document_title: The Magnificent Seven (2016 film)

question_text: who played red harvest in the magnificent seven

text: The Magnificent Seven (2016 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1879, robber baron and gold-mining tycoon Bartholomew Bogue assumes control of the American frontier town of Rose Creek, and subjects its residents to forced labor in his mines. After a town church assembly denounces him, Bogue has the church torched and kills a group of rebellious locals led by Matthew Cullen. Matthew's widow, Emma Cullen, and her friend Teddy Q. ride in search of bounty hunters to help liberate the town. They recruit Sam Chisolm, an African-American U.S. Marshal, who only expresses interest after hearing of Bogue's involvement.

text: With the help of Emma and Teddy, Chisolm recruits gambler and outlaw Joshua Faraday, Mexican fugitive Vasquez, former Confederate marksman Goodnight "Goody" Robicheaux, Robicheaux's Korean traveling partner Billy Rocks, and legendary game hunter Jack Horne. The group encounters a Comanche warrior named Red Harvest, whom Chisolm persuades to join the posse.

text: The Seven enter Rose Creek and eliminate 34 Blackstone private military contractors on Bogue's payroll. Chisolm sends the corrupt sheriff Mr. Harp away to inform Bogue that they now control his holdings in Rose Creek. Chisolm surmises that Bogue will return with an army in seven days; the Seven (plus Emma) liberate forced laborers from a Bogue Mining digsite, and spend the next week fortifying the town and training the locals in combat. Meanwhile, Bogue receives the news of Rose Creek's liberation, murders Harp for his failure, and orders his Comanche enforcer Denali and his right-hand-man McCann to assemble an army. Robicheaux, haunted by his experiences in the Civil War and fearing his own death if he kills again, leaves the town the night before Bogue's arrival; Emma volunteers to take his place.

text: The next morning, Bogue and his army attack Rose Creek, which has been surrounded with traps and explosive networks. As the battle goes on, Faraday is shot and wounded by McCann, who is killed by Vasquez, the defensive line collapses, and Robicheaux returns to help. Bogue and his remaining men fire a Gatling gun from a hill leading into the town, killing many Rose Creek residents and Bogue's own mercenaries. Realizing they are outgunned, the Seven evacuate the townspeople and mount their last stand. Horne protects a wounded Teddy Q. from gunfire, but is killed by Denali, who is later killed by Red Harvest.

text: Robicheaux and Billy are killed by a second round of gunfire; while Faraday makes a suicidal charge up the hill and destroys the Gatling gun with dynamite, killing most of Bogue's remaining men. Bogue and his two surviving mercenaries proceed into the town to confront Chisolm. After killing the two men, Chisolm enters a standoff with Bogue, and shoots his hand as he draws, disarming him. A wounded Bogue retreats into the church, where Chisolm reveals that his family was lynched in 1867 by ex-Confederate soldiers, who were hired by Bogue to drive homesteaders out of Kansas. After imploring Bogue to repent, Chisolm tries to garrote him; Bogue retrieves a revolver he stashed in his boot, but Emma shoots him dead from the church doorway.

text: The townspeople return to Rose Creek and thank Chisolm, Vasquez, and Red Harvest for their service as they ride off; while Faraday, Robicheaux, Billy, and Horne are buried near town and honored as heroes. Emma, in voice-over narration, reflects fondly on their noble sacrifice that made them "magnificent".

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Denzel Washington as Sam Chisolm, an African American United States Marshal warrant officer from Wichita, Kansas, and leader of the Seven.
Chris Pratt as Joshua Faraday, a gambler with a fondness for explosives and card tricks.
Ethan Hawke as Goodnight Robicheaux, a former Confederate soldier and sharpshooter who suffers from PTSD.
Vincent D'Onofrio as Jack Horne, a very religious tracker and mountain man.
Byung-hun Lee as Billy Rocks, an East Asian immigrant and companion of Robicheaux. An assassin, he uses knives.
Manuel Garcia-Rulfo as Vasquez, a Mexican outlaw who has been on the run for several months.
Martin Sensmeier as Red Harvest, an exiled Comanche warrior and the youngest of the Seven.

text:
Peter Sarsgaard as Bartholomew Bogue, a corrupt industrialist.
Haley Bennett as Emma Cullen, a young widow who hires the Seven.
Luke Grimes as Teddy Q, Emma's friend who helps her hire the Seven.
Matt Bomer as Matthew Cullen, Emma's farmer husband who is murdered by Bogue.
Jonathan Joss as Denali, an exiled Comanche warrior who works for Bogue.
Cam Gigandet as McCann, Bogue's right-hand-man.
Sean Bridgers as Fanning
Billy Slaughter as Josiah

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text:
I kept reminding myself of when I was a 12‑year‑old boy, when I was a kid watching it with my grandmother, what was the feeling I had? How much fun was it? How cool were they? For me, I always had my grandmother in my mind when making a film. Would she enjoy this film?
—Director Antoine Fuqua on his approach to the remake.[5]

tag: div

text: The film was reported to be in the planning stages in 2012, with Tom Cruise set to star, and Kevin Costner, Morgan Freeman, and Matt Damon also up for roles.[6] In December 2013, Cruise reportedly left the project while John Lee Hancock was brought in to write a new draft of the script.[7]  In early 2014, MGM chairman Gary Barber and his cohorts approached Antoine Fuqua to read the script by Richard Wenk and Nic Pizzolatto, while Fuqua was making Southpaw.[8]

text: Fuqua has loved western films since discovering the genre at the age of 12, and said that his grandmother, with whom he would watch films such as Shane (1953) and The Searchers (1956),[9][10][11]  was a key inspiration during the remake.[5][9][12] Fuqua also tried to stay true to the DNA of Seven Samurai, on which the film is based.[12]

text: Fuqua said he wanted to remake the film because the subject of tyranny and terrorism still prevails as it did in Seven Samurai. He has said that there is therefore a strong need for people to step up and serve, which is what samurai means – "to serve."[13] Fuqua never imagined he would get a chance to direct a Western film, and when MGM called him to helm the picture, he hesitated at first, given the high regard he had for Seven Samurai and its director, Akira Kurosawa.

text: Casting[edit]

text: Fuqua worked to create a diverse cast[14] by incorporating actors of color such as African-American Denzel Washington, Korean Lee Byung-hun and Mexican Manuel Garcia-Rulfo, and making sure the lead female Emma Cullen (Haley Bennett) did not conform to stereotypes.[15][16] It is a decision Fuqua stated reflects historical reality more than it does any conscious attempt to update the story. "There were a lot of black cowboys, a lot of Native Americans; Asians working on the railroads. The truth of the West is more modern than the movies have been."[17] When Fuqua met studio executives to see possible actors for the film, he saw that they were all white. He found this to be problematic and instead wanted to make the cast diverse, so that audiences could identify with more of the characters.[15] The actors were cast between December 2014 and July 2015.[18][19][20][21] At one point, Jason Momoa was in talks to join the project, but had had to leave because he was already booked to play Aquaman.[22] The cast were put through cowboy training before filming commenced,[9] and were sent to boot camp in order to hone their skills.[15]

text: Denzel Washington's character, warrant officer and bounty hunter Sam Chisolm,[23] was renamed from Chris Adams (played by Yul Brynner in the original film).[24] It is Washington's first Western film.[25] Washington did not watch Western films growing up, as it was the end of the Western era in cinema. Moreover, he and his siblings were barred from going to the movies by his father, a minister in a church. They grew up watching biblical films instead, like King of Kings and The Ten Commandments, though he did watch portions of the Rawhide and Bonanza shows.[13][25] Washington did not watch the original film in preparation but has seen Seven Samurai.[25] This was an arbitrary decision of his, since he thought that watching the original would not help him; "[Not seeing it] allowed me to do whatever I wanted to do. Instead of trying not to do what someone else did."[26][27] As with his previous films, Washington would start off the day by kneeling down and praying, asking for forgiveness for all his wrongdoings. "For me," he said, "this is more than just making movies. It is a platform."[13] Fuqua said that Washington, with whom he had twice collaborated, was his first choice to be cast irrespective of the role. The producers were skeptical whether Washington would take the job since it was a Western film, but Fuqua flew to New York City to negotiate with the actor, who accepted the offer.[5][10]

text: Chris Pratt described his character Josh Faraday as "a bit of a fox, a trickster. He's a gambler, a drinker. He loves the ladies. But he's deadly in a fire fight."[23] Like Washington, it is also Pratt's first Western film.[25] Pratt began watching Western films at the age of 31, while filming in London, and credits Gary Cooper for revitalizing his perspective towards the genre.[13][25] Fuqua, aware of Pratt's penchant towards Westerns, reached out to him, and Pratt called back in a few days singing "Oh Shenandoah," to which Fuqua replied, "He's it. He's Steve McQueen."[5]

text: Fuqua's approach to Ethan Hawke's character Goodnight Robicheaux, a former Confederate soldier, was to picture him as if Christopher Walken's character Nikanor "Nick" Chevotarevich in The Deer Hunter was an emotionally shattered Civil War veteran.[28] Hawke was the first person to come on board after the project was finalized.[8] He had stumbled upon Fuqua and Washington during the New York premiere of The Equalizer in 2014 and, upon learning that a remake was in the works, asked Fuqua to cast him.[28] Like Washington, The Magnificent Seven marks the third collaboration between Hawke and Fuqua, after Training Day (2001) and Brooklyn's Finest (2009).[28]

text: Manuel Garcia-Rulfo described his character Vasquez, a bandit on the run from the law, as someone who loves gunfighting.[29]

text: Martin Sensmeier auditioned several times to land the role of Red Harvest, a native Comanche warrior.[30][29] He stayed off social media and studied intently in order to portray his part.[14] Scotty Augere, who had previously worked on Dances with Wolves, taught Sensmeier how to ride a horse bareback and rode with him two hours a day.[14]

text: Vincent D'Onofrio was cast as mountain man Jack Horn on the urging of co-stars Chris Pratt and Ethan Hawke.[31] For the role, D'Onofrio developed a raw, high-pitched voice to give the impression of a man who has lived in the wilderness for years without speaking to people. When he asked to test the voice for Fuqua, the director refused to listen, instructing the actor to surprise him with it in his first scene, which resulted in a delighted Fuqua laughing so hard that he almost ruined the take.[32]

text: Music[edit]

text: James Horner was tapped to write the film's score, but he died in June 2015, before filming could commence. In July 2015, Fuqua learned that Horner had already begun working on the music before his passing, and intended to present it as a surprise.[33] Horner's friend and score producer Simon Franglen co-composed the score afterward. It was released on September 16, 2016 by Sony Classical, and is the third Horner score released posthumously.[34]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography on the film lasted 64 days, from May 18 to August 18, 2015, in the north of Baton Rouge, Louisiana.[35][36][37] Other locations include St. Francisville; Zachary, Louisiana; Ridgway, Colorado; and New Mexico.[8][36][37] Filming in St. Francisville was completed between May 18 and May 29, 2015.[38]

text: The climactic battle between the Seven and a small army led by Bogue took three weeks to film; the weather was inclement.[8] Sometimes the cast and crew would wait in the on-set saloon for storms to pass, and, at times when the storm would worsen, the trailer rocked and they would have to leave the set.[8]

text: Since his grandmother was the prime influence on the film, every day after filming, Fuqua would ask himself if she would have had fun watching it.[9]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film had its world premiere at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8,[39][40] and served as the closing-night film at the Venice Film Festival on September 9, 2016.[41] The film was originally set to be released on January 13, 2017;[42] however in February 2016, Sony Pictures Entertainment moved the release date to September 23, 2016.[43]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Sony kicked off its campaign on April 20, 2016, launching the first trailer,[44] and the cast took to their social media platforms to reveal character-by-character.[45] Television advertisement began during the summer, when the trailers were paired with the NBA finals and BET Awards, as well as the 2016 Summer Olympics. Sony rounded out the campaign with a presence in live sporting events, such as National Football League, NCAA Football and local Major League Baseball games, as well as highly anticipated fall premieres and original programming, like Empire, The Voice, American Horror Story, Fear the Walking Dead and Designated Survivor.[45]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Magnificent Seven grossed $93.4 million in the United States Canada, and $68.9 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $162.4 million, against a net production budget of $90 million.[3] The film had a global 2D IMAX opening of $4.3 million from 606 theaters.[46]

text: North America[edit]

text: In the United States and Canada, The Magnificent Seven was released alongside Storks, and was projected to open to around $30 million, with some estimates going as high as $50 million, which would have made it one of the biggest September debuts of all-time.[47][48][49][50] The film opened in 3,674 theaters, and had the benefit of playing in all IMAX theaters for one week, and in a number of premium large formats and D-Box screens.[51] It made $1.75 million from Thursday previews and $12.7 million on its first day.[52][53] The film went on to gross $35.7 million in its opening weekend, of which $2.9 million came from 372 IMAX theaters, and topped the box office. It scored the third biggest Western opening (not accounting for inflation), behind Rango ($38.1 million) and Cowboys & Aliens ($36.4 million).[54] It is also director Fuqua's second biggest opening and Washington's third biggest.[55]

text: According to the Los Angeles Times, the film was released in theaters at a time when the Western genre had been struggling to attract wide audiences and accrue lucrative revenues, as it has shown considerable downfall in interest among patrons since the 1970s. The genre has had several recent box office flops, such as Cowboys & Aliens (2011) and The Lone Ranger (2013), but has also found success in films like True Grit (2010) and Django Unchained (2012).[48] Its strong debut in North America was partly attributed to the presence of Denzel Washington and Chris Pratt, whom industry analysts say are two of only a handful of movie stars today who consistently draws large audiences to theaters,[56] and also to Fuqua's direction.[57] Deadline Hollywood pointed out that the production budget also plays an important role in determining a film's success. By comparison to other recent Westerns, The Magnificent cost $90 million to make, before promotion and marketing costs are included. The site pointed out that "the trick is keeping their budgets reasonable," unlike The Lone Ranger, which cost $215 million to make, and Cowboys & Aliens, which cost $163 million.[55] The film became a financial recoverer for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer after the studio lost a great deal of money with Ben-Hur the previous month, and was the studio's second hit of the year, following the sleeper Me Before You, released in June.[58]

text: Outside North America[edit]

text: The film was projected to gross around $100 million, with foreign box office prognosticators expecting a total similar to The Hateful Eight's $101.6 million.[46][55] It was released in South Korea (its first international market) on September 14, 2016, and delivered an opening of $5.1 million, finishing in third place at the box office, behind local film The Age of Shadows and Hollywood tentpole Ben-Hur.[59] The following weekend, it opened in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, Spain, and Russia,[49] and grossed $19.2 million from 63 markets (including Korea). IMAX made up $1.4 million from 234 theaters.[46]

text: It opened in first place in Russia ($1.8 million), Spain ($1.1 million), and Malaysia ($560,000), and second in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($2.6 million), Germany ($1.4 million), and Brazil ($1.1 million),[46] and had similar openings in Australia ($2.8 million) and France ($1.9 million).[60] China is not yet determined.[46]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The Magnificent Seven received mixed reviews, with critics praising the cast but stating the film did not offer much originality or innovation.[61] On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 63%, based on 279 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The Magnificent Seven never really lives up to the superlative in its title – or the classics from which it draws inspiration – but remains a moderately diverting action thriller on its own merits."[62] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a score of 54 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."[63] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.[64]

text: IGN critic Terri Schwartz gave the film a 6.7/10 and summarized her review with: "The Magnificent Seven ends up being a bit too predictable to reach its full potential, but the fun the cast clearly had making it allows the movie to be an enjoyable ride while it lasts. Fuqua does his best to update the Western for the modern audience, but doesn't capture what made those films great in the process. The action is big and sleek, the characters are charismatic and the film looks beautiful, but this won't be a movie that stays with you long after you leave the theater."[65]

text: Chicago Sun-Times' Richard Roeper praised the film, giving it a score of 3 stars out of 4, and writing: "Over all  [sic], this is a rousing, albeit sometimes cheesy, action-packed Western bolstered by Denzel Washington’s baddest-of-the-baddasses lead performance, mostly fine supporting work, and yep, some of the most impressively choreographed extended shootout sequences in recent memory."[66]

text: James Berardinelli of Reelviews gave the film a score of 2 stars out of 4, writing: "The original The Magnificent Seven found a perfect balance between moments of grand triumph and the understated, solemn denouement. This The Magnificent Seven has the dour ending without the high points preceding it. With two better versions of this story readily available, why bother with this mediocre re-telling? 'Currently recognizable actors' hardly seems like a good justification."[67]

text: MTV's Amy Nicholson decried the film, writing: "Fuqua’s made two clean piles separating good and evil, and in doing so, he’s thrown away the film’s point. Now we can trade our conscience for a bucket of popcorn. Today’s The Magnificent Seven is just another superhero flick that spends half its running time assembling a band of bulletproof daredevils. Which makes sense — the original inspired The Avengers, which published its first comic three years after it was a hit."[68]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three out of four stars, saying, "The new Seven isn't aiming for cinema immortality. It's two hours of hardcore, shoot-em-up pow and it's entertaining as hell."[69]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award

Date of ceremony

Category

Recipient(s)

Result

Ref(s)

Alliance of Women Film Journalists

December 21, 2016

Remake or Sequel That Shouldn't Have Been Made

The Magnificent Seven

Nominated

[70][71]

Black Reel Awards

February 16, 2017

Outstanding Actor

Denzel Washington

Nominated

[72]

Outstanding Director

Antoine Fuqua

Nominated

Jupiter Awards

March 29, 2017

Best International Film

The Magnificent Seven

Nominated

[73]

Best International Actor

Denzel Washington

Won

Saturn Awards

June 28, 2017

Best Action or Adventure Film

The Magnificent Seven

Nominated

[74]

Teen Choice Awards

July 31, 2016

Choice Movie Actor: AnTEENcipated

Chris Pratt

Nominated

[75]

tag: table


document_title: List of Boston Red Sox seasons

question_text: most wins in a season mlb red sox

question_tokens: most wins in a season mlb red sox

root

text: List of Boston Red Sox seasons

text: Regular season results[edit]

text:
World Series Champions(1903–present) †

AL Champions(1901–present)[a] *

Division Champions(1969–present) ^

Wild Card Berth(1994–present) ¤

text:
Season

Level

League

Division

Finish

Wins

Losses

Pct.

GB

Postseason

Awards

Ref.

Boston Americans

1901

MLB

AL

2nd

79

57

.580

4

Cy Young (TC)
[7]

1902

MLB

AL

3rd

77

60

.562

6½

[8]

1903

MLB †

AL *

1st

91

47

.659

 —

Won World Series (Pirates) 5–3 †

[8]

1904

MLB

AL *

1st

95

59

.616

 —

World Series canceled[b] *

[9]

1905

MLB

AL

4th

78

74

.513

16

[10]

1906

MLB

AL

8th

49

105

.318

45½

[11]

1907

MLB

AL

7th

59

90

.395

32½

[12]

Boston Red Sox

1908

MLB

AL

5th

75

79

.487

15½

[13]

1909

MLB

AL

3rd

88

63

.582

9½

[14]

1910

MLB

AL

4th

81

72

.529

22½

[15]

1911

MLB

AL

4th

78

75

.509

24

[16]

1912

MLB †

AL *

1st

105

47

.690

 —

Won World Series (Giants) 4–3 †

Tris Speaker (MVP)

[17]

1913

MLB

AL

4th

79

71

.526

15½

[18]

1914

MLB

AL

2nd

91

62

.594

8½

[19]

1915

MLB †

AL *

1st

101

50

.668

 —

Won World Series (Phillies) 4–1 †

[20]

1916

MLB †

AL *

1st

91

63

.590

 —

Won World Series (Robins) 4–1 †

[21]

1917

MLB

AL

2nd

90

62

.592

9

[22]

1918

MLB †

AL *

1st

75

51

.595

 —

Won World Series (Cubs) 4–2 †

[23]

1919

MLB

AL

6th

66

71

.481

20½

[24]

1920

MLB

AL

5th

72

81

.470

25½

[25]

1921

MLB

AL

5th

75

79

.487

23½

[26]

1922

MLB

AL

8th

61

93

.396

33

[27]

1923

MLB

AL

8th

61

91

.401

37

[28]

1924

MLB

AL

7th

67

87

.435

25

[29]

1925

MLB

AL

8th

47

105

.309

49½

[30]

1926

MLB

AL

8th

46

107

.300

44½

[31]

1927

MLB

AL

8th

51

103

.331

59

[32]

1928

MLB

AL

8th

57

96

.372

43½

[33]

1929

MLB

AL

8th

58

96

.376

48

[34]

1930

MLB

AL

8th

52

102

.337

50

[35]

1931

MLB

AL

6th

62

90

.407

45

[36]

1932

MLB

AL

8th

43

111

.279

64

[37]

1933

MLB

AL

7th

63

86

.423

34½

[38]

1934

MLB

AL

4th

76

76

.500

24

[39]

1935

MLB

AL

4th

78

75

.510

16

[40]

1936

MLB

AL

6th

74

80

.481

28½

[41]

1937

MLB

AL

5th

80

72

.526

21

[42]

1938

MLB

AL

2nd

88

61

.591

9½

Jimmie Foxx (MVP)

[43]

1939

MLB

AL

2nd

89

62

.589

17

[44]

1940

MLB

AL

4th

82

72

.532

8

[45]

1941

MLB

AL

2nd

84

70

.545

17

[46]

1942

MLB

AL

2nd

93

59

.611

9

Ted Williams (TC)
[47]

1943

MLB

AL

7th

68

84

.447

29

[48]

1944

MLB

AL

4th

77

77

.500

12

[49]

1945

MLB

AL

7th

71

83

.461

17½

[50]

1946

MLB

AL *

1st

104

50

.675

 —

Lost World Series (Cardinals) 4–3 *

Ted Williams (MVP)

[51]

1947

MLB

AL

3rd

83

71

.538

14

Ted Williams (TC)

[52]

1948

MLB

AL

2nd

96

59

.619

1

[53]

1949

MLB

AL

2nd

96

58

.623

1

Ted Williams (MVP)

[54]

1950

MLB

AL

3rd

94

60

.610

4

Walt Dropo (ROY)

[55]

1951

MLB

AL

3rd

87

67

.564

11

[56]

1952

MLB

AL

6th

76

78

.493

19

[57]

1953

MLB

AL

4th

84

69

.549

16

[58]

1954

MLB

AL

4th

69

85

.448

42

[59]

1955

MLB

AL

4th

84

70

.545

12

[60]

1956

MLB

AL

4th

84

70

.545

13

[61]

1957

MLB

AL

3rd

82

72

.532

16

[55]

1958

MLB

AL

3rd

79

75

.512

13

Jackie Jensen (MVP)

[62]

1959

MLB

AL

5th

75

79

.487

19

[63]

1960

MLB

AL

7th

65

89

.422

32

[64]

1961

MLB

AL

6th

76

86

.469

33

Don Schwall (ROY)

[65]

1962

MLB

AL

8th

76

84

.475

19

[66]

1963

MLB

AL

7th

76

85

.472

28

[67]

1964

MLB

AL

7th

72

90

.444

27

[68]

1965

MLB

AL

9th

62

100

.382

40

[69]

1966

MLB

AL

9th

72

90

.444

26

[70]

1967

MLB

AL *

1st

92

70

.567

—

Lost World Series (Cardinals) 4–3 *

Carl Yastrzemski (MVP, TC) Jim Lonborg (CYA)

[71]

1968

MLB

AL

3rd

86

76

.530

17

[72]

1969

MLB

AL

East

3rd

87

75

.537

22

[73]

1970

MLB

AL

East

3rd

87

75

.537

21

[74]

1971

MLB

AL

East

3rd

85

77

.524

18

[75]

1972

MLB

AL

East

2nd

85

70

.548

½

Carlton Fisk (ROY)

[76]

1973

MLB

AL

East

2nd

89

73

.549

8

[77]

1974

MLB

AL

East

3rd

84

78

.518

7

[78]

1975

MLB

AL *

East ^

1st

95

65

.593

 —

Won ALCS (Athletics) 3–0 Lost World Series (Reds) 4–3 *

Fred Lynn (MVP, ROY)
[79]

1976

MLB

AL

East

3rd

83

79

.512

15½

[80]

1977

MLB

AL

East

2nd

97

64

.602

2½

[81]

1978

MLB

AL

East

2nd

99

64

.607

1

Jim Rice (MVP)

[82]

1979

MLB

AL

East

3rd

91

69

.568

11½

[83]

1980

MLB

AL

East

5th

83

77

.518

19

[84]

1981[c]

MLB

AL

East

5th

59

49

.535

2½

[85]

1982

MLB

AL

East

3rd

89

73

.549

6

[86]

1983

MLB

AL

East

6th

78

84

.481

20

[87]

1984

MLB

AL

East

4th

86

76

.530

18

[88]

1985

MLB

AL

East

6th

81

81

.500

18½

[89]

1986

MLB

AL *

East ^

1st

95

66

.590

 —

Won ALCS (Angels) 4–3Lost World Series (Mets) 4–3 *

Roger Clemens (MVP, CYA)John McNamara (MOY)

[90]

1987

MLB

AL

East

5th

78

84

.481

20

Roger Clemens (CYA)

[91]

1988

MLB

AL

East ^

1st

89

73

.549

 —

Lost ALCS (Athletics) 4–0

[92]

1989

MLB

AL

East

3rd

83

79

.512

6

[93]

1990

MLB

AL

East ^

1st

88

74

.543

 —

Lost ALCS (Athletics) 4–0

[94]

1991

MLB

AL

East

2nd

84

78

.518

7

Roger Clemens (CYA)

[95]

1992

MLB

AL

East

7th

73

89

.450

23

[96]

1993

MLB

AL

East

5th

80

82

.493

15

[97]

1994[d]

MLB

AL

East

5th

54

61

.469

17

Playoffs cancelled

[98]

1995

MLB

AL

East ^

1st

86

58

.597

 —

Lost ALDS (Indians) 3–0

Mo Vaughn (MVP)

[99]

1996

MLB

AL

East

3rd

85

77

.524

7

[100]

1997

MLB

AL

East

4th

78

84

.481

20

Nomar Garciaparra (ROY)

[101]

1998

MLB

AL

East

2nd ¤

92

70

.567

22

Lost ALDS (Indians) 3–1

[102]

1999

MLB

AL

East

2nd ¤

94

68

.580

4

Won ALDS (Indians) 3–2Lost ALCS (Yankees) 4–1

Pedro Martínez (CYA, TC)Jimy Williams (MOY)

[103]

2000

MLB

AL

East

2nd

85

77

.524

2½

Pedro Martínez (CYA)

[104]

2001

MLB

AL

East

2nd

82

79

.509

13½

[105]

2002

MLB

AL

East

2nd

93

69

.574

10½

[106]

2003

MLB

AL

East

2nd ¤

95

67

.586

6

Won ALDS (Athletics) 3–2Lost ALCS (Yankees) 4–3

[107]

2004

MLB †

AL *

East

2nd ¤

98

64

.605

3

Won ALDS (Angels) 3–0Won ALCS (Yankees) 4–3Won World Series (Cardinals) 4–0 †

Manny Ramirez (WS MVP)

[108]

2005

MLB

AL

East

2nd ¤

95

67

.586

—[e]

Lost ALDS (White Sox) 3–0

[109]

2006

MLB

AL

East

3rd

86

76

.530

11

[110]

2007

MLB †

AL *

East ^

1st

96

66

.592

—

Won ALDS (Angels) 3–0Won ALCS (Indians) 4–3 Won World Series (Rockies) 4–0 †

Dustin Pedroia (ROY)Mike Lowell (WS MVP)

[111]

2008

MLB

AL

East

2nd ¤

95

67

.586

2

Won ALDS (Angels) 3–1Lost ALCS (Rays) 4–3

Dustin Pedroia (MVP)

[112]

2009

MLB

AL

East

2nd ¤

95

67

.586

8

Lost ALDS (Angels) 3–0

[113]

2010

MLB

AL

East

3rd

89

73

.549

7

[114]

2011

MLB

AL

East

3rd

90

72

.556

7

[115]

2012

MLB

AL

East

5th

69

93

.426

26

[116]

2013

MLB †

AL *

East ^

1st

97

65

.599

—

Won ALDS (Rays) 3–1Won ALCS (Tigers) 4–2Won World Series (Cardinals) 4–2 †

David Ortiz (WS MVP)

[117]

2014

MLB

AL

East

5th

71

91

.438

25

[118]

2015

MLB

AL

East

5th

78

84

.481

15

2016

MLB

AL

East ^

1st

93

69

.574

—

Lost ALDS (Indians) 3–0

Rick Porcello (CYA)

2017

MLB

AL

East ^

1st

93

69

.574

—

Lost  ALDS (Astros) 3–1

text: Regular season record by decade[edit]

text: The following table describes the Red Sox's MLB win–loss record by decade.

tag: p

text:
Decade
Wins
Losses
Pct

1900s
691
634
.522

1910s
857
624
.579

1920s
595
938
.388

1930s
705
815
.464

1940s
854
683
.556

1950s
814
725
.529

1960s
764
845
.475

1970s
895
714
.556

1980s
821
742
.525

1990s
814
741
.523

2000s
920
699
.568

2010s
680
616
.525

All-time
9317
8707
.517

text: These statistics are from Baseball-Reference.com's Boston Red Sox History & Encyclopedia,[119] and are current as of the end of the 2017 regular season.

text: All-time records[edit]

text:
Total Games

Wins

Losses

Win %

Boston Americans regular season record (1901–1907)

1,020

528

492

.518

Boston Red Sox regular season record (1907–present)

17,166

8,882

8,284

.517

All-time regular season record

18,186

9,410

8,776

.517

All-time post-season record[120]

174

91

83

.523

All-time regular and post-season record

18,360

9,501

8,859

.517

text: Note: These statistics are current as of the conclusion of the 2017 season.

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
a For all American League pennant winners see List of American League pennant winners
b The World Series was canceled after the New York Giants refused to play.
c The season was partially canceled due to a player's strike that closed the MLB for 50 days.
d The season was partially canceled due to a player's strike that closed the MLB for 223 days.
e The Red Sox finished 95–67 and with the same record as the New York Yankees, but since the Yankees had won the season series between the two teams, they won the American League East and the Red Sox had to settle for the American League Wild Card.

tag: ul


document_title: Paige (name)

question_text: what is the meaning of the name paige

question_tokens: what is the meaning of the name paige

text: Paige (name)

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Paige

Pronunciation
/peɪdʒ/ PAYJ

Gender
Unisex

Origin

Word/name
Old French

Meaning
Young helper/child

text: Paige is a given name for males and females. It is of Latin origin (Byzantine "Págius" young boy helper/mate of young nobles, from "padius" young boy, derived from Greek "Paidion" child) and its meaning is "young helper" or "young child". A page in medieval households was usually a young boy whose service was the first step in his training as a knight. Use may possibly indicate an ancestor who was a page.

text: In modern times Paige has become a given name, generally given to girls living in North America since the middle of the 20th century, but also occasionally to boys.

text: People with the given name[edit]

text:
Paige Ackerson-Kiely (born 1975), modern American poet
Paige Omartian (née Armstrong) (born 1990), American Christian singer-songwriter
Paige (wrestler), professional wrestler, real name Saraya-Jade Bevis
Paige Braddock, cartoonist of Jane's World
Paige Bradley, American born artist and sculptor
Jennifer Paige Chambers, musical theatre performer
Paige Chua (born 1981), Singaporean model and television actress
Paige Conners (born 2000). Israeli-American pairs figure skater who will compete at the 2018 Winter Olympics, representing Israel.
Paige Davis (born 1969), American actress
Paige Dunham (born 1962), American ventriloquist and stand-up comedian
Donald Paige Frary, noted American professor and author
Paige Gordon (born 1973), retired female diver from Canada
Paige Haley (born 1966), musician and producer
Paige Hareb (born 1990), professional surfer from New Zealand
Paige Hemmis (born 1972), American television personality, host of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition
Paige Hurd (born 1992), American actress
Paige Kelton, weekday television news anchor at WTEV/WAWS in Jacksonville, Florida
Heather Paige Kent (born 1969), Jewish-American actress noted for her television roles
Paige Kreegel (born 1958), American politician
Paige Lawrence (born 1990), Canadian pair skater
Paige Lewis, American singer-songwriter
Paige Mackenzie (born 1983), American professional golfer
L. Paige Marvel (born 1949), judge of the United States Tax Court
Paige Mayo (born 1986), American professional wrestling personality
Victoria Paige Meyerink (born 1960), award-winning producer and former child actor
Paige Miles (born 1985), American singer and American Idol contestant
Judith Paige Mitchell (1932–2010), television writer, executive producer and novelist
Paige Moss (born 1973), American actress
Paige O'Hara (born 1956), the voice of Belle in Disney's Beauty and the Beast
Paige Palmer (died 2009), American fitness expert
Michelle Paige Paterson (born 1961), the First Lady of New York state
Paige Patterson (born 1942), president of Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Fort Worth, Texas
Paige Peterson (born 1955), American painter and illustrator
Paige Railey (born 1987), American sailor, races in the Laser Radial division
Paige Rense (born 1929), editor emeritus of Architectural Digest, editor-in-chief from 1975 to 2010
Paige Segal (born 1987), American actress
Paige Shand-Haami, film and television actress
Paige St. John, American journalist for the Sarasota Herald-Tribune
Paige Summers (born 1976), American adult model
Paige Turco (born 1965), American actress
Suzanne Paige Yoculan, head coach of the women's gymnastics program at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia
Paige VanZant (born 1994), professional mixed martial arts fighter
Paige Young, Playboy's Playmate of the Month in November 1964
Paige Zemina (born 1968), former American college and international swimmer, Olympic bronze medalist

text: Fictional characters[edit]

text:
Paige, the Subterra protagonist in Bakugan: Mechtanium Surge
Paige Clark, character in the sitcom Ellen
Paige Chan, a young 12-year old girl in the animated TV series Girls vs. Aliens
Paige Dineen, character in Scorpion
Paige Fox, character in the FoxTrot comic
Paige Guthrie, member of Marvel Comics team the X-Men
Paige Jennings, character in the TV series The Americans
Paige Matheson, lead character in the primetime serial Knots Landing; played by Nicollette Sheridan
Paige Matthews, lead character on the American television series Charmed; played by Rose McGowan
Paige McCullers, character in Pretty Little Liars
Paige Michalchuk, character on the Canadian television series Degrassi: The Next Generation
Paige Morgan, the main character in The Prince and Me films
Paige Smith, fictional character in the Australian television series Neighbours
Paige Winterbourne, character in the Women of the Otherworld series

text: People with the surname[edit]

text:
Alonzo C. Paige (1797–1868), New York politician and judge
Bruce Paige (born 1948), newsreader in Brisbane, Australia
Calvin Paige (1848–1930), U.S. Representative from Massachusetts
Caroline Paige (born 1961), the first officer in the Royal Air Force to have a sex change
Chantelle Paige (born 1988), American singer-songwriter and an actress
Constantin Le Paige (1852–1929), Belgian mathematician
David R. Paige (1844–1901), U.S. Representative from Ohio
Don Paige (born 1956), retired middle distance runner from the United States
Elaine Paige OBE (born 1948), English singer and actress
Gilbert Paige (c.1582-1647), Mayor of Barnstaple
Glenn D. Paige (born 1929), American political scientist
Haley Paige (1981–2007), Mexican-born American pornographic actress
Janis Paige (born 1922), American film, musical theatre and television actress
Jason Paige (born 1969), American singer, writer and producer, and stage, film, and television actor
Jean Paige (1895–1990), American film actress of the silent era
Jennifer Paige (born 1973), American singer-songwriter
Kathleen Paige, the Program Director, Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense
Kevin Paige (born 1966), recording artist on Chrysalis
Kymberly Paige (born 1961), American model and actress
Mabel Paige (1880–1954), American film actress
Mabeth Hurd Paige (1869–1961), Minnesota politician
Marcus Paige, American college basketball player
Mitchell Paige (1918–2003), recipient of the Medal of Honor from World War II
Pat Paige (1882–1939), Major League Baseball pitcher
Peter Paige (born 1969), American actor, director, and screenwriter
Richard G. L. Paige (1946-1904), one of the first African-Americans delegates to be elected in Virginia
Robert Paige (1911–1987), actor, TV newscaster and political correspondent
Robin Paige, pen name of Susan Wittig Albert (born 1940), American mystery writer
Rod Paige (born 1933), 7th United States Secretary of Education from 2001 to 2005
Satchel Paige (1906–1982), American baseball player
Seneca Paige (1788–1856), American-born businessman and political figure in Canada East
Stephone Paige (born 1961), former professional American football player
Tarah Paige (born 1982), American gymnast, dancer and actress
Tony Paige (born 1962), former professional American football player
Tony Paige (boxing) (born 1953), American radio talk show host and boxing color analyst
Woody Paige (born 1946), American sports columnist
Yasmin Paige (born 1991), English actress

text: This page or section lists people that share the same given name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article.

text: This page lists people with the surname Paige. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.

text: Given namesSurnamesEnglish-language unisex given namesFeminine given namesMasculine given namesEnglish unisex given namesEnglish-language surnames

text: Articles lacking sources from September 2017All articles lacking sourcesAll set index articles


document_title: Science and the Catholic Church

question_text: during the middle ages what part of the ancient catholic church served as a center of learning

question_tokens: during the middle ages what part of the ancient catholic church served as a center of learning

text: Science and the Catholic Church

text: Some leading Catholic scientists[edit]

text: Scientific fields with important foundational contributions from Catholic scientists include: physics (Galileo), acoustics (Mersenne), mineralogy (Agricola), modern chemistry (Lavoisier), modern anatomy (Vesalius), stratigraphy (Steno), bacteriology (Kircher and Pasteur), genetics (Mendel), analytical geometry (Descartes), heliocentric cosmology (Copernicus), atomic theory (Boscovich), and the Big Bang Theory on the origins of the universe (Lemaître). Jesuits devised modern lunar nomenclature and stellar classification and some 35 craters of the moon are named after Jesuits, among whose great scientific polymaths were Francesco Grimaldi and Giambattista Riccioli. The Jesuits also introduced Western science to India and China and translated local texts to be sent to Europe for study. Missionaries contributed significantly to the fields of anthropology, zoology, and botany during Europe's Age of Discovery.[citation needed]

text: Definitions of science[edit]

text: Differing analyses of the Catholic relationship to science may arise from definitional variance. While secular philosophers consider "science" in the restricted sense of natural science, theologians have viewed science in a very broad sense as given by Aristotle's definition that science is the sure and evident knowledge obtained from demonstrations.[17] In this sense, science comprises the entire curriculum of university studies, and the Church has claimed authority in matters of doctrine and teaching of science. With the gradual secularisation of the West, the influence of the Church over scientific research has gradually faded.[18]

text: History[edit]

text: Early Middle Ages[edit]

text: After the Fall of Rome, while an increasingly Hellenized Roman Empire and Christian religion endured as the Byzantine Empire in the East, the study of nature endured in monastic communities in the West. On the fringes of western Europe, where the Roman tradition had not made a strong imprint, monks engaged in the study of Latin as a foreign language, and actively investigated the traditions of Roman learning. Ireland's most learned monks even retained a knowledge of Greek. Irish missionaries like Colombanus later founded monasteries in continental Europe, which went on to create libraries and become centers of scholarship.[19]

text: The leading scholars of the Early Middle Ages were clergymen, for whom the study of nature was but a small part of their scholarly interest. They lived in an atmosphere which provided opportunity and motives for the study of aspects of nature. Some of this study was carried out for explicitly religious reasons. The need for monks to determine the proper time to pray led them to study the motion of the stars;[20] the need to compute the date of Easter led them to study and teach rudimentary mathematics and the motions of the Sun and Moon.[21] Modern readers may find it disconcerting that sometimes the same works discuss both the technical details of natural phenomena and their symbolic significance.[22] In an astronomical observation, Bede of Jarrow described two comets over England, and wrote that the "fiery torches" of AD 729 struck terror in all who saw them – for comets were heralds of bad news.[23]

text: Among these clerical scholars was Bishop Isidore of Seville who wrote a comprehensive encyclopedia of natural knowledge, the monk Bede of Jarrow who wrote treatises on The Reckoning of Time and The Nature of Things, Alcuin of York, abbot of the Abbey of Marmoutier, who advised Charlemagne on scientific matters, and Rabanus Maurus, Archbishop of Mainz and one of the most prominent teachers of the Carolingian Age, who, Like Bede, wrote treatises on computus and On the Nature of Things. Abbot Ælfric of Eynsham, who is known mostly for his Old English sermons, wrote a book on the astronomical time reckoning in Old English based on the writings of Bede. Abbo of Fleury wrote astronomical discussions of timekeeping and of the celestial spheres for his students, teaching for a while in England where he influenced the work of Byrhtferth of Ramsey, who wrote a Manual in Old English to discuss timekeeping and the natural and mystical significance of numbers.[24]

text: Later Middle Ages[edit]

text: Foundation of universities[edit]

text: In the early Middle Ages, Cathedral schools developed as centers of education, evolving into the medieval universities which were the springboard of many of Western Europe's later achievements.[25] During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. Among the great early Catholic universities were Bologna University (1088);[26] Paris University (c 1150); Oxford University (1167);[27] Salerno University (1173); University of Vicenza (1204);[disputed – discuss] Cambridge University (1209); Salamanca University (1218-1219); Padua University (1222); Naples University (1224); and Vercelli University (1228).[28]

text: Using church Latin as a lingua franca, the medieval universities across Western Europe produced a great variety of scholars and natural philosophers, including Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation,[29] and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research.[30] By the mid-15th century, prior to the Reformation, Catholic Europe had some 50 universities.[28]

text: Condemnations of 1210-1277[edit]

text: The Condemnations of 1210-1277 were enacted at the medieval University of Paris to restrict certain teachings as being heretical. These included a number of medieval theological teachings, but most importantly the physical treatises of Aristotle. The investigations of these teachings were conducted by the Bishops of Paris. The Condemnations of 1277 are traditionally linked to an investigation requested by Pope John XXI, although whether he actually supported drawing up a list of condemnations is unclear.

text: Approximately sixteen lists of censured theses were issued by the University of Paris during the 13th and 14th centuries.[31] Most of these lists of propositions were put together into systematic collections of prohibited articles.[31]

text: Mathematics, engineering and architecture[edit]

text: According to art historian Kenneth Clark, "to medieval man, geometry was a divine activity. God was the great geometer, and this concept inspired the architect."[32] Monumental cathedrals such as that of Chartres appear to evidence a complex understanding of mathematics.[32] The Church has invested greatly in engineering and architecture and founded a number of architectural genres – including Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic, High Renaissance, and Baroque.[28]

text: Development of Modern Science[edit]

text: Geology[edit]

text: Georgius Agricola (1494-1555), is considered the founder of geology and "Father of Mineralogy".[33][34] He made important contributions which paved the way for systematic study of the earth.[34] A German Catholic who retained his faith through the Reformation, he also wrote on patristics (early church history).[33]

text: Nicolas Steno (1638-1686) is a notable Catholic convert who served as a bishop after making a series of important anatomical and geological innovations. His studies of the formation of rock layers and fossils was of vital significance to the development of modern geology and continue to be used today.[35] He established the theoretical basis for stratigraphy. Originally a Lutheran, he did important anatomical work in the Netherlands but moved to Catholic Italy and, in 1667, converted. Denied office in the Protestant north, he continued his medical and geological studies, but in 1675 became a priest and soon after was appointed a bishop, writing 16 major theological works.[36]

text: Astronomy[edit]

text: Historically, the Catholic Church has been a major sponsor of astronomy, not least because of the astronomical basis of the calendar by which holy days and Easter are determined. The Church’s interest in astronomy began with purely practical concerns, when in the 16th century Pope Gregory XIII required astronomers to correct for the fact that the Julian calendar had fallen out of sync with the sky. Since the Spring equinox was tied to the celebration of Easter, the Church considered that this steady movement in the date of the equinox was undesirable. The resulting Gregorian calendar is the internationally accepted civil calendar used throughout the world today and is an important contribution of the Catholic Church to Western Civilisation.[37][38][39] It was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, by a decree signed on 24 February 1582.[40] In 1789, the Vatican Observatory opened. It was moved to Castel Gandolfo in the 1930s and the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope began making observation in Arizona, USA, in 1995.[41]

text: Copernicus[edit]

text: Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance astronomer and Catholic clergyman who was the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe.

text: In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered a series of lectures in Rome outlining Copernicus' theory. Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals heard the lectures and were interested in the theory. On 1 November 1536, Nikolaus von Schönberg, Archbishop of Capua and since the previous year a cardinal, wrote to Copernicus from Rome:

text: Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At that time I began to have a very high regard for you. ...For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe. ...Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject.[42]

text: By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticism – a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent dedication of his masterpiece to Pope Paul III. Scholars disagree on whether Copernicus' concern was limited to possible astronomical and philosophical objections, or whether he was also concerned about religious objections.[43]

text: At original publication, Copernicus' epoch-making book caused only mild controversy, and provoked no fierce sermons about contradicting Holy Scripture. It was only three years later, in 1546, that a Dominican, Giovanni Maria Tolosani, denounced the theory in an appendix to a work defending the absolute truth of Scripture.[44] He also noted that the Master of the Sacred Palace (i.e., the Catholic Church's chief censor), Bartolomeo Spina, a friend and fellow Dominican, had planned to condemn De revolutionibus but had been prevented from doing so by his illness and death.[45]

text: Galileo Galilei[edit]

text: Galileo Galilei was a Catholic scientist of the Reformation period whose support for Copernican heliocentrism was suppressed by The Inquisition.[46] He is considered one of the inventors of modern science. Along with fellow Catholic scientist Copernicus, Galileo was among those who ultimately overturned the notion of geocentrism.[47] Protestant and atheist critics of Catholicism's relationship to science have placed great emphasis on the Galileo affair. Galileo was ordered not to support Copernican theory in 1616, but in 1632, after receiving permission from a new Pope (Urban VIII) to address the subject indirectly through a dialogue, he fell foul of the Pontiff by placing the pope's views in the mouth of an imbecile within the text, and was hauled before the Inquisition. The Inquisition found him guilty of defending Copernican theory as a probability, "vehemently suspect of heresy," and placed him under house arrest for the remainder of his life.

text: Federico Cesi created the Accademia dei Lincei in 1603 as an Italian science academy, of which Galileo became a member.[48] Galileo's championing of Copernicanism was controversial within his lifetime, when a large majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed to the geocentric view. Galileo gained wide support for his theories outside the universities by writing in Italian, rather than academic Latin. In response, the Aristotelian professors of the universities formed a united effort to convince the Church to ban Copernicanism.[47]

text: Initially a beneficiary of church patronage of astronomy, Galileo rose to prominence with the publication of Sidereus Nuncius, which comprised astronomical observations made possible by the 1608 invention of the telescope. He was feted in Rome, honoured by the Jesuits of the Roman College, and received by Pope Paul V and church dignitaries.[49] Galileo began to dismiss geocentrism and emerging alternative theories like that of Tycho Brahe. Proponents of these alternatives began to work against Galileo and claim a contradiction between the Bible and his theories. Galileo rejected the accusation – quoting Cardinal Baronius: "The Holy Ghost intended to teach us how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go." He invited the Church to follow established practice and reinterpret Scripture in light of the new scientific discoveries. The leading Jesuit Theologian Cardinal Robert Bellarmine agreed that this would be an appropriate response to a true demonstration that the sun was at the center of the universe, but cautioned that the existing materials upon which Galileo relied did not yet constitute an established truth.[49]

text: Galileo's career coincided with the reaction of the Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation, in which the Roman Church found itself in a struggle for authority in Europe, following the emergence of the Protestant Churches and nations of Northern Europe.[50] Pope Paul III created the Roman and Universal Inquisition to stop the spread of "heretical depravity" throughout the Christian world. From 1571, the institution had jurisdiction over books and created the Index of Prohibited Books.[51] Rome established the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in 1622. The historian of science Jacob Bronowski wrote that "Catholics and Protestants were embattled in what we should now call a Cold War. ...The Church was a great temporal power, and in that bitter time it was fighting a political crusade in which all means were justified by the end." In this climate, Cardinal Bellarmine, himself a distinguished scientist of the age, instigated inquiries against Galileo as early as 1613.[50]

text: After 1610, when Galileo began publicly supporting the heliocentric view which placed the Sun at the center of the universe, he met with bitter opposition from some philosophers and clerics, and two of the latter eventually denounced him to the Roman Inquisition early in 1615. Galileo defended his theories by means of the long-established Catholic understanding of Scripture, that the Bible was not intended to expound scientific theory and where it conflicted with common sense, should be read as allegory.[47] Although he was cleared of any offence at that time, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as "false and contrary to Scripture" in February 1616,[52] and Galileo was warned to abandon his support for it, which he promised to do.

text: In March 1616, the Church's Congregation of the Index issued a decree suspending De revolutionibus until it could be "corrected", on the grounds that the supposedly Pythagorean doctrine[53] that the Earth moves and the Sun does not was "false and altogether opposed to Holy Scripture."[54] The same decree also prohibited any work that defended the mobility of the Earth or the immobility of the Sun, or that attempted to reconcile these assertions with Scripture.[citation needed] On the orders of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Bellarmine gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to be issued, and warned him that he could not "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine.[55] The corrections to De revolutionibus, which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620.[56]

text: In 1623, Galileo's friend Maffeo Barberini was elected as Pope Urban VIII. Urban VIII was an intellectual and patron of the arts and architecture, who had written poetry as a young man in praise of Galileo's astronomical writings. Galileo met with the new Pope, hoping to persuade him to lift the 1616 ban.[57] Instead he received permission to write a book on Aristotelian and Copernican theories, provided he did not take sides.[47] The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was passed by the censors and was well received across Europe,[47] but ultimately offended Urban VIII, whose own arguments were put into the mouth of the buffoon-like Simplicio in the dialogue. The Preparatory Commission for the trial of Galileo noted that the Pope's stated belief that it would be extravagant boldness to limit the power and wisdom of God to an individual's particular conjecture was put "into the mouth of a fool" in Galileo's text.[58]

text: Galileo was summoned to Rome to be tried by the Inquisition in 1633. According to Bronowski, Galileo's accusers relied on a forged document purporting to have, in 1616, forbidden Galileo from in "any way whatsoever" teaching theories of Copernicus, and thus could find him guilty of dishonestly tricking the censors and therefore ban his book without addressing the issues of substance relating to Copernicus found within it.[59] Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" for "following the position of Copernicus, which is contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture."[60] Though never tortured, Galileo was shown the implements of torture to instill fear in him,[59] forced to recant, and spend the rest of his life under house arrest. Galileo remained a practicing Catholic and during his house arrest wrote his most influential work Two New Sciences – a book which had to be smuggled to Protestant Holland in order to be published.[46]

text: The Catholic Church's 1758 Index of Prohibited Books omitted the general prohibition of works defending heliocentrism,[61] but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored versions of De revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Those prohibitions were finally dropped from the 1835 Index.[62]

text: The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence.[63] In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works[64] which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue.[65] In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained.[66] All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the Church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.[67]

text: Pope Urban VIII refused Galileo a stately burial upon his death, though later his bones were interned under a monument at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. In 1980, Pope John Paul II ordered a re-examination of the evidence against Galileo and formally acquitted him in 1992.[68]

text: Modern view on Galileo[edit]

text: In 1939 Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research ... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments."[69] His close advisor of 40 years Professor Robert Leiber wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."[70]

text: On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome,[71] Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today."[72] Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying: “The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune.”[72] The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say: "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."[72]

text: On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret for how the Galileo affair was handled, and issued a declaration acknowledging the errors committed by the Church tribunal that judged the scientific positions of Galileo Galilei; this was the result of a study conducted by the Pontifical Council for Culture.[73][74] In March 2008 the Vatican proposed to complete its rehabilitation of Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.[75] In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy.[76]

text: Modern astronomers[edit]

text: Brother Guy Consolmagno, a Jesuit, became the first religious brother to be awarded the American Astronomical Society's Carl Sagan Medal for Excellence in Public Communication in Planetary Science in 2014.[77] The judges noted his six books, and nominated his 'Turn Left At Orion' as having had an "enormous impact on the amateur astronomy community, engendering public support for astronomy." They described Consolmagno as "the voice of the juxtaposition of planetary science and astronomy with Christian belief, a rational spokesperson who can convey exceptionally well how religion and science can co-exist for believers."[78] Consolmagno describes science as an "act of worship, ... a way of getting close to creation, to really getting intimate with creation, and it's a way of getting intimate with the creator."[79]

text: Gessner[edit]

text: Conrad Gessner's great zoological work, Historiae animalium, appeared in 4 vols. (quadrupeds, birds, fishes folio), 1551–1558, at Zürich, with a fifth (snakes) being issued in 1587. This work is recognized as the starting-point of modern zoology. There was extreme religious tension at the time Historiae animalium came out. Gesner was Protestant. Under Pope Paul IV it was felt that the religious convictions of an author contaminated all his writings,[80] so – without any regard for the content of the work – it was added to the Roman Catholic Church's list of prohibited books.[81]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: In the years since the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859, the position of the Catholic Church on the theory of evolution has slowly been refined. For about 100 years there was no authoritative pronouncement on the subject, though hostile comments were made by local church figures.[citation needed] In October 1996, Pope John Paul II outlined the Catholic view of evolution to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, saying that the Church holds that evolution is "more than a hypothesis," it is a well-accepted theory of science and that the human body evolved according to natural processes, while the human soul is the creation of God.[83] This updated an earlier pronouncement by Pope Pius XII in the 1950 encyclical Humani generis that accepted evolution as a possibility (as opposed to a probability) and a legitimate field of study to investigate the origins of the human body – though it was stressed that "the Catholic faith obliges us to hold that souls are immediately created by God."[84] In contrast with Protestant literalist objections, Catholic issues with evolutionary theory have had little to do with maintaining the literalism of the account in the Book of Genesis, and have always been concerned with the question of how man came to have a soul.[85][86]

text: Catholic scientists contributed to the development of evolutionary theory. Among the foremost Catholic contributors to the development of the modern understanding of evolution was the Jesuit-educated Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) and the Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel (1822-1884).[28] Lamark developed Lamarckism, the first coherent theory of evolution, proposing in Philosophie Zoologique (1809) and other works his theory of the transmutation of species and drawing a genealogical tree to show the genetic connection of organisms.[87] Mendel discovered the basis of genetics following long study of the inherited characteristics of pea plants, although his paper Experiments on Plant Hybridization, published in 1866, was famously overlooked until the start of the next century.[88] The work of Catholic scientists like the Danish Bishop Nicolas Steno helped establish the science of geology, leading to modern scientific measurements of the age of the earth.[35] The church accepts modern geological theories on such matters and the authenticity of the fossil record. Papal pronouncements, along with commentaries by cardinals, indicate that the Church is aware of the general findings of scientists on the gradual appearance of life. The Church's stance is that the temporal appearance of life has been guided by God.

text: Modern Creationism has had little Catholic support. In the 1950s, the Church's position was one of neutrality; by the late 20th century its position evolved to one of general acceptance of evolution. Today[update], the Church's official position is a fairly non-specific example of theistic evolution.[85][86] This states that faith and scientific findings regarding human evolution are not in conflict, though humans are regarded as a special creation, and that the existence of God is required to explain both monogenism and the spiritual component of human origins. No infallible declarations by the Pope or an Ecumenical Council have ever been made.

text: There have been several organizations composed of Catholic laity and clergy which have advocated positions both supporting evolution and opposed to evolution. For example:

text:
The Kolbe Center for the Study of Creation operates out of Mt. Jackson, Virginia, and is a Catholic lay apostolate promoting creationism.[89]
The Faith Movement was founded by Catholic Fr. Edward Holloway in Surrey, England. His book Catholicism: a new synthesis "argues from Evolution as a fact, that the whole process would be impossible without the existence of the Supreme Mind we call God."[90]
Daylight Origins Society [1] was founded in 1971 by John G. Campbell (d.1983) as the "Counter Evolution Group". Its goal is "to inform Catholics and others of the scientific evidence supporting Special Creation as opposed to Evolution, and that the true discoveries of Science are in conformity with Catholic doctrines." It publishes the "Daylight" newsletter.[91]

text: As in other countries, Catholic schools in the United States teach evolution as part of their science curriculum. They teach the fact that evolution occurs and the modern evolutionary synthesis, which is the scientific theory that explains how evolution occurs. This is the same evolution curriculum that secular schools teach. Bishop DiLorenzo of Richmond, chair of the Committee on Science and Human Values, said in a December 2004 letter sent to all U.S. bishops: "Catholic schools should continue teaching evolution as a scientific theory backed by convincing evidence. At the same time, Catholic parents whose children are in public schools should ensure that their children are also receiving appropriate catechesis at home and in the parish on God as Creator. Students should be able to leave their biology classes, and their courses in religious instruction, with an integrated understanding of the means God chose to make us who we are."[92]

text: Genetics[edit]

text: Gregor Mendel was an Austrian scientist and Augustinian friar who began experimenting with peas around 1856. Observing the processes of pollination at his monastery in what is now the Czech Republic, Mendel studied and developed theories pertaining to the field of science now called genetics. Mendel published his results in 1866 in the Journal of the Brno Natural History Society. The paper was not widely read nor understood, and soon after its publication Mendel was elected Abbott of his Monastery. He continued experimenting with bees but his work went unrecognised until various scientists resurrected his theories around 1900, after his death.[93] Mendel had joined the Brno Augustinian Monastery in 1843, but also trained as a scientist at the Olmutz Philosophical Institute and the University of Vienna. The Brno Monastery was a center of scholarship, with an extensive library and a tradition of scientific research.[94]

text: Where Charles Darwin's theories suggested a mechanism for improvement of species over generations, Mendel's observations provided explanation for how a new species itself could emerge. Though Darwin and Mendel never collaborated, they were aware of each other's work (Darwin read a paper by Wilhelm Olbers Focke which extensively referenced Mendel). Bill Bryson wrote that "without realizing it, Darwin and Mendel laid the groundwork for all of life sciences in the twentieth century. Darwin saw that all living things are connected, that ultimately they trace their ancestry to a single, common source; Mendel's work provided the mechanism to explain how that could happen."[95] Biologist J. B. S. Haldane and others brought together the principles of Mendelian inheritance with Darwinian principles of evolution to form the field of genetics known as Modern evolutionary synthesis.[96]

text: "Big Bang" Theory for origin of the universe[edit]

text: The Big Bang model, or theory, is now the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe and was first proposed by Belgian priest Georges Lemaitre, astronomer and professor of physics at the Catholic University of Louvain, with a PhD from MIT. Lemaître was a pioneer in applying Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity to cosmology. Bill Bryson wrote that the idea was decades ahead of its time, and that Lemaitre was the first to bring together Einstein's theory of relativity with Edwin Hubble's cosmological observations, combining them in his own "fire-works theory". Lemaitre theorized in the 1920s that the universe began as a geometrical point which he called a "primeval atom", which exploded out and has been moving apart ever since. The idea became established theory only decades later with the discovery of cosmic background radiation by American scientists.[97]

text: Sponsorship of scientific research[edit]

text: In ancient times, the church supported medical research as an aid to Christian charity. The Church supported the development of modern science and scientific research by founding Europe's first universities in the Middle Ages. Historian Lawrence M. Principe writes that "it is clear from the historical record that the Catholic church has been probably the largest single and longest-term patron of science in history, that many contributors to the Scientific Revolution were themselves Catholic, and that several Catholic institutions and perspectives were key influences upon the rise of modern science."[98] The field of astronomy is a prime example of the Church's commitment to science. J.L. Heilbron in his book The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories writes that "the Roman Catholic Church gave more financial aid and support to the study of astronomy for over six centuries, from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment, than any other, and, probably, all other, institutions."[99]

text: Scientific support continues through the present day. The Pontifical Academy of Sciences was founded in 1936 by Pope Pius XI, with the aim of promoting the progress of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences and the study of related epistemological problems. The academy holds a membership roster of the most respected names in 20th century science, many of them Nobel laureates. Also worth noting is the Vatican Observatory, which is an astronomical research and educational institution supported by the Holy See.

text: In his 1996 encyclical Fides et Ratio, Pope John Paul II wrote that "faith and reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth."[100] Pope Benedict XVI re-emphasized the importance of reason in his famous 2006 address at Regensburg.[101] But the emphasis on reason is not a recent development in the Church's history. In the first few centuries of the Church, the Church Fathers appropriated the best of Greek philosophy in defense of the faith. This appropriation culminated in the 13th century writings of Thomas Aquinas, whose synthesis of faith and reason has influenced Catholic thought for eight centuries. Because of this synthesis, it should be no surprise that many historians of science trace the foundations of modern science to the 13th century. These writers include Edward Grant,[102] James Hannam,[103] and Pierre Duhem.[104]

text: Medicine[edit]

text: The Church has, since ancient times, been heavily involved in the study and provision of medicine. Early Christians were noted for tending the sick and infirm, and priests were often also physicians. Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals after the end of the persecution of the early church. Notable contributors to the medical sciences of those early centuries include Tertullian (born A.D. 160), Clement of Alexandria, Lactantius, and the learned St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636). St. Benedict of Nursia (480) emphasised medicine as an aid to the provision of hospitality.[105]

text: During the Middle Ages, famous physicians and medical researchers included the Abbot of Monte Cassino Bertharius, the Abbot of Reichenau Walafrid Strabo, the Abbess Hildegard of Bingen, and the Bishop Marbodius of Rennes. Monasteries of this era were diligent in the study of medicine.[105] So too, convents: Hildegard of Bingen, a doctor of the church, is among the most distinguished of Medieval Catholic women scientists. Other than theological works, Hildegard also wrote Physica, a text on the natural sciences, as well as Causae et Curae. Hildegard of Bingen was well known for her healing powers that involved practical application of tinctures, herbs, and precious stones.[106]

text: Charlemagne decreed that each monastery and cathedral chapter establish a school and in these schools medicine was commonly taught. At one such school Pope Sylvester II taught medicine. Clergy were active at the School of Salerno, the oldest medical school in Western Europe. Among the important churchmen to teach there were Alpuhans, later (1058–85) Archbishop of Salerno, and the influential Constantine of Carthage, a monk who produced superior translations of Hippocrates and investigated Arab literature.[105]

text: In Catholic Spain amidst the early Reconquista, Archbishop Raimund founded an institution for translations, which employed a number of Jewish translators to communicate the works of Arabian medicine. Influenced by the rediscovery of Aristotelean thought, churchmen like the Dominican Albert Magnus and the Franciscan Roger Bacon made significant advances in the observation of nature.

text: Through the devastating Bubonic Plague, the Franciscans were notable for tending the sick. The apparent impotence of medical knowledge against the disease prompted critical examination. Medical scientists came to divide among anti-Galenists, anti-Arabists, and positive Hippocratics. In Renaissance Italy, the Popes were often patrons of the study of anatomy, and Catholic artists such as Michelangelo advanced knowledge of the field through such studies as sketching cadavers to improve his portraits of the crucifixion.[105]

text: The Jesuit order, created during the Reformation, contributed a number of distinguished medical scientists. In the field of bacteriology it was the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1671) who first proposed that living beings enter and exist in the blood. In the development of ophthalmology, Christoph Scheiner made important advances in relation to refraction of light and the retinal image.[105]

text: In modern times, the Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of health care in the world. Catholic religious have been responsible for founding and running networks of hospitals across the world where medical research continues to be advanced.[107]

text: Jesuits[edit]

text: The Society of Jesus (Jesuit Order) was founded by the Spaniard Saint Ignatius Loyola in 1540. Jesuits were leaders of the Counter-Reformation, who have contributed a great many distinguished scientists and institutions of learning, right up to the present. The role of some of its members like Robert Bellarmine, in the Counter-Reformation period and in defense of Papal teaching, show the constraints under which they operated. However, recent scholarship in the history of science has focused on the substantial contributions of Jesuit scientists over the centuries. Historian Jonathan Wright discussed the breadth of Jesuit involvement in the sciences in his history of the order:

text: [The Jesuits] contributed to the development of pendulum clocks, pantographs, barometers, reflecting telescopes and microscopes, to scientific fields as various as magnetism, optics, and electricity. They observed, in some cases before anyone else, the colored bands on Jupiter’s surface, the Andromeda nebula, and Saturn’s rings. They theorized about the circulation of the blood (independently of Harvey), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon effected the tides, and the wave-like nature of light. Star maps of the southern hemisphere, symbolic logic, flood-control measures on the Po and Adige rivers, introducing plus and minus signs into Italian mathematics – all were typical Jesuit achievements, and scientists as influential as Fermat, Huygens, Leibniz, and Newton were not alone in counting Jesuits among their most prized correspondents.[108]

text: Christopher Clavius was the main architect of the modern Gregorian calendar. Missionaries like Matteo Ricci and Ferdinand Verbiest introduced Western scientific knowledge to China. Athanasius Kircher proposed his precursor of germ theory. As leading exponents of astronomy, Jesuits were among those arguing the case for and against Copernicanism and made a great many notable astronomical observations. Ruđer Bošković produced a precursor of atomic theory. Angelo Secchi drew an early map of Mars and was the first to classify stars based on their spectrum. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin was among the leading paleontologists who discovered Peking Man and Piltdown Man.

text: The contribution of the Jesuits to the development of seismology and seismic prospecting has been so substantial that seismology has been called "The Jesuit Science".[109] Frederick Odenbach, SJ, is considered by many to have been the "pioneer of American seismologists." In 1936, Fr. J.B. Macelwane, SJ, wrote the first seismology textbook in America, Introduction to Theoretical Seismology. In the 21st Century, Jesuits remain prominent in the sciences through institutions like the Vatican Observatory and Georgetown University.

text: Pontifical Academy of Sciences[edit]

text: The Pontifical Academy of Sciences was founded in 1936 by Pope Pius XI. It draws on many of the world's leading scientists, including many Nobel Laureates, to act as advisors to the Popes on scientific issues. The Academy has an international membership which includes British physicist Stephen Hawking, the astronomer royal Martin Rees, and Nobel laureates such as U.S. physicist Charles Hard Townes.[110]

text: Under the protection of the reigning Pope, the aim of the Academy is to promote the progress of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences and the study of related epistemological problems. The Academy has its origins in the Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ("Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes"), founded in 1847 and intended as a more closely supervised successor to the Accademia dei Lincei ("Academy of Lynxes") established in Rome in 1603 by the learned Roman Prince Federico Cesi (1585–1630) who was a young botanist and naturalist, and which claimed Galileo Galilei as a member.

text: Vatican Observatory[edit]

text: The Vatican Observatory (Specola Vaticana) is an astronomical research and educational institution supported by the Holy See. Originally based in Rome, it now has headquarters and laboratory at the summer residence of the Pope in Castel Gandolfo, Italy, and an observatory at the Mount Graham International Observatory in the United States.[111] The Director of the Observatory is Fr. José Gabriel Funes, SJ. Many distinguished scholars have worked at the Observatory. In 2008, the Templeton Prize was awarded to cosmologist Fr. Michał Heller, a Vatican Observatory Adjunct Scholar. In 2010, the George Van Biesbroeck Prize was awarded to former observatory director Fr. George Coyne, SJ.[112] As mentioned above the present Papal astronomer Brother Guy Consolmagno was awarded the American Astronomical Society's Carl Sagan Medal for Excellence in Public Communication in Planetary Science in 2014.

text: Current Church doctrine[edit]

text: In his 1893 encyclical, Pope Leo XIII wrote that "no real disagreement can exist between the theologian and the scientist provided each keeps within his own limits. ...If nevertheless there is a disagreement ... it should be remembered that the sacred writers, or more truly ‘the Spirit of God who spoke through them, did not wish to teach men such truths (as the inner structure of visible objects) which do not help anyone to salvation’; and that, for this reason, rather than trying to provide a scientific exposition of nature, they sometimes describe and treat these matters either in a somewhat figurative language or as the common manner of speech those times required, and indeed still requires nowadays in everyday life, even amongst most learned people."[113]

text: The Catechism of the Catholic Church asserts: "Methodical research in all branches of knowledge, provided it is carried out in a truly scientific manner and does not override moral laws, can never conflict with the faith, because the things of the world and the things of faith derive from the same God. The humble and persevering investigator of the secrets of nature is being led, as it were, by the hand of God in spite of himself, for it is God, the conserver of all things, who made them what they are."[114]

text: Providentissimus Deus[edit]

text: Providentissimus Deus, "On the Study of Holy Scripture", was an encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on 18 November 1893. In it, he reviewed the history of Bible study from the time of the Church Fathers to the present, spoke against what he considered to be the errors of the Rationalists and "higher critics", and outlined principles of scripture study and guidelines for how scripture was to be taught in seminaries. He also addressed the issues of apparent contradictions between the Bible and physical science, or between one part of scripture and another, and how such apparent contradictions can be resolved.

text: Providentissimus Deus responded to two challenges to biblical authority, both of which rose up during the 19th century. The physical sciences, especially the theory of evolution and geology's theory of a very old earth, challenged the traditional Biblical account of creation taking place 6,000 years ago. Pope Leo XIII wrote that true science cannot contradict scripture when it is properly explained, that errors the Church Fathers made do not demonstrate error in Scripture, and that what seems to be proved by science can turn out to be wrong.

text: The historical-critical method of analyzing scripture questioned the reliability of the Bible. Leo acknowledged the possibility of errors introduced by scribes but forbade the interpretation that only some of scripture is inerrant, while other elements are fallible. Leo condemned the use that certain scholars made of new evidence, clearly referring to Alfred Firmin Loisy and Maurice d'Hulst, although not by name.[115]

text: At first, both conservatives and liberals found elements in the encyclical to which to appeal. Over the next decade, however, Modernism spread and Providentissimus Deus was increasingly interpreted in a conservative sense.[115]

text: This encyclical was part of an ongoing conflict between Modernists and conservatives. In 1902, Pope Leo XIII instituted the Pontifical Biblical Commission, which was to adapt Roman Catholic Biblical studies to modern scholarship and to protect Scripture against attacks.[116] The Oath against Modernism was finally rescinded after Vatican II.

text: Humani generis[edit]

text: Humani generis is a papal encyclical that Pope Pius XII promulgated on 12 August 1950 "concerning some false opinions threatening to undermine the foundations of Catholic Doctrine." Theological opinions and doctrines known as Nouvelle Théologie or neo-modernism and their consequences on the Church were its primary subject. Evolution and its impact on theology constitute only two out of 44 parts. Yet the position which Pius XII defined in 1950, delinking the creation of body and soul, was confirmed by Pope John Paul II, who highlighted additional facts supporting the theory of evolution half a century later.

text: Ethics and science[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2013)

text: The Catholic Church teaches that scientific research and conduct need to be informed by and put to the aid of Christian ethics. During recent pontificates, issues such as the implications of genetics and anthropological climate change have been important areas of focus. The Vatican draws on leading scientists to examine scientific literature in search of "moral and philosophical problems, either caused by science or which can be helped by science."[110]

text: Church and science as complementary[edit]

text: The Jesuit Teilhard de Chardin argued in an influential book The Phenomenon of Man (1959) that science and religion were two vital sides of a same phenomenon: a quest for perfect knowledge.[117] Pope John Paul II in his 1998 encyclical Fides et Ratio wrote that "faith and reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth."

text: Conflict thesis and "drastic revision"[edit]

text: The scientists John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White were the most influential exponents of the conflict thesis between the Catholic Church and science. In the early 1870s, Draper was invited to write a History of the Conflict between Religion and Science (1874), a book replying to contemporary papal edicts such as the doctrine of infallibility, and mostly criticizing the anti-intellectualism of Roman Catholicism,[118] yet he assessed that Islam and Protestantism had little conflict with science. Draper’s preface summarises the conflict thesis: "The history of Science is not a mere record of isolated discoveries; it is a narrative of the conflict of two contending powers, the expansive force of the human intellect on one side, and the compression arising from traditionary faith and human interests on the other."[119] In 1896, White published A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, the culmination of thirty years of research and publication on the subject. In the introduction, White emphasized he arrived at his position after the difficulties of assisting Ezra Cornell in establishing a university without any official religious affiliation.

text: More recently, Thomas E. Woods, Jr., asserts that, despite the widely held conception of the Catholic Church as being anti-science, this conventional wisdom has been the subject of "drastic revision" by historians of science over the last 50 years. Woods asserts that the mainstream view now is that the "Church [has] played a positive role in the development of science ... even if this new consensus has not yet managed to trickle down to the general public."[109] Science historian Ronald L. Numbers corroborates this view, writing that “Historians of science have known for years that White’s and Draper’s accounts are more propaganda than history. …Yet the message has rarely escaped the ivory tower."[120]