & Run", Josh Randall guest-starred as Matthew Downs, a member of the Face Cards and Izzy Rogers' lover, and Evan Jones guest-starred as Chris Stratton, another member of the Face Cards. Sebastian Roché reprises as Clyde Easter, Emily Prentiss' former partner at Interpol who offers her a job as Chief of the Interpol office in London, which she accepts, causing her departure from the BAU.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: This section contains close paraphrasing of one or more non-free copyrighted sources. Ideas in this article should be expressed in an original manner. More details may be available on the talk page. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

139
1
"It Takes a Village"
Glenn Kershaw
Erica Messer
September 21, 2011 (2011-09-21)
701
14.14[7]

The BAU team is at crossroads when they are questioned by a Senate Committee for their retaliatory actions against Doyle (Timothy V. Murphy). They face the committee with assistance from the returning Jennifer Jareau. During the hearing, the team learns that Morgan has been tracking Doyle since the day Prentiss "died" and that Doyle's son is in danger. They race against time to find Doyle before someone else does, in a situation that tests the team and the trust between them. It is soon shaken by a familiar face, who assists the team in this case.

140
2
"Proof"
Karen Gaviola
Janine Sherman Barrois
September 28, 2011 (2011-09-28)
702
12.58[8]

Women are being found murdered after being robbed of one of their five senses in Durant, Oklahoma, prompting attention from the BAU. JJ and Prentiss get the cold shoulder from Reid as he deals with their deception about Prentiss' presumed death, while Rossi has a cooking lesson for the team to bring them together.

141
3
"Dorado Falls"
Félix Alcalá
Sharon Lee Watson
October 5, 2011 (2011-10-05)
703
13.43[9]

The BAU team investigates a mass murder at an Internet security company in nearby Charlottesville but clues reveal it is not a typical serial killer at work. Meanwhile, Prentiss must complete recertification training under Morgan's watchful eye.

142
4
"Painless"
Larry Teng
Breen Frazier
October 12, 2011 (2011-10-12)
704
12.87[10]

Survivors of a high school massacre in Boise, Idaho, that occurred in October 2001 return to remember the event 10 years later, but the BAU team is called in when a new killer with a similar style targets the survivors, and they discover two key factors that connect to the original shooting. Also, Hotch is worried that his son, Jack (Cade Owens), may be a victim of school bullying, while Morgan and Reid exchange pranks.

143
5
"From Childhood's Hour"
Anna J. Foerster
Bruce Zimmerman
October 19, 2011 (2011-10-19)
705
13.15[11]

The BAU team investigates the abductions of young children with troubled mothers in St. Louis. Rossi reconnects with his first wife, Carolyn (Isabella Hofmann), who has shocking news for him.

144
6
"Epilogue"
Guy Ferland
Rick Dunkle
November 2, 2011 (2011-11-02)
706
12.94[12]

The BAU search California's Angeles National Forest after a number of bodies mysteriously turn up in the mountain lakes there. Meanwhile, Rossi struggles with an agonizing decision regarding his ex-wife.

145
7
"There's No Place Like Home"
Rob Spera
Virgil Williams
November 9, 2011 (2011-11-09)
707
11.36[13]

When a series of tornadoes hits Wichita, Kansas, the BAU is called in to investigate bodies of young boys who had run away from home that turn up in the aftermath of the storms. The pressure is on when they realize that they may have a "Frankenstein" serial killer in their hands and another teenage boy goes missing with the threat of bad weather looming. Work pressures cause tension on JJ's home front.

146
8
"Hope"
Michael Watkins
Kimberly Ann Harrison
November 16, 2011 (2011-11-16)
708
12.72[14]

A case turns personal for Garcia when the BAU investigates the disappearance of a woman in her survivors' support group whose daughter went missing seven years earlier.

147
9
"Self-Fulfilling Prophecy"
Charlie Haid
Erica Messer
December 7, 2011 (2011-12-07)
709
12.41[15]

The BAU investigates a mass suicide at a renowned military academy, and the investigation takes a shocking turn when they learn about the past of the victims, leading the team to believe the academy isn't what it seems to be. Meanwhile a team member's secret is exposed and Morgan and Hotch disagree about how to deal with it.

148
10
"The Bittersweet Science"
Rob Hardy
Janine Sherman Barrois
December 14, 2011 (2011-12-14)
710
12.88[16]

The BAU team investigates a string of fatal beatings in Philadelphia and looks into to the city's boxing scene in search of the killer. Hotch makes a connection with an attractive runner, Beth Clemmons (Bellamy Young), as they both train for a triathlon.

149
11
"True Genius"
Glenn Kershaw
Sharon Lee Watson
January 18, 2012 (2012-01-18)
711
13.00[17]

A series of murders in San Francisco bearing the tell-tale signs of the infamous Zodiac Killer have the BAU wondering if the notorious serial killer has returned. Also, Reid ponders if he should be doing more with his genius abilities.

150
12
"Unknown Subject"
Michael Lange
Breen Frazier
January 25, 2012 (2012-01-25)
712
13.82[18]

In the milestone 150th episode of the series, the BAU team searches for a serial rapist in Houston, known as "The Piano Man" who has resurfaced and is assaulting his previous victims. Also, Prentiss tries to come to terms with her trauma from last year and with rejoining the team.

151
13
"Snake Eyes"
Doug Aarniokoski
Bruce Zimmerman
February 8, 2012 (2012-02-08)
713
13.31[19]

The BAU agents try their luck in Atlantic City, New Jersey when the team is called in to investigate a series of ritualistic, casino-related murders, perpetrated by a highly delusional, superstitious problem gambler (Dean Cain). Meanwhile, after a spat with her boyfriend, Kevin (Nicholas Brendon), Garcia thinks she and Morgan may have gotten a little too friendly with each other.

152
14
"Closing Time"
Jesse Warn
Rick Dunkle
February 15, 2012 (2012-02-15)
714
12.19[20]

The BAU are summoned to Los Angeles to investigate when a serial killer's body dump is found in a lifeguard tower. Hotch invites Beth on a date.

153
15
"A Thin Line"
Michael Watkins
Virgil Williams
February 22, 2012 (2012-02-22)
715
12.78[21]

A series of brutal home invasions and murders in San Bernardino, California initially appear to be gang-related, but the BAU investigation may uncover a more sinister motivation. Meanwhile, Prentiss and Morgan debate about how to train new recruits after a training session ends in failure.

154
16
"A Family Affair"
Rob Spera
Kimberly Ann Harrison
February 29, 2012 (2012-02-29)
716
12.54[22]

When the BAU travels to Atlanta to investigate the murders of women, the clues lead them to look for an unsub who is not working alone.

155
17
"I Love You, Tommy Brown"
John Terlesky
Janine Sherman Barrois
March 14, 2012 (2012-03-14)
717
11.43[23]

When married couples fostering young children end up being killed in Seattle, the BAU team looks for an unsub (Teri Polo) with a maternal-yet-murderous instinct. Also, Garcia fears a possible proposal from Kevin.

156
18
"Foundation"
Dermott Downs
Jim Clemente
March 21, 2012 (2012-03-21)
718
12.09[24]

The BAU is called to Scottsdale, Arizona when one young boy is found wandering the desert and another child goes missing, which hits close to home for Morgan.

157
19
"Heathridge Manor"
Matthew Gray Gubler
Sharon Lee Watson
April 4, 2012 (2012-04-04)
719
11.34[25]

The BAU team heads to Medford, Oregon to investigate a series of gothic, ritualistic murders. A woman believes that she is fighting against the Devil and his wives; when she dies, the task is continued by her son and reluctant daughter.

158
20
"The Company"
Nelson McCormick
Breen Frazier
April 11, 2012 (2012-04-11)
720
11.81[26]

Morgan's sister sees a girl in Chicago, who looks like their presumed dead cousin. Morgan has to confess to his family about the lie he told, and the BAU re-opens her case.

159
21
"Divining Rod"
Doug Aarniokoski
Bruce Zimmerman
May 2, 2012 (2012-05-02)
721
11.47[26]

After a serial killer is executed in Enid, Oklahoma, a copycat shows up and the FBI agents are called in to find him. Meanwhile, Prentiss gets nervous about a real estate purchase.

160
22
"Profiling 101"
Félix Alcalá
Virgil Williams
May 9, 2012 (2012-05-09)
722
11.62[27]

Rossi and the team present one of the longest-tenured serial killer cases to college students in Seattle, and they take the class through a nearly 20 year chase for the murderer.

161
23
"Hit"
Michael Lange
Rick Dunkle
May 16, 2012 (2012-05-16)
723
13.68[28]

When the BAU goes up against a gang of serial-killing bank robbers in Washington, D.C., the team tries to negotiate the situation unfolding inside the bank, but the stakes rise when JJ's fiancée, Will (Josh Stewart) is taken hostage. Also, a phone call from her former boss (Sebastian Roché) makes Prentiss ponder her future.

162
24
"Run"
Glenn Kershaw
Erica Messer
May 16, 2012 (2012-05-16)
724
13.68[28]

As the BAU team continues to pursue the bank-robbing serial killers, the team determines that the suspects, particularly the female (Tricia Helfer) and her secret partner, have a bigger target in the Nation's capital; and with one of the team still a hostage, they must work quickly to defuse an explosive situation. Also, there are wedding bells for JJ, Strauss thanks Morgan for his help and Prentiss makes a decision about her future.

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Episode
U.S. ratings

Original airdate
Viewers
(millions)
Rank

Night
Week

"It Takes a Village"
September 21, 2011
14.14[7]
2
13[7]

"Proof"
September 28, 2011
12.58[8]
2
13[8]

"Dorado Falls"
October 5, 2011
13.43[9]
1
9[9]

"Painless"
October 12, 2011
12.87[10]
2
11[10]

"Childhood's Hour"
October 19, 2011
13.15[11]
2
11[11]

"Epilogue"
November 2, 2011
12.94[12]
2
15[12]

"There's No Place Like Home"
November 9, 2011
11.36[13]
2
17[13]

"Hope"
November 16, 2011
12.72[14]
2
11[14]

"Self-Fulfilling Prophecy"
December 7, 2011
12.41[15]
1
12[15]

"The Bittersweet Science"
December 14, 2011
12.88[16]
1
9[16]

"True Genius"
January 18, 2012
13.00[17]
2
11[17]

"Unknown Subject"
January 25, 2012
13.82[18]
3
5[18]

"Snake Eyes"
February 8, 2012
13.31[19]
2
11[19]

"Closing Time"
February 15, 2012
12.19[20]
2
10[20]

"A Thin Line"
February 22, 2012
12.78[21]
2
13[21]

"A Family Affair"
February 29, 2012
12.54[22]
2
8[22]

"I Love You, Tommy Brown"
March 14, 2012
11.43[23]
3
6[23]

"Foundation"
March 21, 2012
12.09[24]
2
6[24]

"Heathridge Manor"
April 4, 2012
11.34[25]
3
14[25]

"The Company"
April 11, 2012
11.81[26]
2
7[26]

"Divining Rod"
May 2, 2012
11.47[26]
2
11[26]

"Profiling 101"
May 9, 2012
11.62[27]
2
12[27]

"Hit (Part I)"
May 16, 2012
13.68[28]
2
6[28]

"Run (Part II)"
May 16, 2012
13.68[28]
2
6[28]

text: Home media[edit]

text:
The Complete Seventh Season

Set details
Special features

24 episodes
6-disc set (Region 1)
5-disc set (Region 2 & 4)
Aspect Ratio: 1.85:1
Subtitles: English
English: Dolby Digital 5.1

Mind's Eye
Gag Reel
Deleted Scenes

DVD release date

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4

September 4, 2012 (2012-09-04)[29]
November 26, 2012 (2012-11-26)[30]
November 7, 2012 (2012-11-07)[31]


document_title: Tom Owen (actor)

question_text: who played compos son in last of the summer wine

text: Tom Owen (actor)

text: This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Tom Owen

Born
(1949-04-08) 8 April 1949 (age 68)
Marylebone, London, England

Occupation
Actor

Years active
1968–2010

Spouse(s)
Mary Moylan (1978-present)

Children
James Rowbotham
William Rowbotham

text: Thomas William Stevenson Rowbotham (born 8 April 1949), also known as Tom Owen, is a British actor best known for playing Tom Simmonite on the longest-running British sitcom Last of the Summer Wine. He is the son of Bill Owen, who played William "Compo" Simmonite (the father of Tom Simmonite) on the show.

text: Owen's first significant appearance on television was in 1968 at the age of 19, starring in the series Freewheelers (1968–70). Other appearances include Z-Cars, Upstairs, Downstairs, The Onedin Line,The Piglet Files and Minder. Before being cast in Last of the Summer Wine in 1999 following the death of his father, he had not acted for many years and had instead worked for the Labour Party and taught drama as well as comedy and light entertainment.

text: He married Mary Bernadette Therese Moylan in 1978; they have two sons, James and William.[1][2][3]

text: Television roles[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role

2000 to 2010
Last of the Summer Wine
Tom Simmonite

2004
The King of Queens
Reverend

text: He also had a part in the BBC series Billy Bunter, which was a programme televised in the 1950s. The lead role of Bunter was played by Gerald Campion. In 1969 Owen played one of the schoolboys in the musical version of Goodbye, Mr Chips, which starred Peter O'Toole in the leading role and in which Petula Clark played the part of the schoolmaster's wife. Tom Owen's debut on "Last Of The Summer Wine" was in 1991 as a bank customer at a cash dispenser in the episode "Situations Vacant".