document_title: 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

question_text: how long did it take for the tohoku tsunami to arrive

question_tokens: how long did it take for the tohoku tsunami to arrive

text: 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

text: Earthquake

text: The 9.1-magnitude (Mw) undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011 at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) in the north-western Pacific Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km (20 mi),[4][57] with its epicenter approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku, Japan, lasting approximately six minutes.[5][4] The earthquake was initially reported as 7.9 Mw by the USGS before it was quickly upgraded to 8.8 Mw, then to 8.9 Mw,[58] and then finally to 9.0 Mw.[9][59] On 11 July 2016, the USGS further upgraded the earthquake to 9.1. Sendai was the nearest major city to the earthquake, 130 km (81 mi) from the epicenter; the earthquake occurred 373 km (232 mi) from Tokyo.[4]

text: The main earthquake was preceded by a number of large foreshocks, with hundreds of aftershocks reported. One of the first major foreshocks was a 7.2 Mw event on 9 March, approximately 40 km (25 mi) from the epicenter of 11 March earthquake, with another three on the same day in excess of 6.0 Mw.[4][60] Following the main earthquake on 11 March, a 7.4 Mw aftershock was reported at 15:08 JST (6:06 UTC), succeeded by a 7.9 Mw at 15:15 JST (6:16 UTC) and a 7.7 Mw at 15:26 JST (6:26 UTC).[61] Over eight hundred aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 Mw or greater have occurred since the initial quake,[62] including one on 26 October 2013 (local time) of magnitude 7.1 Mw.[63] Aftershocks follow Omori's law, which states that the rate of aftershocks declines with the reciprocal of the time since the main quake. The aftershocks will thus taper off in time, but could continue for years.[64]

text: Geology

text: This megathrust earthquake was a recurrence of the mechanism of the earlier 869 Sanriku earthquake, which has been estimated as having a magnitude of at least 8.4 Mw, which also created a large tsunami that inundated the Sendai plain.[65][66] Three tsunami deposits have been identified within the Holocene sequence of the plain, all formed within the last 3,000 years, suggesting an 800 to 1,100 year recurrence interval for large tsunamigenic earthquakes. In 2001 it was reckoned that there was a high likelihood of a large tsunami hitting the Sendai plain as more than 1,100 years had then elapsed.[67] In 2007, the probability of an earthquake with a magnitude of Mw 8.1–8.3 was estimated as 99% within the following 30 years.[68]

text: This earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under the plate beneath northern Honshu.[35][69] The Pacific plate, which moves at a rate of 8 to 9 cm (3.1 to 3.5 in) per year, dips under Honshu's underlying plate, building large amounts of elastic energy. This motion pushes the upper plate down until the accumulated stress causes a seismic slip-rupture event. The break caused the sea floor to rise by several metres.[69] A quake of this magnitude usually has a rupture length of at least 500 km (310 mi) and generally requires a long, relatively straight fault surface. Because the plate boundary and subduction zone in the area of the Honshu rupture is not very straight, it is unusual for the magnitude of its earthquake to exceed 8.5 Mw; the magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists.[70] The hypocentral region of this earthquake extended from offshore Iwate Prefecture to offshore Ibaraki Prefecture.[71] The Japanese Meteorological Agency said that the earthquake may have ruptured the fault zone from Iwate to Ibaraki with a length of 500 km (310 mi) and a width of 200 km (120 mi).[72][73] Analysis showed that this earthquake consisted of a set of three events.[74] Other major earthquakes with tsunamis struck the Sanriku Coast region in 1896 and in 1933.

text: The source area of this earthquake has a relatively high coupling coefficient surrounded by areas of relatively low coupling coefficients in the west, north, and south. From the averaged coupling coefficient of 0.5–0.8 in the source area and the seismic moment, it was estimated that the slip deficit of this earthquake was accumulated over a period of 260–880 years, which is consistent with the recurrence interval of such great earthquakes estimated from the tsunami deposit data. The seismic moment of this earthquake accounts for about 93% of the estimated cumulative moment from 1926 to March 2011. Hence, earthquakes with magnitudes about 7 since 1926 in this area only had released part of the accumulated energy. In the area near the trench, the coupling coefficient is high, which could act as the source of the large tsunami.[75]

text: Most of the foreshocks are interplate earthquakes with thrust-type focal mechanisms. Both interplate and intraplate earthquakes appeared in the aftershocks offshore Sanriku coast with considerable proportions.[76]

text: The strong ground motion registered at the maximum of 7 on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale in Kurihara, Miyagi Prefecture.[77] Three other prefectures—Fukushima, Ibaraki and Tochigi—recorded an upper 6 on the JMA scale. Seismic stations in Iwate, Gunma, Saitama and Chiba Prefecture measured a lower 6, recording an upper 5 in Tokyo.

text: In Russia, the main shock could be felt in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk (MSK 4) and Kurilsk (MSK 4). The aftershock at 06:25 UTC could be felt in Yuzhno-Kurilsk (MSK 5) and Kurilsk (MSK 4).[78]

text: Energy

text: The surface energy of the seismic waves from the earthquake was calculated to be at 1.9×1017 joules,[79] which is nearly double that of the 9.1 Mw 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed 230,000 people. If harnessed, the seismic energy from this earthquake would power a city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year.[64] The seismic moment (M0), which represents a physical size for the event, was calculated by the USGS at 3.9×1022 joules,[80] slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake.

text: Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) calculated a peak ground acceleration of 2.99 g (29.33 m/s2).[81][fn 2] The largest individual recording in Japan was 2.7 g, in Miyagi Prefecture, 75 km from the epicentre; the highest reading in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0.16 g.[84]

text: Geophysical effects

text: Portions of northeastern Japan shifted by as much as 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) closer to North America,[34][35] making some sections of Japan's landmass wider than before.[35] Those areas of Japan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest shifts.[35] A 400-kilometre (250 mi) stretch of coastline dropped vertically by 0.6 metres (2 ft 0 in), allowing the tsunami to travel farther and faster onto land.[35] One early estimate suggested that the Pacific plate may have moved westward by up to 20 metres (66 ft),[85] and another early estimate put the amount of slippage at as much as 40 m (130 ft).[86] On 6 April the Japanese coast guard said that the quake shifted the seabed near the epicenter 24 metres (79 ft) and elevated the seabed off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture by 3 metres (9.8 ft).[87] A report by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, published in Science on 2 December 2011, concluded that the seabed in the area between the epicenter and the Japan Trench moved 50 metres (160 ft) east-southeast and rose about 7 metres (23 ft) as a result of the quake. The report also stated that the quake had caused several major landslides on the seabed in the affected area.[88]

text: The Earth's axis shifted by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in).[34][35][36] This deviation led to a number of small planetary changes, including the length of a day, the tilt of the Earth, and the Chandler wobble.[36] The speed of the Earth's rotation increased, shortening the day by 1.8 microseconds due to the redistribution of Earth's mass.[89] The axial shift was caused by the redistribution of mass on the Earth's surface, which changed the planet's moment of inertia. Because of conservation of angular momentum, such changes of inertia result in small changes to the Earth's rate of rotation.[90] These are expected changes[36] for an earthquake of this magnitude.[34][89] The earthquake also generated infrasound waves detected by perturbations in the orbit of the GOCE satellite, which thus serendipitously became the first seismograph in orbit.[38]

text: Soil liquefaction was evident in areas of reclaimed land around Tokyo, particularly in Urayasu,[91][92] Chiba City, Funabashi, Narashino (all in Chiba Prefecture) and in the Koto, Edogawa, Minato, Chūō, and Ōta Wards of Tokyo. Approximately 30 homes or buildings were destroyed and 1,046 other buildings were damaged to varying degrees.[93] Nearby Haneda Airport, built mostly on reclaimed land, was not damaged. Odaiba also experienced liquefaction, but damage was minimal.[94]

text: Shinmoedake, a volcano in Kyushu, erupted three days after the earthquake. The volcano had previously erupted in January 2011; it is not known if the later eruption was linked to the earthquake.[95] In Antarctica, the seismic waves from the earthquake were reported to have caused the Whillans Ice Stream to slip by about 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in).[96]

text: The first sign international researchers had that the earthquake caused such a dramatic change in the Earth's rotation came from the United States Geological Survey which monitors Global Positioning Satellite stations across the world. The Survey team had several GPS monitors located near the scene of the earthquake. The GPS station located nearest the epicenter moved almost 4 m (13 ft). This motivated government researchers to look into other ways the earthquake may have had large scale effects on the planet. Calculations at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory determined that the Earth's rotation was changed by the earthquake to the point where the days are now 1.8 microseconds shorter.[97]

text: Aftershocks

text: Japan experienced over 1,000 aftershocks since the earthquake, with 80 registering over magnitude 6.0 Mw and several of which have been over magnitude 7.0 Mw.

text: A magnitude 7.4 Mw at 15:08 (JST), 7.9 Mw at 15:15 and a 7.7 Mw quake at 15:26 all occurred on 11 March.[98]

text: A month later, a major aftershock struck offshore on 7 April with a magnitude of 7.1 Mw. Its epicenter was underwater, 66 km (41 mi) off the coast of Sendai. The Japan Meteorological Agency assigned a magnitude of 7.4 MJMA, while the U.S. Geological Survey lowered it to 7.1 Mw.[99] At least four people were killed, and electricity was cut off across much of northern Japan including the loss of external power to Higashidōri Nuclear Power Plant and Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant.[100][101][102]

text: Four days later on 11 April, another magnitude 7.1 Mw aftershock struck Fukushima, causing additional damage and killing a total of three people.[103][104]

text: On 7 December 2012 a large aftershock of magnitude 7.3 Mw caused a minor tsunami, and again on 26 October 2013 small tsunami waves were recorded after a 7.1 Mw aftershock.[105]

text: As of 16 March 2012 aftershocks continued, totaling 1887 events over magnitude 4.0; a regularly updated map showing all shocks of magnitude 4.5 and above near or off the east coast of Honshu in the last seven days[106] showed over 20 events.[107]

text: As of 11 March 2016[update] there had been 869 aftershocks of 5.0 Mw or greater, 118 of 6.0 Mw or greater, and 9 over 7.0 Mw as reported by the Japanese Meteorological Agency.[108]

text: The number of aftershocks was associated with decreased health across Japan.[109]

text: Earthquake Warning System

text: One minute before the earthquake was felt in Tokyo, the Earthquake Early Warning system, which includes more than 1,000 seismometers in Japan, sent out warnings of impending strong shaking to millions. It is believed that the early warning by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) saved many lives.[110][111] The warning for the general public was delivered about 8 seconds after the first P wave was detected, or about 31 seconds after the earthquake occurred. However, the estimated intensities were smaller than the actual ones in some places, especially in Kanto, Koshinetsu, and Northern Tōhoku regions where the populace warning did not trigger. According to the JMA Meteorological Research Institute (ja), reasons for the underestimation include a saturated magnitude scale when using maximum amplitude as input, failure to fully take into account the area of the hypocenter, and the initial amplitude of the earthquake being less than that which would be predicted by an empirical relationship.[112][113][114]

text: There were also cases where large differences between estimated intensities by the Earthquake Early Warning system and the actual intensities occurred in the aftershocks and triggered earthquakes. Such discrepancies in the warning were attributed by the JMA to the system's inability to distinguish between two different earthquakes that happened at around same time, as well as to the reduced number of reporting seismometers due to power outages and connection fails.[115] The system's software was subsequently modified to handle this kind of situation.[116]

text: Tsunami

text: An upthrust of 6 to 8 metres along a 180-km-wide seabed at 60 km offshore from the east coast of Tōhoku[117] resulted in a major tsunami that brought destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan's northern islands. Thousands of lives were lost when entire towns were devastated. The tsunami propagated throughout the Pacific Ocean region reaching the entire Pacific coast of North and South America from Alaska to Chile. Warnings were issued and evacuations were carried out in many countries bordering the Pacific. However, although the tsunami affected many of these places, the heights of the waves were minor.[118][119][120] Chile's Pacific coast, one of the furthest from Japan at about 17,000 km (11,000 mi) distant, was struck by waves 2 m (6.6 ft) high,[121][122][123] compared with an estimated wave height of 38.9 metres (128 ft) at Omoe peninsula, Miyako city, Japan.[32]

text: Japan

text: The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was the most serious on its warning scale; it was rated as a "major tsunami", being at least 3 m (9.8 ft) high.[124] The actual height prediction varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 6 m (20 ft) high.[125] The tsunami inundated a total area of approximately 561 km2 (217 sq mi) in Japan.[126]

text: The earthquake took place at 14:46 JST (UTC 05:46) around 67 km (42 mi) from the nearest point on Japan's coastline, and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first affected, and then areas farther north and south based on the geography of the coastline.[127][128] Just over an hour after the earthquake at 15:55 JST, a tsunami was observed flooding Sendai Airport, which is located near the coast of Miyagi Prefecture,[129][130] with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they traveled inland.[131][132] The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airport was filmed by an NHK News helicopter, showing a number of vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it.[133] A 4-metre-high (13 ft) tsunami hit Iwate Prefecture.[134] Wakabayashi Ward in Sendai was also particularly hard hit.[135] At least 101 designated tsunami evacuation sites were hit by the wave.[136]

text: Like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the damage by surging water, though much more localized, was far more deadly and destructive than the actual quake. Entire towns were destroyed in tsunami-hit areas in Japan, including 9,500 missing in Minamisanriku;[137] one thousand bodies had been recovered in the town by 14 March 2011.[138]

text: Among several factors causing the high death toll from the tsunami, one was the unexpectedly large size of the water surge. The tsunami walls in several of the affected cities had been constructed to protect against tsunamis of much lower heights. Also, many people who were caught in the tsunami thought that they were located on high enough ground to be safe.[139] According to the conclusions of a special committee on disaster prevention, which had been designated by the Japanese government, the tsunami protection policy had been intended to deal with only those tsunamis that had been scientifically proved to occur repeatedly; the committee therefore advised that in the future the policy should be changed to protect against the highest possible tsunami. Because tsunami walls had been overtopped by this tsunami, the committee also suggested that, besides constructing tsunami walls to a height that can protect against relatively frequent tsunamis, it is still necessary to teach citizens who are protected by tsunami walls how to evacuate if a largest scale tsunami should strike those places.[140][141]

text: Large parts of Kuji and the southern section of Ōfunato including the port area were almost entirely destroyed.[142][143] Also largely destroyed was Rikuzentakata, where the tsunami was three stories high.[144][145][146] Other cities destroyed or heavily damaged by the tsunami include Kamaishi, Miyako, Ōtsuchi, and Yamada (in Iwate Prefecture), Namie, Sōma and Minamisōma (in Fukushima Prefecture) and Shichigahama, Higashimatsushima, Onagawa, Natori, Ishinomaki, and Kesennuma (in Miyagi Prefecture).[147][148][149][150][151][152][153] The most severe effects of the tsunami were felt along a 670-kilometre-long (420 mi) stretch of coastline from Erimo, Hokkaido, in the north to Ōarai, Ibaraki, in the south, with most of the destruction in that area occurring in the hour following the earthquake.[154] Near Ōarai, people captured images of a huge whirlpool that had been generated by the tsunami.[155] The tsunami washed away the sole bridge to Miyatojima, Miyagi, isolating the island's 900 residents.[156] A two-metre-high tsunami hit Chiba Prefecture about 2½ hours after the quake, causing heavy damage to cities such as Asahi.[157]

text: On 13 March 2011, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) published details of tsunami observations recorded around the coastline of Japan following the earthquake. These observations included tsunami maximum readings of over 3 m (9.8 ft) at the following locations and times on 11 March 2011, following the earthquake at 14:46 JST:[158]

text:
15:12 JST – off Kamaishi – 6.8 m (22 ft)
15:15 JST – Ōfunato – 3.2 m (10 ft) or higher
15:20 JST – Ishinomaki-shi Ayukawa – 3.3 m (11 ft) or higher
15:21 JST – Miyako – 4.0 m (13.1 ft) or higher
15:21 JST – Kamaishi – 4.1 m (13 ft) or higher
15:44 JST – Erimo-cho Shoya – 3.5 m (11 ft)
15:50 JST – Sōma – 7.3 m (24 ft) or higher
16:52 JST – Ōarai – 4.2 m (14 ft)

text: Many areas were also affected by waves of 1 to 3 metres (3.3 to 9.8 ft) in height, and the JMA bulletin also included the caveat that "At some parts of the coasts, tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites." The timing of the earliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged from 15:12 to 15:21, between 26 and 35 minutes after the earthquake had struck. The bulletin also included initial tsunami observation details, as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by the tsunami waves.[159][160]

text: JMA also reported offshore tsunami height recorded by telemetry from moored GPS wave-height meter buoys as follows:[161]

text:
offshore of central Iwate (Miyako) – 6.3 m (20 ft)
offshore of northern Iwate (Kuji) – 6.0 m (18 ft)
offshore of northern Miyagi (Kesennuma) – 6.0 m (18 ft)

text: On 25 March 2011, Port and Airport Research Institute (PARI) reported tsunami height by visiting the port sites as follows:[162]

text:
Port of Hachinohe – 5–6 m (16–19 ft)
Port of Hachinohe area – 8–9 m (26–29 ft)
Port of Kuji – 8–9 m (26–29 ft)
Port of Kamaishi – 7–9 m (23–30 ft)
Port of Ōfunato – 9.5 m (31 ft)
Run up height, port of Ōfunato area – 24 m (79 ft)
Fishery port of Onagawa – 15 m (50 ft)
Port of Ishinomaki – 5 m (16 ft)
Shiogama section of Shiogama-Sendai port – 4 m (13 ft)
Sendai section of Shiogama-Sendai port – 8 m (26 ft)
Sendai Airport area – 12 m (39 ft)

text: The tsunami at Ryōri Bay (綾里湾), Ōfunato reached a height of 40.1 m (run-up elevation). Fishing equipment was scattered on the high cliff above the bay.[163][164] At Tarō, Iwate, the tsunami reached a height of 37.9 m (124 ft) up the slope of a mountain some 200 m (656 ft) away from the coastline.[165] Also, at the slope of a nearby mountain from 400 m (1,312 ft) away at Aneyoshi fishery port (姉吉漁港) of Omoe peninsula (重茂半島) in Miyako, Iwate, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology found estimated tsunami run up height of 38.9 m (127 ft).[32] This height is deemed the record in Japan historically, as of reporting date, that exceeds 38.2 m (125 ft) from the 1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake.[166] It was also estimated that the tsunami reached heights of up to 40.5 metres (133 ft) in Miyako in Tōhoku's Iwate Prefecture. The inundated areas closely matched those of the 869 Sanriku tsunami.[167]

text: A Japanese government study found that 58% of people in coastal areas in Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures heeded tsunami warnings immediately after the quake and headed for higher ground. Of those who attempted to evacuate after hearing the warning, only five percent were caught in the tsunami. Of those who didn't heed the warning, 49% were hit by the water.[168]

text: Delayed evacuations in response to the warnings had a number of causes. The tsunami height that had been initially predicted by the tsunami warning system was lower than the actual tsunami height; this error contributed to the delayed escape of some residents. The discrepancy arose as follows: In order to produce a quick prediction of a tsunami's height and thus to provide a timely warning, the initial earthquake and tsunami warning that was issued for the event was based on a calculation that requires only about 3 minutes. This calculation is, in turn, based on the maximum amplitude of the seismic wave. The amplitude of the seismic wave is measured using the JMA magnitude scale, which is similar to Richter magnitude scale. However, these scales "saturate" for earthquakes that are above a certain magnitude (magnitude 8 on the JMA scale); that is, in the case of very large earthquakes, the scales' values change little despite large differences in the earthquakes' energy. This resulted in an underestimation of the tsunami's height in initial reports. Problems in issuing updates also contributed to delays in evacuations. The warning system was supposed to be updated about 15 minutes after the earthquake occurred, by which time the calculation for the moment magnitude scale would normally be completed. However, the strong quake had exceeded the measurement limit of all of the teleseismometers within Japan, and thus it was impossible to calculate the moment magnitude based on data from those seismometers. Another cause of delayed evacuations was the release of the second update on the tsunami warning long after the earthquake (28 minutes, according to observations); by that time, power failures and similar circumstances reportedly prevented the update from reaching some residents. Also, observed data from tidal meters that were located off the coast were not fully reflected in the second warning. Furthermore, shortly after the earthquake, some wave meters reported a fluctuation of "20 centimeters" (about 8 inches), and this value was broadcast throughout the mass media and the warning system, which caused some residents to underestimate the danger of their situation and even delayed or suspended their evacuation.[169][170]

text: In response to the aforementioned shortcomings in the tsunami warning system, JMA began an investigation in 2011 and updated their system in 2013. In the updated system, for a powerful earthquake that is capable of causing the JMA magnitude scale to saturate, no quantitative prediction will be released in the initial warning; instead, there will be words that describe the situation's emergency. There are plans to install new teleseismometers with the ability to measure larger earthquakes, which would allow the calculation of a quake's moment magnitude scale in a timely manner. JMA also implemented a simpler empirical method to integrate, into a tsunami warning, data from GPS tidal meters as well as from undersea water pressure meters, and there are plans to install more of these meters and to develop further technology to utilize data observed by them. To prevent under-reporting of tsunami heights, early quantitative observation data that are smaller than the expected amplitude will be overridden and the public will instead be told that the situation is under observation. About 90 seconds after an earthquake, an additional report on the possibility of a tsunami will also be included in observation reports, in order to warn people before the JMA magnitude can be calculated.[169][170]

text: Elsewhere across the Pacific

text: Shortly after the earthquake, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) in Hawaii issued tsunami watches and announcements for locations in the Pacific. At 07:30 UTC, PTWC issued a widespread tsunami warning covering the entire Pacific Ocean.[171][172] Russia evacuated 11,000 residents from coastal areas of the Kuril Islands.[173] The United States National Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning for the coastal areas in most of California, all of Oregon, and the western part of Alaska, and a tsunami advisory covering the Pacific coastlines of most of Alaska, and all of Washington and British Columbia, Canada.[174][175] In California and Oregon, up to 2.4-metre-high (7.9 ft) tsunami surges hit some areas, damaging docks and harbors and causing over US$10 million in damage.[176] In Curry County, Oregon $7 million in damage occurred including the destruction of 1,100 m (3,600 ft) of dockspace at the Brookings harbor; the county has received over $1 million in FEMA emergency grants.[177] Surges of up to 1 m (3.3 ft) hit Vancouver Island in Canada[175] prompting some evacuations, and causing boats to be banned from the waters surrounding the island for 12 hours following the wave strike, leaving many island residents in the area without means of getting to work.[178][179]

text: In the Philippines, waves up to 0.5 m (1.6 ft) high hit the eastern seaboard of the country. Some houses along the coast in Jayapura, Indonesia were destroyed.[180] Authorities in Wewak, East Sepik, Papua New Guinea evacuated 100 patients from the city's Boram Hospital before it was hit by the waves, causing an estimated US$4 million in damage.[181] Hawaii estimated damage to public infrastructure alone at US$3 million, with damage to private properties, including resort hotels such as Four Seasons Resort Hualalai, estimated at tens of millions of dollars.[182] It was reported that a 1.5-metre-high (4.9 ft) wave completely submerged Midway Atoll's reef inlets and Spit Island, killing more than 110,000 nesting seabirds at the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.[183] Some other South Pacific countries, including Tonga and New Zealand, and U.S. territories American Samoa and Guam, experienced larger-than-normal waves, but did not report any major damage.[184] However, in Guam some roads were closed off and people were evacuated from low-lying areas.[185]

text: Along the Pacific Coast of Mexico and South America, tsunami surges were reported, but in most places caused little or no damage.[186] Peru reported a wave of 1.5 m (5 ft) and more than 300 homes damaged.[186] The surge in Chile was large enough to damage more than 200 houses,[187] with waves of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).[188][189] In the Galápagos Islands, 260 families received assistance following a 3-metre (9.8 ft) surge which arrived 20 hours after the earthquake, after the tsunami warning had been lifted.[190][191] There was a great deal of damage to buildings on the islands and one man was injured but there were no reported fatalities.[190][192]

text: After 2-meter high surge hitting Chile, it was reported that the reflection from those surges traveled back across the Pacific, causing 30–60 cm surge in Japan, 47–48 hours after the earthquake, according to observation from multiple tide station (ja), including Onahama, Owase, Kushimoto.[193][194]

text: The tsunami broke icebergs off the Sulzberger Ice Shelf in Antarctica, 13,000 kilometres (8,100 mi) away. The main iceberg measured 9.5 by 6.5 kilometres (5.9 mi × 4.0 mi) (approximately the area of Manhattan Island) and about 80 metres (260 ft) thick. A total of 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi; 31,000 acres) of ice broke away.[195][196]

text: As of April 2012, wreckage from the tsunami spread around the oceans, including a soccer ball which was found in Alaska[197] and a Japanese motorcycle found in British Columbia, Canada.[198]

text: Land subsidence

text: The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported land subsidence based on the height of triangulation stations in the area measured by GPS as compared to their previous values from 14 April 2011.[199]

text:
Miyako, Iwate – 0.50 m (1.64 ft)
Yamada, Iwate – 0.53 m (1.73 ft)
Ōtsuchi, Iwate – 0.35 m (1.14 ft)[200]
Kamaishi, Iwate – 0.66 m (2.16 ft)
Ōfunato, Iwate – 0.73 m (2.39 ft)
Rikuzentakata, Iwate – 0.84 m (2.75 ft)
Kesennuma, Miyagi – 0.74 m (2.42 ft)
Minamisanriku, Miyagi – 0.69 m (2.26 ft)
Oshika Peninsula, Miyagi – 1.2 m (3.93 ft)[200]
Ishinomaki, Miyagi – 0.78 m (2.55 ft)
Higashimatsushima, Miyagi – 0.43 m (1.41 ft)
Iwanuma, Miyagi – 0.47 m (1.54 ft)
Sōma, Fukushima – 0.29 m (0.95 ft)

text: Scientists say that the subsidence is permanent. As a result, the communities in question are now more susceptible to flooding during high tides.[201]

text: Casualties

text: Japan

text: In Japan, the National Police Agency has confirmed 15,895 deaths,[202] 6,156 injured,[203] and 2,539 people missing[204] across twenty prefectures.[47] In addition, some three thousands extra death have been identified as "earthquake-related death",[205][206] bringing the total number of death caused by the disaster to 19,575 as of 2017 September.[207]

text: Of the 13,135 fatalities recovered by 11 April 2011, 12,143 or 92.5% died by drowning. Victims aged 60 or older accounted for 65.2% of the deaths, with 24% of total victims being in their 70s.[208] As of March 2012, Japanese police data showed that 70% of the 3,279 still missing were aged 60 or over, all found, including 893 in their 70s and 577 in their 80s. Of the total confirmed victims, 14,308 drowned, 667 were crushed to death or died from internal injuries, and 145 perished from burns.[209]

text: "Earthquake-related death" is defined as cases where the earthquake did not directly kill those people, however it act as a contributory factor that indirectly caused their death, for the purpose of relief fund distribution. Some of the most widely reported reason for these deaths include "Physical and mental fatigue caused by life in temporary shelter", "Physical and mental fatigue caused by evacuation", "Delayed treatment due to the inoperative of hospital", "Physical and mental fatigue caused by stress from the earthquake and tsunami". A few cases of suicide are also included. Most of these deaths occurred during the first six months after the earthquake and the number dropped thereafter, but as time has passed, the number has continued to increase. Most of these deaths occurred in Fukushima prefecture, where the prefecture government has suggested that they could be due to evacuations caused by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.[210] These indirect casualties have already resulted in more deaths than the number of people killed directly by earthquake and tsunami within the Fukushima prefecture.[211][212][213][214]

text: Save the Children reports that as many as 100,000 children were uprooted from their homes, some of whom were separated from their families because the earthquake occurred during the school day.[215] 236 children were orphaned in the prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima by the disaster;[216][217] 1,580 children lost either one or both parents,[218] 846 in Miyagi, 572 in Iwate, and 162 in Fukushima.[219] The quake and tsunami killed 378 elementary, middle-school, and high school students and left 158 others missing.[220] One elementary school in Ishinomaki, Miyagi, Okawa Elementary, lost 74 of 108 students and 10 of 13 teachers and staff.[221][222][223]

text: The Japanese Foreign Ministry has confirmed the deaths of nineteen foreigners.[224] Among them are two English teachers from the United States affiliated with the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program;[225] a Canadian missionary in Shiogama;[226] and citizens of China, North and South Korea, Taiwan, Pakistan and the Philippines.

text: By 9:30 UTC on 11 March, Google Person Finder, which was previously used in the Haitian, Chilean, and Christchurch, New Zealand earthquakes, was collecting information about survivors and their locations.[227][228]

text: Japanese funerals are normally elaborate Buddhist ceremonies that entail cremation. The thousands of bodies, however, exceeded the capacity of available crematoriums and morgues, many of them damaged,[229][230] and there were shortages of both kerosene—each cremation requires 50 litres—and dry ice for preservation.[231] The single crematorium in Higashimatsushima, for example, could only handle four bodies a day, although hundreds were found there.[232] Governments and the military were forced to bury many bodies in hastily dug mass graves with rudimentary or no rites, although relatives of the deceased were promised that they would be cremated later.[233]

text: Noted individual fatalities within Japan included 103-year-old Takashi Shimokawara, holder of the world athletics records in the men's shot put, discus throw and javelin throw for the over-100s age category. He was killed by the earthquake and tsunami at Kamaishi, Iwate.[234]

text: As of 27 May 2011, three Japan Ground Self-Defense Force members had died while conducting relief operations in Tōhoku.[235] As of March 2012, the Japanese government had recognized 1,331 deaths as indirectly related to the earthquake, such as caused by harsh living conditions after the disaster.[236] As of 30 April 2012, 18 people had died and 420 had been injured while participating in disaster recovery or clean-up efforts.[237]

text: Overseas

text: The tsunami is reported to have caused several deaths outside Japan. One man was killed in Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia after being swept out to sea.[238] A man who is said to have been attempting to photograph the oncoming tsunami at the mouth of the Klamath River, south of Crescent City, California, was swept out to sea.[239][240][241] His body was found on 2 April along Ocean Beach in Fort Stevens State Park, Oregon, 330 miles (530 km) to the north.[242][243]

text: Damage and effects

text: The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and resulting tsunami were enormous, with most of the damage being caused by the tsunami. Video footage of the towns that were worst affected shows little more than piles of rubble, with almost no parts of any structures left standing.[244] Estimates of the cost of the damage range well into the tens of billions of US dollars; before-and-after satellite photographs of devastated regions show immense damage to many regions.[245][246] Although Japan has invested the equivalent of billions of dollars on anti-tsunami seawalls which line at least 40% of its 34,751 km (21,593 mi) coastline and stand up to 12 m (39 ft) high, the tsunami simply washed over the top of some seawalls, collapsing some in the process.[247]

text: Japan's National Police Agency said on 3 April 2011, that 45,700 buildings were destroyed and 144,300 were damaged by the quake and tsunami. The damaged buildings included 29,500 structures in Miyagi Prefecture, 12,500 in Iwate Prefecture and 2,400 in Fukushima Prefecture.[248] Three hundred hospitals with 20 beds or more in Tōhoku were damaged by the disaster, with 11 being completely destroyed.[249] The earthquake and tsunami created an estimated 24–25 million tons of rubble and debris in Japan.[250][251]

text: An estimated 230,000 automobiles and trucks were damaged or destroyed in the disaster. As of the end of May 2011, residents of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures had requested deregistration of 15,000 vehicles, meaning that the owners of those vehicles were writing them off as unrepairable or unsalvageable.[252]

text: Ports

text: All of Japan's ports were briefly shut down after the earthquake, though the ones in Tokyo and southwards soon re-opened. Fifteen ports were located in the disaster zone. The north eastern ports of Hachinohe, Sendai, Ishinomaki and Onahama were destroyed, while the Port of Chiba (which serves the hydrocarbon industry) and Japan's ninth-largest container port at Kashima were also affected, though less severely. The ports at Hitachinaka, Hitachi, Soma, Shiogama, Kesennuma, Ofunato, Kamashi and Miyako were also damaged and closed to ships.[253] All 15 ports reopened to limited ship traffic by 29 March 2011.[254] A total of 319 fishing ports, about 10% of Japan's fishing ports, were damaged in the disaster.[255] Most were restored to operating condition by 18 April 2012.[256]

text: The Port of Tokyo suffered slight damage; the effects of the quake included visible smoke rising from a building in the port with parts of the port areas being flooded, including soil liquefaction in Tokyo Disneyland's parking lot.[257][258]

text: Dams and water problems

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2013)

text: The Fujinuma irrigation dam in Sukagawa ruptured,[259] causing flooding and washing away five homes.[260] Eight people were missing and four bodies were discovered by the morning.[261][262] Reportedly, some locals had attempted to repair leaks in the dam before it completely failed.[263] On 12 March 252 dams were inspected and it was discovered that six embankment dams had shallow cracks on their crests. The reservoir at one concrete gravity dam suffered a small non-serious slope failure. All damaged dams are functioning with no problems. Four dams within the quake area were unreachable. When the roads clear, experts will be dispatched to conduct further investigations.[264]

text: In the immediate aftermath of the calamity, at least 1.5 million households were reported to have lost access to water supplies.[50][265] By 21 March 2011, this number fell to 1.04 million.[266]

text: Electricity

text: According to the Japanese trade ministry, around 4.4 million households served by Tōhoku Electric Power (TEP) in northeastern Japan were left without electricity.[267] Several nuclear and conventional power plants went offline after the earthquake, reducing TEPCO's total capacity by 21 GW.[268] Rolling blackouts began on 14 March due to power shortages caused by the earthquake.[269] The Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), which normally provides approximately 40 GW of electricity, announced that it could only provide about 30 GW. This was because 40% of the electricity used in the greater Tokyo area was supplied by reactors in the Niigata and Fukushima prefectures.[270] The reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi and Fukushima Dai-ni plants were automatically taken offline when the first earthquake occurred and sustained major damage related to the earthquake and subsequent tsunami. Rolling blackouts of approximately three hours were experienced throughout April and May while TEPCO scrambled to find a temporary power solution. The blackouts affected Tokyo, Kanagawa, Eastern Shizuoka, Yamanashi, Chiba, Ibaraki, Saitama, Tochigi, and Gunma prefectures.[271] Voluntary reduced electricity use by consumers in the Kanto area helped reduce the predicted frequency and duration of the blackouts.[272] By 21 March 2011, the number of households in the north without electricity fell to 242,927.[266]

text: Tōhoku Electric Power was not able to provide the Kanto region with additional power, because TEP's power plants were also damaged in the earthquake. Kansai Electric Power Company (Kepco) cannot share electricity, because its system operates at 60 hertz, whereas TEPCO and TEP operate their systems at 50 hertz; this is due to early industrial and infrastructure development in the 1880s that left Japan without a unified national power grid.[273] Two substations, one in Shizuoka Prefecture and one in Nagano Prefecture, were able to convert between frequencies and transfer electricity from Kansai to Kanto and Tōhoku, but their capacity to do so is limited to 1 GW. With the damage to so many power plants, it may be years before a long-term solution can be found.[274]

text: In an effort to help alleviate the shortage, three steel manufacturers in the Kanto region contributed electricity produced by their in-house conventional power stations to TEPCO for distribution to the general public. Sumitomo Metal Industries could produce up to 500 MW, JFE Steel 400 MW, and Nippon Steel 500 MW of electric power[275] Auto and auto parts makers in Kanto and Tōhoku agreed in May 2011 to operate their factories on Saturdays and Sundays and close on Thursdays and Fridays to assist in alleviating the electricity shortage during the summer of 2011.[276] Additionally, the public and other companies were also encouraged to conserve electricity in the 2011 summer months (Setsuden).[277]

text: The expected electricity crisis in 2011 summer have been successfully prevented thanks to all the setsuden measures, peak electricity consumption recorded by TEPCO during the period was 49.22GW, which is 10.77GW (18%) lower than the peal consumption in the previous year. The overall electricity consumption during the entire July and August was also 14% less than the previous year.[278] The peak electricity consumption within TEP's area was 12.46GW during the 2011 summer, 3.11GW (20%) less than the peak consumption in the previous year, and the overall consumption have been reduced by 11% in July with 17% in August compared to previous year.[279][280][281] Japanese government continue to ask the public to conserve electricity for several years until year 2016, when it predicted that the supply will be sufficient to meet demand, thanks to the deepening of the mindset to conserve electricity among corporate and general public, addition of new electricity providers due to the electricity liberalization policy, increased output from renewable energy as well as fossil fuel power stations, as well as sharing of electricity between different electricity companies.[282][283][284]

text: Oil, gas and coal

text: A 220,000-barrel (35,000 m3)-per-day[285] oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was set on fire by the quake at Ichihara, Chiba Prefecture, to the east of Tokyo.[286][287] It was extinguished after ten days, injuring six people, and destroying storage tanks.[288] Others halted production due to safety checks and power loss.[289][290] In Sendai, a 145,000-barrel (23,100 m3)-per-day refinery owned by the largest refiner in Japan, JX Nippon Oil & Energy, was also set ablaze by the quake.[285] Workers were evacuated,[291] but tsunami warnings hindered efforts to extinguish the fire until 14 March, when officials planned to do so.[285]

text: An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as 300,000 barrels (48,000 m3) per day (as well as LNG), as back-up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity.[292][293]

text: The city-owned plant for importing liquefied natural gas in Sendai was severely damaged, and supplies were halted for at least a month.[294]

text: In addition to refining and storage, several power plants were damaged. These include Sendai #4, New-Sendai #1 and #2, Haranomachi #1 and #2, Hirono #2 and #4 and Hitachinaka #1.[295]

text: Nuclear power plants

text: The Fukushima Daiichi, Fukushima Daini, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and Tōkai nuclear power stations, consisting of a total eleven reactors, were automatically shut down following the earthquake.[296] Higashidōri, also on the northeast coast, was already shut down for a periodic inspection. Cooling is needed to remove decay heat after a Generation II reactor has been shut down, and to maintain spent fuel pools. The backup cooling process is powered by emergency diesel generators at the plants and at Rokkasho nuclear reprocessing plant.[297] At Fukushima Daiichi and Daini, tsunami waves overtopped seawalls and destroyed diesel backup power systems, leading to severe problems at Fukushima Daiichi, including three large explosions and radioactive leakage. Subsequent analysis found that many Japanese nuclear plants, including Fukushima Daiichi, were not adequately protected against tsunamis.[298] Over 200,000 people were evacuated.[299]

text: 7 April aftershock caused the loss of external power to Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant and Higashidori Nuclear Power Plant but backup generators were functional. Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant lost 3 of 4 external power lines and temporarily lost cooling function in its spent fuel pools for "20 to 80 minutes". A spill of "up to 3.8 litres" of radioactive water also occurred at Onagawa following the aftershock.[300]

text: A report by the IAEA in 2012 found that the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, the closest nuclear plant to the epicenter of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami, had remained largely undamaged. The plant's 3 reactors automatically shut down without damage and all safety systems functioned as designed. The plant's 14-metre-high (46 ft) seawall successfully withstood the tsunami.[301]

text: Europe's Energy Commissioner Günther Oettinger addressed the European Parliament on 15 March, explaining that the nuclear disaster was an "apocalypse".[302] As the nuclear crisis entered a second month, experts recognized that Fukushima Daiichi is not the worst nuclear accident ever, but it is the most complicated. Nuclear experts stated that Fukushima will go down in history as the second-worst nuclear accident ever.... while not as bad as Chernobyl disaster, worse than Three Mile Island accident. It could take months or years to learn how damaging the release of dangerous isotopes has been to human health and food supplies, and the surrounding countryside.[303]

text: Later analysis indicated three reactors at Fukushima I (Units 1, 2, and 3) had suffered meltdowns and continued to leak coolant water,[51] and by summer the Vice-minister for Economy, Trade and Industry, the head of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, and the head of the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, had lost their jobs.[304]

text: Fukushima meltdowns

text: Japan declared a state of emergency following the failure of the cooling system at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in the evacuation of nearby residents.[305][306][307] Officials from the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency reported that radiation levels inside the plant were up to 1,000 times normal levels,[308] and that radiation levels outside the plant were up to 8 times normal levels.[309] Later, a state of emergency was also declared at the Fukushima Daini nuclear power plant about 11 km (6.8 mi) south.[310] This brought the total number of problematic reactors to six.[311]

text: It was reported that radioactive iodine was detected in the tap water in Fukushima, Tochigi, Gunma, Tokyo, Chiba, Saitama, and Niigata, and radioactive cesium in the tap water in Fukushima, Tochigi and Gunma.[312][313][314] Radioactive cesium, iodine, and strontium[315] were also detected in the soil in some places in Fukushima. There may be a need to replace the contaminated soil.[316] Many radioactive hotspots were found outside the evacuation zone, including Tokyo.[317] Food products were also found contaminated by radioactive matter in several places in Japan.[318] On 5 April 2011, the government of the Ibaraki Prefecture banned the fishing of sand lance after discovering that this species was contaminated by radioactive cesium above legal limits.[319] As late as July 2013 slightly elevated levels of radioactivity were found in beef on sale at Tokyo markets.[320]

text: Incidents elsewhere

text: A fire occurred in the turbine section of the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant following the earthquake.[297][321] The blaze was in a building housing the turbine, which is sited separately from the plant's reactor,[305] and was soon extinguished.[322] The plant was shut down as a precaution.[323]

text: On 13 March the lowest-level state of emergency was declared regarding the Onagawa plant as radioactivity readings temporarily[324] exceeded allowed levels in the area of the plant.[325][326] Tōhoku Electric Power Co. stated this may have been due to radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accidents but was not from the Onagawa plant itself.[327]

text: As a result of 7 April aftershock, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant lost 3 of 4 external power lines and lost cooling function for as much as 80 minutes. A spill of a couple of litres of radioactive water occurred at Onagawa.[300]

text: The number 2 reactor at Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant was shut down automatically.[296] On 14 March it was reported that a cooling system pump for this reactor had stopped working;[328] however, the Japan Atomic Power Company stated that there was a second operational pump sustaining the cooling systems, but that two of three diesel generators used to power the cooling system were out of order.[329]

text: Wind power

text: None of Japan's commercial wind turbines, totaling over 2300 MW in nameplate capacity, failed as a result of the earthquake and tsunami, including the Kamisu offshore wind farm directly hit by the tsunami.[330]

text: Transport

text: Japan's transport network suffered severe disruptions. Many sections of Tōhoku Expressway serving northern Japan were damaged. The expressway did not reopen to general public use until 24 March 2011.[331][332] All railway services were suspended in Tokyo, with an estimated 20,000 people stranded at major stations across the city.[333] In the hours after the earthquake, some train services were resumed.[334] Most Tokyo area train lines resumed full service by the next day—12 March.[335] Twenty thousand stranded visitors spent the night of 11–12 March inside Tokyo Disneyland.[336]

text: A tsunami wave flooded Sendai Airport at 15:55 JST,[129] about 1 hour after the initial quake, causing severe damage. Narita and Haneda Airport both briefly suspended operations after the quake, but suffered little damage and reopened within 24 hours.[258] Eleven airliners bound for Narita were diverted to nearby Yokota Air Base.[337][338]

text: Various train services around Japan were also canceled, with JR East suspending all services for the rest of the day.[339] Four trains on coastal lines were reported as being out of contact with operators; one, a four-car train on the Senseki Line, was found to have derailed, and its occupants were rescued shortly after 8 am the next morning.[340] Minami-Kesennuma Station on the Kesennuma Line was obliterated save for its platform;[341] 62 of 70 (31 of 35) JR East train lines suffered damage to some degree;[254] in the worst-hit areas, 23 stations on 7 lines were washed away, with damage or loss of track in 680 locations and the 30-km radius around the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant unable to be assessed.[342]

text: There were no derailments of Shinkansen bullet train services in and out of Tokyo, but their services were also suspended.[258] The Tōkaidō Shinkansen resumed limited service late in the day and was back to its normal schedule by the next day, while the Jōetsu and Nagano Shinkansen resumed services late on 12 March. Services on Yamagata Shinkansen resumed with limited numbers of trains on 31 March.[343]

text: Derailments were minimized because of an early warning system that detected the earthquake before it struck. The system automatically stopped all high-speed trains, which minimized the damage.[344]

text: The Tōhoku Shinkansen line was worst hit, with JR East estimating that 1,100 sections of the line, varying from collapsed station roofs to bent power pylons, will need repairs. Services on the Tōhoku Shinkansen partially resumed only in Kantō area on 15 March, with one round-trip service per hour between Tokyo and Nasu-Shiobara,[345] and Tōhoku area service partially resumed on 22 March between Morioka and Shin-Aomori.[346] Services on Akita Shinkansen resumed with limited numbers of trains on 18 March.[347] Service between Tokyo and Shin-Aomori was restored by May, but at lower speeds due to ongoing restoration work; the pre-earthquake timetable was not reinstated until late September.[348]

text: The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power plants in Fukushima had a profound effect on the rail networks around Tokyo starting on 14 March. Major railways began running trains at 10–20 minute intervals, rather than the usual 3–5 minute intervals, operating some lines only at rush hour and completely shutting down others; notably, the Tōkaidō Main Line, Yokosuka Line, Sōbu Main Line and Chūō-Sōbu Line were all stopped for the day.[349] This led to near-paralysis within the capital, with long lines at train stations and many people unable to come to work or get home. Railway operators gradually increased capacity over the next few days, until running at approximately 80% capacity by 17 March and relieving the worst of the passenger congestion.

text: Telecommunications

text: Cellular and landline phone service suffered major disruptions in the affected area.[350] Immediately after the earthquake cellular communication was jammed across much of Japan due to a surge of network activity. On the day of the quake, American broadcaster NPR was unable to reach anyone in Sendai with working phone or Internet.[351] Internet services were largely unaffected in areas where basic infrastructure remained, despite the earthquake having damaged portions of several undersea cable systems landing in the affected regions; these systems were able to reroute around affected segments onto redundant links.[352][353] Within Japan, only a few websites were initially unreachable.[354] Several Wi-Fi hotspot providers reacted to the quake by providing free access to their networks,[354] and some American telecommunications and VoIP companies such as AT&T, Sprint, Verizon,[355] T-Mobile[356] and VoIP companies such as netTALK[357] and Vonage[358] have offered free calls to (and in some cases, from) Japan for a limited time, as did Germany's Deutsche Telekom.[359]

text: Defense

text: Matsushima Air Field of the Japan Self-Defense Force in Miyagi Prefecture was struck by the tsunami, flooding the base and resulting in damage to all 18 Mitsubishi F-2 fighter jets of the 21st Fighter Training Squadron.[360][361][362] 12 of the aircraft were scrapped, while the remaining 6 were slated for repair at a cost of 80 billion yen ($1 billion), exceeding the original cost of the aircraft.[363]

text: Space center

text: JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) evacuated the Tsukuba Space Center in Tsukuba, Ibaraki. The Center, which houses a control room for part of the International Space Station, was shut down and some damage was reported.[364][365] The Tsukuba control center resumed full operations for the space station's Kibo laboratory and the HTV cargo craft on 21 March 2011.[366]

text: Cultural properties

text: 754 cultural properties were damaged across nineteen prefectures, including five National Treasures (at Zuigan-ji, Ōsaki Hachiman-gū, Shiramizu Amidadō, and Seihaku-ji); 160 Important Cultural Properties (including at Sendai Tōshō-gū, the Kōdōkan, and Entsū-in, with its western decorative motifs); one hundred and forty-four Monuments of Japan (including Matsushima, Takata-matsubara, Yūbikan, and the Site of Tagajō); six Groups of Traditional Buildings; and four Important Tangible Folk Cultural Properties. Stone monuments at the UNESCO World Heritage Site: Shrines and Temples of Nikkō were toppled.[367][368][369] In Tokyo, there was damage to Koishikawa Kōrakuen, Rikugien, Hamarikyū Onshi Teien, and the walls of Edo Castle.[370] Information on the condition of collections held by museums, libraries and archives is still incomplete.[371] There was no damage to the Historic Monuments and Sites of Hiraizumi in Iwate Prefecture, and the recommendation for their inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List in June was seized upon as a symbol of international recognition and recovery.[372]

text: Aftermath

text: The aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami included both a humanitarian crisis and a major economic impact. The tsunami resulted in over 340,000 displaced people in the Tōhoku region, and shortages of food, water, shelter, medicine and fuel for survivors. In response the Japanese government mobilized the Self-Defence Forces (under Joint Task Force – Tōhoku, led by Lieutenant General Eiji Kimizuka), while many countries sent search and rescue teams to help search for survivors. Aid organizations both in Japan and worldwide also responded, with the Japanese Red Cross reporting $1 billion in donations. The economic impact included both immediate problems, with industrial production suspended in many factories, and the longer term issue of the cost of rebuilding which has been estimated at ¥10 trillion ($122 billion). In comparison to the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake, the East Japan earthquake brought serious damage to an extremely wide range.[373]

text: The aftermath of the twin disasters also left Japan's coastal cities and towns with nearly 25 million tons of debris. In Ishinomaki alone, there were 17 trash collection sites 180 metres long and at least 4.5 metres high. An official in the city's government trash disposal department estimated that it would take three years to empty these sites.[374]

text: In April 2015, authorities off the coast of Oregon discovered debris that is thought to be from a boat destroyed during the tsunami. Cargo contained yellowtail jack fish, a species that lives off the coast of Japan, still alive. KGW estimates that more than 1 million tons of debris still remain in the Pacific Ocean.[375]

text: Humanitarian response

text: According to Japan's foreign ministry, 116 countries and 28 international organizations offered assistance. Japan specifically requested assistance from teams from Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, and the United States.[376]

text: Media coverage

text: Japan's national public broadcaster, NHK, and Japan Satellite Television suspended their usual programming to provide ongoing coverage of the situation.[377] Other nationwide Japanese and international TV networks also broadcast uninterrupted coverage of the disaster. Ustream Asia broadcast live feeds of NHK, Tokyo Broadcasting System, Nippon TV, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, TV Tokyo, Tokyo MX, TV Kanagawa, and CNN on the Internet starting on 12 March 2011.[378] YokosoNews, an Internet webcast in Japan, dedicated its broadcast to the latest news gathered from Japanese news stations, translating them in real time to English.[379]

text: It was noted that the Japanese news media has been at times overly cautious to avoid panic and reliance on confusing statements by experts and officials.[380]

text: In this national crisis, the Japanese government provided Japanese Sign Language (JSL) interpreting at the press conferences related to the earthquake and tsunami.[381] Television broadcasts of the press conferences of Prime Minister Naoto Kan and Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano included simultaneous JSL interpreters standing next to the Japanese flag on the same platform.[382]

text: According to Jake Adelstein, most Japanese media accepted and parroted the misinformation put out by the Japanese government and TEPCO about the unfolding Fukushima nuclear crisis. Notable exceptions, according to Adelstein, were newspapers Sankei Shimbun and Chunichi Shimbun which questioned the accuracy of the information coming from the government and TEPCO. Because of the unquestioning nature of most Japanese media to hold to the "party line", many Japanese mid-level officials and experts spoke to foreign media to get their opinions and observations publicized.[383]

text: Atsushi Funahashi, director of Nuclear Nation notes that "when the overseas media was calling Fukushima a 'meltdown,' the Japanese government and media waited two months before admitting it."[384]

text: Nine days after the earthquake hit, a visualization and sonification were uploaded to YouTube allowing listeners to hear the earthquake as it unfolded in time. Two days of seismic activity made available by the IRIS Consortium were compressed into two minutes of sound. The large number of views made the video one of the most popular examples of sonification on the web.[385]

text: Also, following the earthquake, for the first time in Japanese history, the Emperor addressed the nation in a pre-recorded television broadcast.[386][387]

text: Scientific and research response

text: Seismologists anticipated a very large quake would strike in the same place as the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake — in the Sagami Trough, southwest of Tokyo.[388][389] The Japanese government had tracked plate movements since 1976 in preparation for the so-called Tokai earthquake, predicted to take place in that region.[390] However, occurring as it did 373 km (232 mi) north east of Tokyo, the Tōhoku earthquake came as a surprise to seismologists. While the Japan Trench was known for creating large quakes, it had not been expected to generate quakes above an 8.0 magnitude.[389][390] The Headquarters For Earthquake Research Promotion setup by Japanese government have then reassessed the long term risk of trench-type earthquakes around Japan, and it was announced in November 2011 that, combining with researches on 869 Sanriku earthquake, an earthquake similar to this one (with a magnitude of Mw 8.4–9.0) would take place in the area between off the coast of Pacific side of the Northeast Japan in an average of every 600 years intervals (See also Seismicity of the Sanriku coast), and it is also assessed that a tsunami-earthquake with a tsunami magnitude scales (Mt) between 8.6 and 9.0 (Similar to 1896 Sanriku earthquake, the Mt for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake is 9.1–9.4) will have a 30% chance to occur within 30 years.[391][392]

text: The quake gave scientists the opportunity to collect a large amount of data so as to model in great detail the seismic events that took place.[34] This data is expected to be used in a variety of ways, providing as it does unprecedented information about how buildings respond to shaking, and other effects.[393] Gravimetric data from the quake has been used to create a model for increased warning time compared to seismic models, as gravity fields travel faster than seismic waves.[394]

text: Researchers have also analysed the economic effects of this earthquake and have developed models of the nationwide propagation via interfirm supply networks of the shock originated in Tōhoku region.[395][396]

text: Researchers soon after the full extent of the disaster was known launched a project to gather all digital material relating to the disaster into an online searchable archive to form the basis of future research into the events during and after the disaster. The Japan Digital Archive is presented in English and Japanese and is hosted at the Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies at Harvard University in Boston, Massachusetts. Some of the first research to come from the archive was a 2014 paper from the Digital Methods Initiative in Amsterdam about patterns of Twitter usage around the time of the disaster.

text: After the 2011 disaster the UNISDR, United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, held its World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Tohoku in March 2015, which produced the Sendai Framework document to guide efforts by international development agencies to act before disasters instead of reacting to them after the fact. At this time Japan's Disaster Management Office (Naikakufu Bosai Keikaku) published a bi-lingual guide in Japanese and English, Disaster Management in Japan, to outline the several varieties of natural disaster and the preparations being made for the eventuality of each. In the fall of 2016 Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED; Japanese abbreviation, Bosai Kaken; full name Bousai Kagaku Gijutsu Kenkyusho) launched the online interactive "Disaster Chronology Map for Japan, 416–2013" (map labels in Japanese) to display in visual form the location, disaster time, and date across the islands.

text: An expedition named Japan Trench Fast Drilling Project have been conducted in year 2012–2013 to drill oceanfloor boreholes through the fault-zone of the earthquake and gathered important data about the rupture mechanism and physical properties of the fault that caused the huge earthquake and tsuanmi which devastated much of northeast Japan.[397][398]


document_title: Kensi Blye

question_text: what episode does deeks and kensi get together

root

text: Kensi Blye

text: Casting[edit]

text: Kensi was originally named "Kensi Lo" and described as "a twenty-something Asian-American whose academic record in Forensics and Criminology got her recruited young by the Feds";[1] a change was necessitated when Portuguese actress Daniela Ruah was cast. Like G. Callen, Sam Hanna, Eric Beale and Nate Getz, Kensi was first introduced in the backdoor pilot "Legend" from NCIS.

tag: p

text: Background[edit]

text: Personal background[edit]

text: Kensi Marie Blye was born in San Diego, California. She came from a U.S. Marine Corps family and still drives to Camp Pendleton every weekend. At some point her father was stationed at Camp Lejeune during her childhood. She is fluent in Portuguese, French, and Spanish, can lip-read and knows Morse code. In the episode "Borderline" she also stated that her father taught her how to "track, shoot, fix an engine, play poker, wire a house; basically anything you teach a son",[2] and that her father was her best friend. In that same scene she reveals that her "father didn't have any sons, just me" implying that she is an only child. She has admitted to having Chaetophobia (fear of hair), specifically fear of men's back hair.[3] She collects gel bracelets and is known to have at least seventy-two.

text: When she was fifteen years old and out seeing the movie Titanic with friends, a movie Kensi considers to be her favorite, her father was murdered. His body was so unrecognizable that he had to be identified through the use of dental records. It had been a cold case for many years, but in the episode "Blye, K Part 2" it was finally solved and Kensi was able to move on with her life at last. It was subsequently revealed that after her father's murder, she spent a year living on the streets.

text: Professional background[edit]

text: Kensi joined the Naval Criminal Investigative Service in August 2003, according to her NCIS agent biography form from "Black Market" after having graduated from Cornell University with a BA in Politics and International Studies. According to the form, her first posting was the Washington DC Office, December 2006 to September 2007, then Tokyo 7th Fleet HQ from October 2007 to March 2008. After that she was stationed at Norfolk Naval Base, Virginia from March 2008 to June 2009. She started at OSP in Los Angeles in June 2009.

text: In "The Only Easy Day", Kensi says that when she was the new girl, she had to climb through air ducts because she was the smallest, and also had to wear bikinis on assignment when needed. She's very talented with undercover work, and Callen and Sam have called her a "natural operator". She is fluent in Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Japanese.

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: On-screen, her first partner was Agent Dom Vail. She was particularly upset when Dom went missing and she was seen afterwards washing dishes at his apartment. Kensi has been officially partnered with Marty Deeks since season two, although their first experience working together was in the season one episode "Fame".

text: Season 2[edit]

text: It is revealed in the season two episode "Disorder" that she was once engaged to a Marine named Jack, but that their relationship ended after his return from Iraq suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and his subsequent disappearance. Kensi tried to be there for him (stating that she helped with his medication, and even went to his psychiatric appointments), but all of her efforts weren't enough since Jack was too affected. It is said that he eventually left her without even telling her. She is even shown crying in the interrogation room to the suspect (proving that she obviously had a deep connection to him, and is still greatly affected by the loss). Although Deeks and Kensi have a somewhat antagonistic relationship at first, they have warmed up considerably over time, and she was visibly concerned when Deeks was shot in the episode "Personal". Kensi asks Hetty if she can stay with Deeks in the hospital rather than assist in the investigation of his shooting, as she didn't want to risk not seeing him alive again, as had happened with Vail. Deeks is also a flirter and he has demonstrated some interest in Kensi on a personal level. In the episode "The Job", while undercover, she had to flirt with a good-looking thief. Deeks showed jealousy, as noted by Callen and Sam.

text: Kensi is visibly annoyed sometimes when Deeks flirts with other women or when he attempts to use her as a wingman. During some episodes, though, Kensi appears slightly jealous when Deeks flirts with other women or when they come across someone he once had feelings for while undercover. Over time it becomes obvious that Kensi is developing feelings for Deeks, though she often hides them. Like Deeks, Kensi also has a comic book collection. In the season two episode "Plan B" Kensi earns the nickname Wikipedia for her encyclopedic knowledge. In the season two finale, Kensi resigns from NCIS along with Callen and Sam in order to follow Hetty's trail to Prague without Director Vance's authorization.[4]

text: Season 3[edit]

text: In the season three episode "Blye, K.", Kensi falls under investigation when Marines from her dead father's sniper unit end up dead in various car accidents. Kensi's father Donald Blye was part of a special operations unit named "Oscar-Sierra". She is taken into custody by Assistant Director Granger when it's revealed that she was the last person a few Marines contacted before their deaths, although her name is eventually cleared when it becomes apparent that the true killer is a former member of her father's sniper unit who faked his own death. In season four, Hetty tells Deeks that Kensi lived on the streets for about a year after her father's death. This event appears to have scarred her emotionally, although she has never gone into details as to the events that took place while on the streets. In "Blye, K., Part II", it is revealed that her mother (remarried as Julia Feldman) lives in Encino and they haven't spoken in 15 years. In the same episode, it is revealed that Kensi joined NCIS in 2006, nine years after the death of her father. She was 24 years old at the time. Granger accuses Kensi of joining NCIS to fulfill her own agenda, i.e. to investigate her father's death. Donald Blye died trying to protect an American journalist named Brad Stevens who was about to expose Peter Clairemont (chief of the Oscar-Sierra unit) who had killed a civilian while intoxicated. At the end of the episode, much to Kensi's surprise, it was revealed that her father and Granger were close associates.

text: Kensi also has an affinity for Dubstep and techno music. Deeks mentions it early on in season three and she is found listening to it while undercover in episode 22 of season three, "Neighborhood Watch". Kensi also made a guest appearance in the Hawaii Five-0 episode "Ka Hakaka Maikaʻi" where she announced that she has Level 5 security clearance.

text: Season 4[edit]

text: In the episode "Parley", while Deeks is undercover with a woman named Monica, Kensi appears jealous of how close Monica is to him. While Kensi is preparing Monica for a meeting with an arms dealer, Monica asks whether being Deeks' partner is enough for her. Kensi seems uptight and tries to avoid answering the question. Monica then goes on to tell her that he can't be trusted; Kensi defends Deeks by saying "I trust him with everything". Later Kensi goes to talk to Deeks and he asks her if she's good. She replies by saying she's good and asks Deeks the same question. He replies by saying "I'm good if you're good". Though they both say everything is fine between them, they both seem to be lying and are obviously not fine.

text: Season 5[edit]

text: In the opening episode of season five, Kensi is both comforted and deeply affected by the fact that Deeks used her as a tether to withstand the torture he had endured. While Deeks is recovering, Kensi states that she attempted to bring him his favorite doughnut/croissant (a.k.a. "Cronut"). She is clearly distraught by his lack of response, even to this gesture. After Nate is called to access Deeks' mental status, it is Kensi who's finally able to give him the sleep he has thus far been unable to attain, when she goes to visit him at his house. In the episode "Recovery", it is implied that Kensi and Deeks have become intimate after he told her he wanted to be with her at his apartment and she stared at him before walking off, with him following right behind her. However, following their night together in the episode "Frozen Lake", things become awkward and full of tension when their entangled emotions begin to have an effect on their performance during field work. When Deeks doesn't take a most-needed shot, Kensi becomes agitated and tells Deeks she is standing on a "frozen lake" and that while she wants what they have more than anything else, it just won't work. Despite this, at the end of the episode, Kensi tells Deeks they'll find a way to work things out between them, admitting they have a "thing", before asking him to be patient with her as they talk things through. He agrees to that and they make plans to meet again that night. As Kensi waits for Deeks later on, though, Hetty tells her she's been reassigned to a new and classified mission and will have to leave until the job is finished, much to her disappointment. As she prepares to leave, she receives a text message from Deeks saying he is almost there. She appears genuinely upset and walks off.

text: In Afghanistan, she receives her mission - she is to kill an American man who lives under the alias "White Ghost". Over time, she discovers the "White Ghost" is a man named Jack Simon – the same Jack Simon who was her fiancé nine years previously. Jack Simon had PTSD returning from the war and left her on Christmas morning (season two "Disorder"). Because of her personal connection to him, she isn't able to kill him and she eventually gets captured. It is revealed that all of this was a plan crafted by Hetty to protect Jack from the CIA, because Jack is in fact innocent. When the team hears news of Kensi's capture they rush to her aid, only to find her pale, weak and having been very severely beaten. This is a direct parallel to what Deeks went through at the beginning of season five. Kensi prefers not to talk about it, although she does confide in Deeks and he embraces her when she says "It was really bad".

text: Season 6[edit]

text: In season six, she and Deeks agree to make their relationship official.

text: Season 7[edit]

text: In season seven, Kensi decides to move in with Deeks. At the end of the season Deeks proposes to Kensi.

text: Season 8[edit]

text: In season eight, Callen, Sam, Kensi and Deeks go to the desert to capture a terrorist and their plane gets shot down and in the wreckage Kensi gets stuck under the nose of the plane and goes into a coma. The aftermath of the injury results in a spinal cord injury with a very slim chance of recovery. After months of physical therapy she does return to work. In episode 15, Kensi is kidnapped by a man she met in physical therapy. She is taken to a house where the man threatens to cut off her leg but Deeks saves her. Kensi then asks Deeks to marry her and he says yes.


document_title: Iranian calendars

question_text: what year is it according to persian calendar

text: Iranian calendars

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient calendars[edit]

text: Although the earliest evidence of Iranian calendrical traditions is from the second millennium BCE, predating the appearance of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, the first fully preserved calendar is that of the Achaemenids. Throughout recorded history, Persians have been keen on the idea and importance of having a calendar. They were among the first cultures to use a solar calendar and have long favoured a solar over lunar and lunisolar approaches. The sun has always been a symbol in Iranian culture and is closely related to the folklore regarding Cyrus the Great.[2]

text: Old Persian calendar[edit]

text: Old Persian inscriptions and tablets indicate that early Iranians used a 360-day calendar based on the solar observation directly and modified for their beliefs. Days were not named. The months had two or three divisions depending on the phase of the moon. Twelve months of 30 days were named for festivals or activities of the pastoral year. A 13th month was added every six years to keep the calendar synchronized with the seasons.

text: The following table lists the Old Persian months.[3]

text:
Order
Corresponding Julian months
Old Persian
Elamite spelling
Meaning
Corresponding Babylonian month

1
March–April
Ādukanaiša
Hadukannaš
uncertain
Nīsannu

2
April–May
Θūravāhara
Turmar
Possibly "(Month of) strong spring"
Ayyāru

3
May–June
Θāigraciš
Sākurriziš
"Garlic-collecting month"
Sīmannu

4
June–July
Garmapada
Karmabataš
"Heat-station (month)"
Du'ūzu

5
July–August
–
Turnabaziš
–
Ābu

6
August–September
–
Karbašiyaš
–
Ulūlū

7
September–October
Bāgayādiš
Bakeyatiš
"(Month) of the worship of baga (god, perhaps Mithra)"
Tašrītu

8
October–November
*Vrkazana
Markašanaš
"(Month) of wolf killing"
Arahsamna

9
November–December
Āçiyādiya
Hašiyatiš
"(Month) of the worship of the fire"
Kisilīmu

10
December–January
Anāmaka
Hanamakaš
"Month of the nameless god(?)"
Tebētu

11
January–February
*Θwayauvā
Samiyamaš
"The terrible one"
Šabāţu

12
February–March
Viyax(a)na
Miyakannaš
"Digging-up (month)"
Addāru

tag: table

text: There were four farming festivals, symmetrical about maidyoshahem:

text:
Festival
Time from previous

hamaspathmaidyem
75 days

maidyoshahem
105 days

ayathrem
105 days

maidyarem
75 days

text: Two more festivals were later added, creating the six gahanbar:

text:
Festival
Time from previous

hamaspathmaidyem (end of retirement)
75 days

maidyozarem (spring)
45 days

maidyoshahem (mid-summer)
60 days

paitishahem (harvest)
75 days

ayathrem (end of the summer)
30 days

maidyarem
75 days

text: Zoroastrian calendar[edit]

text: The first calendars based on Zoroastrian cosmology appeared in the later Achaemenid period (650 to 330 BCE). They evolved over the centuries, but month names changed little until now.

text: The unified Achaemenid Empire required a distinctive Iranian calendar, and one was devised in Egyptian tradition, with 12 months of 30 days, each dedicated to a yazata (Eyzad), and four divisions resembling the Semitic week. Four days per month were dedicated to Ahura Mazda and seven were named after the six Amesha Spentas. Thirteen days were named after Fire, Water, Sun, Moon, Tiri and Geush Urvan (the soul of all animals), Mithra, Sraosha (Soroush, yazata of prayer), Rashnu (the Judge), Fravashi, Bahram (yazata of victory), Raman (Ramesh meaning peace), and Vata, the divinity of the wind. Three were dedicated to the female divinities, Daena (yazata of religion and personified conscious), Ashi (yazata of fortune) and Arshtat (justice). The remaining four were dedicated to Asman (lord of sky or Heaven), Zam (earth), Manthra Spenta (the Bounteous Sacred Word) and Anaghra Raocha (the 'Endless Light' of paradise).

text: The month names and their modern versions are given in the following table.

text:
Order
Avestan name of the Yazata (in the genitive)
Approximate meaning of the name
Pahlavi Middle Persian
Modern Iranian Persian

Romanized
English
Romanized
Native Script
Romanized

1
Fravašinąm
(Guardian spirits, souls of the righteous)
Frawardīn
فروردین
Farvardīn

2
Ašahe Vahištahe
"Best Truth" / "Best Righteousness"
Ardwahišt
اردیبهشت
Ordībehešt

3
Haurvatātō
"Wholeness" / "Perfection"
Khordād
خرداد
Khordād

4
Tištryehe
"Sirius"
Tīr
تیر
Tīr

5
Amərətātō
"Immortality"
Amurdād
امرداد
A-Mordād

6
Xšaθrahe Vairyehe
"Desirable Dominion"
Shahrewar
شهریور
Shahrīvar

7
Miθrahe
"Covenant"
Mihr
مهر
Mehr

8
Apąm
"Waters"
Ābān
آبان
Ābān

9
Āθrō
"Fire"
Ādur
آذر
Āzar

10
Daθušō
"The Creator" (i.e. Ahura Mazda)
Day
دی
Dey

11
Vaŋhə̄uš Manaŋhō
"Good Spirit"
Wahman
بهمن
Bahman

12
Spəntayā̊ Ārmatōiš
"Holy Devotion"
Spandarmad
اسپند|اسفند
Espand / Esfand

text: The calendar had a significant impact on religious observance. It fixed the pantheon of major divinities, and also ensured that their names were uttered often, since at every Zoroastrian act of worship the yazatas of both day and month were invoked. It also clarified the pattern of festivities; for example, Mitrakanna or Mehregan was celebrated on Mithra day of Mithra month, and the Tiri festival (Tiragan) was celebrated on Tiri day of the Tiri month.

text: In 538 BC Cyrus the Great (uncertain if he was a Zoroastrian) conquered Babylon and the Babylonian luni-solar calendar came into use for civil purposes. Cambyses conquered Egypt in 525 BC. He was accompanied by Darius, a Zoroastrian who became ruler of the Persian empire in 517 BC. The Zoroastrians adopted the wandering Egyptian solar calendar of twelve months of thirty days plus five epagomenal days. As their year began in the spring (with the festival of norouz) the epagemonai were placed just before norouz.

text: In Egypt the star Sirius had significance since every 1460 years (the Sothic cycle) its heliacal rising (just before sunrise) marked the Egyptian new year and the inundation of the Nile. In Persia also the star had significance, since its heliacal rising there also coincided with the coming of the rain. The fourth Persian month was Tishtrya (Sirius, rain star). The vernal equinox at Greenwich fell on the first day of the first month from 487 to 483 BC (inclusive). Adopting S H Taqizadeh's date of 28 March 487 BC for the reform[4] the calendar for that year is as follows:

text:
* denotes 1 Epagomene

Egyptian month
First day
Persian month
First day

4
23 March
1
23*–28 March

5
22 April
2
27 April

6
22 May
3
27 May

7
21 June
4
26 June

8
21 July
5
26 July

9
20 August
6
25 August

10
19 September
7
24 September

11
19 October
8
24 October

12
18 November
9
23 November

1
18*–23 December
10
23 December

2
22 January
11
22 January

3
21 February
12
21 February

text: The fourth month includes 20 July, the date of the heliacal rising of Sirius. In the first year the people carried on using the old calendar, anticipating festival dates by five days. As each day is named after a god, it is important to observe the celebrations on the right day. Thus the fravasis festival, which in the old calendar was kept between sunset on 30 Spandarmad and sunrise on 1 Frawardin, was now observed throughout the epagemonai. In the second year of the reform, the old 30 Spandarmad was the new 25 Spandarmad, so from then on the festival covered eleven days, up to the new 1 Frawardin. Five days was considered enough for other festivals, however.

text: In all the lands where the Persian calendar was used the epagemonai were placed at the end of the year. To offset the difference between the agricultural year and the calendar year (the tax-gathering season began after the harvest) the start of the araji (land-tax) year was delayed by one month every 120 years. A Roman historian, Quintus Curtius Rufus, describing a ceremony in 333 BC, writes:

text: The magi were followed by three hundred and sixty-five young men clad in purple robes, equal in number to the days of a whole year; for the Persians also divided the year into that number of days.[5]

text: After the conquests by Alexander of Macedon and his death, the Persian territories fell to one of his generals, Seleucus (312 BCE), starting the Seleucid dynasty of Iran. Based on the Greek tradition, Seleucids introduced the practice of dating by era rather than by the reign of individual kings. Their era became known as that of Alexander, or later the Seleucid era. Since the new rulers were not Zoroastrians, Zoroastrian priests lost their function at the royal courts, and so resented the Seleucids. Although they began dating by eras, they established their own era of Zoroaster.

text: That was the first serious attempt to determine the dates associated with the prophet Zoroaster's life. Priests had no Zoroastrian historical sources, and so turned to Babylonian archives famous in the ancient world. From these they learned that a great event in Persian history took place 228 years before the era of Alexander. In fact, this was the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE. But the priests misinterpreted this date to be the time the "true faith" was revealed to their prophet, and since Avestan literature indicates that revelation happened when Zoroaster was 30 years old, 568 BCE was taken as his year of birth. The date entered written records as the beginning of the era of Zoroaster, and indeed, the Persian Empire. This incorrect date is still mentioned in many current encyclopedias as Zoroaster's birth date.

text: Modifications by Parthians, Ardashir I, Hormizd I, Yazdgerd III[edit]

text: The Parthians (Arsacid dynasty) adopted the same calendar system with minor modifications, and dated their era from 248 BCE, the date they succeeded the Seleucids. Their names for the months and days are Parthian equivalents of the Avestan ones used previously, differing slightly from the Middle Persian names used by the Sassanians. For example, in Achaemenid times the modern Persian month 'Day' was called Dadvah (Creator), in Parthian it was Datush and the Sassanians named it Dadv/Dai (Dadar in Pahlavi).

text: When in April of AD 224 the Parthian dynasty fell and was replaced by the Sasanid, the new king, Ardashir I, abolished the official Babylonian calendar and replaced it with the Zoroastrian. This involved a correction to the places of the gahanbar, which had slipped back in the seasons since they were fixed. These were placed eight months later, as were the epagemonai, the 'Gatha' or 'Gah' days after the ancient Zoroastrian hymns of the same name. Other countries, such as the Armenians and Choresmians, did not accept the change. The new dates were:

text:
No.
Name
Achaemenid
Choresmian
Sasanian
Time since previous

1
maidyozarem
(11-) 15 ii (Ardawahisht)
15 v
(11-) 15 x (Day)
45 days

2
maidyoshahem
(11-) 15 iv (Tir)
15 vii
(11-) 15 xii (Spandarmad)
60 days

3
paitishahem
(26-) 30 vi (Shahrivar)
30 ix
(26-) 30 ii (Ardawahisht)
75 days

4
ayathrem
(26-) 30 vii (Mihr)
30 x
(26-)30 iii (Khordad)
30 days

5
maidyarem
(11-) 15 x (Day)
10 i
(11-) 15 vi (Shahrewar)
75 days

6
hamaspathmaidyem
(1-) 5 Epagomene
30 iii
(1-) 5 Epagomene
80 days

text: In AD 224 the vernal equinox at Greenwich fell at noon on 21 March, which was 22 Shahrewar. Immediately after the reform 21 March corresponded to 27 Shahrewar. Here is the calendar for AD 225–6:

text:
* = 1 Epagomene

Armenian
month
First day
Egyptian
month
First day
Persian
month
First day

1
26* September–1 October
4
26 September
1
26 September

2
31 October
5
26 October
2
26 October

3
30 November
6
25 November
3
25 November

4
30 December
7
25 December
4
25 December

5
29 January
8
24 January
5
24 January

6
28 February
9
23 February
6
23 February

7
30 March
10
25 March
7
25 March

8
29 April
11
24 April
8
24 April

9
29 May
12
24 May
9
24*–29 May

10
28 June
1
23*–28 June
10
28 June

11
28 July
2
28 July
11
28 July

12
27 August
3
27 August
12
27 August

text: The change caused confusion and was immensely unpopular. The new epagemonai were referred to as "robber days". The people now observed the "Great" nowruz on 6 Frawardin, which was Zoroaster's birthday and corresponded to 1 Frawardin in the old calendar. The new 1 Frawardin was observed as the "lesser" nowruz. Hormizd I (AD 272–273) made the intervening days into festivals as well. In AD 273 the vernal equinox at Greenwich fell at 5 AM on 21 March.

text: Yazdegerd I reigned from AD 399–420. In AD 400 the equinox fell about 19 March, which was 9 Aban. According to al-Biruni, in that reign there was a double adjustment of the start of the araji year. The tenth-century astronomer Abu'l-asan Kusyar noted that during the reign of Osrow II (AD 589–628) the sun entered Aries in Adur. This happened throughout his reign. An araji era was introduced dating from AD 621, and the Yazdegerdi era dates from 16 June AD 632, so the Yazdegerdi era is eleven years behind the araji.

text: Muslim conquest[edit]

text: The Muslim rulers who took over from the middle of the seventh century used the Islamic calendar for administration, which caused hardship because the year was shorter – i.e. a tax which was formerly collected after the harvest would now have to be paid before the harvest. Traditionally the caliph Omar reintroduced the Persian calendar for tax collection purposes.[citation needed]

text: In AD 895 there was another double readjustment of the start of the araji year. It moved from 1 Frawardin (12 April) to 1 Khordad (11 June). By AD 1006 the vernal equinox, 15 March, was again coinciding with nowruz, 1 Frawardin. In that year, therefore, the epagemonai were delayed four months, moving from the end of Aban to their old position at the end of Spandarmad. This is the calendar for AD 1006/7:

text:
* denotes 1 Epagomene

Armenian
month
First day
Old
Egyptian
month
First day
Persian
month
First day

1
15*–20 March
4
15 March
1
10*–15 March

2
19 April
5
14 April
2
14 April

3
19 May
6
14 May
3
14 May

4
18 June
7
13 June
4
13 June

5
18 July
8
13 July
5
13 July

6
17 August
9
12 August
6
12 August

7
16 September
10
11 September
7
11 September

8
16 October
11
11 October
8
11 October

9
15 November
12
10 November
9
10 November

10
15 December
1
10*–15 December
10
10 December

11
14 January
2
14 January
11
9 January

12
13 February
3
13 February
12
8 February

text: The gahanbar didn't move quite to their old places, because the fifth moved to 20 Day, which was the old 15 Day, thus increasing the interval between the fourth and fifth to eighty days and reducing the interval between the fifth and sixth to 75 days. The new dates were:

text:
No.
Name
Date
Time since previous

1
maidyozarem
(11-) 15 ii (Ardawahisht)
45 days

2
maidyoshahem
(11-) 15 iv (Tir)
60 days

3
paitishahem
(26-) 30 vi (Shahrivar)
75 days

4
ayathrem
(26-) 30 vii (Mihr)
30 days

5
maidyarem
(16-) 20 x (Day)
80 days

6
hamaspathmaidyem
(1-) 5 Epagomene
75 days

text: Medieval era: Jalali calendar[edit]

text: From 15 March AD 1079, when the calendar had slipped a further eighteen days, the araji calendar was reformed by repeating the first eighteen days of Frawardin. Thus 14 March was 18 Frawardin qadimi (old) or farsi and 15 March was 1 Frawardin jalali or maleki. This new calendar was astronomically calculated so did not have epagemonai – the months began when the sun entered a new sign of the zodiac.

text: About 120 years after the reform of AD 1006, when the vernal equinox was starting to fall in Ardawahisht, Zoroastrians made it again coincide with nowruz by adding a second Spandarmad. This Shensai calendar was a month behind the qadimi still used in Persia, being used only by the Zoroastrians in India, the Parsees. On 6 June 1745 (Old Style) some Parsees re-adopted the qadimi calendar, and in 1906 some adopted the Fasli calendar in which 1 Frawardin was equated with 21 March, so that there was a sixth epagomenal day every four years. In 1911 the jalali calendar became the official national calendar of Persia. In 1925 this calendar was simplified and the names of the months were modernised. 1 Farvardin is the day whose midnight start is nearest to the instant of vernal equinox. The first six months have 31 days, the next five thirty, and the twelfth has 29 days and 30 in leap years. Some Zoroastrians in Persia now use the Fasli calendar, having begun changing to it in 1930.

text: Modern calendar: Solar Hijri (SH)[edit]

text: Correspondence of Solar Hijri and Gregorian calendars (Solar Hijri leap years are marked *)[6]

text:
33-year
cycle[7]
Solar Hijri year
Gregorian year
Solar Hijri year
Gregorian year

1
1354*
21 March 1975 – 20 March 1976
1387*
20 March 2008 – 20 March 2009

2
1355
21 March 1976 – 20 March 1977
1388
21 March 2009 – 20 March 2010

3
1356
21 March 1977 – 20 March 1978
1389
21 March 2010 – 20 March 2011

4
1357
21 March 1978 – 20 March 1979
1390
21 March 2011 – 19 March 2012

5
1358*
21 March 1979 – 20 March 1980
1391*
20 March 2012 – 20 March 2013

6
1359
21 March 1980 – 20 March 1981
1392
21 March 2013 – 20 March 2014

7
1360
21 March 1981 – 20 March 1982
1393
21 March 2014 – 20 March 2015

8
1361
21 March 1982 – 20 March 1983
1394
21 March 2015 – 19 March 2016

9
1362*
21 March 1983 – 20 March 1984
1395*
20 March 2016 – 20 March 2017

10
1363
21 March 1984 – 20 March 1985
1396
21 March 2017 – 20 March 2018

11
1364
21 March 1985 – 20 March 1986
1397
21 March 2018 – 20 March 2019

12
1365
21 March 1986 – 20 March 1987
1398
21 March 2019 – 19 March 2020

13
1366*
21 March 1987 – 20 March 1988
1399*
20 March 2020 – 20 March 2021

14
1367
21 March 1988 – 20 March 1989
1400
21 March 2021 – 20 March 2022

15
1368
21 March 1989 – 20 March 1990
1401
21 March 2022 – 20 March 2023

16
1369
21 March 1990 – 20 March 1991
1402
21 March 2023 – 19 March 2024

17
1370*
21 March 1991 – 20 March 1992
1403*
20 March 2024 – 20 March 2025

18
1371
21 March 1992 – 20 March 1993
1404
21 March 2025 – 20 March 2026

19
1372
21 March 1993 – 20 March 1994
1405
21 March 2026 – 20 March 2027

20
1373
21 March 1994 – 20 March 1995
1406
21 March 2027 – 19 March 2028

21
1374
21 March 1995 – 19 March 1996
1407
20 March 2028 – 19 March 2029

22
1375*
20 March 1996 – 20 March 1997
1408*
20 March 2029 – 20 March 2030

23
1376
21 March 1997 – 20 March 1998
1409
21 March 2030 – 20 March 2031

24
1377
21 March 1998 – 20 March 1999
1410
21 March 2031 – 19 March 2032

25
1378
21 March 1999 – 19 March 2000
1411
20 March 2032 – 19 March 2033

26
1379*
20 March 2000 – 20 March 2001
1412*
20 March 2033 – 20 March 2034

27
1380
21 March 2001 – 20 March 2002
1413
21 March 2034 – 20 March 2035

28
1381
21 March 2002 – 20 March 2003
1414
21 March 2035 – 19 March 2036

29
1382
21 March 2003 – 19 March 2004
1415
20 March 2036 – 19 March 2037

30
1383*
20 March 2004 – 20 March 2005
1416*
20 March 2037 – 20 March 2038

31
1384
21 March 2005 – 20 March 2006
1417
21 March 2038 – 20 March 2039

32
1385
21 March 2006 – 20 March 2007
1418
21 March 2039 – 19 March 2040

33
1386
21 March 2007 – 19 March 2008
1419
20 March 2040 – 19 March 2041