document_title: Arabian Peninsula

question_text: what geographic feature covers most of the arabian peninsula

text: Arabian Peninsula

text: Geography[edit]

text: The Arabian Peninsula is located in the continent of Asia and bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the northeast, the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the southeast and south, the Gulf of Aden on the south, the Bab-el-Mandeb strait on the southwest and the Red Sea, which is located on the southwest and west.[11] The northern portion of the peninsula merges with the Syrian Desert with no clear border line, although the northern boundary of the Arabian Peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.[11]

text: The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest there are mountain ranges, which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula. Harrat ash Shaam is a large volcanic field that extends from the northwestern Arabian Peninsula into Jordan and southern Syria.[12]

text: Political boundaries[edit]

text: The peninsula's constituent countries are (clockwise north to south) Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the east, Oman on the southeast, Yemen on the south and Saudi Arabia at the center.[11] The island nation of Bahrain lies off the east coast of the peninsula.

text: Six countries (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Oman) form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).[13]

text: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the peninsula. The majority of the population of the peninsula live in Saudi Arabia and in Yemen. The peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of oil. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, a small peninsula in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home of the Arabic-language television station Al Jazeera and its English-language subsidiary Al Jazeera English. Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the invasion of Iraq in 2003.

text: Population[edit]

text: Historical populationYearPop.±%1950 9,481,713—    1960 11,788,232+24.3%1970 15,319,678+30.0%1980 23,286,256+52.0%1990 35,167,708+51.0%2000 47,466,523+35.0%2010 63,364,000+33.5%2014 77,584,000+22.4%Political Definition: Gulf Cooperation Council and YemenSources:1950–2000[14] 2000–2014[15]

text: Historical populationYearPop.±%1950 356,235—    1970 1,329,168+273.1%1990 4,896,491+268.4%2010 11,457,000+134.0%2014 17,086,000+49.1%4 smallest states (area) of Gulf Cooperation Council with entire coastline in Persian Gulf: UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait Sources:1950–2000[16] 2000–2014[15]

text: Though historically lightly populated, political Arabia is noted for a high population growth rate – as the result of both very strong inflows of migrant labor as well as sustained high birth rates. The population tends to be relatively young and heavily skewed gender ratio dominated by males. In many states, the number of South Asians exceeds that of the local citizenry. The four smallest states (by area), which have their entire coastlines on the Persian Gulf, exhibit the world's most extreme population growth, roughly tripling every 20 years.

text: In 2014, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936 (including expatriates).[17] The Arabian Peninsula  is known for having one of the most uneven adult sex ratios in the world with females in some regions (especially the east) constituting only a quarter of vicenarians and tricenarians.[18]

text: Listed here are the human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups in Arabia (Yemen,[19] Oman,[20] Qatar,[21] Kuwait,[22] Saudi Arabia[23] and the United Arab Emirates) [24][25][26]

text: Haplogroup J is the most abundant component in the Arabian peninsula, embracing more than 50% of its Y-chromosomes. Its two main subclades (J1-M267 and J2-M172), show opposite latitudinal gradients in the Middle East. J1-M267 is more abundant in the southern areas, reaching a frequency around 73% in Yemen, whereas J2-M172 is more common in the Levant.

text: J (L222.2) Accounts for the majority of (L147.1) in Saudi Arabia. It seems to be an exclusively Adnani marker.[23][27][28] Haplogroup J 54.8% Haplogroup E 17.5% R 11.6% Haplogroup T-M184 5.1%

text: Landscape[edit]

text: Geologically, this region is perhaps more appropriately called the Arabian subcontinent because it lies on a tectonic plate of its own, the Arabian Plate, which has been moving incrementally away from the rest of Africa (forming the Red Sea) and north, toward Asia, into the Eurasian Plate (forming the Zagros Mountains). The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the Arabian-Nubian Shield near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best-preserved ophiolite on Earth, the Semail Ophiolite, lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.

text: The peninsula consists of:

text:
A central plateau, the Najd, with fertile valleys and pastures used for the grazing of sheep and other livestock
A range of deserts: the Nefud in the north,[29] which is stony; the Rub' al Khali or Great Arabian Desert in the south, with sand estimated to extend 600 ft (180 m) below the surface; between them, the Dahna
In Hejaz, ranges of mountains, paralleling the Red Sea coast on the west (e.g. Asir province) but also at the southeastern end of the peninsula (Oman). The mountains show a steady increase in altitude westward as they get nearer to Yemen, and the highest peaks and ranges are all located in Yemen The highest, Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb in Yemen, is 3666 m high
Stretches of dry or marshy coastland with coral reefs on the Red Sea side (Tihamah)
Oases and marshy coast-land in Eastern Arabia on the Persian Gulf side

tag: ol

text: Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called wadis, which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient aquifers exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, oases form (e.g. Al-Hasa and Qatif, two of the world's largest oases) and permit agriculture, especially palm trees, which allowed the peninsula to produce more dates than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and arid, although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive surprisingly cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.

text: According to NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite data (2003–2013) analysed in a University of California, Irvine (UCI)-led study published in Water Resources Research on 16 June 2015, the most over-stressed aquifer system in the world is the Arabian Aquifer System, upon which more than 60 million people depend for water.[30] Twenty-one of the thirty seven largest aquifers "have exceeded sustainability tipping points and are being depleted" and thirteen of them are "considered significantly distressed."[30]

text: A plateau more than 2,500 feet (760 m) high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterised by cuestas and valleys, drained by a system of wadis. A crescent of sand and gravel deserts lies to the east.

text: Land and sea[edit]

text: Most of the Arabian Peninsula is unsuited to agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential. The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1% of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, coffee and tropical fruits. Goat, sheep, and camel husbandry is widespread elsewhere throughout the rest of the Peninsula. Some areas have a summer humid tropical monsoon climate, in particular the Dhofar and Al Mahrah areas of Oman and Yemen. These areas allow for large scale coconut plantations. Much of Yemen has a tropical monsoon rain influenced mountain climate. The plains usually have either a tropical or subtropical arid desert climate or arid steppe climate. The sea surrounding the Arabian Peninsula is generally tropical sea with a very rich tropical sea life and some of the world's largest, undestroyed and most pristine coral reefs. In addition, the organisms living in symbiosis with the Red Sea coral, the protozoa and zooxanthellae, have a unique hot weather adaptation to sudden rise (and fall) in sea water temperature. Hence, these coral reefs are not affected by coral bleaching caused by rise in temperature as elsewhere in the indopacific coral sea. The reefs are also unaffected by mass tourism and diving or other large scale human interference. However, some reefs were destroyed in the Persian Gulf, mostly caused by phosphate water pollution and resultant increase in algae growth as well as oil pollution from ships and pipeline leakage[citation needed].

text: The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at 10,000 feet (3,000 m). In the higher reaches, elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate grain, fruit, coffee, ginger and khat cultivation.

text: The Arabian peninsula is known for its rich oil, i.e. petroleum production due to its geographical location.

text: Etymology[edit]

text: During the Hellenistic period, the area was known as Arabia or Aravia (Greek: Αραβία). The Romans named three regions with the prefix "Arabia", encompassing a larger area than the current term "Arabian Peninsula":

text:
Arabia Petraea: for the area that is today southern modern Syria, Jordan, the Sinai Peninsula and northwestern Saudi Arabia. It was the only one that became a province, with Petra as its capital.
Arabia Deserta ("Desert Arabia"): signified the desert interior of the Arabian peninsula. As a name for the region, it remained popular into the 19th and 20th centuries, and was used in Charles M. Doughty's Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888).
Arabia Felix ("Fortunate Arabia"): was used by geographers to describe what is now Yemen, which enjoys more rainfall, is much greener than the rest of the peninsula and has long enjoyed much more productive fields.

text: The Arab inhabitants used a north-south division of Arabia: Al Sham-Al Yaman, or Arabia Deserta-Arabia Felix. Arabia Felix had originally been used for the whole peninsula, and at other times only for the southern region. Because its use became limited to the south, the whole peninsula was simply called Arabia. Arabia Deserta was the entire desert region extending north from Arabia Felix to Palmyra and the Euphrates, including all the area between Pelusium on the Nile and Babylon. This area was also called Arabia and not sharply distinguished from the peninsula.[31]

text: The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the west of the Arabian Peninsula region where the Arabs lived 'the land of the Arabs' – Bilad al-Arab (Arabia), and its major divisions were the bilad al-Sham (Syria), bilad al-Yaman (the Land of the southern Peninsula), and Bilad al-Iraq and modern-day Kuwait (the Land of the River Banks).[32] The Ottomans used the term Arabistan in a broad sense for the subcontinent itself starting from Cilicia, where the Euphrates river makes its descent into Syria, through Palestine, and on through the remainder of the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas.[33]

text: The provinces of Arabia were: Al Tih, the Sinai peninsula, Hedjaz, Asir, Yemen, Hadramaut, Mahra and Shilu, Oman, Hasa, Bahrain, Dahna, Nufud, the Hammad, which included the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia.[34][35]

text: History[edit]

text: The history of the Arabian Peninsula goes back to the beginnings of human habitation in Arabia up to 130,000 years ago.

text: Pre-Islamic Arabia[edit]

text: There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 106,000 to 130,000 years ago.[36] However, the harsh climate historically prevented much settlement in pre-Islamic Arabian peninsula, apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca and Medina, located in the Hejaz in the west of the peninsula.[37]

text: However, archaeology has revealed the existence of many civilizations in pre-Islamic Arabia (such as Thamud), especially in South Arabia.[38][39] South Arabian civilizations include Sheba, Himyarite Kingdom, Kingdom of Awsan, Kingdom of Ma'īn and Sabaean Kingdom. Central Arabia was the location of Kingdom of Kindah in the 4th, 5th and early 6th centuries AD. Eastern Arabia was home to the Dilmun civilization. The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the Peninsula into neighbouring areas.[40]

text: The Arabian peninsula has long been accepted as the original Urheimat of the Semitic languages by a majority of scholars.[41][42][43][44]

text: "Shamir of Dhu-Raydan and Himyar had called in the help of the clans of Habashat for against the kings of Saba; but Ilmuqah granted... the submission of Shamir of Dhu-Raydan and the clans of Habashat."[45]

text: Rise of Islam[edit]

text: The seventh century saw the introduction of Islam to the Arabian Peninsula. The Islamic prophet Muhammad, was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but migrated to Medina in 622. From there he and his companions united the tribes of Arabia under the banner of Islam and created a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian peninsula.

text: He established a new unified polity in the Arabian peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in the form of a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees.

text: Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632 AD, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[46]

text: Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr became leader of the Muslims as the first Caliph. After putting down a rebellion by the Arab tribes (known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy"), Abu Bakr attacked the Byzantine Empire. On his death in 634, he was succeeded by Umar as caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. The period of these first four caliphs is known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn: the Rashidun or "rightly guided" Caliphate. Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their Umayyad successors, the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the Byzantine army and destroyed the Persian Empire, conquering huge swathes of territory from the Iberian peninsula to India. The political focus of the Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories.[47][48]

text: Nevertheless, Mecca and Medina remained the spiritually most important places in the Muslim world. The Qur'an requires every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the five pillars of Islam, to make a pilgrimage, or Hajj, to Mecca during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah at least once in his or her lifetime.[49] The Masjid al-Haram (the Grand Mosque) in Mecca is the location of the Kaaba, Islam's holiest site, and the Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque) in Medina is the location of Muhammad tomb; as a result, from the 7th century, Mecca and Medina became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the Islamic world.[50]

text: The Middle Ages[edit]

text: Despite its spiritual importance, in political terms Arabia soon became a peripheral region of the Islamic world, in which the most important medieval Islamic states were based at various times in such far away cities as Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo.

text: However, from the 10th century (and, in fact, until the 20th century) the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca maintained a state in the most developed part of the region, the Hejaz. Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of Mecca and Medina but in the 13th century it was extended to include the rest of the Hejaz. Although, the Sharifs exercised at most times independent authority in the Hejaz, they were usually subject to the suzerainty of one of the major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages, these included the Abbasids of Baghdad, and the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks of Egypt.[51]

text: Modern history[edit]

text: The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was headquartered in Syria, which included Palestine, the Transjordan region in addition to Lebanon (Mount Lebanon was, however, a semi-autonomous mutasarrifate). It was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula.[52][53] The Ottomans never had any control over central Arabia, also known as the Najd region.

text: The Damascus Protocol of 1914 provides an illustration of the regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of Hejaz, asked for a British guarantee of independence. Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present-day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have comprised Cilicia – İskenderun and Mersin, Iraq with Kuwait, Syria, Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, Jordan, and Palestine.[54]

text: In the modern era, the term bilad al-Yaman came to refer specifically to the southwestern parts of the peninsula. Arab geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as 'jazirat al-Arab', or the peninsula of the Arabs.[55]

text: Late Ottoman rule and the Hejaz Railway[edit]

text: In the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottomans embarked on an ambitious project: the construction of a railway connecting Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire and the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, and Hejaz with its holiest shrines of Islam which are the yearly pilgrimage destination of the Hajj. Another important goal was to improve the economic and political integration of the distant Arabian provinces into the Ottoman state, and to facilitate the transportation of military troops in case of need.

text: The Hejaz Railway was a narrow gauge railway (1050 mm) that ran from Damascus to Medina, through the Hejaz region of Arabia. It was originally planned to reach the holy city of Mecca, but due to the interruption of the construction works caused by the outbreak of World War I, it eventually only reached Medina. It was a part of the Ottoman railway network and was built in order to extend the previously existing line between Istanbul and Damascus (which began from the Haydarpaşa Terminal).

text: The railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II and was built largely by the Turks, with German advice and support. A public subscription was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund the construction. The railway was to be a waqf, an inalienable religious endowment or charitable trust.[56]

text: The Arab Revolt and the unification of Saudi Arabia[edit]

text: The major developments of the early 20th century were the Arab Revolt during World War I and the subsequent collapse and partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Arab Revolt (1916–1918) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Empire and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen. During World War I, the Sharif Hussein entered into an alliance with the United Kingdom and France against the Ottomans in June 1916.

text: These events were followed by the unification of Saudi Arabia under King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. In 1902, Ibn Saud had captured Riyadh. Continuing his conquests, Abdulaziz subdued Al-Hasa, Jabal Shammar, Hejaz between 1913 and 1926 founded the modern state of Saudi Arabia. The Saudis absorbed the Emirate of Asir, with their expansion only ending in 1934 after a war with Yemen. Two Saudi states were formed and controlled much of Arabia before Ibn Saud was even born. Ibn Saud, however, established the third Saudi state.

text: Oil reserves[edit]

text: The second major development has been the discovery of vast reserves of oil in the 1930s. Its production brought great wealth to all countries of the region, with the exception of Yemen.

text: Civil war in Yemen[edit]

text: The North Yemen Civil War was fought in North Yemen between royalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and factions of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The war began with a coup d'état carried out by the republican leader, Abdullah as-Sallal, which dethroned the newly crowned Muhammad al-Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support.

text: The royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia, while the republicans were supported by Egypt and the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 troops. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egypt's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the Six-Day War of June 1967, after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen.

text: By 1970, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia recognized the republic and a truce was signed. Egyptian military historians refer to the war in Yemen as their Vietnam.[57]

text: Gulf War[edit]

text: In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait.[58] The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi forces led to the 1990–91 Gulf War. Egypt, Qatar, Syria and Saudi Arabia joined a multinational coalition that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq by Jordan and Palestine resulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After the war, a so-called "Damascus Declaration" formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC member states.[59]

text: Transport and industry[edit]

text: The extraction and refining of oil and gas are the major industrial activities in the Arabian Peninsula. The region also has an active construction sector, with many cities reflecting the wealth generated by the oil industry. The service sector is dominated by financial and technical institutions, which, like the construction sector, mainly serve the oil industry. Traditional handicrafts such as carpet-weaving are found in rural areas of Arabia.


document_title: Legally Blonde

question_text: who does elle woods fall in love with

question_tokens: who does elle woods fall in love with

root

text: Legally Blonde

text: Plot[edit]

text: Elle Woods, a pretty, rich and popular fashion merchandising student and president of her Delta Nu sorority, is crushed when her boyfriend Warner Huntington III breaks up with her over a romantic dinner rather than proposing to her, as she was expecting. He argues that he needs a more serious woman in order to fulfill his political aspirations, which include attending Harvard Law. Encouraged by her sorority sisters, Elle decides to also enroll in Harvard Law in order to win Warner back. After much effort, Elle manages to gain admission but soon discovers that the personalities and atmosphere in Harvard are very different from hers and she is thrown out of class during her first day by the strict Professor Stromwell and a classmate named Vivian for not having prepared for the lecture. Elle is later horrified to discover that Vivian is Warner's fiancee.

tag: p

text: None of Elle's classmates take her seriously and she is friendless at the university aside from Emmett, an associate at Harvard who gives her advice on handling each of her professors, and a beautician named Paulette who encourages her to try to win over Warner. Elle repeatedly tries to fit in with the others but is repeatedly rebuffed. Vivian even goes so far as to lie to Elle about a party invitation, falsely telling her that it was a costume party, humiliating her in front of her classmates. She is also ridiculed by Warner after informing him of her intent to apply for a prestigious internship with Professor Callahan, as Warner tells her that she is not smart enough and is wasting her time. This motivates Elle to prove herself, as she begins to study law seriously and even manages to use her knowledge to help Paulette reclaim her dog from an ex-boyfriend.

text: After several months of dramatic improvement, Elle, along with Warner, Vivian and another student Enid Wexler, is given an internship at Callahan's law office, where they will be working on a murder case, defending a prominent fitness instructor named Brooke Windham, who refuses to produce an alibi for the murder. Recognizing her as a personal role model and former Delta Nu member, Elle manages to discover the alibi but keeps it secret due to a personal promise with Brooke, which impresses Vivian and leads to the two women beginning to bond after it was revealed that she was keeping the alibi confidential and that Warner blatantly said to sell out her friend for benefits; during their alone time, Vivian revealing to Elle that Warner only got into Harvard via a call from his father (a distinguished alumni) to the school board, because he was on the waiting list.

text: During the trial Elle manages to find holes in the prosecution's case such as proving that the prosecution's main witness was lying/perjuring about having an affair with Brooke, pointing out that he is gay. Seemingly impressed, Callahan invites Elle to his office later that evening, where he makes a sexual pass at her. Vivian witnesses the pass but not Elle angrily spurning his advances and angrily accuses Elle of using her looks to get ahead. Elle considers leaving Harvard and goes to Paulette's salon to let her know, but is encouraged by Professor Stromwell, who happened to be at the salon.

text: When the trial resumes, Emmett explains to Brooke how Callahan's behavior caused Elle to quit her internship, leaving Vivian to regret her actions towards Elle. Brooke then decides to fire Callahan and replace him with Elle, who is able to defend her due to Massachusetts' Supreme Judicial Court rule 3.03, which allows Elle to legally appear on a defendant's behalf under Emmett's supervision, as he is a licensed attorney. Although nervous, Elle manages to catch Brooke's step-daughter Chutney in a lie during cross-examination, as she claimed that she could not have heard the gun shot because she was washing her hair after getting a perm earlier that day. Elle then points out that freshly permed hair cannot be washed within a 24 hour period without deactivating the perming chemical ammonium thioglycolate, which Chutney should know as she had received over 30 perm treatments during her life. Upset, Chutney unwittingly reveals that she hated Brooke for being the same age as her. She confesses that she intended to shoot Brooke but accidentally shot and killed her father by mistake, thinking it was Brooke who had entered the house. Chutney is then arrested for murder, with all charges against Brooke dismissed. After the trial Warner unsuccessfully tries to persuade Elle to take him back, only for her to mock him by stating that he is not serious enough for her.

text: The film ends with Elle graduating from Harvard two years later and giving the graduation speech. Vivian broke off her engagement to Warner and is now Elle's best friend, while Warner graduates with no honors, no job offers and no girlfriend. Paulette ends up marrying a UPS guy she had been infatuated with throughout the film and is expecting a baby, to be named Elle. Emmett has started his own firm and he and Elle have been dating since the trial, with him planning to propose to her later that night.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Reese Witherspoon as Elle Woods
Luke Wilson as Emmett Richmond
Matthew Davis as Warner Huntington III
Selma Blair as Vivian Kensington
Victor Garber as Professor Callahan
Jennifer Coolidge as Paulette Bonafonté
Holland Taylor as Professor Stromwell
Ali Larter as Brooke Taylor-Windham
Jessica Cauffiel and Alanna Ubach as Margot and Serena, close friends of Elle.
Oz Perkins as David Kidney
Linda Cardellini as Chutney Windham, Brooke's stepdaughter.
Raquel Welch as Mrs. Windham-Vandermark, Chutney's mother and Mr. Windham's ex-wife.
Bruce Thomas as the UPS guy, Paulette's crush and soon-to-be husband.
Greg Serano as Enrique Salvatore

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: The film is based upon the book of the same name by Amanda Brown, who built the story upon her real life experiences as a blonde attending Stanford Law School, while being obsessed with fashion and beauty, reading Elle magazine, and frequently clashing with the personalities of her fellow peers.[7]

text: Brown said that when she first arrived to Stanford Law, she discovered she had made a big mistake. "I was in my first week of law school, in 1993, and I saw this flyer for "The Women of Stanford Law," so I was like, "I'll go and meet some nice girls. Whatever."[7]

text: I went to the meeting, and these were not women. These were really angry people. The woman who was leading it spent three years at Stanford trying to change the name "semester" to "ovester." I started laughing and I realized everyone in the room took it very seriously. So I didn't make any friends there.

text: Brown wrote letters to her parents about these experiences, which she adapted into a manuscript and sent to an agent, who was initially drawn to it because it was the only manuscript written on pink paper.[7]

text: Producer Marc Platt was intrigued by the character of Elle Woods when an unpublished novel manuscript was delivered to him.[8] "What I loved about this story is that it's hilarious, it's sexy and, at the same time, it's empowering," says Platt. "The world looks at Elle and sees someone who is blonde and beautiful but nothing more. Elle, on the other hand, doesn't judge herself or anybody else. She thinks the world's great, she's great, everyone's great and nothing can change that. She's truly an irrepressible modern heroine."[8]

text: Screenwriters Karen McCullah and Kirsten Smith spent two days on Stanford's campus in the spring of 2000 doing research for their screenplay based on Brown's novel.[9]

text: Both USC and Stanford refused to allow the producers to use their college names in the film.[10] "[The producers of the film] asked if they could set the film at USC, but the images of her as an undergraduate and being in a sorority...we felt there was too much stereotyping going on," says Elijah May, campus filming coordinator at USC. The production settled on having Elle go to a fictional college called CULA.[10]

text: Although the film is primarily set at Harvard University, campus scenes were filmed at the University of Southern California,[11] University of California, Los Angeles,[12] California Institute of Technology, and Rose City High School in Pasadena, California. The graduation scene was filmed at Dulwich College in London, England, since Witherspoon was in that city filming The Importance of Being Earnest. Harvard University appears in the film briefly in certain aerial shots.

text: Witherspoon researched the character by studying sorority girls on their campuses and associated hot spots. She went to dinner with them and joked she was conducting an "anthropological study."[13]

text: "I could have gone into this and been really ditsy and played what I would have thought this character was, and I would have missed a whole other side of her," Witherspoon added.[14] "But by going down to Beverly Hills, hanging out in Neiman Marcus, eating in their cafe and seeing how these women walk and speak, I got into the reality of the character. I saw how polite these women are, and I saw how much they value their female friendships and how important it is to support each other."[14]

text:
You see so many beautiful people in this world, especially in the world that I live in and a lot of your first instincts is to discount women who put a lot of effort into their looks as maybe not serious about their job or maybe not serious about their relationships...I think everyone naturally jumps to those conclusions...I was interested in exploring the difference between [the way] someone looks and how people perceive them and how they really are.
I'm not necessarily perky and bubbly all the time, so it's been a lot of effort to stay up and the amount of care and energy she puts into a lot things has really been a challenge for me and trying to convey that lightness all the time is hard work.[15]

text: The film's costume designer Sophie De Rakoff bonded with Witherspoon over Dolly Parton.[16] De Rakoff said that Elle's iconic pink suit in the film "was all organic and intuitive. I designed costumes for Elle Woods that moved the story forward and fitted the moment. Reese and I actually went to visit a sorority house in the early prep, and it was just obvious that pink should be her signature color."[16]

text: The "bend and snap" scene[edit]

text:
The "bend and snap" scene — where Elle explains to Paulette how to get her crush's attention — almost didn't make it into the movie.[17]
"[Producer] Marc [Platt] wanted a B plot for Paulette (Jennifer Coolidge)," co-writer Karen McCullah told Entertainment Weekly. "At first we were like, 'Should the store be robbed?'" Co-writer Kirsten Smith observed, "I think we spent a week or two trying to figure out what the B plot and this big set piece should be. There were crime plots. We were pitching scene after scene and it all felt very tonally weird."[17]

text: Later, while brainstorming at a bar in Los Angeles, McCullah came up with a solution: "What if Elle shows [Paulette] a move so she can get the UPS guy?" In the spur of the moment, Smith invented a move, standing up and demonstrating what would become the bend and snap. Smith explains, "It was a spontaneous invention. It was a completely drunken moment in a bar." Director Robert Luketic later adapted the "bend and snap" move into a dance number for the film.

text: "...It was a fully choreographed number by Toni Basil, and she was awesome," Witherspoon recalls. "She did the whole dance."[18]

text: "I remember just reading it and thinking it was the most hysterical thing ever," she added. "That is still the most asked request I get from people. Even this past year, when I have been giving speeches or talking about whatever, they always ask me, 'Will you do the bend and snap?' I have a feeling I will be doing the bend and snap until I am 95."

text: Reception[edit]

text: Legally Blonde was released on July 13, 2001 in North America. Its opening weekend gross of $20 million[2] made it a sleeper hit for the struggling MGM studio, and it went on to gross $96.5 million in North America and $45.2 million elsewhere, for a worldwide total of $141.7 million.[2] The film was released in the United Kingdom on October 26, 2001, and opened on #2, behind American Pie 2.[19]

text: The film was a critical success. Based on 130 reviews, collected by review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 68% of the critics gave Legally Blonde positive ratings, ranking the film as "fresh". Most reviews praised Reese Witherspoon's lead performance, although some denigrated the overall film.[20] Metacritic reported that the film had an average score of 59, based on 31 reviews.[21] At the 2001 Golden Globe Awards ceremony, the film was nominated for the Golden Globe for Best Picture – Musical or Comedy. The same year, Witherspoon was also nominated for the Golden Globe for Best Actress – Musical or Comedy.[22]

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:
Nominated Courtroom Drama Film[23]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: A soundtrack album was released in 2001 on A&M Records, including the songs:

text:
"Watch Me Shine" by Joanna Pacitti
"Sound of Milwaukee" by Fatboy Slim
"Can't Get Me Down" by Lo-Ball
"We Could Still Belong Together" by Lisa Loeb
"Don't Need You To (Tell Me I'm Pretty)" by Samantha Mumba
"One Girl Revolution" by Superchick
"Magic" by The Black Eyed Peas featuring Terry Dexter
"Sex Machine" by Mýa
"That's the Way (I Like It)" by KC and the Sunshine Band
"You Sexy Thing" by Hot Chocolate
"Get Down on It" by Kool & the Gang
"Love Is a Beautiful Thing" by Krystal
"A Thousand Miles" by Vanessa Carlton
"Baby, Come on Over" by Samantha Mumba
"Perfect Day" by Hoku
"Ooh La La" by Valeria

text: Musical[edit]

text: In February 2007, a musical adaptation premiered on Broadway to mixed reviews, starring Laura Bell Bundy as Elle, Christian Borle as Emmett, Orfeh as Paulette, Nikki Snelson as Brooke, Richard H. Blake as Warner, Kate Shindle as Vivienne, and Michael Rupert as Callahan. Other cast members included Andy Karl, Leslie Kritzer, Annaleigh Ashford, DeQuina Moore, and Natalie Joy Johnson. The show, Bundy, Borle, and Orfeh were all nominated for Tony Awards. Later, the Broadway show was the focus of an MTV reality-TV series called Legally Blonde: The Musical – The Search for Elle Woods, in which the winner would take over the role of Elle on Broadway. Bailey Hanks from Anderson, South Carolina, won the competition.

text: Legally Blonde had a successful run at the Savoy Theatre in London's West End, starring Sheridan Smith, Susan McFadden, and Carley Stenson as Elle, and Duncan James, Richard Fleeshman, Simon Thomas, and Ben Freeman as Warner. During the three-year run, the cast also included Alex Gaumond, Denise Van Outen, and Lee Mead.


document_title: Gallon

question_text: when did uk change from gallons to litres

text: Gallon

text: Definitions[edit]

text: The gallon currently has one definition in the imperial system, and two definitions (liquid and dry) in the US customary system. Historically, there were many definitions and redefinitions.

text: The English system gallons[edit]

text: There were more than a few systems of liquid measurements in the pre-1884 United Kingdom.[1]

text:
Winchester or Corn Gallon was 272 in³ (157 fl oz) (1697 Act 8 & 9 Will III c22)

Henry VII (Winchester) corn gallon from 1497 onwards was 154.80 fl oz
Elizabeth I corn gallon from 1601 onwards was 155.70 fl oz
William III corn gallon from 1697 onwards was 156.90 fl oz

Old English (Elizabethan) Ale Gallon was 282 in³ (162 fl oz) (1700 Act 11 Will III c15)
Old English (Queen Anne) Wine Gallon was standardized as 231 in³ (133 fl oz) in the 1706 Act 5 Anne c27, but it differed before that:

London ‘Guildhall’ gallon (before 1688) was 129.19 fl oz
Jersey gallon (from 1562 onwards) was 139.20 fl oz
Guernsey gallon (17th century origins till 1917) was 150.14 fl oz

Irish Gallon was 217 in³ (125 fl oz) (1495 Irish Act 10 Hen VII c22 confirmed by 1736 Act Geo II c9)

text: The Imperial gallon[edit]

text: The imperial (UK) gallon, now defined as exactly 7000454609000000000♠4.54609 litres (about 277.42 cubic inches), is used in some Commonwealth countries and was originally based on the volume of 10 pounds (approximately 4.54 kg) of water at 62 °F (17 °C). The imperial fluid ounce is defined as  1⁄160 of an imperial gallon; there are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart, and 20 Imperial fluid ounces in an imperial pint.

text: The US liquid gallon[edit]

text: The US gallon is legally defined as 231 cubic inches, which is exactly 7000378541178400000♠3.785411784 liters.[2][3] A US liquid gallon of water weighs about 8.34 pounds or 3.78 kilograms at 62 °F (17 °C), making it about 16.6% lighter than the imperial gallon. There are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart and 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint, which makes the US fluid ounce equal to  1⁄128 of a US gallon. In order to overcome the effects of expansion and contraction with temperature when using a gallon to specify a quantity of material for purposes of trade, it is common to define the temperature at which the material will occupy the specified volume. For example, the volume of petroleum products[4] and alcoholic beverages[5] are both referenced to 60 °F (16 °C) in government regulations.

text: The US dry gallon[edit]

text: This dry measure is one-eighth of a US Winchester bushel of 7003215042000000000♠2150.42 cubic inches; it is therefore equal to exactly 268.8025 cubic inches or about 6997440500000000000♠4.405 L. The US dry gallon is not used in commerce, and is not listed in the relevant statute, which jumps from the dry quart to the peck.[6]

text: Worldwide usage of gallons[edit]

text: The Imperial gallon was used in everyday life (and in advertising) in the United Kingdom until 1994, and less frequently in Canada, including fuel economy expression in advertisements and other official publications.[citation needed] Gallons used in fuel economy expression in Canada and the United Kingdom are Imperial gallons.[7][8]

text: The gallon was removed from the list of legally defined primary units of measure catalogued in the EU directive 80/181/EEC for trading and official purposes, with effect from 31 December 1994. Under the directive the gallon could still be used – but only as a supplementary or secondary unit.[9] One of the effects of this directive was that the United Kingdom amended its own legislation to replace the gallon with the litre as a primary unit of measure in trade and in the conduct of public business, effective from 30 September 1995.[10][11][12]

text: Ireland also passed legislation in response to the EU directive, with the effective date being 31 December 1993.[13] Though the gallon has ceased to be the legally defined primary unit, it can still be legally used in both the UK and Ireland as a supplementary unit.

text: The Imperial gallon continues to be used as a unit of measure in Anguilla,[14] Antigua and Barbuda,[15] the Bahamas,[16] the British Virgin Islands,[17] the Cayman Is.,[18] Dominica,[19] Grenada,[20] Montserrat,[21] Myanmar (Burma),[22] St. Kitts & Nevis,[23] St. Lucia,[24] and St. Vincent & the Grenadines.[25]

text: Other than the United States, the US gallon is used in Liberia, Belize, Colombia, The Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Peru.[26]

text: The United Arab Emirates started selling gasoline by the litre in 2010,[27] along with Guyana,[28] and Panama in 2013.[29] The two former had used the Imperial gallon and the latter the US gallon until they switched.[26]

text: Antigua and Barbuda plan to switch over to using litres by 2015.[30]

text: Despite its status as a U.S. territory, and unlike American Samoa,[31] the Northern Mariana Islands,[32] Guam,[33] and the U.S. Virgin Islands,[34] Puerto Rico ceased selling gasoline by the US gallon in 1980.[35]

text: In the Turks & Caicos Islands, both the U.S. gallon and Imperial gallon are used, due to an increase in tax duties disguised by levying the same duty on the 3.79 L U.S. gallon as was previously levied on the 4.55 L Imperial gallon.[36]

text: Relationship to other units[edit]

text: Both the US liquid and imperial gallon are divided into four quarts (quarter gallons), which in turn are divided into two pints. These pints are divided into two cups (though the imperial cup is rarely used now), which in turn are divided into two gills (gills are also rarely used). Thus a gallon is equal to four quarts, eight pints, sixteen cups or thirty-two gills. The imperial gill is further divided into five fluid ounces, whereas the US gill is divided into four fluid ounces. Thus an imperial fluid ounce is  1⁄20 of an imperial pint or  1⁄160 of an imperial gallon, while a US fluid ounce is  1⁄16 of a US pint or  1⁄128 of a US gallon.

text: The imperial gallon, quart, pint, cup and gill are approximately 20% larger than their US counterparts and are therefore not interchangeable. The imperial fluid ounce, on the other hand, is only 4% smaller than the US fluid ounce and therefore they are often used interchangeably.

text: In the US, liquor is often sold in "fifths", which are approximately one-fifth of a US gallon.[37]

text: History[edit]

text: The term derives most immediately from galun, galon in Old Northern French, but the usage was common in several languages, for example jale in Old French and gęllet (bowl) in Old English. This suggests a common origin in Romance Latin, but the ultimate source of the word is unknown.[38] The gallon originated as the base of systems for measuring wine, and beer in England. The sizes of gallon used in these two systems were different from each other: the first was based on the wine gallon (equal in size to the US gallon), and the second on either the ale gallon or the larger imperial gallon.

text: By the end of the 18th century, three definitions of the gallon were in common use:[citation needed]

text:
The corn gallon, or Winchester gallon, of about 268.8 cubic inches (≈ 4.405 L),
The wine gallon, or Queen Anne's gallon, which was 231 cubic inches[39] (≈ 3.79 L), and
The ale gallon of 282 cubic inches (≈ 4.62 L).

text: The corn or dry gallon was used in the United States until recently for grain and other dry commodities. It is one-eighth of the (Winchester) bushel, originally a cylindrical measure of  18 1⁄2 inches in diameter and 8 inches in depth. That made the dry gallon ( 9 1⁄4)2 × π cubic inches ≈ 6997440488409860128♠268.80252 in3. The bushel, which like dry quart and pint still sees some use, was later defined to be 2150.42 cubic inches exactly, making its gallon exactly 6997440488377086000♠268.8025 in3 (6997440488377086000♠4.40488377086 L). In previous centuries, there had been a corn gallon of around 271 to 272 cubic inches.

text: The wine, fluid, or liquid gallon has been the standard US gallon since the early 19th century. The wine gallon, which some sources relate to the volume occupied by eight medieval merchant pounds of wine, was at one time defined as the volume of a cylinder 6 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, i.e. 6 in × ( 3 1⁄2 in)2 × π ≈ 230.907 06 cubic inches. It had been redefined during the reign of Queen Anne, in 1706, as 231 cubic inches exactly, which is the result of the earlier definition with π approximated to  22⁄7. Although the wine gallon had been used for centuries for import duty purposes there was no legal standard of it in the Exchequer and a smaller gallon (224 cu in) was actually in use, so this statute became necessary. It remains the US definition today.

text: In 1824, Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the imperial gallon and abolished all other gallons in favour of it. Inspired by the kilogram-litre relationship, the imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 inches of mercury and at a temperature of 62 °F. In 1963, this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 pounds of distilled water of density 7002998859000000000♠0.998859 g/mL weighed in air of density 7000121700000000000♠0.001217 g/mL against weights of density 8.136 g/mL (the original "brass" was refined as the density of brass alloys vary depending on metallurgical composition). This works out at approximately 6997454609030000000♠4.5460903 L (6997454609028199480♠277.41945 in3). The metric definition of exactly 7000454609000000000♠4.54609 cubic decimetres (also 6997454609000000000♠4.54609 L after the litre was redefined in 1964, ≈ 6997454609000341471♠277.419433 in3) was adopted shortly afterwards in Canada, but from 1976 the conventional value of 6997454609200000000♠4.546092 L was used in the United Kingdom until the Canadian convention was adopted in 1985.

text: Historically, gallons of various sizes were used in many parts of Western Europe. In these localities, it has been replaced as the unit of capacity by the litre.

text:
Comparison of historic gallons

Volume
Definition
Inverted volume
(gallons per cubic foot)
Approx.
weight of
water (pounds
per gallon
@ 62 °F)
Cylindrical approximation

(cu in)
(L or dm3)
Diameter
(in)
Height
(in)
Relative
error (%)

216 (Roman unciae)
≈ 7000353960000000000♠3.5396
Roman congius
8
7.8
5
11
0.01

224
≈ 3.6707
preserved at the Guildhall, London (old UK wine gallon)
7.71
8.09
9
3.5
0.6

231
7000378541178400000♠3.785411784
statute of 5th of Queen Anne (UK wine gallon, standard US gallon)
7.48
8.33
7
6
0.04

264.8
≈ 4.3393
ancient Rumford quart (1228)
6.53
9.57
7.5
6
0.1

265.5
≈ 4.3508
Exchequer (Henry VII, 1497, with rim)
6.51
9.59
13
2
0.01

266.25
≈ 4.3631
ancient Rumford (1228)

268.8025
7000440488377086000♠4.40488377086
Winchester, statute 13 + 14 by William III (corn gallon, old US dry gallon)
6.43
9.71
18.5
1
6995100000000000000♠0.00001

271
≈ 4.4409
Exchequer (1601, E.) (old corn gallon)
6.38
9.79
4.5
17
0.23

272
≈ 4.4573
corn gallon (1688)

277.18
≈ 4.5422
statute 12 of Anne (coal gallon) =  33⁄32 corn gallons
6.23
10

277.274
7000454345999999999♠4.543460
Imperial Gallon (1824) as originally evaluated.
6.23
10

≈7002277419433000000♠277.419433
7000454609000000000♠4.54609
standard imperial gallon (metric) (1964 Canada gallon, 1985 UK gallon)
6.23
10
5⅔
11
0.000 2

≈7002277419555000000♠277.419555
7000454609200000000♠4.546092
Imperial gallon (1895) Re-determined in 1895, as defined in 1963.
6.23
10

278
≈ 4.5556
Exchequer (Henry VII, with copper rim)
6.21
10.04

278.4
≈ 4.5622
Exchequer (1601 and 1602 pints)
6.21
10.06

280
≈ 4.5884
Exchequer (1601 quart)
6.17
10.1

282
≈ 4.6212
Treasury (beer and ale gallon)
6.13
10.2

tag: table