document_title: Northwest Ordinance

question_text: how could a territory become a state according to the northwest ordinance of 1787

text: Northwest Ordinance

text: Context and history[edit]

text: The territory was acquired by Great Britain from France following victory in the Seven Years' War and the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Great Britain took over the Ohio Country, as its eastern portion was known, but a few months later closed it to new European settlement by the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The Crown tried to restrict settlement of the thirteen colonies between the Appalachians and the Atlantic, which raised colonial tensions among those who wanted to move west. With the colonials' victory in the American Revolutionary War and signing of the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the United States claimed the territory, as well as the areas south of the Ohio. The territories were subject to overlapping and conflicting claims of the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Virginia dating from their colonial past. The British were active in some of the border area until after the Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812.

text: The region had long been desired for expansion by colonists. The states were encouraged to settle their claims by the US government's de facto opening of the area to settlement following the defeat of Great Britain. In 1784, Thomas Jefferson, a delegate from Virginia, proposed that the states should relinquish their particular claims to all the territory west of the Appalachians, and the area should be divided into new states of the Union. Jefferson's proposal to create a federal domain through state cessions of western lands was derived from earlier proposals dating back to 1776 and debates about the Articles of Confederation.[5] Jefferson proposed creating ten roughly rectangular states from the territory, and suggested names for the new states: Cherronesus, Sylvania, Assenisipia, Illinoia, Metropotamia, Polypotamia, Pelisipia, Washington, Michigania and Saratoga.[6] The Congress of the Confederation modified the proposal, passing it as the Land Ordinance of 1784. This ordinance established the example that would become the basis for the Northwest Ordinance three years later.

text: The 1784 ordinance was criticized by George Washington in 1785 and James Monroe in 1786. Monroe convinced Congress to reconsider the proposed state boundaries; a review committee recommended repealing that part of the ordinance. Other politicians questioned the 1784 ordinance's plan for organizing governments in new states, and worried that the new states' relatively small sizes would undermine the original states' power in Congress. Other events such as the reluctance of states south of the Ohio River to cede their western claims resulted in a narrowed geographic focus.[5]

text: When passed in New York in 1787, the Northwest Ordinance showed the influence of Jefferson. It called for dividing the territory into gridded townships, so that once the lands were surveyed, they could be sold to individuals and speculative land companies. This would provide both a new source of federal government revenue and an orderly pattern for future settlement.[7]

text: Effects of the legislation[edit]

text: Established legal basis of land ownership[edit]

text: The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the concept of fee simple ownership, by which ownership was in perpetuity with unlimited power to sell or give it away. This was called the "first guarantee of freedom of contract in the United States."[8]

text: Abolition and transfer of state claims[edit]

text: The passage of the ordinance, which ceded all unsettled lands to the federal government and established the public domain, followed the relinquishing of all such claims over the territory by the states. These territories were to be administered directly by Congress, with the intent of their eventual admission as newly created states. The legislation was revolutionary in that it established the precedent for new lands to be administered by the central government, albeit temporarily, rather than under the jurisdiction of the individually sovereign original states, as it was with the Articles of Confederation. The legislation also broke colonial precedent by defining future use of the natural navigation, transportation and communication routes; it did so in a way that anticipated future acquisitions beyond the Northwest Territories, and established federal policy.[9] Article 4 states: "The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States, and those of any other States that may be admitted into the confederacy, without any tax, impost, or duty therefor."

text: Admission of new states[edit]

text: The most significant intended purpose of this legislation was its mandate for the creation of new states from the region. It provided that at least three but not more than five states would be established in the territory, and that once such a state achieved a population of 60,000 it would be admitted into representation in the Continental Congress on an equal footing with the original thirteen states. The first state created from the Northwest Territory was Ohio, in 1803, at which time the remainder was renamed Indiana Territory. The other four states were Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. A portion (about a third) of what later became the state of Minnesota was also part of the territory.

text: Education[edit]

text: The ordinance of Congress called for a public university as part of the settlement and eventual statehood of the Ohio Territory, further stipulating "Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." In 1786, Manasseh Cutler became interested in the settlement of western lands by American pioneers to the Northwest Territory. The following year, as agent of the Ohio Company of Associates that he had been involved in creating, he organized a contract with Congress whereby his associates (former soldiers of the Revolutionary War) might purchase one and a half million acres (6,000 km²) of land at the mouth of the Muskingum River with their Certificate of Indebtedness. Cutler also took a leading part in drafting the Ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest Territory, which was finally presented to Congress by Massachusetts delegate Nathan Dane. To smooth passage of the Northwest Ordinance, Cutler bribed key congressmen by making them partners in his land company. By changing the office of provisional governor from an elected to an appointed position, Cutler was able to offer the position to the president of Congress, Arthur St. Clair.[10] In 1797, settlers from Marietta traveled upstream via the Hocking River to establish a location for the school, choosing Athens due to its location directly between Chillicothe (the original capital of Ohio) and Marietta. Originally named in 1802 as the American Western University, the school never opened. Instead, Ohio University was formally established on February 18, 1804, when its charter was approved by the Ohio General Assembly. Its establishment came 11 months after Ohio was admitted to the Union. The first three students enrolled in 1809. Ohio University graduated two students with bachelor's degrees in 1815.[11]

text: Establishment of territorial government[edit]

text: Before the population of a territory reached 5,000, there would be a limited form of government. There would be a governor, a secretary, and three judges, all appointed by Congress. The governor will have a "freehold estate therein, in one thousand acres of land,". The secretary and the judges will have a, "freehold estate therein, in five hundred acres of land". The governor would be commander-in-chief of the militia, appoint magistrates and other civil officers, and help create and publish laws as they see fit for their territory. They would have a three-year term. The secretary would be in charge of keeping and preserving the acts and laws passed by the territorial legislatures, the public records of the district and to transit authentic copies of such acts and proceedings every six months to the secretary of the Continental Congress. They would have a four-year term. The judges would be in charge will help the governor create and pass acts and laws and in making official court rulings. Their terms did not have a set time period. As soon as the population of a territory reached 5000 free, male inhabitants, then they would receive authority to elect representatives from their counties or townships for the general assembly. For every 500 free, males there would be one representative, until there were 25 representatives. Then the Congress will control the number and proportion of the representatives from that legislature. No male can be a representative unless they have been a citizen of the United States for at least three years or lived in the district for three years. In both cases the male in question would have to own at least 200 acres of land within the same district. These representatives shall serve for a term of two years. If a representative died or was removed from office, a new one would be elected to serve out the remainder time.

text: Establishment of natural rights[edit]

text: The natural rights provisions of the ordinance foreshadowed the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution.[12] Many of the concepts and guarantees of the Ordinance of 1787 were incorporated in the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. In the Northwest Territory, various legal and property rights were enshrined, religious tolerance was proclaimed, and it was enunciated that since "Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." The right of habeas corpus was written into the charter, as was freedom of religious worship and bans on excessive fines and cruel and unusual punishment. Trial by jury and a ban on ex post facto laws were also rights recognized.

text: Prohibition of slavery[edit]

text: Art. 6. There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted: Provided, always, That any person escaping into the same, from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original States, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service as aforesaid.[13]

text: The language of the ordinance prohibits slavery, but also contained a clear fugitive slave clause as well.[14] Efforts in the 1820s by pro-slavery forces to legalize slavery in two of the states created from the Northwest Territory failed, but an "indentured servant" law allowed some slaveholders to bring slaves under that status; they could not be bought or sold.[15][16] Southern states voted for the law because they did not want to compete with the territory over tobacco as a commodity crop; it was so labor-intensive that it was grown profitably only with slave labor. Additionally, slave-states' political power would merely be equalized, as there were three more slave-states than there were free-states in 1790.[17]

text: Effects on Native Americans[edit]

text: In two parts, the Northwest Ordinance mentions the Native Americans within this region. The first pertains to the demarcation of counties and townships out of lands that the Indians were regarded as having lost or relinquished title:

text: Section 8. For the prevention of crimes and injuries, the laws to be adopted or made shall have force in all parts of the district, and for the execution of process, criminal and civil, the governor shall make proper divisions thereof; and he shall proceed from time to time as circumstances may require, to lay out the parts of the district in which the Indian titles shall have been extinguished, into counties and townships, subject, however, to such alterations as may thereafter be made by the legislature.[18]

text: The second describes the preferred relationship with the Indians:

text: Article III. Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and, in their property, rights, and liberty, they shall never be invaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress; but laws founded in justice and humanity, shall from time to time be made for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them.[19]

text: Many Native Americans in Ohio, who were not parties, refused to acknowledge treaties signed after the Revolutionary War that ceded lands north of the Ohio River inhabited by them to the United States. In a conflict sometimes known as the Northwest Indian War, Blue Jacket of the Shawnees and Little Turtle of the Miamis formed a confederation to stop white expropriation of the territory. After the Indian confederation had killed more than 800 soldiers in two battles — the worst defeats ever suffered by the U.S. at the hands of the Indians — President Washington assigned General Anthony Wayne command of a new army, which eventually defeated the confederation and thus allowed European-Americans to continue settling the territory.

text: Commemoration[edit]

text: On July 13, 1937, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative stamp that commemorated the 150th anniversary of the North West Ordinance of 1787. The engraving on the stamp depicts a map of the United States at the time with the North West Territory between the figures of Manasseh Cutler (left) and Rufus Putnam.[20]


document_title: Ten Novels and Their Authors

question_text: famous literary works and their authors in europe

root

text: Ten Novels and Their Authors

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Ten Novels and Their Authors is a 1954 work of literary criticism by William Somerset Maugham. Maugham collects together what he considers to have been the ten greatest novels and writes about the books and the authors. The ten novels are:

tag: p

text:
Tom Jones by Henry Fielding
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
Le Rouge et le Noir by Stendhal
Le Père Goriot by Honoré de Balzac
David Copperfield by Charles Dickens
Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert
Moby-Dick by Herman Melville
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë
The Brothers Karamazov by Dostoevsky
War and Peace by Tolstoy

tag: ol

text: This book was originally a series of magazine articles commissioned by Redbook.

text:
hidevteWorks by W. Somerset MaughamNovels
Liza of Lambeth (1897)
Mrs Craddock (1902)
The Magician (1908)
Of Human Bondage (1915)
The Moon and Sixpence (1919)
The Painted Veil (1925)
Cakes and Ale (1930)
The Narrow Corner (1932)
Theatre (1937)
The Summing Up (1938)
Up at the Villa (1941)
The Razor's Edge (1944)
Then and Now (1946)
Catalina (1948)
Short story collections
The Casuarina Tree (1926)
Ashenden (1928)
Ah King (1933)
The Mixture as Before (1940)
Creatures of Circumstance (1947)
Plays
Lady Frederick (1907)
Penelope (1909)
The Land of Promise (1913)
Our Betters (1917)
Caesar's Wife (1919)
The Circle (1921)
The Constant Wife (1926)
The Letter (1927)
The Sacred Flame (1928)
The Bread-Winner (1930)
For Services Rendered (1932)
Sheppey (1933)
Non-fiction
On a Chinese Screen (1922)
Ten Novels and Their Authors (1954)
Related
Somerset Maugham Award

text: This article about a non-fiction book on literature or literary criticism is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

text: Books by W. Somerset MaughamBooks of literary criticism1954 booksHeinemann (publisher) booksLiterature book stubs

tag: ul

text: Articles lacking sources from December 2009All articles lacking sourcesAll stub articles


document_title: Central Pacific Railroad

question_text: where did the union pacific and central pacific railroads meet

text: Central Pacific Railroad

text: Authorization and construction[edit]

text: Planned by Theodore Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was authorized by Congress in 1862. It was financed and built through "The Big Four" (who called themselves "The Associates"): Sacramento, California businessmen Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins. Crocker was in charge of construction. Construction crews comprised 12,000 Chinese emigrant workers by 1868, when they constituted eighty percent of the entire work force.[5][6] They laid the first rails in 1863. The "Golden spike", connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869.[7] Coast-to-coast train travel in eight days became possible, replacing months-long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains.

text: In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was leased by the Southern Pacific Company. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific "Railway".) The original right-of-way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which purchased Southern Pacific in 1996.

text: The Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) mainline followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska to San Francisco Bay.

text: Chinese labor was the most vital source for constructing the railroad. Fifty Chinese laborers were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad in February 1865, and soon more and more Chinese men were hired. Working conditions were harsh, and Chinese men were compensated less than their white counterparts. Chinese men were paid thirty-one dollars each month, and while white workers were paid the same, they were also given room and board.[8]

text: Financing[edit]

text: Construction of the road was financed primarily by 30-year, 6% U.S. government bonds authorized by Sec. 5 of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. They were issued at the rate of $16,000 per mile of tracked grade completed west of the designated base of the Sierra Nevada range near Roseville, CA where California state geologist Josiah Whitney had determined were the geologic start of the Sierras' foothills.[9] Sec. 11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds "shall be treble the number per mile" (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of 300 miles (480 km) at this rate), and "doubled" (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges.[10] The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.

text: Sec. 10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own "First Mortgage Bonds"[11] in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States. Such company-issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds.[12] (Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly. This materially slowed early construction efforts.) Sec. 3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads 10 square miles (26 km2) of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers. This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring 0.2 miles (320 m) by 10 miles (16 km).[13] These grants were later doubled to 20 square miles (52 km2) per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.

text: Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863-1865. When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, "An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto" (which was later amended by Section Five of the "Compromise Act" of April 4, 1864). On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.

text: The City and County's financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds. It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (The People of the State of California ex rel the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco. 25 Cal. 635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (The People ex rel The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk 27 Cal. 655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered. In 1863 the legislature's forcing of City and County action became known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle". Critics claimed the CPRR intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, to connect to the Dutch Flat Wagon Road which they already controlled.

text: Museums and archives[edit]

text: A replica of the Sacramento, California Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park.

text: Nearly all the company's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection. It has been released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have the microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; and Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners' Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.

text: Locomotives[edit]

text: The Central Pacific's first three locomotives were of the then common 4-4-0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4-2-4 or 4-2-2 types available. Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad's opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased by builders in the northeastern U.S. The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four-month journey that went around South America's Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.

text: Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others. Interestingly, the railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well-known firms. It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified). Consequently, the railroad refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific. The Central Pacific's dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific.

text: In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento.Central Pacific's 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP's engine construction. The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers. By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed. However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name, the El Gobernador.

text: Construction of the rails was often dangerous work. Towards the end of construction, almost all workers were Chinese immigrants. The ethnicity of workers depended largely on the "gang" of workers/specific area on the rails they were working.

text: Preserved locomotives[edit]

text: The following CP engines have been preserved:

text:
Central Pacific 1, Gov. Stanford
CP 233, a 2-6-2T the railroad had built, is stored at the California State Railroad Museum.
Central Pacific 3, C. P. Huntington
Former Western Pacific Mariposa, Central Pacific's second number 31. Was sold to Stockton Terminal and Eastern in 1914 and renumbered 1. Currently at the Travel Town Museum in Los Angeles.
Virginia and Truckee Railroad, though The Dayton was not built for, nor served on the Central Pacific, the engine was one of two locomotives built by the CP's Sacramento shops in preservation (the other being CP 233). Moreover, its specifications were derived from CP 173, and thus is the only surviving example of that engine's design.
Central Pacific's numbers 60, Jupiter, and 63 Leviathan. Although both engines have been scrapped, and therefore technically do not count as having been preserved, there were exact, full size operating replicas built in recent years. The Jupiter was built for the National Park Service along with a replica of Union Pacific's 119 for use at their Golden Spike National Historic Site. Leviathan was finished in 2009, is privately owned, and travels to various railroads to operate.

text: Timeline[edit]

text: June 28, 1861: "Central Pacific Rail Road of California" incorporated; name changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California" on October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer.[15]

text: July 1, 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorized the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean.[16]

text:
January 8, 1863: Ground-breaking ceremonies take place at Sacramento, California, at the foot of "K" Street at the waterfront of the Sacramento River.[17]
October 26, 1863: First rail laid at Sacramento.

text:
April 26, 1864: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, 18 miles (29 km), where it makes a junction with the California Central Railroad, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln.
June 3, 1864: The first revenue train on the Central Pacific operates between Sacramento and Newcastle, California
October 8, 1864: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California," a new corporation.

text:
May 13, 1865: Central Pacific opened 36 miles (58 km) to Auburn, California.
September 1, 1865: Central Pacific opened 54 miles (87 km) to Colfax, California (formerly known as "Illinoistown.")

text: December 3, 1866: Central Pacific opened 92 miles (148 km) to Cisco, California.

text:
August 28, 1867: The Sierra Nevadas were finally "conquered" by the Central Pacific Railroad, after almost five years of sustained construction effort, with the successful completion at Donner Pass of its 1,659-foot (506 m) Tunnel #6 (a.k.a. the "Summit Tunnel").[18]
December 1, 1867: Central Pacific opened to Summit of the Sierra Nevada, 105 miles (169 km).

text: June 18, 1868: The first passenger train crosses the Sierra Nevada to Lake's Crossing (modern day Reno, Nevada) at the eastern foot of the Sierra in Nevada Territory.

text:
April 28, 1869: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay 10 miles (16 km) of track in one day. This is the longest stretch of track that has been built in one day to date.
May 10, 1869: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in Promontory, Utah.
May 15, 1869: The first transcontinental trains are run over the new line to Sacramento.
November 8, 1869: Central Pacific subsidiaries Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad complete the final leg of the route, connecting Sacramento to Oakland.

text:
June 23, 1870: Central Pacific is consolidated with the Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad Co. to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co." (of June 1870).
August 22, 1870: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the California & Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland & Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad; to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co.", a new corporation.

text: April 30, 1876: Operates the California Pacific Railroad between South Vallejo and Sacramento, Calistoga and Marysville until April 1, 1885 (see below).

text: July 16, 1877: Start of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 when railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train; United States President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in Federal troops to break the strike.

text: November 18, 1883: A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using standard time.

text: April 1, 1885: Central Pacific is leased to Southern Pacific.

text: June 30, 1888: Listed by ICC as a "non-operating" subsidiary of Southern Pacific.

text: July 29, 1899: Central Pacific is reorganized as the "Central Pacific Railway".

text: June 30, 1959: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific.

text: Acquisitions[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2010)

text:
Stockton and Copperopolis Railroad[19]
Stockton and Visalia Railroad[20]
Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870)


document_title: Solar rotation

question_text: when was it discovered that the sun rotates

text: Solar rotation

text: Surface rotation as an equation[edit]

text: The differential rotation rate is usually described by the equation:

text: where ω is the angular velocity in degrees per day, φ is the solar latitude and A, B, and C are constants. The values of A, B, and C differ depending on the techniques used to make the measurement, as well as the time period studied.[1] A current set of accepted average values[2] is:

text: Sidereal rotation[edit]

text: At the equator the solar rotation period is 24.47 days. This is called the sidereal rotation period, and should not be confused with the synodic rotation period of 26.24 days, which is the time for a fixed feature on the Sun to rotate to the same apparent position as viewed from Earth. The synodic period is longer because the Sun must rotate for a sidereal period plus an extra amount due to the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun. Note that astrophysical literature does not typically use the equatorial rotation period, but instead often uses the definition of a Carrington rotation: a synodic rotation period of 27.2753 days (or a sidereal period of 25.38 days). This chosen period roughly corresponds to rotation at a latitude of 26 deg, which is consistent with the typical latitude of sunspots and corresponding periodic solar activity. When the Sun is viewed from the "north" (above the Earth's northern pole) solar rotation is counterclockwise. For a person standing on the North Pole, sunspots would appear to move from left to right across the face of the Sun.

text: Bartels' Rotation Number[edit]

text: Bartels' Rotation Number is a serial count that numbers the apparent rotations of the sun as viewed from Earth, and is used to track certain recurring or shifting patterns of solar activity. For this purpose, each rotation has a length of exactly 27 days, close to the synodic Carrington rotation rate. Julius Bartels arbitrarily assigned rotation one day one to 8 February 1832. The serial number serves as a kind of calendar to mark the recurrence periods of solar and geophysical parameters.

text: Carrington rotation[edit]

text: The Carrington rotation is a system for comparing locations on the Sun over a period of time, allowing the following of sunspot groups or reappearance of eruptions at a later time.

text: Because the Solar rotation is variable with latitude, depth and time, any such system is necessarily arbitrary and only makes comparison meaningful over moderate periods of time. Solar rotation is arbitrarily taken to be 27.2753 days for the purpose of Carrington rotations. Each rotation of the Sun under this scheme is given a unique number called the Carrington Rotation Number, starting from November 9, 1853. (The Bartels Rotation Number[3] is a similar numbering scheme that uses a period of exactly 27 days and starts from February 8, 1832.)

text: The heliographic longitude of a solar feature conventionally refers to its angular distance relative to the central meridian, i.e. that which the Sun-Earth line defines. The "Carrington longitude" of the same feature refers it to an arbitrary fixed reference point of an imagined rigid rotation, as defined originally by Carrington.

text: Richard Christopher Carrington determined the solar rotation rate from low latitude sunspots in the 1850s and arrived at 25.38 days for the sidereal rotation period. Sidereal rotation is measured relative to the stars, but because the Earth is orbiting the Sun, we see this period as 27.2753 days.

text: It is possible to construct a diagram with the longitude of sunspots horizontally and time vertically. The longitude is measured by the time of crossing the central meridian and based on the Carrington rotations. In each rotation, plotted under the preceding ones, most sunspots or other phenomena will reappear directly below the same phenomenon on the previous rotation. There may be slight drifts left or right over longer periods of time.

text: The Bartels "musical diagram" or the Condegram spiral plot are other techniques for expressing the approximate 27-day periodicity of various phenomena originating at the solar surface.

text: Using sunspots to measure rotation[edit]

text: The rotation constants have been measured by measuring the motion of various features ("tracers") on the solar surface. The first and most widely used tracers are sunspots. Though sunspots had been observed since ancient times, it was only when the telescope came into use that they were observed to turn with the Sun, and thus the period of the solar rotation could be defined. The English scholar Thomas Harriot was probably the first to observe sunspots telescopically as evidenced by a drawing in his notebook dated December 8, 1610, and the first published observations (June 1611) entitled “De Maculis in Sole Observatis, et Apparente earum cum Sole Conversione Narratio” ("Narration on Spots Observed on the Sun and their Apparent Rotation with the Sun") were by Johannes Fabricius who had been systematically observing the spots for a few months and had noted also their movement across the solar disc. This can be considered the first observational evidence of the solar rotation. Christopher Scheiner (“Rosa Ursine sive solis”, book 4, part 2, 1630) was the first to measure the equatorial rotation rate of the Sun and noticed that the rotation at higher latitudes is slower, so he can be considered the discoverer of solar differential rotation.

text: Each measurement gives a slightly different answer, yielding the above standard deviations (shown as +/-). St. John (1918) was perhaps the first to summarise the published solar rotation rates, and concluded that the differences in series measured in different years can hardly be attributed to personal observation or to local disturbances on the Sun, and are probably due to time variations in the rate of rotation, and Hubrecht (1915) was the first one to find that the two solar hemispheres rotate differently. A study of magnetograph data showed a synodic period in agreement with other studies of 26.24 days at the equator and almost 38 days at the poles.[4]

text: Internal solar rotation[edit]

text: Until the advent of helioseismology, the study of wave oscillations in the Sun, very little was known about the internal rotation of the Sun. The differential profile of the surface was thought to extend into the solar interior as rotating cylinders of constant angular momentum.[5] Through helioseismology this is now known not to be the case and the rotation profile of the Sun has been found. On the surface the Sun rotates slowly at the poles and quickly at the equator. This profile extends on roughly radial lines through the solar convection zone to the interior. At the tachocline the rotation abruptly changes to solid-body rotation in the solar radiation zone.[6]


document_title: Columbian exchange

question_text: where did tomatoes come from in the columbian exchange

text: Columbian exchange

text: Origin of the term[edit]

text: In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange.[2] He published subsequent volumes within the same decade. His primary focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred between the Old and New World. He studied the effects of Columbus' voyages between the two. Specifically, the global diffusion of crops, seeds, and plants from the New World back into the Old. His research made a lasting contribution to the way scholars understand the variety of contemporary ecosystems that arose due to these transfers. [3]

text: The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby's original research.[4]

text: Influence[edit]

text: Crops[edit]

text: Several plants native to the Americas have spread around the world, including potato, maize, tomato, and tobacco.[5] Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease.[6] Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe, contributing to about 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.[7] Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.[8]

text: Maize and cassava, introduced by the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century,[9] have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa's most important food crops.[10] 16th-century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.[11] On a larger scale, the coming of potatoes and maize to the old world "resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing staples" throughout the Eurasian landmass[12] as they created more varied and abundant food production.[13]

text: Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general.[14] Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.[15]

text: Rice was another crop that became widely cultivated during the Columbian exchange. As the demand in the New World grew, so did the knowledge on how to cultivate it. The two primary species used were oryza glaberrima and oryza sativa; originating from West Africa and Southeast Asia respectively. Slave holders in the New World relied upon the skills of enslaved Africans to further cultivate both species. [16]. North and South Carolina were key places where rice was grown during the slave trade. Enslaved Africans brought their knowledge of water control, milling, winnowing, and other general agrarian practices to the fields. This widespread knowledge amongst enslaved Africans eventually led to rice becoming a staple dietary item in the New World. [17]

text: Citrus fruits, grapes, and oats were also brought to the Americas from Europe, specifically from the Mediterranean. At first, these crops struggled to adapt to the climate in the new world. However, by the late 19th century they began to grow more consistently. [18]

text: Tomatoes[edit]

text: It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th-century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours". In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548, the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De' Medici's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely". At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.[19]

text: In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain, wrote, "it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces". Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.[19]

text: Livestock[edit]

text: Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.[20] One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes. The mountain tribes shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.[21]

text: Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.[22]

text: Disease[edit]

text: European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-cell disease.[1]:164 In fact, the resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the Southern United States contributed to the development of slavery in those regions.[23]

text: Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long-distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.

text: By contrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars[24] and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death.[1]:164 It is estimated that upwards of 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100%.[1]:165 The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well-documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518.[22] At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.[22]

text: Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based sugar plantation.[22] The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural mosquito predators.[22] The means of yellow fever transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.[22]

text: The history of syphilis has been well-studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate.[25] There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.[26] These are referred to as the "Columbian" and "pre-Columbian" hypotheses.[26] The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493.[27] The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494/1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.[26][28][29][30]

text: Cultural exchanges[edit]

text: One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800" Pieter Emmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a 'clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".[31] This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor".[32] An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization" they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves".[33] In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the tobacco industry.

text: Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have".[34] As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous peoples, they took with them the cultural practices related to tobacco, and spread them to additional regions. Therefore, demand for tobacco grew in the course of the cultural exchanges and increased contacts among peoples.

text: Trans Atlantic Slave Trade[edit]

text: The Trans Atlantic Slave Trade was the transfer of Africans from primarily West Africa to parts of the Americas between the 16th and 19th century.[35] About 10 million slaves arrived in the Americas from Africa. The journey that enslaved Africans took from parts of Africa to America is commonly known as the middle passage. [36]

text: Enslaved Africans had a significant influence on the emerging African American culture in the New World. The presence of Enslaved Africans not only represented skilled labor but it also gave way to a new population which represented a hybrid of the two cultures. [37] The Birth of African American Culture: An Anthropological Perspective is a book written by Sidney Mintz and Richard Price further detailing the cultural impact of Enslaved Africans in America. Mintz and Price's book helped to publicize how integral the socialization aspects of plantation life were to the structures of black culture.

text: The treatment of Enslaved Africans during the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade became one of the most controversial topics in the history of the New World. Since its abolishment in 1865, it has remained a key subject in politics, pop culture and media.

text: Organism examples[edit]

text:
Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans

Type of organism

Old World to New World

New World to Old World

Domesticated animals

cat (domestic – wild species already present)
cattle
chicken
donkey
goat (the goats of the Old World, genus Capra, are different from the mountain goat of the New World, genus Oreamnos)
guineafowl
honey bee (European honey bee – other wild and domesticated species already present)
horse
rabbit (domestic)
pig
sheep (domestic)
water buffalo

alpaca
guinea pig
llama
Muscovy duck
turkey

Cultivated plants

adzuki bean
almond
apple
apricot
asparagus
baobab
banana (including cooking banana)
barley
basil
beetroot
black-eyed pea
Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables
broccoli
Brussels sprout
cabbage
cauliflower
collard greens
kale
kohlrabi
rapeseed
broad bean
cantaloupe
carrot
celery
chestnut
chickpea
citrus (orange, lemon, etc.)
coffee
common fig
coriander (also known as cilantro)
cucumber
cumin
eggplant (aubergine)
Elaeis (oil palm)
fennel
finger millet
foxtail millet
flax
garlic
ginger
hazelnut
hemp (including cannabis)
kola nut
leek
lentil
lettuce
mango
mangosteen
millet
Momordica charantia (bitter melon)
mung bean
oat
okra
olive
onion
opium
oregano
parsnip
pea
peach
pear
pearl millet
pistachio
pomegranate
proso millet
radish
raspberry
rice
rye
sesame
sorghum
soybean
spinach
sugarcane and sugar beet
tamarind
taro
turmeric
turnip
watermelon
walnut (commercial varieties)
wheat
yam (sometimes misnamed "sweet potato")

acai
Acca sellowiana (feijoa, pineapple guava, Brazilian guava, guavasteen)
Annona reticulata (custard apple)
agave
allspice
amaranth (as grain)
annatto
arracacha
arrowroot or Maranta arundinacea
avocado
black walnut
blueberry (commercial varieties)
Brazil nut
Calathea allouia (leren)
Canna indica (achira)
capsicum (bell pepper and chili pepper)
cashew
cassava (manioc, tapioca, yuca)
chayote
cherimoya
chia
coca leaf
cocoa bean
cotton (long-staple species)
cranberry (large cranberry, or bearberry species)
cucurbita (many squashes and gourds)
butternut squash
pumpkin
zucchini (courgette)
Eryngium foetidum (culantro, Mexican coriander)
guarana
guava (common)
Helianthus (sunflower)
Jerusalem artichoke
jicama
maize (corn)
Manilkara zapota (sapodilla)
mashua
Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear)
Oxalis tuberosa (New Zealand yam)
papaya
passionfruit
peanut
pecan
Phaseolus vulgaris (beans: pinto, lima, kidney, etc.)
physalis (cape gooseberry)
pineapple
pitaya (dragon fruit)
potato
quinoa
rubber
soursop
stevia
strawberry (commercial varieties)
sugar-apple
sugar maple
sweet potato
tamarillo
tobacco
tomato
tomatillo
ulluco
vanilla
wild rice
yerba mate
yucca

Cultivated fungi

Agaricus bisporus (button mushrooms, chestnut mushrooms, portobello mushrooms)
cloud ear fungus
enoki mushroom
oyster mushroom (some varieties)
Rhizopus oligosporus (tempeh)
shiitake mushroom
snow ear fungus
truffle

huitlacoche (corn smut)
oyster mushroom (some varieties)

Infectious diseases

bubonic plague
chickenpox
cholera
diphtheria
influenza
leprosy
malaria
measles
pertussis
scarlet fever
smallpox
typhoid fever
typhus
yaws
yellow fever

Chagas disease
Nonvenereal endemic syphilis
pinta
syphilis (disputed)

text: Later history[edit]

text: Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.

text: Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments.[38][39] A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.[40]

text: In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.[41] Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and the Burmese python and green iguana are considered problematic in Florida. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations.


document_title: List of Cricket World Cup finals

question_text: when was the last cricket world cup held

text: List of Cricket World Cup finals

text: History[edit]

text: The inaugural ICC Cricket World Cup final was held on 21 June 1975 at Lord's, contested by Australia and the West Indies. A man of the match performance,[11] including a century from West Indian captain Clive Lloyd coming in to bat at number five with his team 50/3,[12] formed the basis of a 149-run fourth-wicket partnership with Rohan Kanhai.[13] Keith Boyce added a quick 34 and the Australians were set a target of 292 to win in a 60-over encounter. In reply, Alan Turner hit 40 from 54 deliveries and Australian captain Ian Chappell scored 62 from 93 balls. Australia "contributed to their own destruction" in an innings with five run outs, and the West Indies were crowned the first cricket world champions, winning by 17 runs.[14] Four years later, the West Indies qualified for the final, this time facing England, hosted at Lord's for the second consecutive tournament. An unbeaten 138 from Viv Richards, and support from Collis King in a 139-run partnership for the fifth wicket,[15] saw the West Indies set England a target of 287 runs to win in 60 overs.[16] A profitable yet slow opening partnership between Mike Brearley and Geoffrey Boycott (the latter taking 17 overs to reach double figures)[17] saw England to 129. However, following Brearley's dismissal, only Graham Gooch and Derek Randall made a "brief assault" on the West Indian bowling,[17] before a batting collapse, Joel Garner taking five wickets in eleven balls.[18] England ended 194 all out, and presented the West Indies with their second consecutive title, winning by 92 runs.[17]

text: Lord's re-hosted the third World Cup final in June 1983, and was West Indies' third consecutive final. On this occasion, they faced India in front of 24,609 spectators.[19] Sunil Gavaskar was dismissed early in the innings for two runs, and only Kris Srikkanth scored more than thirty;[20] Andy Roberts took three wickets for the West Indies leaving India all out for 183.[20] Following the dismissals of Viv Richards, Desmond Haynes and Larry Gomes by Madan Lal for six runs between them, the West Indies collapsed to 140 all out, handing the title to India by 43 runs.[19] India and Pakistan co-hosted the 1987 tournament; the final was held at Eden Gardens in Kolkata between Australia and England, both appearing for the second time and vying for their first title. Australia won the toss and elected to bat first; David Boon scored 75 runs from 125 deliveries, while Mike Veletta made a rapid 45 from 31 deliveries taking Australia to a total of 253/5 by the close of play, this time after 50 overs.[21] In front of around 70,000 spectators, England's middle order of Bill Athey, Mike Gatting and Allan Lamb provided some resistance, but with 17 runs required in the final over to win, England fell short and lost by 7 runs.[22]

text: The 1992 tournament was co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand, with the first ever day/night final being held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in Australia between England and Pakistan. In their first final appearance, Pakistan won the toss and elected to bat first. Despite two early wickets from Derek Pringle, Pakistani batsmen Imran Khan and Javed Miandad shared a third-wicket partnership of 139. Both Inzamam-ul-Haq and Wasim Akram added over thirty runs each at more than a run-a-ball, leading Pakistan to a total of 249/6 in 50 overs.[23] A crowd of over 87,000 saw man-of-the-match Wasim Akram take three of England's wickets, including that of all-rounder Ian Botham for a duck, after Graeme Hick was "baffled by the googly".[24] England were bowled out for 227, and Pakistan won by 22 runs.[23] India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka hosted the tournament in 1996. Sri Lanka was making their first appearance in the final, and faced 1987 champions Australia in another day/night contest. After winning the toss, Arjuna Ranatunga sent Australia in to bat at the Gaddafi Stadium in Lahore. Captain Mark Taylor and Ricky Ponting added 101 in their second-wicket partnership as Australia completed their 50 overs 241/7.[25] Man of the match Aravinda de Silva's century, assisted by partnerships with Asanka Gurusinha and Ranatunga led Sri Lanka to the total with 22 balls and 7 wickets to spare, and their first win in the final. This was the first time a host won the title, though the final was played in Pakistan. It was also the first time that the team batting second emerged victorious.[25]

text: Australia's "12-year era of World Cup dominance" began with the 1999 tournament,[26] hosted for the fourth time by England. In a "one-sided" final,[27] Shane Warne's four wickets helped to restrict Pakistan to 132 runs, all out with 11 overs yet to bat.[28] A rapid fifty from Adam Gilchrist, and support from Mark Waugh, Ponting and Darren Lehmann, saw Australia reach the total in just over 20 overs, winning by eight wickets.[28] The 2003 tournament had three co-hosts: South Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe, the final being a day/night match contested between Australia and India at the Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg. Gilchrist and Matthew Hayden opened the batting, making a century partnership before Ponting and Damien Martin went on to score the highest partnership in any World Cup final with an unbeaten 234.[29] Australia batted out their fifty overs, and ended on the highest score in World Cup final history: 359/2.[30] Player of the tournament Sachin Tendulkar was dismissed in the first over of India's reply but Virender Sehwag and Rahul Dravid combined to score 88 in their fourth wicket partnership. However, following Dravid's dismissal, India's batting collapsed, and they finished on 234 all out with nearly eleven overs remaining, handing Australia a 125-run victory.[30]

text: The 2007 final, held at the Kensington Oval in Barbados, was reduced to 38 overs a side following a two-hour rain delay.[31] Australia's Gilchrist hit the fastest century in a World Cup final at a strike rate of over 143 and his opening stand with Hayden became the largest first-wicket partnership in World Cup history.[29] Australia ended on 281/4, an average of 7.39 runs per over.[32] In reply, Sanath Jayasuriya and Kumar Sangakkara accumulated 116 runs for the second wicket, but with Chamara Silva the only other batsman to score over 20, Sri Lanka capitulated. Despite a revised target, due to a further rain break, calculated using the Duckworth–Lewis method, Sri Lanka scored 215–8 from their allotted overs. With a 53-run victory, Australia won their third consecutive World Cup.[32] Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka co-hosted the 2011 tournament,[33] with the latter pair meeting in the final in the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai. Scoring 91 runs in their final 10 overs,[34] Sri Lanka's innings ended on 274/6, Mahela Jayawardene top-scoring with an unbeaten 103.[35] Sehwag was out leg before wicket to Lasith Malinga in the second ball of the Indian innings, Tendulkar soon followed him, but 97 from Gautam Gambhir and an unbeaten 91 from MS Dhoni saw India home with 10 balls to spare. By winning the match, India became the first team to win the finals on home soil.[35]

text: List of finals[edit]

text:
Key to list of finals

The final was played as a day/night game.

The final was decided by the Duckworth–Lewis method.

text:
The "Year" column refers to the year the World Cup was held, and links to the article about that tournament.
The links in the "Result" column point to the article about that tournament's final game.
Links in the "Winners" and "Runners-up" columns point to the articles for the national cricket teams of the countries, not the articles for the countries.

text:
List of finals, along with the host nation and location and result of the final

Year
Winner
Result
Runner-up
Final venue
Host nation(s)[2]
Crowd

1975
 West Indies
291/8 (60 overs)
West Indies won by 17 runs[11]
 Australia
274 all out (58.4 overs)
Lord's, London
England
24,000

1979
 West Indies
286/9 (60 overs)
West Indies won by 92 runs[16]
 England
194 all out (51 overs)
Lord's, London
England
32,000

1983
 India
183 all out (54.4 overs)
India won by 43 runs[20]
 West Indies
140 all out (52 overs)
Lord's, London
England
30,000

1987
 Australia
253/5 (50 overs)
Australia won by 7 runs[21]
 England
246/8 (50 overs)
Eden Gardens, Kolkata, India
India, Pakistan
95,000

1992
 Pakistan
249/6 (50 overs)
Pakistan won by 22 runs[23]
 England
227 all out (49.2 overs)
MCG, Melbourne, Australia
Australia, New Zealand
87,182

1996
 Sri Lanka
245/3 (46.2 overs)
Sri Lanka won by 7 wickets[25]
 Australia
241/7 (50 overs)
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore, Pakistan
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
62,645

1999
 Australia
133/2 (20.1 overs)
Australia won by 8 wickets[28]
 Pakistan
132 all out (39 overs)
Lord's, London
England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, Netherlands
30,000

2003
 Australia
359/2 (50 overs)
Australia won by 125 runs[30]
 India
234 all out (39.2 overs)
Wanderers, Johannesburg, South Africa
Kenya, South Africa, Zimbabwe
32,827

2007
 Australia
281/4 (38 overs)
Australia won by 53 runs [32]
 Sri Lanka
215/8 (36 overs)
Kensington Oval, Bridgetown
West Indies
28,108

2011
 India
277/4 (48.2 overs)
India won by 6 wickets[35]
 Sri Lanka
274/6 (50 overs)
Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai, India
Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka
65,000

2015
 Australia
186/3 (33.1 overs)
Australia won by 7 wickets
 New Zealand
183 all out (45 overs)
MCG, Melbourne, Australia
Australia, New Zealand
93,013

text: Results by country[edit]

text:
National team
Final appearances
Winners
Runners-up
Years won
Years runners-up

 Australia
7
5
2
1987, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2015
1975, 1996

 India
3
2
1
1983, 2011
2003

 West Indies
3
2
1
1975, 1979
1983

 Sri Lanka
3
1
2
1996
2007, 2011

 Pakistan
2
1
1
1992
1999

 England
3
0
3
–
1979, 1987, 1992

 New Zealand
1
0
1
–
2015


document_title: Cell cycle checkpoint

question_text: which molecule initiates the halt of the cycle when damaged dna is detected in g1

text: Cell cycle checkpoint

text: Background[edit]

text: All living organisms are products of repeated rounds of cell growth and division.[1] During this process, known as the cell cycle, a cell duplicates its contents and then divides in two. The purpose of the cell cycle is to accurately duplicate each organism's DNA and then divide the cell and its contents evenly between the two resulting cells. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of four main stages: G1, during which a cell is metabolically active and continuously grows; S phase, during which DNA replication takes place; G2, during which cell growth continues and the cell synthesizes various proteins in preparation for division; and the M (mitosis) phase, during which the duplicated chromosomes (known as the sister chromatids) separate into two daughter nuclei, and the cell divides into two daughter cells, each with a full copy of DNA.[2] Compared to the eukaryotic cell cycle, the prokaryotic cell cycle (known as binary fission) is relatively simple and quick: the chromosome replicates from the origin of replication, a new membrane is assembled, and the cell wall forms a septum which divides the cell into two.[3]

text: As the eukaryotic cell cycle is a complex process, eukaryotes have evolved a network of regulatory proteins, known as the cell cycle control system, which monitors and dictates the progression of the cell through the cell cycle.[1] This system acts like a timer, or a clock, which sets a fixed amount of time for the cell to spend in each phase of the cell cycle, while at the same time it also responds to information received from the processes it controls. The cell cycle checkpoints play an important role in the control system by sensing defects that occur during essential processes such as DNA replication or chromosome segregation, and inducing a cell cycle arrest in response until the defects are repaired.[4] The main mechanism of action of the cell cycle checkpoints is through the regulation of the activities of a family of protein kinases known as the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which bind to different classes of regulator proteins known as cyclins, with specific cyclin-CDK complexes being formed and activated at different phases of the cell cycle. Those complexes, in turn, activate different downstream targets to promote or prevent cell cycle progression.[5]

text: G1 (restriction) checkpoint[edit]

text: The G1 checkpoint, also known as the restriction point in mammalian cells and the start point in yeast, is the point at which the cell becomes committed to entering the cell cycle. As the cell progresses through G1, depending on internal and external conditions, it can either delay G1, enter a quiescent state known as G0, or proceed past the restriction point.[1] The decision to commit to a new round of cell division occurs when the cell activates cyclin-CDK-dependent transcription which promotes entry into S phase.[6]

text: During early G1, the transcriptional repressors Rb (retinoblastoma), p107 and p130, known as pocket proteins, bind to the E2F transcription factors to prevent G1-to-S transition. Rb binds and represses activator E2F transcription factors (E2F1-3), while p107 and p130 bind E2F4 and E2F5 respectively to form complexes which repress transcription of G1-to-S promoting factors (proteins). Upon the decision to progress past the G1 checkpoint, cyclin D levels rise, and cyclin D forms a complex with CDK4 and CDK6, which in turn phosphorylate the pocket proteins. Phosphorylation of the pocket proteins causes the release of their bound targets, thereby relieving the repression of the E2F1-3 activators and translocating repressors E2F4 and E2F5 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. This results in the transcriptional activation of downstream targets, which promote the G1-to-S transition, including another cyclin, known as cyclin E, which forms a complex with CDK2. The formation of the cyclin E-CDK2 complex then promotes a positive feedback loop which creates an “all or nothing” switch from which the cell can not return.[7] Following entry to S-phase and initiation of DNA replication, S-phase cyclin A, a transcriptional target of E2F1-3, forms a complex with CDK2 which phosphorylates E2F1-3 and prevents its ability to bind to DNA, thus forming a negative feedback loop. In another negative feedback loop, E2F1-3 promote the transcription of E2F6-8, which in turn repress G1-S transition.

text: When DNA damage occurs, or when the cell detects any defects which necessitate it to delay or halt the cell cycle in G1, arrest occurs through several mechanisms. The rapid response involves phosphorylation events that initiate with either kinase ATM (Ataxia telangiectasia mutated) or ATR (Ataxia Telangiectasia and Rad3 related), which act as sensors, depending on the type of damage. These kinases phosphorylate and activate the effector kinases Chk2 and Chk1, respectively, which in turn phosphorylate the phosphatase Cdc25A, thus marking it for ubiquitination and degradation. As Cdc25A activates the previously mentioned cyclin E-CDK2 complex by removing inhibitory phosphates from CDK2, in the absence of Cdc25A, cyclin E-CDK2 remains inactive, and the cell remains in G1. To maintain the arrest, another response is initiated, by which Chk2 or Chk1 phosphorylate p53, a tumor suppressor, and this stabilizes p53 by preventing it from binding Mdm2, a ubiquitin ligase which inhibits p53 by targeting it for degradation. The stable p53 then acts a transcriptional activator of several target genes, including p21, an inhibitor of the G1-to-S promoting complex cyclin E-CDK21. In addition, another mechanism by which p21 is activated is through the accumulation of p16 in response to DNA damage. p16 disrupts cyclin D-CDK4 complexes, thus causing the release of p21 from the complexes, which leads to the dephosphorylation and activation of Rb, which allows Rb to bind and inhibit E2F1-3, thus keeping the cell from transitioning to S phase.[8] Recently, some aspects of this model have been disputed.[9]

text: G2 checkpoint[edit]

text: Following DNA replication in S phase, the cell undergoes a growth phase known as G2. During this time, necessary mitotic proteins are produced and the cell is once more subjected to regulatory mechanisms to ensure proper status for entry into the proliferative Mitotic (M) phase. Multiple mechanistic checkpoints are involved in this transition from G2 to M, with a common uniting factor of cyclin-Cdk activity.

text: Although variations in requisite cyclin-Cdk complexes exist across organisms, the necessity of the kinase activity is conserved and typically focuses on a single pairing. In fission yeast three different forms of mitotic cyclin exist, and six in budding yeast, yet the primary cyclin utilized is cyclin B.[10] Cyclin B will serve as reference for discussion of the G2/M checkpoint transition.

text: Similar to S Phase, G2 experiences a DNA damage checkpoint. The cell is once more examined for sites of DNA damage or incomplete replication, and the kinases ATR and ATM recruited to damage sites. Activation of Chk1 and Chk2 also transpire, as well as p53 activation, to induce cell cycle arrest and halt progression into mitosis. An additional component of S phase, the Pre-Replicative Complex, must be inactivated via cyclin B-Cdk1 phosphorylation.[11]

text: As these previous checkpoints are assessed, G2 protein accumulation serves to activate cyclinB-Cdk1 activity via multiple mechanisms. CyclinA-Cdk2 activates Cdc25, an activator of cyclinB-Cdk1, which then deactivates the cyclinB-Cdk1 inhibitor, Wee1. This results in a positive feedback loop, significantly increasing cyclinB expression and Cdk1 activation. As the cell progresses through G2 and reaches the G2/M transition, the kinase Plk1 phosphorylates Wee1, which targets Wee1 for degradation via the SCF ubiquitin ligase complex.[12] An additional function of Plk1 is to activate Cdc25 through phosphorylation. The compound effect of Wee1 degradation and Cdc25 activation is the net removal of inhibitory phosphorylation from cdc2, which activates cdc2. Plk1 is activated at the G2/M transition by the Aurora A and Bora, which accumulate during G2 and form an activation complex. The Plk1-Cdc2-cdc25 complex then initiates a positive feedback loop which serves to further activate Cdc2, and in conjunction with an increase in cyclin B levels during G2, the resulting cdc2-cyclin B complexes then activate downstream targets which promote entry into mitosis.[13] The resultant Cdk1 activity also activates expression of Mem1-Fkh, a G2/M transition gene.[14] The rapid surge in cyclinB-Cdk1 activity is necessary, as M phase initiation is an all-or-nothing event engaging in hysteresis. Hysteresis of Cdk1 activity via cyclin B drives M phase entry by establishing a minimum threshold of cyclinB concentration. This exists at a level higher than the minimum needed for the continuation of M phase after entry, acting to safeguard the all-or-nothing event. This entry concentration is further increased in the case of incomplete DNA replication, adding another regulatory mechanism at the G2/M transition point.[15] The presence of hysteresis allows for M phase entry to be highly regulated as a function of cyclinB-Cdk1 activity.

text: The mechanisms by which mitotic entry is prevented in response to DNA damage are similar to those in the G1/S checkpoint. DNA damage triggers the activation of the aforementioned ATM/ATR pathway, in which ATM/ATR phosphorylate and activate the Chk1/Chk2 checkpoint kinases. Chk1/2 phosphorylate cdc25 which, in addition to being inhibited, is also sequestered in the cytoplasm by the 14-3-3 proteins. 14-3-3 are upregulated by p53, which, as previously mentioned, is activated by Chk1 and ATM/ATR. p53 also transactivates p21, and both p21 and the 14-3-3 in turn inhibit cyclin B-cdc2 complexes through the phosphorylation and cytoplasmic sequestering of cdc2. In addition, the inactivation of cdc25 results in its inability to dephosphorylate and activate cdc2.[16][17] Finally, another mechanism of damage response is through the negative regulation of Plk1 by ATM/ATR, which in turn results in the stabilization of Wee1 and Myt1, which can then phosphorylate and inhibit cdc2, thus keeping the cell arrested in G2 until the damage is fixed.[18]

text: Metaphase checkpoint[edit]

text: The mitotic spindle checkpoint occurs at the point in metaphase where all the chromosomes should/have aligned at the mitotic plate and be under bipolar tension. The tension created by this bipolar attachment is what is sensed, which initiates the anaphase entry. To do this, the sensing mechanism ensures that the anaphase-promoting complex (APC/C) is no longer inhibited, which is now free to degrade cyclin B, which harbors a D-box (destruction box), and to break down securin.[19] The latter is a protein whose function is to inhibit separase, which in turn cuts the cohesins, the protein composite responsible for cohesion of sister chromatids.[20] Once this inhibitory protein is degraded via ubiquitination and subsequent proteolysis, separase then causes sister chromatid separation.[21] After the cell has split into its two daughter cells, the cell enters G1.

text: Cancer[edit]

text: DNA repair processes and cell cycle checkpoints have been intimately linked with cancer due to their functions regulating genome stability and cell progression, respectively. The precise molecular mechanisms that connect dysfunctions in these pathways to the onset of particular cancers are not well understood in most cases.[22] The loss of ATM has been shown to precede lymphoma development presumably due to excessive homologous recombination, leading to high genomic instability.[23] Disruption of Chk1 in mice led significant misregulation of cell cycle checkpoints, an accumulation of DNA damage, and an increased incidence of tumorigenesis.[24] Perhaps most famously, single mutant inheritance of BRCA1 or BRCA2 predisposes women toward breast and ovarian cancers.[25] BRCA1 is known to be required for S and G2/M transitions, and is involved in the cellular response to DNA damage. BRCA2 is believed to be involved in homologous recombination and regulating the S-phase checkpoint, and mutations of deficiencies in BRCA2 are strongly linked to tumorigenesis.[26]


document_title: Uranium Corporation of India

question_text: uranium is found in which state of india

text: Uranium Corporation of India

text: Mines[edit]

text: Jaduguda[edit]

text: It is the first uranium mine of India which started its operations in 1967. This mine is located in the state of Jharkhand.[3] Jadugoda process plant is located close to the mine which is used for the processing of the uranium ore. The ore from Bhatin and Narwapahar mines is also processed here.

text: Bhatin[edit]

text: This mine is located 3 km away from Jaduguda and shares most of the infrastructure with the Jaduguda mine.

text: Narwapahar[edit]

text: This mine was commissioned in April 1995. It is known to be the most modern mine of the country.

text: Turamdih[edit]

text: Turamdih mine is located 24 km to the west of Jaduguda and five km south to Tatanagar railway station which is on howrah Mumbai main line. It was commissioned in 2003. Turamdih Processing Plant has been set up to treat the ore from Turamdih, Banduharang and Mohuldin mines.

text: Bagjata[edit]

text: Bagjata Mines is an underground mine in east singhbhum district of Jharkhand.

text: New projects[edit]

text:
UCIL has taken up activities to start two underground mines in Jharkhand. Uranium reserves have been found in the state of Andhra Pradesh and the construction of an underground mine has started in Cuddapah district.
[4]

text: Controversies[edit]

text:
There was criticism from certain sections of the local community that the mining operations of UCIL were resulting in harmful radiation to the public.[5]
UCIL was also among the 63 Indian establishments put under sanction by USA in 1998.[6]
The mining activities of UCIL in the Khasi Hills were also fiercely opposed by the local tribals protesting against potential health effects.[7]


document_title: Out of This World (TV series)

question_text: who played evie on out of this world

question_tokens: who played evie on out of this world

text: Out of This World (TV series)

text: Show summary[edit]

text: The series revolves around Evie Ethel Garland, a young girl who discovers on her thirteenth birthday that her father is an alien named Troy, from the planet Antareus, who married her mother and "merged lifeforms" to create Evie. Evie's half-alien heritage gives her superhuman abilities. Most of the episodes revolve around Evie misusing her powers and causing some trouble, which she spends the rest of the episode trying to fix. Only Evie and her family know about her alien father and her powers, and many episodes depict Evie trying to hide her secret from other characters. The series ended on a cliffhanger in the Season 4 finale, where Troy came to visit and Donna took his place by accident and ended up in Antareus, leaving Troy stranded on Earth.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Evie Ethel Garland (Maureen Flannigan) — Evie is a half-human, half-alien girl who lives with her mother in Marlowe, California (a fictional analogue of Carmel-by-the-Sea), in a house overlooking the sea. She is an only child. Evie attends a school for gifted children (run by her mother) and achieves good grades there. Her mother had always told Evie that her father was a secret agent, but on her thirteenth birthday Evie began to develop superhuman abilities and it was revealed that her father is an extraterrestrial from the planet Antareus. Evie's main power is the ability to freeze time on Earth by touching the tips of her index fingers together, allowing her to maneuver herself or objects to alter the course of events on Earth. When she claps her hands together, time resumes as normal. She can also "unfreeze" individuals by touching them while time is frozen. She later gains the power to gleep, which allows her to manifest objects by using the power of her mind. Her father describes her as "the perfect child: loving; caring; with the same needs of most teenagers". The series follows Evie through her teenage years, from her thirteenth birthday in the first episode to her eighteenth birthday in the final episode. Although she was the leading character, Flannigan was billed last in the credits. In the first season, she received the billing "And Introducing Maureen Flannigan". In the last 3 seasons, she was billed as "And Maureen Flannigan as Evie".
Donna Garland (Donna Pescow) — Evie's mother. Described by her husband as "an ambitious working mother with a career", Donna runs a school for gifted children, which Evie attends. She later founds her own catering company, "Donna's Delights". Toward the end of season 3, Donna becomes the mayor of Marlowe. Donna is very protective of her daughter, often to the dismay of Evie, who would like to be more independent. Donna and Evie's Uncle Beano (then later Uncle Mick) are the only regular characters on the show who know Evie's secret.
Troy Garland (Burt Reynolds, voice only) — Evie's father. Troy is a human-looking extraterrestrial, with many special powers, from the planet Antareus. Troy met Donna when his spacecraft crashed on Earth at some point in the late 1960s or early 1970s. The two fell in love, were married in 1971, and two years later Donna gave birth to Evie. Shortly after, in 1974, Troy was called back to Antareus to fight in a war. Since then, Troy occasionally visits Earth, and stays in touch with his daughter via a special communication device known as the "cube" (see below). Troy's powers seem to be almost limitless: though he lives on Antareus, he can control many things on Earth (from computers to the weather); he can give and take away Evie's powers at will; and also seems to be aware of certain events on Earth. While Troy appears in the show's opening credits, he rarely makes a physical appearance in the series — and when he does his face is obscured (for example, via a surgical mask or shadows). In the series finale, when Troy arrives on Earth, he is seen in a silhouette with stars from the galaxy. Troy was credited as "himself" in the opening credits from Season Two onwards.
Beano Froelich (1987–1990) (Joe Alaskey) — "Uncle Beano" is Donna's brother and Evie's uncle, who lives next door to them. Beano has a large appetite and runs the diet clinic known originally as "Waist-a-Weigh", and later as "Beano's Diet Clinic". Beano is one of the two regular characters who know Evie's secret, along with Donna. He last appears in season 4, episode 12.
Kyle Applegate (Doug McClure) — Kyle is a former television actor who is now the mayor of Marlowe. Kyle is a good friend of the family, but "the mayor" punishes even the smallest offenses. As well as being egocentric and vain, Kyle is dimwitted and gullible, often completely failing to notice Evie's "alien" antics. He clings to his former TV glory as the star of "Mosquito Man" and many long forgotten mainly Western movies. Towards the end of season three, Kyle is appointed police chief by Donna, who takes over from him as mayor.
Buzz (Buzz Belmondo) — The manager of Beano's diet clinic, and one of the more eccentric characters in the town. Buzz usually makes one brief appearance per episode, during which he performs a series of jokes which are typically puns or prop-based gags, sometimes relating to the elaborate costume that he is wearing. He speaks with an unknown accent, and is prone to bizarre behavior. Donna sometimes resorts to him for help, more often than not regretting it.
Lindsay Selkirk (Christina Nigra) — Evie's best friend. Evie and Lindsay spend a lot of time together drinking milkshakes at their local diner, the "Goodie Goodie," and she is Evie's confidante when it comes to boys and her non-Antarian related problems.
Chris Fuller (Steve Burton) — Chris is a surfer and high school student who later becomes a student at Marlowe Community College. He is introduced as a new student and good basketball player in the season one episode "Evie get your Basketball". Chris becomes Evie's boyfriend, and although they sometimes date other people, they always end up together. In an episode of the final season, Chris says Evie was and always will be his girl.
Quigley Handlesman (Carl Steven) (1987-1988) - One of Evie's classmates at Donna's school for the gifted.
Phil (John Roarke) (1987-1988) - The jovial, funny handyman who works on the Garlands' house during the first season. He is always snooping around in the family's business, with Donna, Evie and Beano constantly making sure that Phil doesn't suspect the existence of Evie's powers.
Jeffrey Cummings (Tony Crane) (1990) - A high school classmate of Evie and Lindsay's who transfers in during their senior year. Incredibly handsome and basically taking up the slack that Chris had left after going onto college, Jeffrey quickly begins to date Evie. The two began going out despite Evie's continued involvement with Chris, forcing her to cover up her activities with either of them, alternately.
Peter (1990-1991) (Peter Pitofsky) — A waiter at the Goodie Goodie who is introduced in the first scene of season four. He is a clumsy, goofball Antarean who provides his own brand of comic relief whenever Evie and her friends stop by the restaurant. He was military intelligence for Antareus until he chose to stay on Earth, his memory erased of all Antarean things. He has a penchant for misinterpreting people's orders, and sometimes even forgetting his own name.
Mick (1990–1991) (Tom Nolan) — Donna's brother and Evie's uncle, who was introduced in season 4, episode 7, to replace Uncle Beano as a recurring character. He is a former rock musician.

text: The cube[edit]

text: Evie is able to communicate with Troy through a special "genetic" communication device known as the "cube", which he gave to her when she turned thirteen. The cube effectively functions as a telephone line to Antareus — it can even be used to leave Troy an "answerphone" message, as seen in the episode "My Little Evie". There are no controls on the cube; Evie simply calls for her father and the cube activates when he answers, deactivating when he "hangs up". Sometimes when Troy uses his powers whilst talking through the cube, a beam of energy is emitted directly from the cube.

text: Evie and Donna normally keep the cube around the house, out of sight (often in Evie's bedroom), sometimes telling people it is an ornament or a talking clock. When the cube is activated, the top half of it opens up on a hinge, a magenta light pulses inside, and a "spacey" sound effect plays. The lights in the room usually dim, although not always. Troy's voice is heard clearly through the cube with reverberation.

text: Originally, even though everyone was able to hear Troy through the cube, Evie was the only one Troy could hear as the cube was genetic. This rule changes in the first episode of season 2, "Evie's Birthday Wish". At the end of the episode, Evie wishes her mother could talk to Troy like she can. As a result, Troy can now hear Donna and they can talk back and forth. It is unknown whether the rest of Evie's family could also talk to Troy, but there have been other aliens that Troy could hear through the cube, as seen in Season 4 Episode 5 "Evie's Guardian Angel". An Antaerian is sent to Earth to protect Evie and Donna, and he can speak to Troy.

text: Guest stars[edit]

text: The series featured several celebrities who made cameo appearances on the show, occasionally as themselves. In chronological order of appearances:

text:
Ann Miller
Norman Fell (as Evie's psychiatrist Dr. Hauser, "The Nightmare", 1987)
Scott Carpenter (as himself, "Evie and the Young Astronauts", 1987)
Charles Nelson Reilly (as himself, "Dueling Mayors", 1987)
Betsy Palmer (as Donna's mother, "Uh, Oh... Here Comes Mother", 1987)
Tom Bosley (as Troy's father, "Guess Who's Coming to Earth", 1988 and "Around the World in Eighty Minutes", 1989)
Jamie Farr ("Go West, Young Mayor", 1988)
Richard Kiel (as Norman, "Go West, Young Mayor", 1988)
Scott Baio (who also directed several episodes) made a cameo appearance in "Princess Evie" (1988) and "Evie Goes For the Gold" (1989)
Lyle Alzado ("Goodbye Mr. Chris", 1990)
Mr. T ("New Kid on the Block", 1990)
Susan Anton ("Best Friends", 1990)
Pop singer Tiffany ("I Want My Evie TV", 1990)
Kathleen Freeman (as Miss Ogilvy, Evie's high school teacher, "Educating Kyle", 1991)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text:
Evie's Thirteenth Birthday
Playing with the Power
The Nightmare
Till Then
Evie, Get Your Basketball
Every Beano Has His Day
Evie and the Young Astronauts
Fifties Mom
Dueling Mayors
Baby Talk
Beano's New Diet Clinic
Uh, Oh... Here Comes Mother
The Anniversary
To Tell the Truth
Pen Pals
Broadway Danny Derek
Mosquito Man: The Motion Picture
The Russians Are Coming
Aka Dad
Illness
The Box Is Missing
Boy Crazy
The Three Faces of Evie
I've Got a Secret

text: Season 2[edit]

text:
Evie's Birthday Wish
Blast from the Past
Career Crunch
Should Old Acquaintance Be Forgot?
Evie's First Kiss
Princess Evie
Old Flame
Guess Who's Coming to Earth
Go West, Young Mayor
Close Encounters of the Nerd Kind
The Incredible Hunk
Pupil's Court
Evie's Two Dads
The Secret of Evie's Success
Honest Evie
Evie Goes to Hollywood
Two Many Evies
Futile Attraction
Beano the Kid
Queens for a Day
The Amazing Evie
Whose House Is It, Anyway?
Frisky Business
Star Dog

text: Season 3[edit]

text:
Evie's Sweet Sixteen
Cinderella Evie
Bring Me the Head of Donna Garland
A Froggy Day in Marlowe Town
Eviegeist
Evie's Driver's License
Evie Goes for the Gold
Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow
Around the World in 80 Minutes
It's a Cruel World
Evie/Stevie
The Rocks That Couldn't Roll
One in a Million
Four Men and a Baby
Evie's Double Trouble
The Garden of Evie
Evie's Magic Touch
Cowboy Kyle, Man of Granite
Evie's Secret Admirer
Evie's Yuppie Love
Diamond's Are Evie's Best Friend
A Kinder, Gentler Mayor
My Mother the Con
Goodbye, Mr. Chris

text: Season 4[edit]

text:
New Kid on the Block
My Little Evie
Forget Your Troubles
A Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Read
Evie's Guardian Angel
Best Friends
I Want My Evie TV
Come Fly with Evie
Roomies
Evie's High Anxiety
Evie's False Alarm
Marlowe Vice
Evie's Latin Touch
My Mom, and Why I Love Her
Heck's Angels
Would You Buy a Used Car from This Dude?
Evie Nightingale
All About Evie
Mayor Evie
Stump Your Neighbor
Evie's Three Promises
Too Late for Evie
Educating Kyle
Evie's Eighteen

text: Opening credits[edit]

text: The opening credits for the series incorporated special effects footage from the 1979-1981 series Buck Rogers in the 25th Century. The theme song is Swinging on a Star.

text: International airings[edit]

text: Out of This World was first broadcast in the UK on the ITV network on April 9, 1990, until 1995.[1]

text:
The series was first broadcast in France from 10 September 1988 under the title "Loin de ce monde" - Far From This World.
In Germany, the series was renamed "Mein Vater ist ein Außerirdischer" - My Father is an Alien.
In Italy, the series was renamed "Cose Dell'Altro Mondo" - Things Belonging To the Other World.
In Spain, the series was renamed "De otro mundo" - From Another World.
In Russia, the series was renamed "Фантастическая Девушка" - Fantastic Girl.
In Latin America, the series was renamed "Fuera de este Mundo" - Out of This World.

text: The show was aired on many TV stations in the Middle East, as well as Saudi TV Channel 2, with Arabic subtitles. It also aired in Canada on Toronto station CFMT (now Omni Television). It was screened in New Zealand on TVNZ.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Discussing Out of This World, Roger Fulton stated "like many juvenile US sitcoms, the series was short on laughs and long on moralizing".[2] The book Television Without Pity contained a review of Out of This World that described the show as "quite possibly the worst sitcom ever made-it's a complete failure on every level". The review went on to criticise the show's scripts, acting and production, and unfavourably compared Out of This World to Sabrina, the Teenage Witch.[3] The Splitsider website called Out of This World "perhaps the worst sitcom ever, or at least the most '80s sitcom ever".[4]

text: DVD release[edit]

text: A DVD set with 35 episodes from seasons 1 and 2 was released in Germany on November 8, 2011.[5] The 6-disc set has a runtime of 875 minutes, but does not include all episodes due to music rights.[6]

text: In other media[edit]

text:
The show was parodied in the Robot Chicken episode, "Executed by the State". In the parody, Evie is asked out by a boy who likes her, she uses her powers to stop time and takes a look down his pants, presumably in order to check out the size of his penis. After seeing the size of his penis, Evie says, "Uhhh, pass." (This is followed by canned laughter typical of sitcoms of that era.) Evie then walks off with time still frozen.
In the Universal Studios ride Kongfrontation, the news report that plays during the queue is interrupted by an ad for Out of This World, at which the screen crawl at the bottom of the ad is a civil defense message warning that King Kong is in the vicinity and for civilians to stay indoors and not use public transportation until further notice.