document_title: Albedo

question_text: which earth’s surfaces have the highest and lowest albedo

question_tokens: which earth 's surfaces have the highest and lowest albedo

text: Albedo

text: Terrestrial albedo[edit]

text:
Sample albedos

Surface
Typical
albedo

Fresh asphalt
0.04[4]

Open ocean
0.06[5]

Worn asphalt
0.12[4]

Conifer forest
(Summer)
0.08,[6] 0.09 to 0.15[7]

Deciduous trees
0.15 to 0.18[7]

Bare soil
0.17[8]

Green grass
0.25[8]

Desert sand
0.40[9]

New concrete
0.55[8]

Ocean ice
0.5–0.7[8]

Fresh snow
0.80–0.90[8]

text: Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4.[10] The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3.[11] This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.

text: Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,[12]). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. Thereby, the BRDF allows to translate observations of reflectance into albedo.

text: Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about 15 °C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C.[13] If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C.[14] In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water — a so-called aquaplanet — the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C.[15]

text: White-sky and black-sky albedo[edit]

text:
For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle θi can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle,

α
¯

(

θ

i

)

{\displaystyle {{\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})}}

, and the bi-hemispherical reflectance,

α
¯

¯

{\displaystyle {\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}}

, with

D
−
1

{\displaystyle {D-1}}

 being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and

D

{\displaystyle {D}}

 being the proportion of diffuse illumination.

text:
Hence, the actual albedo

α

{\displaystyle {\alpha }}

 (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as:

text: Directional-hemispherical reflectance is sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo and bi-hemispherical reflectance as white-sky albedo. These terms are important because they allow the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.[16]

text: Astronomical albedo[edit]

text: The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids.

text: Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96.[17] Many small objects in the outer Solar System[18] and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05.[19] A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04.[20] Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.

text: The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.136,[21] but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect.[22] Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.

text: Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.

text: In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces.

text:
The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is:[23]

A
=

(

1329
×

10

−
H

/

5

D

)

2

{\displaystyle A=\left({\frac {1329\times 10^{-H/5}}{D}}\right)^{2}}

,

text:
where

A

{\displaystyle A}

 is the astronomical albedo,

D

{\displaystyle D}

 is the diameter in kilometers, and

H

{\displaystyle H}

 is the absolute magnitude.

text: Examples of terrestrial albedo effects[edit]

text: Illumination[edit]

text: Although the albedo–temperature effect is best known in colder, whiter regions on Earth, the maximum albedo is actually found in the tropics where year-round illumination is greater. The maximum is additionally in the northern hemisphere, varying between three and twelve degrees north.[24] The minima are found in the subtropical regions of the northern and southern hemispheres, beyond which albedo increases without respect to illumination.[24]

text: Insolation effects[edit]

text: The intensity of albedo temperature effects depend on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the arctic and antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.[citation needed]

text: Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.[25]

text: Climate and weather[edit]

text: Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs.[26] The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.

text: Albedo–temperature feedback[edit]

text: When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.

text: Snow[edit]

text: Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow.[27] Over Antarctica they average a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback). Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.[28] Hence, small errors in albedo can lead to large errors in energy estimates, which is why it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value over broad regions.

text: Small-scale effects[edit]

text: Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.[29]

text: Solar photovoltaic effects[edit]

text: Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%.[30] More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.[31]

text: Trees[edit]

text: Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect.[32] Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds[33] Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate [34]

text: In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15.[7]

text: Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.[35]

text: Water[edit]

text: Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations (see graph).

text: At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.[36]

text: Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light.

text: Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.

text: Clouds[edit]

text: Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."[37]

text: Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic.[38] A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.[39]

text: Aerosol effects[edit]

text: Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain.[40] As per [41] the effects are:

text:
Aerosol direct effect. Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming.
Aerosol indirect effect. Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (first indirect effect), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (second indirect effect).

text: Black carbon[edit]

text: Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m−2, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m−2.[42] Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.[43]

text: Human activities[edit]

text: Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult.[citation needed]

text: Other types of albedo[edit]

text: Single-scattering albedo is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.


document_title: United States congressional delegations from Alabama

question_text: 2. who is the currently represents huntsville in the u.s. house of representatives

question_tokens: 2 . who is the currently represents huntsville in the u.s. house of representatives

root

text: House of Representatives[edit]

text: Current members of the U.S. House of Representatives[edit]

text: List of members of the Alabamian United States House delegation, their terms in office, district boundaries, and the district political ratings according to the CPVI. The delegation has a total of 7 members, including 6 Republicans and 1 Democrat.

tag: p

text:
District
Representative
Party
CPVI
Incumbency
District map

1st
 Bradley Byrne (R-Mobile)
Republican
R+15
Since January 7, 2014

2nd
 Martha Roby (R-Montgomery)
Republican
R+17
Since January 3, 2011

3rd
 Mike Rogers (R-Tuskegee)
Republican
R+16
Since January 3, 2003

4th
 Robert Aderholt (R-Gadsden)
Republican
R+28
Since January 3, 1997

5th
 Mo Brooks (R-Huntsville)
Republican
R+17
Since January 3, 2011

6th
 Gary Palmer (R-Vestavia Hills)
Republican
R+28
Since January 3, 2015

7th
 Terri Sewell (D-Birmingham)
Democratic
D+20
Since January 3, 2011

tag: table

text: Members' timeline (1818 – Present)[edit]

text: 1818 – 1819: 1 non-voting delegate[edit]

text: Starting on January 29, 1818, Alabama Territory sent a non-voting delegate to the House.

text:
Congress
Delegate

15th Congress
(1817–1819)
John Crowell (D-R)

16th Congress
(March 4, 1819 –
December 14, 1819)
Vacant

text: 1819 – 1823: 1 seat[edit]

text: After statehood on December 14, 1819, Alabama had one seat in the House.

text:
Congress
At-large district

16th Congress
(December 14, 1819 –
1821)
John Crowell (D-R)

17th Congress
(1821–1823)
Gabriel Moore (D-R)

text: 1823 – 1833: 3 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1820 census, Alabama had three seats.

text:
Congress
District

1st
2nd
3rd

18th Congress
(1823–1825)
Gabriel Moore (J-DR)
John McKee (J-DR)
George W. Owen (J-DR)

19th Congress
(1825–1827)
Gabriel Moore (J)
John McKee (J)
George W. Owen (J)

20th Congress
(1827–1829)

21st Congress
(1829–1831)
Clement Comer Clay (J)
Robert Emmett Bledsoe Baylor (J)
Dixon Hall Lewis (J)

22nd Congress
(1831–1833)
Samuel Wright Mardis (J)

text: 1833 – 1843: 5 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1830 census, Alabama had five seats. During the 27th Congress, those seats were all elected statewide at-large on a general ticket.

text:
Congress
District

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th

23rd Congress
(1833–1835)
Clement Comer Clay (J)
John McKinley (J)
Samuel Wright Mardis (J)
Dixon Hall Lewis (N)
John Murphy (J)

24th Congress
(1835–1837)
Reuben Chapman (J)
Joshua L. Martin (J)
Joab Lawler (J)
Francis Strother Lyon (AJ)

25th Congress
(1837–1839)
Reuben Chapman (D)
Joshua L. Martin (D)
Joab Lawler (W)
Dixon Hall Lewis (D)
Francis Strother Lyon (W)

George Whitfield Crabb (W)

26th Congress
(1839–1841)
David Hubbard (D)
James Dellet (W)

27th Congress
(1841–1843)
5 seats elected at-large on a general ticket

1st seat
2nd seat
3rd seat
4th seat
5th seat

Reuben Chapman (D)
George S. Houston (D)
William Winter Payne (D)
Dixon Hall Lewis (D)
Benjamin Glover Shields (D)

text: 1843 – 1863: 7 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1840 census, Alabama resumed the use of districts, now increased to seven.

text:
Congress
District

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th

28th Congress
(1843–1845)
James Dellet (W)
James Edwin Belser (D)
Dixon Hall Lewis (D)
William Winter Payne (D)
George S. Houston (D)
Reuben Chapman (D)
Felix Grundy McConnell (D)

William Lowndes Yancey (D)

29th Congress
(1845–1847)
Edmund Strother Dargan (D)
Henry Washington Hilliard (W)

James La Fayette Cottrell (D)
Franklin Welsh Bowdon (D)

30th Congress
(1847–1849)
John Gayle (W)
Sampson Willis Harris (D)
Samuel Williams Inge (D)
Williamson Robert Winfield Cobb (D)

31st Congress
(1849–1851)
William Jeffreys Alston (W)
David Hubbard (D)

32nd Congress
(1851–1853)
John Bragg (D)
James Abercrombie (W)
William Russell Smith (K-N)
George S. Houston (D)
Alexander White (W)

33rd Congress
(1853–1855)
Philip Phillips (D)
James Ferguson Dowdell (D)

34th Congress
(1855–1857)
Percy Walker (K-N)
Eli Sims Shorter (D)
James Ferguson Dowdell (D)
Sampson Willis Harris (D)

35th Congress
(1857–1859)
James Adams Stallworth (D)
Sydenham Moore (D)
Jabez Lamar Monroe Curry (D)

36th Congress
(1859–1861)
James L. Pugh (D)
David Clopton (D)

Vacant during American Civil War

37th Congress
(1861–1863)

text: 1863 – 1873: 6 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1860 census, Alabama was apportioned six seats.

text:
Congress
District

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th

38th Congress
(1863–1865)
Vacant during American Civil War

39th Congress
(1865–1867)

40th Congress
(1867–1869)

Francis William Kellogg (R)
Charles Waldron Buckley (R)
Benjamin White Norris (R)
Charles Wilson Pierce (R)
John Benton Callis (R)
Thomas Haughey (R)

41st Congress
(1869–1871)
Alfred Eliab Buck (R)
Robert Stell Heflin (R)
Charles Hays (R)
Peter Myndert Dox (D)
William Crawford Sherrod (D)

42nd Congress
(1871–1873)
Benjamin Sterling Turner (R)
William Anderson Handley (D)
Joseph Humphrey Sloss (D)

text: 1873 – 1893: 8 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1870 census, Alabama was apportioned eight seats. From 1873 to 1877, the two new seats were elected at large, statewide. After 1877, however, the entire delegation was redistricted.

text:
Congress
District
At-large

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
1st seat
2nd seat

43rd Congress
(1873–1875)
Frederick George Bromberg
(Liberal R)
James T. Rapier (R)
Charles Pelham (R)
Charles Hays (R)
John Henry Caldwell (D)
Joseph Humphrey Sloss (D)
Charles Christopher Sheats (R)
Alexander White (R)

44th Congress
(1875–1877)
Jeremiah Haralson (R)
Jeremiah Norman Williams (D)
Taul Bradford (D)
Goldsmith W. Hewitt (D)
William H. Forney (D)
Burwell Boykin Lewis (D)

45th Congress
(1877–1879)
James T. Jones (D)
Hilary A. Herbert (D)
Jeremiah Norman Williams (D)
Charles M. Shelley (D)
Robert Fulwood Ligon (D)
7th district
8th district

William H. Forney (D)
William Willis Garth (D)

46th Congress
(1879–1881)
Thomas H. Herndon (D)
William James Samford (D)
Thomas Williams (D)
Burwell Boykin Lewis (D)
William M. Lowe (GB)

Newton Nash Clements (D)

47th Congress
(1881–1883)
William C. Oates (D)
Goldsmith W. Hewitt (D)
Joseph Wheeler (D)

Vacant[2]
William M. Lowe[3] (GB)

Charles M. Shelley (D)
Joseph Wheeler (D)

48th Congress
(1883–1885)
Luke Pryor (D)

James T. Jones (D)
George Henry Craig (R)

49th Congress
(1885–1887)
Alexander C. Davidson (D)
Thomas William Sadler (D)
John Mason Martin (D)
Joseph Wheeler (D)

50th Congress
(1887–1889)
James E. Cobb (D)
John H. Bankhead (D)

51st Congress
(1889–1891)
Richard Henry Clarke (D)
Louis Washington Turpin (D)

John Van McDuffie (R)

52nd Congress
(1891–1893)
Louis Washington Turpin (D)

text: 1893 – 1913: 9 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1890 census, Alabama was apportioned nine seats.

text:
Congress
District

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th

53rd Congress
(1893–1895)
Richard Henry Clarke (D)
Jesse F. Stallings (D)
William C. Oates (D)
Gaston A. Robbins (D)
James E. Cobb (D)
John H. Bankhead (D)
William Henry Denson (D)
Joseph Wheeler (D)
Louis Washington Turpin (D)

George Paul Harrison, Jr. (D)

54th Congress
(1895–1897)
Milford W. Howard (Pop)
Oscar W. Underwood (D)

William F. Aldrich (R)
Albert Taylor Goodwyn (Pop)
Truman Heminway Aldrich (R)

55th Congress
(1897–1899)
George W. Taylor (D)
Henry D. Clayton (D)
Thomas S. Plowman (D)
Willis Brewer (D)
Oscar W. Underwood (D)

William F. Aldrich (R)

56th Congress
(1899–1901)
Gaston A. Robbins (D)
John L. Burnett (D)

William F. Aldrich (R)
William N. Richardson

57th Congress
(1901–1903)
Ariosto A. Wiley (D)
Sydney J. Bowie (D)
Charles Winston Thompson (D)

58th Congress
(1903–1905)

J. Thomas Heflin (D)

59th Congress
(1905–1907)

60th Congress
(1907–1909)
William B. Craig (D)
Richmond P. Hobson (D)

Oliver C. Wiley (D)

61st Congress
(1909–1911)
S. Hubert Dent, Jr. (D)

62nd Congress
(1911–1913)
Fred L. Blackmon (D)

text: 1913 – 1933: 10 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1910 census, Alabama was apportioned ten seats. At first, the extra seat was elected at-large. Starting with the 1916 elections, the seats were redistricted and a tenth district was added.

text:
Congress
District
At-large

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th

63rd Congress
(1913–1915)
George W. Taylor (D)
S. Hubert Dent, Jr. (D)
Henry D. Clayton (D)
Fred L. Blackmon (D)
J. Thomas Heflin (D)
Richmond P. Hobson (D)
John L. Burnett (D)
William N. Richardson (D)
Oscar W. Underwood (D)
John Abercrombie (D)

William Oscar Mulkey (D)
Christopher Columbus Harris (D)

64th Congress
(1915–1917)
Oscar Lee Gray (D)
Henry B. Steagall (D)
William B. Oliver (D)
Edward B. Almon (D)
George Huddleston (D)

65th Congress
(1917–1919)
10th district

William B. Bankhead (D)

66th Congress
(1919–1921)
John McDuffie (D)

William B. Bowling (D)
Lilius Bratton Rainey (D)

67th Congress
(1921–1923)
John R. Tyson (D)
Lamar Jeffers (D)

68th Congress
(1923–1925)
Miles C. Allgood (D)

J. Lister Hill (D)

69th Congress
(1925–1927)

70th Congress
(1927–1929)

LaFayette L. Patterson (D)

71st Congress
(1929–1931)

72nd Congress
(1931–1933)

text: 1933 – 1963: 9 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1930 census, Alabama was apportioned nine seats.

text:
Congress
District

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th

73rd Congress
(1933–1935)
John McDuffie (D)
J. Lister Hill (D)
Henry B. Steagall (D)
Lamar Jeffers (D)
Miles C. Allgood (D)
William B. Oliver (D)
William B. Bankhead (D)
Archibald Hill Carmichael (D)
George Huddleston (D)

74th Congress
(1935–1937)
Frank W. Boykin (D)
Sam Hobbs (D)
Joe Starnes (D)

75th Congress
(1937–1939)
Pete Jarman (D)
John J. Sparkman (D)
Luther Patrick (D)

George M. Grant (D)

76th Congress
(1939–1941)

Zadoc L. Weatherford (D)

77th Congress
(1941–1943)
Walter W. Bankhead (D)

Carter Manasco (D)

78th Congress
(1943–1945)
George W. Andrews (D)
John P. Newsome (D)

79th Congress
(1945–1947)
Albert Rains (D)
Luther Patrick (D)

80th Congress
(1947–1949)
Robert E. Jones, Jr. (D)
Laurie C. Battle (D)

81st Congress
(1949–1951)
Edward deGraffenried (D)
Carl Elliott (D)

82nd Congress
(1951–1953)
Kenneth A. Roberts (D)

83rd Congress
(1953–1955)
Armistead I. Selden, Jr. (D)

84th Congress
(1955–1957)
George Huddleston, Jr. (D)

85th Congress
(1957–1959)

86th Congress
(1959–1961)

87th Congress
(1961–1963)

text: 1963 – 1973: 8 seats[edit]

text: Following the 1960 census, Alabama was apportioned eight seats.

text:
Congress
Statewide at-large on a general ticket

1st seat
2nd seat
3rd seat
4th seat
5th seat
6th seat
7th seat
8th seat

88th Congress
(1963–1965)
George Huddleston, Jr. (D)
George M. Grant (D)
George W. Andrews (D)
Kenneth A. Roberts (D)
Armistead I. Selden, Jr. (D)
Albert Rains (D)
Carl Elliott (D)
Robert E. Jones, Jr. (D)

Congress
District

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th

89th Congress
(1965–1967)
Jack Edwards (R)
William Louis Dickinson (R)
George W. Andrews (D)
Arthur Glenn Andrews (R)
Armistead I. Selden, Jr. (D)
John Hall Buchanan, Jr. (R)
James D. Martin (R)
Robert E. Jones, Jr. (D)

90th Congress
(1967–1969)
William Flynt Nichols (D)
Tom Bevill (D)

91st Congress
(1969–1971)
Walter Flowers (D)

92nd Congress
(1971–1973)

Elizabeth B. Andrews (D)

text: 1973 – Present: 7 seats[edit]

text: Since the 1970 census, Alabama has been apportioned seven seats.

text:
Congress
District

1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th

93rd Congress
(1973–1975)
Jack Edwards (R)
William Louis Dickinson (R)
William Flynt Nichols (D)
Tom Bevill (D)
Robert E. Jones, Jr. (D)
John Hall Buchanan, Jr. (R)
Walter Flowers (D)

94th Congress
(1975–1977)

95th Congress
(1977–1979)
Ronnie Flippo (D)

96th Congress
(1979–1981)
Richard Shelby (D)

97th Congress
(1981–1983)
Albert L. Smith, Jr. (R)

98th Congress
(1983–1985)
Ben Erdreich
(D)

99th Congress
(1985–1987)
Sonny Callahan (R)

100th Congress
(1987–1989)
Claude Harris, Jr. (D)

101st Congress
(1989–1991)
Glen Browder (D)

102nd Congress
(1991–1993)
Bud Cramer (D)

103rd Congress
(1993–1995)
Terry Everett (R)
Spencer Bachus (R)
Earl F. Hilliard (D)

104th Congress
(1995–1997)

105th Congress
(1997–1999)
Bob Riley (R)
Robert B. Aderholt (R)

106th Congress
(1999–2001)

107th Congress
(2001–2003)

108th Congress
(2003–2005)
Jo Bonner (R)
Mike D. Rogers (R)
Artur Davis (D)

109th Congress
(2005–2007)

110th Congress
(2007–2009)

111th Congress
(2009–2011)
Bobby Bright (D)
Parker Griffith (D)[4]

Parker Griffith (R)

112th Congress
(2011–2013)
Martha Roby (R)
Mo Brooks (R)
Terri Sewell (D)

113th Congress
(2013–2015)

Bradley Byrne (R)

114th Congress
(2015–2017)
Gary Palmer (R)

115th Congress
(2017–2019)

Congress
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th

District

text: Living former Members of the U.S. House of Representatives[edit]

text: As of October 2017[update], there are sixteen living former members of the U.S. House of Representatives.

text:
Representative
Term of office
District
Date of birth (and age)

John Hall Buchanan, Jr.
1965–1981
6th
(1928-03-19) March 19, 1928 (age 89)

Jack Edwards
1965–1985
1st
(1928-09-20) September 20, 1928 (age 89)

Ronnie Flippo
1977–1991
5th
(1937-08-15) August 15, 1937 (age 80)

Richard Shelby
1979–1987
7th
(1934-05-06) May 6, 1934 (age 83)

Ben Erdreich
1983–1993
6th
(1938-12-09) December 9, 1938 (age 79)

Sonny Callahan
1985–2003
1st
(1932-09-11) September 11, 1932 (age 85)

Glen Browder
1989–1997
3rd
(1943-01-15) January 15, 1943 (age 74)

Robert E. Cramer
1991–2009
5th
(1947-08-22) August 22, 1947 (age 70)

Earl F. Hilliard
1993–2003
7th
(1942-04-09) April 9, 1942 (age 75)

Terry Everett
1993–2009
2nd
(1937-02-15) February 15, 1937 (age 80)

Spencer Bachus
1993–2015
6th
(1947-12-28) December 28, 1947 (age 69)

Bob Riley
1997–2003
3rd
(1944-10-03) October 3, 1944 (age 73)

Artur Davis
2003–2011
7th
(1967-10-09) October 9, 1967 (age 50)

Jo Bonner
2003–2013
1st
(1959-11-19) November 19, 1959 (age 58)

Parker Griffith
2009–2011
5th
(1942-08-06) August 6, 1942 (age 75)

Bobby Bright
2009–2011
2nd
(1952-07-21) July 21, 1952 (age 65)

text: United States Senate[edit]

text: Current Senators[edit]

text: Senators' timeline (1818 – Present)[edit]

text:
Class 2
Congress
Class 3

William R. King (D-R)

16th Congress
(1819–1821)

John Williams Walker (D-R)

17th Congress
(1821–1823)

William Kelly (D-R)

William R. King (Jackson D-R)

18th Congress
(1823–1825)
William Kelly (Jackson D-R)

William R. King (J)
19th Congress
(1825–1827)

Henry H. Chambers (J)

Israel Pickens (J)

John McKinley (J)

20th Congress
(1827–1829)

21st Congress
(1829–1831)

22nd Congress
(1831–1833)

Gabriel Moore (J)

23rd Congress
(1833–1835)

24th Congress
(1835–1837)

William R. King (D)
25th Congress
(1837–1839)

John McKinley (D)

Clement Comer Clay (D)

26th Congress
(1839–1841)

27th Congress
(1841–1843)

Arthur P. Bagby (D)

28th Congress
(1843–1845)

Dixon Hall Lewis (D)

29th Congress
(1845–1847)

30th Congress
(1847–1849)

Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D)
William R. King (D)

31st Congress
(1849–1851)

Jeremiah Clemens (D)

32nd Congress
(1851–1853)

Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D)

Vacant[5]

33rd Congress
(1853–1855)

Clement Claiborne Clay (D)

34th Congress
(1855–1857)

Vacant [5]

Benjamin Fitzpatrick (D)

35th Congress
(1857–1859)

36th Congress
(1859–1861)

American Civil War

[6]
American Civil War

37th Congress
(1861–1863)

38th Congress
(1863–1865)

39th Congress
(1865–1867)

40th Congress
(1867–1869)

Willard Warner (R)
George E. Spencer (R)

41st Congress
(1869–1871)

George Goldthwaite (D)

42nd Congress
(1871–1873)

43rd Congress
(1873–1875)

44th Congress
(1875–1877)

John Tyler Morgan (D)

45th Congress
(1877–1879)

46th Congress
(1879–1881)

George S. Houston (D)

Luke Pryor (D)

James L. Pugh (D)

47th Congress
(1881–1883)

48th Congress
(1883–1885)

49th Congress
(1885–1887)

50th Congress
(1887–1889)

51st Congress
(1889–1891)

52nd Congress
(1891–1893)

53rd Congress
(1893–1895)

54th Congress
(1895–1897)

55th Congress
(1897–1899)

Edmund Pettus (D)

56th Congress
(1899–1901)

57th Congress
(1901–1903)

58th Congress
(1903–1905)

59th Congress
(1905–1907)

60th Congress
(1907–1909)

John H. Bankhead (D)
Joseph F. Johnston (D)

61st Congress
(1909–1911)

62nd Congress
(1911–1913)

63rd Congress
(1913–1915)
Vacant[7]

Francis S. White (D)

64th Congress
(1915–1917)

Oscar W. Underwood (D)

65th Congress
(1917–1919)

66th Congress
(1919–1921)

B. B. Comer (D)

J. Thomas Heflin (D)

67th Congress
(1921–1923)

68th Congress
(1923–1925)

69th Congress
(1925–1927)

70th Congress
(1927–1929)

Hugo L. Black (D)

71st Congress
(1929–1931)

John H. Bankhead II (D)

72nd Congress
(1931–1933)

73rd Congress
(1933–1935)

74th Congress
(1935–1937)

75th Congress
(1937–1939)

Dixie Bibb Graves (D)

J. Lister Hill (D)

76th Congress
(1939–1941)

77th Congress
(1941–1943)

78th Congress
(1943–1945)

79th Congress
(1945–1947)

George R. Swift (D)

John J. Sparkman (D)

80th Congress
(1947–1949)

81st Congress
(1949–1951)

82nd Congress
(1951–1953)

83rd Congress
(1953–1955)

84th Congress
(1955–1957)

85th Congress
(1957–1959)

86th Congress
(1959–1961)

87th Congress
(1961–1963)

88th Congress
(1963–1965)

89th Congress
(1965–1967)

90th Congress
(1967–1969)

91st Congress
(1969–1971)

James B. Allen (D)

92nd Congress
(1971–1973)

93rd Congress
(1973–1975)

94th Congress
(1975–1977)

95th Congress
(1977–1979)

Maryon Pittman Allen (D)

Donald W. Stewart (D)

Howell T. Heflin (D)

96th Congress
(1979–1981)

Jeremiah Denton (R)

97th Congress
(1981–1983)

98th Congress
(1983–1985)

99th Congress
(1985–1987)

100th Congress
(1987–1989)

Richard Shelby (D)

101st Congress
(1989–1991)

102nd Congress
(1991–1993)

103rd Congress
(1993–1995)

Richard Shelby (R)

104th Congress
(1995–1997)

Jeff Sessions (R)

105th Congress
(1997–1999)

106th Congress
(1999–2001)

107th Congress
(2001–2003)

108th Congress
(2003–2005)

109th Congress
(2005–2007)

110th Congress
(2007–2009)

111th Congress
(2009–2011)

112th Congress
(2011–2013)

113th Congress
(2013–2015)

114th Congress
(2015–2017)

115th Congress
(2017–2019)

Luther Strange (R)

Doug Jones (D)

Class 2
Congress
Class 3

text: Living former U.S. Senators[edit]

text: As of February 2017[update], there are three living former U.S. Senators.

text:
Senator
Term of office
Class
Date of birth (and age)

Maryon P. Allen
1978
3
(1925-11-30) November 30, 1925 (age 92)

Donald W. Stewart
1978–1981
3
(1940-02-04) February 4, 1940 (age 77)

Jeff Sessions
1997–2017
2
(1946-12-24) December 24, 1946 (age 70)

text: Key[edit]

text:
Key to party colors and abbreviations for members of the U.S. Congress

American (Know Nothing) (K-N)

Adams (A),
Anti-Jacksonian (Anti-J),
National Republican (NR)

Anti-Administration (Anti-Admin)

Anti-Masonic (Anti-M)

Conservative (Con)

Democratic (D)

Dixiecrat (Dix),
States' rights (SR)

Democratic-Republican (D-R)

Farmer–Labor (FL)

Federalist (F)

Free Soil (FS)

Free Silver (FSv)

Fusion (FU)

Greenback (GB)

Jacksonian (J)

Nonpartisan League (NPL)

Nullifier (N)

Opposition (O)

Populist (Pop)

Pro-Administration (Pro-Admin)

Progressive (Prog)

Prohibition (Proh)

Readjuster (Rea)

Republican (R)

Socialist (Soc)

Unionist (U)

Whig (W)

Independent,
None,
or Unaffiliated


document_title: Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)

question_text: who plays romeo in romeo and juliet 1968

text: Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: One summer morning in Verona, Italy, a longstanding feud between the Montague and the Capulet clans breaks out in a street brawl. The brawl is broken up by the Prince, who warns both families that any future violence between them will result in harsh consequences. That night, two teenagers of the two families — Romeo and Juliet — meet at a Capulet masked ball and become deeply infatuated. Later, Romeo stumbles into the secluded garden under Juliet's bedroom balcony and the two exchange impassioned pledges. They are secretly married the next day by Romeo's confessor and father figure, Friar Laurence, with the assistance of Juliet's nursemaid.

text: That afternoon, Juliet's first cousin Tybalt, enraged that Romeo had attended his family's ball, insults him and challenges him to a brawl. Romeo regards Tybalt as family and he refuses to fight him, which leads Romeo's best friend, Mercutio, to fight Tybalt instead. Despite Romeo's efforts to stop the fight, Tybalt badly wounds Mercutio, who curses both the Montague and Capulet houses before dying. Enraged over his friend's death, Romeo retaliates by fighting Tybalt and killing him. Romeo is subsequently punished by the Prince with banishment from Verona, with the threat of death if he ever returns. Romeo, however, sees his banishment as worse than the death penalty, as Verona is the only home he has known and he does not want to be separated from Juliet. Friar Laurence eventually convinces Romeo that he is very lucky and that he should be more thankful for what he has. Romeo then secretly spends his wedding night together with Juliet and the couple consummate their marriage before Romeo flees.

text: Juliet's father and mother, unaware of their daughter's secret marriage, have arranged for Juliet to marry wealthy Count Paris. Juliet pleads with her parents to postpone the marriage, but they refuse and threaten to disown her. Juliet seeks out Friar Laurence for help, hoping to escape her arranged marriage to Paris and remain faithful to Romeo. At Friar Laurence's behest, she reconciles with her parents and agrees to their wishes. On the night before the wedding, Juliet consumes a potion prepared by Friar Laurence intended to make her appear dead for forty-two hours. Friar Laurence plans to inform Romeo of the hoax so that Romeo can meet Juliet after her burial and escape with her when she recovers from her swoon, so he sends Friar John to give Romeo a letter describing the plan. However, when Balthasar, Romeo's servant, sees Juliet being buried under the impression that she is dead, he goes to tell Romeo and reaches him before Friar John. In despair, Romeo goes to Juliet's tomb and kills himself by drinking poison. Soon afterwards, Juliet awakens and discovers her husband dead. Juliet refuses to leave Romeo and kills herself by piercing her abdomen with his dagger. Later, the two families attend their joint funeral and are chastised by the Prince.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Leonard Whiting as Romeo Montague
Olivia Hussey as Juliet Capulet
John McEnery as Mercutio
Milo O'Shea as Friar Laurence
Pat Heywood as The Nurse
Robert Stephens as The Prince
Michael York as Tybalt
Bruce Robinson as Benvolio
Paul Hardwick as Lord Capulet
Natasha Parry as Lady Capulet
Antonio Pierfederici as Lord Montague
Esmeralda Ruspoli as Lady Montague
Keith Skinner as Balthasar
Roberto Bisacco as Paris
Bruno Filippini as Leonardo, the singer (uncredited)
Laurence Olivier as Chorus and voice of Lord Montague (uncredited)

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: It is often rumored that Franco Zeffirelli considered Paul McCartney of The Beatles for the role of Romeo. Although Zeffirelli does not mention it in his autobiography, McCartney provided plenty of details on this account (including meeting with Olivia Hussey and exchanging telegrams with her) in his co-written autobiography [5]

text: The director engaged in a worldwide search for unknown teenage actors to play the parts of the two lovers. Leonard Whiting was 17 at the time, and Olivia Hussey was 16, and Zeffirelli adapted the play in such a way as to play to their strengths and hide their weaknesses: for instance, long speeches were trimmed, and he emphasized reaction shots.[6]

text: Laurence Olivier's involvement in the production was by happenstance. He was in Rome to film The Shoes of the Fisherman and visited the studio where Romeo and Juliet was being shot. He asked Zeffirelli if there was anything he could do, and was given the Prologue to read, then ended up dubbing the voice of Lord Montague as well as other assorted roles.[6]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: Set in a 14th-century Renaissance Italy in varying locations:[7]

text:
The balcony scene: At the Palazzo Borghese, built by Cardinal Scipione Borghese in the 16th century, in Artena, 40 km southeast of Rome.
The interior church scenes: At a Romanesque church named St. Pietro Somaldi in, Lucca, Tuscania, 90 km northwest of Rome.
The tomb scene: Also in Tuscania.
The palace of the Capulets' scenes: At Palazzo Piccolomini, built between 1459–62 by Pope Pius II, in the city of Pienza, in Siena province.
The dueling scenes with swords were set in the old Umbrian town of Gubbio.
The film also has some scenes filmed in Montagnana.
The street scenes: Also in Pienza, and on Cinecitta Studios back lot, Rome.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film earned $14.5 million in domestic rentals at the North American box office during 1969.[8] It was re-released in 1973 and earned $1.7 million in rentals.[9]

text: Film critic Roger Ebert has written: "I believe Franco Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet is the most exciting film of Shakespeare ever made".[10]

text: Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 'Fresh' score of 97% based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10; it is accompanied by the consensus: "The solid leads and arresting visuals make a case for Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet as the definitive cinematic adaptation of the play.".[11]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Academy Awards

text:
Best Picture (Anthony Havelock-Allan, John Brabourne) – Nominated
Best Director (Franco Zeffirelli) – Nominated
Best Cinematography (Pasqualino De Santis) – Won
Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati) – Won

text: Golden Globe Awards

text:
English-Language Foreign Film – Won
Best Director (Franco Zeffirelli) – Nominated
New Star of the Year – Actor (Leonard Whiting) – Won
New Star of the Year – Actress (Olivia Hussey) – Won
Best Original Score (Nino Rota) – Nominated

text: BAFTA Awards

text:
Best Direction (Franco Zeffirelli) – Nominated
Best Actor in a Supporting Role (John McEnery) – Nominated
Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Pat Heywood) – Nominated
Best Film Music (Nino Rota) – Nominated
Best Production Design (Renzo Mongiardino) – Nominated
Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati) – Won
Best Editing (Reginald Mills) – Nominated

text: Other accolades for Romeo and Juliet included the David di Donatello and National Board of Review awards for Best Director for Zeffirelli, as well as appearing on the National Board of Review's Top Ten Films list for 1968.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Two releases of the score of the film, composed by Nino Rota, have been made.[12][13]

text: "Love Theme from Romeo and Juliet" The film's love theme was widely disseminated, notably in "Our Tune", a segment of BBC disc jockey Simon Bates's radio show. In addition, various versions of the theme have been recorded and released, including a highly successful one by Henry Mancini, whose instrumental rendition was a Number One success in the United States during June 1969.[14]

text: There are two different sets of English lyrics to the song.

text:
The film's version is called "What Is a Youth?", featuring lyrics by Eugene Walter, and sung by Glen Weston. This version has been released on the complete score/soundtrack release.
An alternate version, called "A Time for Us", featuring lyrics by Larry Kusik and Eddie Snyder. This version has been recorded by Johnny Mathis and Andy Williams, among others. Josh Groban performed "Un Giorno Per Noi", an Italian version of "A Time for Us". Jonathan Antoine, classically trained tenor from Great Britain, performed "Un Giorno Per Noi" as one of the tracks on his second solo album, "Believe", which was released in August 2016. A third version is called "Ai Giochi Addio", featuring lyrics by Elsa Morante, and has been performed by opera singers such as Luciano Pavarotti and Natasha Marsh.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
Thom Yorke cites the film as one of the inspirations for the Radiohead song "Exit Music (For a Film)", which was written specifically for the ending credits of the 1996 film William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet. Said Yorke, "I saw the Zeffirelli version when I was 13, and I cried my eyes out, because I couldn't understand why the morning after they shagged, they didn't just run away. The song is written for two people who should run away before all the bad stuff starts. A personal song."
Kevin and Paul go to see the film in the episode "Wayne on Wheels" in season three of The Wonder Years.
Celine Dion referenced this film, in particular the "hand dance" scene, in the video for her 1992 single "Nothing Broken but My Heart".
Japanese manga artist Rumiko Takahashi referenced the Zeffirelli film in two of her manga and anime works. In one episode of Urusei Yatsura, devious troublemaker Ryoko Mendou invites the series' male protagonist, Ataru Moroboshi, to have a "Romeo and Juliet" rendezvous with her, and wears a dress based on Hussey's from the film. Later, Takahashi's Ranma 1/2 featured a storyline in which the lead characters, Ranma Saotome and Akane Tendo, are cast as Romeo and Juliet in a production of the play at their high school. Takahashi designed Ranma and Akane's costumes for the play with Whiting and Hussey's outfits in the Zeffirelli film in mind.[15]


document_title: Three-point field goal

question_text: when did the three point shot in basketball start

text: Three-point field goal

text: History[edit]

text: The three-point line was first tested at the collegiate level in a 1945 NCAA game between Columbia and Fordham but it was not kept as a rule. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three-point line was a radius of 25 feet (7.62 m) from the baskets, except along the sides.[2] The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963–64 season.

text: The three-point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association after its introduction in the 1967–68 season. ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three-pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans."[3] During the 1970s, the ABA used the three-point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the National Basketball Association (NBA).

text: In the 1979–80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three-point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick.[4] Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979. Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets also made one on the same day.

text: The sport's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three-point line in 1984, at a distance of 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in).

text: The NCAA's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three-point rule, adopting a 22-foot (6.71 m) line for the 1980–81 season.[5][6] Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina University was the first to score a three-point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980.[6][7][8] Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three-pointer. The line was as close as 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) in the Atlantic Coast Conference, and as far away as 22 feet in the Big Sky Conference.[9] Used in conference play, it was adopted by the NCAA for the 1986–87 men's season at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m), and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in 1987.[10] In the same 1986–87 season, the NCAA adopted the three-pointer in women's basketball on an experimental basis, using the same 19 ft 9 in distance, and made its use mandatory beginning in 1987–88.[11] In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men's three-point distance to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m), with the rule coming into effect at the beginning of the 2008–09 season.[12] The NCAA women's three-point distance was moved to match the men's distance in 2011–12.[11] American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) line nationally in 1987, a year after the NCAA.[13] The NCAA is experimenting with the FIBA three-point line (see below) in the 2018 National Invitation Tournament.[14]

text: During the 1994–95, 1995–96, and 1996–97 seasons, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) (22 ft (6.71 m) at the corners) to a uniform 22 ft (6.71 m) around the basket. From the 1997–98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of 23 ft 9 in (22 ft at the corners, with a 3 inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all-time leader in career made three-pointers with 2,973.[15]

text: In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased by 50 cm (19.69 in) to 6.75 m (22 ft 1 3⁄4 in), with the change being phased in beginning in October 2010. In December 2012, the WNBA announced that it would be using FIBA's distance, too, as of the 2013 season. The NBA has discussed adding a four-point line, according to president Rod Thorn.[16]

text: In the NBA, three-point field goals have become increasingly more frequent along the years, with effectiveness increasing slightly. The 1979-80 season had an average 2.2 three-point goals per game and 6.6 attempts (28% effectiveness). The 1989-90 season had an average 4.8 three-point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35% effectiveness). The 2009-10 season had an average 6.4 three-point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36% effectiveness). The 2016-17 season had an average 9.7 three-point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36% effectiveness).[17]

text: Rule specifications[edit]

text: A three-point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three-point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three-point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three-point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than 2 feet (0.61 m) from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180° around the basket, then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline (5 feet 3 inches or 1.60 metres). The distance of the three-point line to the center of the hoop varies by level:

text:
Arc radius
Minimum distance from sidelines

National Basketball Association
23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m)
3 feet (0.91 m)
[18]

FIBA (also used by WNBA)
6.75 meters (22 ft 2 in)
0.90 meters (2 ft 11 in)
[19]

National Collegiate Athletic Association
20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m)
4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m)
[20]

American high school basketball
19 feet 9 inches (6.02 m)
5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m)
[21]

text: A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air.

text: An official raises his/her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he/she raises his/her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three-point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA,[22] WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to occur immediately following a shot; play can continue and the officials can adjust the scoring later in the game, after reviewing the video. However, in late game situations, play may be paused pending a review.

text: If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three-pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free-throw attempts. If a player completes a three-pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free-throw for a possible 4-point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three-pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5-point play.

text: Related concepts[edit]

text: Major League Lacrosse features a two-point line which forms a 15-yard (14 m) arc around the front of the goal. Shots taken from behind this line count for two points, as opposed to the standard one point.

text: In gridiron football, a standard field goal is worth three points; various professional and semi-pro leagues have experimented with four-point field goals. NFL Europe and the Stars Football League adopted a rule similar to basketball's three-point line in which an additional point was awarded for longer field goals; in both leagues any field goal of 50 yards (46 m) or more was worth four points. The Arena Football League awards four points for any successful drop kicked field goal (like the three-point shot, the drop kick is more challenging than a standard place kick, as the bounce of the ball makes a kick less predictable, and arena football also uses narrower goal posts for all kicks than the outdoor game does).

text: During the existence of the World Hockey Association in the 1970s, there were proposals for two-point hockey goals for shots taken beyond an established distance (one proposal was a 44-foot (13.4m) arc, which would have intersected the faceoff circles), but this proposal gained little support and faded after the WHA merged with the NHL. It was widely believed that long-distance shots in hockey had little direct relation to skill (usually resulting more from goalies' vision being screened or obscured), plus with the lower scoring intrinsic to the sport a two-point goal was seen as disruptive of the structure of the game.

text: The Super Goal is a similar concept in Australian rules football, in which a 50-meter (55 yd) arc determines the value of a goal; within the arc, it is the usual 6 points, but 9 points are scored for a "super goal" scored from outside the arc. To date the super goal is only used in pre-season games and not in the season proper.[23]

text: The National Professional Soccer League II, which awarded two points for all goals except those on the power play, also used a three-point line, drawn 45 feet (14 m) from the goal. It has since been adopted by some other indoor soccer leagues.


document_title: Nobel Prize

question_text: when is the nobel peace prize awarded each year

text: Nobel Prize

text: History[edit]

text: Alfred Nobel ( listen (help·info)) was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers.[15] He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous.[16]

text: In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. As it was Alfred's brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will.[17] On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old.[18]

text: Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895.[19][20] To widespread astonishment, Nobel's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace.[21] Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US$186 million, €150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes.[22][23] Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway.[24] The executors of Nobel's will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organised the award of prizes.[25]

text: Nobel's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organizations were designated or established. These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June.[26] The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II.[21] In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved.

text: Nobel Foundation[edit]

text: Formation of Foundation[edit]

text: In the 19th century the Nobel family who were known for their innovations to the oil industry in Azerbaijan was the leading representative of foreign capital in Baku. Robert Nobel was the first foreign investor in oil sector in Baku. In 1875 R. Nobel bought a small refinery to Baku, thus the foundation of “The Nobel Brothers Company” that was nationalized by the Baku Council of People's Commissars the Company in 1918 was laid.[27]

text: In 1920 the Company was nationalized by the government of Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Even the Nobel Brothers Petroleum Company`s symbol was created by taking inspiration from the Fire Temple (Ateshgah) in Surakhani and their oil tankers were given some religious and philosophical names such as Zoroaster, Muhammad, Buddha, Brahma, Socrates, Spinoza and Darwin.

text: According to the Alfred Nobel's will and testament read in Stockholm on 30th December 1896, a foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity.

text: The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel’s personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed from the shares 94% of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize. [28]

text: The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organization on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes.[29] In accordance with Nobel's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan, and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this "decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established".[30] Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates.[31][32] In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953).[33] Since the 1980s, the Foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US$560 million).[34]

text: According to the statutes, the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.[34]

text: First prizes[edit]

text: Once the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently, they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions.

text: The Nobel Committee's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize.[35][36] In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the Academy "was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize."[37] The Academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van 't Hoff.[38] Van 't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics.[39][40]

text: The Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists, and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded.[41] Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet.[42] The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year.[43][44]

text: The first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.

text: Second World War[edit]

text: In 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes.[45] Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal.[46] Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940–42, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace.[47]

text: During the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden.[48] These members kept the work of the Committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.[45]

text: Prize in Economic Sciences[edit]

text: In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Swedish National Bank) celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honor of Nobel. The following year, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes."[49][50] The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes.[51]

text: Award process[edit]

text: The award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them.[52]

text: Nominations[edit]

text: Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates, and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award.[52][53] The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names.[54] The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.[55][56]

text: Selection[edit]

text: The Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions.[57] The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which cannot be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote.[58] A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals.[59]

text: Posthumous nominations[edit]

text: Although posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented.[60] On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously.[13] The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize "was made in good faith", it would remain unchanged.[61]

text: Recognition time lag[edit]

text: Nobel's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made "during the preceding year". Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries.[62] However, some of those early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer.[63] To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time.[64][65][66] According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, "the criterion 'the previous year' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident."[65]

text: The interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement.[67][68] The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts.[69][70] However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events.[71] For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations.[72] Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords.[73]

text: Awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades – for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution.[74][75] Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died.[76][77][78]

text: Award ceremonies[edit]

text: Except for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events.[79][80] The Prizes awarded in Sweden's ceremonies' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947–1989), and at Oslo City Hall (1990–present).[81]

text: The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway.[80][82] At first, King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that he changed his mind once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.[83]

text: Nobel Banquet[edit]

text: After the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests.

text: The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the President of the Storting, the Prime Minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.

text: Nobel lecture[edit]

text: According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize.[84] The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format.[85] These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize. Some have happened even later. For example, US President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office.[86] The lectures are organized by the same association which selected the laureates.[87]

text: Prizes[edit]

text: Medals[edit]

text: It was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Formerly, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint) from 1902 to 2010. Myntverket, Sweden's oldest company, ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation.[88] Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal.[89] The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.[90]

text: All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 grams (0.386 lb) for each medal. The diameter is 66 millimetres (2.6 in) and the thickness varies between 5.2 millimetres (0.20 in) and 2.4 millimetres (0.094 in).[91] Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft.[92][93][94] During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, Hungarian chemist (and Nobel laureate himself) George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.[95]

text: Diplomas[edit]

text: Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden, or in the case of the peace prize, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them.[89] The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas.[96][97]

text: Award money[edit]

text: The laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded.[89] The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880 000 SEK (c. 2.6 million SEK, US$350 000 today) per prize. In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US$1.4 million).[98][99] In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK.[100] If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others.[101][102][103] It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.[104][105]

text: Controversies and criticisms[edit]

text: Controversial recipients[edit]

text: Among other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize.[106][107][108]

text: Among the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. [109] Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities.[110] Critics sympathetic to the North announced that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. Those hostile to the North and what they considered its deceptive practices during negotiations were deprived of a chance to criticise Lê Đức Thọ, as he declined the award. [55][111]

text: Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine.[55][112] Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned.[113] Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers.[114]

text: Another controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009.[115] Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President of the United States, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months.[116] Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award,[117] or worthy of the company it would place him in.[118] Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a left-wing bias.[119]

text: The award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art." He alleged that Jelinek's works were "a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure."[120][121] The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post, many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work.[122] This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric.[123]

text: In 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year, Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or "lobotomy" became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz's receipt of the Prize.[124][125]

text: Overlooked achievements[edit]

text: The Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937–39, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948.[126] Later, members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize.[127] Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006, said, "The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question".[128] In 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that "there was no suitable living candidate" that year.[127][129] Later, when the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi."[130] Other high-profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out. Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro-Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh, and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have."[131]

text: In 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permanent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant.[132][133]

text: The Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism.[134][135] The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors.[136] This tendency towards European authors still leaves some European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Europe's Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J. R. R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, Karel Čapek, the New World's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa's Chinua Achebe.[137]

text: Candidates can receive multiple nominations the same year. Gaston Ramon received a total of 155[138] nominations in physiology or medicine from 1930 to 1953, the last year with public nomination data for that award as of 2016[update]. He died in 1963 without being awarded. Pierre Paul Émile Roux received 115[139] nominations in physiology or medicine, and Arnold Sommerfeld received 84[140] in physics. These are the three most nominated scientists without awards in the data published as of 2016[update].[141] Otto Stern received 79[142] nominations in physics 1925–43 before being awarded in 1943.[143]

text: The strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial.[144] When a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt.[145][146] According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honor in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles. Hagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years.[147]

text: Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honor in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black's key role.

text: Political subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power.[148] The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognised until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.

text: Emphasis on discoveries over inventions[edit]

text: Alfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind."[149] He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given "to the person who shall have made the most important 'discovery' or 'invention' within the field of physics." Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77% of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society.[150][151]

text: Gender disparity[edit]

text: In terms of the most prestigious awards in STEM fields, only a small proportion have been awarded to women. Out of 199 laureates in Physics, 169 in Chemistry and 207 in Medicine, there were only two female laureates in physics, four in chemistry and 11 in medicine between 1901 and 2014.[152][153]

text: Specially distinguished laureates[edit]

text: Multiple laureates[edit]

text: Four people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium,[154] making her the only person to be awarded a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling was awarded the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity.[155] Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA.[156][157]

text: Two organizations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary.[158][159][160] The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981.[161]

text: Family laureates[edit]

text: The Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes awarded to five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her.[162] Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.[163]

text: Although no family matches the Curie family's record, there have been several with two laureates. The husband-and-wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori shared the 1947 Prize in Physiology or Medicine[164] as did the husband-and-wife team of May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe).[165] J. J. Thomson was awarded the Physics Prize in 1906 for showing that electrons are particles. His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves.[166] William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer.[167] Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics prize in 1922, as did his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975.[163][168] Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981.[163][169] Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970.[163] C. V. Raman was awarded the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was awarded the same prize in 1983.[170][171] Arthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959; Kornberg's son, Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006.[172] Jan Tinbergen, who was awarded the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize.[163] Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982, was the wife of Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974.[163] Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers-in-law. Frits Zernike, who was awarded the 1953 Physics Prize, is the great-uncle of 1999 Physics laureate Gerard 't Hooft.[173]

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Being a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that's recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize and Nobel Son about fictional Nobel laureates as well as fictionalised accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a film based on the unsolved theft of Rabindranath Tagore's prize.[174]

text: Refusals and constraints[edit]

text: Two laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize but refused, stating, "A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form."[175] Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords, declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam.[176]

text: During the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying "this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award."[176] The Academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it until 1989 when Pasternak's son accepted the prize on his behalf.[177][178] Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012.[179] Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners, and he was unable to accept the prize in his lifetime.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The memorial symbol "Planet of Alfred Nobel" was opened in Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles.[180][181]


document_title: Carole Radziwill

question_text: who was carol from new york housewives married to

text: Carole Radziwill

text: Early life and education[edit]

text: Carole grew up in a working-class family in Suffern, New York.[4] She earned a B.A. at Hunter College and a M.B.A. at New York University.[3]

text: Career[edit]

text: Radziwill began her news career at ABC in New York in 1985 as an intern in postproduction for 20/20, a news magazine show.[5] She was later assigned to "Close Up" as a production secretary. She eventually worked for Peter Jennings's documentary unit, producing shows on abortion and gun control, and covering foreign policy stories in Cambodia, Haiti, and India.[6]

text: In 1991, Radziwill was stationed in Iraq and reported on the SCUD missile attacks during the Gulf War. In 2003, during the War on Afghanistan, she spent six weeks in Khandahar, embedded with an infantry unit of the 101st Airborne Division. She produced segments for an ABC-TV show called Profiles From the Frontline. She has won several awards, including three Emmys, one for a story she produced on land mines in Cambodia, and a Peabody.[6]

text: After her husband's death, Radziwill left ABC News to write a memoir about her personal life, her career at ABC News, as well as her effort to manage her husband's cancer. What Remains: A Memoir of Fate, Friendship and Love (Scribner, 2005) made the New York Times Best Seller list. A review of the book in the New York Times called it a "bittersweet account" that emphasized "graciousness over disclosure."[7][8]

text: In 2006, Radziwill signed with Glamour magazine to write a monthly column called "Lunch Date". Her Lunch Dates have included former mayor Rudy Giuliani,[9] and Hollywood actors Antonio Banderas,[10] Rachel Weisz,[11] and Alec Baldwin.[12]

text: In 2011, Radziwill joined the cast of Bravo TV's The Real Housewives of New York City in season 5.[6]

text: She sold her first novel, The Widow's Guide to Sex & Dating, in a high six-figure deal to Holt Publishing. It was released on February 11, 2014.[13]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: On August 27, 1994, she married fellow ABC News producer Anthony Radziwill in East Hampton, New York.[14] Radziwill was the only son of Stanislas Radziwill by his wife, Lee Bouvier Canfield [14] (younger sister of Jacqueline Onassis). Anthony Radziwill died on August 10, 1999 at age forty after a five-year battle with cancer.[1]

text: Radziwill was a close friend of Carolyn Kennedy, who was married to her husband's cousin, John F. Kennedy, Jr.. Kennedy, Carolyn, and her sister, Lauren Bessette, perished in an airplane crash off the coast of Martha's Vineyard less than four weeks before her own husband's death.[1]