document_title: Left- and right-hand traffic

question_text: when did nigeria change from right to left driving

text: Left- and right-hand traffic

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching.[10] In 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty.[11]

text: The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge.[12]

text: Some historians, such as C. Northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left.[10] In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left.[10]

text: In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver's seat, so the (typically right-handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons.[13]

text: In France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left. Following the French Revolution, all traffic kept right.[12] Following the Napoleonic Wars, the French imposed RHT on parts of Europe. During the colonial period, RHT was introduced by the French in New France, French West Africa, the Maghreb, French Indochina, the West Indies, French Guiana and the Réunion, among others.

text: Meanwhile, LHT traffic was introduced by the British in Atlantic Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the East Africa Protectorate, British India, Southern Rhodesia and the Cape Colony (now Zimbabwe and South Africa), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), British Guiana, and British Hong Kong. LHT was also introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau, Colonial Brazil, East Timor, Portuguese Mozambique, and Angola.

text: The first keep-right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike.[7] New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821.[14]

text: Changing sides[edit]

text: Europe[edit]

text: Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right-hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left-hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[15] However, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938-39.[16]

text: Sweden was LHT from about 1734 to 1967,[17] despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90 percent of cars being left-hand drive (LHD) vehicles.[18] A referendum was held in 1955, with an overwhelming majority voting against a change to RHT. Nevertheless, some years later the government ordered a conversion, which took place at 5 am on Sunday, 3 September 1967. The accident rate dropped sharply after the change,[19] but soon rose back to near its original level.[20] The day was known as Dagen H ("H-Day"), the 'H' being for Högertrafik or right traffic. When Iceland switched the following year, it was known as H-dagurinn, again meaning "H-Day".[21]

text: In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built-up nation.[22] Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.[23]

text: Asia and the Pacific[edit]

text: China adopted RHT in 1946. Taiwan changed to driving on the right at the same time. Hong Kong and Macau continue to be LHT.

text: Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in September 1945 after liberation from Japan which was defeated and surrendered by the Allies.

text: Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970.[24]

text: Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century. It switched to LHT in 2009,[25] being the first territory in almost 30 years to switch.[26] The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper right hand drive (RHD) vehicles imported from Australia, New Zealand or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People's Party, was formed to try to protest against the change, a protest group which launched a legal challenge,[27] and an estimated 18,000 people attending demonstrations against it.[28] The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa's 18,000 vehicles are designed for RHT and the government has refused to meet the cost of conversion.[26] After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents.[3] At 05:50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6:00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT.[25] The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat-belt laws.[29] That day and the following day were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic.[30] The change included a three-day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.[3]

text: The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish[31] and American colonial periods,[32][33] the latter despite United States switch to RHT in the 1930s (see above); as well as during the Commonwealth era.[34] During the Japanese occupation the Philippines remained LHT,[35] also because LHT had been required by the Japanese;[36] but during the Battle of Manila the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formally finalised by Executive Order No. 34 signed by President Sergio Osmeña on 10 March 1945.[37]

text: Africa[edit]

text: A number of non-contiguous former British colonies in West Africa originally drove LHT and switched to RHT in the early 1970s to match the surrounding countries. Sierra Leone switched to RHT in 1971, Nigeria in 1972 and Ghana in 1974. Before this period The Gambia, a country entirely contained within RHT Senegal, had officially switched to RHT in 1965.

text: Rwanda, a former Belgian colony in central Africa, is RHT but is considering switching to LHT, to bring the country in line with other members of the East African Community (EAC).[38] A survey, carried out in 2009, indicated that 54% of Rwandans were in favour of the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles as opposed to LHD versions of the same model, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonisation of traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The same survey also indicated that RHD cars are 16 to 49 per cent cheaper than their LHD equivalents.[39] In 2014 an internal report from consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT.[40] In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.[41][42]

text: Changing sides at borders[edit]

text: Although many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 72 countries that are parties to the 1968 agreement.

text: Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year between the UK and France.

text: Some countries have borders where drivers must switch from LHT to RHT and vice versa.

text: LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges which enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.[43]

text: There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100.[44] The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one-way streets with a main road.

text: The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil[45]) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.

text: Road vehicle configurations[edit]

text: Driver seating position[edit]

text: In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.[46]

text: Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD.[7] In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America,[7] arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car" and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger."[47] By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.[7]

text: In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or kerbside. Examples include:

text:
Where the driver needs a good view of the nearside, e.g. street sweepers, or vehicles driven along unstable road edges.[48]
Where it is more convenient for the driver to be on the nearside, e.g. delivery vehicles. The Grumman LLV is widely in used on RHD configurations in RHT North America. Some Unimogs are designed to be switch between LHD and RHD to permit operators to work on the more convenient side of the truck.

text: Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left,[49] and kickstands are usually on the left[50] which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside[50] as is the case in LHT.

text: Headlamps[edit]

text: The projection of light from low-beam headlamps is asymmetrical. The kerbside lamp projects light forwards, while the other headlamp dips the beam down and away from oncoming traffic, so as not to dazzle drivers coming in the opposite direction. In Europe, headlamps approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road.[51] This is done by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a designated part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded.[51] Some cars have a built-in adjustment to adapt the projection mechanically.[52]

text: Worldwide distribution by country[edit]

text: Of the 193 countries currently recognised by the United Nations (and the unrecognised Palestine), 140 use RHT and 54 use LHT. A country and its territories and dependencies is counted once.

text:
Country
Road traffic
Road switched sides
Multi-track rail traffic generally
Notes

 Afghanistan
RHT

RHT/LHT
Was LHT until the 1950s, in line with neighbouring British Raj and later Pakistan.[53]

 Albania
RHT[54]

RHT

 Algeria
RHT[54]

 Andorra
RHT[54]

 Angola
RHT[54]
1928

 Antigua and Barbuda
LHT[54]

 Argentina
RHT
10 June 1945
LHT
The anniversary on 10 June is still observed each year as Día de la Seguridad Vial (road safety day).[55]
The Metrotranvía Mendoza uses RHT.

 Armenia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Australia
LHT[56]

LHT
Commonwealth. Includes  Christmas Island,  Cocos Islands,  Norfolk Island

 Austria
RHT
1921 in Vorarlberg, 1930 in North Tyrol, 1935 in Carinthia and East Tyrol, 1938 in the rest of the country.
RHT[57]
Originally LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary.

 Azerbaijan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Bahamas
LHT[54]

In Bahamas LHD vehicles are common due to the import of used cars from nearby USA[58].

 Bahrain
RHT
1967

Former British protectorate. Switched to same side as neighbours.[59]

 Bangladesh
LHT[54]

LHT

 Barbados
LHT

 Belgium
RHT[54]
1899
LHT
The Brussels Metro uses RHT.

 Belarus
RHT[54]

RHT

 Belize
RHT
1961[2]

Former British colony. Switched to same side as neighbours.

 Benin
RHT[54]

 Bhutan
LHT[54]

Under British protection before 1949.

 Bolivia
RHT[54]

 Botswana
LHT[54]

 Brazil
RHT
1928[54]
LHT
A Portuguese colony until the early 19th century, switched some states still using LHT[60] to RHT in 1928.[61]
Most metro systems use RHT.

 Brunei
LHT[54]

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
RHT[54]

RHT[62]
Switched sides after the collapse of Austria-Hungary.

 Bulgaria
RHT[54]

RHT

 Burkina Faso
RHT[54]

 Burundi
RHT

Considering switching to LHT[63] in line with neighbours Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

 Cambodia
RHT

RHT implemented while part of French Indochina. RHD cars, many of which were smuggled from Thailand, were banned from 2001, even though they accounted for 80% of vehicles in the country.[64]

 Cameroon
RHT[54]
1961

 Canada
RHT
1920s
RHT
Territories now in Canada have always been RHT, except British Columbia, which changed to RHT in stages from 1920 to 1923,[65][66] and New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island which changed in 1922, 1923, and 1924 respectively.[67] Newfoundland and Labrador changed to RHT in 1947 while still a dominion of the British Empire, two years before joining Canada.[68]

 Cape Verde
RHT[54]
1928

 Central African Republic
RHT[54]

 Chad
RHT[54]

 Chile
RHT[54]

LHT
The Santiago Metro uses RHT.

 China
RHT/LHT[56]
1946
LHT/RHT
At one time, northern provinces were RHT due to American influence, while southern provinces were LHT due to British influence. LHT was uniform in the 1930s. China includes LHT  Hong Kong and  Macau, former colonies of Britain and Portugal, respectively.
Most metro systems use RHT, with the exception of the Hong Kong MTR.

 Colombia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Comoros
RHT[54]

 Congo
RHT[54]

 Democratic Republic of Congo
RHT[54]

 Costa Rica
RHT[54]

 Côte d'Ivoire
RHT[54]

 Croatia
RHT[54]

RHT
Istria and Dalmatia were RHT, while Croatia-Slavonia was LHT when Croatia was part of Austria-Hungary [69]. The LHT regions switched to RHT on joining the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

 Cuba
RHT[54]

 Cyprus
LHT[54]

Former British colony.

 Czech Republic
RHT[54]
1939
RHT
Was LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary, switched during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia.

 Denmark
RHT

RHT[70]
Includes  Faroe Islands and  Greenland

 Djibouti
RHT[54]

 Dominica
LHT[54]

Former British colony.

 Dominican Republic
RHT[54]

 East Timor
LHT
1976

Originally LHT, like its colonial power Portugal. Switched to RHT with Portugal in 1928.[2] Under the Indonesian occupation of East Timor, changed back to LHT in 1976.

 Ecuador
RHT[54]

LHT

 Egypt
RHT[54]

LHT
Road vehicles are RHT due to French influence, but railway system was built by British companies.

 El Salvador
RHT[54]

 Equatorial Guinea
RHT[54]

 Eritrea
RHT[54]
1964

 Estonia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Ethiopia
RHT[54]
1964
LHT
The Addis Ababa Light Rail runs on the right.

 Fiji
LHT

 Finland
RHT
1858
RHT
Formerly ruled by LHT Sweden, switched to RHT as the Grand Duchy of Finland by Russian decree.[71] Majority of Helsinki commuter rail lines run on the left.

 France
RHT
1792
LHT[72]/RHT
Includes  French Polynesia,  New Caledonia,  Saint Pierre and Miquelon,  Wallis and Futuna,  French Guiana,  Réunion,  Saint Barthélemy,  Collectivity of Saint Martin,  Guadeloupe,  Mayotte.
Most metro systems use RHT, except for the Lyon Metro.

 Gabon
RHT[54]

 Gambia
RHT [54]
1965

 Georgia
RHT[54]

RHT
About 40% vehicles in Georgia are RHD due to low cost of used cars from Japan[73].

 Germany
RHT[74]

RHT

 Ghana
RHT
1974

Former British colony. When changing to RHT a Twi language slogan was "Nifa, Nifa Enan" or "Right, Right, Fourth".[75]

 Greece
RHT[54]

RHT

 Grenada
LHT[54]

 Guatemala
RHT[54]

 Guinea
RHT[54]

 Guinea-Bissau
RHT[54]
1928

 Guyana
LHT[54]

 Haiti
RHT[54]

 Honduras
RHT[54]

 Hungary
RHT[54]
1941
RHT
Originally LHT, like most of Austria-Hungary.

 Iceland
RHT
1968

The day of the switch was known as H-dagurinn. Most passenger cars were already LHD.

 Iran
RHT[54]

RHT

 Iraq
RHT[54]

LHT

 India
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British colony.

 Indonesia
LHT[56]

RHT[76]
The Jakarta MRT will use LHT.

 Ireland
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British Dominion.

 Israel
RHT[54]

LHT
The Jerusalem Light Rail uses RHT.

 Italy
RHT
1920s
LHT
Until 1927 the countryside was RHT while cities were LHT.[77] Rome changed to RHT in 1924 and Milan in 1926. Alfa Romeo and Lancia did not produce LHD cars until as late as 1950 and 1953 respectively, as many drivers favoured the RHD layout even in RHT as this offered the driver a clearer view of the edge of the road in mountainous regions at a time when many such roads lacked barriers or walls.[78]
The metro systems in Brescia, Genoa, Milan, and Turin use RHT, as well as all tram systems.

 Jamaica
LHT[54]

 Japan
LHT[79]

LHT
Post-World War II Okinawa was ruled by the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands and was RHT. It was returned to Japan in 1972 went LHT in 1978.[80] The conversion operation was known as 730 (Nana-San-Maru, which means Nana(7)-San(3)-Maru(0)). Okinawa is one of few places to have changed from RHT to LHT in the late 20th century.

 Jordan
RHT[54]

RHT, despite the Mandate for Palestine and the Transjordan memorandum being under British rule till 1946.

 Kazakhstan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Kenya
LHT[81]

British colony until 1963.

 Kiribati
LHT[54]

 North Korea and  South Korea
RHT
1946
LHT
Korea had been LHT because of the influence of Japan in the 1900s. Switched to RHT under Soviet and American occupation after 1945.
Most metro systems in South Korea use RHT (exceptions include Seoul Subway Line 1 and the Bundang Line); metro system in Pyongyang uses a mixture of RHT and LHT.

 Kuwait
RHT[54]

 Kyrgyzstan
RHT

RHT
Former part of RHT Soviet Union. In 2012, over 20,000 cheaper used RHD cars were imported from Japan.[82]

 Laos
RHT[54]

LHT
RHT implemented while part of French Indochina.

 Latvia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Lebanon
RHT[54]

Former French mandate.

 Lesotho
LHT[54]

 Liberia
RHT[54]

 Libya
RHT[54]

 Liechtenstein
RHT[54]

 Lithuania
RHT[54]

RHT

 Luxembourg
RHT[54]

RHT

 Macedonia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Madagascar
RHT[54]

 Malawi
LHT[54]

 Malaysia
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British colony.

 Maldives
LHT[54]

 Mali
RHT[54]

 Malta
LHT[54]

British colony until 1964.

 Marshall Islands
RHT[54]

 Mauritania
RHT

Mining roads between Fdérik and Zouérat are LHT.[83]

 Mauritius
LHT[54]

Former British colony. Island nation.

 Mexico
RHT[54]

RHT

 Micronesia
RHT [54]

RHT

 Moldova
RHT[54]

RHT

 Monaco
RHT[54]

LHT

 Mongolia
RHT[54]

RHT

 Montenegro
RHT[54]

RHT

 Morocco
RHT[54]

RHT

 Mozambique
LHT[84]

LHT

 Myanmar
RHT
1970
LHT
Much of infrastructure still geared to LHT, most cars are pre-owned RHD vehicles, imported from Japan.[85]

 Netherlands
RHT
1906[86]
RHT
Rotterdam was LHT until 1917.[87] Includes  Curaçao,  Sint Maarten, and  Aruba

 Namibia
LHT
1918

RHT as a German colony. After South Africa occupied German South-West Africa during World War I, switched to LHT.[2] South-West Africa was made a South African mandate by the League of Nations, and the new rule of the road was established in law.[88]

 Nauru
LHT[54]
1918

   Nepal
LHT[89]

 New Zealand
LHT[56]

LHT
Includes territories  Niue and  Cook Islands

 Nicaragua
RHT[54]

 Niger
RHT[54]

 Nigeria
RHT
1972[90]
LHT
Former British colony. Switched to RHT as it is surrounded by former French RHT colonies.

 Norway
RHT[54]

RHT

 Oman
RHT

Not a party to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic and bans all foreign-registered RHD vehicles.[91]

 Palau
RHT[54]

RHT

 Palestine
RHT[54]

 Pakistan
LHT[54]

LHT

 Panama
RHT
1943[92]

 Papua New Guinea
LHT[54]

 Paraguay
RHT
1945[93]

 Peru
RHT[54]

LHT

 Philippines
RHT
1946[37]
RHT
LHT up until the Battle of Manila in 1945

 Poland
RHT

RHT
Partitions of Poland belonging to the German Empire and the Russian Empire were RHT. Partitions that were part of Austria-Hungary were LHT and changed to RHT in the 1920s.[94]

 Portugal
RHT[56]
1928
LHT
Colonies Goa, Macau and Mozambique, which had land borders with LHT countries, did not switch and continue to drive on the left.[84] The Porto Metro uses RHT.

 Qatar
RHT[54]

 Romania
RHT[54]

RHT

 Russia
RHT[54]

RHT
In the Russian Far East RHD vehicles are common due to the import of used cars from nearby Japan.[95] Railway between Moscow and Ryazan is LHT. Sormovskaya line in Nizhny Novgorod Metro also uses LHT.

 Rwanda
RHT[63]

Former Belgian mandate. Considering switching to LHT[63][96] like its neighbours Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
LHT

 Saint Lucia
LHT

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
LHT

 Samoa
LHT
2009

Switched to LHT to allow the import of cars more cheaply from Australia, New Zealand and Japan.[56]

 San Marino
RHT[54]

 São Tomé and Príncipe
RHT[54]
1928

 Saudi Arabia
RHT[54]

LHT

 Senegal
RHT[54]

 Serbia
RHT[54]

RHT
Vojvodina was LHT while part of Austria-Hungary.

 Seychelles
LHT[54]

 Sierra Leone
RHT
1971[97]

Importation of RHD vehicles was banned in 2013.[98]

 Singapore
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British colony.

 Slovakia
RHT[54]
1939–41
RHT

 Slovenia
RHT[54]

LHT

 Solomon Islands
LHT[54]

 Somalia
RHT
1968[99]

 South Africa
LHT[100][101]

LHT
Former British colony.

 South Sudan
RHT
1973

Was LHT during the period of British colonial rule. Split from Sudan in 2011 after the majority of the population voted for independence.

 Spain
RHT
1924
RHT
Up to the 1920s Barcelona was RHT, and Madrid was LHT until 1924. The Madrid Metro is LHT.[102]

 Sri Lanka
LHT[54]

LHT
Former British Colony.

 Sudan
RHT[54]
1973

Former British Colony.

 Suriname
LHT[54]

 Swaziland
LHT[54]

 Sweden
RHT[54]
1967
LHT
The day of the switch was known as Dagen H. Most passenger cars were already LHD. The tram systems in Gothenburg and Norrköping use RHT; the tram system in Stockholm uses a mixture of LHT and RHT.[103]

  Switzerland
RHT[54]

LHT
The tram system in Zurich and the Lausanne Metro use RHT.

 Syria
RHT[54]

 Taiwan
RHT
1946
LHT
Was LHT during the period of Japanese rule. The government of the Republic of China changed Taiwan to RHT in 1946 along with the rest of China.[104] The Taipei Metro uses RHT.

 Tajikistan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Tanzania
LHT[54]

 Thailand
LHT[56]

LHT
One of the few LHT countries not a former British colony. Shares long land border with RHT Laos and Cambodia.

 Togo
RHT[54]

 Tonga
LHT[54]

 Trinidad and Tobago
LHT[105]

Former British colony.

 Tunisia
RHT[54]

LHT
French RHT was enforced in the French protectorate of Tunisia from 1881.

 Turkey
RHT[54]

RHT

 Turkmenistan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Tuvalu
LHT[54]

 Uganda
LHT[54]

 Ukraine
RHT
1922[94]
RHT
West Ukraine was LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary. Carpathian Ruthenia remained LHT as part of Czechoslovakia before switching in 1941 as part of Hungary. The rest of Ukraine, having been part of the Russian Empire, already drove on the right.

 United Arab Emirates
RHT[54]

RHT

 United Kingdom
LHT

LHT/RHT
Includes Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories  Isle of Man,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Anguilla,  Bermuda,  British Virgin Islands,  Cayman Islands,  Falkland Islands,  Montserrat,  Pitcairn Islands,  Turks and Caicos Islands,  Saint Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha are all left hand drive.  Gibraltar has been RHT since 1929 because of its land border with Spain.[106] The Channel Islands (Jersey and Guernsey) drove on the right under German occupation until their liberation in 1945.[107] The Falkland Islands similarly drove on the right during their occupation by Argentina in 1982.[108]

 United States
RHT

RHT/LHT[109]
Includes  American Samoa,  Guam,  Northern Mariana Islands,  Puerto Rico.  U.S. Virgin Islands is LHT, like much of the Caribbean.

 Uruguay
RHT[93]
1945
LHT
Became LHT in 1918, but as in some other countries in South America, changed to RHT on 2 September 1945. A speed limit of 30 km/h (19 mph) was observed until 30 September for safety.

 Uzbekistan
RHT[54]

RHT

 Vanuatu
RHT[110]

 Venezuela
RHT[54]

LHT
The Caracas Metro uses RHT.

 Vietnam
RHT[54]

LHT
Became RHT as French Indochina.

 Yemen
RHT
1977[2]

South Yemen, formerly the British colony of Aden, changed to RHT 1977. A series of postage stamps commemorating the event was issued.[111] North Yemen was already RHT.

 Zambia
LHT[54]

 Zimbabwe
LHT

LHT
Former British colony. In 2010 the government attempted to ban LHD vehicles.[112]

text: Traffic behaviour[edit]

text:
Manoeuvre
LHT
RHT

Unless overtaking stay on the
left
right

In roundabouts traffic rotates
clockwise
anticlockwise

Oncoming traffic is seen coming from the
right
left

Traffic must cross oncoming traffic when turning
right
left

Most traffic signs are on the
left
right

Pedestrians crossing a two-way road look first for traffic from their
right
left

Dual carriageway ramps are on the
left
right

After stopping at a red light it may be legal to turn
left
right

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Gibraltar is RHT (since 1929)

A sign reminding motorists to keep left in Australia

Vehicles entering and leaving Macau cross over each other at the Lotus Bridge.

Sign reminding motorists to drive on the left in Ireland

The entrance to the Channel Tunnel in France.


document_title: My Name Is Earl

question_text: cast of my name is earl tv show

question_tokens: cast of my name is earl tv show

root

text: My Name Is Earl

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Earl Hickey is a small-time thief, living in the fictional rural town of Camden, whose winning $100,000 lottery ticket is lost when he is hit by a car while he celebrates his good fortune. Lying in a hospital bed, he learns about karma during an episode of the talk show Last Call with Carson Daly. Convinced he has to turn his life around to be happy, Earl gives himself over to the power of karma. He makes a list of every bad thing and every person he has wronged and make efforts to fix them all. After doing a first good deed, he finds the $100,000 lottery ticket that he had lost. Seeing this as a sign of karma rewarding him for his commitment, Earl uses his newfound wealth to do more good deeds according to his list.[1]

tag: p

text: Having divorced from his wife Joy Darville and separated from their two kids Dodge and Earl Jr., neither of whom are biologically related to him, Earl moves into a motel and lives with his brother Randy, and they meet Catalina, the motel's beautiful maid who illegally immigrated from somewhere in Latin America. Earl works on the list which mostly involves strangers and old acquaintances he has wronged, but also contains items involving his family. Initially Joy plots to kill or blackmail Earl for the lottery money, but later gives up. Joy marries Darnell Turner, a mutual friend who works at a local restaurant called the Crab Shack, and with whom she had been having an affair. In the season 1 finale, Earl discovers he had bought the lotto tickets using money he stole from another person, but when he tries to return his winnings to that person, the latter is inflicted with bad karma, so he returns the money to Earl.

text: The second season has Earl continuing to work on his list, however, Joy gets in trouble when she steals a delivery truck and ends up kidnapping and assaulting the worker who was inside. Joy is arrested for felonies that would put her in prison for life because it was her third strike. To soften the jury, she decides to have a surrogate baby for her half-sister Liberty Washington. When things do not go well at her trial, Earl sacrifices himself by confessing to all of Joy's crimes, and is sentenced to two years in a state penitentiary. Also during the season, Catalina was deported, so Earl and Randy visit her village in Latin America, and Randy marries Catalina in a green card marriage to bring her back.

text: In the third season, Earl is in the state prison, but continues to do good deeds despite not having his list. He meets Frank, with whom he had rented the trailer in which Joy and Darnell now live, while Randy gets a job as a prison guard to be close to Earl. Meanwhile, Joy gives birth to Liberty and Ray Ray's child. Earl's good deeds attract the attention of the state warden Jerry, who offers Earl a reduction in prison time for helping him resolve his issues. When Earl is about to leave, Jerry revokes Earl's reductions as he would lose such a productive helper, but Earl eventually gains the upper hand and forces Jerry to honor his early release. After leaving prison, Earl loses his confidence in the list; he has spent years and the last of his lottery winnings doing good things, but has nothing lasting to show for it, and is insistent that karma should have given him some kind of lasting reward by now. He reverts to his pre-list ways, doing cruel and illegal things until Frank's former girlfriend Billie Cunningham hits him with her car and sends him into a coma, and is subsequently hit herself. Randy is able to revive Earl by working on the list. Earl finds Billie and marries her, thinking she is karma's reward for his years of effort. When Earl and Billie argue over the list, and when Earl chooses the list over her, Billie goes into a rampage where she undoes his good deeds. However, when Billie hides in the Amish-like "Camdenite" settlement, she has a change of heart. She divorces Earl and gives him the rest of her insurance settlement money.

text: The fourth season goes back to focusing on Earl doing good deeds to cross off his list.[2] A major story arc during this season was that Darnell, who is actually a former assassin from a secret government agency, blows his witness protection cover. He, Joy and his family are forced to change identities and relocate until Darnell's father, also from the agency, goes on a mission with Darnell which clears them of needing protection. The season ends with a cliffhanger episode in which Earl and the gang learn from DNA test results that Earl is actually Dodge's biological father, but that Earl Jr.'s biological father is not Darnell.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jason Lee as Earl Hickey, a small-time thug who turns his life around after winning money a lottery scratcher and making a list of wrongs that he plans to make amends for.
Ethan Suplee as Randy Hickey, Earl's slow-witted brother.
Jaime Pressly as Joy Turner, Earl's ex-wife who lives in a trailer park.
Nadine Velazquez as Catalina, the maid at the motel that Earl and Randy reside.
Eddie Steeples as Darnell Turner, a worker at the local restaurant that Earl and the gang frequent. He marries Joy in season 1.

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Conception[edit]

text: Creator and head writer Greg Garcia wrote the pilot while working on another sitcom, Yes, Dear. He initially pitched the series to Fox which passed on the series. He then approached NBC, which optioned the pilot on a cast-contingent basis, meaning they would order the pilot provided a suitable cast could be assembled. Jason Lee was approached for the lead role, but was uninterested in working in television and passed on the series twice before finally agreeing to read the pilot script. Though he liked the pilot, he was hesitant to commit to his first TV starring role until meeting with Garcia, after which he signed on to play Earl Hickey.[3]

text: Locations[edit]

text: My Name Is Earl is set in fictional Camden County. Creator Greg Garcia says:[citation needed]

text: The show doesn't technically take place anywhere....we like to think it's anywhere. We don't really say exactly where it is.

text: In the episode "BB", Earl's driver's license address is at "Pimmit Hills Trailer Park, Space C-13, Camden County", but the state is not listed. Creator Greg Garcia said that Camden County is loosely modeled on Pimmit Hills, Virginia, the neighborhood where he grew up.[4][5] The actual location in Los Angeles was not a trailer park, but was built up to look like one.[6]

text: Many of the locations were filmed in San Fernando Valley in California. In the season 1 episode "The Professor", Earl receives a postcard from Alex with the address "Earl Hickey, The Palms Hotel RM 231, 9005 Lincoln Blvd, Camden USA" with Earl's hand covering up most of the postmark. The Palms Motel structure is actually a motel in North Hills, California, now named the Palm Tree Inn Motel. It was also used to film other shows and films such as Gilmore Girls, The Mentalist, and Heroes.[7][8][9][10] Exterior shots of the Crab Shack and Club Chubby were also taken from locations in Van Nuys and North Hills.[6] Houses and shops for the various characters come from locations in Van Nuys, Santa Clarita, Northridge, Moorpark, Los Angeles, and other Southern California cities.[11][12][13] In the episode "Didn't Pay Taxes", Earl and Randy climb the landmark Artesia water tower, although they do not refer to it by name.[14]

text: Other episodes have listed states that were unlikely to have Camden County. In the episode "Our Other Cops is On", officer Stuart Daniels states that his surveillance equipment was "supposed to go to Camden, New Jersey, but came here instead". In "Earl and Joy's Anniversary", when killer bees have invaded Camden and then left, Iqball says that the bees are heading for Texas. The flashback episodes "Inside Probe" describe Camden County as trying to stay independent during the American Civil War and forming its own country called Central, which lasted less than a day.

text: Cancellation and future[edit]

text: The series ended abruptly on September 23, 2008 after running for four seasons. Season four had ended with the caption 'To Be Continued'. The series' producer, 20th Century Fox Television, approached the Fox,[15] TBS[16] and TNT[17] networks to continue the series, but they were unable to come to terms without "seriously undermining the artistic integrity of the series."[16][18][19][20][21][22]

text: In October 2011, Jason Lee told E! Online he has been in talks with Greg Garcia to finish the list via a movie, possibly to be released online.[23]

text: On October 1, 2013, creator Greg Garcia participated in an AMA on reddit.com. Fan Jerry Denton asked "Who was Earl Jr's. real father and did Earl ever finish the list?"

text: Garcia replied:[23]

text: We never really got the chance to fully figure it out but the talk in the writers room was that Earl Jr.'s Dad was going to be someone famous. Like Dave Chappelle or Lil Jon. Someone that came to town on tour and Joy slept with. But when we got canceled we never got the chance to figure it out. I was worried about doing a cliffhanger but I asked NBC if it was safe to do one at the end of the season and they told me it was. I guess it wasn't. I had always had an ending to Earl and I'm sorry I didn't get the chance to see it happen. You've got a show about a guy with a list so not seeing him finish it is a bummer. But the truth is, he wasn't ever going to finish the list. The basic idea of the ending was that while he was stuck on a really hard list item he was going to start to get frustrated that he was never going to finish it. Then he runs into someone who had a list of their own and Earl was on it. They needed to make up for something bad they had done to Earl. He asks them where they got the idea of making a list and they tell him that someone came to them with a list and that person got the idea from someone else. Earl eventually realizes that his list started a chain reaction of people with lists and that he's finally put more good into the world than bad. So at that point he was going to tear up his list and go live his life. Walk into the sunset a free man. With good karma.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The show was well received by critics and audiences alike. One reviewer speculated that Earl's forthrightness to having led a life of idiocy is what endears him to the viewer, and is what suggests there is a depth to his character beyond what is initially seen.[1] Many of the negative and ambivalent reviews center on what is perceived to be base[24] and bigoted humor.[25]

text: Some critics claimed the series had a Scientologist bias or message, with actors Jason Lee and Ethan Suplee being Scientologists.[26] In 2008, Alec Baldwin publicly named Earl creator Greg Garcia as being a Scientologist;[27] Garcia quickly denied any involvement with Scientology, claiming that the Daily Mirror had incorrectly reported him to be a Scientologist.[28]

text: The series was nominated twice for Best International Programme at the British Academy Television Awards in 2007 and 2008. The pilot episode won Emmy awards for Outstanding Writing and Directing in a Comedy Series for Greg Garcia and Marc Buckland respectively at the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards. Jaime Pressly won for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards. Other Emmy nominations include Beau Bridges and Giovanni Ribisi for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
24
September 20, 2005 (2005-09-20)
May 11, 2006 (2006-05-11)

2
23
September 21, 2006 (2006-09-21)
May 10, 2007 (2007-05-10)

3
22
September 27, 2007 (2007-09-27)
May 15, 2008 (2008-05-15)

4
27
September 25, 2008 (2008-09-25)
May 14, 2009 (2009-05-14)

tag: table

text: DVD releases[edit]

text: Season releases overview[edit]

text:
DVD Name
Release dates
Ep #
Additional Information

Region 1
Region 2

Season One[29]
September 19, 2006
September 25, 2006
24
The four disc box set includes all 24 episodes. Bonus features include deleted scenes, commentary tracks on selected episodes, selections from the season's gag reel, and a "mini-episode" vignette where Stewie Griffin from Family Guy influences Earl to get revenge on everyone who wronged him.

Season Two[30]
September 25, 2007
January 28, 2008
23
The four disc box set includes all 23 episodes. Bonus features include deleted scenes, commentary tracks on selected episodes, as well as other featurettes.

Season Three[31]
September 30, 2008[32]
October 20, 2008[33]
22
The four disc box set includes all 22 episodes. Bonus features include a gag reel, "Creating the characters" featurette and deleted scenes.

Season Four[34]
September 15, 2009
October 5, 2009
27
The four disc box set includes all 27 episodes. Bonus features include deleted scenes, a gag reel, "Earl's Fan Mail" featurette and a movie trailer inspired by the premiere episode. Also released on Blu-ray.

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The series premiered on September 20, 2005, drew in 14.9 million viewers in the United States, earning a 6.6 rating. By the airing of the third episode it was apparent that My Name Is Earl was the highest rated of NBC's new fall offerings, and a full season (22 episodes) was ordered. In its first month, it was also the highest rated new sitcom of the season to air on any network and was the highest rated sitcom on any network in the 18–49-year-old demographic. The show was renewed for a second season (2006), a third (2007), and a fourth (2008).

text:
Season
Timeslot (EDT)
Season Premiere
Season Finale
TV Season
Viewers
(in millions)

1
Tuesday 9:00 P.M. (September 20 – October 18, 2005)
Thursday 9:00 P.M. (October 25 – December 27, 2005)

September 20, 2005
December 27, 2005
2005
10.9[35]

2
Thursday 8:00 P.M.
September 21, 2006
December 19, 2006
2006
8.9[36]

3
September 27, 2007
December 25, 2007
2007
7.3[37]

4
September 23, 2008
December 16, 2008
2008
6.6[38]

text: Syndication[edit]

text: 20th Century Fox Television has cleared My Name Is Earl in nearly 50% of the U.S., said Bob Cook, the company's president and chief operating officer. 20th had sold the off-net sitcom to the Fox, Tribune, CBS, Hearst-Argyle, and Sinclair station groups for a fall 2009 debut.[39]

text: My Name Is Earl aired in off-network syndication and on TBS, Ion Television, and MyNetworkTV in the United States, and is currently available on the streaming service Netflix. Canada airs the series on Joytv. The series premiered in January 2006 on Channel 4 in the UK. The fourth and Final season was shown on E4 in October 2008. In 2013, 5* gained the repeat rights to the series.

text: Comic book[edit]

text: Independent comic book publisher Oni Press had announced a comic book tie-in to the series in 2006,[40] and season one's DVD release included ads for the comic; but none were produced. Since the cancellation of the show, Oni has abandoned the comic.[41]


document_title: Fermentation

question_text: what type of gas is produced during fermentation

text: Fermentation

text: Definitions[edit]

text: Below are some definitions of fermentation. They range from informal, general usages to more scientific definitions.[3]

text:
Preservation methods for food via microorganisms (general use).
Any process that produces alcoholic beverages or acidic dairy products (general use).
Any large-scale microbial process occurring with or without air (common definition used in industry).
Any energy-releasing metabolic process that takes place only under anaerobic conditions (becoming more scientific).
Any metabolic process that releases energy from a sugar or other organic molecule, does not require oxygen or an electron transport system, and uses an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor (most scientific).

tag: ol

text: Biological role[edit]

text: Along with photosynthesis and aerobic respiration, fermentation is a way of extracting energy from molecules, but it is the only one common to all bacteria and eukaryotes. It is therefore considered the oldest metabolic pathway, suitable for an environment that did not yet have oxygen.[4]:389 Yeast, a form of fungus, occurs in almost any environment capable of supporting microbes, from the skins of fruits to the guts of insects and mammals and the deep ocean, and they harvest sugar-rich materials to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.[5][6]

text: The basic mechanism for fermentation remains present in all cells of higher organisms. Mammalian muscle carries out the fermentation that occurs during periods of intense exercise where oxygen supply becomes limited, resulting in the creation of lactic acid.[7]:63 In invertebrates, fermentation also produces succinate and alanine.[8]:141

text: Fermentative bacteria play an essential role in the production of methane in habitats ranging from the rumens of cattle to sewage digesters and freshwater sediments. They produce hydrogen, carbon dioxide, formate and acetate and carboxylic acids; and then consortia of microbes convert the carbon dioxide and acetate to methane. Acetogenic bacteria oxidize the acids, obtaining more acetate and either hydrogen or formate. Finally, methanogens (which are in the domain Archea) convert acetate to methane.[9]

text: Biochemical overview[edit]

text: Fermentation reacts NADH with an endogenous, organic electron acceptor.[1] Usually this is pyruvate formed from sugar through glycolysis. The reaction produces NAD+ and an organic product, typical examples being ethanol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen gas (H2). However, more exotic compounds can be produced by fermentation, such as butyric acid and acetone. Fermentation products contain chemical energy (they are not fully oxidized), but are considered waste products, since they cannot be metabolized further without the use of oxygen.

text: Fermentation normally occurs in an anaerobic environment. In the presence of O2, NADH and pyruvate are used to generate ATP in respiration. This is called oxidative phosphorylation, and it generates much more ATP than glycolysis alone. For that reason, fermentation is rarely utilized when oxygen is available. However, even in the presence of abundant oxygen, some strains of yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration as long as there is an adequate supply of sugars (a phenomenon known as the Crabtree effect).[11] Some fermentation processes involve obligate anaerobes, which cannot tolerate oxygen.

text: Although yeast carries out the fermentation in the production of ethanol in beers, wines, and other alcoholic drinks, this is not the only possible agent: bacteria carry out the fermentation in the production of xanthan gum.

text: Products[edit]

text: Ethanol[edit]

text: In ethanol fermentation, one glucose molecule is converted into two ethanol molecules and two carbon dioxide molecules.[12][13] It is used to make bread dough rise: the carbon dioxide forms bubbles, expanding the dough into a foam.[14][15] The ethanol is the intoxicating agent in alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer and liquor.[16] Fermentation of feedstocks including sugarcane, corn and sugar beets produces ethanol that is added to gasoline.[17] In some species of fish, including goldfish and carp, it provides energy when oxygen is scarce (along with lactic acid fermentation).[18]

text: The figure illustrates the process. Before fermentation, a glucose molecule breaks down into two pyruvate molecules. The energy from this exothermic reaction is used to bind inorganic phosphates to ATP and convert NAD+ to NADH. The pyruvates break down into two acetaldehyde molecules and give off two carbon dioxide molecules as a waste product. The acetaldehyde is reduced into ethanol using the energy and hydrogen from NADH and the NADH is oxidized into NAD+ so that the cycle may repeat. The reaction is catalysed by the enzymes pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase.[12]

text: Lactic acid[edit]

text: Homolactic fermentation (producing only lactic acid) is the simplest type of fermentation. The pyruvate from glycolysis[19] undergoes a simple redox reaction, forming lactic acid.[20][21] It is unique because it is one of the only respiration processes to not produce a gas as a byproduct. Overall, one molecule of glucose (or any six-carbon sugar) is converted to two molecules of lactic acid:

text: It occurs in the muscles of animals when they need energy faster than the blood can supply oxygen. It also occurs in some kinds of bacteria (such as lactobacilli) and some fungi. It is the type of bacteria that converts lactose into lactic acid in yogurt, giving it its sour taste. These lactic acid bacteria can carry out either homolactic fermentation, where the end-product is mostly lactic acid, or

text: Heterolactic fermentation, where some lactate is further metabolized and results in ethanol and carbon dioxide[20] (via the phosphoketolase pathway), acetate, or other metabolic products, e.g.:

text: If lactose is fermented (as in yogurts and cheeses), it is first converted into glucose and galactose (both six-carbon sugars with the same atomic formula):

text: Heterolactic fermentation is in a sense intermediate between lactic acid fermentation, and other types, e.g. alcoholic fermentation (see below). The reasons to go further and convert lactic acid into anything else are:

text:
The acidity of lactic acid impedes biological processes; this can be beneficial to the fermenting organism as it drives out competitors that are unadapted to the acidity; as a result, the food will have a longer shelf life (part of the reason foods are purposely fermented in the first place); however, beyond a certain point, the acidity starts affecting the organism that produces it.
The high concentration of lactic acid (the final product of fermentation) drives the equilibrium backwards (Le Chatelier's principle), decreasing the rate at which fermentation can occur, and slowing down growth.
Ethanol, into which lactic acid can be easily converted, is volatile and will readily escape, allowing the reaction to proceed easily. CO2 is also produced, but it is only weakly acidic, and even more volatile than ethanol.
Acetic acid (another conversion product) is acidic, and not as volatile as ethanol; however, in the presence of limited oxygen, its creation from lactic acid releases additional energy. It is a lighter molecule than lactic acid, that forms fewer hydrogen bonds with its surroundings (due to having fewer groups that can form such bonds), thus is more volatile and will also allow the reaction to move forward more quickly.
If propionic acid, butyric acid, and longer monocarboxylic acids are produced (see mixed acid fermentation), the amount of acidity produced per glucose consumed will decrease, as with ethanol, allowing faster growth.

text: Hydrogen gas[edit]

text: Hydrogen gas is produced in many types of fermentation (mixed acid fermentation, butyric acid fermentation, caproate fermentation, butanol fermentation, glyoxylate fermentation), as a way to regenerate NAD+ from NADH. Electrons are transferred to ferredoxin, which in turn is oxidized by hydrogenase, producing H2.[12] Hydrogen gas is a substrate for methanogens and sulfate reducers, which keep the concentration of hydrogen low and favor the production of such an energy-rich compound,[22] but hydrogen gas at a fairly high concentration can nevertheless be formed, as in flatus.

text: As an example of mixed acid fermentation, bacteria such as Clostridium pasteurianum ferment glucose producing butyrate, acetate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas:[23] The reaction leading to acetate is:

text: Glucose could theoretically be converted into just CO2 and H2, but the global reaction releases little energy.

text: Modes of operation[edit]

text: Most industrial fermentation uses batch or fed-batch procedures, although continuous fermentation can be more economical if various challenges, particularly the difficulty of maintaining sterility, can be met.[24]

text: Batch[edit]

text: In a batch process, all the ingredients are combined and the reactions proceed without any further input. Batch fermentation has been used for millennia to make bread and alcoholic beverages, and it is still a common method, especially when the process is not well understood.[25]:1 However, it can be expensive because the fermentor must be sterilized using high pressure steam between batches.[24] Strictly speaking, there is often addition of small quantities of chemicals to control the pH or suppress foaming.[25]:25

text: Batch fermentation goes through a series of phases. There is a lag phase in which cells adjust to their environment; then a phase in which exponential growth occurs. Once many of the nutrients have been consumed, the growth slows and becomes non-exponential, but production of secondary metabolites (including commercially important antibiotics and enzymes) accelerates. This continues through a stationary phase after most of the nutrients have been consumed, and then the cells die.[25]:25

text: Fed-batch[edit]

text: Fed-batch fermentation is a variation of batch fermentation where some of the ingredients are added during the fermentation. This allows greater control over the stages of the process. In particular, production of secondary metabolites can be increased by adding a limited quantity of nutrients during the non-exponential growth phase. Fed-batch operations are often sandwiched between batch operations.[25]:1[26]

text: Open[edit]

text: The high cost of sterilizing the fermentor between batches can be avoided using various open fermentation approaches that are able to resist contamination. One is to use a naturally evolved mixed culture. This is particularly favored in wastewater treatment, since mixed populations can adapt to a wide variety of wastes. Thermophilic bacteria can produce lactic acid at temperatures of around 50 degrees Celsius, sufficient to discourage microbial contamination; and ethanol has been produced at a temperature of 70°C. This is just below its boiling point (78°C), making it easy to extract. Halophilic bacteria can produce bioplastics in hypersaline conditions. Solid-state fermentation adds a small amount of water to a solid substrate; it is widely used in the food industry to produce flavors, enzymes and organic acids.[24]

text: Continuous[edit]

text: In continuous fermentation, substrates are added and final products removed continuously.[24] There are three varieties: chemostats, which hold nutrient levels constant; turbidostats, which keep cell mass constant; and plug flow reactors in which the culture medium flows steadily through a tube while the cells are recycled from the outlet to the inlet.[26] If the process works well, there is a steady flow of feed and effluent and the costs of repeatedly setting up a batch are avoided. Also, it can prolong the exponential growth phase and avoid byproducts that inhibit the reactions by continuously removing them. However, it is difficult to maintain a steady state and avoid contamination, and the design tends to be complex.[24] Typically the fermentor must run for over 500 hours to be more economical than batch processors.[26]

text: History of human use[edit]

text: The use of fermentation, particularly for beverages, has existed since the Neolithic and has been documented dating from 7000–6600 BCE in Jiahu, China,[27] 5000 BCE in India, Ayurveda mentions many Medicated Wines, 6000 BCE in Georgia,[28] 3150 BCE in ancient Egypt,[29] 3000 BCE in Babylon,[30] 2000 BCE in pre-Hispanic Mexico,[30] and 1500 BC in Sudan.[31] Fermented foods have a religious significance in Judaism and Christianity. The Baltic god Rugutis was worshiped as the agent of fermentation.[32][33]

text: In 1837, Charles Cagniard de la Tour, Theodor Schwann and Friedrich Traugott Kützing independently published papers concluding, as a result of microscopic investigations, that yeast is a living organism that reproduces by budding.[34][35]:6 Schwann boiled grape juice to kill the yeast and found that no fermentation would occur until new yeast was added. However, a lot of chemists , including Antoine Lavoisier, continued to view fermentation as a simple chemical reaction and rejected the notion that living organisms could be involved. This was seen as a reversion to vitalism, and was lampooned in an anonymous publication by Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler.[4]:108–109

text: The turning point came when Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), during the 1850s and 1860s, repeated Schwann's experiments and showed that fermentation is initiated by living organisms in a series of investigations.[21][35]:6 In 1857, Pasteur showed that lactic acid fermentation is caused by living organisms.[36] In 1860, he demonstrated that bacteria cause souring in milk, a process formerly thought to be merely a chemical change, and his work in identifying the role of microorganisms in food spoilage led to the process of pasteurization.[37] In 1877, working to improve the French brewing industry, Pasteur published his famous paper on fermentation, "Etudes sur la Bière", which was translated into English in 1879 as "Studies on fermentation".[38] He defined fermentation (incorrectly) as "Life without air",[39] but correctly showed that specific types of microorganisms cause specific types of fermentations and specific end-products.

text: Although showing fermentation to be the result of the action of living microorganisms was a breakthrough, it did not explain the basic nature of the fermentation process, or prove that it is caused by the microorganisms that appear to be always present. Many scientists, including Pasteur, had unsuccessfully attempted to extract the fermentation enzyme from yeast.[39] Success came in 1897 when the German chemist Eduard Buechner ground up yeast, extracted a juice from them, then found to his amazement that this "dead" liquid would ferment a sugar solution, forming carbon dioxide and alcohol much like living yeasts.[40] Buechner's results are considered to mark the birth of biochemistry. The "unorganized ferments" behaved just like the organized ones. From that time on, the term enzyme came to be applied to all ferments. It was then understood that fermentation is caused by enzymes that are produced by microorganisms.[41] In 1907, Buechner won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work.[42]

text: Advances in microbiology and fermentation technology have continued steadily up until the present. For example, in the 1930s, it was discovered that microorganisms could be mutated with physical and chemical treatments to be higher-yielding, faster-growing, tolerant of less oxygen, and able to use a more concentrated medium.[43] Strain selection and hybridization developed as well, affecting most modern food fermentations.

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word "ferment" is derived from the Latin verb fervere, which means to boil. It is thought to have been first used in the late 14th century in alchemy, but only in a broad sense. It was not used in the modern scientific sense until around 1600.


document_title: List of African countries by GDP (nominal)

question_text: the country that has the best economy in africa

text:
Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all final goods and services from a nation in a given year. Countries in Africa are sorted according to data from the International Monetary Fund.
The figures presented here do not take into account differences in the cost of living in different countries, and the results can vary greatly from one year to another based on fluctuations in the exchange rates of the country's currency.[1] Such fluctuations may change a country's ranking from one year to the next, even though they often make little or no difference to the standard of living of its population.[2]

text: Some countries may have citizens that are on average wealthy. These countries/regions could appear in this list as having a small GDP. This would be because the country/region listed has a small population, and therefore small total economy; the GDP is calculated as the population times market value of the goods and services produced per person in the country.[3][4]

text: These figures should therefore be used with caution.

text: Comparisons of national wealth are also frequently made on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP), to adjust for differences in the cost of living in different countries. PPP largely removes the exchange rate problem, but has its own drawbacks; it does not reflect the value of economic output in international trade, and it also requires more estimation than nominal GDP.[5] On the whole, PPP per capita figures are more narrowly spread than nominal GDP per capita figures.[6]

text: List[edit]

text: The 2017 estimates are as follows:[7][8]

text: GDP (Nominal) of Africa 2017

text:
2017 Rank

Country

Nominal GDP($ billions)

Nominal GDP
per capita
(US$)

Notes

1

 Nigeria

376.284

1,994.235

2

 South Africa

349.299

6,179.870

3

 Egypt

237.037

2,500.772

4

 Algeria

178.287

4,292.272

5

 Angola

124.209

4,407.657

6

 Sudan

119.00

1,428.000

[9]

7

 Morocco

109.824

3,151.145

8

 Ethiopia

80.874

872.840

9

 Kenya

79.511

1,701.550

[10]

10

 Tanzania

51.725

1,033.567

11

 Ghana

47.032

1,663.190

12

 Democratic Republic of the Congo

41.441

478.237

13

 Ivory Coast

40.360

1,616.981

14

 Tunisia

40.275

3,496.286

15

 Cameroon

34.006

1,400.743

16

 Libya

31.331

4,858.672

17

 Uganda

26.349

699.410

18

 Zambia

25.504

1,479.542

19

 Zimbabwe

17.491

1,175.723

20

 Botswana

17.168

7,876.997

21

 Senegal

16.463

1,038.094

22

 Mali

15.318

810.771

23

 Gabon

15.206

7,971.589

24

 Namibia

12.687

5,413.508

25

 Mozambique

12.681

429.296

26

 Burkina Faso

12.569

663.806

27

 Mauritius

12.428

9,794.102

28

 Madagascar

11.463

447.558

29

 Equatorial Guinea

10.725

12,726.956

30

 Chad

9.872

810.163

31

 Guinea

9.721

749.463

32

 Benin

9.238

830.404

33

 Rwanda

9.137

771.702

34

 Congo

8.513

1,958.174

35

 Niger

8.253

439.997

36

 Somalia

7.382

547.32

37

 Malawi

6.206

323.740

38

 Eritrea

5.813

979.692

39

 Mauritania

5.116

1,317.938

40

 Togo

4.767

611.133

41

 eSwatini (Swaziland)

4.491

3,914.821

42

 Sierra Leone

3.641

491.448

43

 Burundi

3.396

312.463

44

 Liberia

3.285

729.292

45

 South Sudan

2.870

228.034

46

 Lesotho

2.768

1,425.310

47

 Djibouti

2.029

1,988.765

48

 Central African Republic

1.928

386.806

49

 Cape Verde

1.741

3,237.597

50

 Seychelles

1.482

15,685.955

51

 Guinea-Bissau

1.350

794.107

52

 The Gambia

1.009

480.040

53

 Comoros

0.652

787.831

54

 São Tomé and Príncipe

0.379

1,785.280

--

Total

2,191.104


document_title: Lee Strobel

question_text: when was the book the case for christ written

text: Lee Strobel

text: Biography[edit]

text: Strobel received a journalism degree from University of Missouri and a Master of Studies in Law degree from Yale Law School,[6] becoming a journalist for the Chicago Tribune and other newspapers for 14 years. In 1980, the UPI Illinois Editors Association newspaper award program gave him a first place for public service (the Len H. Small Memorial award) for his coverage of the Pinto crash trial of Ford Motor in Winamac, Indiana.[7][8]

text: Strobel was an atheist when he began investigating the Biblical claims about Christ after his wife's conversion. Prompted by the results of his investigation, he became a Christian on November 8, 1981.[9][10]

text: Strobel was a teaching pastor of Willow Creek Community Church in South Barrington, Illinois, from 1987 to 2000, before shifting his focus to writing and producing his TV show.[11] He continues to speak periodically at churches and has been a board member of the Willow Creek Association. In 2007, Strobel was awarded an honorary doctoral degree by Southern Evangelical Seminary in recognition of his contributions to Christian apologetics.[12]

text: Strobel is married to Leslie, and they have two children and several grandchildren. His daughter Alison is a novelist,[11] and his son Kyle is an Assistant Professor of Spiritual Theology and Formation at the Talbot School of Theology.

text: Selected works[edit]

text: The Case for Christ[edit]

text: The Case for Christ retraces and expands his journey toward becoming a Christian. The book summarizes his interviews with thirteen evangelical Christian scholars—Craig Blomberg, Bruce Metzger, Edwin Yamauchi, John McRay, Gregory Boyd, Ben Witherington III, Gary Collins, D. A. Carson, Louis Lapides, Alexander Metherell, William Lane Craig, Gary Habermas, and J. P. Moreland—in which they defend their views regarding the historical reliability of the New Testament. The Case for Christ, September 1, 1998, Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-22605-8 Strobel's personal experience while encountering these scholars and their beliefs was portrayed in the 2017 drama film of the same name.

text: The book is divided into three parts, preceded by a Preface: Introduction: Reopening the Investigation of a Lifetime

text:
Part 1: Examining the Record

1. The Eyewitness Evidence: Can the Biographies of Jesus Be Trusted? with Dr. Craig Blomberg
2. Testing the Eyewitness Evidence: Do the Biographies of Jesus Stand Up to Scrutiny? with Dr. Craig Blomberg
3. The Documentary Evidence: Were Jesus' Biographies Reliably Preserved for Us? with Dr. Bruce Metzger
4. The Corroborating Evidence: Is There Credible Evidence for Jesus outside His Biographies? with Dr. Edwin Yamauchi
5. The Scientific Evidence: Does Archaeology Confirm or Contradict Jesus' Biographies? with Dr. John McRay
6. The Rebuttal Evidence: Is the Jesus of History the Same As the Jesus of Faith? with Dr. Gregory Boyd

Part 2: Analyzing Jesus

7. The Identity Evidence: Was Jesus Really Convinced That He Was the Son of God? with Dr. Ben Witherington III
8. The Psychological Evidence: Was Jesus Crazy When He Claimed to Be the Son of God? with Dr. Gary Collins
9. The Profile Evidence: Did Jesus Fulfill the Attributes of God? with Dr. D.A. Carson
10. The Fingerprint Evidence: Did Jesus – and Jesus Alone – Match the Identity of the Messiah? with Louis Lapides, M.Div., Th.M.

Part 3: Researching the Resurrection

11. The Medical Evidence: Was Jesus' Death a Sham and His Resurrection a Hoax? with Dr. Alexander Metherell
12. The Evidence of the Missing Body: Was Jesus' Body Really Absent from His Tomb? with Dr. William Lane Craig
13. The Evidence of Appearances: Was Jesus Seen Alive after His Death on the Cross? with Dr. Gary Habermas
14. The Circumstantial Evidence: Are There Any Supporting Facts That Point to the Resurrection? with Dr. J. P. Moreland

Conclusion: The Verdict of History: What Does the Evidence Establish – And What Does It Mean Today?

text: The Case for Faith[edit]

text: In his book The Case for Faith: A Journalist Investigates the Toughest Objections to Christianity, Strobel replies to doubts about Christianity, including the problem of evil, the contradiction between miracles and science, whether God is worthy of worship if he kills innocent children, whether Jesus is the only way to God, and the church's history of oppression and violence.[13]

text: The book is divided into 8 Objections:

text:
Objection #1 "Since Evil and Suffering Exist, a Loving God Cannot" with Peter Kreeft, PhD
Objection #2 "Since Miracles Contradict Science, They Cannot Be True" with William Lane Craig, PhD
Objection #3 "Evolution Explains Life, So God Isn't Needed" with Walter L. Bradley, PhD
Objection #4 "God Isn't Worthy of Worship If He Kills Innocent Children" with Norman L. Geisler, PhD
Objection #5 "It's Offensive to Claim Jesus Is the Only Way to God" with Ravi Zacharias, D.D., LL.D.
Objection #6 "A Loving God Would Never Torture People in Hell" with J.P. Moreland, PhD
Objection #7 "Church History Is Littered with Oppression and Violence" with John D. Woodbridge, PhD
Objection #8 "I Still Have Doubts, So I Can't Be a Christian" with Lynn Anderson, D.Min.

text: The Case for a Creator[edit]

text: The Case for a Creator consists of interviews with intelligent design advocates and Christian apologists who argue for the existence of a creator.[14][not in citation given][15]

text: The advocates interviewed in the chapters and their topic(s) of discussion are as follows:

text:
Intelligent design advocate and Discovery Institute Center for Science and Culture (CSC) fellow Jonathan Wells presents a case against evolution;
Philosopher of science Stephen C. Meyer discusses the relationship between science and religion, as well as the origin of life, arguing against the likelihood of abiogenesis without the assistance of a creator;
Philosopher of religion William Lane Craig discusses the Big Bang and argues for a creator as first cause, using the Kalam cosmological argument;
International Society for Complexity, Information and Design fellow and philosopher Robin Collins discusses the anthropic principle and argues that the universe must be designed by a creator;
Astronomer Guillermo Gonzalez and theologian Jay Richards present a case that the Rare Earth hypothesis supports intelligent design;
Biochemist Michael Behe discusses irreducible complexity in biology as an argument for a creator; and
Philosopher and theologian J.P. Moreland examines the supposed existence of consciousness separate from the brain, including near-death experiences, as an argument for a creator.

text: The Case for the Real Jesus[edit]

text: The Case for the Real Jesus: A Journalist Investigates Current Attacks on the Identity of Christ presents a number of counter-arguments to challenges to the evangelical Christian view. Strobel addresses differences between the portrayal of Jesus in the non-canonical gospels versus the four canonical gospels, whether the church has changed this depiction over time, new explanations that challenge Jesus' resurrection, the proposed origins of the Jesus story in pagan religions, whether Jesus fulfills messianic prophecies, and whether contemporary people should have the freedom to believe what they want about Jesus.[16]

text: The book is divided into 6 Challenges:

text:
Challenge #1 "Scholars Are Uncovering a Radically Different Jesus in Ancient Documents Just as Credible as the Four Gospels" with Craig A. Evans, PhD
Challenge #2 "The Bible's Portrait of Jesus Can't Be Trusted Because the Church Tampered with the Text" with Daniel B. Wallace, PhD
Challenge #3 with Michael Licona, M.A., PhD (Cand.)

Part 1 "New Explanations Have Refuted Jesus' Resurrection"
Part 2 "The Cross Examination"

Challenge #4 "Christianity Beliefs about Jesus Were Copied from Pagan Religions" with Edwin M. Yamauchi, PhD
Challenge #5 "Jesus Was an Impostor Who Failed to Fulfill the Messianic Prophecies" with Michael L. Brown, PhD
Challenge #6 "People Should Be Free to Pick and Choose What to Believe about Jesus" with Paul Copan, PhD

text: The Case for Christianity Answer Book[edit]

text: The Case for Christianity Answer Book uses a question-and-answer format to address typical questions concerning Christianity, including the internal consistency of the Bible, intersections between religion and science, the Problem of evil and the Resurrection of Jesus.[17]

text: The book is divided into six parts:

text:
I. Prelude: Seeking Spiritual Answers
II. Answers About God, the Creator
III. Answers About the Bible
IV. Answers About Jesus
V. Answers to Other Challenges to Christianity
VI. Postlude: Turning Answers into Action

text: Other books[edit]

text: Strobel says that he wrote Inside the Mind of Unchurched Harry and Mary to help advance lay people's understanding of Christianity and to increase the effectiveness of evangelistic efforts, and says the book includes insights drawn from his own experiences as a former atheist as to why people avoid Christianity.[18]

text: Experiencing the Passion of Jesus was co-written with Garry Poole as a discussion guide for Mel Gibson's film The Passion of the Christ.[19] Strobel and Poole also co-authored Exploring the Da Vinci Code.

text: Bibliography[edit]

text:
Reckless Homicide? Ford's Pinto Trial (1980) ISBN 0-89708-022-X
Inside the Mind of Unchurched Harry and Mary (1993) ISBN 0-310-37561-4
What Jesus Would Say (1994) ISBN 0-310-48511-8
God's Outrageous Claims (1998) ISBN 0-310-26612-2
Surviving a Spiritual Mismatch in Marriage (2002) ISBN 0-310-22014-9
Experiencing the Passion of Jesus (2004), with Garry Poole, Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-26375-1
Discussing the Da Vinci Code: Exploring the Issues Raised by the Book and Movie (2006) ISBN 0-310-27263-7
The Unexpected Adventure: Taking Everyday Risks to Talk with People about Jesus (May 29, 2009), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-28392-2
The Ambition: A Novel (Fiction Work) (May 14, 2011), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-29267-0
Today's Moment of Truth: Devotions to Deepen Your Faith in Christ (July 12, 2016), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-35940-6

text: "The Case for..." series[edit]

text:
The Case for Christ, (September 1, 1998), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-22605-8
The Case for Faith: A Journalist Investigates the Toughest Objections to Christianity, (October 1, 2000), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-22015-7
The Case for a Creator: A Journalist Investigates Scientific Evidence That Points Toward God (2004), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-26386-7
The Case for Easter: Journalist Investigates the Evidence for the Resurrection (2004), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-25475-2
The Case for Christmas: A Journalist Investigates the Identity of the Child in the Manger (2005), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-25476-0
The Case for the Real Jesus: A Journalist Investigates Current Attacks on the Identity of Christ (September 10, 2007), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-24210-X
The Case for Christianity Answer Book (July 1, 2014), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-33955-3
The Case for Hope: Looking Ahead with Confidence and Courage (2015), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-33957-X
The Case for Grace: A Journalist Explores the Evidence of Transformed Lives (2015), Zondervan, ISBN 0-310-25923-1

text: Children's apologetics series[edit]

text:
The Case for Faith for Kids (2006), Zonderkidz, ISBN 978-0-310-71146-9
The Case for Christ for Kids (2006), Zonderkidz, ISBN 978-0-310-71147-6
A Case for a Creator for Kids (2006), Zonderkidz, ISBN 978-0-310-71148-3
Off My Case for Kids: 12 Stories to Help You Defend Your Faith (2006), Zonderkidz, ISBN 978-0-310-71199-5

text: Film[edit]

text: Strobel appeared in the 2016 film God's Not Dead 2.[20]

text: A film entitled The Case for Christ, based on Strobel's eponymous best-seller, had its theatrical release in April 2017.[21] The film is directed by Jonathan M. Gunn and is about an atheist reporter who tries to prove Christianity to be a cult.[22] The film was produced by Triple Horse Studios and distributed by Pure Flix Entertainment.[23]