document_title: Spiritual gift

question_text: gifts of the holy spirit in 1 corinthians 12

text: Spiritual gift

text: Biblical and theological overview[edit]

text: The New Testament contains several lists of spiritual gifts, most authored by St. Paul. While each list is unique, there is overlap.

text:
Romans 12:6–8

1 Corinthians 12:8–10

1 Corinthians 12:28

Ephesians 4:11

1 Peter 4:11

Prophecy
Serving
Teaching
Exhortation
Giving
Leadership
Mercy

Word of wisdom
Word of knowledge
Faith
Gifts of healings
Miracles
Prophecy
Distinguishing between spirits
Tongues
Interpretation of tongues

Apostle
Prophet
Teacher
Miracles
Kinds of healings
Helps
Administration
Tongues

Apostle
Prophet
Evangelist
Pastor
Teacher

Whoever speaks
Whoever renders service[10]

text: Christians believe that the charismata were foretold by the Prophet Joel (2:28) and promised by Christ (Gospel of Mark 16:17–18). This promise was fulfilled on the Day of Pentecost and elsewhere as the church spread. In order to correct abuses concerning the spiritual gifts at Corinth, Paul devoted much attention to spiritual gifts in his First Epistle to the Corinthians (chapters 12–14).[1]

text: In 1 Corinthians 12, two Greek terms are translated as "spiritual gifts". In verse 1, the word pneumatika ("spirituals" or "things of the Spirit") is used. In verse 4, charisma is used. This word is derived from the word charis, which means "grace". In verses 5 and 6, the words diakonia (translated "administrations", "ministries", or "service") and energemata ("operations" or "inworkings") are used in describing the nature of the spiritual gifts. In verse 7, the term "manifestation (phanerosis) of the Spirit" is used.[11]

text: From these scriptural passages, Christians understand the spiritual gifts to be enablements or capacities that are divinely bestowed upon individuals. Because they are freely given by God, these cannot be earned or merited. Though worked through individuals, these are operations or manifestations of the Holy Spirit—not of the gifted person. They are to be used for the benefit of others, and in a sense they are granted to the church as a whole more than they are given to individuals. There is diversity in their distribution—an individual will not possess all of the gifts.[11] The purpose of the spiritual gifts is to edify (build up), exhort (encourage), and comfort the church.[12]

text: It is generally acknowledged that Paul did not list all of the gifts of the Spirit,[1] and many believe that there are as many gifts as there are needs in the body of Christ.[13] The gifts have at times been organized into distinct categories based on their similarities and differences to other gifts. Some divide them into three categories using Old Testament offices. "Prophetic" gifts include any gift involving teaching, encouraging, or rebuking others. "Priestly" gifts include showing mercy and care for the needy or involve intercession before God. "Kingly" gifts are those involving church administration or government.[14] Others categorize them into "gifts of knowledge" (word of wisdom, word of knowledge, distinguishing between spirits), "gifts of speech" (tongues, interpretation, prophecy), and "gifts of power" (faith, healing, miracles).[15] The gifts have also been categorized as those that promote the inner growth of the church (apostle, prophecy, distinguishing between spirits, teaching, word of wisdom/knowledge, helps, and administration) and those that promote the church's outer development (faith, miracles, healing, tongues, interpretation of tongues).[1]

text: Proponents of cessationism distinguish between the "extraordinary", "miraculous", or "sign" gifts (such as prophecy, tongues, and healing) and the other gifts.[16] Cessationism is held by some Protestants, especially from the Calvinist tradition, who believe that miraculous gifts and their operations were limited to early Christianity and "ceased" afterward.[17] Other Protestants, including Lutheran,[18] Methodist,[19] Pentecostals and charismatics, adhere to the continuationist position, believing that all the spiritual gifts are distributed among Christians by the Holy Spirit and that they are normative in contemporary Christendom. In addition, Roman Catholicism[20] and Eastern Orthodox Church also continue to believe in and make use of all of the spiritual gifts.

text: Descriptions[edit]

text: Apostle: The title apostle comes from the Greek word apostolos which means "a messenger, one sent forth with orders".[21] It refers to one who has been delegated authority by another in a foreign land.[22] Apostles were the first leaders of the Church; they were commissioned by Jesus to initiate and direct the preaching of the gospel. While many Christians agree that the title of apostle is reserved for those among the first generation of Christians, many Christian denominations continue in one way or another to recognize a continuing apostolic ministry. Many churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches, believe in the doctrine of apostolic succession, which holds that properly ordained bishops are the successors to the apostles. Other Christian groups, such as classical Pentecostals, consider the role of a missionary to be fulfilling an apostolic ministry.[23] There are some Christians, however, who advocate restoring the Fivefold ministry, including the formal recognition of the office of apostle. Others would say that the office no longer exists.[24]

text: Prophet: In the New Testament, the office of prophet is to equip the saints for the work of service through exhortation, edification, and consolation  (1 Corinthians 12:28; 1 Corinthians 14:3 Ephesians 4:11).[25] The prophet's corresponding gift is prophecy. Prophecy is "reporting something that God spontaneously brings to your mind".[26] Many, particularly Pentecostals and charismatics, distinguish between the "office of prophet" and the "gift of prophecy", believing that a Christian can possess the gift of prophecy without holding the prophetic office.[27]

text: Evangelist: An evangelist is one who devotes himself to preaching the gospel. In the New Testament, evangelists preached from city to city, church to church.[28]

text: Pastor: This term derives from a Greek word for "shepherd". In theory pastors are gifted to lead, guide, and set an example for other Christians. The grammatical structure of Ephesians 4:11 leads many to conclude that teacher and pastor should be considered one term (pastor-teacher). Even so, the two terms are not interchangeable; while all pastors are teachers, not all teachers are pastors. Pastoral Gifts include integrity and compassion. [29]

text: Teacher: Someone who devotes his or her life to preaching and teaching the Christian faith. When teaching is provided for the Church by God, two gifts are actually given—to the Church is given a teacher and along with the teacher comes a divine capacity to teach.[30]

text: Service: The word translated as "ministry" is diakonia, which can also be translated "service".[30] Since there are many types of ministries and service to the Church, this then describes a broad array of gifts rather than a single gift.

text: Exhortation: The ability to motivate Christians "to patient endurance, brotherly love, and good works".[31]

text: Giving: Those with this gift share their own possessions with others with extraordinary generosity. While all Christians should be givers, those possessing this gift will go beyond this normal giving.[31]

text: Leading: This gift speaks to the various leadership roles found in the Church. While many think of roles such as administration, management of funds, strategy planning, etc. as functions outside of the supernatural realm, in reality individuals in these positions are just as in need of supernatural empowerment as are ministers of the gospel.[32] Some writers consider the gifts of governments and leading to be the same gift, but others consider them closely related yet different.

text: Mercy: Possibly identical to the gift of helps, the mercy-shower possesses a ministry of visitation, prayer, and compassion to the poor and sick.[32]

text: Word of wisdom: An utterance or message of wisdom supernaturally granted to an individual. For Paul, wisdom refers to "the knowledge of the great Christian mysteries: the Incarnation, Passion, and Resurrection of Christ, and the indwelling in the believer of the Spirit of God (1 Corinthians 2; Ephesians 1:17)".[1]

text: Word of knowledge: The knowledge referred to is often said to relate to understanding Christian doctrine or scriptural truth.[1] It is sometimes said to be connected with the ministry of teachers.

text: Faith: This refers to that strong or special faith "which removes mountains, casts out devils (Matthew 17:19–20), and faces the most cruel martyrdom without flinching".[1] It is distinguished from the "saving" and "normal" Christian faith.[33]

text: Gifts of healings: The ability to supernaturally minister healing to others. The plural indicates the variety of sickness healed and the many forms the gift takes, such as healing by anointing with oil, by the laying on of hands, by saying the name of Jesus or by the sign of the cross.[1]

text: Working of miracles: The performance of deeds beyond ordinary human ability by the power of the Holy Spirit.[1]

text: Visions.  An outpouring of this gift is prophesied in Joel 2:28 and Acts 2:17 shows that early Christians believed this prophecy was fulfilled on the day of Pentecost.   Visions tend to be more private experiences than the other gifts. Some researchers expand the definition of visions to include a strongly felt presence.[34]

text: Discerning of spirits: The capacity to discern, distinguish, or to discriminate the source of a spiritual manifestation—whether it emanates from a good or evil spirit. It seemed to have been particularly associated with prophecy as it would be necessary to know whether a prophetic utterance was truly inspired by God.[1][35]

text: Tongues: The supernatural ability of speaking an unlearned language.[1] Paul seems to have distinguished between the public use of the gift (which must always be interpreted) and the private use which was for the spiritual strengthening of oneself.[36] Currently among Christians there is a dispute as to whether tongues were/are always xenoglossy (speaking an unlearned human language) or whether it also included/includes glossolalia (speaking an unlearned and allegedly non-human language of heavenly or angelic origin).

text: Interpretation of tongues: This gift always follows the public exercise of the gift of tongues.[1] In 1 Corinthians 14, the Apostle Paul required that all speech in Christian worship should be intelligible. This required that speech given in an unknown tongue be interpreted in the common language of the gathered Christians.

text: Helps: This gift has to do with service to the sick and the poor.[1] Possessor of this gift has a "spiritual burden and a God-given love for the needy and afflicted".[37]

text: Administration: Also called the gift of governing,[1] the Greek word translated "governments" is kubernesis, the verb form of which means "to steer" or "to be a helmsman". This gift then refers to the God-given capacity to lead or guide the Church through storms and difficult seas.[37]

text: Other spiritual gifts[edit]

text: While not specifically defined as spiritual gifts in the Bible, other abilities and capacities have been considered as spiritual gifts by some Christians. Some are found in the New Testament such as:

text:
celibacy (I Corinthians 7:7)[38]
hospitality (1 Peter 4:9–10)[39]
intercession (Rom. 8:26–27)[39]
marriage (I Corinthians 7:7)[40]
(effective) witnessing (Acts 1:8, 5:32, 26:22, 1 John 5:6)[39]

text: Others are found in the Old Testament such as:

text:
craftsmanship (such as the special abilities given to artisans who constructed the Tabernacle in Exodus 35:30–33)[39]
interpretation of dreams (e.g. Joseph and Daniel) genesis ch43-50, daniel ch3
composing spiritual music, poetry, and prose[39]

text: Social meaning[edit]

text: The word is also used in secular circumstances within social psychology. In that context, charism is defined as personal influence on other people individually or as a group.

text: Religious orders (including Anglican, Catholic, Lutheran and Methodist) use the word "charism" to describe their spiritual orientation and any special characteristics of their mission or values that might be exhibited as a result of the vows that they have taken and the orientation of the order to which they belong.  An example might be the works of a teaching order compared to that of a missionary order or one devoted to the care of the poor or the sick and those in need of help.


document_title: List of presidents of the United States by age

question_text: who was the youngest person elected president of united states

root

text: Age of U.S. presidents

text: The median age upon accession to the presidency is 55 years and 3 months. This is how old Lyndon B. Johnson was at the time of his inauguration. The youngest person to assume the office was Theodore Roosevelt, who became president at the age of 42 years, 322 days, following William McKinley's assassination; the oldest was Donald Trump, who was 70 years, 220 days old at his inauguration. The youngest person to be elected president was John F. Kennedy, at 43 years, 163 days of age on election day; the oldest was Ronald Reagan, who was 73 years, 274 days old at the time of his election to a second term.

tag: p

text: Assassinated three years into his term, John F. Kennedy was the youngest at the time of leaving office (46 years, 177 days); the youngest president to leave office at the conclusion of a normal transition was Theodore Roosevelt (50 years, 128 days). The oldest at the time of leaving office was Ronald Reagan (77 years, 349 days).

text: Born on May 29, 1917, John F. Kennedy was younger than four of his successors, the greatest number to date: Lyndon Johnson (8 years, 9 months, and 2 days); Ronald Reagan (6 years, 3 months, and 23 days); Richard Nixon (4 years, 4 months, and 16 days); and Gerald Ford (3 years, 10 months, and 15 days).

text: Born on February 6, 1911, Ronald Reagan was older than four of his predecessors, the greatest number to date: Richard Nixon (1 year, 11 months, and 7 days); Gerald Ford (2 years, 5 months, and 8 days); John F. Kennedy (6 years, 3 months, and 23 days); and Jimmy Carter (13 years, 7 months, and 25 days).

text: Three presidents—Donald Trump, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton—were born in 1946 (all within the span of 9 weeks). This is the only calendar year in which three presidents have been born. Two presidents—James K. Polk and Warren G. Harding—were born on November 2 (70 years apart). This is the only day of the year having the birthday of multiple presidents.[1]

text: The oldest living U.S. president is George H. W. Bush, born June 12, 1924 (age 93 years, 301 days). On November 25, 2017, he also became the longest-lived president, surpassing the lifespan of Gerald Ford, who died at the age of 93 years, 165 days. The second oldest living president, Jimmy Carter, has the distinction of having the longest post-presidency in U.S. history, currently at 37 years, 79 days. He surpassed the previous record, held by Herbert Hoover (31 years, 230 days) on September 7, 2012. The youngest living president is Barack Obama, born August 4, 1961 (age 56 years, 248 days).

text: The shortest-lived president to have died by natural causes (thereby excluding John F. Kennedy and James A. Garfield, who were both assassinated) was James K. Polk, who died of cholera at the age of 53 years, 225 days; only 103 days after leaving office.

text: Six U.S. presidents have lived into their 90s. They are (in order of birth):

text:
John Adams
(1735–1826)

Herbert Hoover
(1874–1964)

Ronald Reagan
(1911–2004)

Gerald Ford
(1913–2006)

George H. W. Bush
(born 1924)

Jimmy Carter
(born 1924)

tag: table

text:
#
President
Birth date
Presidency
start date
Age at
start date
Presidency
end date
Age at
end date
Post-presidency
timespan
Death date
Lifespan

1
Washington, GeorgeGeorge Washington
000000001732-02-22-0000Feb 22, 1732[a]
000000001789-04-30-0000Apr 30, 1789
7004208870000000000♠57 years, 67 days
000000001797-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1797
7004237520000000000♠65 years, 10 days
01,0151,015 days
(7003101500000000000♠2 years, 285 days)
000000001799-12-14-0000Dec 14, 1799
7004247670000000000♠67 years, 295 days
(24,767 days)

2
Adams, John A.John Adams
000000001735-10-30-0000Oct 30, 1735[a]
000000001797-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1797
7004224060000000000♠61 years, 125 days
000000001801-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1801
7004238660000000000♠65 years, 125 days
09,2539,253 days
(7003925300000000000♠25 years, 122 days)
000000001826-07-04-0000Jul 4, 1826
7004331190000000000♠90 years, 247 days
(33,119 days)

3
Jefferson, ThomasThomas Jefferson
000000001743-04-13-0000Apr 13, 1743[a]
000000001801-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1801
7004211440000000000♠57 years, 325 days
000000001809-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1809
7004240660000000000♠65 years, 325 days
06,3316,331 days
(7003633100000000000♠17 years, 122 days)
000000001826-07-04-0000Jul 4, 1826
7004303970000000000♠83 years, 82 days
(30,397 days)

4
Madison, JamesJames Madison
000000001751-03-16-0000Mar 16, 1751[a]
000000001809-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1809
7004211720000000000♠57 years, 353 days
000000001817-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1817
7004240940000000000♠65 years, 353 days
07,0567,056 days
(7003705600000000000♠19 years, 116 days)
000000001836-06-28-0000Jun 28, 1836
7004311500000000000♠85 years, 104 days
(31,150 days)

5
Monroe, JamesJames Monroe
000000001758-04-28-0000Apr 28, 1758
000000001817-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1817
7004214940000000000♠58 years, 310 days
000000001825-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1825
7004244160000000000♠66 years, 310 days
02,3132,313 days
(7003231300000000000♠6 years, 122 days)
000000001831-07-04-0000Jul 4, 1831
7004267290000000000♠73 years, 67 days
(26,729 days)

6
Adams, John Q. John Q. Adams
000000001767-07-11-0000Jul 11, 1767
000000001825-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1825
7004210550000000000♠57 years, 236 days
000000001829-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1829
7004225160000000000♠61 years, 236 days
06,9306,930 days
(7003693000000000000♠18 years, 356 days)
000000001848-02-23-0000Feb 23, 1848
7004294460000000000♠80 years, 227 days
(29,446 days)

7
Jackson, AndrewAndrew Jackson
000000001767-03-15-0000Mar 15, 1767
000000001829-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1829
7004226340000000000♠61 years, 354 days
000000001837-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1837
7004255560000000000♠69 years, 354 days
03,0183,018 days
(7003301800000000000♠8 years, 96 days)
000000001845-06-08-0000Jun 8, 1845
7004285740000000000♠78 years, 85 days
(28,574 days)

8
Van Buren, MartinMartin Van Buren
000000001782-12-05-0000Dec 5, 1782
000000001837-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1837
7004198120000000000♠54 years, 89 days
000000001841-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1841
7004212730000000000♠58 years, 89 days
07,8127,812 days
(7003781200000000000♠21 years, 142 days)
000000001862-07-24-0000Jul 24, 1862
7004290850000000000♠79 years, 231 days
(29,085 days)

9
Harrison, William H.William H. Harrison
000000001773-02-09-0000Feb 9, 1773
000000001841-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1841
7004248590000000000♠68 years, 23 days
000000001841-04-04-0000Apr 4, 1841[b]
7004248900000000000♠68 years, 54 days
00,0000 days
000000001841-04-04-0000Apr 4, 1841
7004248900000000000♠68 years, 54 days
(24,890 days)

10
Tyler, JohnJohn Tyler
000000001790-03-29-0000Mar 29, 1790
000000001841-04-04-0000Apr 4, 1841
7004186330000000000♠51 years, 6 days
000000001845-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1845
7004200630000000000♠54 years, 340 days
06,1646,164 days
(7003616400000000000♠16 years, 320 days)
000000001862-01-18-0000Jan 18, 1862
7004262270000000000♠71 years, 295 days
(26,227 days)

11
Polk, James K.James K. Polk
000000001795-11-02-0000Nov 2, 1795
000000001845-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1845
7004180190000000000♠49 years, 122 days
000000001849-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1849
7004194800000000000♠53 years, 122 days
00,103103 days
000000001849-06-15-0000Jun 15, 1849
7004195830000000000♠53 years, 225 days
(19,583 days)

12
Taylor, ZacharyZachary Taylor
000000001784-11-24-0000Nov 24, 1784
000000001849-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1849
7004234750000000000♠64 years, 100 days
000000001850-07-09-0000Jul 9, 1850[b]
7004239670000000000♠65 years, 227 days
00,0000 days
000000001850-07-09-0000Jul 9, 1850
7004239670000000000♠65 years, 227 days
(23,967 days)

13
Fillmore, MillardMillard Fillmore
000000001800-01-07-0000Jan 7, 1800
000000001850-07-09-0000Jul 9, 1850
7004184450000000000♠50 years, 183 days
000000001853-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1853
7004194140000000000♠53 years, 56 days
07,6747,674 days
(7003767400000000000♠21 years, 4 days)
000000001874-03-08-0000Mar 8, 1874
7004270880000000000♠74 years, 60 days
(27,088 days)

14
Pierce, FranklinFranklin Pierce
000000001804-11-23-0000Nov 23, 1804
000000001853-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1853
7004176330000000000♠48 years, 101 days
000000001857-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1857
7004190940000000000♠52 years, 101 days
04,6014,601 days
(7003460100000000000♠12 years, 218 days)
000000001869-10-08-0000Oct 8, 1869
7004236950000000000♠64 years, 319 days
(23,695 days)

15
Buchanan, JamesJames Buchanan
000000001791-04-23-0000Apr 23, 1791
000000001857-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1857
7004240560000000000♠65 years, 315 days
000000001861-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1861
7004255170000000000♠69 years, 315 days
02,6462,646 days
(7003264600000000000♠7 years, 89 days)
000000001868-06-01-0000Jun 1, 1868
7004281630000000000♠77 years, 39 days
(28,163 days)

16
Lincoln, AbrahamAbraham Lincoln
000000001809-02-12-0000Feb 12, 1809
000000001861-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1861
7004190130000000000♠52 years, 20 days
000000001865-04-15-0000Apr 15, 1865[b]
7004205160000000000♠56 years, 62 days
00,0000 days
000000001865-04-15-0000Apr 15, 1865
7004205160000000000♠56 years, 62 days
(20,516 days)

17
Johnson, AndrewAndrew Johnson
000000001808-12-29-0000Dec 29, 1808
000000001865-04-15-0000Apr 15, 1865
7004205610000000000♠56 years, 107 days
000000001869-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1869
7004219800000000000♠60 years, 65 days
02,3402,340 days
(7003234000000000000♠6 years, 149 days)
000000001875-07-31-0000Jul 31, 1875
7004243200000000000♠66 years, 214 days
(24,320 days)

18
Grant, Ulysses S.Ulysses S. Grant
000000001822-04-27-0000Apr 27, 1822
000000001869-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1869
7004171130000000000♠46 years, 311 days
000000001877-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1877
7004200350000000000♠54 years, 311 days
03,0633,063 days
(7003306300000000000♠8 years, 141 days)
000000001885-07-23-0000Jul 23, 1885
7004230980000000000♠63 years, 87 days
(23,098 days)

19
Hayes, Rutherford B.Rutherford B. Hayes
000000001822-10-04-0000Oct 4, 1822
000000001877-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1877
7004198750000000000♠54 years, 151 days
000000001881-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1881
7004213360000000000♠58 years, 151 days
04,3374,337 days
(7003433700000000000♠11 years, 319 days)
000000001893-01-17-0000Jan 17, 1893
7004256730000000000♠70 years, 105 days
(25,673 days)

20
Garfield, James A.James A. Garfield
000000001831-11-19-0000Nov 19, 1831
000000001881-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1881
7004180030000000000♠49 years, 105 days
000000001881-09-19-0000Sep 19, 1881[b]
7004182020000000000♠49 years, 304 days
00,0000 days
000000001881-09-19-0000Sep 19, 1881
7004182020000000000♠49 years, 304 days
(18,202 days)

21
Arthur, Chester A.Chester A. Arthur
000000001829-10-05-0000Oct 5, 1829
000000001881-09-19-0000Sep 19, 1881
7004189770000000000♠51 years, 349 days
000000001885-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1885
7004202390000000000♠55 years, 150 days
00,624624 days
(7002624000000000000♠1 year, 259 days)
000000001886-11-18-0000Nov 18, 1886
7004208630000000000♠57 years, 44 days
(20,863 days)

22
Cleveland, GroverGrover Cleveland
000000001837-03-18-0000Mar 18, 1837
000000001885-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1885
7004175180000000000♠47 years, 351 days
000000001889-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1889
7004189790000000000♠51 years, 351 days
05,5905,590 days[c]
(15 years, 112 days)
000000001908-06-24-0000Jun 24, 1908
7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days
(26,030 days)

23
Harrison, BenjaminBenjamin Harrison
000000001833-08-20-0000Aug 20, 1833
000000001889-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1889
7004202850000000000♠55 years, 196 days
000000001893-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1893
7004217460000000000♠59 years, 196 days
02,9302,930 days
(7003293000000000000♠8 years, 9 days)
000000001901-03-13-0000Mar 13, 1901
7004246760000000000♠67 years, 205 days
(24,676 days)

24
Cleveland, GroverGrover Cleveland
000000001837-03-18-0000Mar 18, 1837
000000001893-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1893
7004204400000000000♠55 years, 351 days
000000001897-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1897
7004219010000000000♠59 years, 351 days
05,5905,590 days[c]
(15 years, 112 days)
000000001908-06-24-0000Jun 24, 1908
7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days
(26,030 days)

25
McKinley, WilliamWilliam McKinley
000000001843-01-29-0000Jan 29, 1843
000000001897-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1897
7004197580000000000♠54 years, 34 days
000000001901-09-14-0000Sep 14, 1901[b]
7004214120000000000♠58 years, 228 days
00,0000 days
000000001901-09-14-0000Sep 14, 1901
7004214120000000000♠58 years, 228 days
(21,412 days)

26
Roosevelt, TheodoreTheodore Roosevelt
000000001858-10-27-0000Oct 27, 1858
000000001901-09-14-0000Sep 14, 1901
7004156620000000000♠42 years, 322 days
000000001909-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1909
7004183900000000000♠50 years, 128 days
03,5953,595 days
(7003359500000000000♠9 years, 308 days)
000000001919-01-06-0000Jan 6, 1919
7004219850000000000♠60 years, 71 days
(21,985 days)

27
Taft, William H.William H. Taft
000000001857-09-15-0000Sep 15, 1857
000000001909-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1909
7004187970000000000♠51 years, 170 days
000000001913-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1913
7004202580000000000♠55 years, 170 days
06,2136,213 days
(7003621300000000000♠17 years, 4 days)
000000001930-03-08-0000Mar 8, 1930
7004264710000000000♠72 years, 174 days
(26,471 days)

28
Wilson, WoodrowWoodrow Wilson
000000001856-12-28-0000Dec 28, 1856
000000001913-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1913
7004205190000000000♠56 years, 66 days
000000001921-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1921
7004234410000000000♠64 years, 66 days
01,0661,066 days
(7003106600000000000♠2 years, 336 days)
000000001924-02-03-0000Feb 3, 1924
7004245070000000000♠67 years, 37 days
(24,507 days)

29
Harding, Warren G.Warren G. Harding
000000001865-11-02-0000Nov 2, 1865
000000001921-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1921
7004202100000000000♠55 years, 122 days
000000001923-08-02-0000Aug 2, 1923[b]
7004210910000000000♠57 years, 273 days
00,0000 days
000000001923-08-02-0000Aug 2, 1923
7004210910000000000♠57 years, 273 days
(21,091 days)

30
Coolidge, CalvinCalvin Coolidge
000000001872-07-04-0000Jul 4, 1872
000000001923-08-02-0000Aug 2, 1923
7004186550000000000♠51 years, 29 days
000000001929-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1929
7004206960000000000♠56 years, 243 days
01,4031,403 days
(7003140300000000000♠3 years, 307 days)
000000001933-01-05-0000Jan 5, 1933
7004220990000000000♠60 years, 185 days
(22,099 days)

31
Hoover, HerbertHerbert Hoover
000000001874-08-10-0000Aug 10, 1874
000000001929-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1929
7004199290000000000♠54 years, 206 days
000000001933-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1933
7004213900000000000♠58 years, 206 days
11,55311,553 days
(7004115530000000000♠31 years, 230 days)
000000001964-10-20-0000Oct 20, 1964
7004329430000000000♠90 years, 71 days
(32,943 days)

32
Roosevelt, Franklin D.Franklin D. Roosevelt
000000001882-01-30-0000Jan 30, 1882
000000001933-03-04-0000Mar 4, 1933
7004186600000000000♠51 years, 33 days
000000001945-04-12-0000Apr 12, 1945[b]
7004230820000000000♠63 years, 72 days
00,0000 days
000000001945-04-12-0000Apr 12, 1945
7004230820000000000♠63 years, 72 days
(23,082 days)

33
Truman, Harry S.Harry S. Truman
000000001884-05-08-0000May 8, 1884
000000001945-04-12-0000Apr 12, 1945
7004222530000000000♠60 years, 339 days
000000001953-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1953
7004250930000000000♠68 years, 257 days
07,2807,280 days
(7003728000000000000♠19 years, 341 days)
000000001972-12-26-0000Dec 26, 1972
7004323730000000000♠88 years, 232 days
(32,373 days)

34
Eisenhower, Dwight D.Dwight D. Eisenhower
000000001890-10-14-0000Oct 14, 1890
000000001953-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1953
7004227430000000000♠62 years, 98 days
000000001961-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1961
7004256650000000000♠70 years, 98 days
02,9892,989 days
(7003298900000000000♠8 years, 67 days)
000000001969-03-28-0000Mar 28, 1969
7004286540000000000♠78 years, 165 days
(28,654 days)

35
Kennedy, John F.John F. Kennedy
000000001917-05-29-0000May 29, 1917
000000001961-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1961
7004159420000000000♠43 years, 236 days
000000001963-11-22-0000Nov 22, 1963[b]
7004169780000000000♠46 years, 177 days
00,0000 days
000000001963-11-22-0000Nov 22, 1963
7004169780000000000♠46 years, 177 days
(16,978 days)

36
Johnson, Lyndon B.Lyndon B. Johnson
000000001908-08-27-0000Aug 27, 1908
000000001963-11-22-0000Nov 22, 1963
7004201750000000000♠55 years, 87 days
000000001969-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1969
7004220610000000000♠60 years, 146 days
01,4631,463 days
(7003146300000000000♠4 years, 2 days)
000000001973-01-22-0000Jan 22, 1973
7004235240000000000♠64 years, 148 days
(23,524 days)

37
Nixon, RichardRichard Nixon
000000001913-01-09-0000Jan 9, 1913
000000001969-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1969
7004204650000000000♠56 years, 11 days
000000001974-08-09-0000Aug 9, 1974[d]
7004224920000000000♠61 years, 212 days
07,1967,196 days
(7003719600000000000♠19 years, 256 days)
000000001994-04-22-0000Apr 22, 1994
7004296880000000000♠81 years, 103 days
(29,688 days)

38
Ford, GeraldGerald Ford
000000001913-07-14-0000Jul 14, 1913
000000001974-08-09-0000Aug 9, 1974
7004223060000000000♠61 years, 26 days
000000001977-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1977
7004232010000000000♠63 years, 190 days
10,93210,932 days
(7004109320000000000♠29 years, 340 days)
000000002006-12-26-0000Dec 26, 2006
7004341330000000000♠93 years, 165 days
(34,133 days)

39
Carter, JimmyJimmy Carter
000000001924-10-01-0000Oct 1, 1924
000000001977-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1977
7004191040000000000♠52 years, 111 days
000000001981-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1981
7004205650000000000♠56 years, 111 days
13,59313,593 days[e]
(7004135930000000000♠37 years, 79 days)
2018-04-9
7004341580000000000♠93 years, 190 days(34,158 days)

40
Reagan, RonaldRonald Reagan
000000001911-02-06-0000Feb 6, 1911
000000001981-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1981
7004255510000000000♠69 years, 349 days
000000001989-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1989
7004284730000000000♠77 years, 349 days
05,6155,615 days
(7003561500000000000♠15 years, 137 days)
000000002004-06-05-0000Jun 5, 2004
7004340880000000000♠93 years, 120 days
(34,088 days)

41
Bush, George H. W.George H. W. Bush
000000001924-06-12-0000Jun 12, 1924
000000001989-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1989
7004235980000000000♠64 years, 222 days
000000001993-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1993
7004250590000000000♠68 years, 222 days
09,2109,210 days[e]
(7003921000000000000♠25 years, 79 days)
2018-04-9
7004342690000000000♠93 years, 301 days(34,269 days)

42
Clinton, BillBill Clinton
000000001946-08-19-0000Aug 19, 1946
000000001993-01-20-0000Jan 20, 1993
7004169560000000000♠46 years, 154 days
000000002001-01-20-0000Jan 20, 2001
7004198780000000000♠54 years, 154 days
06,2886,288 days[e]
(7003628800000000000♠17 years, 79 days)
2018-04-9
7004261660000000000♠71 years, 233 days(26,166 days)

43
Bush, George W.George W. Bush
000000001946-07-06-0000Jul 6, 1946
000000002001-01-20-0000Jan 20, 2001
7004199220000000000♠54 years, 198 days
000000002009-01-20-0000Jan 20, 2009
7004228440000000000♠62 years, 198 days
03,3663,366 days[e]
(7003336600000000000♠9 years, 79 days)
2018-04-9
7004262100000000000♠71 years, 277 days(26,210 days)

44
Obama, BarackBarack Obama
000000001961-08-04-0000Aug 4, 1961
000000002009-01-20-0000Jan 20, 2009
7004173360000000000♠47 years, 169 days
000000002017-01-20-0000Jan 20, 2017
7004202580000000000♠55 years, 169 days
00,134444444 days[e]
(7002444000000000000♠1 year, 79 days)
2018-04-9
7004207020000000000♠56 years, 248 days(20,702 days)

45
Trump, DonaldDonald Trump
000000001946-06-14-0000Jun 14, 1946
000000002017-01-20-0000Jan 20, 2017
7004257880000000000♠70 years, 220 days
2018-04-9
7004288540000000000♠78 years, 364 days
24,935
2018-04-9
7004262320000000000♠71 years, 299 days(26,232 days)

#
President
Birth date
Presidency
start date
Age at
start date
Presidency
end date
Age at
end date
Post-presidency
timespan
Death date
Lifespan

text: Notes

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d Birthdate as changed to New Style.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Died in office.
^ Jump up to: a b Cleveland was retired for 1,461 days between his two terms (1889–1893), and then another 4,129 days from the end of his 2nd term (1897) until his death (1908).
Jump up ^ Resigned from office.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e As of April 9, 2018.

tag: ol

text: Oldest living U.S. presidents

text: Of the 44 persons who have served as president, 24 have become the oldest such individual of their time. Herbert Hoover held this distinction for the longest period of any, from the death of Calvin Coolidge in January 1933 until his own death 31 years later. Lyndon B. Johnson held it for the shortest, from the death of Harry S. Truman in December 1972 until his own death only 27 days later.

text: On three occasions the oldest living president lost this distinction not by his death, but by the inauguration of a president who was older. Theodore Roosevelt (born 1858) lost this distinction when William Taft (born 1857) was inaugurated, then four years later Taft lost it when Woodrow Wilson (born 1856) was inaugurated. More recently, Richard Nixon (born 1913) ceased being the oldest living president when Ronald Reagan (born 1911) was inaugurated. Furthermore, although Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest ever to become both the oldest living president (at age 49) and a former president (at age 50), he was the only living president or former president by the end of his term. Consequently, Taft was the oldest living president twice: first during his presidency (having succeeded the younger Roosevelt), and a second time after Wilson (his successor as president but an older man) died. Gerald Ford was the oldest individual to acquire this distinction, at the age of 90.

text: On seven occasions, the oldest living president has acquired this distinction during his term in office. In the cases of John Adams, Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt, Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon, this happened at the same time as their becoming the only living president; in the cases of Andrew Jackson and Benjamin Harrison, the only other living president at the time was a younger predecessor (John Quincy Adams and Grover Cleveland respectively).

text:
President
Dates
Age at
start date
Age at
end date
Length

Washington, GeorgeGeorge Washington
000000001789-04-30-0000April 30, 1789 – December 14, 1799
7004208870000000000♠57 years, 67 days
7004247670000000000♠67 years, 295 days
7003388000000000000♠10 years, 228 days

Adams, JohnJohn Adams
000000001799-12-14-0000December 14, 1799 – July 4, 1826
7004234210000000000♠64 years, 45 days
7004331190000000000♠90 years, 247 days
7003969800000000000♠26 years, 202 days

Madison, JamesJames Madison
000000001826-07-04-0000July 4, 1826 – June 28, 1836
7004275030000000000♠75 years, 110 days
7004311500000000000♠85 years, 104 days
7003364700000000000♠9 years, 360 days

Jackson, AndrewAndrew Jackson
000000001836-06-28-0000June 28, 1836 – June 8, 1845
7004253070000000000♠69 years, 105 days
7004285740000000000♠78 years, 85 days
7003326700000000000♠8 years, 345 days

Adams, John QuincyJohn Quincy Adams
000000001845-06-08-0000June 8, 1845 – February 23, 1848
7004284560000000000♠77 years, 332 days
7004294460000000000♠80 years, 227 days
7002990000000000000♠2 years, 260 days

Van Buren, MartinMartin Van Buren
000000001848-02-23-0000February 23, 1848 – July 24, 1862
7004238200000000000♠65 years, 80 days
7004290850000000000♠79 years, 231 days
7003526500000000000♠14 years, 151 days

Buchanan, JamesJames Buchanan
000000001862-07-24-0000July 24, 1862 – June 1, 1868
7004260240000000000♠71 years, 92 days
7004281630000000000♠77 years, 39 days
7003213900000000000♠5 years, 313 days

Fillmore, MillardMillard Fillmore
000000001868-06-01-0000June 1, 1868 – March 8, 1874
7004249820000000000♠68 years, 146 days
7004270880000000000♠74 years, 60 days
7003210600000000000♠5 years, 280 days

Johnson, AndrewAndrew Johnson
000000001874-03-08-0000March 8, 1874 – July 31, 1875
7004238100000000000♠65 years, 69 days
7004243200000000000♠66 years, 214 days
7002510000000000000♠1 year, 145 days

Grant, Ulysses S.Ulysses S. Grant
000000001875-07-31-0000July 31, 1875 – July 23, 1885
7004194530000000000♠53 years, 95 days
7004230980000000000♠63 years, 87 days
7003364500000000000♠9 years, 357 days

Hayes, Rutherford B.Rutherford B. Hayes
000000001885-07-23-0000July 23, 1885 – January 17, 1893
7004229380000000000♠62 years, 292 days
7004256730000000000♠70 years, 105 days
7003273500000000000♠7 years, 178 days

Harrison, BenjaminBenjamin Harrison
000000001893-01-17-0000January 17, 1893 – March 13, 1901
7004217000000000000♠59 years, 150 days
7004246760000000000♠67 years, 205 days
7003297600000000000♠8 years, 55 days

Cleveland, GroverGrover Cleveland
000000001901-03-13-0000March 13, 1901 – June 24, 1908
7004233700000000000♠63 years, 360 days
7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days
7003266000000000000♠7 years, 103 days

Roosevelt, TheodoreTheodore Roosevelt
000000001908-06-24-0000June 24, 1908 – March 4, 1909
7004181370000000000♠49 years, 241 days
7004183900000000000♠50 years, 128 days
7002253000000000000♠253 days

Taft, William HowardWilliam Howard Taft
000000001909-03-04-0000March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913
7004187970000000000♠51 years, 170 days
7004202580000000000♠55 years, 170 days
7003146100000000000♠4 years, 0 days

Wilson, WoodrowWoodrow Wilson
000000001913-03-04-0000March 4, 1913 – February 3, 1924
7004205190000000000♠56 years, 66 days
7004245070000000000♠67 years, 37 days
7003398800000000000♠10 years, 336 days

Taft, William HowardWilliam Howard Taft
000000001924-02-03-0000February 3, 1924 – March 8, 1930
7004242460000000000♠66 years, 141 days
7004264710000000000♠72 years, 174 days
7003222500000000000♠6 years, 33 days

Coolidge, CalvinCalvin Coolidge
000000001930-03-08-0000March 8, 1930 – January 5, 1933
7004210650000000000♠57 years, 247 days
7004220990000000000♠60 years, 185 days
7003103400000000000♠2 years, 303 days

Hoover, HerbertHerbert Hoover
000000001933-01-05-0000January 5, 1933 – October 20, 1964
7004213320000000000♠58 years, 148 days
7004329430000000000♠90 years, 71 days
7004116110000000000♠31 years, 289 days

Truman, Harry S.Harry S. Truman
000000001964-10-20-0000October 20, 1964 – December 26, 1972
7004293840000000000♠80 years, 165 days
7004323730000000000♠88 years, 232 days
7003298900000000000♠8 years, 67 days

Johnson, Lyndon B.Lyndon B. Johnson
000000001972-12-26-0000December 26, 1972 – January 22, 1973
7004234970000000000♠64 years, 121 days
7004235240000000000♠64 years, 148 days
7001270000000000000♠27 days

Nixon, RichardRichard Nixon
000000001973-01-22-0000January 22, 1973 – January 20, 1981
7004219280000000000♠60 years, 13 days
7004248480000000000♠68 years, 11 days
7003292000000000000♠7 years, 364 days

Reagan, RonaldRonald Reagan
000000001981-01-20-0000January 20, 1981 – June 5, 2004
7004255510000000000♠69 years, 349 days
7004340880000000000♠93 years, 120 days
7003853700000000000♠23 years, 137 days

Ford, GeraldGerald Ford
000000002004-06-05-0000June 5, 2004 – December 26, 2006
7004331990000000000♠90 years, 327 days
7004341330000000000♠93 years, 165 days
7002934000000000000♠2 years, 204 days

Bush, George H. W.George H. W. Bush
000000002006-12-26-0000December 26, 2006 – present
7004301470000000000♠82 years, 197 days
Current
7003412200000000000♠11 years, 104 days

President
Dates
Age at
start date
Age at
end date
Length


document_title: Crossing the Bar

question_text: who is the pilot in crossing the bar

question_tokens: who is the pilot in crossing the bar

text: Crossing the Bar

text: Overview[edit]

text: Tennyson is believed to have written the poem (after suffering a serious illness) while on the sea, crossing the Solent from Aldworth to Farringford on the Isle of Wight. Separately, it has been suggested he may have written it on a yacht anchored in Salcombe. "The words", he said, "came in a moment".[1] Shortly before he died, Tennyson told his son Hallam to "put 'Crossing the Bar' at the end of all editions of my poems".[1]

text: The poem contains four stanzas that generally alternate between long and short lines. Tennyson employs a traditional ABAB rhyme scheme. Scholars have noted that the form of the poem follows the content: the wavelike quality of the long-then-short lines parallels the narrative thread of the poem.

text: The extended metaphor of "crossing of bar" represents traveling serenely and securely from life through death. The Pilot is a metaphor for God, whom the speaker hopes to meet face to face. Tennyson explained, "The Pilot has been on board all the while, but in the dark I have not seen him…[He is] that Divine and Unseen Who is always guiding us."[1]

text: The words have been set to music by Sir Hubert Parry, Sir Joseph Barnby and Dr. George Hewson, organist at St Patrick's Cathedral Dublin.

text: In 2014, Ian Assersohn wrote a new setting of the words for male voices. Assersohn's piece "Crossing the Bar" won the Composers' Competition at the Cornwall International Male Voice Choir Festival, from a field of 40 entries.[2] Assersohn is the Musical Director of Epsom Male Voice Choir,[3] and the choir sang the world première of "Crossing the Bar" in Truro Cathedral at the Festival Opening International Gala Concert on Thursday 30 April 2015.[4]

text: A lovely folk music inspired setting for the poem with a refrain was created by Rani Arbo, an American bluegrass musician. The music was written at the time her husband's grandmother was passing away. Peter Amidon has used her melody to create a choral setting.

text: Words to the poem[edit]

text:
Sunset and evening star,
And one clear call for me!
And may there be no moaning of the bar,
When I put out to sea,

But such a tide as moving seems asleep,
Too full for sound and foam,
When that which drew from out the boundless deep
Turns again home.

Twilight and evening bell,
And after that the dark!
And may there be no sadness of farewell,
When I embark;

For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place
The flood may bear me far,
I hope to see my Pilot face to face
When I have crost the bar.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c Hill, Robert W., Jr., ed. (1971). Tennyson's poetry; authoritative texts, juvenilia and early responses, criticism. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-09953-9.
Jump up ^ "Festival20112".
Jump up ^ "EMVC Home".
Jump up ^ "cimcf.uk home page".
Jump up ^ "Crossing the Bar by Alfred, Lord Tennyson  : The Poetry Foundation". www.poetryfoundation.org. Retrieved 2016-02-21.


document_title: The Outsiders (film)

question_text: where does the movie the outsiders take place

text: The Outsiders (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In Tulsa, Oklahoma, greasers are a gang of tough, low-income working-class teens. They include Ponyboy Curtis and his two older brothers, Sodapop and Darrel, as well as Johnny Cade, Dallas Winston, Two-Bit Matthews, and Steve Randle. Their rivalry is with the Socs, a gang of wealthier kids from the other side of town. Two Socs, Bob Sheldon and Randy Anderson, confront Johnny, Ponyboy, and Two-Bit, who are talking to the Socs' girlfriends, Cherry and Marcia, at a drive-in theater. The girls defuse the situation by going home with the Socs. Later that night, Ponyboy and Johnny are attacked in a park by Bob, Randy, and three other Socs. They begin dunking Ponyboy in a fountain attempting to drown him, but Johnny pulls out his switchblade and stabs Bob to death.

text: On the advice of Dallas, and the fact that murderers in Oklahoma will be executed in the electric chair, Ponyboy and Johnny flee on a cargo train, and hide out in an abandoned church in Windrixville. Both boys cut their hair and Ponyboy bleaches his with peroxide in order to mask their descriptions. To pass time, the boys play poker and Ponyboy reads Gone with the Wind and quotes the Robert Frost poem "Nothing Gold Can Stay". After a few days, Dallas arrives with news that Cherry has offered to support the boys in court, that he told the police that Johnny and Pony were in Texas, and gives Pony a note from Sodapop. They go out to get something to eat, then return to find the church on fire with children trapped inside. The Greasers turn into heroes as they rescue the kids from the burning church. It doesn't take long for Ponyboy and Dally to heal up. Johnny, on the other hand, ends up with a broken back and severe burns. The boys are praised for their heroism, but Johnny is charged with manslaughter for killing Bob, while Ponyboy may be sent to a boys' home.

text: Bob's death has sparked calls from the Socs for "a rumble," which the Greasers win. Dallas drives Ponyboy to the hospital to visit Johnny. Johnny is unimpressed by the victory, and dies after telling Ponyboy to "stay gold," referring to the Frost poem. Unable to bear Johnny's death, Dallas wanders through the hospital, pretending to shoot a doctor with his unloaded gun, which clicks harmlessly. He then robs a grocery store with the same gun, but he is shot and wounded by the owner as he flees. Pursued by the police, Dallas is surrounded in a park and the police kill him after he repeatedly refuses to drop his unloaded gun. Ponyboy is eventually cleared of wrongdoing in Bob's death and allowed to stay with his brothers. Turning the pages of Johnny's copy of Gone with the Wind, Ponyboy finds a letter from Johnny saying that saving the children was worth sacrificing his own life. The story ends with Ponyboy writing a school report about his experiences.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
C. Thomas Howell as Ponyboy Curtis
Matt Dillon as Dallas "Dally" Winston
Ralph Macchio as Johnny Cade
Patrick Swayze as Darrel "Darry" Curtis
Rob Lowe as Sodapop Curtis
Emilio Estevez as Two-Bit Matthews
Tom Cruise as Steve Randle
Glenn Withrow as Tim Shepard

tag: ul

text:
Diane Lane as Sherri "Cherry" Valance
Leif Garrett as Robert "Bob" Sheldon
Darren Dalton as Randy Anderson
Michelle Meyrink as Marcia

text:
Tom Waits as Buck Merrill
Gailard Sartain as Jerry Wood
William Smith as Store Clerk

text: The book's author, S. E. Hinton, appears briefly as a nurse in Dally's (Dillon's) hospital room.

text: Production[edit]

text: Francis Ford Coppola had not intended to make a film about teen angst until Jo Ellen Misakian, a school librarian from Lone Star Elementary School in Fresno, California, wrote to him on behalf of her seventh and eighth grade students about adapting The Outsiders.[3] When Coppola read the book, he was moved not only to adapt and direct it, but to follow it the next year by adapting Hinton's novel Rumble Fish. The latter film's cast also included Matt Dillon, Diane Lane, and Glenn Withrow.

text: The film was shot on location in Tulsa, Oklahoma.[4] Coppola filmed The Outsiders and Rumble Fish back-to-back in 1982—a newspaper, used to show a story about the three greasers saving the kids in The Outsiders, includes a real story from 1982 regarding the death of a man hit by a train in Boston.[5] He wrote the screenplay for the latter while on days off from shooting the former. Many of the same locations were used in both films, as were many of the same cast and crew members. The credits are shown at the beginning of the film in the style normally found in a published play.

text: Coppola's craving for realism almost led to disaster during the church-burning scene. He pressed for "more fire", and the small, controlled blaze accidentally triggered a much larger, uncontrolled fire, which a downpour fortunately doused.[6]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The film was met with mostly positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives The Outsiders a 65% "Fresh" rating on its site. Roger Ebert awarded the film two-and-a-half out of four stars, citing problems with Coppola's vision, "the characters wind up like pictures, framed and hanging on the screen."[7]

text: Authors Janet Hirshenson and Jane Jenkins, in a 2007 book, wrote that the film's realistic portrayal of poor teenagers "created a new kind of filmmaking, especially about teenagers — a more naturalistic look at how young people talk, act, and experience the world. This movie was one of the few Hollywood offerings to deal realistically with kids from the wrong side of the tracks, and to portray honestly children whose parents had abused, neglected, or otherwise failed them."[8]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: The Outsiders was nominated for four Young Artist Awards, given annually since 1978 by the Young Artist Foundation. C. Thomas Howell won for "Best Young Motion Picture Actor in a Feature Film". Diane Lane was nominated for "Best Young Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture". The film was nominated for "Best Family Feature Motion Picture".[9] Francis Ford Coppola was nominated for the Golden Prize at the 13th Moscow International Film Festival.[10]

text: "The Complete Novel" re-release[edit]

text: In September 2005, Coppola re-released the film on DVD, including 22 minutes of additional footage and new music, as The Outsiders: The Complete Novel. Coppola re-inserted some deleted scenes to make the film more faithful to the book. At the beginning of the film, he added scenes where Ponyboy gets stalked and jumped, the gang talks about going to the movies, Sodapop and Ponyboy talking in their room and Dally, Pony and Johnny bum around before going to the movies. In the end, Coppola added the scenes taking place in court, Mr. Syme talking to Ponyboy, and Sodapop, Ponyboy and Darry in the park. Also, much of the original score was replaced with music popular in the 1960s as well as new music composed by Michael Seifert and Dave Padrutt. The film was re-rated by the MPAA as PG-13 for "violence, teen drinking and smoking, and some sexual references".[11]

text: The director also removed several scenes in order to improve pacing, but they could be found on the second disc as additional scenes. In addition, Swayze, Macchio, Lane, and Howell gathered at Coppola's estate to watch the re-release, and their commentary is included on the DVD. Dillon and Lowe provided separate commentary.

text: A Blu-ray edition of The Outsiders: The Complete Novel was released in Region 1 on June 3, 2014.[12]

text: Music[edit]

text: The original film score was composed by the director's father, Carmine Coppola; the main theme, "Stay Gold", was sung by Stevie Wonder. The original soundtrack included one rock song, Them's "Gloria".

text: Sequel TV series[edit]

text: A television series based on the characters of the novel and film aired in 1990. It consists of a different cast playing the same characters. It picks up right after the events of the film's ending but lasted only one season.


document_title: Iron ore

question_text: what type of iron ore found in india

question_tokens: what type of iron ore found in india

text: Iron ore

text: Sources[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Metallic iron is virtually unknown on the surface of the Earth except as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites and very rare forms of deep mantle xenoliths. Although iron is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, comprising about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or more rarely carbonate minerals. The thermodynamic barriers to separating pure iron from these minerals are formidable and energy intensive, therefore all sources of iron used by human industry exploit comparatively rarer iron oxide minerals, primarily hematite.

text: Prior to the industrial revolution, most iron was obtained from widely available goethite or bog ore, for example during the American Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Prehistoric societies used laterite as a source of iron ore. Historically, much of the iron ore utilized by industrialized societies has been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with grades of around 70% Fe. These deposits are commonly referred to as "direct shipping ores" or "natural ores". Increasing iron ore demand, coupled with the depletion of high-grade hematite ores in the United States, after World War II led to development of lower-grade iron ore sources, principally the utilization of magnetite and taconite.

text: Iron-ore mining methods vary by the type of ore being mined. There are four main types of iron-ore deposits worked currently, depending on the mineralogy and geology of the ore deposits. These are magnetite, titanomagnetite, massive hematite and pisolitic ironstone deposits.

text: Banded iron formations[edit]

text: Banded iron formations (BIFs) are sedimentary rocks containing more than 15% iron composed predominantly of thinly bedded iron minerals and silica (as quartz). Banded iron formations occur exclusively in Precambrian rocks, and are commonly weakly to intensely metamorphosed. Banded iron formations may contain iron in carbonates (siderite or ankerite) or silicates (minnesotaite, greenalite, or grunerite), but in those mined as iron ores, oxides (magnetite or hematite) are the principal iron mineral.[4]  Banded iron formations are known as taconite within North America.

text: The mining involves moving tremendous amounts of ore and waste.  The waste comes in two forms, non-ore bedrock in the mine (overburden or interburden locally known as mullock), and unwanted minerals which are an intrinsic part of the ore rock itself (gangue). The mullock is mined and piled in waste dumps, and the gangue is separated during the beneficiation process and is removed as tailings. Taconite tailings are mostly the mineral quartz, which is chemically inert.  This material is stored in large, regulated water settling ponds.

text: Magnetite ores[edit]

text: The key economic parameters for magnetite ore being economic are the crystallinity of the magnetite, the grade of the iron within the banded iron formation host rock, and the contaminant elements which exist within the magnetite concentrate. The size and strip ratio of most magnetite resources is irrelevant as a banded iron formation can be hundreds of meters thick, extend hundreds of kilometers along strike, and can easily come to more than three billion or more tonnes of contained ore.

text: The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron, which can generally yield a 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight, to produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight. The typical magnetite iron-ore concentrate has less than 0.1% phosphorus, 3–7% silica and less than 3% aluminium.

text: Currently magnetite iron ore is mined in Minnesota and Michigan in the U.S., Eastern Canada and Northern Sweden. Magnetite bearing banded iron formation is currently mined extensively in Brazil, which exports significant quantities to Asia, and there is a nascent and large magnetite iron-ore industry in Australia.

text: Direct-shipping (hematite) ores[edit]

text: Direct-shipping iron-ore (DSO) deposits (typically composed of hematite) are currently exploited on all continents except Antarctica, with the largest intensity in South America, Australia and Asia. Most large hematite iron-ore deposits are sourced from altered banded iron formations and rarely igneous accumulations.

text: DSO deposits are typically rarer than the magnetite-bearing BIF or other rocks which form its main source or protolith rock, but are considerably cheaper to mine and process as they require less beneficiation due to the higher iron content.  However, DSO ores can contain significantly higher concentrations of penalty elements, typically being higher in phosphorus, water content (especially pisolite sedimentary accumulations) and aluminum (clays within pisolites). Export grade DSO ores are generally in the 62–64% Fe range.[citation needed]

text: Magmatic magnetite ore deposits[edit]

text: Occasionally granite and ultrapotassic igneous rocks segregate magnetite crystals and form masses of magnetite suitable for economic concentration. A few iron ore deposits, notably in Chile, are formed from volcanic flows containing significant accumulations of magnetite phenocrysts.[5] Chilean magnetite iron ore deposits within the Atacama Desert have also formed alluvial accumulations of magnetite in streams leading from these volcanic formations.

text: Some magnetite skarn and hydrothermal deposits have been worked in the past as high-grade iron ore deposits requiring little beneficiation. There are several granite-associated deposits of this nature in Malaysia and Indonesia.

text: Other sources of magnetite iron ore include metamorphic accumulations of massive magnetite ore such as at Savage River, Tasmania, formed by shearing of ophiolite ultramafics.

text: Another, minor, source of iron ores are magmatic accumulations in layered intrusions which contain a typically titanium-bearing magnetite often with vanadium. These ores form a niche market, with specialty smelters used to recover the iron, titanium and vanadium. These ores are beneficiated essentially similar to banded iron formation ores, but usually are more easily upgraded via crushing and screening. The typical titanomagnetite concentrate grades 57% Fe, 12% Ti and 0.5% V2O5.[citation needed]

text: Beneficiation[edit]

text: The Lower-grade sources of iron ore generally require beneficiation, using techniques like crushing, milling, gravity or heavy media separation, screening, and silica froth flotation to improve the concentration of the ore and remove impurities. The results, high quality fine ore powders, are known as fines.

text: Magnetite[edit]

text: Magnetite is magnetic, and hence easily separated from the gangue minerals and capable of producing a high-grade concentrate with very low levels of impurities.

text: The grain size of the magnetite and its degree of commingling with the silica groundmass determine the grind size to which the rock must be comminuted to enable efficient magnetic separation to provide a high purity magnetite concentrate. This determines the energy inputs required to run a milling operation.

text: Mining of banded iron formations involves coarse crushing and screening, followed by rough crushing and fine grinding to comminute the ore to the point where the crystallized magnetite and quartz are fine enough that the quartz is left behind when the resultant powder is passed under a magnetic separator.

text: Generally most magnetite banded iron formation deposits must be ground to between 32 and 45 micrometers in order to produce a low-silica magnetite concentrate. Magnetite concentrate grades are generally in excess of 70% iron by weight and usually are low phosphorus, low aluminium, low titanium and low silica and demand a premium price.

text: Hematite[edit]

text: Due to the high density of hematite relative to associated silicate gangue, hematite beneficiation usually involves a combination of beneficiation techniques.

text: One method relies on passing the finely crushed ore over a slurry containing magnetite or other agent such as ferrosilicon which increases its density. When the density of the slurry is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink and the silicate mineral fragments will float and can be removed.[6]

text: Production and consumption[edit]

text:
Usable iron ore production in million metric tons for 2015[8]
The mine production estimates for China are estimated from the National Bureau of Statistics China's crude ore statistics, rather than usable ore as reported for the other countries.[9]

Country
Production

Australia
817

Brazil
397

China
375*

India
156

Russia
101

South Africa
73

Ukraine
67

United States
46

Canada
46

Iran
27

Sweden
25

Kazakhstan
21

Other countries
132

Total world
2,280

text: Iron is the world's most commonly used metal - steel, of which iron ore is the key ingredient, representing almost 95% of all metal used per year.[3] It is used primarily in structural engineering applications and in maritime purposes, automobiles, and general industrial applications (machinery).

text: Iron-rich rocks are common worldwide, but ore-grade commercial mining operations are dominated by the countries listed in the table aside. The major constraint to economics for iron ore deposits is not necessarily the grade or size of the deposits, because it is not particularly hard to geologically prove enough tonnage of the rocks exist. The main constraint is the position of the iron ore relative to market, the cost of rail infrastructure to get it to market and the energy cost required to do so.

text: Mining iron ore is a high volume low margin business, as the value of iron is significantly lower than base metals.[10] It is highly capital intensive, and requires significant investment in infrastructure such as rail in order to transport the ore from the mine to a freight ship.[10] For these reasons, iron ore production is concentrated in the hands of a few major players.

text: World production averages two billion metric tons of raw ore annually. The world's largest producer of iron ore is the Brazilian mining corporation Vale, followed by Anglo-Australian companies Rio Tinto Group and then BHP Billiton. A further Australian supplier, Fortescue Metals Group Ltd, has helped bring Australia's production to first in the world.

text: The seaborne trade in iron ore, that is, iron ore to be shipped to other countries, was 849m tonnes in 2004.[10] Australia and Brazil dominate the seaborne trade, with 72% of the market.[10] BHP, Rio and Vale control 66% of this market between them.[10]

text: In Australia iron ore is won from three main sources: pisolite "channel iron deposit" ore derived by mechanical erosion of primary banded-iron formations and accumulated in alluvial channels such as at Pannawonica, Western Australia; and the dominant metasomatically-altered banded iron formation related ores such as at Newman, the Chichester Range, the Hamersley Range and Koolyanobbing, Western Australia. Other types of ore are coming to the fore recently, such as oxidised ferruginous hardcaps, for instance laterite iron ore deposits near Lake Argyle in Western Australia.

text: The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in India are about 9,602 million tonnes of hematite and 3,408 million tonnes of magnetite.[11] Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu are the principal Indian producers of iron ore. World consumption of iron ore grows 10% per annum[citation needed] on average with the main consumers being China, Japan, Korea, the United States and the European Union.

text: China is currently the largest consumer of iron ore, which translates to be the world's largest steel producing country. It is also the largest importer, buying 52% of the seaborne trade in iron ore in 2004.[10] China is followed by Japan and Korea, which consume a significant amount of raw iron ore and metallurgical coal. In 2006, China produced 588 million tons of iron ore, with an annual growth of 38%.

text: Iron ore market[edit]

text: Over the last 40 years, iron ore prices have been decided in closed-door negotiations between the small handful of miners and steelmakers which dominate both spot and contract markets. Traditionally, the first deal reached between these two groups sets a benchmark to be followed by the rest of the industry.[3]

text: In recent years, however, this benchmark system has begun to break down, with participants along both demand and supply chains calling for a shift to short term pricing. Given that most other commodities already have a mature market-based pricing system, it is natural for iron ore to follow suit.  To answer increasing market demands for more transparent pricing, a number of financial exchanges and/or clearing houses around the world have offered iron ore swaps clearing. The CME group, SGX (Singapore Exchange), London Clearing House (LCH.Clearnet), NOS Group and ICEX (Indian Commodities Exchange) all offer cleared swaps based on The Steel Index's (TSI) iron ore transaction data. The CME also offers a Platts-based swap, in addition to their TSI swap clearing. The ICE (Intercontinental Exchange) offers a Platts-based swap clearing service also. The swaps market has grown quickly, with liquidity clustering around TSI's pricing.[12] By April 2011, over US$5.5 billion worth of iron ore swaps have been cleared basis TSI prices. By August 2012, in excess of one million tonnes of swaps trading per day was taking place regularly, basis TSI.

text: A relatively new development has also been the introduction of iron ore options, in addition to swaps. The CME group has been the venue most utilised for clearing of options written against TSI, with open interest at over 12,000 lots in August 2012.

text: Singapore Mercantile Exchange (SMX) has launched the world first global iron ore futures contract, based on the Metal Bulletin Iron Ore Index (MBIOI) which utilizes daily price data from a broad spectrum of industry participants and independent Chinese steel consultancy and data provider Shanghai Steelhome's widespread contact base of steel producers and iron ore traders across China.[13] The futures contract has seen monthly volumes over 1.5 million tonnes after eight months of trading.[14]

text: This move follows a switch to index-based quarterly pricing by the world's three largest iron ore miners - Vale, Rio Tinto and BHP - in early 2010, breaking a 40-year tradition of benchmark annual pricing.[15]

text: Available iron ore resources[edit]

text: Available world iron ore resources[edit]

text: The iron ore reserves at present seem quite vast, but some are starting to suggest that the math of continual exponential increase in consumption can even make this resource seem quite finite. For instance, Lester Brown of the Worldwatch Institute has suggested iron ore could run out within 64 years based on an extremely conservative extrapolation of 2% growth per year.[16]

text: Australia[edit]

text: Geoscience Australia calculates that the country's "economic demonstrated resources" of iron  currently amount to 24 gigatonnes, or 24 billion tonnes.[citation needed]  The current production rate from the Pilbara region of Western Australia is approximately 430 million tonnes a year and rising. Gavin Mudd (Monash University) and Jonathon Law (CSIRO) expect it to be gone within 30 to 50 years (Mudd) and 56 years (Law).[17] These estimates require on-going review to take into account shifting demand for lower grade iron ore and improving mining and recovery techniques (allowing deeper mining below the groundwater table).

text: Pilbara deposit[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In 2011, leading Pilbara-based iron ore miners – Rio Tinto, BHP Billiton and Fortescue Metals Group (FMG) – all announced significant capital investment in the development of existing and new mines and associated infrastructure (rail and port). Collectively this would amount to the production of 1,000 million tonnes per year (Mt/y) by 2020. Practically that would require a doubling of production capacity from a current[when?] production level of 470 Mt/y to 1,000 Mt/y (an increase of 530 Mt/y). These figures are based on the current[when?] production rates of Rio 300 Mt/y, BHP 240 Mt/y, FMG 55 Mt/y and Other 15 Mt/y increasing to Rio 360 Mt/y, BHP 356 Mt/y, FMG 155 Mt/y and Other 140 Mt/y (the latter 140 Mt/y is based on planned production from recent[when?] industry entrants Hancock, Atlas and Brockman through Port Hedland and API and others through the proposed Port of Anketell). In March 2014, Fortescue officially opened its 40 million-tonne per annum (mtpa) Kings Valley project, marking the completion of a US$9.2 billion expansion that increased its production capacity to 155 mtpa. The expansion included the construction of the greenfields Solomon Hub in the Hamersley Ranges, one of the world’s largest iron ore developments comprising Kings Valley and the nearby 20 mtpa Firetail mine; an expansion of the Christmas Creek mine to 50 mtpa; and major extensions of Fortescue’s world-class port and rail facilities.

text: A production rate of 1,000 Mt/y would require a significant increase in production from existing mines and the opening of a significant number of new mines. Further, a significant increase in the capacity of rail and port infrastructure would also be required. For example, Rio would be required to expand its port operations at Dampier and Cape Lambert by 140 Mt/y (from 220 Mt/y to 360 Mt/y). BHP would be required to expand its Port Hedland port operations by 180 Mt/y (from 180 Mt/y to 360 Mt/y). FMG would be required to expand its port operations at Port Hedland by 100 Mt/y (from 55 Mt/y to 155 Mt/y). That is an increase of 420 Mt/y in port capacity by the three majors Rio, BHP and FMG and about at least 110 Mt/y from the non-major producers. Based on the rule-of-thumb of 50 Mt/y per car dumper, reclaimer and ship-loader the new production would require approximately 10 new car dumpers, reclaimers and ship-loaders.[18]

text: New rail capacity would also be required. Based on the rule-of-thumb of 100 Mt/y per rail line, increasing production by approximately 500 Mt/y would require five new single rail lines. One scenario is an extra rail line for all the majors: BHP (from double to triple track), Rio (double to triple track), FMG (single to double track) and at least two new lines. Hancock Prospecting has recently[when?] started production from its Roy Hill Iron Ore Mine located north of Newman. This project included the development of the Roy Hill deposit, the construction of a 344 km railway and a port facility with an annual throughput of 55 Mt and QR National to service non-major producers, as of December 2015 due to the falling iron ore price these plans have been suspended indefinitely.[19][20]

text: A 1,000 Mt/y production rate needs to be further considered by proponents and government. Areas of further consideration include new port space at Anketell to service the West Pilbara mines, growth at Port Hedland (BHP has announced the development of an outer harbour at Port Hedland), rail rationalisation and the regulatory approval requirements for opening and maintaining a ground disturbance footprint that supports 1,000 Mt/y of production including, amongst other things, native title, aboriginal heritage and environmental protection outcomes.

text: Smelting[edit]

text: Iron ores consist of oxygen and iron atoms bonded together into molecules. To convert it to metallic iron it must be smelted or sent through a direct reduction process to remove the oxygen.  Oxygen-iron bonds are strong, and to remove the iron from the oxygen, a stronger elemental bond must be presented to attach to the oxygen. Carbon is used because the strength of a carbon-oxygen bond is greater than that of the iron-oxygen bond, at high temperatures. Thus, the iron ore must be powdered and mixed with coke, to be burnt in the smelting process.

text: However, it is not entirely as simple as that. Carbon monoxide is the primary ingredient of chemically stripping oxygen from iron. Thus, the iron and carbon smelting must be kept at an oxygen deficient (reducing) state to promote burning of carbon to produce CO not CO2.

text:
Air blast and charcoal (coke): 2 C + O2 → 2 CO
Carbon monoxide (CO) is the principal reduction agent.
Stage One: 3 Fe2O3 + CO → 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
Stage Two: Fe3O4 + CO → 3 FeO + CO2
Stage Three: FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
Limestone calcining: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Lime acting as flux: CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

text: Trace elements[edit]

text: The inclusion of even small amounts of some elements can have profound effects on the behavioral characteristics of a batch of iron or the operation of a smelter.  These effects can be both good and bad, some catastrophically bad.  Some chemicals are deliberately added such as flux which makes a blast furnace more efficient.  Others are added because they make the iron more fluid, harder, or give it some other desirable quality.  The choice of ore, fuel, and flux determine how the slag behaves and the operational characteristics of the iron produced. Ideally iron ore contains only iron and oxygen. In reality this is rarely the case. Typically, iron ore contains a host of elements which are often unwanted in modern steel.

text: Silicon[edit]

text: Silica (SiO2) is almost always present in iron ore.  Most of it is slagged off during the smelting process.  At temperatures above 1300 °C some will be reduced and form an alloy with the iron.  The hotter the furnace, the more silicon will be present in the iron.  It is not uncommon to find up to 1.5% Si in European cast iron from the 16th to 18th centuries.

text: The major effect of silicon is to promote the formation of grey iron.  Grey iron is less brittle and easier to finish than white iron.  It is preferred for casting purposes for this reason.  Turner (1900, pp. 192–197) reported that silicon also reduces shrinkage and the formation of blowholes, lowering the number of bad castings.

text: Phosphorus[edit]

text: Phosphorus (P) has four major effects on iron: increased hardness and strength, lower solidus temperature, increased fluidity, and cold shortness.  Depending on the use intended for the iron, these effects are either good or bad.  Bog ore often has a high phosphorus content (Gordon 1996, p. 57).

text: The strength and hardness of iron increases with the concentration of phosphorus.  0.05% phosphorus in wrought iron makes it as hard as medium carbon steel.  High phosphorus iron can also be hardened by cold hammering.  The hardening effect is true for any concentration of phosphorus.  The more phosphorus, the harder the iron becomes and the more it can be hardened by hammering.  Modern steel makers can increase hardness by as much as 30%, without sacrificing shock resistance by maintaining phosphorus levels between 0.07 and 0.12%.  It also increases the depth of hardening due to quenching, but at the same time also decreases the solubility of carbon in iron at high temperatures.  This would decrease its usefulness in making blister steel (cementation), where the speed and amount of carbon absorption is the overriding consideration.

text: The addition of phosphorus has a down side.  At concentrations higher than 0.2% iron becomes increasingly cold short, or brittle at low temperatures.  Cold short is especially important for bar iron.  Although bar iron is usually worked hot, its uses[example  needed] often require it to be tough, bendable, and resistant to shock at room temperature.  A nail that shattered when hit with a hammer or a carriage wheel that broke when it hit a rock would not sell well.[citation needed]  High enough concentrations of phosphorus render any iron unusable (Rostoker & Bronson 1990, p. 22).  The effects of cold shortness are magnified by temperature.  Thus, a piece of iron that is perfectly serviceable in summer, might become extremely brittle in winter.  There is some evidence that during the Middle Ages the very wealthy may have had a high phosphorus sword for summer and a low phosphorus sword for winter (Rostoker & Bronson 1990, p. 22).

text: Careful control of phosphorus can be of great benefit in casting operations.  Phosphorus depresses the liquidus temperature, allowing the iron to remain molten for longer and increases fluidity.  The addition of 1% can double the distance molten iron will flow (Rostoker & Bronson 1990, p. 22).  The maximum effect, about 500 °C, is achieved at a concentration of 10.2% (Rostocker & Bronson 1990, p. 194).  For foundry work Turner[who?] felt the ideal iron had 0.2–0.55% phosphorus.  The resulting iron filled molds with fewer voids and also shrank less.  In the 19th century some producers of decorative cast iron used iron with up to 5% phosphorus.  The extreme fluidity allowed them to make very complex and delicate castings.  But, they could not be weight bearing, as they had no strength (Turner 1900, pp. 202–204).

text: There are two remedies[according to whom?] for high phosphorus iron.  The oldest, and easiest, is avoidance.  If the iron that the ore produced was cold short, one[who?] would search for a new source of iron ore.  The second method involves oxidizing the phosphorus during the fining process by adding iron oxide.  This technique is usually associated with puddling in the 19th century, and may not have been understood earlier. For instance Isaac Zane, the owner of Marlboro Iron Works did not appear to know about it in 1772.  Given Zane's reputation[according to whom?] for keeping abreast of the latest developments, the technique was probably unknown to the ironmasters of Virginia and Pennsylvania.

text: Phosphorus is a deleterious contaminant because it makes steel brittle, even at concentrations of as little as 0.6%. Phosphorus cannot be easily removed by fluxing or smelting, and so iron ores must generally be low in phosphorus to begin with.

text: Aluminium[edit]

text: Small amounts of aluminium (Al) are present in many ores including iron ore, sand and some limestones.  The former can be removed by washing the ore prior to smelting. Until the introduction of brick lined furnaces, the amount of aluminum contamination was small enough that it did not have an effect on either the iron or slag.  However, when brick began to be used for hearths and the interior of blast furnaces, the amount of aluminium contamination increased dramatically.  This was due to the erosion of the furnace lining by the liquid slag.

text: Aluminium is difficult to reduce.  As a result, aluminium contamination of the iron is not a problem.  However, it does increase the viscosity of the slag (Kato & Minowa 1969, p. 37 and Rosenqvist 1983, p. 311).  This will have a number of adverse effects on furnace operation.  The thicker slag will slow the descent of the charge, prolonging the process.  High aluminium will also make it more difficult to tap off the liquid slag.  At the extreme this could lead to a frozen furnace.

text: There are a number of solutions to a high aluminium slag.  The first is avoidance; don't use ore or a lime source with a high aluminium content.  Increasing the ratio of lime flux will decrease the viscosity (Rosenqvist 1983, p. 311).

text: Sulfur[edit]

text: Sulfur (S) is a frequent contaminant in coal.  It is also present in small quantities in many ores, but can be removed by calcining.  Sulfur dissolves readily in both liquid and solid iron at the temperatures present in iron smelting.  The effects of even small amounts of sulfur are immediate and serious.  They were one of the first worked out by iron makers.  Sulfur causes iron to be red or hot short (Gordon 1996, p. 7).

text: Hot short iron is brittle when hot.  This was a serious problem as most iron used during the 17th and 18th century was bar or wrought iron.  Wrought iron is shaped by repeated blows with a hammer while hot.  A piece of hot short iron will crack if worked with a hammer.  When a piece of hot iron or steel cracks the exposed surface immediately oxidizes.  This layer of oxide prevents the mending of the crack by welding.  Large cracks cause the iron or steel to break up.  Smaller cracks can cause the object to fail during use.  The degree of hot shortness is in direct proportion to the amount of sulfur present.  Today iron with over 0.03% sulfur is avoided.

text: Hot short iron can be worked, but it has to be worked at low temperatures.  Working at lower temperatures requires more physical effort from the smith or forgeman.  The metal must be struck more often and harder to achieve the same result.  A mildly sulfur contaminated bar can be worked, but it requires a great deal more time and effort.

text: In cast iron sulfur promotes the formation of white iron.  As little as 0.5% can counteract the effects of slow cooling and a high silicon content (Rostoker & Bronson 1990, p. 21).  White cast iron is more brittle, but also harder.  It is generally avoided, because it is difficult to work,  except in China where high sulfur cast iron, some as high as 0.57%, made with coal and coke, was used to make bells and chimes (Rostoker, Bronson & Dvorak 1984, p. 760).  According to Turner (1900, pp. 200), good foundry iron should have less than 0.15% sulfur.  In the rest of the world a high sulfur cast iron can be used for making castings, but will make poor wrought iron.

text: There are a number of remedies for sulfur contamination.  The first, and the one most used in historic and prehistoric operations, is avoidance.  Coal was not used in Europe (unlike China) as a fuel for smelting because it contains sulfur and therefore causes hot short iron.  If an ore resulted in hot short metal, ironmasters looked for another ore.  When mineral coal was first used in European blast furnaces in 1709 (or perhaps earlier), it was coked.  Only with the introduction of hot blast from 1829 was raw coal used.

text: Sulfur can be removed from ores by roasting and washing.  Roasting oxidizes sulfur to form sulfur dioxide which either escapes into the atmosphere or can be washed out.  In warm climates it is possible to leave pyritic ore out in the rain.  The combined action of rain, bacteria, and heat oxidize the sulfides to sulfuric acid and sulfates, which are water-soluble and leached out (Turner 1900, pp. 77). However, historically (at least), iron sulfide (iron pyrite FeS2), though a common iron mineral, has not been used as an ore for the production of iron metal.  Natural weathering was also used in Sweden.  The same process, at geological speed, results in the gossan limonite ores.

text: The importance attached to low sulfur iron is demonstrated by the consistently higher prices paid for the iron of Sweden, Russia, and Spain from the 16th to 18th centuries.  Today sulfur is no longer a problem. The modern remedy is the addition of manganese.  But, the operator must know how much sulfur is in the iron because at least five times as much manganese must be added to neutralize it.  Some historic irons display manganese levels, but most are well below the level needed to neutralize sulfur (Rostoker & Bronson 1990, p. 21).

text:
Sulfide inclusion as manganese sulfide (MnS) can also be the cause of severe pitting corrosion problems in low-grade stainless steel such as AISI 304 steel.[21] [22]
Under oxidizing conditions and in the presence of moisture, when sulfide oxidizes it produces thiosulfate anions as intermediate species and because thiosulfate anion has a higher equivalent electromobility than chloride anion due to its double negative electrical charge, it promotes the pit growth.[23]  Indeed, the positive electrical charges born by Fe2+ cations released in solution by Fe oxidation on the anodic zone inside the pit must be quickly compensated / neutralised by negative charges brought by the electrokinetic migration of anions in the capillary pit. Some of the electrochemical processes occurring in a capillary pit are the same than these encountered in capillary electrophoresis. Higher the anion electrokinetic migration rate, higher the rate of pitting corrosion. Electrokinetic transport of ions inside the pit can be the rate limiting step in the pit growth rate.


document_title: Due process

question_text: in which country there is a provision of due process of law

text: Due process

text: By jurisdiction[edit]

text: Magna Carta[edit]

text: In clause 39 of Magna Carta, issued in 1215, John of England promised: "No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgment of his equals or by the law of the land."[4] Magna Carta itself immediately became part of the "law of the land", and Clause 61 of that charter authorized an elected body of 25 barons to determine by majority vote what redress the King must provide when the King offends "in any respect against any man."[4] Thus, Magna Carta established the rule of law in England by not only requiring the monarchy to obey the law of the land but also limiting how the monarchy could change the law of the land. However, in the 13th century, the provisions may have been referring only to the rights of landowners, and not to ordinary peasantry or villagers.[5]

text: Shorter versions of Magna Carta were subsequently issued by British monarchs, and Clause 39 of Magna Carta was renumbered "29."[6] The phrase due process of law first appeared in a statutory rendition of Magna Carta in 1354 during the reign of Edward III of England, as follows: "No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken, nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law."[7]

text: In 1608, the English jurist Edward Coke wrote a treatise in which he discussed the meaning of Magna Carta. Coke explained that no man shall be deprived but by legem terrae, the law of the land, "that is, by the common law, statute law, or custom of England.... (that is, to speak it once and for all) by the due course, and process of law.."[8]

text: Both the clause in Magna Carta and the later statute of 1354 were again explained in 1704 (during the reign of Queen Anne) by the Queen's Bench, in the case of Regina v. Paty.[9] In that case, the British House of Commons had deprived John Paty and certain other citizens of the right to vote in an election and committed them to Newgate Prison merely for the offense of pursuing a legal action in the courts.[10] The Queen's Bench, in an opinion by Justice Powys [finding for which party?], explained the meaning of "due process of law" as follows:

text: [I]t is objected, that by Mag. Chart. c. 29, no man ought to be taken or imprisoned, but by the law of the land. But to this I answer, that lex terrae is not confined to the common law, but takes in all the other laws, which are in force in this realm; as the civil and canon law.... By the 28 Ed. 3, c. 3, there the words lex terrae, which are used in Mag. Char. are explained by the words, due process of law; and the meaning of the statute is, that all commitments must be by a legal authority; and the law of Parliament is as much a law as any, nay, if there be any superiority this is a superior law.[9]

text: Chief Justice Holt dissented in this case because he believed that the commitment had not in fact been by a legal authority. The House of Commons had purported to legislate unilaterally, without approval of the British House of Lords, ostensibly to regulate the election of its members.[11] Although the Queen's Bench held that the House of Commons had not infringed or overturned due process, John Paty was ultimately freed by Queen Anne when she prorogued Parliament.

text: English law and American law diverge[edit]

text: Throughout centuries of British history, many laws and treatises asserted various requirements as being part of "due process" or included in the "law of the land". That view usually held in regards to what was required by existing law, rather than what was intrinsically required by due process itself. As the United States Supreme Court has explained, a due process requirement in Britain was not "essential to the idea of due process of law in the prosecution and punishment of crimes, but was only mentioned as an example and illustration of due process of law as it actually existed in cases in which it was customarily used."[12]

text: Ultimately, the scattered references to "due process of law" in English law did not limit the power of the government; in the words of American law professor John V. Orth, "the great phrases failed to retain their vitality."[13] Orth points out that this is generally attributed to the rise of the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy in the United Kingdom, which was accompanied by hostility towards judicial review as an undemocratic foreign invention.[14]

text: Scholars have occasionally interpreted Lord Coke's ruling in Dr. Bonham's Case as implying the possibility of judicial review, but by the 1870s, Lord Campbell was dismissing judicial review as "a foolish doctrine alleged to have been laid down extra-judicially in Dr. Bonham's Case..., a conundrum [that] ought to have been laughed at."[15] Lacking the power of judicial review, English courts possessed no means by which to declare government statutes or actions invalid as a violation of due process. In contrast, American legislators and executive branch officers possessed virtually no means by which to overrule judicial invalidation of statutes or actions as due process violations, with the sole exception of proposing a constitutional amendment, which are rarely successful.[16] As a consequence, English law and American law diverged. Unlike their English counterparts, American judges became increasingly assertive about enforcing due process of law. In turn, the legislative and executive branches learned how to avoid such confrontations in the first place, by tailoring statutes and executive actions to the constitutional requirements of due process as elaborated upon by the judiciary.

text: In 1977, an English political science professor explained the present situation in England for the benefit of American lawyers:

text: An American constitutional lawyer might well be surprised by the elusiveness of references to the term 'due process of law' in the general body of English legal writing.... Today one finds no space devoted to due process in Halsbury's Laws of England, in Stephen's Commentaries, or Anson's Law and Custom of the Constitution. The phrase rates no entry in such works as Stroud's Judicial Dictionary or Wharton's Law Lexicon.[1]

text: Two similar concepts in contemporary English law are natural justice, which generally applies only to decisions of administrative agencies and some types of private bodies like trade unions, and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law as articulated by A. V. Dicey and others.[1] However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American conception of due process, which presently contains many implied rights not found in the ancient or modern concepts of due process in England.[2]

text: United States[edit]

text: The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution each contain a Due Process Clause. Due process deals with the administration of justice and thus the Due Process Clause acts as a safeguard from arbitrary denial of life, liberty, or property by the government outside the sanction of law.[17] The Supreme Court of the United States interprets the clauses as providing four protections: procedural due process (in civil and criminal proceedings), substantive due process, a prohibition against vague laws, and as the vehicle for the incorporation of the Bill of Rights.

text: Australia[edit]

text: The "Act" was subject to revisions as the matter is in old English, and therefore the rule of law required that the matter be updated and amended then republished. This Act was originally a UK Act—(1368) 42 Edw 3 c 3 (UK). The Act was renamed as the Due Process of Law Act 1368 when it was first republished under the Legislation Act 2001. The Act was in force in NSW immediately before 1 January 1911 (the date of establishment of the ACT) and was continued in force by the Seat of Government Acceptance Act 1909 (Cwlth), s 6.Under the Seat of Government (Administration) Act 1910 (Cwlth), s 4 the Act had effect in the ACT as if it were an ACT law (subject to ordinances made under the Seat of Government (Administration) Act 1910). The Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cwlth), s 34 (4) converted most former UK laws in force in the ACT into ACT enactments. This allowed the ACT Legislative Assembly to amend and repeal the laws. This Act was converted into an ACT enactment on 11 May 1989 (self-government day). Under the Interpretation Act 1967 (repealed), s 65 all former UK Acts in force in the ACT immediately before 10 November 1999 (including this Act) became, for all purposes, laws made by the ACT Legislative Assembly. This completed the process of making former UK Acts fully into ACT laws. Due Process of Law Act 1368 42 Edw 3 c 3 as amended by Imperial Acts Application Act 1986 A1986‑93 s 5 and sch 3 pt 5 notified 12 January 1987 (Cwlth Gaz 1986 No S1)s 5 and sch 3 pt 5 commenced 12 January 1987 (s 2 (1))4 Amendment history The Imperial Acts Application Act 1986 (the 1986 Act), sch 3, pt 5 set out the text of this Act in an amended form and provided for the amended form to apply as the text of the Act in force in the ACT (see 1986 Act, s 5 (1), (4) and (5)). The preamble and enacting words were omitted by the 1986 Act. This Act has not been amended since the enactment of the 1986 Act, except under the Legislation Act 2001.

text: Therefore in NSW the act reads: None shall be put to answer without due process of law No person be put to answer without presentment before justices, or matter of record, or by due process and writ original, according to the old law of the land: And if any thing from henceforth be done to the contrary, it shall be void in the law, and holden for error.

text: Others[edit]

text: Various countries recognize some form of due process under customary international law. Although the specifics are often unclear, most nations agree that they should guarantee foreign visitors a basic minimum level of justice and fairness. Some nations have argued that they are bound to grant no more rights to aliens than they do to their own citizens, the doctrine of national treatment, which also means that both would be vulnerable to the same deprivations by the government. With the growth of international human rights law and the frequent use of treaties to govern treatment of foreign nationals abroad, the distinction, in practice, between these two perspectives may be disappearing.