document_title: The Brady Bunch Movie

question_text: who played jan in the brady bunch movie

question_tokens: who played jan in the brady bunch movie

text: The Brady Bunch Movie

text: Plot[edit]

text: Larry Dittmeyer, an unscrupulous real estate developer, explains to his supervisor that almost all the families in his neighborhood have agreed to sell their property as part of a plan to turn the area into a shopping mall, except for the Brady family.

text: At the Bradys' house, Mike and Carol are having breakfast prepared by their housekeeper, Alice, while the six children prepare for school. Jan is jealous of her elder, popular sister Marcia. Cindy is tattling about everything she's hearing. Greg is dreaming of becoming a singer (but sings folk songs more appropriate to the seventies). Peter is nervous that his voice is breaking. Bobby is excited about his new role as hall monitor at school.

text: Cindy gives Mike and Carol a tax delinquency notice (which was earlier mistakenly delivered to the Dittmeyers) stating that they face foreclosure on their house if they do not pay $20,000 in back taxes. The two initially ignore the crisis, but when Mike's architectural design (which is exactly the same as their house) is turned down by two potential clients, he tells Carol that they may have to sell the house. Cindy overhears this and tells her siblings and they look for work to raise money to save the house, but their earnings are nowhere near enough to reach the required sum. Mike manages to sell a Japanese company on one of his dated designs, thereby securing the money, only for Larry to sabotage it by claiming that Mike's last building collapsed.

text: On the night before the Bradys have to move out, Marcia suggests that they enter a "Search for the Stars" contest, the prize of which is exactly $20,000. Jan, having originally suggested this and been rejected, runs away from home. Cindy sees her leave and tattles, and the whole family goes on a search for her. They use their car's citizens' band radio, and their transmission is heard by Schultzy, a driver who picks up Jan and convinces her to return home.

text: The next day, the children join the "Search for the Stars" contest with a dated performance that receives poor audience response compared to the more modern performances of other bands. However, the judges — Davy Jones, Micky Dolenz, and Peter Tork of The Monkees — vote for them, and they win the contest as a result. The tax bill is paid and their neighbors withdraw their homes from the market, foiling Larry's plan and securing the neighborhood.

text: Later, Carol's mother arrives and finally convinces Jan to stop being jealous of Marcia, only for Cindy to start feeling jealous of Jan.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gary Cole as Mike Brady
Shelley Long as Carol Brady
Henriette Mantel as Alice Nelson
Christopher Daniel Barnes as Greg Brady
Christine Taylor as Marcia Brady
Paul Sutera as Peter Brady
Jennifer Elise Cox as Jan Brady
Jesse Lee as Bobby Brady
Olivia Hack as Cindy Brady
David Graf as Sam Franklin
Alanna Ubach as Noreen
Megan Ward as Donna Leonard
Michael McKean as Larry Dittmeyer
Jean Smart as Dina Dittmeyer
Jack Noseworthy as Eric Dittmeyer
Moriah Snyder as Missy Dittmeyer
Shane Conrad as Doug Simpson
Marissa Ribisi as Holly
R. D. Robb as Charlie Anderson
Elisa Pensler-Gabrielli as Miss Linley
RuPaul as Mrs. Cummings
Darion Basco as Eddie
David Leisure as Jason (The modeling firm owner)
Davy Jones as himself
Micky Dolenz as himself
Peter Tork as himself
"Mudd Pagoda" David Darling, vocals; Marc Danzeisen, drums; Roger Joseph Manning, Jr., keyboards; Eric Dover, guitar; and Sheldon Strickland, bass guitar as members of the high school band

text:
Florence Henderson (the original Carol) as the family's grandmother
Ann B. Davis (the original Alice) as Schultzy, a trucker ("Schultzy" is a reference to her most famous role prior to The Brady Bunch on The Bob Cummings Show)
Barry Williams (the original Greg) as a record producer who rejects the film's Greg's attempts to sell his song
Maureen McCormick (the original Marcia) as a Lemonade Lady
Christopher Knight (the original Peter) as a coach who stops Eric and Leon from bullying the film's Peter in a cafeteria scene
Mike Lookinland (the original Bobby) as a cop
Susan Olsen (the original Cindy) as a news reporter

text: Production[edit]

text: The film was shot almost entirely in Los Angeles, California, with the Brady house being located in Sherman Oaks. The school scenes were shot at Taft High School in Woodland Hills. Some scenes were filmed at Bowcraft amusement park in Scotch Plains, New Jersey.

text: The producers had sought to film the original house that had been used for exterior shots during the original Brady Bunch series, but the owner of the Studio City, California home refused to restore the property to its 1969 appearance. The filmmakers instead erected a facade around a house in nearby Encino and filmed scenes in the front yard.[2]

text: Release[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film opened at #1 at the box office with $14,827,066 and grossed $46,576,136, in the U.S. and Canada and $7,500,000 overseas making a total gross of $54,076,136 worldwide.

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on DVD on June 10, 2003.[3] The film has also been released digitally on Google Play.[4]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 64% approval rating based on 41 review, with an average rating of 5.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Though lightweight and silly, The Brady Bunch Movie still charms as homage to the 70s sitcom."[5]

text: Leonard Klady of Variety wrote, "For five years back in the early 1970s, U.S. TV homes were in the thrall of "The Brady Bunch." Two decades after their small-screen demise, the clean-cut crew is back in mythic form as "The Brady Bunch Movie." Part homage, part spoof, the deft balancing act is a clever adaptation—albeit culled from less than pedigreed source material."[6] Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote, "The film establishes a bland, reassuring, comforting Brady reality - a certain muted tone that works just fine but needs, I think, a bleaker contrast from outside to fully exploit the humor. "The Brady Bunch Movie" is rated PG-13, which is a compromise: The Bradys themselves live in a PG universe, and the movie would have been funnier if when they ventured outside it was obviously Wayne's World."[7] Common Sense Media said that "for those who grew up watching the TV show, The Brady Bunch Movie is deeply satisfying and the best part is its nostalgia. Sure, it's fun to see the Bradys treated as freaks. But the heart of the film is a campy, affectionate interpretation of the TV show."[8]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Sequels[edit]

text: A Very Brady Sequel[edit]

text: A Very Brady Sequel, directed by Arlene Sanford, was released theatrically on August 23, 1996. It sees the family routine thrown into disarray when a man claiming to be Carol's long-lost first husband arrives on their doorstep. The family must then follow Carol to Hawaii in order to set things straight. All of the main cast members reprised their roles.

text: The Brady Bunch in the White House[edit]

text: The second sequel, The Brady Bunch in the White House, sees a convoluted series of mishaps end with Mike and Carol Brady elected as President and Vice President of the United States. Despite innocent efforts to improve the country, the Brady family is beset on all sides by controversy and imagined scandals which threaten to tear them apart. Although the original actors for Mike and Carol return, the children and Alice are all recast for this film, which was released as a filmed-for-television movie.


document_title: Price of oil

question_text: what was the highest oil price per barrel

root

text: Price of oil

text: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)[edit]

text: In 1960 the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded in Baghdad, Iraq by its first five members —Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela—,[4][5][6] with Qatar and Libya joining immediately, followed by United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador and Gabon after a decade. The goal of these countries was to increase its influence in the world oil market, then dominated by a cartel known as the "Seven Sisters", five of which were headquartered in the United States.[5] These companies had been controlling posted prices since the so-called 1927 Red Line Agreement and 1928 Achnacarry Agreement, and had achieved a high level of price stability until 1972.[5] Angola joined the OPEC in 2007 and Equatorial Guinea in 2017.

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text: Price history from 2003 onwards[edit]

text:
From 1999 til mid 2008, the price of oil rose significantly. It was explained by the rising oil demand in countries like China and India.[7]
In the middle of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, the price of oil underwent a significant decrease after the record peak of US$147.27 it reached on July 11, 2008. On December 23, 2008, WTI crude oil spot price fell to US$30.28 a barrel, the lowest since the financial crisis of 2007–2010 began. The price sharply rebounded after the crisis and rose to US$82 a barrel in 2009.[8] In July 2008 oil reached a record peak of US$147.27 but by February 2009 it sank beneath $40 a barrel.[9] On 31 January 2011, the Brent price hit $100 a barrel for the first time since October 2008, on concerns about the political unrest in Egypt.[10] For about three and half years the price largely remained in the $90–$120 range. In the middle of 2014, price started declining due to a significant increase in oil production in USA, and declining demand in the emerging countries.[11] The oil glut—caused by multiple factors—spurred a sharp downward spiral in the price of oil that continued through February 2016.[12] By February 3, 2016 oil was below $30—[13] a drop of "almost 75 percent since mid-2014 as competing producers pumped 1–2 million barrels of crude daily exceeding demand, just as China's economy hit lowest growth in a generation."[14] Some analysts speculate that it may continue to drop further, perhaps as low as $18[15]

text: According to a report released on February 15, 2016 by Deloitte LLP—the audit and consulting firm—with global crude oil at near ten-year low prices, 35% of listed E&P oil and gas companies are at a high risk of bankruptcy worldwide.[16][17] Indeed, bankruptcies "in the oil and gas industry could surpass levels seen in the Great Recession."[16][18]

text: The causes of oil price fluctuations[edit]

text: There are two views dominating the oil market discourse. There are those who strongly believe that the market has undergone structural changes and that low oil prices are here to stay for a prolonged period. At the other end of the spectrum, there are those who think that this is yet another cycle and oil prices will recover sooner rather than later.[19]

text: A 2016 survey of the academic literature finds that "most major oil price fluctuations dating back to 1973 are largely explained by shifts in the demand for crude oil".[20] As the global economy expands, so does demand for crude oil.[20] The authors note that the price of oil has also increased at times due to greater "demand for stocks (or inventories) of crude oil... to guard against future shortages in the oil market. Historically, inventory demand has been high in times of geopolitical tension in the Middle East, low spare capacity in oil production, and strong expected global economic growth."[20] In particular, political events can have a strong influence on the oil price. Historical examples include OPEC’s 1973 embargo in reaction to the Yom Kippur War and the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Financial analysts and academics have had very few tools to study such political events compared to what is available on economic aspects of oil price formation.[21] The PRIX index was developed in attempt to fill this gap with a metric on political developments and corresponding export trends from world’s 20 largest oil exporters.[21][22]

text: The supply of oil is dependent on geological discovery, the legal and tax framework for oil extraction, the cost of extraction, the availability and cost of technology for extraction, and the political situation in oil-producing countries. Both domestic political instability in oil producing countries and conflicts with other countries can destabilise the oil price. In 2008 the New York Times reported, for example, in the 1940s the price of oil was about $17 rising to just over $20 during the Korean War (1951–1953). During the Vietnam War (1950s – 1970s) the price of oil slowly declined to under $20. During the Arab oil embargo of 1973—the first oil shock—the price of oil rapidly rose to double in price. During the 1979 Iranian Revolution the price of oil rose. During the second oil shock the price of oil peaked in April 1980 at $103.76. During the 1980s there was a period of "conservation and insulation efforts" and the price of oil dropped slowly to c. $22. It again reached a peak of c. $65 during the 1990 Persian Gulf crisis and war. Following that, there was a period of global recessions and the price of oil hit a low of c. $15 before it peaked at a high of $45 on September 11, 2001[23] only to drop again to a low of $26 on May 8, 2003.[14] The price rose to $80 with the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. By March 3, 2008 the price of oil reached $103.95 a barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange.[23]

text: Although the oil price is largely determined by the balance between supply and demand—as with all commodities—some commentators including Business Week, the Financial Times and the Washington Post, argued that the rise in oil prices prior to the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was due to speculation in futures markets.[24][25][26][27][28]

text: For a dissenting view of oil prices being determined by demand, see Forbes, "Global Oil Demand is Always Rising – and Not Related to Price".[29]

text: Benchmark pricing[edit]

text: In North America this generally refers to the WTI Cushing Crude Oil Spot Price West Texas Intermediate (WTI), also known as Texas Light Sweet, a type of crude oil used as a benchmark in oil pricing and the underlying commodity of New York Mercantile Exchange's oil futures contracts. WTI is a light crude oil, lighter than Brent Crude oil. It contains about 0.24% sulfur, rating it a sweet crude, sweeter than Brent. Its properties and production site make it ideal for being refined in the United States, mostly in the Midwest and Gulf Coast regions. WTI has an API gravity of around 39.6 (specific gravity approx. 0.827) per barrel (159 liters) of either WTI/light crude as traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) for delivery at Cushing, Oklahoma. Cushing, Oklahoma, a major oil supply hub connecting oil suppliers to the Gulf Coast, has become the most significant trading hub for crude oil in North America.

text: In Europe and some other parts of the world, the oil price benchmark is Brent as traded on the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE, into which the International Petroleum Exchange has been incorporated) for delivery at Sullom Voe.

text: Other important benchmarks include Dubai, Tapis, and the OPEC basket. The Energy Information Administration (EIA) uses the imported refiner acquisition cost, the weighted average cost of all oil imported into the US, as its "world oil price".

text: In Robert Mabro's 2006 book on challenges and opportunities in oil in the 21st century, after the collapse of the OPEC-administered pricing system in 1985, and a short lived experiment with netback pricing, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-linked pricing mechanism.[30] First adopted by PEMEX in 1986, market-linked pricing received wide acceptance and by 1988 became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade.[30]  The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent, WTI, and Dubai/Oman.[30]

text: Market listings[edit]

text: Oil is marketed among other products in commodity markets. By 2008 widely traded oil futures, and related natural gas futures, included with most of these oil futures having delivery dates every month:[31][32]

text:
Petroleum
Nymex Crude Future
Dated Brent Spot
WTI Cushing Spot
Nymex Heating Oil Future
Nymex RBOB (Reformulated Blendstock for Oxygenate Blending) Gasoline Future
Natural gas
Nymex Henry Hub Future
Henry Hub Spot
New York City Gate Spot

tag: ul

text: Speculation during the 2008 crisis[edit]

text: In June 2008 Business Week reported that the surge in oil prices prior to 2008 had led some commentators to argue that at least some of the rise was due to speculation in the futures markets.[24] However, although speculation can greatly raise the oil price in the short run, in the long run fundamental market conditions will determine the oil price. Storing oil is expensive, and all speculators must ultimately, and generally within a few months, sell the oil they purchase.

text: According to a U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) May 29, 2008 report the "Multiple Energy Market Initiatives" was launched in partnership with the United Kingdom Financial Services Authority and ICE Futures Europe in order to expand surveillance and information sharing of various futures contracts.  Part 1 is "Expanded International Surveillance Information for Crude Oil Trading."[28]  This announcement has received wide coverage in the financial press, with speculation about oil futures price manipulation.[25][26][27]

text: The interim report by the Interagency Task Force, released in July, found that speculation had not caused significant changes in oil prices and that fundamental supply and demand factors provide the best explanation for the crude oil price increases. The report found that the primary reason for the price increases was that the world economy had expanded at its fastest pace in decades, resulting in substantial increases in the demand for oil, while the oil production grew sluggishly, compounded by production shortfalls in oil-exporting countries.

text: The report stated that as a result of the imbalance and low price elasticity, very large price increases occurred as the market attempted to balance scarce supply against growing demand, particularly in the last three years. The report forecast that this imbalance would persist in the future, leading to continued upward pressure on oil prices, and that large or rapid movements in oil prices are likely to occur even in the absence of activity by speculators. The task force continues to analyze commodity markets and intends to issue further findings later in the year.

text: Oil-storage trade (contango)[edit]

text: The strategy works because oil prices for delivery in the future are trading at a premium to those in the spot market – a market structure known in the industry as contango – with investors expecting prices to eventually recover from the near 60 percent slide in oil in the last seven months.

text: The oil-storage trade, also referred to as contango, a market strategy in which large, often vertically-integrated oil companies purchase oil for immediate delivery and storage—when the price of oil is low— and hold it in storage until the price of oil increases. Investors bet on the future of oil prices through a financial instrument, oil futures in which they agree on a contract basis, to buy or sell oil at a set date in the future. Crude oil is stored in salt mines, tanks and oil tankers.[33]

text: Investors can choose to take profits or losses prior to the oil-delivery date arrives. Or they can leave the contract in place and physical oil is "delivered on the set date" to an "officially designated delivery point", in the United States, that is usually Cushing, Oklahoma. When delivery dates approach, they close out existing contracts and sell new ones for future delivery of the same oil. The oil never moves out of storage. If the forward market is in "contango"—the forward price is higher than the current spot price—the strategy is very successful.

text: Scandinavian Tank Storage AB and its founder Lars Jacobsson introduced the concept on the market in early 1990.[34] But it was in 2007 through 2009 the oil storage trade expanded,[35] with many participants—including Wall Street giants, such as Morgan Stanley, Goldman Sachs, and Citicorp—turning sizeable profits simply by sitting on tanks of oil.[36] By May, 2007 Cushing's inventory fell by nearly 35% as the oil-storage trade heated up.[36]

text: "The trend follows a spike in oil futures prices that has created incentives for traders to buy crude oil and oil products at current rates, sell them on futures markets and store them until delivery."

text: By the end of October 2009 one in twelve of the largest oil tankers was being used more for temporary storage of oil, rather than transportation.[37]

text: From June 2014 to January 2015, as the price of oil dropped 60 percent and the supply of oil remained high, the world's largest traders in crude oil purchased at least 25 million barrels to store in supertankers to make a profit in the future when prices rise. Trafigura, Vitol, Gunvor, Koch, Shell and other major energy companies began to book booking oil storage supertankers for up to 12 months. By 13 January 2015 At least 11 Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC) and Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC)" have been reported as booked with storage options, rising from around five vessels at the end of last week. Each VLCC can hold 2 million barrels."[38]

text: In 2015 as global capacity for oil storage was out-paced by global oil production, and an oil glut occurred. Crude oil storage space became a tradable commodity with CME Group— which owns NYMEX— offering oil-storage futures contracts in March 2015.[33] Traders and producers can buy and sell the right to store certain types of oil.[33]

text: By 5 March 2015, as oil production outpaces oil demand by 1.5 million barrels a day, storage capacity globally is dwindling.[33] In the United States alone, according to data from the Energy Information Administration, U.S. crude-oil supplies are at almost 70% of the U. S. storage capacity, the highest to capacity ratio since 1935.[33]

text: Comparative cost of production[edit]

text:
Oil and gas barrel production Cost, March 2016[39]

Country
Grosstaxes
Capitalspending
Productioncosts
Admintransport
Total

UK
$0
$22.67
$17.36
$4.30
$44.33

Brazil
$6.66
$16.09
$9.45
$2.80
$34.99

Nigeria
$4.11
$13.10
$8.81
$2.97
$28.99

Venezuela
$10.48
$6.66
$7.94
$2.54
$27.62

Canada
$2.48
$9.69
$11.56
$2.92
$26.64

U.S. Shale
$6.42
$7.56
$5.85
$3.52
$23.35

Norway
$0.19
$13.76
$4.24
$3.12
$21.31

U.S. non-shale
$5.03
$7.70
$5.15
$3.11
$20.99

Indonesia
$1.55
$7.65
$6.87
$3.63
$19.71

Russia
$8.44
$5.10
$2.98
$2.69
$19.21

Iraq
$0.91
$5.03
$2.16
$2.47
$10.57

Iran
$0
$4.48
$1.94
$2.67
$9.08

Saudi Arabia
$0
$3.50
$3.00
$2.49
$8.98

tag: table

text: Future projections[edit]

text: Peak oil is the period when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline. It relates to a long-term decline in the available supply of petroleum.  This, combined with increasing demand, will significantly increase the worldwide prices of petroleum derived products.  Most significant will be the availability and price of liquid fuel for transportation.

text: The US Department of Energy in the Hirsch report indicates that "The problems associated with world oil production peaking will not be temporary, and past "energy crisis" experience will provide relatively little guidance."[40] The 2014 United Nations World Economic Situation and Prospects report notes that "Oil prices were on a downward trend in the first half of 2013 (after a spike in January and February caused by geopolitical tensions with Iran), as global demand for oil weakened along with the deceleration in world economic growth overall." [41]

text: According to the United Nations, world oil demand is projected to reach over 99 million barrels per day in 2018.[42]

text: Impact of declining oil price[edit]

text: A major rise or decline in oil price can have both economic and political impacts. The decline on oil price during 1985–1986 is considered to have contributed to the fall of the Soviet Union.[43] Low oil prices could alleviate some of the negative effects associated with the resource curse, such as authoritarian rule[44][45][46][47][48] and gender inequality.[49][50] Lower oil prices could however also lead to domestic turmoil and diversionary war. The reduction in food prices that follows lower oil prices could have positive impacts on violence globally.[51]

text: Research shows that declining oil prices make oil-rich states less bellicose.[52] Low oil prices could also make oil-rich states engage more in international cooperation, as they become more dependent on foreign investments.[53] The influence of the United States reportedly increases as oil prices decline, at least judging by the fact that "both oil importers and exporters vote more often with the United States in the United Nations General Assembly" during oil slumps.[51]

text:
The macroeconomics impact on lower oil prices is lower inflation. A lower inflation rate is good for the consumers. This means that the general price of a basket of goods would increase at a bare minimum on a year to year basis. Consumer can benefit as they would have a better purchasing power, which may improve real gdp [54]. However, in recent countries like Japan, the decrease in oil prices may cause deflation and it shows that consumers are not willing to spend even though the prices of goods are decreasing yearly, which indirectly increases the real debt burden.[54]
Declining oil prices may boost consumer oriented stocks but may hurt oil-based stocks.[55][56] It is estimated that 17–18% of S&P would decline with declining oil prices.

text: The oil importing economies like EU, Japan, China or India would benefit, however the oil producing countries would lose.[57][58][59] A Bloomberg article presents results of an analysis by Oxford Economics on the GDP growth of countries as a result of a drop from $84 to $40. It shows the GDP increase between 0.5% to 1.0% for India, USA and China, and a decline of greater than 3.5% from Saudi Arabia and Russia. A stable price of $60 would add 0.5 percentage point to global gross domestic product.

text: Katina Stefanova has argued that falling oil prices do not imply a recession and a decline in stock prices.[60] Liz Ann Sonders, Chief Investment Strategist at Charles Schwab, had earlier written that  that  positive impact on consumers and businesses outside of the energy sector, which is a larger portion of the US economy will outweigh the negatives.[61] Taking cues from a legendary oil investor, Harold Hamm, ranked as one of the richest men in the world by Forbes, Shawn Baldwin, Chairman of alternative investment firm The AIA Group, speculates that oil prices will rise by year-end 2016 from current levels.[62]

text: Oil glut[edit]

text: Economists have observed that the 2015–2016 oil glut also known as 2010s oil glut started with a considerable time-lag, more than six years after the beginning of the Great Recession: "the price of oil [had] stabilized at a relatively high level (around $100 a barrel) unlike all  previous recessionary cycles since 1980 (start of First Persian Gulf War). But nothing guarantee[d] such price levels in perpetuity".[63]

text: During 2014–2015, OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling, and China experienced a marked slowdown in economic growth. At the same time, U.S. oil production nearly doubled from 2008 levels, due to substantial improvements in shale "fracking" technology in response to record oil prices. A combination of factors led a plunge in U.S. oil import requirements and a record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage, and a collapse in oil prices that continues into 2016.[64][65][66]

text: It has also been argued that the collapse in oil prices in 2015 should be very beneficial for developed western economies, who are generally oil importers and aren't over exposed to declining demand from China.[67] In the Asia-Pacific region, exports and economic growth were at significant risk across economies reliant on commodity exports as an engine of growth. The most vulnerable economies were those with a high dependence on fuel and mineral exports to China, such as: Korea DPR, Mongolia and Turkmenistan – where primary commodity exports account for 59–99% of total exports and more than 50% of total exports are destined to China. The decline in China’s demand for commodities also adversely affected the growth of exports and GDP of large commodity-exporting economies such as Australia (minerals) and the Russian Federation (fuel). On the other hand, lower commodity prices led to an improvement in the trade balance – through lower the cost of raw materials and fuels – across commodity importing economies, particularly Cambodia, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal and other remote island nations (Kiribati, Maldives, Micronesia (F.S), Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu) which are highly dependent on fuel and agricultural imports [68]

text: The North Sea oil and gas industry was financially stressed by the reduced oil prices, and called for government support in May 2016.[69]

text: Hedging as risk management[edit]

text: The use of hedging using commodity derivatives as a risk management tool on price exposure to liquidity and earnings, has been long established in North America. Chief Financial Officers (CFOS) use derivatives to dampen, remove or mitigate price uncertainty.[70] Bankers also use hedge funds to more "safely increase leverage to smaller oil and gas companies."[70] However, when not properly used, "derivatives can multiply losses"[70] particularly in North America where investors are more comfortable with higher levels of risk than in other countries.[70]

text: With the large number of bankruptcies as reported by Deloitte[18] "funding [for upstream oil industry] is shrinking and hedges are unwinding."[16] "Some oil producers are also choosing to liquidate hedges for a quick infusion of cash, a risky bet."[17]

text: "Access to capital markets, bankers' support and derivatives protection, which helped smooth an otherwise rocky road, are fast waning...The roughly 175 companies at risk of bankruptcy have more than $150 billion in debt, with the slipping value of secondary stock offerings and asset sales further hindering their ability to generate cash."

text: To finance exploration and production of the unconventional shale oil industry in the United States, "hundreds of billions of dollars of capital came from non-bank participants [non-bank buyers of bank energy credits] in leveraged loans] that were thought at the time to be low risk.[71] However, with the oil glut that continued into 2016, about a third of oil companies are facing bankruptcy.[18] While investors were aware that there was a risk that the operator might declare bankruptcy, they felt protected because "they had come in at the 'bank' level, where there was a senior claim on the assets [and] they could get their capital returned."[70]

text: By 2012,[70]

text: "... in recent years the combination of the development of large resource plays in the US and the emergence of business models designed to ensure consistent dividend payouts to investors has led to the development of more aggressive hedging policies in companies and less restrictive covenants in bank loans."

text: A classic example of taking on too much risk through hedging is the 1982 collapse of Penn Square Bank caused by plummeting of the price of oil in 1981.[71] Penn Square Bank had lent too much to Exploration and Production E&P operators. Penn Square Bank caused the failure of Seafirst in 1982 and then Continental Illinois.[71] When they failed and were liquidated by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) the non-bank buyers or participants of bank energy credits of these leveraged loans participants were considered to be 'unsecured claims,' not 'true sales' and they were not able to collect any capital.[71]

text: At the 5th annual World Pensions Forum in 2015, Jeffrey Sachs advised institutional investors to divest from carbon-reliant oil industry firms in their pension fund's portfolio.[72]

text: 2015–16 prices: The lows of January 2016[73][edit]

text: Because of oversupply and lack of agreements between oil-producing countries members of the OPEC (Saudi Arabia in particular, which pumped at world's records) and also because of lack of coordinated efforts between OPEC and Non-OPEC countries (Russian being a big player, refusing to reduce production) the price of oil fell rapidly in 2015 and continued to slide in 2016 causing the cost of WTI crude to fall to a 10-year low of $26.55 on January 20. The average price of oil in January 2016 was well below $35. Oil did not recover until April 2016, when oil went above the $45 mark.

text: By 20 January 2016, the OPEC Reference Basket was down to US$22.48/bbl—less than one-fourth of its high from June 2014 ($110.48), less than one-sixth of its record from July 2008 ($147.27), and back below the April 2003 starting point ($23.27) of its historic run-up.[66] According to the United Nations, growth prospects of the oil exporters are predicted to remain subdued past 2018.[74]


document_title: American Heart Association

question_text: when was the american heart association website created

text: American Heart Association

text: History[edit]

text: This article or section appears to be slanted towards recent events. Please try to keep recent events in historical perspective and add more content related to non-recent events. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: 1915–1980s: Founding and early years[edit]

text: The American Heart Association grew out of a set of smaller precursor groups. The primary precursor was the Association for the Prevention and Relief of Heart Disease, formed in New York City in 1915, to study whether patients with heart disease could safely return to work. Several similar organizations formed or evolved in Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago in the 1920s. Recognizing the need for a national organization to share research and promote findings, the American Heart Association was formed in 1924 by six cardiologists representing several of these precursor groups.[1]

text: The AHA remained small until the 1940s when it was selected for support by Procter & Gamble, via their PR firm, from a list of applicant charities. Procter & Gamble gave $1.5 million from its radio show, Truth or Consequences, allowing the organization to go national.[5]

text: Recommendations regarding limiting saturated fats and cholesterol emerged from a series of scientific studies in the 1950s, and related American Heart Association dietary guidelines emerged between 1957 and 1961. The 1957 AHA report included: (1) Diet may play an important role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, (2) The fat content and total calories in the diet are probably important factors, (3) The ratio between saturated and unsaturated fat may be the basic determinant, and (4) A wide variety of other factors beside fat, both dietary and non-dietary, may be important. By 1961, these finding had been strengthened, leading to the new 1961 AHA recommendations: (1) Maintain a correct body weight, (2) Engage in moderate exercise, e.g., walking to aid in weight reduction, (3) Reduce intake of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol. Increase intake of polyunsaturated fat, (4) Men with a strong family history of atherosclerosis should pay particular attention to diet modification, and (5) Dietary changes should be carried out under medical supervision. These recommendations continued to become more precise from 1957 to 1980, but maintained "a general coherence among them".[6]

text: 1990s–2000s: Awareness campaigns[edit]

text: In 1994, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, an industry publication, released the results of the largest study of charitable and non-profit organization popularity and credibility. The study showed that the American Heart Association was ranked as the 5th "most popular charity/non-profit in America" of over 100 charities researched with 95% of Americans over the age of 12 choosing Love and Like A lot description category for the American Heart Association.[3]

text: In 2003 published the “Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure” (JNC 7).[7]

text: On October 28, 2009 The American Heart Association and the Ad Council launched a hands-only CPR public service announcement and website.[8] On November 30, 2009, The American Heart Association announced a new cardiac arrest awareness campaign called Be the Beat.[9] The campaign's aim is to teach 12- to 15-year-olds fun ways to learn the basics of cardiopulmonary resuscitation and how to use an automated external defibrillator.

text: In 2010 the AHA launched the "Go Red for Women" campaign. Historically men have been the primary subjects of heart disease and stroke research. "Go Red for Women" specifically targets women with information about risks and action they can take to protect their health. All revenues from the local and national campaigns goes to support awareness, research, education and community programs to benefit women.[10]

text: In May 2010, the AHA endorsed the Nintendo Wii Console. The AHA Heart Icon is featured on the box of the console as well as on the Wii Fit Plus and Wii Sports Resort titles.

text: 2012–15: Recent events and activities[edit]

text: It also carried out a campaign in 2012 to educate more people on how to carry out hands-only CPR.[11][12][13] The 2012 campaign, which began in New York City, had Jennifer Coolidge as the spokesperson.[14]

text: In 2012, singer-songwriter and actress Michelle Williams became an ambassador for the Power to End Stroke campaign. In speaking of her role she said "I am honored to partner with the campaign […] My father had a stroke in 2005 due to smoking, diabetes and an unhealthy diet, and my grandmother was diagnosed with having a stroke in 2006 when she went to her doctor for a simple outpatient procedure. I am bringing awareness to people so that strokes can be prevented. Let's take care of ourselves…the first step is knowledge about your health."[15]

text: In 2014, the American Heart Association issued its first guidelines for preventing strokes in women.[2]

text: In 2015, the American Heart Association officially endorsed the Tobacco 21 campaign, urging local, state and national governments to raise the tobacco and nicotine sales age from 18 to 21.[16]

text: Key people[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2015)

text:
Elliott Antman, M.D., is president of the American Heart Association for its 2014–15 fiscal year. As president, Antman is chief volunteer scientific and medical officer, responsible for medical, scientific and public health matters. He is a professor of medicine and Associate Dean for Clinical/Translational Research at Harvard Medical School and a senior physician in the Cardiovascular Division of the Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston.[citation needed]
Melania Trump was the Chairwoman for The American Heart Association in 2010.[17]
In 2012, singer-songwriter and actress Michelle Williams became an ambassador for the Power to End Stroke campaign.[15]
Shahbudin Rahimtoola Chairman, Council on Clinical Cardiology

text: Publications[edit]

text: Journals[edit]

text:
Hypertension
Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology
Stroke
Circulation
Circulation Research
Journal of the American Heart Association: Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Disease

text: Standards[edit]

text:
Basic life support
Advanced cardiac life support (ACLS)


document_title: Still of the Night (song)

question_text: who played guitar on still of the night

question_tokens: who played guitar on still of the night

text: Still of the Night (song)

text: Background[edit]

text: In 2009, in an interview with Metal Hammer, Coverdale commented on the origins of the song:

text: "When my mother died I was going through the stuff at her house and found some early demo cassettes. One of them was a song that Ritchie Blackmore and I had been working on which was the basic premise of what would become "Still of the Night". It was totally unrecognizable, so Ritchie doesn't have anything to worry about... neither do I! Ha ha ha! I took it as far as I could then I gave it to Sykesy when we were in the south of France, and he put the big guitar hero stuff on there. John hated blues so I had to work within those parameters. I manipulated to be electric blues, but how he performed it was fabulous for his time and relatively unique because of the songs. There were a lot of people doing that widdly stuff but they didn't have the quality of those songs."

text: Music video[edit]

text: The video for the song, starring Coverdale's future wife Tawny Kitaen, was MTV's most requested in its first week of release.[citation needed] Kitaen's role had been promised to the pre-fame Claudia Schiffer.[4]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Whitesnake withheld licensing of "Still of the Night" for use in the video game Rock Revolution; a cover version of the song was subsequently featured in the game. The studio version later appeared as Rock Band DLC in 2012.

text: Moreover, the song is played in 2011 movie Bad Teacher.

text: The Finnish symphonic metal singer Tarja Turunen covered the song for her album What Lies Beneath. The American band, Halestorm, also covered the song for the album Reanimate 3.0; the song peaked at #20 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart in 2017.[5] Static-X covered the song as a bonus track for their album Cult of Static.

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
"Still of the Night" – 6:38
"Here I Go Again" – 4:33
"You're Gonna Break My Heart Again" – 4:11

tag: ol

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
David Coverdale – vocals
John Sykes – guitar, bowed guitar
Neil Murray – bass guitar
Aynsley Dunbar – drums
Don Airey – keyboards


document_title: List of common physics notations

question_text: what is the symbol for energy in physics

text: List of common physics notations

text: Latin characters[edit]

text:
Symbol

Meaning

SI unit of measure

A

{\displaystyle A}

area

meter squared (m2)

magnetic vector potential

amplitude

meter

atomic mass number

a

{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} }

acceleration

meters per second squared (m/s2)

B

{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }

magnetic flux density  also called the magnetic field density or magnetic induction

tesla (T), or equivalently, weber per square meter (Wb/m2)

C

{\displaystyle C}

capacitance

farad (F)

heat capacity

joule per kelvin (J K−1), or equivalently, joule per degree Celsius (J °C−1)

constant of integration

varied depending on context

c

{\displaystyle c}

speed of light (in vacuum)

299,792,458 meter per second (m/s)

speed of sound

340.29 meter per second (m/s)

specific heat capacity

joule per kilogram per kelvin (J kg−1 K−1), or equivalently, joule per kilogram per degree Celsius (J kg−1 °C−1)

viscous damping coefficient

kilogram per second (kg/s)

D

{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} }

electric displacement field  also called the electric flux density

coulomb per square meter (C/m2)

D

{\displaystyle D}

density

kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)

d

{\displaystyle d}

distance

meter (m)

direction

unitless

impact parameter

meter (m)

diameter

meter (m)

differential (e.g.

d
x

{\displaystyle dx}

)

d

A

{\displaystyle d\mathbf {A} }

differential vector element of surface area A,  with infinitesimally
small magnitude and direction normal to surface S

square meter (m2)

d
V

{\displaystyle dV}

differential element of volume V enclosed by surface S

cubic meter (m3)

E

{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} }

electric field

newton per coulomb (N C−1), or equivalently, volt per meter (V m−1)

E

{\displaystyle E}

energy

joule (J)

Young's Modulus

Pascal (Pa) or Newton per square meter (N/m2) or kilogram per meter per second squared (kg·m−1·s−2)

e

{\displaystyle e}

eccentricity

unitless

2.71828... (base of the natural logarithm)

unitless

elementary charge

coulomb (C)

electron

9.10938×10−31(kg)

F

{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} }

force

newton (N)

f

{\displaystyle f}

frequency

hertz (Hz)

function

friction

newton (N)

G

{\displaystyle G}

the gravitational constant

newton meter squared per kilogram squared (N m2/kg2)

g

{\displaystyle g}

acceleration due to gravity

meter per second squared (m/s2), or equivalently, newton per kilogramme (N/kg)

H

{\displaystyle \mathbf {H} }

magnetic field strength

ampere per meter (A/m)

H

{\displaystyle H}

Hamiltonian

joule (J)

h

{\displaystyle h}

height

meter (m)

Planck's constant

joule second (J s)

ℏ

{\displaystyle \hbar }

reduced Planck's constant

(

h

2
π

)

{\displaystyle \textstyle \left({\frac {h}{2\pi }}\right)}

joule second (J s)

I

{\displaystyle I}

action

joule second (J s)

intensity

watt per square meter (W/m2)

sound intensity

watt per square meter (W/m2)

electric current

ampere (A)

moment of inertia

kilogram meter squared (kg m2)

i

{\displaystyle i}

intensity

watt per square meter (W/m2)

imaginary unit

i
^

{\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {i}} }

Cartesian x-axis basis unit vector

unitless

j

{\displaystyle j}

imaginary unit (electrical)

J

{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} }

free current density (not including bound currents due to polarization or magnetization)

ampere per square meter (A/m2)

impulse

kilogram meter per second (kg m/s)

j
^

{\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {j}} }

Cartesian y-axis basis unit vector

unitless

K

{\displaystyle K}

kinetic energy

joule (J)

k

{\displaystyle k}

Boltzmann constant

joule per kelvin (J/K)

wavenumber, wave vector

radians per meter (m−1)

k
^

{\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {k}} }

Cartesian z-axis basis unit vector

unitless

L

{\displaystyle L}

inductance

henry (H)

luminosity

watt (W)

angular momentum

newton meter second (N m s or kg m2 s−1)

Lagrangian

joule (J)

l

{\displaystyle l}

length

meter (m)

M

{\displaystyle M}

magnetization

ampere per meter (A/m)

moment of force  often simply called moment or torque

newton meter (N m)

m

{\displaystyle m}

mass

kilogram (kg)

N

{\displaystyle N}

normal vector

unit varies depending on context

atomic number

unitless

n

{\displaystyle n}

refractive index

unitless

principal quantum number

unitless

P

{\displaystyle P}

power

watt (W)

probability

unitless

p

{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} }

momentum

kilogram meter per second (kg m/s)

pressure

pascal (Pa)

Q

{\displaystyle Q}

electric charge

coulomb (C)

Heat

joule (J)

q

{\displaystyle q}

electric charge

coulomb (C)

R

{\displaystyle R}

electrical resistance

ohm (Ω)

Ricci tensor

unitless

radiancy

gas constant

joule per kilogramme kelvin (J/kgK)

r

{\displaystyle \mathbf {r} }

radius vector (position)

meter (m)

r

{\displaystyle r}

radius of rotation or distance between two things such as the masses in Newton's law of universal gravitation

meter (m)

S

{\displaystyle S}

surface area

m2

entropy

joule per kelvin (J/K)

action

s

{\displaystyle s}

arc length

meter (m)

displacement

meter (m)

T

{\displaystyle T}

period

second (s)

temperature

kelvin (K)

t

{\displaystyle t}

time

second (s)

U

{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }

four-velocity

meter per second (m/s)

U

{\displaystyle U}

potential energy

joule (J)

internal energy

joule (J)

u

{\displaystyle u}

relativistic mass

kilogram (kg)

energy density

joule per cubic meter (J/m3) or joule per kilogram (J/kg) depending on the context

V

{\displaystyle V}

voltage  also called electric potential difference

volt (V)

volume

cubic meter (m3)

shear force

v

{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }

velocity

meter per second (m/s)

W

{\displaystyle W}

mechanical work

joule (J)

w

{\displaystyle w}

width

meter (m)

x

{\displaystyle x}

a generic unknown

varied depending on context

displacement

meter (m)

Z

{\displaystyle Z}

electrical impedance

ohm (Ω)

text: Greek characters[edit]

text:
Symbol

Name

Meaning

SI unit of measure

α

{\displaystyle \alpha }

alpha

angular acceleration

radian per second squared (rad/s2)

β

{\displaystyle \beta }

beta

velocity in terms of the speed of light c

unitless

γ

{\displaystyle \gamma }

gamma

Lorentz factor

unitless

photon

gamma ray

shear strain

Heat capacity ratio

unitless

Δ

{\displaystyle \Delta }

delta

a change in a variable (a change of "blank") (e.g.

Δ
x

{\displaystyle \Delta x}

)

unitless

Laplace operator

per square meter (m−2)

δ

{\displaystyle \delta }

displacement (usually small)

ϵ

{\displaystyle \epsilon }

epsilon

permittivity

farad per meter (F/m)

strain

unitless

ε

0

{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}}

epsilon
nought

The vacuum permittivity constant

ζ

{\displaystyle \zeta }

zeta

damping ratio

unitless

η

{\displaystyle \eta }

eta

energy efficiency

unitless

coefficient of viscosity  also called simply viscosity

pascal second (Pa s)

θ

{\displaystyle \theta }

theta

angular displacement

radian (rad)

K

{\displaystyle \mathrm {K} }

kappa

torsion coefficient  also called torsion constant

newton meter per radian (N m/rad)

Λ

{\displaystyle \Lambda }

lambda

cosmological constant

per second squared (s−2)

λ

{\displaystyle \lambda }

wavelength

meter (m)

eigenvalue

non-zero vector

μ

{\displaystyle \mathbf {\mu } }

mu

magnetic moment

ampere square meter (A m2)

coefficient of friction

unitless

dynamic viscosity

Pascal second (Pa s)

permeability (electromagnetism)

Henry per meter (H/m)

reduced mass

kilogram (kg)

gravitational parameter

ν

{\displaystyle \nu }

nu

frequency

hertz (Hz)

kinematic viscosity

meters squared per second (m2/s)

π

{\displaystyle \pi }

pi

3.14159... (irrational number)

unitless

ρ

{\displaystyle \rho }

rho

mass density  usually simply called density

kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3)

free electric charge density, not including dipole charges bound in a material

coulomb per cubic meter (C/m3)

resistivity

Ohm meter (

Ω

{\displaystyle \Omega }

 m)

Σ

{\displaystyle \Sigma }

sigma

summation operator

σ

{\displaystyle \sigma }

sigma

electrical conductivity

Siemens per meter (S/m)

normal stress

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

tau

torque

newton meter (N m)

shear stress

time constant

second (s)

6.28318... (2π)

unitless

Φ

{\displaystyle \Phi }

phi

field strength

unit varies depending on context

Magnetic Flux

Weber (Wb)

ϕ

{\displaystyle \phi }

phi

Electric Potential

volt (V)

Higgs Field Work Function

Ψ

{\displaystyle \Psi }

psi

Wave function

m−3/2

ω

{\displaystyle \omega }

omega

Angular frequency
2πf

radian per second (rad/s)

Ω

{\displaystyle \Omega }

omega

electric resistance

ohm

η

Eta

Jerk

meter per second cubed (m/s3)

text: Other characters[edit]

text:
Symbol

Name

Meaning

SI unit of measure

∇
⋅

{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot }

nabla dot

the divergence operator  often pronounced "del dot"

per meter (m−1)

∇
×

{\displaystyle \nabla \times }

nabla cross

the curl operator  often pronounced "del cross"

per meter (m−1)

∇

{\displaystyle \nabla }

nabla

delta (differential operator)

Δ

{\displaystyle \Delta }

Delta

the Laplace operator

per square meter (m−2)

∂

{\displaystyle \partial }

"der", "dow", "die", "partial" or simply "d"

partial derivative (e.g.

∂
y

/

∂
x

{\displaystyle \partial y/\partial x}

)

◻

{\displaystyle \Box }

D'Alembert operator

∇

2

−

∂

t

2

{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}-\partial _{t}^{2}}


document_title: Sydney Royal Easter Show

question_text: when did the royal easter show move to homebush

text: Sydney Royal Easter Show

text: History[edit]

text: The Sydney Royal Easter Show is the largest event held in Australia, and the sixth largest in the world[citation needed]. The first Easter Show was held in 1823 by the newly formed Agricultural Society of New South Wales, with the aim of encouraging the colony's rural industries. The site was at Parramatta Park, 24 kilometres west of the town of Sydney, and the display included horses, cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry.

text: In 1869, the venue was moved from Parramatta to Prince Alfred Park until 1881 when the Government of New South Wales provided land for the Royal Agricultural Society at Moore Park where the show was held for 116 years. In 1998, the show moved to a new showground within the Sydney Olympic Park precinct at Homebush Bay. The former Sydney Showground at Moore Park has since been converted into Fox Studios Australia with associated development known as The Entertainment Quarter.[3]

text: The show has been held every year since 1869 except during the severe outbreak of the Spanish flu in 1919 and between the years of 1942 and 1946 when it was interrupted by World War II.[4] Traditionally, the show began on the Friday before Easter, was closed on Sundays and Good Friday and packed up the Tuesday following Easter, the Tuesday being "Children's Day" when goods such as showbags were reduced in price.

text: At the RAS Showground at Moore Park, the largest single event of the show was the Grand Parade on Easter Saturday when hundreds of beasts representing the various classes of livestock were paraded in a series of concentric circles. To the public eye, this spectacular sight, which involved creatures ranging from newborn lambs and Shetland ponies to Brahman bulls and Clydesdale stallions, was staged with such skill that it invariably took place without a hitch. However, on one memorable occasion a steer broke loose and plunged into the quarters of the Royal Agricultural Society. The Grand Parade continues to take place, though on a somewhat smaller scale, at the Sydney Showground Stadium.

text: Yielding to pressure from the public, the show was later to be opened on Sundays and Good Friday. With the move to Homebush Bay, the show was extended to 16 days. In 2000 it was reduced to 14 days. In 2007, a revised program took into account changes to NSW School Holidays, the show commencing on the Thursday before Good Friday in order to increase the holiday time for families to attend.[5] In 2018, it returned to its traditional 12 days.[6] If Easter falls in March the show is held outside of school holidays.

text: Overview[edit]

text: Rural industry[edit]

text: Horticulture[edit]

text: The first purpose of the show is specifically to encourage agriculture. Although other aspects of the show have developed including competitions, entertainment and commerce, the display of the products of rural industry remain of major importance, the RAS claiming 30,000 rural exhibits in 2007.[7] One of the most popular sights at the show is the "District Exhibits" competition. These displays are set up by four districts of NSW and South East Queensland. A theme is selected and created pictorially on a large scale, to strict rules and using only the produce of the particular district which typically includes wool, wheat, apples, pumpkins, sugar cane, citrus fruit, vegetables and brightly coloured bottles of preserves. Also displayed are other primary products such as fleeces, carcases of beef, wine, honey, cheese and sausages. There is also a flower show at which are judged both horticultural specimens and floral displays.

text: Livestock[edit]

text: During the course of the show, a large range of livestock is judged. This includes the famous Merino sheep, whose fine wool was a major source of Australia's wealth in the 19th and 20th centuries. Also shown are dairy cattle of which the major breeds are the Australian Illawarra Shorthorn, Friesian, Ayrshire, Jersey and Guernsey. Beef cattle are predominantly Hereford, Aberdeen Angus and Murray Grey with other breeds including Brahman, Devon and Charolais. Other livestock judged at the show include a variety of sheep, pigs, goats, alpacas and poultry of all sorts.

text: Horses[edit]

text: The central arena of the showground is used throughout the show for the judging more than 1,000 equestrian events. The classes include events for horses, riders, pairs, teams, rodeo riders, show jumping and driving. Horses are shown in 24 different breed classes including Australian Stock Horses, Buckskins, Clydesdales, Hackneys, Miniature Horses, Australian National Saddlehorses, Palominos, Percherons, Pintos, Shetland Ponies, Shires, and Warmbloods etc. A large section of the ridden classes are pony, galloway and hack height classes, and the "Sydney Royal" is considered one of the hardest and most prestigious shows in Australia. A popular sight in the arena is the Carlton & United Breweries wagon, drawn by the team of "Carlton Clydesdales".

text: Domestic animals[edit]

text: As part of the Royal Easter Show there is a Dog Show in which about 3,000 dogs are displayed and judged. There is also a Cat Show and competitions for caged birds, rabbits, mice and rats. There is a large pigeon show. Displays are given by working dogs, Australian Kelpies, Border Collies and Australian Cattle Dogs.

text: Animal Nursery[edit]

text: One of the most popular exhibitions of the show is the Animal Nursery. In this large purpose-built shed a great variety of common and uncommon domestic animals are put on display, in a way that is highly accessibly to families with young children. Animals are shown with their young. Children are allowed to pat most of the animals and areas are reserved where children can enter the enclosures with explainers and get closer to small animals such as rabbits, lambs and ducks. Popular features are the chick hatchery and the duckling water slide.

text: Rural competitions[edit]

text: "The Woodchop" is one of the most popular demonstrations and competitions, taking place in a purpose-built stadium. The timber used is Australian hardwood so the splinters really fly.

text: Other popular events are the Tent Pegging and the Polocrosse with the NSW Mounted Police on their well-matched bay horses always competing. The Dressage and Show Jumping are the culmination of Australia-wide gymkhanas held at the annual circuit of local agricultural shows, with successful competitors going on to Olympic competition. The equally demanding but less fastidious skills of buckjumping and steer-roping draw young men from across Australia and Northern America to compete in the Rodeo.

text: Arts and Crafts[edit]

text: Since the 19th century competitions have been held "for the ladies". These competitions have traditionally included the making of scones, fruitcake and preserves. Crafts have traditionally included three crochetted doilies, a smocked baby's dress and a man's knitted sleeveless sweater. Over 100 years the classes have been expanded to include a vast range of cooking and crafts in which men may also compete. Among the crafts are the spinning, weaving and dyeing of wool, woodwork, leatherwork, enamelling, lacemaking, embroidery, toymaking and patchwork.

text: The various fashions in craft have changed dramatically over the years and these changes are reflected in the number of exhibits and in the classes. From 1960 until about 1990 one of the most popular crafts was cake decorating, with numerous expert decorators vying for fineness in their "extension work" and creating designs of extraordinary delicacy and intricacy. In the 21st century these technical skills have almost disappeared. On the other hand, the art of paper tole, also requiring of much fine control, has become a popular craft, as witnessed by the large number of entries to the competition.

text: Associated with the show, and displayed in the same pavilion as the craft competitions is an Art Show with classes for Rural subjects, Still Life, Watercolour and Figurative painting. There are competitions for sculpture, photography, silverwork and ceramics.

text: Other contributors[edit]

text: Government displays[edit]

text: The State and Federal Governments both contribute exhibitions to the show though their presence has diminished significantly since the relocation to Homebush Bay in 1998. Many government departments such as NSW Lotteries, CityRail and NSW Health have axed their annual displays. However bodies such as The New South Wales Rural Fire Service, New South Wales Police Force, the Ambulance Service and the Army Reserve continue to set up displays to inform and promote goodwill to the public.

text: Services[edit]

text: Foremost among the charitable bodies and service organisations with an active presence at the show are the St John Ambulance Australia who not only provided on the spot attention for sunstroke but also injuries sustained while steer-roping. Providing sustenance of another sort is the Country Women's Association who have a prominently placed cafe selling Devonshire Teas and other goodies.

text: Commercial[edit]

text: An important tradition of the Royal Easter Show since 1900 is the selling of merchandises known as showbags.[4] Originally called 'Sample Bags' (and free),[4] they were a means for manufacturers to market their products to the general public, today showbags often come in the form of promotional merchandises, as well as toys targeting children.

text: Apart from Showbag Hall there are many other commercial enterprises who are "stall holders" at the Royal Easter Show. These range from international companies providing finance and agricultural plant to purveyors of fairground ephemera, fairy floss and meat pies. Many of the manufacturers represented are providing goods closely associated with rural industry such as work boots, woollen sweaters and the iconic Akubra hat and Driza-Bone raincoat. S John Ross, master of the silhouette, won the Legend Award at the 2007 Royal Easter Show. S. John Ross worked until his death at age 89.

text: Entertainment[edit]

text: The Royal Easter Show has a sideshow alley along which are the amusement rides, sideshows and competitive stands. The provided entertainment includes pop music concerts and, in 2007, a staged sideshow program has been introduced as well.

text: In 2009, the show debuted three new amusement rides, Pirate's Revenge(a Reverchon Log Flume), Buried Alive (a motion simulator simulating being buried alive) and the Haunted Hotel (Ghost Train). These join such traditional delights as Frank Laurie's Steam Merry-Go-Round, built in the 1890s and touring Australia for 80 years.

text: In the evening the Sydney Showground Stadium becomes the venue for spectacular entertainment which regularly includes the NSW Mounted Police Musical Ride, the Precision Driving display, originally performed in Holdens, but in recent years Toyotas. The entertainment culminates with fireworks. The Australia versus New Zealand Rodeo Teams Challenge is also an exciting event with plenty of action.

text: Pricing[edit]

text: The show organisers received public criticism for the pricing of the 2006 show.[8] The cost was approximately $30 per adult and $20 per child for entry, but including food and souvenirs the estimated cost per person ran to A$80. It was widely expressed that the show was out of reach of low income earners and poor families. The 2013 prices were $37.50 for an adult, $23.50 for children and $28.00 for concessions.

text: Tickets for the show can be purchased on line via Ticketmaster and from Woolworths Supermarkets where the pass includes travel. Tickets were previously available at railway stations and on some buses however as of 2015 this option has been discontinued. In 2015 showbags were priced from $1 to $30.

text: Transport[edit]

text: With only limited parking available, most people arrive by passenger transport. The event is classified as a major event by the State Government with Sydney Trains operating regular services from Central and Lidcombe. NSW TrainLink Blue Mountains Line and Bathurst Bullet services make an additional stop at Lidcombe for the duration of the show.[9]

text: On weekends regular services operate to and from Peneith and Schofields along with a few Central Coast & Newcastle Line services from Newcastle Interchange and Wyong. The Olympic Park bus network also operates from various locations across Sydney.[9]

text: Photo gallery[edit]

text:
The Grand Parade at the Sydney Showground Stadium

The Grand Parade pauses for photographs

The Western District display

The Precision Driving Team performs in the main arena

Sideshows and rides are a popular part of the show

Rides and attractions at the 2013 show

The first-place winner in the "Ridden Hack" class is escorted on a lap of honour by a steward

Hacks of 16 hands and over

The Merino ram, icon of Australia's rural industry

The Champion Superfine Merino fleece

Border Leicester sheep lined up for the judge

A goose

A Nubian goat

A Wessex Saddleback pig

An Australian Kelpie working sheep


document_title: OSI model

question_text: what are the 7 layers of osi model in networking

text: OSI model

text: History[edit]

text: In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.

text: In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU-T) as standard X.200.

text: OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols.

text: The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6.1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.

text: Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.

text: The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of recommendations.[1] Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.[2]

text: Description of OSI layers[edit]

text: The recommendation X.200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.

text:
OSI Model

Layer

Protocol data unit (PDU)

Function[3]

Hostlayers

7. Application

Data

High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file access

6. Presentation

Translation of data between a networking service and an application; including character encoding, data compression and encryption/decryption

5. Session

Managing communication sessions, i.e. continuous exchange of information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes

4. Transport

Segment, Datagram

Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network, including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing

Medialayers

3. Network

Packet

Structuring and managing a multi-node network, including addressing, routing and traffic control

2. Data link

Frame

Reliable transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical layer

1. Physical

Symbol

Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium

text: At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol-related headers or footers.

text: Data processing by two communicating OSI-compatible devices is done as such:

text:
The data to be transmitted is composed at the topmost layer of the transmitting device (layer N) into a protocol data unit (PDU).
The PDU is passed to layer N-1, where it is known as the service data unit (SDU).
At layer N-1 the SDU is concatenated with a header, a footer, or both, producing a layer N-1 PDU. It is then passed to layer N-2.
The process continues until reaching the lowermost level, from which the data is transmitted to the receiving device.
At the receiving device the data is passed from the lowest to the highest layer as a series of SDUs while being successively stripped from each layer's header or footer, until reaching the topmost layer, where the last of the data is consumed.

text: Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU-T X.800 Recommendation[4]). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.[citation needed]

text: Layer 1: Physical Layer[edit]

text: The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and reception of unstructured raw data between a device and a physical transmission medium. It converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical signals. Layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, the timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and frequency for wireless devices. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer and may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. The components of a physical layer can be described in terms of a network topology. Bluetooth, Ethernet, and USB all have specifications for a physical layer.

text: Layer 2: Data Link Layer[edit]

text:
The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected nodes.  It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer.
It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.

text: IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:[5]

text:
Medium access control (MAC) layer – responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.
Logical link control (LLC) layer – responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.

text: The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi-Fi, and 802.15.4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.

text: The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.

text: The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective-repeat sliding-window protocol.

text: Layer 3: Network Layer[edit]

text: The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called packets) from one node to another connected in "different networks". A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.

text: Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.

text: A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.[6]

text: Layer 4: Transport Layer[edit]

text: The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host, while maintaining the quality of service functions.

text: The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail delivery. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates segments out of the message received from the application layer. Segmentation is the process of dividing a long message into smaller messages.

text: OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:[7]

text:
Feature name

TP0
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4

Connection-oriented network

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Connectionless network

No
No
No
No
Yes

Concatenation and separation

No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Segmentation and reassembly

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Error recovery

No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Reinitiate connectiona

No
Yes
No
Yes
No

Multiplexing / demultiplexing over single virtual circuit

No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes

Explicit flow control

No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes

Retransmission on timeout

No
No
No
No
Yes

Reliable transport service

No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes

a If an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged.

text: An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. A post office inspects only the outer envelope of mail to determine its delivery. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at the endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete Layer 2 frames or Layer 3 packets to deliver to the endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport segments.

text: Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.

text: Layer 5: Session Layer[edit]

text: The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.

text: Layer 6: Presentation Layer[edit]

text: The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation protocol data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.

text: This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.[8] The presentation layer can include compression functions.[9] The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.

text: The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML.  ASN.1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.

text: Layer 7: Application Layer[edit]

text: The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application-entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application-entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself.  The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.

text: Cross-layer functions[edit]

text: Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:

text:
Security service (telecommunication)[4] as defined by ITU-T X.800 recommendation.
Management functions, i.e. functions that permit to configure, instantiate, monitor, terminate the communications of two or more entities: there is a specific application-layer protocol, common management information protocol (CMIP) and its corresponding service, common management information service (CMIS), they need to interact with every layer in order to deal with their instances.
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) MPLS, ATM, and X.25 are 3a protocols. OSI divides the Network Layer into 3 roles: 3a) Subnetwork Access, 3b) Subnetwork Dependent Convergence and 3c) Subnetwork Independent Convergence. It was designed to provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-switching clients which provide a datagram-based service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. Sometimes one sees reference to a Layer 2.5.
ARP determines the mapping of an IPv4 address to the underlying MAC address. This is not a translation function. If it were IPv4 and the MAC address would be at the same layer. The implementation of the MAC protocol decodes the MAC PDU and delivers the User-Data to the IP-layer. Because Ethernet is a multi-access media, a device sending a PDU on an Ethernet frame needs to know what IP address maps to what MAC address.
DHCP assigns IPv4 addresses to new systems joining a network. There is no means to derive or obtain an IPv4 address from an Ethernet address.
Domain Name Service is an Application Layer service which is used to look up the IP address of a given domain name.  Once a reply is received from the DNS server, it is then possible to form a Layer 4 connection or flow to the desired host. There are no connections at Layer 3.
Cross MAC and PHY Scheduling is essential in wireless networks because of the time varying nature of wireless channels. By scheduling packet transmission only in favorable channel conditions, which requires the MAC layer to obtain channel state information from the PHY layer, network throughput can be significantly improved and energy waste can be avoided.[10]

text: Interfaces[edit]

text: Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation-specific.

text: For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).

text: Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.

text: Examples[edit]

text:
Layer

OSI protocols

TCP/IP protocols

SignalingSystem 7[11]

AppleTalk

IPX

SNA

UMTS

Miscellaneous examples

No.
Name

7

Application

FTAMX.400X.500DAPROSERTSEACSE[12]CMIP[13]

INAPMAPTCAPISUPTUP

AFPZIPRTMPNBP

SAP

APPC

HL7ModbusHTTP

6

Presentation

ISO/IEC 8823X.226ISO/IEC 9576-1X.236

MIMESSLTLSXDR

AFP

TDIASCIIEBCDICMIDIMPEG

5

Session

ISO/IEC 8327X.225ISO/IEC 9548-1X.235

Sockets (session establishment in TCP / RTP / PPTP)

ASPADSPPAP

NWLink

DLC?

Named pipesNetBIOSSAPhalf duplexfull duplexsimplexRPCSOCKS

4

Transport

ISO/IEC 8073TP0TP1TP2TP3TP4 (X.224)ISO/IEC 8602X.234

TCPUDPSCTPDCCP

DDPSPX

NBF

3

Network

ISO/IEC 8208X.25 (PLP) ISO/IEC 8878X.223ISO/IEC 8473-1CLNP X.233ISO/IEC 10589IS-IS

IPIPsecICMPIGMPOSPFRIP

SCCPMTP

ATP (TokenTalk / EtherTalk)

IPX

RRC / BMC

NBFQ.931NDPIS-IS

2

Data link

ISO/IEC 7666X.25 (LAPB)Token BusX.222ISO/IEC 8802-2LLC (type 1 / 2)[14]

PPPSBTVSLIP

MTPQ.710

LocalTalkARAPPP

IEEE 802.3 framingEthernet II framing

SDLC

PDCP[15]LLCMAC

ARPARQATMBit stuffingCDPCRCDOCSISFDDIFDPFibre ChannelFrame RelayHDPHDLCIEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n (Ethernet MAC and LLC)IEEE 802.1Q (VLAN)ISLITU-T G.hn DLLLinux interface bondingPPPQ.921Token Ring

1

Physical

X.25 (X.21bisEIA/TIA-232EIA/TIA-449EIA-530G.703)[14]

MTPQ.710

RS-232RS-422PhoneNet

Twinax

UMTS air interfaces

RS-232Full duplexRJ45 (8P8C)V.35V.34I.430I.431T1E110BASE-T100BASE-TX1000BASE-TPOTSSONETSDHDSL802.11a/b/g/n PHYITU-T G.hn PHYCAN busDOCSISDWDMOTN

text: Comparison with TCP/IP model[edit]

text: The design of protocols in the TCP/IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering.[16] RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful".[17] TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end-to-end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.[18]

text: Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:

text:
The Internet application layer includes the OSI application layer, presentation layer, and most of the session layer.
Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI session layer as well as the OSI transport layer.
The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset of the OSI network layer.
The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and sometimes the physical layers, as well as some protocols of the OSI's network layer.

text: These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.[citation needed]

text: The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP/IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application-layer protocol in its own right.[citation needed]