document_title: Yosemite National Park

question_text: at 750 000 acres yosemite national park is about the size of what state

question_tokens: at 750 000 acres yosemite national park is about the size of what state

text: Yosemite National Park

text: History[edit]

text: Ahwahneechee and the Mariposa Wars[edit]

text: Yosemite Valley has been inhabited for nearly 3,000 years, though humans may have first visited the area as long as 8,000 to 10,000 years ago.[12] The indigenous natives called themselves the Ahwahnechee, meaning "dwellers in Ahwahnee."[13] They are related to the Northern Paiute and Mono tribes. Many tribes visited the area to trade, including nearby Central Sierra Miwoks, who lived along the drainage area of the Tuolumne and Stanislaus Rivers.[14] A major trading route went over Mono Pass and through Bloody Canyon to Mono Lake, just to the east of the Yosemite area. Vegetation and game in the region were similar to that present today; acorns were a staple to their diet, as well as other seeds and plants, salmon and deer.[15]

text: The California Gold Rush in the mid-19th century dramatically increased travel by European-Americans in the area, causing competition for resources between the regional Paiute and Miwok and the miners and hangers on. In 1851 as part of the Mariposa Wars intended to suppress Native American resistance, United States Army Major Jim Savage led the Mariposa Battalion into the west end of Yosemite Valley. He was pursuing forces of around 200 Ahwahneechee led by Chief Tenaya.[16]

text:
Accounts from this battalion were the first well-documented reports of ethnic Europeans entering Yosemite Valley. Attached to Savage's unit was Dr. Lafayette Bunnell, the company physician, who later wrote about his awestruck impressions of the valley in The Discovery of the Yosemite. Bunnell is credited with naming Yosemite Valley, based on his interviews with Chief Tenaya. Bunnell wrote that Chief Tenaya was the founder of the Ah-wah-nee colony.[17] The Miwok, a neighboring tribe, and most white settlers considered the Ahwahneechee to be especially violent because of their frequent territorial disputes. The Miwok term for the Pai-Ute band was yohhe'meti, meaning "they are killers".[18][19] Correspondence and articles written by members of the battalion helped to popularize the natural wonders of the Yosemite Valley and the surrounding area.
Chief Tenaya and his Ahwahneechee were eventually captured and their village burned; they were removed to a reservation near Fresno, California. The chief and some others were later allowed to return to Yosemite Valley. In the spring of 1852 they attacked a group of eight gold miners, and then moved east to flee law enforcement.[20] Near Mono Lake, they took refuge with the nearby Mono tribe of Paiute. They stole horses from their hosts and moved away, but the Mono Paiutes tracked down and killed many of the Ahwahneechee, including Chief Tenaya. The Mono Paiute took the survivors as captives back to Mono Lake and absorbed them into the Mono Lake Paiute tribe.

text:
After these wars, a number of Native Americans continued to live within the boundaries of Yosemite. A number of Indians supported the growing tourism industry by working as laborers or maids. Later, Indians became part of the tourism industry itself by selling baskets or performing for tourists.[21]
A reconstructed "Indian Village of Ahwahnee" has been erected behind the Yosemite Museum, located next to the Yosemite Valley Visitor Center.

text: Early tourists[edit]

text: In 1855, entrepreneur James Mason Hutchings, artist Thomas Ayres and two others were the first to tour the area.[16] Hutchings and Ayres were responsible for much of the earliest publicity about Yosemite, writing articles and special magazine issues about the Valley.[22] Ayres' style in art was highly detailed with exaggerated angularity. His works and written accounts were distributed nationally, and an art exhibition of his drawings was held in New York City. Hutchings' publicity efforts between 1855 and 1860 led to an increase in tourism to Yosemite.[23]

text: Wawona was an Indian encampment in what is now the southwestern part of the park. Settler Galen Clark discovered the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoia in Wawona in 1857. He had simple lodgings built, and roads to the area. In 1879, the Wawona Hotel was built to serve tourists visiting Mariposa Grove. As tourism increased, so did the number of trails and hotels developed by people intending to build on the trade.

text: The Wawona Tree, also known as the Tunnel Tree, was a famous giant sequoia that stood in the Mariposa Grove. It was 227 feet (69 m) tall, and was 90 ft (27 m) in circumference. When a carriage-wide tunnel was cut through the tree in 1881, it became even more popular as a tourist photo attraction. Everything from horse-drawn carriages in the late 19th century, to automobiles in the first part of the 20th century, traveled the road which passed through that tree. The Wawona Tree fell in 1969 under a heavy load of snow. It was estimated to have been 2,300 years old.

text: Yosemite's first concession was established in 1884 when John Degnan and his wife established a bakery and store.[24] In 1916, the National Park Service granted a 20-year concession to the Desmond Park Service Company. It bought out or built hotels, stores, camps, a dairy, a garage, and other park services.[25] Desmond changed its name to the Yosemite National Park Company in December 1917 and was reorganized in 1920.[26]

text: The Curry Company had been started in 1899 by David and Jennie Curry to provide concessions in the park. They also founded Camp Curry, formerly known as Curry Village, now known as Half Dome Village.[27] The Currys lobbied reluctant park supervisors to allow expansion of concession operations and development in the area.

text: Administrators in the National Park Service felt that limiting the number of concessionaires in each national park would be more financially sound. The Curry Company and its rival, the Yosemite National Park Company, were forced to merge in 1925 to form the Yosemite Park & Curry Company (YP&CC).[28] The company built the Ahwahnee Hotel in 1927.

text: Yosemite Grant[edit]

text: Concerned by the effects of commercial interests, prominent citizens including Galen Clark and Senator John Conness advocated for protection of the area. A park bill was prepared with the assistance of the General Land Office in the Interior Department.[29] The bill passed both houses of the 38th United States Congress, and was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on June 30, 1864, creating the Yosemite Grant.[30][31] This is the first instance of park land being set aside specifically for preservation and public use by action of the U.S. federal government, and set a precedent for the 1872 creation of Yellowstone as the first national park.[10] Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove were ceded to California as a state park, and a board of commissioners was proclaimed two years later.

text: Galen Clark was appointed by the commission as the Grant's first guardian, but neither Clark nor the commissioners had the authority to evict homesteaders (which included Hutchings).[30] The issue was not settled until 1872 when the homesteader land holdings were invalidated by the U.S. Supreme Court.[32] Clark and the reigning commissioners were ousted in 1880, this dispute also reaching the Supreme Court in 1880.[33] The two Supreme Court decisions affecting management of the Yosemite Grant are considered important precedents in land management law.[34] Hutchings became the new park guardian.[35]

text: Access to the park by tourists improved in the early years of the park, and conditions in the Valley were made more hospitable. Tourism significantly increased after the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869, but the long horseback ride to reach the area was a deterrent.[30] Three stagecoach roads were built in the mid-1870s to provide better access for the growing number of visitors to Yosemite Valley.

text: John Muir was a Scottish-born American naturalist and explorer. It was because of Muir that many National Parks were left untouched, such as Yosemite Valley National Park. One of the most significant camping trips Muir took was in 1903 with then president Theodore Roosevelt. This trip persuaded Roosevelt to return "Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove to federal protection as part of Yosemite National Park".[36]

text: John Muir wrote articles popularizing the area and increasing scientific interest in it. Muir was one of the first to theorize that the major landforms in Yosemite Valley were created by large alpine glaciers, bucking established scientists such as Josiah Whitney, who regarded Muir as an amateur.[35] Muir wrote scientific papers on the area's biology. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted emphasized the importance of conservation of Yosemite Valley.

text: Increased protection efforts[edit]

text: Overgrazing of meadows (especially by sheep), logging of giant sequoia, and other damage caused Muir to become an advocate for further protection. Muir convinced prominent guests of the importance of putting the area under federal protection; one such guest was Robert Underwood Johnson, editor of Century Magazine. Muir and Johnson lobbied Congress for the Act that created Yosemite National Park on October 1, 1890.[37] The State of California, however, retained control of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove. Muir also helped persuade local officials to virtually eliminate grazing from the Yosemite high country.

text: The newly created national park came under the jurisdiction of the United States Army's Troop I of the 4th Cavalry on May 19, 1891, which set up camp in Wawona with Captain Abram Epperson Wood as acting superintendent.[37] By the late 1890s, sheep grazing was no longer a problem, and the Army made many other improvements. The cavalry could not intervene to ease the worsening condition of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove. The cavalry left another legacy in the park, the ranger hat. From 1899 to 1913, cavalry regiments of the Western Department, including the all Black 9th Cavalry (known as the "Buffalo Soldiers") and the 1st Cavalry, stationed two troops at Yosemite and brought with them the trooper's campaign hat with its distinctive Montana Peak we recognize today as the "ranger hat." This peak had been formed into the trooper's stetson by veterans of the 1898 Spanish–American War to better shed tropical rain.

text: Muir and his Sierra Club continued to lobby the government and influential people for the creation of a unified Yosemite National Park. In May 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt camped with Muir near Glacier Point for three days. On that trip, Muir convinced Roosevelt to take control of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove away from California and return it to the federal government. In 1906, Roosevelt signed a bill that did precisely that.

text: National Park Service[edit]

text: The National Park Service was formed in 1916, and Yosemite was transferred to that agency's jurisdiction. Tuolumne Meadows Lodge, Tioga Pass Road, and campgrounds at Tenaya and Merced lakes were also completed in 1916.[38] Automobiles started to enter the park in ever-increasing numbers following the construction of all-weather highways to the park. The Yosemite Museum was founded in 1926 through the efforts of Ansel Franklin Hall.[39]In the 1920s, the museum featured Native Americans practicing traditional crafts, and many of the Sierra Miwok continued to live in Yosemite Valley until they were evicted from Yosemite in the 1960s.[40]

text: In 1903, a dam in the northern portion of the park was proposed. Located in the Hetch Hetchy Valley, its purpose was to provide water and hydroelectric power to San Francisco. Muir and the Sierra Club opposed the project, while others, including Gifford Pinchot, supported it.[41] In 1913, the U.S. Congress authorized the O'Shaughnessy Dam through passage of the Raker Act.[42]

text: In the late 1920s a bid for Yosemite for the 1932 Winter Olympics was put forward. Ultimately, the 1932 Winter Olympics were awarded to Lake Placid, New York.[43] In 1937, conservationist Rosalie Edge, head of the Emergency Conservation Committee (ECC), successfully lobbied Congress to purchase about 8,000 acres of old-growth sugar pines on the perimeter of Yosemite National Park that were to be logged.[44]

text: More recently, preservationists persuaded Congress to designate 677,600 acres (274,200 ha), or about 89% of the park, as the Yosemite Wilderness—a highly protected wilderness area.[45] The Park Service has reduced artificial inducements to visit the park, such as the Firefall, in which red-hot embers were pushed off a cliff near Glacier Point at night. Traffic congestion in Yosemite Valley during the summer months has become a concern. Two electric buses commenced service in September 1995. The buses are quiet and do not emit pollutants. Eventually, all the buses in Yosemite will be electric.[46]

text: In 2016, The Trust for Public Land purchased Ackerson Meadow, a 400-acre tract on the western edge of Yosemite National Park, for $2.3 million in order to preserve habitat and protect the area from development.  Ackerson Meadow was originally included in the proposed 1890 park boundary but never acquired by the federal government.  On September 7, 2016, the National Park Service accepted the donation of the land, making the meadow the largest addition to Yosemite since 1949.[47]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Yosemite National Park is located in the central Sierra Nevada of California. Three wilderness areas are adjacent to Yosemite: the Ansel Adams Wilderness to the southeast, the Hoover Wilderness to the northeast, and the Emigrant Wilderness to the north.

text: The 1,189 sq mi (3,080 km2) park is roughly the size of the U.S. state of Rhode Island and contains thousands of lakes and ponds, 1,600 miles (2,600 km) of streams, 800 miles (1,300 km) of hiking trails, and 350 miles (560 km) of roads.[48] Two federally designated Wild and Scenic Rivers, the Merced and the Tuolumne, begin within Yosemite's borders and flow westward through the Sierra foothills, into the Central Valley of California. On average, about 4 million people visit the park each year,[3] with most visitor use concentrated in the seven-square-mile (18 km2) area of Yosemite Valley.[48]

text: Rocks and erosion[edit]

text: Almost all of the landforms in the Yosemite area are cut from the granitic rock of the Sierra Nevada Batholith (a batholith is a large mass of intrusive igneous rock that formed deep below the surface).[49] About 5% of the park's landforms (mostly in its eastern margin near Mount Dana) are metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks.[50] These rocks are called roof pendants because they were once the roof of the underlying granitic rock.[51]

text: Erosion acting upon different types of uplift-created joint and fracture systems is responsible for creating the valleys, canyons, domes, and other features we see today. These joints and fracture systems do not move, and are therefore not faults.[52] Spacing between joints is controlled by the amount of silica in the granite and granodiorite rocks; more silica tends to create a more resistant rock, resulting in larger spaces between joints and fractures.[53]

text: Pillars and columns, such as Washington Column and Lost Arrow, are created by cross joints. Erosion acting on master joints is responsible for creating valleys and later canyons.[53] The single most erosive force over the last few million years has been large alpine glaciers, which have turned the previously V-shaped river-cut valleys into U-shaped glacial-cut canyons (such as Yosemite Valley and Hetch Hetchy Valley). Exfoliation (caused by the tendency of crystals in plutonic rocks to expand at the surface) acting on granitic rock with widely spaced joints is responsible for creating domes such as Half Dome and North Dome and inset arches like Royal Arches.[54]

text: Popular features[edit]

text: Yosemite Valley represents only one percent of the park area, but this is where most visitors arrive and stay. The Tunnel View is the first view of the Valley for many visitors and is extensively photographed. El Capitan, a prominent granite cliff that looms over Yosemite Valley, is one of the most popular rock climbing destinations in the world because of its diverse range of climbing routes in addition to its year-round accessibility. Granite domes such as Sentinel Dome and Half Dome rise 3,000 and 4,800 feet (910 and 1,460 m), respectively, above the valley floor.

text: The high country of Yosemite contains beautiful areas such as Tuolumne Meadows, Dana Meadows, the Clark Range, the Cathedral Range, and the Kuna Crest. The Sierra crest and the Pacific Crest Trail run through Yosemite, with peaks of red metamorphic rock, such as Mount Dana and Mount Gibbs, and granite peaks, such as Mount Conness. Mount Lyell is the highest point in the park, standing at 13,120 feet (4,000 m).  The Lyell Glacier is the largest glacier in Yosemite National Park and is one of the few remaining in the Sierra Nevada today.

text: The park has three groves of ancient giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) trees; the Mariposa Grove (200 trees), the Tuolumne Grove (25 trees), and the Merced Grove (20 trees).[55] This species grows larger in volume than any other and is one of the tallest and longest-lived.[56]

text: Water and ice[edit]

text: The Tuolumne and Merced River systems originate along the crest of the Sierra Nevada in the park and have carved river canyons 3,000 to 4,000 feet (910 to 1,220 m) deep. The Tuolumne River drains the entire northern portion of the park, an area of approximately 680 square miles (1,800 km2). The Merced River begins in the park's southern peaks, primarily the Cathedral and Clark Ranges, and drains an area of approximately 511 square miles (1,320 km2).[57]

text: Hydrologic processes, including glaciation, flooding, and fluvial geomorphic response, have been fundamental in creating landforms in the park.[57] The park also contains approximately 3,200 lakes (greater than 100 m2), two reservoirs, and 1,700 miles (2,700 km) of streams, all of which help form these two large watersheds.[58] Wetlands in Yosemite occur in valley bottoms throughout the park, and are often hydrologically linked to nearby lakes and rivers through seasonal flooding and groundwater movement. Meadow habitats, distributed at elevations from 3,000 to 11,000 feet (910 to 3,350 m) in the park, are generally wetlands, as are the riparian habitats found on the banks of Yosemite's numerous streams and rivers.[59]

text: Yosemite is famous for its high concentration of waterfalls in a small area. Numerous sheer drops, glacial steps and hanging valleys in the park provide many places for waterfalls to exist, especially during April, May, and June (the snowmelt season). Located in Yosemite Valley, the Yosemite Falls is the highest in North America at 2,425 feet (739 m). Also in Yosemite Valley is the much lower volume Ribbon Falls, which has the highest single vertical drop, 1,612 feet (491 m).[56] Perhaps the most prominent of the Yosemite Valley waterfalls is Bridalveil Fall, which is the waterfall seen from the Tunnel View viewpoint at the east end of the Wawona Tunnel. Wapama Falls in Hetch Hetchy Valley is another notable waterfall. Hundreds of ephemeral waterfalls also exist in the park.

text: All glaciers in the park are relatively small glaciers that occupy areas that are in almost permanent shade, such as north- and northeast-facing cirques. Lyell Glacier is the largest glacier in Yosemite (the Palisades Glaciers are the largest in the Sierra Nevada) and covers 160 acres (65 ha).[60] None of the Yosemite glaciers are a remnant of the much, much larger Ice Age alpine glaciers responsible for sculpting the Yosemite landscape. Instead, they were formed during one of the neoglacial episodes that have occurred since the thawing of the Ice Age (such as the Little Ice Age).[55] Climate change has reduced the number and size of glaciers around the world. Many Yosemite glaciers, including Merced Glacier, which was discovered by John Muir in 1871 and bolstered his glacial origins theory of the Yosemite area, have disappeared and most of the others have lost up to 75% of their surface area.[60]

text: Climate[edit]

text: Yosemite has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa), meaning most precipitation falls during the mild winter, and the other seasons are nearly dry (less than 3% of precipitation falls during the long, hot summers).[61] Because of orographic lift, precipitation increases with elevation up to 8,000 feet (2,400 m) where it slowly decreases to the crest. Precipitation amounts vary from 36 inches (910 mm) at 4,000 feet (1,200 m) elevation to 50 inches (1,300 mm) at 8,600 feet (2,600 m). Snow does not typically persist on the ground until November in the high country. It accumulates all winter and into March or early April.[62]

text: Mean daily temperatures range from 25 °F (−4 °C) to 53 °F (12 °C) at Tuolumne Meadows at 8,600 feet (2,600 m). At the Wawona Entrance (elevation 5,130 feet or 1,560 metres), mean daily temperature ranges from 36 to 67 °F (2 to 19 °C). At the lower elevations below 5,000 feet (1,500 m), temperatures are hotter; the mean daily high temperature at Yosemite Valley (elevation 3,966 feet or 1,209 metres) varies from 46 to 90 °F (8 to 32 °C). At elevations above 8,000 feet (2,400 m), the hot, dry summer temperatures are moderated by frequent summer thunderstorms, along with snow that can persist into July. The combination of dry vegetation, low relative humidity, and thunderstorms results in frequent lightning-caused fires as well.[62]

text: At the park headquarters, with an elevation of 3,966 feet (1,209 m), January averages 38.2 °F (3.4 °C), while July averages 73.0 °F (22.8 °C), though in summer the nights are much cooler than the hot days.[63] There are an average of 39.5 days with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher and an average of 97.9 nights with freezing temperatures.[63] Freezing temperatures have been recorded in every month of the year. The record high temperature was 115 °F (46 °C) on July 20, 1915, while the record low temperature was −6 °F (−21 °C) on January 2, 1924 and on January 21, 1937.[63][64] Average annual precipitation is nearly 37 inches (940 mm), falling on 65 days. The wettest year was 1983 with 68.94 inches (1,751 mm) and the driest year was 1976 with 14.84 inches (377 mm).[64] The most precipitation in one month was 29.61 inches (752 mm) in December 1955 and the most in one day was 6.92 inches (176 mm) on December 23, 1955.[64] Average annual snowfall is 65.6 inches (1.67 m). The snowiest year was 1967 with 154.9 inches (3.93 m). The most snow in one month was 140.8 inches (3.58 m) in January 1993.[64]

text:
showClimate data for Yosemite Park Headquarters, elev. 3,966 feet (1,209 m)

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high °F (°C)

72 (22)

82 (28)

90 (32)

96 (36)

99 (37)

103 (39)

115 (46)

110 (43)

108 (42)

98 (37)

86 (30)

73 (23)

115 (46)

Average high °F (°C)

47.2 (8.4)

53.1 (11.7)

58.7 (14.8)

65.9 (18.8)

72.8 (22.7)

81.4 (27.4)

89.9 (32.2)

89.5 (31.9)

83.5 (28.6)

73.5 (23.1)

57.7 (14.3)

47.5 (8.6)

68.3 (20.2)

Average low °F (°C)

25.6 (−3.6)

28.1 (−2.2)

31.0 (−0.6)

35.9 (2.2)

41.6 (5.3)

47.3 (8.5)

53.2 (11.8)

52.0 (11.1)

46.7 (8.2)

38.3 (3.5)

30.2 (−1)

26.2 (−3.2)

38.0 (3.3)

Record low °F (°C)

−6 (−21)

1 (−17)

9 (−13)

12 (−11)

15 (−9)

14 (−10)

32 (0)

32 (0)

24 (−4)

19 (−7)

10 (−12)

−1 (−18)

−6 (−21)

Average precipitation inches (mm)

6.51 (165.4)

6.17 (156.7)

5.39 (136.9)

3.04 (77.2)

1.47 (37.3)

0.70 (17.8)

0.31 (7.9)

0.20 (5.1)

0.66 (16.8)

1.91 (48.5)

3.93 (99.8)

5.97 (151.6)

36.26 (921)

Average snowfall inches (cm)

16.2 (41.1)

14.6 (37.1)

12.9 (32.8)

5.1 (13)

0.2 (0.5)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0.2 (0.5)

3.6 (9.1)

12.5 (31.8)

65.6 (166.6)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)

9

9

10

7

5

3

1

1

2

4

6

8

65

Source: WRCC (1905-2012)[64]

text: Geology[edit]

text: Tectonic and volcanic activity[edit]

text: The area of the park was astride a passive continental margin during the Precambrian and early Paleozoic.[65] Sediment was derived from continental sources and was deposited in shallow water. These rocks have since been metamorphosed.

text: Heat generated from the Farallon Plate subducting below the North American Plate led to the creation of an island arc of volcanoes on the west coast of proto-North America between the late Devonian and Permian periods.[65] Later volcanism in the Jurassic intruded and covered these rocks in what may have been magmatic activity associated with the early stages of the creation of the Sierra Nevada Batholith. 95% of these rocks were eventually removed by uplifted-accelerated erosion.

text: The first phase of regional plutonism started 210 million years ago in the late Triassic and continued throughout the Jurassic to about 150 million years before present (BP).[49] Around the same time, the Nevadan orogeny built the Nevadan mountain range (also called the Ancestral Sierra Nevada) to a height of 15,000 feet (4,600 m). This was directly part of the creation of the Sierra Nevada Batholith, and the resulting rocks were mostly granitic in composition and emplaced about 6 miles (9.7 km) below the surface.[66] The second major pluton emplacement phase lasted from about 120 million to 80 million years ago during the Cretaceous.[49] This was part of the Sevier orogeny.

text: Starting 20 million years ago (in the Cenozoic) and lasting until 5 million years ago, a now-extinct extension of Cascade Range volcanoes erupted, bringing large amounts of igneous material in the area. These igneous deposits blanketed the region north of the Yosemite region. Volcanic activity persisted past 5 million years BP east of the current park borders in the Mono Lake and Long Valley areas.

text: Uplift and erosion[edit]

text: Starting 10 million years ago, vertical movement along the Sierra fault started to uplift the Sierra Nevada. Subsequent tilting of the Sierra block and the resulting accelerated uplift of the Sierra Nevada increased the gradient of western-flowing streams.[67] The streams consequently ran faster and thus cut their valleys more quickly. Additional uplift occurred when major faults developed to the east, especially the creation of Owens Valley from Basin and Range-associated extensional forces. Uplift of the Sierra accelerated again about two million years ago during the Pleistocene.

text: The uplifting and increased erosion exposed granitic rocks in the area to surface pressures, resulting in exfoliation (responsible for the rounded shape of the many domes in the park) and mass wasting following the numerous fracture joint planes (cracks; especially vertical ones) in the now solidified plutons.[54] Pleistocene glaciers further accelerated this process and the larger ones transported the resulting talus and till from valley floors.

text: Numerous vertical joint planes controlled where and how fast erosion took place. Most of these long, linear and very deep cracks trend northeast or northwest and form parallel, often regularly spaced sets. They were created by uplift-associated pressure release and by the unloading of overlying rock via erosion.

text: Sculpting by glaciers[edit]

text: A series of glaciations further modified the region starting about 2 to 3 million years ago and ending sometime around 10,000 BP. At least four major glaciations have occurred in the Sierra Nevada, locally called the Sherwin (also called the pre-Tahoe), Tahoe, Tenaya, and Tioga.[67] The Sherwin glaciers were the largest, filling Yosemite and other valleys, while later stages produced much smaller glaciers. A Sherwin-age glacier was almost surely responsible for the major excavation and shaping of Yosemite Valley and other canyons in the area.

text: Glacial systems reached depths of up to 4,000 feet (1,200 m) and left their marks in the Yosemite area. The longest glacier in the Yosemite area ran down the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne River for 60 miles (97 km), passing well beyond Hetch Hetchy Valley. Merced Glacier flowed out of Yosemite Valley and into the Merced River Gorge. Lee Vining Glacier carved Lee Vining Canyon and emptied into Lake Russel (the much-enlarged ice age version of Mono Lake). Only the highest peaks, such as Mount Dana and Mount Conness, were not covered by glaciers. Retreating glaciers often left recessional moraines that impounded lakes such as the 5.5 miles (9 km) long Lake Yosemite (a shallow lake that periodically covered much of the floor of Yosemite Valley).[68]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Habitats[edit]

text: With its scrubby sun-baked chaparral, stately groves of pine, fir, and sequoia, and expanses of alpine woodlands and meadows, Yosemite National Park preserves a Sierra Nevada landscape as it prevailed before Euro-American settlement.[69] In contrast to surrounding lands, which have been significantly altered by logging, the park still contains some 225,510 acres (91,260 ha) of old-growth forest.[70] Taken together, the park's varied habitats support over 250 species of vertebrates, which include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.[71]

text: Along much of Yosemite's western boundary, habitats are dominated by mixed coniferous forests of ponderosa pine, sugar pine, incense cedar, white fir, Douglas fir, and a few stands of giant sequoia, interspersed by areas of black oak and canyon live oak. A relatively high diversity of wildlife species is supported by these habitats, because of relatively mild, lower-elevation climate and the mixture of habitat types and plant species. Wildlife species typically found in these habitats include black bear, coyote, raccoon, mountain kingsnake, Gilbert's skink, white-headed woodpecker, bobcat, river otter, gray fox, red fox, brown creeper, two species of skunk, cougar, spotted owl, and a wide variety of bat species.[71]

text: Going higher in elevation, the coniferous forests become purer stands of red fir, western white pine, Jeffrey pine, lodgepole pine, and the occasional foxtail pine. Fewer wildlife species tend to be found in these habitats, because of their higher elevation and lower complexity. Species likely to be found include golden-mantled ground squirrel, chickaree, fisher, Steller's jay, hermit thrush, and northern goshawk. Reptiles are not common, but include rubber boa, western fence lizard, and northern alligator lizard.[71]

text: As the landscape rises, trees become smaller and more sparse, with stands broken by areas of exposed granite. These include lodgepole pine, whitebark pine, and mountain hemlock that, at highest elevations, give way to vast expanses of granite as treeline is reached. The climate in these habitats is harsh and the growing season is short, but species such as pika, yellow-bellied marmot, white-tailed jackrabbit, Clark's nutcracker, and black rosy finch are adapted to these conditions. Also, the treeless alpine habitats are the areas favored by Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. This species, however, is now found in the Yosemite area only around Tioga Pass, where a small, reintroduced population exists.[71]

text: At a variety of elevations, meadows provide important, productive habitat for wildlife. Animals come to feed on the green grasses and use the flowing and standing water found in many meadows. Predators, in turn, are attracted to these areas. The interface between meadow and forest is also favored by many animal species because of the proximity of open areas for foraging and cover for protection. Species that are highly dependent upon meadow habitat include great grey owl, willow flycatcher, Yosemite toad, and mountain beaver.[71]

text: Management issues[edit]

text: Despite the richness of high-quality habitats in Yosemite, the brown bear, California condor, and least Bell's vireo have become extinct in the park within historical time,[72] and another 37 species currently have special status under either California or federal endangered species legislation. The most serious current threats to Yosemite's wildlife and the ecosystems they occupy include loss of a natural fire regime, exotic species, air pollution, habitat fragmentation, and climate change. On a more local basis, factors such as road kills and the availability of human food have affected some wildlife species.

text: The black bears of Yosemite were once famous for breaking into parked cars to steal food. They were also an encouraged tourist sight for many years at the park's garbage dumps, where bears congregated to eat park visitors' garbage and tourists gathered to photograph the bears. Increasing encounters between bears and humans and increasing damage to property led to an aggressive campaign to discourage bears from relying on human food or interacting with people and their property. The open-air dumps were closed; all trash receptacles were replaced with bear-proof receptacles; all campgrounds were equipped with bear-proof food lockers so that people would not leave food in their vehicles, which were easy targets for the powerful and resourceful bears. Because bears who show aggression towards people usually are eventually destroyed, park personnel have continued to come up with innovative ways to have bears associate humans and their property with unpleasant experiences, such as being hit with rubber bullets. Today, about 30 bears a year are captured and ear-tagged and their DNA is sampled so that, when bear damage occurs, rangers can ascertain which bear is causing the problem.[73]

text: Increasing ozone pollution is causing tissue damage to the massive giant sequoia trees in the park, making them more vulnerable to insect infestation and disease. Since the cones of these trees require fire-touched soil to germinate, historic fire suppression has reduced these trees' ability to reproduce. The current policy of setting prescribed fires is expected to help the germination issue.

text: Yosemite National Park has documented more than 130 non-native plant species within park boundaries. These non-native plants were introduced into Yosemite following the migration of early Euro-American settlers in the late 1850s. Natural and human-caused disturbances, such as wildland fires and construction activities, have contributed to a rapid increase in the spread of non-native plants. A number of these species aggressively invade and displace the native plant communities, resulting in impacts on the park's resources. Non-native plants can bring about significant changes in park ecosystems by altering the native plant communities and the processes that support them. Some non-native species may cause an increase in the fire frequency of an area or increase the available nitrogen in the soil that may allow more non-native plants to become established. Many non-native species, such as yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis), are able to produce a long tap root that allows them to out-compete the native plants for available water.[74]

text: Bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare), common mullein (Verbascum thapsus), and Klamath weed (Hypericum perforatum) have been identified as noxious pests in Yosemite since the 1940s. Additional species that have been recognized more recently as aggressive and requiring control are yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis), sweet clover (Melilot spp.), Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus), cut-leaved blackberry (Rubus laciniatus) and large periwinkle (Vinca major).[74]

text: Wildfires[edit]

text: Forest fires seasonally clear the park of dead vegetation, making way for new growth.[75] These fires damage the income generated by tourism. The Rim Fire in 2013 destroyed nearly $2 billion in assets and revenue, though natural woodland assets are renewable, and closed off much of the park to tourists.[76] This fire was the third largest on record, and burned nearly 500 acres of wild habitat.[76]

text: During late July and early August, 2018, sections of the park, including the Valley, were temporarily closed due to the Ferguson Fire at its western boundary.[77] The closing was the largest in almost thirty years at the park.[78]

text: Activities[edit]

text: Yosemite Valley is open year-round and numerous activities are available through the National Park Service, Yosemite Conservancy, and Aramark at Yosemite, including nature walks, photography and art classes, stargazing programs, tours, bike rentals, rafting, mule and horseback rides, and rock climbing classes. Many people enjoy short walks and longer hikes to waterfalls in Yosemite Valley, or walks among giant sequoias in the Mariposa, Tuolumne, or Merced Groves. Others like to drive or take a tour bus to Glacier Point (summer–fall) to see views of Yosemite Valley and the high country, or drive along the scenic Tioga Road to Tuolumne Meadows (May–October) and go for a walk or hike.

text: Most park visitors stay just for the day, and visit only those locations within Yosemite Valley that are easily accessible by automobile. There is a US$25-30 per automobile user fee to enter the park, depending on the season.[79] Traffic congestion in the valley is a serious problem during peak season, in summer. A free shuttle bus system operates year-round in the valley, and park rangers encourage people to use this system since parking within the valley during the summer is often nearly impossible to find.[80]

text: In addition to exploring the natural features of the park, visitors can also learn about the natural and cultural history of Yosemite Valley at a number of facilities in the valley: the Yosemite Valley Visitor Center, the adjoining Yosemite Museum, and the Nature Center at Happy Isles. There are also two National Historic Landmarks: the Sierra Club's LeConte Memorial Lodge (Yosemite's first public visitor center), and the Ahwahnee Hotel. Camp 4 was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.[81]

text: Hiking[edit]

text: Over 800 miles (1,300 km) of trails are available to hikers[7]—anything from the easy stroll, to the grueling hikes up several park mountains, to multiple-day backpack trips.

text: The park can be divided into 5 sections for the day-user—Yosemite Valley, Wawona/Mariposa Grove/Glacier Point, Tuolumne Meadows, Hetch Hetchy, and Crane Flat/White Wolf.[82] Numerous books describe park trails, and free information is available from the Park Service in Yosemite. Park rangers encourage visitors to experience portions of the park in addition to Yosemite Valley.

text: Between late spring and early fall, much of the park can be accessed for multiple-day backpacking trips. All overnight trips into the back country require a wilderness permit[83] and most require approved bear-resistant food storage.[84]

text: Driving destinations[edit]

text: While some locations in Yosemite require hiking, other locations can be reached via automobile transportation. Driving locations also allow guests to observe the night sky in locations other than their campsite or lodge. All of the roads in Yosemite are scenic, but the most famous is the Tioga Road, typically open from late May or early June through November.[85]

text: As an alternative to driving, bicycles are allowed on the roads. However, bicycles are allowed off-road on only 12 miles (19 km) of paved trails in Yosemite Valley itself; mountain biking is not allowed.[86]

text: Climbing[edit]

text: Rock climbing is an important part of Yosemite.[87] Camp 4, a walk-in campground in Yosemite Valley, was instrumental in the development of rock climbing as a sport, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[88] Climbers can generally be spotted in the snow-free months on anything from ten-foot-high (3 m) boulders to the 3,300-foot (1.0 km) face of El Capitan. Classes on rock climbing are offered by numerous groups.

text: Winter activities[edit]

text: Yosemite Valley is open all year, although some roads within the park close in winter. Downhill skiing is available at the Badger Pass Ski Area—the oldest downhill skiing area in California, offering downhill skiing from mid-December through early April.[89] Much of the park is open to cross-country skiing and snowshoeing, with several backcountry ski huts open for use.[90][91] Wilderness permits are required for backcountry overnight ski trips.[83]

text: The Bracebridge dinner is an annual holiday event, held since 1927 at the Ahwahnee Hotel, inspired by Washington Irving's descriptions of Squire Bracebridge and English Christmas traditions of the 18th century in his Sketch Book. Between 1929 and 1973, the show was organized by Ansel Adams.[92]

text: Other[edit]

text: Bicycle rentals are available in Yosemite Valley spring through fall. Over 12 miles (19 km) of paved bike paths are available in Yosemite Valley. In addition, bicyclists can ride on regular roads. Helmets are required by law for children under 18 years of age. Off-trail riding and mountain biking are not permitted in Yosemite National Park.[93]

text: Water activities are plentiful during warmer months. Rafting can be done through the Yosemite Valley on the Merced River. There are also swimming pools available at Yosemite Lodge and Curry Village.

text: In 2010, Yosemite National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters program.[94]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The opening scenes of Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989) were filmed in Yosemite National Park. Films such as The Last of the Mohicans (1920) and Maverick (1994) have also been shot here.[95]


document_title: Hounded (The Walking Dead)

question_text: who was calling rick on the walking dead

root

text: Hounded (The Walking Dead)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Rick (Andrew Lincoln), still trying to cope with the death of his wife, Lori (Sarah Wayne Callies) after childbirth, is alone in the prison boiler room where she had died when the phone rings. He answers it to hear the voice of Amy (Emma Bell) telling him she is in a safe place and will call back later. Later, a second call from Jim (Andrew Rothenberg) asks him to explain his justification for killing other people and berates him for refusing to talk about Lori's death before dropping the call. A third call from Jacqui (Jeryl Prescott Sales) draws Rick to try to explain his refusal to talk about Lori's death. Finally, the last call is from Lori; realization dawns on him that these calls have come from those that have died, and all imagined as part of his grief. He leaves the boiler room, cleans himself up, and goes to join the rest of the group, seeing his daughter for the first time since he saw Maggie carry her into the yard after she was born.

tag: p

text: In Woodbury, Andrea (Laurie Holden) volunteers for sentry duty and is trained to use a bow and arrow by one of the town guards, Haley (Alexa Nikolas). When a walker approaches and their arrows fail to fell it, Andrea jumps over the wall and kills the walker with a knife. She is chastised by Haley for breaking the rules and called to The Governor (David Morrissey). Andrea says that seeing the fight between Merle (Michael Rooker) and Martinez (Jose Pablo Cantillo) the night before had envigorated her. Andrea spends the night with The Governor and they have sex.

text: Meanwhile, Merle and three others from Woodbury have been tasked by The Governor to locate Michonne (Danai Gurira), who had left the town. She ambushes them, killing two of Merle's men. Merle shoots Michonne in the leg, she then runs off. Merle is left with the inexperienced Gargulio (Dave Davis) to track her. Merle continues the pursuit, and eventually the two of them engage in a fight. The fight draws walkers which pin them down. Michonne escapes by slicing open one, spilling its entrails on her and allowing her to flee unnoticed, while Gargulio helps Merle to break free. Recognizing Michonne is heading for the dangerous Red Zone, Merle calls off the hunt and returns to Woodbury, with the intent to say that he killed Michonne. Gargulio refuses to lie to The Governor, forcing Merle to kill him. Merle and Michonne both separately converge on a shopping mall where Glenn (Steven Yeun) and Maggie (Lauren Cohan) are gathering supplies for the newborn. Michonne stays hidden as Merle approaches the two having recognized Glenn as part of Rick's group that had left him to die in Atlanta. He forces the two to drive him back to Woodbury. Michonne, overhearing the conversation, gathers the supplies Glenn and Maggie obtained and makes her way to the prison. In Woodbury, as Glenn and Maggie are locked into separate rooms for later interrogation, Merle explains how he had killed Michonne, but The Governor expresses doubt as Merle did not have her katana.

text: At the prison, Rick spots Michonne waiting patiently outside with supplies for the newborn, the walker guts she was covered in masking her presence from the walkers that surround the prison. Inside, Daryl (Norman Reedus) and Oscar (Vincent Ward) are clearing out walkers when they spot one with Carol's (Melissa McBride) knife in it, who they thought had died in the previous walker infestation. Seeing a secured door nearby, they open it and discover Carol inside, exhausted but alive.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Zack Handlen, writing for The A.V. Club, rated the episode an A− on an A to F scale. Of the multiple storylines weaved in this episode, he felt that Rick's was the strongest and Andrea's the weakest, but also noted that Andrea has become "more interesting" with her confession about enjoying the fights from the previous episode.[1]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Upon its initial broadcast on November 18, 2012, "Hounded" was watched by an estimated 9.21 million viewers,[2] decreasing in roughly a million viewers from the previous episode.[3]


document_title: Mirat-ul-Akhbar

question_text: newspaper published by raja ram mohan roy in persian

text: Mirat-ul-Akhbar

text: Mirat-ul-Akhbar (meaning Mirror of News in English) was a Persian language journal founded and edited by Raja Rammohan Roy.[1] The newspaper was first published on 12 April 1822.[2] It was published on weekly basis on Fridays.[2] The newspaper folded on 4 April 1823.[2]


document_title: The Revenant (2015 film)

question_text: what year was the film the revenant set

question_tokens: what year was the film the revenant set

text: The Revenant (2015 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1823, Hugh Glass guides Andrew Henry’s trappers through unorganized territory. While he and his half-Pawnee son, Hawk, are hunting, the company's camp is attacked by an Arikara war party. Guided by Glass, the survivors travel on foot to Fort Kiowa, as traveling downriver will make them vulnerable. After docking, the crew stashes the pelts near the shore.

text: Glass is badly mauled by a grizzly bear and left close to death. Trapper John Fitzgerald, fearful of another Arikara attack, argues that the group must mercy-kill Glass and keep moving. Henry agrees, but is unable to pull the trigger; instead, he offers money for someone to stay with Glass. When the only volunteers are Hawk and the young Jim Bridger, Fitzgerald agrees to stay for money, to recoup his losses from the abandoned pelts.

text: After the others leave, Fitzgerald attempts to smother Glass but is discovered by Hawk. Fitzgerald stabs him to death as Glass watches helplessly. The next morning, Fitzgerald convinces Bridger that the Arikara are approaching and they must abandon Glass. After they depart, Fitzgerald admits he lied. When Fitzgerald and Bridger meet Henry at the fort, Fitzgerald tells him that Glass died and Hawk vanished.

text: Glass begins an arduous journey through the wilderness. He performs crude self-surgery and eludes the pursuing Arikara who are looking for the Chief Elk Dog's kidnapped daughter, Powaqa. Glass encounters Pawnee refugee Hikuc, who says that "revenge is in the Creator's hands." The men share bison meat and travel together. After a hallucinogenic experience, Glass discovers Hikuc hanged by French hunters. He infiltrates their camp and sees the leader raping Powaqa. He frees her, kills two hunters, and steals Hikuc's horse, leaving his canteen behind. The next morning, Glass is ambushed by the Arikara and driven over a cliff on his horse. He survives the stormy night by eviscerating the horse and sheltering inside its carcass.

text: A French survivor staggers into Fort Kiowa and Bridger recognizes his canteen as Glass's. Believing it stolen, Henry organizes a search party. Fitzgerald, realizing Glass is alive, empties the outpost’s safe and flees. The search party finds the exhausted Glass. Enraged, Henry orders Bridger arrested, but Glass vouches that Bridger was deceived and reveals that Fitzgerald murdered Hawk. Glass and Henry set out in pursuit of Fitzgerald.

text: After the two split up, Fitzgerald ambushes and kills Henry. Glass uses Henry's corpse on his horse as a decoy and shoots Fitzgerald in the arm. He pursues Fitzgerald to a riverbank where they engage in a brutal fight. Glass is about to kill Fitzgerald, but spots a band of Arikara downstream. He remembers Hikuc's words and pushes Fitzgerald downstream into the hands of the Arikara. Elk Dog kills and scalps Fitzgerald and the Arikara spare Glass. Heavily wounded, Glass retreats into the mountains where he is visited by the spirit of his wife.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Leonardo DiCaprio as Hugh Glass
Tom Hardy as John Fitzgerald[9]
Domhnall Gleeson as Andrew Henry[10]
Will Poulter as Jim Bridger[9]
Forrest Goodluck as Hawk
Paul Anderson as Anderson
Kristoffer Joner as Murphy
Joshua Burge as Stubby Bill
Duane Howard as Elk Dog
Melaw Nakehk'o as Powaqa
Fabrice Adde as Toussaint
Arthur Redcloud as Hikuc
Lukas Haas as Jones[11]
Brendan Fletcher as Fryman
Tyson Wood as Weston
Grace Dove as Hugh Glass's wife
Isaiah Tootoosis as Boy Hawk

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and financing[edit]

text: Development of The Revenant began in August 2001, with producer Akiva Goldsman acquiring the rights to Michael Punke's then-unpublished manuscript.[12] David Rabe had written the film's script.[13] The production was picked up by Park Chan-wook, with Samuel L. Jackson in mind to star. Park later left the project.[14][15] The development stalled until 2010, when Mark L. Smith wrote a new adaptation of the novel for Steve Golin's Anonymous Content. In May 2010, Smith revealed that John Hillcoat was attached to direct the film and that Christian Bale was in negotiation to star the movie.[16] Hillcoat left the project in October 2010.[15] Jean-François Richet was considered to replace him, but Alejandro G. Iñárritu signed on to direct in August 2011.[15][17] Goldsman was also confirmed to be producing with Weed Road Pictures.[17] In November, New Regency Productions joined to produce with Anonymous Content, and 20th Century Fox was confirmed to be distributing the film.[18][19] Days later, Iñárritu stated that he was seeking Leonardo DiCaprio and Sean Penn for the two lead roles.[20]

text: Once Iñárritu agreed to direct, he began working with Smith on script rewrites. In an interview with Creative Screenwriting, Smith admitted during this process he was unsure if Iñárritu would even be able to film some of the sequences they wrote. He recalled, "He would have some ideas and I would say, 'Alejandro, we can’t pull this off. It’s not going to work,' and he would say, 'Mark, trust me, we can do this.' In the end, he was right."[21]

text: The film was put on hold in March 2012, as New Regency hired Iñárritu to direct an adaptation of Flim-Flam Man, Jennifer Vogel's non-fiction book about her criminal father.[22] Penn was also under consideration for the lead role in that film.[23] In December 2012, Iñárritu announced that his next film would be Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance), a comedy-drama about an actor who once played a famous superhero. For his work, Iñárritu won the Oscar for Best Director and Best Original Screenplay, and the film won Best Picture. Filming took place in March 2013.[24] Iñárritu was scheduled to begin production on The Revenant after Birdman wrapped.[25]

text: The film was granted a production budget of $60 million, with $30 million funded by New Regency. Brett Ratner's RatPac-Dune Entertainment, a joint venture between Ratner's RatPac Entertainment and 20th Century Fox's former financing partner, Dune Entertainment, also funded the film.[18] Worldview Entertainment, who also co-financed Birdman, was originally set to fund the film but backed out in July 2014 due to the departure of its CEO, Christopher Woodrow.[18][25][26] New Regency approached 20th Century Fox for additional funding, but the company declined, citing the pay-or-play contracts made for both DiCaprio and Tom Hardy, which would require that the actors be paid regardless of whether the film is completed.[26] Annapurna Pictures' Megan Ellison entered negotiations to finance the film shortly after.[18][26] The Chinese company Guangdong Alpha Animation and Culture Company partially financed the film.[27]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography for The Revenant began in October 2014.[28] A planned two-week break from filming in December was extended to six weeks which forced Tom Hardy to drop out of Suicide Squad. In February 2015, Iñárritu, who shot the film using natural lighting, stated that production would last "until the end of April or May", as the crew is "shooting in such remote far-away locations that, by the time we arrive and have to return, we have already spent 40% of the day".[29][30][31] Brad Weston, president and CEO of New Regency Pictures, stated that principal photography had been challenging due to the ambitious nature of the film. Ultimately, principal photography wrapped in August 2015.[32]

text: The film was shot in twelve locations in three countries: Canada, the United States, and Argentina.[33] In Canada, filming took place in Calgary and Fortress Mountain in Alberta, in Kananaskis Country west of Calgary, the Badlands near Drumheller, and at Squamish and Mammoth Studios, Burnaby, in British Columbia.[33] The scenes in the waterfall were filmed at the Kootenai Falls near Libby, Montana. While the initial plan was to film entirely in Canada, the weather was ultimately too warm, leading the filmmakers to locations near the Rio Olivia at the tip of Argentina with snow on the ground, to shoot the film's ending.[28][34]

text: Crew members often complained about difficult shoots, with many quitting or being fired. Mary Parent was then brought in as a producer.[28] Iñárritu stated that some of the crew members had left the film, explaining that "as a director, if I identify a violin that is out of tune, I have to take that from the orchestra." On his experience filming, DiCaprio stated: "I can name 30 or 40 sequences that were some of the most difficult things I’ve ever had to do. Whether it’s going in and out of frozen rivers, or sleeping in animal carcasses, or what I ate on set. [I was] enduring freezing cold and possible hypothermia constantly."[35][36]

text: Iñárritu had stated that he originally wanted to shoot the film chronologically, a process that would have added $7 million to the film's production budget.[37] Iñárritu later confirmed that the film was shot in sequence, despite Hardy's statement that the film could not be shot chronologically, due to weather conditions.[38][39]

text: In July 2015, it was reported that the film's budget had ballooned from the original $60 million to $95 million, and by the time production wrapped it had reached $135 million.[3]

text: Visual effects[edit]

text: The visual effects for The Revenant were produced primarily by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM). Other companies, such as Moving Picture Company (MPC) and Cinesite, also created visual effects for the film.[40]

text: Music[edit]

text: The musical score for The Revenant was composed by Japanese musician Ryuichi Sakamoto who had previously scored the Square Enix's Dawn of Mana, The Last Emperor (directed by Bernardo Bertolucci), Poppoya (directed by Yasuo Furuhata), Tony Takitani (directed by Jun Ichikawa the director of the Mitsui ReHouse commercial from 1997 to 1999 starring Chizuru Ikewaki and Mao Inoue), and German electronic musician Alva Noto with additional music composed by Bryce Dessner.[41] The main body of the score was recorded at the Seattlemusic Scoring Stage in the Bastyr Chapel in greater Seattle, Washington by musicians of the Northwest Sinfonia. Sakamoto conducted these sessions. Bryce Dessner's portion of the score was performed by the 25-piece Berlin-based orchestra known as "s t a r g a z e" under conductor André de Ridder.[42][43] Additional licensed music includes "Become Ocean", the Pulitzer Prize and Grammy Award-winning work of John Luther Adams as recorded by the Seattle Symphony with conductor Ludovic Morlot and an excerpt of "Jetsun Mila" from French musician and composer Eliane Radigue.[44] A soundtrack album was released digitally on December 25, 2015, and on CD on January 8, 2016. Milan Records will release a vinyl pressing of the soundtrack in April 2016.[43]

text: The score by Sakamoto and Noto was ruled ineligible for the Academy Award for Best Original Score at the 2016 Oscars as it was deemed that it was "assembled from the music of more than one composer".[45]

text: Documentary[edit]

text: The film was accompanied by a 44-minute documentary, named A World Unseen, highlighting the process of making the production. A World Unseen was released on January 21, 2016, on YouTube; both the date and medium of the documentary's release made it ineligible for the Academy Award for Best Documentary (Short Subject) in the same year as the film nomination.[46][47]

text: Themes[edit]

text: In the Los Angeles Review of Books, film critic Wai Chee Dimock compared The Revenant's themes to those addressed in the literary works of James Fenimore Cooper, particularly The Last of the Mohicans. Dimock argues that the film re-interprets the concept of "half-breeds" from a derogatory idea that Cooper despised to an aesthetic way in which to see the world. She compared both works' protagonists—Glass and Hawk-eye—as literary foils, with Glass living an inversion of the latter's biography and perspective.[48]

text: In the documentary of the film titled A World Unseen, Iñárritu has stated that for the main themes of the film he revisits the issues and concerns of intense parental and filial relations, which audiences of his previous films readily recognize as a recurrent theme in his previous work. Regarding the theme of revenge seen throughout The Revenant, Iñárritu has stated that the approach of vengeance seen in the film needs to be significantly tempered by anyone who would want to see vengeance as either an effective or useful moral to be applied in life. In the end, Iñárritu states, there can only be disappointment and lack of fulfillment for anyone who looks to revenge as providing a higher purpose for living or a life defining purpose.[46][47]

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: The Guardian reported, "The backstory about Glass’s love for a Pawnee woman is fiction. It has been suggested the real Glass had such a relationship, but there’s no firm evidence—and no evidence that he had any children. ... As for the ending, it has been changed in one significant way: in real life, nobody got killed."[49]

text: American Rifleman reported, "There was no Pawnee wife or children to motivate him, no real cause for revenge, either, as he understood that Jim Bridger and John Fitzgerald honestly thought he was as good as dead. He might have done the same thing if their roles were reversed. The one constant in every telling of the tale until “The Revenant” opened was Hugh Glass wanted his gun back."[50] The reporting about this story indicates that Glass did track down Fitzgerald and demand the rifle's return, which Fitzgerald sullenly complied with.

text: Canadian actor Roy Dupuis was strongly critical of the movie for portraying French-Canadian voyageurs as murderous rapists. Dupuis was originally offered a role as a voyageur, but he rejected it due to perceptions of anti-French bias and historical inaccuracies.[51][52][53][54] According to Allan Greer, the Canada Research Chair in Colonial North America, "generally the American traders had a worse reputation than the Canadians."[51]

text: Iñárritu has made a special point of emphasizing the importance of historical issues of ethnicity approached in the film and reflected in the mixed ethnic background of Hugh Glass's son portrayed in the film (portrayed as half Pawnee by Glass's wife) as relating to his own life and his identification with ethnic concerns. Iñárritu has referred to having encountered constant xenophobia and stated that: "These constant and relentless xenophobic (comments) have been widely spread by the media without shame, embraced and cheered by leaders and communities around the U.S. The foundation of all this is so outrageous that it can easily be minimized as an SNL sketch, a mere entertainment, a joke ... I debated with myself, if I should bring up this uncomfortable subject tonight but in light of the constant and relentless xenophobic comments that have been expressed recently against my Mexican fellows, it is inevitable."[55]

text: The massive pile of bison skulls depicted in the film (based upon a real life photograph from the mid-1870s) is also an anachronism. The slaughter of bison on that scale was not yet underway in the early 1820s.[citation needed] Similarly for the assertion that the "Anglos" had taken the Indians' land, which was not to occur in that part of the country for another 20 years.[citation needed] Trapper John Fitzgerald refers to the area of modern-day Texas as if it is a part of the Union or an aligned territory. However, in 1823 Texas was a sparsely populated (in 1825, Texas had about 3,500 people, with most of Mexican descent[56]) province of Mexico.

text: Native American culture[edit]

text: In order to portray Arikara culture accurately, Iñárritu hired several cultural consultants[57][58] and teamed up with two linguists to provide faithful Arikara and Pawnee language lines for actors.[59][60] Hikuc, the Pawnee man who helps Glass survive, is played by a Navajo actor.[61]

text: However, in one scene, a Pawnee character rescuing Glass is accompanied by a voiceover in Inupiaq, which is spoken in Arctic Alaska, thousands of miles away and a different language family from Pawnee. The voiceover was a recording of Doreen Nutaaq Simmonds[62] reading a poem from a John Luther Adams recording; the words originally came from an Inuit woman named Uvavnuk, an angakkuq (shaman) and oral poet.[63]

text: Release[edit]

text: The Revenant had a limited release in the United States on December 25, 2015, including Los Angeles—making it eligible for the 88th Academy Awards—before being released nationwide on January 8, 2016.[64][65] The film opened in Australia on January 7, 2016 and in the United Kingdom on January 15, 2016.[66][67] In the Philippines, the film's release date was originally set for January 27, 2016, but it was eventually delayed a week to February 3, 2016.[68][69] Although studios initially chose not to pursue a theatrical release in China, following the film's three wins at the 88th Academy Awards on February 28, 2016, the film was granted a release in China but with several cuts.[70] It was released on March 18, 2016.[27]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The DVD, Blu-ray and 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray were released on April 19, 2016 in the US.[71] Opening sales of the DVD along with on-line streaming orders placed The Revenant as number one in sales at Amazon.[72] Distribution to major rental outlets in the US was done on May 17, 2016.[73]

text: Piracy[edit]

text: On December 20, 2015, less than a week before its release, screener copies of The Revenant and numerous Oscar contenders, including The Hateful Eight, Creed and Straight Outta Compton, were uploaded to many websites. The FBI linked the case to co-CEO Andrew Kosove of Alcon Entertainment. Kosove claimed that he had "never seen this DVD[s]", and that "it never touched his hands."[74] In October 2016, a former 20th Century Fox employee was fined $1.12 million in a separate case for uploading both The Revenant and The Peanuts Movie online.[75]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Revenant grossed $183.6 million in the United States and Canada and $349.3 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $533 million, against a production budget of $135 million.[4] Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $61.6 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.[76]

text: In North America, The Revenant opened in limited release on December 25, 2015, and over the weekend grossed $474,560 from four theaters in New York City and Los Angeles ($118,640 per screen), finishing twenty-third at the box office.[77] It was the second-biggest theater average of 2015 behind the $130,000 four-screen debut of Steve Jobs.[78] The film earned a total of $1.6 million from its two-week limited run before expanding wide on January 8, 2016, across 3,371 theaters.[79][80]

text: It made $2.3 million from its early Thursday preview showings from 2,510 theaters.[79] On its opening day, the film earned $14.4 million, ranking first at the box office.[81] The film grossed $39.8 million in its opening weekend from 3,375 theaters, exceeding initial projections by 70%, and finishing second at the box office behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($42.4 million), which was on its fourth weekend of play. It was the director’s biggest opening of all-time, and the fourth-biggest for DiCaprio and supporting actor Tom Hardy.[82] Critics noted that The Force Awakens had an advantage, considering that it was playing at 781 more theaters, that Sunday matinees are family-friendly, and since it had the benefit of playing in all North American IMAX theaters.[82] Nevertheless, The Revenant played very balanced across the U.S. and overperformed in all states except the Northeast region.[82] Its wide release weekend is among the top openings in the month of January.[83] It finally topped the box office in its fifth weekend overall and third weekend in wide release after competing with Ride Along 2 in its second weekend. It added a $16 million in its third weekend, which was down 49.7% but topped the box office, despite a blizzard blanketing most of the East Coast which reportedly hurt many films' box office performance.[84][85][86][87] The following weekend it was overtaken by Fox’s own animated movie Kung Fu Panda 3 thereby topping the box office for just one weekend.[88] Following the announcement of the Oscar nominees on January 14, The Revenant witnessed the biggest boost among the Best Picture category, jumping from $54.1 million to $170.5 million, an increase of +215% up to the Oscar ceremony in the weekend ending February 28.[89]

text: Outside North America, the film secured a release in 78 countries.[90] It made $20.5 million from 2,407 screens in just 18 markets, placing behind The Force Awakens at the international box office chart and first among newly released films.[91] The following weekend, it added $32.3 million from 25 markets on 4,849 screens.[90] The film topped the international box office in its third weekend—the same weekend when it topped the U.S. box office—overtaking The Force Awakens with $33.7 million from 48 markets.[92] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it took the No. 1 spot with $7.87 million or £5.2 million ($7.4 million) from 589 theaters and remained there for a second weekend declining only by 24% with £3.86 million ($5.5 million), as well as for a third weekend.[90][93][94][95][96] Similarly, in Russia, it passed The Force Awakens to take the top spot with $7.5 million from 1,063 screens.[91] In France, it has the biggest opening day in Paris and the third biggest opening weekend of 2016 (so far) with $8.2 million.[97] It also opened at No. 1 in Mexico ($5.1 million), Spain ($4 million), Holland ($1.3 million), Belgium ($1.1 million), Argentina ($955,000), Sweden ($914,000), South Korea, Denmark, Norway, Israel, Egypt and Portugal among other markets.[90][92][95][98] In Germany ($4.6 million) and Australia ($2.9 million), it debuted at No. 2 both behind The Force Awakens and in Brazil ($2.17 million) behind The Ten Commandments.[91][98] It had one of the top ten openings of all time for a Fox film, not accounting for inflation in South Korea with $5.7 million and went on to top the box office there for a second weekend with $3.22 million despite cold weather affecting theater attendance resulting in low box office performance.[99][100] In Russia, despite not opening at No. 1, it topped the box office in its second weekend with $4.4 million—more than The Force Awakens—and went on to top for a third weekend with $3.6 million.[90][101] In China it had an opening day of around $11 million from more than 11,000 screens, including $250,000 in midnight previews, and $23 million in two days.[102][103][104] In its opening weekend, it grossed $31 million, coming in second place behind the animated Zootopia. IMAX comprised $2.3 million on 278 screens.[105] In terms of total earnings, its largest markets outside of the U.S. and Canada are China ($58.6 million), the United Kingdom ($32.8 million), Germany ($28.7 million) and France ($28.2 million).[106][107] The film opened in Japan on March 23.[97][108]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The Revenant received positive reviews from critics, with DiCaprio and Hardy's performances, Iñárritu's directing and Lubezki's cinematography all being praised.[109][110][111][111] However, the film's runtime was criticized.[112] On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 80%, based on 349 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "As starkly beautiful as it is harshly uncompromising, The Revenant uses Leonardo DiCaprio's committed performance as fuel for an absorbing drama that offers punishing challenges — and rich rewards."[113] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[114] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported audiences gave it an overall positive score of 85% and a 59% "definite recommend".[115][116][117]

text: Reviewers cited in a CBS News survey of critics highly praised DiCaprio's performance, referring to it as an "astonishing testament to his commitment to a role" and as an "anchoring performance of ferocious 200 percent commitment."[110] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called DiCaprio's acting "a virtuoso performance, thrilling in its brute force and silent eloquence."[118] Writing for NY Magazine/Vulture, David Edelstein called the film a "tour de force" and "[b]leak as hell but considerably more beautiful," but noted the film had "traditional masculinity instead of a search for what illuminates man's inhumanity to man."

text: Justin Chang of Variety wrote Iñárritu "increasingly succumbs to the air of grim overdetermination that has marred much of [his] past work" and it was "an imposing vision... but also an inflated and emotionally stunted one."[110] Stephanie Zacharek, writing for TIME magazine, gave a positive review to the film stating: "Inarritu may have fashioned The Revenant as the ultimate endurance test, but as Glass, DiCaprio simply endures. He gives the movie a beating heart, offering it up, figuratively speaking, alive and bloody on a platter. It—he—is the most visceral effect in the movie: revenge served warm. Bon Appetite."[109] Richard Brody of The New Yorker was critical of the film, and said that Emmanuel Lubezki's images were mere "pictorial ornament[s] to [Alejandro González Iñárritu's] bland theatrical stagings.”[119]

text: Slant Magazine's writer Ed Gonzalez suggested that the Slant staff in large part disliked the film: "Our contempt for The Revenant knows no limits."[119] Gonzalez unfavorably compared Iñárritu's work to Terrence Malick's 2005 film The New World. In the official review, Slant writer Jaime N. Christley wrote: "The Revenant [is] a misery-fest that plants its narrative flags as carelessly as a Roland Emmerich blockbuster, guaranteeing us a viewing experience almost as arduous as the trials depicted on screen, before reaching a conclusion that's sealed the moment audiences first meet the key players. After an obligatory false calm, The Revenant's proper opening scene is a show-stopping massacre at a fur-trapper's campsite. It's the kind of thing Howard Hawks would have handled—and did, in The Big Sky—in under 90 seconds, with mostly off-camera particulars and minimal effects, but González Iñárritu forces it to resemble the Normandy Beach sequence in Saving Private Ryan as much as history or sense will allow, and then some."[120] The Revenant was ranked 22nd on Metacritic's and 79th on Rotten Tomatoes' list of best films of 2015.[121][122][123]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The Revenant has received numerous award nominations and wins, particularly for DiCaprio's performance, Iñárritu's direction and Lubezki's cinematography. At the 88th Annual Academy Awards, Iñárritu won the Best Director award for the second time in a row, Emmanuel Lubezki won for the third time in a row the award for Best Cinematography and DiCaprio won his first award for Best Actor. Hardy lost the award for Best Supporting Actor to Mark Rylance for Bridge of Spies, and the film itself lost Best Picture to Spotlight.[124]

text: At the 73rd Golden Globe Awards it won three awards: Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, and Best Actor – Drama. It also had a nomination for Best Original Score.[125] On January 14, 2016, the film received 12 Academy Award nominations (more than any other film at the ceremony), including Best Picture and Best Director for Iñárritu, as well as Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor, for DiCaprio and Hardy, respectively.[126] On February 14, 2016, the film received the most awards at 69th British Academy Film Awards out of eight-nominations, with five, including Best Film, Best Director, Best Cinematography, Best Sound, and Best Leading Actor.[127] It received nine Critics' Choice Awards nominations, winning two – for DiCaprio as Best Actor and Best Cinematography for Lubezki.[128]

text: Tom Hardy won the Best British Actor award at the London Film Critics' Circle and was runner-up for Best Supporting Actor at Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association.[129][130] DiCaprio was awarded Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role award at 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards, while Iñárritu received Outstanding Directing – Feature Film award at 68th Directors Guild of America Awards.[131] It received five Satellite Awards nominations, winning the award of Best Actor for DiCaprio.[132]

text: On May 2, 2016, Time magazine included both DiCaprio and Iñárritu in its issue of the 100 Most Influential People of 2015, with a cover photograph of DiCaprio on the magazine. John Kerry, the U.S. Secretary of State, wrote a short testimonial to DiCaprio for this issue of Time stating that DiCaprio's dedication drives him to succeed and "that's how he takes himself back 200 years to create an Oscar-winning, bear-brawling, powerhouse performance in The Revenant."[133]


document_title: The Old Grey Whistle Test

question_text: who wrote old grey whistle test theme tune

text: The Old Grey Whistle Test

text: History[edit]

text: The show's focus on "serious" rock music, rather than chart hits covered on BBC1 by Top of the Pops, was emphasised by a lack of showbiz glitter: bands would often perform their songs in front of either the bare studio walls or plain wooden boards (actually the backs of set walls from other programmes filmed in the same studio). As with many BBC productions, this was (initially at least) as much a matter of money as of style; other late night shows of the time, having only 'minority' appeal, also had to be content with spartan sets. Another factor was that the programme was originally produced in a studio at BBC Television Centre in west London known as "Pres B", which had been originally designed for shooting little more than in-vision continuity. The studio was only 32 by 22 feet (10 m × 7 m)[4] which left little room for a set once the cameras and band were in.

text: The original opening credits were played over a naked dancing woman painted in green to Santana's Jingo. When Richard Williams was replaced by 'Whispering' Bob Harris, the series' opening titles theme was changed to the now more famous animation of a male figure made up of stars (known as the 'Star Kicker') dancing. The programme's title music, with its harmonica theme, was a track called "Stone Fox Chase" by a Nashville band, Area Code 615.

text: The first host was Richard Williams, features editor of Melody Maker, the music weekly. From 1972, the programme was presented by disc jockey Bob Harris (nicknamed "Whispering Bob Harris", because of his quiet voice and "laid back" style). He later became notorious among the younger generation for calling the New York Dolls "mock rock"[5] and left OGWT in 1978.

text: After Harris's departure, Anne Nightingale took over as host. In December 1980, Nightingale presented the show in the immediate aftermath of the shooting of John Lennon (who had appeared on the show in 1975). This particular episode consisted almost entirely of interviews with various people about Lennon's life and career.

text: Following the departure of Nightingale in 1982, Mark Ellen, David Hepworth and Richard Skinner also took turns as presenters. In 1983, the programme was moved to a live mid-evening slot. The title was abridged to Whistle Test and the title credits and music were changed. Andy Kershaw joined the series as a presenter in 1984.[6] The same four presenters co-presented the BBC's television coverage of Live Aid in 1985.

text: The series was cancelled in early 1987 by Janet Street-Porter, who had been appointed head of Youth Programmes at the BBC.[7] The series ended with a live New Year's Eve special broadcast through to the early hours of New Year's Day 1988; material included "Hotel California" by The Eagles, live from 1977, and "Bat Out of Hell" by Meat Loaf.

text: Owing to technical issues during the show's early years, and the need to ensure performances were controlled, the bands often recorded the instrumental tracks the day before. The vocals were then performed live, "99 percent" of the time. After 1973, the show changed to an entirely live format.[8]

text: Influence[edit]

text: The programme hosted many seminal acts of the era, including the first British TV performance of Bob Marley and the Wailers as well as then little-known acts of whom any early footage is now considered precious, such as Billy Joel, Judas Priest (with a long haired Rob Halford), Wishbone Ash, Judee Sill, Heart, and Lynyrd Skynyrd.

text: Whistle Test was also the British television debut of the American glam punk band New York Dolls. Although host Bob Harris derided the group as "mock rock," comparing them unfavourably to The Rolling Stones, their performance influenced the following punk rock scene such as the Sex Pistols and The Clash as well as alternative bands like R.E.M. and The Smiths and the glam metal scene of the 1980s.

text: The show become the template for many successive "serious" British music programmes, such as The Tube, Later with Jools Holland and From the Basement.

text: In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, The Old Grey Whistle Test was placed 33rd.

text: Parodies[edit]

text: A parody of the show as part of Rutland Weekend Television in 1975, featuring Eric Idle as Harris, is the first known mention of fictional band, Toad The Wet Sprocket – a later reference on a Monty Python album gave rise to the band of the same name. The parody also featured "all-dead" musician Stan Fitch, whose silent, motionless performance was treated with quick zooms, closeups, and other visual effects typical of shows like Whistle Test.

text: The show was parodied on an episode of The Benny Hill Show, originally aired on 24 September 1975, being called "Old Grey Whistle Tester". The host was parodied by Benny Hill.[9]

text: The show's title was parodied in the comedy series Father Ted, in the episode "The Old Grey Whistle Theft".

text: The series was also parodied on The Fast Show, with Jazz Club, hosted by the eccentric (but quiet) Louis Balfour (a parody of Bob Harris).[10][11]

text: In 2006, the series was parodied in the sketch comedy show Snuff Box. The host was played by Richard Ayoade.

text: The Jon Holmes radio show on BBC Radio 6 Music has a feature called the Old Gay Whistle Test, a parody where a homosexual pensioner whistles a tune for the listeners to guess.

text: DVD series[edit]

text: In 2006, the BBC released three DVDs. The first concentrated on the early and mid 1970s. The second DVD completed the timeline, as it dealt with the late 1970s and 1980s. The third DVD, however, covered the entire history. The DVDs also featured spoken intros by the presenters introducing the songs.

text: Billy Joel included his 1978 performance on the show as part of The Stranger 30th Anniversary Edition DVD.

text: Archive status[edit]

text: Out of an original total of 445 episodes, 16 episodes are missing, a further 54 are incomplete and one exists on a format inferior to the original.