document_title: List of Justice League members

question_text: who are the founding members of the justice league

text: List of Justice League members

text: Pre-New 52/Rebirth

text: Members

text:
Character
Real name
Joined in
Notes

Original team: Justice League of America
These members were featured in the team's first appearance (The Brave and the Bold Vol. 1 #28, February–March 1960), with the incarnation they founded lasting until the mid-1980s.

Superman
Kal-El / Clark Kent
The Brave and the Bold #28
Founding member. Active.

Batman
Bruce Wayne

Wonder Woman
Princess Diana / Diana Prince

The Flash
Barry Allen

Green Lantern
Hal Jordan

Aquaman
Orin / Arthur Curry

Martian Manhunter
J'onn J'onzz / John Jones

1960s Recruits

Green Arrow
Oliver Queen
Justice League of America #4
Active

Atom
Ray Palmer
Justice League of America #14
Active in civilian identity as an agent of S.H.A.D.E

Hawkman
Katar Hol / Carter Hall
Justice League of America #31
Retconned as the Golden Age Hawkman (JLA: Incarnations #1). Active.

Black Canary
Dinah Laurel Lance
Justice League of America #74
Active in Birds of Prey. (For a period, after Crisis on Infinite Earths a retcon in Secret Origins v2 #32 (November, 1988) revealed she was a founding member instead of Wonder Woman)

1970s Recruits

Phantom Stranger

Justice League of America #103
Active.

Elongated Man
Ralph Dibny
Justice League of America #105
Deceased in 52 #42. Post Flash-Point member of the Secret Six

Red Tornado
Ulthoon / John Smith
Justice League of America #106
Post Flash-Point Status unknown

Hawkgirl
Shayera Hol / Shiera Hall
Justice League of America #146
Retconned as the Golden Age Hawkgirl (JLA: Incarnations #1). Active.

Zatanna
Zatanna Zatara
Justice League of America #161
Active in Justice League Dark.

1980s Recruits

Firestorm
Ronnie Raymond and Martin Stein
Justice League of America #179
Ronnie Raymond (with Jason Rusch) Active. Martin Stein Deceased in Brightest Day #22.

Detroit team
This team existed for a few years in the mid-1980s following the disbanding of the original team. It consisted of Aquaman, Zatanna, Elongated Man and J'onn J'onzz (and later Batman), plus the following members:

Steel
Hank Heywood III
Justice League of America Annual #2
Deceased in Justice League America #38.

Vixen
Mari Jiwe McCabe
Active in JLI

Vibe
Paco Ramone
Deceased in Justice League of America #258.

Gypsy
Cindy Reynolds
Justice League of America #236
Active.

Justice League International
This group was formed in the late 1980s and lasted until the early 1990s. During this era the Justice League was split into several teams. Lineup changes were rather frequent. Most of the Silver Age members were at least briefly part of one of these teams, and in addition, the following characters joined for the first time during this period:

Blue Beetle
Ted Kord
Legends #6
Deceased in Countdown to Infinite Crisis #1.

Captain Marvel
Billy Batson
Inactive; depowered in Justice Society of America vol. 3, #23.

Doctor Fate
Kent Nelson
Deceased in Book of Fate #1.

Green Lantern
Guy Gardner
Active in the Green Lantern Corps and JLI.

Mister Miracle
Scott Free
Justice League #1
Deceased in Death of the New Gods #8. Resurrected, but then displaced to Earth-51, in Final Crisis #7.

Doctor Light
Kimiyo Hoshi
Active.

Booster Gold
Michael Carter
Justice League #4
Active in JLI.

Captain Atom
Nathaniel Adam
Justice League International #7
Active.

Rocket Red 7
Vladimir Mikoyan
Revealed as a Manhunter cyborg. Destroyed in Justice League International #9.

Rocket Red 4
Dimitri Pushkin
Justice League International #11
Deceased in The OMAC Project #5.

Fire
Beatriz da Costa
Justice League International #14
Active in JLI.

Ice
Tora Olafsdotter
Deceased in Justice League Task Force #14. Revived in Birds of Prey #104. Active in JLI.

Hawkman
Fel Andar
Justice League International #19
Retcon membership; originally the Silver Age Katar Hol. Revealed as a traitor. Deceased in Hawkman Vol. 4 #48.

Hawkwoman
Sharon Parker
Retcon membership; originally the Silver Age Shayera Hol. Deceased in Hawkworld Vol. 2 #23.

Huntress
Helena Bertinelli
Justice League America #30
Active in Birds of Prey.

Doctor Fate
Linda Strauss
Justice League America #31
Deceased in Dr. Fate #24.

Lightray
Sollis
Justice League America #42
Deceased in Countdown to Final Crisis #48. Resurrected, but then displaced to Earth-51, in Final Crisis #7.

Orion
Orion of Apokolips
Deceased in Final Crisis #1.

General Glory
Joseph Jones
Justice League America #50
Deceased in Justice League Quarterly #16.

Tasmanian Devil
Hugh Dawkins
Justice League America #56
Deceased in Justice League: Cry for Justice #3. Resurrected in Starman/Congorilla #1

Maxima
Maxima of Almerac
Justice League America #63
Deceased in Man of Steel #117.

Ray
Ray Terrill
Justice League America #71
Active in the Freedom Fighters.

Black Condor
Ryan Kendall
Deceased in Infinite Crisis #1.

Agent Liberty
Benjamin Lockwood
Deceased in Action Comics #873.

Bloodwynd
–
Justice League America #78
Active.

Flash
Jay Garrick
Active in the JSA.

Justice League Europe

Animal Man
Buddy Baker
Justice League International #24
Active.

Flash
Wally West

Metamorpho
Rex Mason
Active in the Outsiders. Originally offered membership and declined.

Power Girl
Kara Zor-L / Karen Starr
Active.

Crimson Fox
Vivian and Constance d'Aramis
Justice League Europe #13
Vivian deceased in Justice League America #104. Constance deceased in Starman vol. 2, #38.

Blue Jay
Jay Abrams
Justice League Europe #20
Active. Left for the Multiverse in Justice League of America (vol. 2) #53.

Silver Sorceress
Laura Neilsen
Deceased in Justice League Europe #35.

Maya
Chandi Gupta
Justice League Europe #50.
Active.

Justice League Antarctica
This was a one-shot team played exclusively for humor.

Major Disaster
Paul Booker
Justice League Annual #4.
Death confirmed in Blackest Night: Director's Cut #1.

G'nort
Gnort Esplanade G'neeshmacher
MIA, presumed dead as of Green Lantern: Sinestro Corps Secret Files and Origins #1.

Multi-Man
Duncan Pramble
Active.

Big Sir
Dufus P. Ratchett
Deceased in Suicide Squad Vol. 2 #1.

Cluemaster
Arthur Brown
Active.

Clock King
William Tockman

The Mighty Bruce
Bruce (presumably)

Scarlet Skier
Dren Keeg

Post-Zero Hour
Three teams would use the name Justice League in the early 1990s: Justice League America (led by Wonder Woman), Justice League Task Force (led by the Martian Manhunter), and Extreme Justice (led by Captain Atom).

Triumph
William MacIntyre
Justice League International #67
Deceased in JLA #38.

Hawkman
(Modern Age) Katar Hol
Justice League America #0
Deceased in JSA #23.

Nuklon
Albert Rothstein
Active in the JSA as Atom Smasher.

Obsidian
Todd Rice
Active in the JSA.

Amazing Man
Will Everett, III
Deceased in Starman Vol. 2 #38.

Blue Devil
Daniel Cassidy
Justice League America #98.
Active.

Icemaiden
Sigrid Nansen
Inactive due to severe injuries.

L-Ron/Despero
L-Ron/Despero of Kalanor
Justice League Task Force #12
L-Ron/Despero now separated. L-Ron: Active in Robot Renegades. Despero: Active. Note: L-Ron, in his robot form, is also listed in the staff section.

Mystek
Jennifer Barclay
Justice League Task Force #26
Deceased in Justice League Task Force #32.

Zan & Jayna
Zan & Jayna of Exor
Extreme Justice #16
Active.

JLA
This team was formed in the September 1996 Justice League: A Midsummer's Nightmare written by Mark Waid and Fabian Nicieza. The JLA series, by Grant Morrison, was a return to the "Big Seven," with Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Flash (Wally West), Green Lantern (Kyle Rayner), Aquaman and J'onn J'onzz. New to the team were:

Green Lantern
Kyle Rayner
Justice League: A Midsummer's Nightmare #3
Active in the Green Lantern Corps.

Tomorrow Woman
Clara Kendall
JLA #5
Destroyed in JLA #5 and revived as human in Trinity #52.

Aztek
Curt Falconer
Aztek #10
Deceased in JLA #41.

Green Arrow
Connor Hawke
JLA #9
Active.

Oracle
Barbara Gordon
JLA #16
Active as Batgirl.

Plastic Man
Patrick O'Brien
Active.

Steel
John Henry Irons

Zauriel
–

Wonder Woman
Hippolyta of Themyscira
Active as the Queen of the Amazons.

Big Barda
Barda Free
JLA #17
Deceased in Death of the New Gods #1. Resurrected, but then displaced to Earth-51, in Final Crisis #7.

Hourman
Matthew Tyler
JLA #26
Defunct in JSA #66.

Jade
Jennie-Lynn Hayden
Made reserve in JLA #27
Deceased in Rann/Thanagar War: Infinite Crisis Special #1 Resurrected in Blackest Night #8. Active.

Antaeus
Mark Antaeus
JLA: Superpower
Deceased in JLA: Superpower

Jesse Quick
Jesse Chambers
Flash Vol. 2 #140
Active.

Dark Flash
Walter West
JLA #33
Last seen traveling through Hypertime to find home dimension in Flash vol. 2, #159.

2000–2001 new members

Moon Maiden
Laura Klein
JLA Giant Size Special #3
Retconned into the Silver Age team. Whereabouts unknown.

Nightwing / Batman
Dick Grayson
JLA #69
Active as Nightwing.

Faith

Active.

Hawkgirl
Kendra Saunders
Deceased in Blackest Night #1. Folded into the resurrected Shiera Hall.

Jason Blood (Etrigan)
–
[citation needed]
Active.

Green Lantern
John Stewart
JLA #76
Active in the Green Lantern Corps. Previously filled in for Hal Jordan in 1970s comics.

Manitou Raven
–
JLA #78
Deceased in Justice League Elite #8.

Justice League Elite
Sister Superior organized the JL Elite for missions the JLA refused to do. Included JLA past core member Green Arrow, as well as JLA members Flash (Wally West), Manitou Raven and Major Disaster.

Sister Superior
Vera Lynn Black
JLA #100
Whereabouts unknown.

Menagerie
Sonja (last name unrevealed)
Last seen in Justice League custody.

Coldcast
Nathan Jones
Whereabouts unknown.

Naif al-Sheikh
–
Justice League Elite #1

Kasumi
Cassandra Cain
Active in Batman Inc. as Blackbat.

Manitou Dawn
–
Active.

Post-Infinite Crisis: during 52
Firestorm's brief Justice League from the pages of 52. It should be noted that this Justice League did not operate in any official capacity sanctioned by any previous incarnations of the team or previous members.

Firestorm
Jason Rusch (and other hosts)
52 #24
Active. Host Gehenna deceased in Blackest Night #3, currently merged with Ronnie Raymond.

Firehawk
Lorraine Reily
Active.

Super-Chief
Jon Standing Bear
Deceased in 52 #24.

Bulleteer
Alix Harrower
Active.

Ambush Bug
Irwin Schwab

One Year Later Recruits
A new Justice League of America was formed following the case entitled The Tornado's Path. Every hero who participated in the case was offered membership.

Black Lightning
Jefferson Pierce
Justice League of America Vol. 2 #7. Originally offered membership and declined.

Red Arrow
Roy Harper
Active in the Outlaws as Arsenal.

Geo-Force
Prince Brion Markov
Active.

Cry for Justice
In a mini-series written by James Robinson, Hal Jordan forms a more pro-active league with Oliver Queen and Ray Palmer, as well as new members.

Supergirl
Kara Zor-El / Linda Lang
Justice League: Cry for Justice #3
Active.

Starman
Mikaal Tomas
Justice League: Cry for Justice #5

Congorilla
William "Congo Bill" Glenmorgan

Post-Cry for Justice
New team which also includes Batman (Dick Grayson), Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), Green Arrow (Oliver Queen), Atom (Ray Palmer) and Dr. Light (Kimiyo Hoshi)

Guardian
Jim Harper
Justice League of America Vol. 2 #41
Retired Superman: War of the Supermen #4.

Mon-El
Lar Gand
Returned to the Phantom Zone, as seen in Adventure Comics Vol. 2 #11. Active in the Legion of Super-Heroes in the 31st century.

Donna Troy
Donna Troy
Active.

Cyborg
Victor Stone
Retconned as founding member post-Flashpoint. Active.

Starfire
Koriand'r
Active in the Outlaws.

Generation Lost
In the maxi-series written by Keith Giffen and Judd Winick, Justice League International is re-established along with several new members.

Blue Beetle
Jaime Reyes
Justice League: Generation Lost #3
Active.

Rocket Red #7
Gavril Ivanovich
Justice League: Generation Lost #4
Deceased.

text: Other members

text:
Character
Real name
Non-full membership in
Notes

This section is for honorary and other non-full members.

Snapper Carr
Lucas "Snapper" Carr
Made honorary member, and team mascot in The Brave and The Bold #28
Resigned in Justice League of America #77. Active as a member of Checkmate.

Sargon the Sorcerer
John Sargent
Made honorary in Justice League of America #99
Killed in Swamp Thing Vol. 2 #50.

Golden Eagle
Charley Parker
Made honorary in Justice League of America #116
Active on Thanagar.

Captain Comet
Adam Blake
Made honorary in DC Special #27
Active in the R.E.B.E.L.S.

Deadman
Boston Brand
Made honorary in Justice League of America #274
Active in Justice League Dark.

Sandman
Garrett Sanford
Made honorary in Justice League of America Annual #1
Committed suicide. Death confirmed in Sandman #12.

Sue Dibny
–
Made honorary in Justice League International #24
Murdered by Jean Loring in Identity Crisis #1.

Adam Strange
–
Made honorary in JLA: Secret Files #1
Active in the R.E.B.E.L.S.

Tempest
Garth
Made honorary in Justice League of America Vol. 2
Killed in Blackest Night #2.

Batgirl
Barbara Gordon
Made honorary after her death in Zero Hour #0
Killed in Zero Hour #0. Note: This was an alternative-reality version of Barbara Gordon (as Batgirl). She was granted honorary JLA membership (in the 1990s crossover "Zero Hour") after sacrificing herself to save Damage during a battle with Hal Jordan/Parallax.

Creeper
Jack Ryder
Made honorary in Justice League International" #24
Active.

Retro
Unrevealed
Made honorary in New Year's Evil: Prometheus
Killed by Prometheus in New Year's Evil: Prometheus.

Resurrection Man
Mitch Shelley
Granted probationary in Resurrection Man #21
Active.

Toyman
Hiro Okamura
Made honorary in Superman/Batman #49
Revealed to be an android in Action Comics #865.

Tattooed Man
Mark Richards
Made honorary in Final Crisis #6
Active.

Bulleteer
Alix Harrower
Made reserve member in Justice League of America (vol. 2) #56

text: Staff

text:
Character
Real name
Joined staff in
Notes

This section covers staff.

Simon Carr
–
JLA: Year One #1
Financer (fronting for Oliver Queen).

Dale Gunn
–
Justice League of America Annual #2
Whereabouts unknown.

Maxwell Lord
–
Justice League #1
Killed by Wonder Woman in Wonder Woman vol. 2, #219. Resurrected in Blackest Night #8.

Oberon
–
Active with the Meta-Movers (Doom PatrolVvol. 5, #7).

Catherine Cobert
–
Justice League International #8
Whereabouts unknown.

Kilowog
Kilowog of Bolovax Vik
Justice League America #33
Active in the Green Lantern Corps.

L-Ron
–
Justice League America #42
Active in the Robot Renegades.

Hannibal Martin
–
Justice League Task Force #1
Whereabouts unknown.

Yazz
–
Justice League America #95
Deceased. Yazz appears in a monument to fallen members erected by the Martian Manhunter in 52 #24.

text: The New 52/DC Rebirth

text: Members

text:
Character
Real name
Joined in
Notes

THE NEW 52

New 52 Justice League
The Justice League was rebooted in 2011.

Batman
Bruce Wayne
Justice League (Vol. 2) #6
Founding member. Also active in the Justice League of America.

Superman
Clark Kent / Kal-El
Founding member. Active.

The Flash
Bartholomew "Barry" Allen

Wonder Woman
Princess Diana of Themyscira

Aquaman
Orin / Arthur Curry

Cyborg
Victor "Vic" Stone

Green Lantern
Harold "Hal" Jordan
Founding member. Left the League in issue #12, rejoined in issue #39, and left again after issue #52. Currently active in the Green Lantern Corp.

Martian Manhunter
J'onn J'onzz / John Jones
Between Justice League (Vol. 2) issues #6 and #7.
Joined the League, attacked it, and left (as noted in issue #8). Former member of Stormwatch, the Justice League of America, and the Justice League United.

The Atom
Rhonda Pineda
Justice League (Vol. 2) #18
Revealed in issue #23 that, although she was spying for the Justice League of America, she was actually a member of the Crime Syndicate of America. Died in Forever Evil #7.

Element Woman
Emily Sung
Left the League after Forever Evil #7.

Firestorm
Ronnie Raymond and Jason Rusch

Shazam
William "Billy" Batson
Justice League (Vol. 2) #31
Left the League after issue #52.

Lex Luthor
Lex Luthor
Justice League (Vol. 2) #33
Left the League after issue #52. Currently active with the Superfamily.

Captain Cold
Leonard Snart
Left after issue #41, before the Darkseid War.

Power Ring / Green Lantern
Jessica Cruz
Justice League (Vol. 2) #35 (as Power Ring)
Becomes a Green Lantern in Vol. 2 issue #50. Left the League after Vol. 3 issue #7, and rejoins in issue #11. Also active in the Green Lantern Corp.

Green Lantern
Simon Baz
Justice League (Vol. 3) #1
Also active in the Green Lantern Corp. Former member of the Justice League of America.

Mera
Mera of Xebel
Justice League (Vol. 3) #24
Also active with the Aquafamily.

Green Arrow
Oliver "Ollie" Queen
Green Arrow (Vol. 6) #31
Declined invitation to join, but accepted to be active as a Rogue Agent of the League. Former member of the Justice League of America and the Justice League United.

New 52 Justice League Dark
A separate, new team was formed to handle situations deemed unfit for the traditional Justice League.

Madame Xanadu
Nimue Inwudu
Justice League Dark #1
Brought the team together. Rejoins in Annual #2.

Constantine
John Constantine
Became leader of the team in issue #9, left in issue #29, and rejoins in Annual #2.

Deadman
Boston Brand

Zatanna
Zatanna Zatara
Left the team after issue #18, and rejoins and become leader in issue #29.

Shade, the Changing Man
Rac Shade
Left the team in issue #8.

Mind Warp
Jay Young
Justice League Dark #3
Left the team in issue #5.

Andrew Bennett
Andrew Bennett
Justice League Dark #9
Left the team in issue #14, and rejoins in Annual #2.

Black Orchid
Alba Garcia
Left the team in issue #30, and rejoins in Annual #2.

Doctor Mist
Nommo Balewa
Turned out to be working for Felix Faust in issue #11.

Timothy Hunter
Timothy Hunter
Justice League Dark #11.
Left the team in issue #18.

Frankenstein

Justice League Dark Annual #1
Left the team in issue #30.

Amethyst
Amaya
Left the team after issue #14.

Swamp Thing
Alec Holland
Justice League Dark #25
Joined to help fight Blight during Forever Evil.

Nightmare Nurse
Asa
Justice League Dark #24

Pandora
Pandora
Trinity of Sin: Phantom Stranger #14
Joined to help fight Blight during Forever Evil. Killed in DC Rebirth Special.

The Phantom Stranger
Judas Iscariot
Joined to help fight Blight during Forever Evil, and left after issue #29.

Zauriel
Zauriel
Constantine #10

New 52 Justice League International
A separate, new team was formed by the United States to be a world government controlled team without Secret Identities.

Booster Gold
Michael Jon Carter
Justice League International (Vol. 3) #1
Appointed team leader.

August General in Iron
Fang Zhifu

Fire
Beatriz da Costa
Badly injured, goes into a coma in issue #7.

Godiva
Dorcas Leigh

Green Lantern
Guy Gardner
Quits the League in issue #1, and rejoins in issue #2. Currently active in the Green Lantern Corp.

Ice
Tora Olafsdotter
Badly injured in issue #7, rejoins team in Annual #1

Rocket Red
Gavril Ivanovich
Dies in issue #7.

Vixen
Mari Jiwe McCabe
Badly injured in issue #7, rejoins team in Annual #1. Currently active in the Justice League of America.

Batman
Bruce Wayne
UN initially turned down the suggestion of adding Batman, but he assisted the team on missions, with Booster Gold's blessing. Currently active in the Justice League and the Justice League of America.

Batwing
David Zavimbe
Justice League International (Vol. 3) #8
Former member of Batman, Inc. Currently active with the Batfamily.

O.M.A.C.
Kevin Kho
Justice League International (Vol. 3) #9

Blue Beetle
Jaime Reyes
Justice League International (Vol. 3) Annual #1
Briefly join the League before it disbands. Currently active on his own.

Olympian
Aristides Demetrios
Briefly join the League before it disbands.

New 52 Justice League of America
Following the events of "Throne of Atlantis", a separate, new Justice League of America was formed by Amanda Waller and Steve Trevor.

Col. Steve Trevor
Steve Trevor
Justice League of America (Vol. 3) #2
Field Leader

Hawkman
Katar Hol
Former member of the Justice League United. Died in Death of Hawkman #6.

Martian Manhunter
J'onn J'onzz/John Jones
Former member of the Justice League.

Katana
Tatsu Yamashiro
Former member of the Birds of Prey. Currently active in the Suicide Squad.

Vibe
Francisco "Cisco" Ramon

Stargirl
Courtney Whitmore

Catwoman
Selina Kyle
Currently active with the Batfamily.

Green Arrow
Oliver "Ollie" Queen
Justice League of America (Vol. 3) #4
Currently active on his own.

Green Lantern
Simon Baz
Justice League of America (Vol. 3) #5
Currently active in the Justice League and in the Green Lantern Corp.

Doctor Light
Arthur Light
Justice League (Vol. 2) #22
Killed by Superman in Justice League Vol. 2 #22

New 52 Justice League United
A continuation of the Justice League of America without ARGUS.

Stargirl
Courtney Whitmore
Joined the JLA in Justice League of America Vol. 3 #1
Former member of the Justice League of America.

Martian Manhunter
J'onn J'onzz/John Jones

Green Arrow
Oliver "Ollie" Queen
Former member of the Justice League of America. Currently active on his own.

Animal Man
Bernhard "Buddy" Baker
Justice League United #1

Adam Strange
Adam Strange
Died in Death of Hawkman #6.

Supergirl
Kara Zor-El
Justice League United #2
Currently active on her own and with the Superfamily

Equinox
Miiyabin Marten
Justice League United #5
Allied with the team in Justice League United #0–4 before officially joining in issue #5.

Hawkman
Katar Hol
Justice League United #3
Former member of the Justice League of America. Died in Death of Hawkman #6.

DC REBIRTH

DC Rebirth Justice League of America
Following the events of "Justice League vs. Suicide Squad", a new Justice League of America was formed by Batman.

Batman
Bruce Wayne
Justice League of America (vol. 4) #1
Founding member. Also active in the Justice League.

Black Canary
Dinah Laurel Lance
Founding member. Also active in the Birds of Prey and with the Arrowfamily.

Vixen
Mari Jiwe McCabe
Founding member. Active.

Ray
Ray Terrill

Atom
Ryan Choi

Lobo
Unpronounceable

Killer Frost
Caitlin Snow
Founding member. Active. Former member of the Suicide Squad.

DC Rebirth Justice League of China
The Republic of China's gathering of superheroes.

Super-Man
Kong Kenan
New Super-Man #2
Active

Wonder-Woman
Peng Deilan

Bat-Man
Wang Baixi

The Flash
Ho Avery
New Super-Man #9

text: Alternate Leagues

text:
Character
Real name
Joined in
Notes

New 52 Justice League 3000
A 31st century Justice League of resurrected heroes.

Batman
Bruce Wayne
Justice League 3000 #1

The Flash
Barry Allen
Dies in issue #2, resurrected in issue #4, dies again in issue #7, and resurrected again sometime before Justice League 3001 #3. Left the team in order to supervise the Super Buddies 3000. Dies again in 3001 #7.

Green Lantern
Hal Jordan
Left the team prior to Justice League 3001 #1 in order to supervise the Super Buddies 3000.

Superman
Clark Kent/Kal-El

Wonder Woman
Princess Diana

Firestorm
Ronnie Raymond and Jason Rusch
Justice League 3000 #4
Left the team in issue #8. Later, assumed charge of CADMUS.

The Flash
Teri
Justice League 3000 #9
Genetically recreated with DNA of Barry Allen.

Green Lantern
Guy Gardner
Justice League 3001 #1
Brought back to life in a female body.

New 52 Super Buddies 3000
A 31st century recreation of the Super Buddies/Justice League International.

Blue Beetle
Ted Kord
Sometime prior to Justice League 3001 #3
Woke up in the 31st century after being frozen.

Booster Gold
Michael Jon Carter

Fire
Beatriz Bonilla da Costa

Ice
Tora Olafsdotter

The Flash
Barry Allen
Resurrected again sometime prior to Justice League 3001 #3, joined the team in order to supervise it. Dies again in 3001 #7.

Green Lantern
Hal Jordan
Joined the team in order to supervise it. Presumed dead after the scullion attack in 3001 #7.

Futures End Justice League Beyond
The active Justice League from 35 years in the future.

Superman
Kal-El
Batman Beyond (Vol. 5) #9

Green Lantern
Kai-Ro

Big Barda
Barda Free

Aquagirl
Mareena Curry

Warhawk
Rex Stewart

Micron
Unknown name

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Justice League

Gardner Fox

Founding members

Superman
Batman
Wonder Woman
Green Lantern (Hal Jordan)
Flash (Barry Allen)
Aquaman
Martian Manhunter (original)
Black Canary (some retellings)
Triumph (some retellings)
Cyborg (some retellings)

Enemies

Major antagonists

Amazo
Anti-Monitor
Darkseid
Deathstroke
Despero
Doctor Destiny
Doctor Light
Doomsday
Eclipso
Felix Faust
The General
Imperiex
Joker
Kanjar Ro
The Key
Lex Luthor
Libra
Maxwell Lord
Professor Ivo
Prometheus
Queen Bee
Queen of Fables
Ra's al Ghul
Sinestro
Starro
T. O. Morrow
Vandal Savage
The White Martians

Organizations

Brotherhood of Evil
The Extremists
The Crime Syndicate
Legion of Doom
The Secret Society of Super Villains
Injustice Gang
Injustice League
League of Assassins
Manhunters
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text: Justice LeagueLists of DC characters by organization

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document_title: Memorial Day

question_text: when did memorial day changed from may 30th

root

text: Memorial Day

text: History[edit]

text: The practice of decorating soldiers' graves with flowers is an ancient custom.[5] Soldiers' graves were decorated in the U.S. before[6] and during the American Civil War.

tag: p

text: Some believe that an annual cemetery decoration practice began before the American Civil War and thus may reflect the real origin of the "memorial day" idea.[7] Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are still held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in some rural areas of the American South, notably in the mountain areas. In cases involving a family graveyard where remote ancestors as well as those who were deceased more recently are buried, this may take on the character of an extended family reunion to which some people travel hundreds of miles. People gather, put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives and others. There often is a religious service and a picnic-like "dinner on the grounds," the traditional term for a potluck meal at a church.[7]

text: On June 3, 1861, Warrenton, Virginia was the location of the first Civil War soldier's grave ever to be decorated, according to a Richmond Times-Dispatch newspaper article in 1906.[8] In 1862, women in Savannah, Georgia decorated Confederate soldiers' graves according to the Savannah Republican.[9] The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was a ceremony of commemoration at the graves of dead soldiers. On July 4, 1864, ladies decorated soldiers' graves according to local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania.[10] and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day.[11]

text: In April 1865, following President Abraham Lincoln's assassination, commemorations were ubiquitous. The more than 600,000 soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance. Under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the federal government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead.[12]

text: On May 1, 1865, in Charleston, South Carolina, recently freed African-Americans held a parade of 10,000 people to honor 257 dead Union Soldiers, whose remains they had reburied from a mass grave in a Confederate prison camp.[13] Historian David W. Blight cites contemporary news reports of this incident in the Charleston Daily Courier and the New-York Tribune. Although Blight claimed that "African Americans invented Memorial Day in Charleston, South Carolina",[14] in 2012, Blight stated that he "has no evidence" that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country.[15] Accordingly, investigators for Time Magazine, LiveScience, RealClearLife and Snopes have called this conclusion into question.[16][17][18][19]

text: In 1868, copying a southern annual observance,[20] General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of Union veterans founded in Decatur, Illinois, established Decoration Day as a time for the nation to decorate the graves of the Union war dead with flowers.[21] By the 20th century, various Union and Confederate memorial traditions, celebrated on different days, merged, and Memorial Day eventually extended to honor all Americans who died while in the military service.[1]

text: On May 26, 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated an "official" birthplace of the holiday by signing the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, as the holder of the title. This action followed House Concurrent Resolution 587, in which the 89th Congress had officially recognized that the patriotic tradition of observing Memorial Day had begun one hundred years prior in Waterloo, New York.[22] The village credits druggist Henry C. Welles and county clerk John B. Murray as the founders of the holiday. Scholars have determined that the Waterloo account is a myth.[23] Snopes and Live Science also discredit the Waterloo account.[24][25]

text: In the North[edit]

text: On May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan issued a proclamation calling for "Decoration Day" to be observed annually and nationwide; he was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of and for Union Civil War veterans.[7] With his proclamation, Logan adopted the Memorial Day practice that had begun in the Southern states three years earlier.[26][27][28]

text: The first northern Memorial Day was observed on May 30, 1868. One author claims that the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle.[29] According to a White House address in 2010, the date was chosen as the optimal date for flowers to be in bloom in the North.[30]

text: The northern states quickly adopted the holiday. In 1868, memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states, and 336 in 1869.[31] In 1871, Michigan made "Decoration Day" an official state holiday and by 1890, every northern state had followed suit. There was no standard program for the ceremonies, but they were typically sponsored by the Women's Relief Corps, the women's auxiliary of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), which had 100,000 members. By 1870, the remains of nearly 300,000 Union dead had been reinterred in 73 national cemeteries, located near major battlefields and thus mainly in the South. The most famous are Gettysburg National Cemetery in Pennsylvania and Arlington National Cemetery, near Washington, D.C.[32]

text: Memorial Day speeches became an occasion for veterans, politicians, and ministers to commemorate the Civil War and, at first, to rehash the "atrocities" of the enemy. They mixed religion and celebratory nationalism for the people to make sense of their history in terms of sacrifice for a better nation. People of all religious beliefs joined together and the point was often made that the German and Irish soldiers had become true Americans in the "baptism of blood" on the battlefield.[33]

text: Since 1868 Doylestown, Pennsylvania, has held annual Memorial Day parades which it claims to be the nation's oldest continuously running.  However, the Memorial Day parade in Rochester, Wisconsin, predates Doylestown's by one year.[34][35]

text: By the 1880s, ceremonies were becoming quite similar as the GAR provided handbooks that presented specific procedures, poems, and Bible verses for local post commanders to utilize in planning the local event. Historian Stuart McConnell reports:

text: on the day itself, the post assembled and marched to the local cemetery to decorate the graves of the fallen, an enterprise meticulously organized months in advance to assure that none were missed. Finally came a simple and subdued graveyard service involving prayers, short patriotic speeches, and music...and at the end perhaps a rifle salute.[36]

text: In the South[edit]

text: The U.S. National Park Service[37] and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to the ladies of Columbus, Georgia.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44] On April 25, 1866, women in Columbus, Mississippi laid flowers on the graves of both the Union and Confederate dead in the city's Friendship Cemetery, claiming to be the first "Decoration Day."[45][46] The early southern Memorial Day celebrations were simple, somber occasions for veterans and their families to honor the dead and tend to local cemeteries.[47]

text: Historians acknowledge the Ladies Memorial Association played a key role in these rituals of preservation of Confederate "memory."[48] Various dates ranging from April 25 to mid-June were adopted in different Southern states. Across the South, associations were founded, many by women, to establish and care for permanent cemeteries for the Confederate dead, organize commemorative ceremonies, and sponsor appropriate monuments as a permanent way of remembering the Confederate dead. The most important of these was the United Daughters of the Confederacy, which grew from 17,000 members in 1900 to nearly 100,000 women by World War I. They were "strikingly successful at raising money to build Confederate monuments, lobbying legislatures and Congress for the reburial of Confederate dead, and working to shape the content of history textbooks."[49]

text: In 1868, some southerners appended the label "Confederate" to what they originally called "Memorial Day" after northerners co-opted the holiday.[50] The tradition of observances were linked to the South, they served as the prototype for the national day of memory embraced by the nation in 1868.[37][51]

text: By 1890, there was a shift from the emphasis on honoring specific soldiers to a public commemoration of the Confederate south.[47] Changes in the ceremony's hymns and speeches reflect an evolution of the ritual into a symbol of cultural renewal and conservatism in the South. By 1913, David Blight argues, the theme of American nationalism shared equal time with the Confederate.[52]

text: At Gettysburg[edit]

text: Starting in 1868, the ceremonies and Memorial Day address at Gettysburg National Park became nationally known. In July 1913, veterans of the United States and Confederate armies gathered in Gettysburg to commemorate the fifty-year anniversary of the Civil War's bloodiest and most famous battle.[53]

text: Since the cemetery dedication at Gettysburg occurred on November 19, that day (or the closest weekend) has been designated as their own local memorial day that is referred to as Remembrance Day.[54]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Indiana from the 1860s to the 1920s saw numerous debates on how to expand the celebration. It was a favorite lobbying activity of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR).  An 1884 GAR handbook explained that Memorial Day was "the day of all days in the G.A.R. Calendar" in terms of mobilizing public support for pensions. It advised family members to "exercise great care" in keeping the veterans sober.[55]. As the years went by, the GAR complained more and more about the younger generation. In 1913, one Hoosier veteran complained that younger people born since the war had a "tendency ... to forget the purpose of Memorial Day and make it a day for games, races and revelry, instead of a day of memory and tears."[56] Indeed, in 1911 the scheduling of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway car race was vehemently opposed by the increasingly elderly GAR. The state legislature in  1923 rejected the race on that special day. But the new American Legion and local officials wanted the big race to continue, so Governor Warren McCray vetoed the bill and the race went on.[57]

text: In the national capital in 1913 the four-day "Blue-Gray Reunion" featured parades, re-enactments, and speeches from a host of dignitaries, including President Woodrow Wilson, the first Southerner elected to the White House since the War.  James Heflin of Alabama gave the main address. Heflin was a noted orator; his choice as Memorial Day speaker was criticized, as he was opposed for his support of segregation; however, his speech was moderate in tone and stressed national unity and goodwill, gaining him praise from newspapers.[58]

text: One of the longest-standing traditions is the running of the Indianapolis 500, an auto race which has been held in conjunction with Memorial Day since 1911.[59] Originally it was held on Memorial Day itself, and since 1974 it runs on the Sunday preceding the Memorial Day holiday. Since 1961 NASCAR's Coca-Cola 600 has been held during Memorial Day weekend, and has also been held on the previous Sunday since 1974.[citation needed] Since 1976 The Memorial Tournament golf event has been held on or close to the Memorial Day weekend.[citation needed] The Final of the NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship has been held on Memorial Day since 1986.[60]

text: The preferred name for the holiday gradually changed from "Decoration Day" to "Memorial Day," which was first used in 1882.[61] Memorial Day did not become the more common name until after World War II, and was not declared the official name by Federal law until 1967.[62] On June 28, 1968, Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, which moved four holidays, including Memorial Day, from their traditional dates to a specified Monday in order to create a convenient three-day weekend.[63] The change moved Memorial Day from its traditional May 30 date to the last Monday in May. The law took effect at the federal level in 1971.[63] After some initial confusion and unwillingness to comply, all 50 states adopted Congress' change of date within a few years.

text: 21st century[edit]

text: Memorial Day endures as a holiday which most businesses observe because it marks the unofficial beginning of summer. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) advocated returning to the original date, although the significance of the date is tenuous. The VFW stated in 2002:

text: Changing the date merely to create three-day weekends has undermined the very meaning of the day. No doubt, this has contributed a lot to the general public's nonchalant observance of Memorial Day.[64]

text: In 2000, Congress passed the National Moment of Remembrance Act, asking people to stop and remember at 3:00 PM.[65]

text: On Memorial Day, the flag of the United States is raised briskly to the top of the staff and then solemnly lowered to the half-staff position, where it remains only until noon.[66] It is then raised to full-staff for the remainder of the day.[67]

text: The National Memorial Day Concert takes place on the west lawn of the United States Capitol.[68] The concert is broadcast on PBS and NPR. Music is performed, and respect is paid to the men and women who gave their lives for their country.

text: Across the United States, the central event is attending one of the thousands of parades held on Memorial Day in large and small cities. Most of these feature marching bands and an overall military theme with the Active Duty, Reserve, National Guard and Veteran service members participating along with military vehicles from various wars.[citation needed]

text: Poppies[edit]

text: In 1915, following the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a physician with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, wrote the poem, "In Flanders Fields". Its opening lines refer to the fields of poppies that grew among the soldiers' graves in Flanders.

text: In 1918, inspired by the poem, YWCA worker Moina Michael attended a YWCA Overseas War Secretaries' conference wearing a silk poppy pinned to her coat and distributed over two dozen more to others present. In 1920, the National American Legion adopted it as their official symbol of remembrance.[69]

text: As civil religious holiday[edit]

text: Scholars,[70][71][72][73] following the lead of sociologist Robert Bellah, often make the argument that the United States has a secular "civil religion" – one with no association with any religious denomination or viewpoint – that has incorporated Memorial Day as a sacred event. With the Civil War, a new theme of death, sacrifice and rebirth enters the civil religion. Memorial Day gave ritual expression to these themes, integrating the local community into a sense of nationalism. The American civil religion, in contrast to that of France, was never anticlerical or militantly secular; in contrast to Britain, it was not tied to a specific denomination, such as the Church of England. The Americans borrowed from different religious traditions so that the average American saw no conflict between the two, and deep levels of personal motivation were aligned with attaining national goals.[74]

text: Memorial Day has been called a "modern cult of the dead". It incorporates Christian themes of sacrifice while uniting citizens of various faiths.[75]

text: In film, literature, and music[edit]

text: Films[edit]

text:
Memorial Day (2012) is a war film starring James Cromwell, Jonathan Bennett, and John Cromwell.
Logan Lucky (2017) starring Channing Tatum

tag: ul

text: Music[edit]

text: Charles Ives's symphonic poem Decoration Day depicted the holiday as he experienced it in his childhood, with his father's band leading the way to the town cemetery, the playing of "Taps" on a trumpet, and a livelier march tune on the way back to the town. It is frequently played with three other Ives works based on holidays, as the second movement of A Symphony: New England Holidays.

text: Poetry[edit]

text: Poems commemorating Memorial Day include:

text:
Michael Anania's "Memorial Day" (1994)[76]
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's "Decoration Day" (1882)[77]
Joyce Kilmer's "Memorial Day"

text: Observance dates (1971–present)[edit]

text:
Year

Memorial Day

1972
2000
2028
2056
2084

May 29

1973
2001
2029
2057
2085

May 28

1974
2002
2030
2058
2086

May 27

1975
2003
2031
2059
2087

May 26

1976
2004
2032
2060
2088
2100
May 31

1977
2005
2033
2061
2089
2101
May 30

1978
2006
2034
2062
2090
2102
May 29

1979
2007
2035
2063
2091
2103
May 28

1980
2008
2036
2064
2092
2104
May 26

1981
2009
2037
2065
2093
2105
May 25

1982
2010
2038
2066
2094
2106
May 31

1983
2011
2039
2067
2095
2107
May 30

1984
2012
2040
2068
2096
2108
May 28

1985
2013
2041
2069
2097
2109
May 27

1986
2014
2042
2070
2098
2110
May 26

1987
2015
2043
2071
2099
2111
May 25

1988
2016
2044
2072

2112
May 30

1989
2017
2045
2073

2113
May 29

1990
2018
2046
2074

2114
May 28

1991
2019
2047
2075

2115
May 27

1992
2020
2048
2076

2116
May 25

1993
2021
2049
2077

2117
May 31

1994
2022
2050
2078

2118
May 30

1995
2023
2051
2079

2119
May 29

1996
2024
2052
2080

2120
May 27

1997
2025
2053
2081

2121
May 26

1998
2026
2054
2082

2122
May 25

1971
1999
2027
2055
2083

2123
May 31

tag: table


document_title: Secretary to the Government of the Federation

question_text: who is the current secretary to the federal government of nigeria

text: Functions (culled from the official website of SGF)[edit]

text:
Coordinating policy design and formulation by Ministries, Departments and Agencies for approval by Government[2][3]
Serving as Secretary to the Council of State, the Federal Executive Council and other Constitutional Councils, which are chaired by the President
Coordinating the activities of Ministries and Government Agencies on the implementation of Government decisions, policies and programmes
Dealing with constitutional, political and socio-economic matters as may be referred to the Presidency
Administrative Tribunals, Commissions and Panels of Enquiry; vi) Coordinating national security and public safety matters
National Honours Award
Prerogative of Mercy
Protocol Matters
Channeling of papers and directives of the President
Processing and granting Government approval for Overseas Tours, Intergovernmental Meetings/Conferences, medical check-up/treatment by Public Officers
Processing requests for Overseas Duty Tours/Conferences including medical check-up/treatment abroad for members of the Judiciary, Chairmen and Members of Statutory Commissions/Bodies for approval by the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
Coordinating the appointments to Headship of Statutory Bodies, Commissions and Agencies by the President
Dealing with matters relating to conditions of service of political office holders
Intergovernmental Affairs and relations with State and Local Governments
Liaison with Secretaries to State Governments
Allocation of office accommodation to Political Office Holders.

text: Offices of the Secretary of the Government of the Federation[edit]

text: The following are the cabinets for the effective discharge of duties by the secretary

text:
General Services Office
Political Affairs Office
Economic Affairs Office
Special Services Office
Special Duties Office

text: Secretaries[edit]

text:
Boss Gida Mustapha (2017 - present)
Babachir David Lawal (2015 - Oct 2017)
Anyim Pius Anyim (2011 - 2015)
Yayale Ahmed [4]
Olu Falae
Gidado Idris


document_title: The Swiss Family Robinson

question_text: what is the father name in swiss family robinson

text: The Swiss Family Robinson

text: History[edit]

text: Written by Swiss pastor Johann David Wyss, edited by his son Johann Rudolf Wyss and illustrated by another son, Johann Emmanuel Wyss, the novel was intended to teach his four sons about family values, good husbandry, the uses of the natural world and self-reliance. Wyss' attitude toward education is in line with the teachings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and many chapters involve Christian-oriented moral lessons such as frugality, husbandry, acceptance and cooperation.[1]

text: Wyss presents adventures as lessons in natural history and physical science. This resembles other educational books for young ones published about the same time. These include Charlotte Turner Smith's Rural Walks: in Dialogues intended for the use of Young Persons (1795), Rambles Farther: A continuation of Rural Walks (1796), A Natural History of Birds, intended chiefly for young persons (1807). But Wyss' novel is also modeled after Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, an adventure story about a shipwrecked sailor first published in 1719 and the source of the "Robinson" in the title "Swiss Family Robinson".[1]

text: The book presents a geographically impossible array of large mammals and plants that probably could never have existed together on a single island, for the children's education, nourishment, clothing and convenience.

text: Over the years there have been many versions of the story with episodes added, changed, or deleted. Perhaps the best-known English version is by William H. G. Kingston, first published in 1879.[1] It is based on Isabelle de Montolieu's 1813 French adaptation and 1824 continuation (from chapter 37) Le Robinson suisse, ou, Journal d'un père de famille, naufragé avec ses enfants in which were added further adventures of Fritz, Franz, Ernest, and Jack.[1] Other English editions that claim to include the whole of the Wyss-Montolieu narrative are by W. H. Davenport Adams (1869–1910) and Mrs H. B. Paull (1879). As Carpenter and Prichard write in The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford, 1995), "with all the expansions and contractions over the past two centuries (this includes a long history of abridgments, condensations, Christianizing, and Disney products), Wyss's original narrative has long since been obscured."[1] The closest English translation to the original is William Godwin's 1816 translation, reprinted by Penguin Classics.[2]

text: Although movie and television adaptations typically name the family "Robinson", it is not a Swiss name. The German title translates as The Swiss Robinson which identifies the novel as part of the Robinsonade genre, rather than a story about a family named Robinson.

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article needs an improved plot summary.  (January 2012)

text: The novel opens with the family in the hold of a sailing ship, weathering a great storm. The ship's passengers evacuate without them, and William and Elizabeth and their four children (Fritz, Ernest, Jack and Francis) are left to survive alone. As the ship tosses about, the father – William – prays that God will spare them.

text: The ship survives the night and the family finds themselves within sight of a tropical desert island. The next morning, they decide to get to the island they can see beyond the reef. With much effort, they construct a vessel out of tubs. After they fill the tubs with food and ammunition and all other articles of value they can safely carry, they row toward the island. Two dogs from the ship named Turk and Juno swim beside them. The ship's cargo of livestock (including chickens, domestic ducks, domestic geese, and domestic pigeons), guns & powder, carpentry tools, books, a disassembled pinnace, and provisions have survived.

text: Upon reaching the island, the family set up a makeshift camp. The father knows that they must prepare for a long time on the island and his thoughts are as much on provisions for the future as for their immediate wants. William and his oldest son Fritz spend the next day exploring the island.

text: The family spends the next few days securing themselves against hunger. William and Fritz make several trips to the ship in their efforts to bring ashore everything useful from the vessel. The domesticated animals on the ship are towed back to the island. There is also a great store of firearms and ammunition, hammocks for sleeping, carpenter’s tools, lumber, cooking utensils, silverware, and dishes. Initially they construct a treehouse, but as time passes (and after Elizabeth is injured climbing the stairs down from it), they settle in a more permanent dwelling in part of a cave. Fritz rescues a young Englishwoman (Jenny Montrose) shipwrecked elsewhere on their island.

text: The book covers more than ten years. The father and older boys explore various environments and develop homes and gardens in various sites about the island. At the end, the father wonders if they will ever again see the rest of humanity. Eventually a British ship that is in search of Jenny Montrose anchors near the island and is discovered by the family. The captain is given the journal containing the story of their life on the island which is eventually published. Several members of the family choose to continue to live tranquilly on their island while several of them return to Europe with the British.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
William – The father. He is the narrator of the story and leads the family. He knows an enormous amount of information on almost everything the family comes across, demonstrating bravery and self-reliance.
Elizabeth – The mother. She is intelligent and resourceful, arming herself even before leaving the ship with a "magic bag" filled with supplies, including sewing materials and seeds for food crops. She is also a remarkably versatile cook, taking on anything from porcupine soup to roast penguin.
Fritz – The oldest of the four boys, he is 15. Fritz is intelligent but impetuous. He is the strongest and accompanies his father on many quests.
Ernest – The second oldest of the boys, he is 13. Ernest is the most intelligent, but a less physically active boy, often described by his father as "indolent". Like Fritz however, he comes to be an excellent shot.
Jack – The third oldest of the boys, 11 years old. He is thoughtless, bold, vivacious, and the quickest of the group.
Franz (sometimes translated as Francis) – The youngest of the boys, he is 8 years old when the story opens. He usually stays home with his mother.
Turk – The family's English dog.
Juno – The family's Danish dog.
Emily Montrose (called Jenny in Montolieu's version) – An English girl found on Smoking Rock near the end of the novel. She is shy but is soon adopted into the family. Not a character in the original German, Emily was invented by Isabelle de Montolieu.
Nip (also called Knips or Nips in some editions) – An orphan monkey adopted by the family after their dogs Turk and Juno have killed his mother. The family use him to test for poisonous fruits.
Fangs – A jackal that was tamed by the family.

text: Other adaptations[edit]

text: The novels in one form or another have also been adapted numerous times, sometimes changing location and/or time period:

text: Book sequels

text:
Willis the Pilot: a sequel to The Swiss family Robinson; or, Adventures of an emigrant family wrecked on an unknown coast of the Pacific Ocean (1858) has been attributed to Johann Wyss or to Johanna Spyri, author of Heidi.
Second Fatherland (Seconde Patrie, 1900), by Jules Verne takes up the story at the point where Wyss's tale left off. It has also been published in two volumes, Their Island Home and Castaways of the Flag.
Return to Robinson Island (2015), by T. J. Hoisington, based on the original 1812 Swiss Family Robinson novel.[3]

text: Film versions

text:
Al-Ṭurfa al-Šahiyya fī aḫbār al-ʿAʾila al-Swīsiyya, Arabic translation (c. 1900)
Swiss Family Robinson (1940 film)
Swiss Cheese Family Robinson (Mighty Mouse short, 1947)
Swiss Family Robinson (1960 Walt Disney live-action film)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1976)
The Adventures of Swiss Family Robinson (1998)

text: Television series

text:
English Family Robinson (1957)
Lost in Space (1965–1968) – A science fiction adaptation in which the Robinsons are a family of explorers whose spacecraft goes off course. Identical concept to, but not based upon, the Space Family Robinson comic book listed below.
Swiss Family Robinson (1974) — Canadian series starring Chris Wiggins
Swiss Family Robinson (1975) — American series starring Martin Milner
The Swiss Family Robinson: Flone of the Mysterious Island (1981) — An anime series.
The Adventures of Swiss Family Robinson (1998) — New Zealand series starring Richard Thomas

text: Made for TV movies

text:
The Swiss Family Robinson (1958)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1973)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1973)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1975)
Beverly Hills Family Robinson (1998)
The New Swiss Family Robinson (1998) — Starring Jane Seymour, James Keach, and David Carradine
Stranded (2002)

text: Comic book series

text: Space Family Robinson (1962–1984) – science fiction adaptation

text: Stage adaptations

text: Swiss Family Robinson written by Jerry Montoya and performed at B Street Theatre in Sacramento, California in 2009.

text: Computer adventure game

text: Swiss Family Robinson created in 1984 by Tom Snyder Productions for the Apple II and Commodore 64, published under the Windham Classics label.  The player takes the role of Fritz, the eldest brother.

text: Parody

text: The New Swiss Family Robinson by Owen Wister (1882).


document_title: Emergency medical technician

question_text: who is the local governing agency that issues certification to work as a prehospital care provider

text: Emergency medical technician

text: Canada[edit]

text: There is considerable degree of inter-provincial variation in the Canadian Paramedic practice. Although a national consensus (by way of the National Occupational Competency Profile) identifies certain knowledge, skills, and abilities as being most synonymous with a given level of Paramedic practice, each province retains ultimate authority in legislating the actual administration and delivery of emergency medical services within its own borders. For this reason, any discussion of Paramedic Practice in Canada is necessarily broad, and general. Specific regulatory frameworks and questions related to Paramedic practice can only definitively be answered by consulting relevant provincial legislation, although provincial Paramedic Associations may often offer a simpler overview of this topic when it is restricted to a province-by-province basis.

text: In Canada, the levels of paramedic practice as defined by the National Occupational Competency Profile are: Emergency Medical Responder (EMR), Primary Care Paramedic, Advanced Care Paramedic, and Critical Care Paramedic.

text: Regulatory frameworks vary from province to province, and include direct government regulation (such as Ontario's method of credentialing its practitioners with the title of A-EMCA, or Advanced Emergency Medical Care Assistant) to professional self-regulating bodies, such as the Alberta College of Paramedics. Though the title of Paramedic is a generic description of a category of practitioners, provincial variability in regulatory methods accounts for ongoing differences in actual titles that are ascribed to different levels of practitioners. For example, the province of Alberta has legally adopted the title "Emergency Medical Technician", or 'EMT', for the Primary Care Paramedic; and 'Paramedic' only for those qualified as Advanced Care Paramedics Advanced Life Support (ALS) providers. Only someone registered in Alberta can call themselves an EMT or Paramedic in Alberta, the title is legally protected. Almost all other provinces are gradually moving to adopting the new titles, or have at least recognized the NOCP document as a benchmarking document to permit inter-provincial labour mobility of practitioners, regardless of how titles are specifically regulated within their own provincial systems. In this manner, the confusing myriad of titles and occupational descriptions can at least be discussed using a common language for comparison sake.

text: Emergency Medical Responder[edit]

text: Most providers that work in ambulances will be identified as 'Paramedics' by the public. However, in many cases, the most prevalent level of emergency prehospital care is that which is provided by the Emergency Medical Responder (EMR). This is a level of practice recognized under the National Occupational Competency Profile, although unlike the next three successive levels of practice, the EMR is not specifically considered a Paramedic, per se. The high number of EMRs across Canada cannot be ignored as contributing a critical role in the chain of survival, although it is a level of practice that is least comprehensive (clinically speaking), and is also generally not consistent with any medical acts beyond advanced first-aid and oxygen therapy, with the exception of automated external defibrillation (which is still considered a regulated medical act in most provinces in Canada).[citation needed]

text: Primary care paramedics[edit]

text: Primary care paramedics (PCP) are the entry-level of paramedic practice in Canadian provinces. The scope of practice includes performing semi-automated external defibrillation, interpretation of 4-lead ECGs, administration of Symptom Relief Medications for a variety of emergency medical conditions (these include oxygen, epinephrine, dextrose, glucagon, salbutamol, ASA and nitroglycerine), performing trauma immobilization (including cervical immobilization), and other fundamental basic medical care. Primary Care Paramedics may also receive additional training in order to perform certain skills that are normally in the scope of practice of Advanced Care Paramedics. This is regulated both provincially (by statute) and locally (by the medical director), and ordinarily entails an aspect of medical oversight by a specific body or group of physicians. This is often referred to as Medical Control, or a role played by a base hospital. For example, in the provinces of Ontario and Newfoundland and Labrador, many paramedic services allow Primary Care Paramedics to perform 12-lead ECG interpretation, or initiate intravenous therapy to deliver a few additional medications.

text: Advanced Care Paramedics[edit]

text: The Advanced Care Paramedic is a level of practitioner that is in high demand by many services across Canada. However, still not all provinces and jurisdictions have ACPs (Quebec, New Brunswick). The ACP typically carries approximately 20 different medications, although the number and type of medications may vary substantially from region to region. ACPs perform advanced airway management including intubation, surgical airways, intravenous therapy, place external jugular IV lines, perform needle thoracotomy, perform and interpret 12-lead ECGs, perform synchronized and chemical cardioversion, transcutaneous pacing, perform obstetrical assessments, and provide pharmacological pain relief for various conditions. Several sites in Canada have adopted pre-hospital fibrinolytics and rapid sequence induction, and prehospital medical research has permitted a great number of variations in the scope of practice for ACPs. Current programs include providing ACPs with discretionary direct 24-hour access to PCI labs, bypassing the emergency department, and representing a fundamental change in both the way that patients with S-T segment elevation myocardial infarctions (STEMI) are treated, but also profoundly affecting survival rates.[12] as well as bypassing a closer hospitals to get an identified stroke patient to a stroke centre.

text: Critical Care Paramedic[edit]

text: Critical Care Paramedics (CCPs) are paramedics who generally do not respond to 9-1-1 emergency calls, with the exception of helicopter "scene" calls. Instead they focus on transferring patients from the hospital they are currently in to other hospitals that can provide a higher level of care. CCPs often work in collaboration with registered nurses and respiratory therapists during hospital transfers. This ensures continuity of care. However, when acuity is manageable by a CCP or a registered nurse or respiratory therapist is not available, CCPs will work alone. Providing this care to the patient allows the sending hospital to avoid losing highly trained staff on hospital transfers. CCPs are able to provide all of the care that PCPs and ACPs provide. That being said, CCPs significantly lack practical experience with advanced skills such as IV initiation, peripheral access to cardiovascular system for fluid and drug administration, advanced airway, and many other techniques. Where an PCP and ACP may run 40–50 medical codes per year a CCP may run 1–2 in an entire career. IV/IO starts are nearly non-existent in the field and for this reason CCPs are required to attend nearly double the amount of time in classroom situations or in hospital to keep current. In addition to this they are trained for other skills such as medication infusion pumps, mechanical ventilation and arterial line monitoring.[13] CCPs often work in fixed and rotary wing aircraft when the weather permits and staff are available, but systems such as the Toronto EMS Critical Care Transport Program work in land ambulances. ORNGE Transport operates both land and aircraft in Ontario. In British Columbia, CCPs work primarily in aircraft with a dedicated Critical Care Transport crew in Trail for long-distance transfers and a regular CCP street crew stationed in South Vancouver that often also performs medevacs, when necessary.

text: Training[edit]

text: Paramedic training in Canada varies regionally; for example, the training may be eight months[4] (British Columbia) or two to four years (Ontario, Alberta) in length. The nature of training and how it is regulated, like actual paramedic practice, varies from province to province.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: Emergency Medical Technician is a legally defined title in the Republic of Ireland based on the standard set down by the Pre-Hospital Emergency Care Council (PHECC). Emergency Medical Technician is the entry-level standard of practitioner for employment within the ambulance service. Currently, EMTs are authorised to work on non-emergency ambulances only as the standard for emergency (999) calls is a minimum of a two-paramedic crew. EMTs are a vital part of the voluntary and auxiliary services where a practitioner must be on board any ambulance in the process of transporting a patient to hospital.

text:
PHECC Responder Levels

Responder Title
Abbr
Level of Care

CARDIAC FIRST RESPONDER
CFR
Trained in BLS with emphasis on CPR and the Automated External Defibrillator

OCCUPATIONAL FIRST AIDER
OFA
Trained as CFR with additional training in management of bleeding, fractures etc. particularly in the workplace

EMERGENCY FIRST RESPONDER
EFR
Extensive first aid and BLS training with introduction to Oxygen therapy and assisting practitioners with care

text:
PHECC Practitioner Levels

Practitioner Title
Abbr
Level of Care

EMERGENCY MEDICAL TECHNICIAN
EMT
Entry-level EMS Healthcare professional. Trained in BLS, Anatomy/Physiology, Pathophysiology, Pharmacology, ECG Monitoring, advanced Airway management (Supraglottic Airways) and Spinal Immobilization

PARAMEDIC
P
Emergency Ambulance Practitioner. Trained in advanced Pharmacology, advanced Airway management etc.

ADVANCED PARAMEDIC
AP
Trained to Paramedic level plus IV & IO access, a wide range of Medications, tracheal intubation, Manual Defib etc.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Emergency Medical Technician is a term that has existed for many years in the United Kingdom. Some National Health Service ambulance services are running EMT conversion courses for staff who were trained by the Institute of Healthcare Development (IHCD) as Ambulance Technicians and Assistant Ambulance Practitioners. Ambulance trusts such as the London Ambulance Service and the North West Ambulance Service are in the process of converting existing Ambulance Technicians into Emergency Medical Technician grades 1, 2, 3 or 4, based on their level of experience; in many cases providing a similar level of care to that of a Paramedic.

text: Emergency Medical Technicians are still widely deployed in private ambulance companies with IHCD NHS trained Emergency Technicians being particularly sought after. There also many newer EMT training courses available. IHCD Ambulance Technicians and Assistant Ambulance Practitioners still exist within other UK ambulance services with Emergency Care Assistants employed in some areas as support, however, this grade of staff is now being phased out and replaced with a much lower qualified Emergency care assistants. The exception to this is the East of England Ambulance Service, who have actively stopped training Emergency Care Assistants, and is upskill training them to Emergency Medical Technician level. With the intention being to convert EMTs to Paramedics, thus up-skilling the entire workforce.

text: Examples of skills that may be had by an Emergency Medical Technician in the UK are:

text:
Administration of selected drugs (usually not IV Medications)
Intermediate life support, including manual defibrillation and superglottic airway adjuncts
Ability to discharge patient to different care pathways
IV Cannulation (usually hospital EMT skill).

text: United States[edit]

text: This article may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may only interest a specific audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: History[edit]

text: The concept of modern-day Emergency Medical Services (EMS) care is widely noted to begin with the academic paper, "Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society", (or "White Paper") in 1966, according to EMS textbooks and relevant academia in the field. This paper detailed the statistics of highway accidents resulting in injury and death in the mid-1960s, as well as other causes of injury and death, and used the statistics to confirm that reform was needed in the United States, especially concerning public education and the amount of CPR and BLS/First Aid training received by police officers, firefighters, and ambulance services at the time.

text: The EMT program in the United States began as part of the "Alexandria Plan" in the early 1970s, in addition to a growing issue with injuries associated with car accidents. Emergency medicine (EM) as a medical specialty is relatively young. Prior to the 1960s and 1970s, hospital emergency departments were generally staffed by physicians on staff at the hospital on a rotating basis, among them general surgeons, internists, psychiatrists, and dermatologists. Physicians in training (interns and residents), foreign medical graduates and sometimes nurses also staffed the Emergency Department (ED). EM was born as a specialty in order to fill the time commitment required by physicians on staff to work in the increasingly chaotic emergency departments of the time. During this period, groups of physicians began to emerge who had left their respective practices in order to devote their work completely to the ED. The first of such groups was headed by Dr. James DeWitt Mills who, along with four associate physicians; Dr. Chalmers A. Loughridge, Dr. William Weaver, Dr. John McDade, and Dr. Steven Bednar at Alexandria Hospital, VA established 24/7 year-round emergency care which became known as the "Alexandria Plan". It was not until the establishment of American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP), the recognition of emergency medicine training programs by the AMA and the AOA, and in 1979 a historical vote by the American Board of Medical Specialties that EM became a recognized medical specialty. The nation's first EMT's were from the Alexandria plan working as Emergency Care Technicians serving in the Alexandria Hospital Emergency Room. The training for these technicians was modeled after the established "Physician Assistant" training program and later restructured to meet the basic needs for emergency pre-hospital care. On June 24, 2011, The Alexandria Hospital Celebrated the 50th Anniversary of the Alexandria Plan. In attendance were three of the nation's first ECTs/EMTs: David Stover, Larry Jackson, and Kenneth Weaver.

text: Certification[edit]

text: In the United States, EMTs are certified according to their level of training. Individual states set their own standards of certification (or licensure, in some cases) and all EMT training must meet the minimum requirements as set by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's (NHTSA) standards for curriculum.[5] The National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) is a private organization[6] which offers certification exams based on NHTSA education guidelines and has been around since the 1970s.[7][8] Currently, NREMT exams are used by 46 states as the sole basis for certification at one or more EMT certification levels.[9] A NREMT exam consists of skills and patient assessments as well as a written portion.

text: In order to apply for the NREMT Certification applicants must be 18 years of age or older. A few states allow 16- and 17-year olds. Applicants must also successfully complete a state-approved EMT course that meets or exceeds the NREMT Standards within the past 2 years. Those applying for the NREMT Certification must also complete a state-approved EMT psychomotor exam.[10]

text: The Veteran Emergency Medical Technician Support Act of 2013, H.R. 235 in the 113th United States Congress, would amend the Public Health Service Act to direct the Secretary of Health and Human Services to establish a demonstration program for states with a shortage of emergency medical technicians to streamline state requirements and procedures to assist veterans who completed military EMT training while serving in the Armed Forces to meet state EMT certification and licensure requirements. The bill passed in the United States House of Representatives, but has not yet been voted on in the United States Senate.[11]

text: Levels[edit]

text: The NHTSA recognizes four levels of Emergency Medical Technician:[5]

text:
EMR (Emergency Medical Responder)
EMT (Emergency Medical Technician)
AEMT (Advanced Emergency Medical Technician)
Paramedic

text: Some states also recognize the Advanced Practice Paramedic[12] or Critical Care Paramedic[13] level as a state-specific licensure above that of the Paramedic. These Critical Care Paramedics generally perform high acuity transports that require skills outside the scope of a standard paramedic.[14] In addition, EMTs can seek out specialty certifications such as Wilderness EMT, Wilderness Paramedic, Tactical EMT, and Flight Paramedic.

text: Transition to new levels[edit]

text: In 2009, the NREMT posted information about a transition to a new system of levels for emergency care providers developed by the NHTSA with the National EMS Scope of Practice project.[15] By 2014, these "new" levels will replace the fragmented system found around the United States. The new classification will include Emergency Medical Responder (replacing first responder), Emergency Medical Technician (replacing EMT-Basic), Advanced Emergency Medical Technician (replacing EMT-Intermediate/85), and Paramedic (replacing EMT-Intermediate/99 and EMT-Paramedic). Education requirements in transitioning to the new levels are substantially similar.[16]

text: EMR[edit]

text: EMR (Emergency Medical Responder) is the first, most basic level of EMS. EMRs, many of whom are volunteers, provide basic, immediate lifesaving care including bleeding control, manual stabilization of extremity fractures and suspected cervical spine injuries, eye irrigation, taking vital signs, supplemental oxygen administration, oral suctioning, positive pressure ventilation with a bag valve mask, cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), automated external defibrillator (AED) usage, assisting in a normal childbirth, and administration of certain basic medications such as epinephrine auto-injectors and oral glucose. Due to the opioid crisis, an increasing number of EMRs are now being trained in and allowed to administer intranasal naloxone. An EMR can assume care for a patient while more advanced resources are on the way, and then can assist EMTs and Paramedics when they arrive. Training requirements and treatment protocols vary from area to area.

text: EMT[edit]

text: EMT is the next level of EMS.[17] The procedures and skills allowed at this level include all EMR skills as well as nasopharyngeal airway, pulse oximetry, glucometry, splinting, use of a cervical collar, traction splinting, complicated childbirth delivery, and medication administration (such as epinephrine auto-injectors, oral glucose gel, aspirin (ASA), nitroglycerin, and albuterol). Some areas may add to the scope of practice for EMT's, including intranasal nalaxone administration, use of mechanical CPR devices, administration of intramuscular epinephrine and glucagon, insertion of additional airway devices, and CPAP. Training requirements and treatment protocols vary from area to area.[18][19]

text: Advanced EMT[edit]

text: Advanced EMT is the levels of training between EMT and Paramedic. They can provide limited advanced life support (ALS) care including obtaining intravenous/intraosseous access, use of advanced airway devices, limited medication administration, and basic cardiac monitoring.[20]

text: Paramedic[edit]

text: Paramedics, represents the highest level of EMT, and in general, the highest level of prehospital medical provider, though some areas utilize physicians as providers on air ambulances or as a ground provider.[21] Paramedics perform a variety of medical procedures such as endotracheal intubation, fluid resuscitation, drug administration, obtaining intravenous access, cardiac monitoring (continuous and 12-lead), cardioversion, transcutaneous pacing, cricothyrotomy, manual defibrillation, chest needle decompression, and other advanced procedures and assessments.[22]

text: Staffing levels[edit]

text: An ambulance with only EMTs is considered a Basic Life Support (BLS) unit, an ambulance utilizing AEMTs is dubbed an Intermediate Life Support (ILS), or limited Advanced Life Support (LALS) unit, and an ambulance with Paramedics is dubbed an Advanced Life Support (ALS) unit. Some states allow ambulance crews to contain a mix of crews levels (e.g. an EMT and a Paramedic or an AEMT and a Paramedic) to staff ambulances and operate at the level of the highest trained provider. There is nothing stopping supplemental crew members to be of a certain certification, though (e.g. if an ALS ambulance is required to have two Paramedics, then it is acceptable to have two Paramedics and an EMT). An emergency vehicle with only EMRs or a combination of both EMRs and EMTs is still dubbed a Basic Life Support (BLS) unit. An EMR must be overseen by an EMT or higher to work on an ambulance.

text: Education and training[edit]

text: EMT training programs for certification vary greatly from course to course, provided that each course at least meets local and national requirements. In the United States, EMR's receive at least 40–80 hours of classroom training, EMTs receive at least 120–180 hours of classroom training. AEMTs generally have 200–500 hours of training, and Paramedics are trained for 1,000–1,800 hours or more. In addition, a minimum number of continuing education (CE) hours are required to maintain certification. For example, to maintain NREMT certification, EMTs must obtain at least 48 hours of additional education and either complete a 24-hour refresher course or complete an additional 24 hours of CEs that would cover, on an hour by hour basis, the same topics as the refresher course would.[23][24] Recertification for other levels follows a similar pattern.

text: EMT training programs vary greatly in calendar length (number of days or months). For example, fast track programs are available for EMTs that are completed in two weeks by holding class for 8 to 12 hours a day for at least two weeks. Other training programs are months long, or up to 2 years for Paramedics in an associate degree program. In addition to each level's didactic education, clinical rotations may also be required (especially for levels above EMT). Similar in a sense to medical school clinical rotations, EMT students are required to spend a required amount of time in an ambulance and on a variety of hospital services (e.g. obstetrics, emergency medicine, surgery, psychiatry) in order to complete a course and become eligible for the certification exam. The number of clinical hours for both time in an ambulance and time in the hour vary depending on local requirements, the level the student is obtaining, and the amount of time it takes the student to show competency.[5][25][26] EMT training programs take place at numerous locations, such as universities, community colleges, technical schools, hospitals or EMS academies. Every state in the United States has an EMS lead agency or state office of emergency medical services that regulates and accredits EMT training programs. Most of these offices have web sites to provide information to the public and individuals who are interested in becoming an EMT.

text: Medical direction[edit]

text: In the United States, an EMT's actions in the field are governed by state regulations, local regulations, and by the policies of their EMS organization. The development of these policies are guided by a physician medical director, often with the advice of a medical advisory committee.[27]

text: In California, for example, each county's Local Emergency Medical Service Agency (LEMSA) issues a list of standard operating procedures or protocols, under the supervision of the California Emergency Medical Services Authority. These procedures often vary from county to county based on local needs, levels of training and clinical experiences.[28] New York State has similar procedures, whereas a regional medical-advisory council ("REMAC") determines protocols for one or more counties in a geographical section of the state.[29]

text: Treatments and procedures administered by Paramedics fall under one of two categories, off-line medical orders (standing orders) or on-line medical orders. On-line medical orders refers to procedures that must be explicitly approved by a base hospital physician or registered nurse through voice communication (generally by phone or radio) and are generally rare or high risk procedures (e.g. rapid sequence induction or cricothyrotomy).[30] In addition, when multiple levels can perform the same procedure (e.g. AEMT-Critical Care and Paramedics in New York), a procedure can be both an on-line and a standing order depending on the level of the provider.[31] Since no set of protocols can cover every patient situation, many systems work with protocols as guidelines and not "cook book" treatment plans.[32] Finally, systems also have policies in place to handle medical direction when communication failures happen or in disaster situations.[33] The NHTSA curriculum is the foundation Standard of Care for EMS providers in the US.

text: Employment[edit]

text: EMTs and Paramedics are employed in varied settings, mainly the prehospital environment such as in EMS, fire, and police agencies. They can also be found in positions ranging from hospital and health care settings, to [1] industrial and entertainment positions.[34] The prehospital environment is loosely divided into non-emergency (e.g. patient transport) and emergency (9-1-1 calls) services, but many ambulance services and EMS agencies operate both non-emergency and emergency care.

text: In many places across the United States, it is not uncommon for the primary employer of EMRs, EMTs, and Paramedics to be the fire department, with the fire department providing the primary emergency medical system response including "first responder" fire apparatus, as well as ambulances.[35] In other locations, such as Boston, Massachusetts, emergency medical services are provided by a separate, or “third-party”, municipal government emergency agency (e.g. Boston EMS).[36] In still other locations, emergency medical services are provided by volunteer agencies. College and university campuses may provide emergency medical responses on their own campus using students.[37]

text: In some states of the US, many EMS agencies are run by Independent Non-Profit Volunteer First Aid Squads that are their own corporations set up as separate entities from fire departments. In this environment, volunteers are hired to fill certain blocks of time to cover emergency calls. These volunteers have the same state certification as their paid counterparts.[38]


document_title: Ghillie suit

question_text: where did the name ghillie suit come from

text: Ghillie suit

text: History[edit]

text: The ghillie suit was developed by Scottish gamekeepers as a portable hunting blind. Lovat Scouts, a Scottish Highland regiment formed by the British Army during the Second Boer War, is the first known military unit to use ghillie suits.[2] In 1916, Lovat Scouts went on to become the British Army's first sniper unit.[3] The term ghillie references Ghillie Dhu, derived from gille, the Scottish Gaelic for "servant" or a "lad".[4] In English, this term was especially used to refer to those assisting in deer hunting, deer stalking or fly fishing expeditions in the Scottish Highlands.

text: The Australian Army sniper's outfits are nicknamed "yowies", named for their resemblance to the Yowie, a mythical hominid similar to the Yeti and Bigfoot which is said to live in the Australian wilderness.[5]

text: Manufacture[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: High-quality ghillie suits are made by hand; most military snipers generally construct their own unique suits. Manufactured ghillie suits can be assembled from up to six pieces. Proper camouflage requires the use of natural materials present in the environment in which a sniper will operate. Making a ghillie suit from scratch is time-consuming, and a detailed, high-quality suit can take weeks or even months to manufacture and season. Ghillie suits can be constructed in several different ways. Some military services make them of rough burlap flaps or jute twine attached to a poncho. Hunting ghillie suits can be made of nylon and other artificial materials as well as the ones listed before. United States military ghillie suits are often built using either a battle dress uniform (BDU), or a pilot's flight suit or some other one-piece coverall as the base.

text: On the base, rough webbing made of durable, stainable fabric like burlap is attached. A nearly invisible material like fishing line can be used to sew each knot of net to the fabric (often with a drop of glue for strength). The jute is applied to the netting by tying groups of 5 to 10 strands of a color to the netting with simple knots, skipping sections to be filled in with other colors. The webbing is then seasoned by dragging it behind a vehicle, leaving it to soak in mud, or even applying manure to make it smell "earthy." Once on location, the ghillie suit is customized with twigs, leaves, and other elements of the local foliage as much as possible, although these local additions must be changed every few hours, due to wilting of green grasses or branches.

text: Safety considerations[edit]

text: Although highly effective, ghillie suits are impractical for many situations where camouflage is useful. They tend to be very heavy and hot. Even in moderate climates, the temperature inside the ghillie suit can reach over 50 °C (120 °F). The burlap is also flammable, unless treated with fire retardant, so the wearer may be at increased risk from ignition sources such as smoke grenades or white phosphorus.

text: To enhance safety, the US Army Soldier Systems Center has developed an inherently fire resistant, self extinguishing fabric to replace the jute or burlap. This material was field tested in late 2007 at the Sniper School at Fort Benning and has been standard issue since June 2008.[citation needed]

text: Civilians have purchased ghillie suits to commit crimes. Police arrested an Australian man after they found that he had assaulted women while wearing the suit. [6]