document_title: Carbon cycle

question_text: where is most carbon stored in the carbon cycle

text: Carbon cycle

text: Main components[edit]

text:
Carbon pools in the major reservoirs on earth.[2]show

Pool
Quantity (gigatons)

Atmosphere
720

Ocean (total)
38,400

Total inorganic
37,400

Total organic
1,000

Surface layer
670

Deep layer
36,730

Lithosphere

Sedimentary carbonates
> 60,000,000

Kerogens
15,000,000

Terrestrial biosphere (total)
2,000

Living biomass
600 - 1,000

Dead biomass
1,200

Aquatic biosphere
1 - 2

Fossil fuels (total)
4,130

Coal
3,510

Oil
230

Gas
140

Other (peat)
250

text: The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange:[3]:5–6

text:
The atmosphere
The terrestrial biosphere
The ocean, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota
The sediments, including fossil fuels, fresh water systems and non-living organic material.
The Earth's interior (mantle and crust. These carbon stores interact with the other components through geological processes.

text: The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth.[2] The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial ecosystems, and sediments is fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence.[4][5]

text: Atmosphere[edit]

text: Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the greenhouse effect.[2] Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.[6]

text: Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily through photosynthesis and enters the terrestrial and oceanic biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the atmosphere into bodies of water (ocean, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules and forms carbonic acid, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.[7]

text: Human activities over the past two centuries have significantly increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, both by modifying ecosystems' ability to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting it directly, e.g., by burning fossil fuels and manufacturing concrete.[2]

text: Terrestrial biosphere[edit]

text: The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in all land-living organisms, both alive and dead, as well as carbon stored in soils. About 500 gigatons of carbon are stored above ground in plants and other living organisms,[4] while soil holds approximately 1,500 gigatons of carbon.[8] Most carbon in the terrestrial biosphere is organic carbon,[9] while about a third of soil carbon is stored in inorganic forms, such as calcium carbonate.[10] Organic carbon is a major component of all organisms living on earth. Autotrophs extract it from the air in the form of carbon dioxide, converting it into organic carbon, while heterotrophs receive carbon by consuming other organisms.

text: Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a diurnal and seasonal cycle. In CO2 measurements, this feature is apparent in the Keeling curve. It is strongest in the northern hemisphere, because this hemisphere has more land mass than the southern hemisphere and thus more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit carbon.

text: Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on different time scales. The combustion or respiration of organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can also be exported into the ocean through rivers or remain sequestered in soils in the form of inert carbon.[11] Carbon stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before being washed into rivers by erosion or released into the atmosphere through soil respiration. Between 1989 and 2008 soil respiration increased by about 0.1% per year.[12] In 2008, the global total of CO2 released by soil respiration was roughly 98 billion tonnes, about 10 times more carbon than humans are now putting into the atmosphere each year by burning fossil fuel (this does not represent a net transfer of carbon from soil to atmosphere, as the respiration is largely offset by inputs to soil carbon). There are a few plausible explanations for this trend, but the most likely explanation is that increasing temperatures have increased rates of decomposition of soil organic matter, which has increased the flow of CO2. The length of carbon sequestering in soil is dependent on local climatic conditions and thus changes in the course of climate change.

text: Ocean[edit]

text: The ocean can be conceptually divided into a surface layer within which water makes frequent (daily to annual) contact with the atmosphere, and a deep layer below the typical mixed layer depth of a few hundred meters or less, within which the time between consecutive contacts may be centuries. The dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the surface layer is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere, maintaining equilibrium. Partly because its concentration of DIC is about 15% higher[13] but mainly due to its larger volume, the deep ocean contains far more carbon--it's the largest pool of actively cycled carbon in the world, containing 50 times more than the atmosphere[2]--but the timescale to reach equilibrium with the atmosphere is hundreds of years: the exchange of carbon between the two layers, driven by thermohaline circulation, is slow.[2]

text: Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a small fraction of which is converted into carbonate. It can also enter the ocean through rivers as dissolved organic carbon. It is converted by organisms into organic carbon through photosynthesis and can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or precipitated into the ocean's deeper, more carbon rich layers as dead soft tissue or in shells as calcium carbonate. It circulates in this layer for long periods of time before either being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to the surface waters through thermohaline circulation.[4]

text: Oceanic absorption of CO2 is one of the most important forms of carbon sequestering limiting the human-caused rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, this process is limited by a number of factors. CO2 absorption makes water more acidic, which affects ocean biosystems. The projected rate of increasing oceanic acidity could slow the biological precipitation of calcium carbonates, thus decreasing the ocean's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.[14][15]

text: Earth's interior[edit]

text: The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the global carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and thus of global temperatures.[16]

text: Most of the earth's carbon is stored inertly in the earth's lithosphere.[2] Much of the carbon stored in the earth's mantle was stored there when the earth formed.[17] Some of it was deposited in the form of organic carbon from the biosphere.[18] Of the carbon stored in the geosphere, about 80% is limestone and its derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of calcium carbonate stored in the shells of marine organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as kerogens formed through the sedimentation and burial of terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure. Organic carbon stored in the geosphere can remain there for millions of years.[16]

text: Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth's mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and hotspots.[17] It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the atmosphere.

text: Human influence[edit]

text: Since the industrial revolution, human activity has modified the carbon cycle by changing its components' functions and directly adding carbon to the atmosphere.[2]

text: The largest human impact on the carbon cycle is through direct emissions from burning fossil fuels, which transfers carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land-use, particularly deforestation.

text: Another direct human impact on the carbon cycle is the chemical process of calcination of limestone for clinker production, which releases CO2.[23] Clinker is an industrial precursor of cement.

text: Humans also influence the carbon cycle indirectly by changing the terrestrial and oceanic biosphere.[24] Over the past several centuries, direct and indirect human-caused land use and land cover change (LUCC) has led to the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems' resilience to environmental stresses and decreases their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More directly, it often leads to the release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere. Deforestation for agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and replaces them, generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover types store comparatively small amounts of carbon, so that the net product of the process is that more carbon stays in the atmosphere.

text: Other human-caused changes to the environment change ecosystems' productivity and their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. Air pollution, for example, damages plants and soils, while many agricultural and land use practices lead to higher erosion rates, washing carbon out of soils and decreasing plant productivity.

text: Humans also affect the oceanic carbon cycle.[24] Current trends in climate change lead to higher ocean temperatures, thus modifying ecosystems[25][26][27]. Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from agriculture and industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have dramatic effects on highly sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs[28][29][30], thus limiting the ocean's ability to absorb carbon from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic biodiversity globally.

text: Arctic methane emissions indirectly caused by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon cycle, and contribute to further warming in what is known as climate change feedback.

text: On 12 November 2015, NASA scientists reported that human-made carbon dioxide (CO2) continues to increase, reaching levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years: currently, the rate carbon dioxide release by the burning of fossil fuels is about double the net uptake by vegetation and the ocean.[19][20][21][22]


document_title: Tennis

question_text: how high is the center of the tennis court net

question_tokens: how high is the center of the tennis court net

root

text: Tennis

text: History

text: Predecessors

text: Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand.[3] Louis X of France was a keen player of jeu de paume ("game of the palm"), which evolved into real tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris "around the end of the 13th century".[4] In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe.[4] In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.[5] Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.[5] Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was King Charles V of France, who had a court set up at the Louvre Palace.[6]

tag: p

text: It wasn't until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to be called "tennis", from the French term tenez, which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or "take!", an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent.[7] It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis.[8] During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England.[9]

text: Further, the patenting of the first lawn mower in 1830, in Britain, is strongly believed to have been the catalyst, worldwide, for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others.[10]

text: Origins of the modern game

text: Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements of racquets and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham, England, United Kingdom.[11][12] In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road, Leamington Spa.[13]

text: In December 1873, British army officer Major Walter Clopton Wingfield designed and patented a similar game ;– which he called sphairistikè (Greek: σφαιριστική, meaning "ball-playing"), and was soon known simply as "sticky" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate of Nantclwyd Hall, in Llanelidan, Wales.[14] According to R. D. C. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, "Sports historians all agree that [Wingfield] deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis."[9][15] According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield "popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874."[16] The world's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon Championships, were first played in London in 1877.[16][17] The first Championships culminated a significant debate on how to standardize the rules.[16]

text: In the U.S. in 1874 Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda with a sphairistikè set. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play.[18] She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club at Camp Washington, Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating Canadian I. F. Hellmuth.[19] There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York. On 21 May 1881, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the rules and organize competitions.[20] The U.S. National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was first held in 1881 at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island.[21] The U.S. National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 in Philadelphia.[22]

text: Tennis also became popular in France, where the French Championships dates to 1891 although until 1925 it was open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs.[23] Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open, and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.[17][24] Together these four events are called the Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball).[25]

text: The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the International Lawn Tennis Federation, now known as the International Tennis Federation (ITF), have remained largely stable in the ensuing eighty years, the one major change being the addition of the tiebreak system designed by Jimmy Van Alen.[26] That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988.[27][28]

text: The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.[29] The analogous competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF.[30]

text: In 1926, promoter C. C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[24][31] The most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[24][32] Once a player turned pro he or she was no longer permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.[24]

text: In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis. With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image[33] (although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists).[33][34]

text: In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.[35] The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Each year, a grass court tournament and an induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members are hosted on its grounds.

text: Equipment

text: Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only a racket and balls.

text: Rackets

text: The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability.

text: Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines;[36]

text:
The hitting area, composed of the strings, must be flat and generally uniform.
The frame of the hitting area may not be more than 29 inches (74 cm) in length and 12.5 inches (32 cm) in width.
The entire racket must be of a fixed shape, size, weight, and weight distribution. There may not be any energy source built into the rackets.
The rackets must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or advice to the player during the match.

tag: ul

text: The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm).[37]

text: Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are some of the more commonly used brands; however, many more companies exist.[example  needed] The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become more well known by the public.

text: Balls

text: Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.[38] Modern tennis balls are made of hollow vulcanized rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight, deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).[39] Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in the Far East. The relocation is due to cheaper labour costs and materials in the region.[40]

text: Miscellaneous

text: Advanced players improve their performance through a number of accoutrements. Vibration dampeners may be interlaced in the proximal part of the string array for improved feel. Racket handles may be customized with absorbent or rubber-like materials to improve the players' grip. Players often use sweat bands on their wrists to keep their hands dry and head bands or bandanas to keep the sweat out of their eyes as well. Finally, although the game can be played in a variety of shoes, specialized tennis shoes have wide, flat soles for stability and a built-up front structure to avoid excess wear.

text: Manner of play

text: Court

text: Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.[41] Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a metal cable or cord that can be no more than 0.8 cm (1⁄3 in).[42] The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the center.[41] The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side.

text: The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle.[43]

text: Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces.[44] Grass, clay, and hardcourts of concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used. Artificial turf courts can also be found.

text: Lines

text: The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the center of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the center mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines. These are the boundaries used when doubles is being played. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, which is considered playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the center of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve.[45]

text: The line dividing the service line in two is called the center line or center service line. The boxes this center line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, he or she will have to hit the ball into one of these when serving.[46] A ball is out only if none of it has hit the line or the area inside the lines upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide (although in practice it is often created the same width as the rest).[45]

text: Play of a single point

text: The players (or teams) start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and the opposing player is the receiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players (or teams). For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the center mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server.

text: In a legal service, the ball travels over the net (without touching it) and into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault", which occurs when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the center mark before the ball is hit. If the second service is also a fault, the server double faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.

text: A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net, provided that it still falls in the server's court. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel past the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is still considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point.[47]

text: Scoring

text: Game, set, match

text: Game

text: A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as "love", "15", "30", and "40", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as "40-40", but rather as "deuce". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the game is "advantage" for the player in the lead. During informal games, "advantage" can also be called "ad in" or "van in" when the serving player is ahead, and "ad out" or "van out" when the receiving player is ahead.

text: The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., "15-love") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score.

text: Set

text: A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) a tie-break is played. A tie-break, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A "love" set means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a 'jam donut' in the USA.[48] In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. "6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5".

text: Match

text: A match consists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or five sets system. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of the Olympic Games and best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match.[49] Only in the final sets of matches at the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, the Olympic Games, Davis Cup (until 2015), and Fed Cup are tie-breaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, leading to some remarkably long matches.

text: In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end of the match with the well-known phrase "Game, set, match" followed by the winning person's or team's name.

text: Special point terms

text: Game point

text: A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40-love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play.

text: Break point

text: A break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance because serving is generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love-40) consecutive chances to win the game has break point, double break point or triple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to have converted their break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called a failure to convert. Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to as breaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, or broken the natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it is referred to as breaking back. Except where tie-breaks apply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set.

text: Rule variations

text: No ad

text: Pro set

text: Match tie-break

text: Another, however informal, tennis format is called Canadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body.

text: "Australian doubles", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to the Canadian doubles style, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve.

text: Wheelchair tennis can be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as "one-up, one-down"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only.

text: Officials

text: In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chair umpire (usually referred to as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made.[52]

text: In some tournaments, line judges who would be calling the serve, were assisted by electronic sensors that beeped to indicate the serve was out. This system was called "Cyclops".[53] Cyclops has since largely been replaced by the Hawk-Eye system.[54][55] In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tie-break to challenge close line calls by means of an electronic review. The US Open, Miami Masters, US Open Series, and World Team Tennis started using this challenge system in 2006 and the Australian Open and Wimbledon introduced the system in 2007.[56] In clay-court matches, such as at the French Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface.

text: The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair).[52]

text: Ball boys and girls may be employed to retrieve balls, pass them to the players, and hand players their towels. They have no adjudicative role. In rare events (e.g., if they are hurt or if they have caused a hindrance), the umpire may ask them for a statement of what actually happened. The umpire may consider their statements when making a decision. In some leagues, especially junior leagues, players make their own calls, trusting each other to be honest. This is the case for many school and university level matches. The referee or referee's assistant, however, can be called on court at a player's request, and the referee or assistant may change a player's call. In unofficiated matches, a ball is out only if the player entitled to make the call is sure that the ball is out.

text: Junior tennis

text: In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments.

text: The International Tennis Federation (ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and an Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) or Women's Tennis Association (WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however, such as Australian Lleyton Hewitt and Frenchman Gaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments.

text: In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally.[57] Junior tournaments do not offer prize money except for the Grand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A.

text: Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in the Junior Fed Cup and Davis Cup competitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions.

text: Match play

text: Continuity

text: A tennis match is intended to be continuous.[58] Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.[58] This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets.[58] Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be determined to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of "point", "game", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit.[59]

text: In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and the players at the same end of the court when rain halted play, or at the same position (north or south) if play is resumed on a different court.

text: Ball changes

text: Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, in ATP and WTA tournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.[39] As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. However, in ITF tournaments like Fed Cup, the balls are changed in a 9–11 style. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes.

text: On-court coaching

text: A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match.[60][61][62][63] This has been introduced in women's tennis for WTA Tour events in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set.[64]

text: Shots

text: A competent tennis player has eight basic shots in his or her repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob.

text: Grip

text: A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The "Handshake Grip"), Eastern (Can be either semi-eastern or full eastern. Usually used for backhands.), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip.[65]

text: Serve

text: A serve (or, more formally, a "service") in tennis is a shot to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity.[66] If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a "let" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared.[67] If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box.

text: Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise.[68]

text: Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an "ace".

text: Forehand

text: For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are various grips for executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are the continental, the eastern, the semi-western, and the western. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s player Bill Johnston was considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using a western grip. Few top players used the western grip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, the western forehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American player Pancho Segura used a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such as Monica Seles or France's Fabrice Santoro and Marion Bartoli are also notable players known for their two-handed forehands.[69]

text: Backhand

text: For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either an eastern or a continental grip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s Australians Vivian McGrath and John Bromwich, but they were lonely exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s as Björn Borg, Chris Evert, Jimmy Connors, and later Mats Wilander and Marat Safin used it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, including Rafael Nadal and Serena Williams.[70]

text: Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time, Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball. Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notably Monica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides.

text: Other shots

text: A volley is a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. The half volley is made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground.[71] The swinging volley is hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley.

text: From a poor defensive position on the baseline, the lob can be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit an overhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point.

text: A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play.

text: If an opponent is deep in his court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpected drop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to "skid" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return.

text: Injuries

text: Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis.[72] When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle which can result in the occurrence of muscle strain.[73] Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occur which resulted in redness, pain and swelling.[73] Overuse is also common in tennis players from all level. Muscle, cartilage, nerves, bursae, ligaments and tendons may be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recover in the most common case among the injury.[73]

text: Tournaments

text: Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include the Orange Bowl and Les Petits As junior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such as wheelchair tennis and deaf tennis.[74] In the four Grand Slam tournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender.

text: Most large tournaments seed players, but players may also be matched by their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, the United States Tennis Association administers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale.

text: Grand Slam tournaments

text: The four Grand Slam tournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open. Apart from the Olympic Games, Davis Cup, Fed Cup, and Hopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by the International Tennis Federation (ITF).[75] The ITF's national associations, Tennis Australia (Australian Open), the Fédération Française de Tennis (French Open), the Lawn Tennis Association (Wimbledon) and the United States Tennis Association (US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events.[75]

text: Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, the Masters 1000 (men) and Premier events (women).[76][77] Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations through wild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being the Indian Wells Masters and the Miami Masters.

text: Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that have mixed doubles contests. Grand Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments and junior tennis competitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white. Andre Agassi chose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white" dress code.[78] Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets.[79]

text:
Grand Slam Tournaments

Date

Tournament

Location

Surface

Prize Money

First Held

January–February
Australian Open
Melbourne
Hard (Plexicushion)
A$55,000,000 (2018)
1905

May–June
French Open
Paris
Clay
€39,197,000 (2018)
1891*

June–July
Wimbledon
London
Grass
£31,600,000 (2017)
1877

August–September
US Open
New York City
Hard (DecoTurf)
US$50,400,000 (2017)
1881

tag: table

text: * The international tournament began in 1925

text: Men's tournament structure

text: Masters 1000

text: The ATP World Tour Masters 1000 is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When the ATP, led by Hamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of the Grand Slam events, as "Super 9" events.[80] In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in the ATP World Tour Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in London, England.[81]

text: In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the "Masters 1000", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and the Monte Carlo Masters remains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. The Hamburg Masters has been downgraded to a 500-point event. The Madrid Masters moved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament in Shanghai took over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine "1000" level tournaments are combined ATP and WTA events.[82]

text: 250 and 500 Series

text: The third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are formed by the ATP World Tour 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and the ATP World Tour 250 series with 40 tournaments.[83] Like the ATP World Tour Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the amount of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament.[76] The Dubai Tennis Championships offer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012).[84] These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open.

text: Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments

text: The Challenger Tour for men is the lowest level of tournament administered by the ATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events.[85] The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings. Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings.[86] The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000.

text: Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on the ITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player's ATP rankings points. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000.[87] Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year.

text: Women's tournament structure

text: Premier events

text: Premier events for women form the most prestigious level of events on the Women's Tennis Association Tour after the Grand Slam tournaments. These events offer the largest rewards in terms of points and prize money. Within the Premier category are Premier Mandatory, Premier 5, and Premier tournaments. The Premier events were introduced in 2009 replacing the previous Tier I and II tournament categories. Currently four tournaments are Premier Mandatory, five tournaments are Premier 5, and twelve tournaments are Premier. The first tiering system in women's tennis was introduced in 1988. At the time of its creation, only two tournaments, the Lipton International Players Championships in Florida and the German Open in Berlin, comprised the Tier I category.

text: International events

text: International tournaments are the second main tier of the WTA tour and consist of 31 tournaments, with a prize money for every event at U.S.$220,000, except for the year-ending Commonwealth Bank Tournament of Champions in Bali, which has prize money of U.S.$600,000.

text: Players

text: Professional players

text: Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such as golf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain money.

text: In recent years, some controversy has surrounded the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players' grunting.

text: Grand Slam tournament winners

text: The following players have won at least five singles titles at Grand Slam tournaments:

text:
Female
Margaret Court (24)
Serena Williams (23)
Steffi Graf (22)
Helen Wills Moody (19)
Chris Evert (18)
Martina Navratilova (18)
Billie Jean King (12)
Maureen Connolly Brinker (9)
Monica Seles (9)
Molla Bjurstedt Mallory (8)
Suzanne Lenglen (8)
Dorothea Lambert Chambers (7)
Maria Bueno (7)
Evonne Goolagong Cawley (7)
Venus Williams (7)
Justine Henin (7)
Blanche Bingley Hillyard (6)
Doris Hart (6)
Margaret Osborne duPont (6)
Nancye Wynne Bolton (6)
Louise Brough Clapp (6)
Lottie Dod (5)
Charlotte Cooper Sterry (5)
Daphne Akhurst Cozens (5)
Helen Jacobs (5)
Alice Marble (5)
Pauline Betz Addie (5)
Althea Gibson (5)
Martina Hingis (5)
Maria Sharapova (5)

Male
Roger Federer (20)
Rafael Nadal (17)
Pete Sampras (14)
Novak Djokovic (13)
Roy Emerson (12)
Rod Laver (11)
Björn Borg (11)
Bill Tilden (10)
Fred Perry (8)
Ken Rosewall (8)
Jimmy Connors (8)
Ivan Lendl (8)
Andre Agassi (8)
William Renshaw (7)
Richard Sears (7)
William Larned (7)
Henri Cochet (7)
René Lacoste (7)
John Newcombe (7)
John McEnroe (7)
Mats Wilander (7)
Laurence Doherty (6)
Anthony Wilding (6)
Donald Budge (6)
Jack Crawford (6)
Boris Becker (6)
Stefan Edberg (6)
Frank Sedgman (5)
Tony Trabert (5)

 Margaret Court (b. 1942).
 Roger Federer (b. 1981).

text: Greatest male players

text: A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, an Associated Press poll in 1950 named Bill Tilden as the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century.[88] From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles at Wimbledon three times and the U.S. Championships seven times. In 1938, however, Donald Budge became the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, the Grand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge "the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived."[89] In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer said that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever.[90] Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Tony Trabert has said that of the players he saw before the start of the open era, Kramer was the best male champion.[91]

text: By the 1960s, Budge and others had added Pancho Gonzales and Lew Hoad to the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever.[92] Gonzales said about Hoad, "When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique."[93]

text: During the open era, first Rod Laver and more recently Björn Borg and Pete Sampras were regarded by many of their contemporaries as among the greatest ever. Andre Agassi, the first of two male players in history to have achieved a Career Golden Slam in singles tennis (followed by Rafael Nadal), has been called the best service returner in the history of the game.[94][95][96][97] He is the first man to win slams on all modern surfaces (previous holders of all slams played in an era of grass and clay only), and is regarded by a number of critics and fellow players to be among the greatest players of all time.[94][98][99]

text: More recently, Roger Federer is considered by many observers to have the most "complete" game in modern tennis. He has won 20 grand slam titles and 6 World Tour Finals, the most for any male player. Many experts of tennis, former tennis players and his own tennis peers believe Federer is the greatest player in the history of the game.[100][101][102][103][104][105] Federer's biggest rival Rafael Nadal is regarded as the greatest competitor in tennis history by some former players and is regarded to have the potential to be the greatest of all time.[106][107] Nadal is regarded as the greatest clay court player of all time.[108]

text: Greatest female players

text: As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time with Steffi Graf, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams being the three players most often nominated.

text: In March 2012 the TennisChannel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all time.[109] It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed by Martina Navratilova (4th place) and Margaret Court (8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel.

text: Sportwriter John Wertheim of Sports Illustrated stated in an article in July 2010 that Serena Williams is the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that "Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.".[110] In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot.[111] This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time.[112]

text: Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player. Billie Jean King said in 1999, "Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all time."[113] Martina Navratilova has included Graf on her list of great players.[113] In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by the Associated Press.[114] Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his book The Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova.[115]

text: Tennis magazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005.[116][117] Tennis historian and journalist Bud Collins has called Navratilova "arguably, the greatest player of all time."[118] Billie Jean King said about Navratilova in 2006, "She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived."[119]

text: In popular culture

text:
"Tennis balles" are mentioned by William Shakespeare in his play Henry V (1599), when a basket of them is given to King Henry as a mockery of his youth and playfulness.
David Foster Wallace, an amateur tennis player himself at Urbana High School in Illinois,[120] included tennis in many of his works of nonfiction and fiction including "Tennis Player Michael Joyce's Professional Artistry as a Paradigm of Certain Stuff about Choice, Freedom, Discipline, Joy, Grotesquerie, and Human Completeness," the autobiographical piece "Derivative Sport in Tornado Alley," and Infinite Jest, which is partially set at the fictional "Enfield Tennis Academy" in Massachusetts.
Japanese Manga series The Prince of Tennis revolves around the tennis prodigy Echizen Ryoma and tennis matches between rival schools.
The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) features Richie Tenenbaum (Luke Wilson), a tennis pro who suffers from depression and has a breakdown on court in front of thousands of fans.[121]
Wimbledon (2004) is a film about a discouraged pro tennis player (Paul Bettany) who meets a young woman on the women's tennis circuit (Kirsten Dunst) who helps him find his drive to go and win Wimbledon.[122]
In The Squid and the Whale (2005), Joan (Laura Linney) has an affair with her kids' tennis coach, Ivan (William Baldwin). In a symbolic scene, Joan's ex-husband, Bernard (Jeff Daniels), loses a tennis match against Ivan in front of the kids.[123]
Woody Allen's Match Point (2005) features a love affair between a former tennis pro (Jonathan Rhys Meyers) and his best friend's fiancé (Scarlett Johansson).[124]
Confetti (2006) is a mockumentary which sees three couples competing to win the title of "Most Original Wedding of the Year". One competing couple (Meredith MacNeill and Stephen Mangan) are a pair of hyper-competitive professional tennis players holding a tennis-themed wedding.[125]
There are several tennis video games including Mario Tennis, the TopSpin series, Wii Sports, and Grand Slam Tennis.[126][127]


document_title: Erythromycin

question_text: who was the filipino doctor who discovered the antibiotic erythromycin

text: Erythromycin

text: Medical uses[edit]

text: Erythromycin can be used to treat bacteria responsible for causing infections of the skin and upper respiratory tract, including Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Haemophilus and Corynebacterium genera. The following represents MIC susceptibility data for a few medically significant bacteria:[11]

text:
Haemophilus influenzae: 0.015 to 256 μg/ml
Staphylococcus aureus: 0.023 to 1024 μg/ml
Streptococcus pyogenes: 0.004 to 256 μg/ml
Corynebacterium minutissimum: 0.015 to 64 μg/ml

text: Available forms[edit]

text:
Erythromycin is available in enteric-coated tablets, slow-release capsules, oral suspensions, ophthalmic solutions, ointments, gels, enteric-coated capsules, non enteric-coated tablets, non enteric-coated capsules, and injections.
The following erythromycin combinations are available for oral dosage:[12]

text:
erythromycin base (capsules, tablets)
erythromycin estolate (capsules, oral suspension, tablets),  contraindicated during pregnancy[13]
erythromycin ethylsuccinate (oral suspension, tablets)
erythromycin stearate (oral suspension, tablets)

text: For injection the available combinations are:[12]

text:
erythromycin gluceptate
erythromycin lactobionate

text: For ophthalmic use

text: erythromycin base (ointment)

text: Adverse effects[edit]

text: Gastrointestinal disturbances, such as diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, and vomiting, are very common because erythromycin is a motilin agonist.[14] Because of this, erythromycin tends not to be prescribed as a first-line drug.  It may be useful in treating gastroparesis due to this promotility effect.  Intravenous erythromycin may also be used in endoscopy as an adjunct to clear gastric contents.

text: More serious side effects include  arrhythmia with prolonged QT intervals including torsades de pointes, and reversible deafness. Allergic reactions range from urticaria to anaphylaxis.  Cholestasis, Stevens–Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis are some other rare side effects that may occur.

text: Studies have shown evidence both for and against the association of pyloric stenosis and exposure to erythromycin prenatally and postnatally.[15][16] Exposure to erythromycin (especially long courses at antimicrobial doses, and also through breastfeeding) has been linked to an increased probability of pyloric stenosis in young infants.[17][18] Erythromycin used for feeding intolerance in young infants has not been associated with hypertrophic pyloric stenosis.[17]

text: Erythromycin estolate has been associated with reversible hepatotoxicity in pregnant women in the form of elevated serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase and is not recommended during pregnancy.  Some evidence suggests similar hepatotoxicity in other populations.[19]

text: It can also affect the central nervous system, causing psychotic reactions, nightmares and night sweats.[20]

text: It may also alter the effectiveness of combined oral contraceptive pills because of its effect on the gut flora. Erythromycin is an inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 system, which means it can have a rapid effect on levels of other drugs metabolised by this system, e.g., warfarin.

text: Interactions[edit]

text:
Erythromycin is metabolized by enzymes of the cytochrome P450 system, in particular, by isozymes of the CYP3A superfamily, CYP3A.[21] The activity of the CYP3A enzymes can be induced or inhibited by certain drugs (e.g. dexamethasone) which can cause it to affect the metabolism of many different drugs, e.g. erythromycin. If other CYP3A substrates — drugs that are broken down by CYP3A — such as simvastatin (Zocor), lovastatin (Mevacor), or atorvastatin (Lipitor)—are taken concomitantly with erythromycin, levels of the substrates increase, often causing adverse effects. A noted drug interaction involves erythromycin and simvastatin, resulting in increased simvastatin levels and the potential for rhabdomyolysis. Another group of CYP3A4 substrates are drugs used for migraine such as ergotamine and dihydroergotamine; their adverse effects may be more pronounced if erythromycin is associated.[20]
Earlier case reports on sudden death prompted a study on a large cohort that confirmed a link between erythromycin, ventricular tachycardia, and sudden cardiac death in patients also taking drugs that prolong the metabolism of erythromycin (like verapamil or diltiazem) by interfering with CYP3A4.[22] Hence, erythromycin should not be administered to people using these drugs, or drugs that also prolong the QT interval. Other examples include terfenadine (Seldane, Seldane-D), astemizole (Hismanal), cisapride (Propulsid, withdrawn in many countries for prolonging the QT time) and pimozide (Orap). Theophylline, which is used mostly in asthma, is also contraindicated.

text: Erythromycin and doxycycline can have a synergistic effect when combined and kill bacteria (E. coli) with a higher potency than the sum of the two drugs together. This synergistic relationship is only temporary. After approximately 72 hours, the relationship shifts to become antagonistic, whereby a 50/50 combination of the two drugs kills less bacteria than if the two drugs were administered separately.[23]

text: Pharmacology[edit]

text: Mechanism of action[edit]

text: Erythromycin displays bacteriostatic activity or inhibits growth of bacteria, especially at higher concentrations,[24] but the mechanism is not fully understood. By binding to the 50s subunit of the bacterial  rRNA complex, protein synthesis and subsequent structure and function processes critical for life or replication are inhibited.[24] Erythromycin interferes with aminoacyl translocation, preventing the transfer of the tRNA bound at the A site of the rRNA complex to the P site of the rRNA complex. Without this translocation, the A site remains occupied, thus the addition of an incoming tRNA and its attached amino acid to the nascent polypeptide chain is inhibited. This interferes with the production of functionally useful proteins, which is the basis of this antimicrobial action.

text: Erythromycin increases gut motility by binding to Motillin, thus it is a Motillin receptor agonist in addition to its antimicrobial properties.

text: Pharmacokinetics[edit]

text: Erythromycin is easily inactivated by gastric acid; therefore, all orally administered formulations are given as either enteric-coated or more-stable salts or esters, such as erythromycin ethylsuccinate. Erythromycin is very rapidly absorbed, and diffuses into most tissues and phagocytes. Due to the high concentration in phagocytes, erythromycin is actively transported to the site of infection, where, during active phagocytosis, large concentrations of erythromycin are released.[citation needed]

text: Metabolism[edit]

text: Most of erythromycin is metabolised by demethylation in the liver by the hepatic enzyme CYP3A4. Its main elimination route is in the bile with little renal excretion, 2%-15% unchanged drug. Erythromycin's elimination half-life ranges between 1.5 and 2.0 hours and is between 5 and 6 hours in patients with end-stage renal disease.  Erythromycin levels peak in the serum 4 hours after dosing; ethylsuccinate peaks 0.5-2.5 hours after dosing, but can be delayed if digested with food.[25]

text: Erythromycin crosses the placenta and enters breast milk.  The American Association of Pediatrics determined erythromycin is safe to take while breastfeeding.[26] Absorption in pregnant patients has been shown to be variable, frequently resulting in levels lower than in nonpregnant patients.[25]

text: Chemistry[edit]

text: Composition[edit]

text: Standard-grade erythromycin is primarily composed of four related compounds known as erythromycins A, B, C, and D. Each of these compounds can be present in varying amounts and can differ by lot. Erythromycin A has been found to have the most antibacterial activity, followed by erythromycin B. Erythromycins C and D are about half as active as erythromycin A.[11][27] Some of these related compounds have been purified and can be studied and researched individually.

text: Synthesis[edit]

text: Over the three decades after the discovery of erythromycin A and its activity as an antimicrobial, many attempts were  made to synthesize it in the laboratory. The presence of 10 stereospecific carbons and several points of distinct substitution has made the total synthesis of erythromycin A a formidable task.[28] Complete syntheses of erythromycins’ related structures and precursors such as 6-deoxyerythronolide B have been accomplished, giving way to possible syntheses of different erythromycins and other macrolide antimicrobials.[29] Woodward successfully completed the synthesis of erythromycin A.[30][31][32]

text: Erythromycin related compounds[edit]

text:
Azithromycin
Carbomycin
Cethromycin
Clarithromycin
Dirithromycin
Mitemcinal
Oleandomycin
Roxithromycin
Spiramycin
Telithromycin
Tylosin

text: History[edit]

text: Erythromycin was discovered by Abelardo Aguilar when working for the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and Company as a researcher.[33]

text: In 1949 Abelardo B. Aguilar, a Filipino scientist, sent some soil samples to his employer Eli Lilly . Eli Lilly’s research team, led by J. M. McGuire, managed to isolate erythromycin from the metabolic products of a strain of Streptomyces erythreus (designation changed to "Saccharopolyspora erythraea") found in the samples.

text: Lilly filed for patent protection of the compound and U.S. patent 2,653,899 was granted in 1953. The product was launched commercially in 1952 under the brand name Ilosone (after the Philippine region of Iloilo where it was originally collected). Erythromycin was formerly also called Ilotycin.

text: In 1981, Nobel laureate (1965 in chemistry) and professor of chemistry at Harvard University Robert B. Woodward (posthumously), along with a large number of members from his research group, reported the first stereocontrolled asymmetric chemical synthesis of erythromycin A.

text: The antibiotic clarithromycin was invented by scientists at the Japanese drug company Taisho Pharmaceutical in the 1970s as a result of their efforts to overcome the acid instability of erythromycin.

text: Scientists at Chugai Pharmaceuticals discovered an erythromycin-derived motilin agonist called mitemcinal that is believed to have strong prokinetic properties (similar to erythromycin) but lacking antibiotic properties. Erythromycin is commonly used off-label for gastric motility indications such as gastroparesis. If mitemcinal can be shown to be an effective prokinetic agent, it would represent a significant advance in the gastrointestinal field, as treatment with this drug would not carry the risk of unintentional selection for antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: Cost[edit]

text: It is available as a generic medication and was inexpensive for many years.[5] The wholesale price was between 0.03 and 0.06 USD per pill.[10]

text: In the United States in 2014 the price increased to seven dollars per tablet.[34]

text: The price of Erythromycin rose three times between 2010 and 2015, from 24 cents per tablet in 2010 to $8.96 in 2015.[35] In 2017, a Kaiser Health News study found that the per-unit cost of dozens of generics doubled or even tripled from 2015 to 2016, increasing spending by the Medicaid program. Due to price increases by drug manufacturers, Medicaid paid on average $2,685,330 more for Erythromycin in 2016 compared to 2015 (not including rebates).[36] By 2018, generic drug prices had climbed another 5% on average.[37]

text: Brand names[edit]

text: Brand names include Robimycin, E-Mycin, E.E.S. Granules, E.E.S.-200, E.E.S.-400, E.E.S.-400 Filmtab, Erymax, Ery-Tab, Eryc, Ranbaxy, Erypar, EryPed, Eryped 200, Eryped 400, Erythrocin Stearate Filmtab, Erythrocot, E-Base, Erythroped, Ilosone, MY-E, Pediamycin, Zineryt, Abboticin, Abboticin-ES, Erycin, PCE Dispertab, Stiemycine, Acnasol, and Tiloryth.


document_title: Layamon's Brut

question_text: who wrote brut and what is the poem about

text: Layamon's Brut

text: Layamon's Brut (ca. 1190 - 1215), also known as The Chronicle of Britain, is a Middle English poem compiled and recast by the English priest Layamon. The Brut is 16,095 lines long and narrates the history of Britain: it is the first historiography written in English since the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Named for Britain's mythical founder, Brutus of Troy, the poem is largely based on the Anglo-Norman Roman de Brut by Wace, which is in turn a version of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Latin Historia Regum Britanniae. Layamon's poem, however, is longer than both and includes an enlarged section on the life and exploits of King Arthur. It is written in the alliterative verse style commonly used in Middle English poetry by rhyming chroniclers, the two halves of the alliterative lines being often linked by rhyme as well as by alliteration.

text: Language and style[edit]

text: The versification of the Brut has proven extremely difficult to characterise. Written in a loose alliterative style, sporadically deploying rhyme as well as a caesural pause between the hemistichs of a line, it is perhaps closer to the rhythmical prose of Ælfric of Eynsham than to verse, especially in comparison with later alliterative writings such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Piers Plowman. Layamon's alliterating verse is difficult to analyse, seemingly avoiding the more formalised styles of the later poets.

text: Layamon's Middle English at times includes modern Anglo-Norman language: the scholar Roger Loomis counted 150 words derived from Anglo-Norman in its 16,000 long-lines. It is remarkable for its abundant Anglo-Saxon vocabulary; deliberately archaic Saxon forms that were quaint even by Anglo-Saxon standards. Imitations in the Brut of certain stylistic and prosodic features of Old English alliterative verse show a knowledge and interest in preserving its conventions.[1]

text: Layamon's Brut remains one of the best extant examples of early Middle English.[2] During an era in English history when most prose and poetry were composed in French, Layamon wrote to his illiterate, impoverished religious audience in Worcestershire.[3]

text: In 1216, around the time Layamon wrote, King Henry III of England came to the throne. Henry regarded himself as an Englishman above any other nationality, unlike many of his recent predecessors, and moved his kingdom away from the Old French dialects that had ruled the country's cultural endeavors.[1]

text: Several original passages in the poem — at least in accordance with the present knowledge of extant texts from the Middle Ages — suggest Layamon was interested in carving out the history of the Britons as the people 'who first possessed the land of the English'.[3]

text: Manuscripts, editions, and translations[edit]

text: Two copies of the manuscript are known; one in the MS. Cotton Caligula A ix, dating from the third quarter of the 13th century, and in the Cotton Otho C xiii, copied about fifty years later (though the extant, damaged, text is shorter). Both manuscripts are in the British Library.

text:
Brook, G. L. and R. F. Leslie (ed.), Laȝamon: Brut, Edited from British Museum MS. Cotton Caligula A. ix and British Museum MS. Cotton Otho C. xiii, Early English Text Society, 250, 277, 2 vols (London: Oxford University Press, 1963–78), http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=cme;idno=LayCal. The standard edition.
W. R. J. Barron and S. C. Weinberg (ed. and trans.), Laȝamon's Arthur: The Arthurian Section of Laȝamon's ‘Brut’ (Lines 9229-14297) (Harlow: Longman, 1989). Facing text and translation, based on the Caligula MS.
Allen, Rosamund (trans.), Laȝamon: Brut (London, 1992)
Wace and Layamon, Arthurian chronicles, trans. by Eugene Mason (London: Dent, 1962)
Layamon (1847) [c. 1215], Madden, Frederic, ed., Layamons Brut, or Chronicle of Britain; A Poetical Semi-Saxon Paraphrase of The Brut of Wace, I, translated by Madden, London: The Society of Antiquaries of London
Layamon (1847) [c. 1215], Madden, Frederic, ed., Layamons Brut, or Chronicle of Britain; A Poetical Semi-Saxon Paraphrase of The Brut of Wace, II, translated by Madden, London: The Society of Antiquaries of London
Layamon (1847) [c. 1215], Madden, Frederic, ed., Layamons Brut, or Chronicle of Britain; A Poetical Semi-Saxon Paraphrase of The Brut of Wace, III, translated by Madden, London: The Society of Antiquaries of London


document_title: List of Super Bowl officials

question_text: who will be the referee for super bowl 52

text: List of Super Bowl officials

text: Selection[edit]

text: The NFL's highest-rated official at each position is selected to work the Super Bowl. This is determined by the league using an evaluation system to grade each official's calls during the year. However, only officials who have worked in the league for at least five seasons and have previously worked during the playoffs are eligible to officiate in a Super Bowl. A referee cannot work the Super Bowl at that position until he has been a referee for at least three seasons, while also meeting the five-year minimum service requirement.[1]

text: This has not always been the case. From Super Bowl I to Super Bowl IV, when the game was the "AFL (American Football League)-NFL World Championship Game", the officiating crews consisted of members from both leagues. Then for Super Bowl XXXVIII and Super Bowl XXXIX, the NFL selected the highest rated crew during the regular season. This was a reaction to several officiating mistakes during the 2002-03 playoffs, and the league felt that preserving the familiarity and cohesiveness of the officiating crews during the postseason might reduce the errors.[2]

text: List of officials[edit]

text: Note: A seven-official system was not used until Super Bowl XIII. Beginning with Super Bowl XXXIII, the league swapped position titles with the field judge and back judge.

text: AFL-NFL World Championships[edit]

text:
Game
Date
Referee
Umpire
Head Linesman
Line Judge
Field Judge
Back Judge

I
15 January 1967
Norm Schachter (NFL)
George Young (AFL)
Bernie Ulman (NFL)
Al Sabato (AFL)
Mike Lisetski (NFL)
Jack Reader (AFL)

II
14 January 1968
Jack Vest (AFL)
Ralph Morcroft (NFL)
Tony Veteri (AFL)
Bruce Alford (NFL)
Bob Baur (AFL)
Stan Javie (NFL)

III
12 January 1969
Tom Bell (NFL)
Walt Parker (AFL)
George Murphy (NFL)
Cal Lepore (AFL)
Joe Gonzalez (NFL)
Jack Reader (AFL)

IV
11 January 1970
John McDonough (AFL)
Lou Palazzi (NFL)
Harry Kessel (AFL)
Bill Schleibaum (NFL)
Charlie Musser (AFL)
Tom Kelleher (NFL)

text: NFL Championships[edit]

text:
Game
Date
Referee
Umpire
Head Linesman
Line Judge
Field Judge
Back Judge
Side Judge

V
17 January 1971
Norm Schachter
Paul Trepinski
Ed Marion
Jack Fette
Fritz Graf
Hugh Gamber
Added
in 1978

VI
16 January 1972
Jim Tunney
Joe Connell
Al Sabato
Art Holst
Bob Wortman
Ralph Vandenberg

VII
14 January 1973
Tom Bell
Lou Palazzi
Tony Veteri
Bruce Alford
Tony Skover
Tom Kelleher

VIII
13 January 1974
Ben Dreith
Ralph Morcroft
Leo Miles
Jack Fette
Fritz Graf
Stan Javie

IX
12 January 1975
Bernie Ulman
Al Conway
Ed Marion
Bruce Alford
Dick Dolack
Ray Douglas

X
18 January 1976
Norm Schachter
Joe Connell
Leo Miles
Jack Fette
Bill O'Brien
Stan Javie

XI
9 January 1977
Jim Tunney
Lou Palazzi
Ed Marion
Bill Swanson
Armen Terzian
Tom Kelleher

XII
15 January 1978
Jim Tunney
Joe Connell
Tony Veteri
Art Holst
Bob Wortman
Ray Douglas

XIII
21 January 1979
Pat Haggerty
Art Demmas
Jerry Bergman
Jack Fette
Fred Swearingen
Pat Knight
Dean Look

XIV
20 January 1980
Fred Silva
Al Conway
Burl Toler
Bob Beeks
Charley Musser
Stan Javie
Ben Tompkins

XV
25 January 1981
Ben Dreith
Frank Sinkovitz
Tony Veteri
Tom Dooley
Fritz Graf
Tom Kelleher
Dean Look

XVI
24 January 1982
Pat Haggerty
Al Conway
Jerry Bergman
Bob Beeks
Don Hakes
Bill Swanson
Bob Rice

XVII
30 January 1983
Jerry Markbreit
Art Demmas
Dale Hamer
Bill Reynolds
Don Orr
Dick Hantak
Dave Parry

XVIII
22 January 1984
Gene Barth
Gordon Wells
Jerry Bergman
Bob Beeks
Fritz Graf
Ben Tompkins
Gil Mace

XIX
20 January 1985
Pat Haggerty
Tom Hensley
Leo Miles
Ray Dodez
Bob Lewis
Tom Kelleher
Bill Quinby

XX
26 January 1986
Red Cashion
Ron Botchan
Dale Williams
Bama Glass
Jack Vaughan
Al Jury
Bob Rice

XXI
25 January 1987
Jerry Markbreit
Bob Boylston
Terry Gierke
Bob Beeks
Pat Mallette
Jim Poole
Gil Mace

XXII
31 January 1988
Bob McElwee
Al Conway
Dale Hamer
Jack Fette
Johnny Grier
Al Jury
Don Wedge

XXIII
22 January 1989
Jerry Seeman
Gordon Wells
Jerry Bergman
Bob Beeks
Bobby Skelton
Paul Baetz
Gary Lane

XXIV
28 January 1990
Dick Jorgensen
Hendi Ancich
Earnie Frantz
Ron Blum
Don Orr
Al Jury
Gerald Austin

XXV
27 January 1991
Jerry Seeman
Art Demmas
Sid Semon
Dick McKenzie
Jack Vaughan
Banks Williams
Larry Nemmers

XXVI
26 January 1992
Jerry Markbreit
Bob Boylston
Dale Williams
Ron Blum
Ed Merrifield
Paul Baetz
Dick Creed

XXVII
31 January 1993
Dick Hantak
Ron Botchan
Ron Phares
Dick McKenzie
Donnie Hampton
Jim Poole
Dean Look

XXVIII
30 January 1994
Bob McElwee
Art Demmas
Sid Semon
Tom Barnes
Don Orr
Al Jury
Nate Jones

XXIX
29 January 1995
Jerry Markbreit
Ron Botchan
Ron Phares
Ron Baynes
Jack Vaughan
Tim Millis
Tom Fincken

XXX
28 January 1996
Red Cashion
John Keck
Paul Weidner
Dale Orem
Don Hakes
Dick Creed
Bill Carollo

XXXI
26 January 1997
Gerald Austin
Ron Botchan
Earnie Frantz
Jeff Bergman
Phil Luckett
Scott Steenson
Tom Fincken

XXXII
25 January 1998
Ed Hochuli
Jim Quirk
John Schleyer
Ben Montgomery
Don Dorkowski
Paul Baetz
Doug Toole

XXXIII
31 January 1999
Bernie Kukar
Jim Daopoulos
Sanford Rivers
Ron Baynes
Tim Millis
Don Hakes
Gary Lane

XXXIV
30 January 2000
Bob McElwee
Ron Botchan
Earnie Frantz
Byron Boston
Al Jury
Bill Leavy
Tom Fincken

XXXV
28 January 2001
Gerald Austin
Chad Brown
Tony Veteri, Jr.
Walt Anderson
Bill Lovett
Bill Schmitz
Doug Toole

XXXVI
3 February 2002
Bernie Kukar
Jeff Rice
Mark Hittner
Ron Phares
Pete Morelli
Scott Green
Laird Hayes

XXXVII
26 January 2003
Bill Carollo
Ed Coukart
Dale Williams
Mark Steinkerchner
Tom Sifferman
Don Carey
Rick Patterson

XXXVIII
1 February 2004
Ed Hochuli
Jeff Rice
Mark Hittner
Ben Montgomery
Tom Sifferman
Scott Green
Laird Hayes

XXXIX
6 February 2005
Terry McAulay
Carl Paganelli
Gary Slaughter
Mark Steinkerchner
Tom Sifferman
Tony Steratore
Rick Patterson

XL
5 February 2006
Bill Leavy
Garth DeFelice
Mark Hittner
Mark Perlman
Steve Zimmer
Bob Waggoner
Tom Hill

XLI
4 February 2007
Tony Corrente
Carl Paganelli
George Hayward
Ron Marinucci
Jim Saracino
Perry Paganelli
John Parry

XLII
3 February 2008
Mike Carey[3]
Tony Michalek
Gary Slaughter
Carl Johnson
Boris Cheek
Scott Helverson
Larry Rose

XLIII
1 February 2009
Terry McAulay
Roy Ellison
Derrick Bowers
Mark Perlman
Greg Gautreaux
Keith Ferguson
Michael Banks

XLIV
7 February 2010
Scott Green[4]
Undrey Wash
John McGrath
Jeff Seeman
Rob Vernatchi
Greg Steed
Greg Meyer

XLV
6 February 2011
Walt Anderson[5]
Chad Brown
Kent Payne
John Hussey
Doug Rosenbaum
Scott Helverson
Mike Weatherford

XLVI
5 February 2012
John Parry
Carl Paganelli
Tom Stabile
Gary Arthur
Gary Cavaletto
Tony Steratore
Laird Hayes

XLVII
3 February 2013
Jerome Boger
Darrell Jenkins
Steve Stelljes
Byron Boston
Craig Wrolstad
Dino Paganelli
Joe Larrew

XLVIII
2 February 2014
Terry McAulay
Carl Paganelli
Jim Mello
Tom Symonette
Scott Steenson
Steve Freeman
Dave Wyant

XLIX
1 February 2015
Bill Vinovich
Bill Schuster
Dana McKenzie
Mark Perlman
Bob Waggoner
Terrence Miles
Tom Hill

50
7 February 2016
Clete Blakeman
Jeff Rice
Wayne Mackie
Rusty Baynes
Boris Cheek
Keith Ferguson
Scott Edwards

LI
5 February 2017
Carl Cheffers
Dan Ferrell
Kent Payne
Jeff Seeman
Doug Rosenbaum
Todd Prukop
Dyrol Prioleau

LII
4 February 2018
Gene Steratore
Roy Ellison
Jerry Bergman, Jr.
Byron Boston
Tom Hill
Perry Paganelli
Scott Edwards

text: Number of appearances[edit]

text: Throughout NFL history, five officials have been selected to work five Super Bowls and eight have been assigned to four Super Bowls. Jerry Markbreit is the only official to work four Super Bowls as the referee.

text:
Super Bowl
Appearances
Official
Super Bowl(s)

5

Bob Beeks
XIV, XVI, XVIII, XXI, XXIII

Ron Botchan
XX, XXVII, XXIX, XXXI, XXXIV

Jack Fette
V, VIII, X, XIII, XXII

Al Jury
XX, XXII, XXIV, XXVIII, XXXIV

Tom Kelleher
IV, VII, XI, XV, XIX

4

Al Conway
IX, XIV, XVI, XXII

Art Demmas
XIII, XVII, XXV, XXVII

Fritz Graf
V, VIII, XV, XVIII

Stan Javie
II, VIII, X, XIV

Jerry Markbreit
XVII, XXI, XXVI, XXIX

Tony Veteri
II, VII, XII, XV

Jerry Bergman
XIII, XVI, XVIII, XXIII

Carl Paganelli
XXXIX, XLI, XLVI, XLVIII