document_title: Skam (TV series)

question_text: how many episodes are there in skam season 4

text: Skam (TV series)

text: Hartvig Nissen School[edit]

text: The series focuses on the daily life of teenagers at the Hartvig Nissen School (Hartvig Nissens skole), a prestigious gymnasium (preparatory high school) at Frogner in West End Oslo, with the address Niels Juels gate (Niels Juel Street) 56.[3] The school is informally and widely known simply as "Nissen." Originally named Nissen's Girls' School, it was founded by Hartvig Nissen in 1849 as a private girls' school which was owned by its headmasters and which served the higher bourgeoisie. It is the second oldest gymnasium in Oslo and is widely considered one of the country's most prestigious; its alumni include many famous individuals and two members of the Norwegian royal family. The school was the first higher school in Norway which admitted women.[4]

text: Concept[edit]

text: At the start of a week, a clip, conversation or social media post is posted on the Skam website. New material is posted on a daily basis, with the content unified and combined into one full episode on Fridays.[5] The main character differs from season to season,[6] and the fictional characters have social media profiles where viewers can follow their activities.[5]

text: Characters[edit]

text: The following are characters in Skam.[7]

text:
Character
Portrayed by
Seasons

1
2
3
4

Eva Kviig Mohn

Lisa Teige (no)

Main
Recurring

Noora Amalie Sætre

Josefine Frida Pettersen

Recurring
Main
Recurring

Isak Valtersen

Tarjei Sandvik Moe

Recurring
Main
Recurring

Sana Bakkoush

Iman Meskini

Recurring
Main3

Jonas Noah Vasquez

Marlon Valdés Langeland

Recurring
Recurring3

Vilde Hellerud Lien

Ulrikke Falch (no)

Recurring
Recurring3

Christina "Chris" Berg

Ina Svenningdal (no)

Recurring
Recurring3

Christoffer "Penetrator-Chris" Schistad

Herman Tømmeraas

Recurring
Recurring3

Ingrid Theis Gaupseth

Cecilie Martinsen

Recurring
Guest
Recurring

Sara Nørstelien

Kristina Ødegaard

Recurring
Guest
Recurring

Magnus Fossbakken

David Alexander Sjøholt

Recurring1
Guest1
Recurring

William Magnusson

Thomas Hayes

Recurring

Recurring3

Eskild Tryggvason

Carl Martin Eggesbø

Recurring
Recurring3

Linn Larsen Hansen

Rakel Øfsti Nesje

Recurring
Recurring3

Even Bech Næsheim

Henrik Holm

Recurring
Recurring3

Mahdi Disi

Sacha Kleber Nyiligira

Recurring

Emma W. Larzen

Ruby Dagnall

Recurring
Guest

Mikael Øverlie Boukhal

Yousef Hjelde Elmofty

Guest2
Recurring

Yousef Acar

Cengiz Al

Recurring

Elias Bakkoush

Simo Mohamed Elhbabi

Recurring

Adam Malik

Adam Ezzari

Recurring

Mutasim Tatouti

Mutasim Billah

Recurring

text: 1In season one, David Alexander Sjøholt was credited as playing a character called David, though his name was never spoken in the show. This could be the character Magnus or Sjøholt was playing a different student. Sjøholt also makes an uncredited appearance in the last episode of season two.

text: 2In season three, Mikael appears uncredited in a video Isak finds on the Internet of Even.

text: 3In the final episode of season four, the main character changes between each clip. Vilde, Penetrator-Chris, Jonas, Chris, Even and William each have a clip where they are the main character. Eskild and Linn have one clip together.

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Lisa Teige as Eva Kviig Mohn (born June 2, 1999) is the main character in the first season. When we first meet Eva, she recently started dating Jonas, who just ended a relationship with Eva's best friend Ingrid. Her relationship with Jonas is complicated and she finds it hard to trust him, eventually leading her to cheat on him and ultimately leading to their breakup at the end of season one. Eva lives at home with a busy mom and starts at the Hartvig Nissen school ("Nissen") in 2015 together with her friends and former classmates Jonas, Ingrid, Sara and Isak. Losing her former best friends Ingrid and Sara due to her relationship to Jonas, she starts up new friendships with Noora, Chris, Vilde and Sana at Nissen. After season one, Eva is mostly portrayed as an outgoing and promiscuous party-girl.
Josefine Frida Pettersen as Noora Amalie Sætre (born April 6, 1999) is the main character in the second season. Noora is portrayed as a confident, smart and helpful character in seasons one and two. In the second season, it is however revealed that she has some insecurities after all. She lives with two roommates and does not have contact with her parents. Unlike her friends Eva, Chris and Vilde, Noora is not into drinking or hooking with guys. When the school's playboy William continues to flirt with her despite several rejections, she eventually gets interested in him, but due to her prejudices against him, she finds it hard to accept. They end up in a relationship at the end of season two. In seasons three and four, Noora is portrayed a little bit more naive and restless, as she faces complications in her relationship with William.
Tarjei Sandvik Moe as Isak Valtersen (born June 21, 1999) is the main character in the third season. Isak is a close friend of both Eva and Jonas in season one. At the end of the season, Noora and Eva find homosexual pornography on Isak's phone, raising suspicions about his sexual orientation. Season three follows Isak's struggles to accept his sexuality and overcome his internalized homophobia. At the beginning of the season, he meets Even Bech Næsheim, and the two quickly fall in love after their first meeting and begin secretly seeing each other. However, Isak unknowingly pushes Even (who has bipolar disorder) away by revealing his aversion to those with mental illness, due to his negative experiences with his mentally ill mother. After struggling with his feelings and being rejected by Even, Isak decides to come out to his best friend Jonas, and eventually to other people that he is close to. He gets back together with Even with the aid of his friends, but after Even has a manic episode, Isak distances himself from him due to his prejudices formed by his experiences with his mother. However, he comes to better understand Even's situation after a discussion with his friends, and reunites with him after he realizes that he loves Even, accepting the obstacles created by his disorder. In season four, Isak is portrayed as much happier, as he lives comfortably (and publicly) in a relationship with Even.
Iman Meskini as Sana Bakkoush (born December 24, 1999) is the main character in the fourth season. Sana's biggest struggle throughout the series is to live the traditional Muslim lifestyle and the traditional Norwegian gymnasium-lifetyle at the same time. Sana is portrayed as decisive and eloquent, but faces constant prejudices from her classmates, her parents and people she meets on the street, which sometimes leads Sana to take irrational decisions. This peaks when Sana does anonymous cyberbullying of her classmate Sara, who wants to exclude Sana from their russefeiring-squad. Unlike Eva, Noora and Isak, she has a close relationship with her family. In season 4, she falls in love with Yousef, who she initially thinks is a Muslim, but turns out not to be. After initial attempts to distance herself from him, they appear to grow closer later in the season.

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Marlon Valdés Langeland as Jonas Noah Vasquez (born December 20, 1999), Eva's boyfriend in the first season. He is also Isak's best friend and a classmate of all the main characters.
Ulrikke Falch as Vilde Hellerud Lien (born July 13, 1999), the naive fourth member of the main girl squad. She is the enthusiastic initiator of russefeiring, revy and other social events for the squad.
Ina Svenningdal as Christina "Chris" Berg (born January 6, 1999), the amusing fifth member of the girl squad. She usually avoids most conflicts and emotionally deep conversations.
Cecilie Martinsen as Ingrid Theis Gaupseth (born February 23, 1999), Jonas' girlfriend and Eva's best friend prior to season one. Ingrid is a member of the russefeiring-squad "Pepsi Max", which often rivals the main characters squad.
Kristina Ødegaard as Sara Nørstelien (born July 12, 1999), Ingrid's best friend and leader of the "Pepsi Max" squad. Sara dates Isak in the second season.
Herman Tømmeraas as Christoffer "Penetrator-Chris" Schistad (born March 21, 1997), the on-and-off love interest of Eva through all four seasons. He is two years older than the main cast, but also studies at Nissen in the first two seasons.
Thomas Hayes as William Magnusson (born January 10, 1997), the flirt and eventually boyfriend of Noora in the second season. He is also classmate and best friend of Penetrator-Chris.
David Alexander Sjøholt as Magnus Fossbakken (born October 30, 1999), Isak's awkward friend and classmate. In the fourth season he is in a relationship with Vilde.
Carl Martin Eggesbø as Eskild Tryggvason (born August 19, 1995), the stereotypically homosexual roommate of Noora in season two and four, and of Isak's in season three.
Rakel Øfsti Nesje as Linn Larsen Hansen (born January 1, 1996), the introverted roommate of Eskild and Noora/Isak.
Henrik Holm as Even Bech Næsheim (born February 12, 1997), the love affair and eventual boyfriend of Isak. Even is diagnosed with bipolar disorder at some point prior to season 3.
Simo Mohamed Elhbabi as Elias Bakkoush (born March 5, 1997), Sana's brother and Even's former classmate.
Cengiz Al as Yousef Acar (born September 21, 1997), the atheist love interest of Sana. Yousef is also Elias' best friend and former classmate.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text:
Series
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
11
25 September 2015 (2015-09-25)
11 December 2015 (2015-12-11)

2
12
4 March 2016 (2016-03-04)
3 June 2016 (2016-06-03)

3
10
7 October 2016 (2016-10-07)
16 December 2016 (2016-12-16)

4
10
14 April 2017 (2017-04-14)
24 June 2017 (2017-06-24)

text: Season 1[edit]

text: The first clip from season 1 was made available on Tuesday, 22 September 2015,[8] with the combined clips during the week premiering as a full episode on Friday, 25 September 2015.[9] The season consists of 11 episodes; the main character is Eva Mohn.[9] The storyline deals with Eva's difficult relationship with her boyfriend Jonas and the themes of loneliness, identity, belonging and friendship.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Duration
Original air date

1
1
"Du ser ut som en slut (You look like a slut)"
20 min
25 September 2015 (2015-09-25)

2
2
"Jonas, dette er helt dust (Jonas, this is totally dumb)"
17 min
2 October 2015 (2015-10-02)

3
3
"Vi er de største loserne på skolen (We're the biggest losers at school)"
17 min
9 October 2015 (2015-10-09)

4
4
"Go for it din lille slut (Go for it, you little slut)"
15 min
16 October 2015 (2015-10-16)

5
5
"Hva er det som gjør deg kåt? (What turns you on?)"
19 min
23 October 2015 (2015-10-23)

6
6
"Man vet når gutter lyver (You know when a boy is lying)"
23 min
30 October 2015 (2015-10-30)

7
7
"Tenker alltid det er meg det er noe gale med (I always think it's me there's something wrong with)"
20 min
13 November 2015 (2015-11-13)

8
8
"Hele skolen hater meg (The whole school hates me)"
24 min
20 November 2015 (2015-11-20)

9
9
"Man er det man gjør (You are what you do)"
21 min
27 November 2015 (2015-11-27)

10
10
"Jeg tenker du har blitt helt psyko (I think that you've become totally psycho)"
21 min
4 December 2015 (2015-12-04)

11
11
"Et jævlig dumt valg (A really stupid choice)"
35 min
11 December 2015 (2015-12-11)

text: Season 2[edit]

text: The first clip from season 2 was made available on Monday, 29 February 2016,[10] with the combined clips during the week premiering as a full episode on Friday, 4 March 2016.[9] The season consists of 12 episodes; the main character is Noora Amalie Sætre.[9] The season is about her relationship with William and deals with issues of friendship, feminism, eating disorder, self-image, violence, sexual violence and the contemporaneous refugee crisis in relation to Norwegian democracy.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Duration
Original air date

12
1
"Om du bare hadde holdt det du lovet (If only you'd kept your promises)"
26 min
4 March 2016 (2016-03-04)

13
2
"Du lyver til en venninne og skylder på meg (You lie to a friend and blame me)"
26 min
11 March 2016 (2016-03-11)

14
3
"Er det noe du skjuler for oss? (Are you hiding something from us?)"
36 min
18 March 2016 (2016-03-18)

15
4
"Jeg visste det var noe rart med henne (I knew there was something strange about her) (Easter Special)"
29 min
25 March 2016 (2016-03-25)

16
5
"Jeg er i hvert fall ikke sjalu (I'm certainly not jealous)"
32 min
1 April 2016 (2016-04-01)

17
6
"Jeg vil ikke bli beskytta (I don't want to be protected)"
24 min
22 April 2016 (2016-04-22)

18
7
"Noora, du trenger pikk (Noora, you need cock)"
24 min
29 April 2016 (2016-04-29)

19
8
"Du tenker bare på William (You're only thinking of William)"
41 min
6 May 2016 (2016-05-06)

20
9
"Jeg savner deg så jævlig (I miss you so damn much)"
22 min
13 May 2016 (2016-05-13)

21
10
"Jeg skal forklare alt (I'll explain everything)"
49 min
20 May 2016 (2016-05-20)

22
11
"Husker du seriøst ingenting? (Do you seriously remember nothing?)"
30 min
27 May 2016 (2016-05-27)

23
12
"Vil du flytte sammen med meg? (Will you move in with me?)"
50 min
3 June 2016 (2016-06-03)

text: Season 3[edit]

text: The first clip from season 3 was made available on Sunday, 2 October 2016,[11][12] with the combined clips during the week premiering as a full episode on Friday, 7 October 2016.[9] The season consists of 10 episodes; the main character is Isak Valtersen.[9] The season deals with Isak's burgeoning relationship with Even Bech Næsheim and is principally a coming out story that deals with issues of love, sexual identity, authenticity, mental illness, religion and friendship.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Duration
Original air date

24
1
"Lykke til, Isak (Good luck, Isak)"
27 min
7 October 2016 (2016-10-07)

25
2
"Du er over 18, sant? (You're over 18, right?)"
26 min
14 October 2016 (2016-10-14)

26
3
"Nå bånder dere i overkant mye" / "Hun er på (You're bonding too much/She is on)"
22 min
21 October 2016 (2016-10-21)

27
4
"Keen på å bade" / "Da vorser vi sammen? (Feel like swimming/Then we pre-party together?)"
20 min
28 October 2016 (2016-10-28)

28
5
"Samme tid et helt annet sted" / "Kan jeg bli her med deg for altid? (At the same time in a completely different place/Can I stay here with you forever?)"
30 min
4 November 2016 (2016-11-04)

29
6
"Escobar season" / "Kan du ikke bare si det? (Escobar season/Can't you just say it?)"
19 min
18 November 2016 (2016-11-18)

30
7
"Er du homo? (Are you gay?)"
23 min
25 November 2016 (2016-11-25)

31
8
"Mannen i mitt liv" / "Drit i å ringe Isak (The man of my dreams/Stop fucking calling Isak)"
30 min
2 December 2016 (2016-12-02)

32
9
"Det går over" / "Velkommen til mobilsvar (It will pass/Welcome to voicemail)"
18 min
9 December 2016 (2016-12-09)

33
10
"Minutt for minutt" / "Jeg så deg første skoledag (Minute by minute/I saw you the first day of school)"
33 min
16 December 2016 (2016-12-16)

text: NRK TV and NRK P3 used different titles for 7 of the season 3 episodes.

text: Season 4[edit]

text: The first clip from season 4 was made available on Monday, 10 April 2017,[13] with the combined clips during the week premiering as a full episode on Friday, 14 April 2017.[9] The season will consist of 10 episodes,[14] and the main character is Sana Bakkoush.[9] The season deals with the Islamic religion, forbidden love, cyberbullying, friendship, and the Norwegian russ celebratory period.

text: The series finale episode switches character clip-to-clip, focusing on short stories by characters not given their own, full season. The episode deals with parental depression, love rejection, jealousy, friendship, mutual relationship support, and fear of abandonment.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Duration
Original air date

34
1
"Du hater å henge med oss (You hate hanging out with us)"
25 min
14 April 2017 (2017-04-14)

35
2
"Jeg er gutt, jeg får ikke hat (I'm a boy, I don't get hate)"
18 min
21 April 2017 (2017-04-21)

36
3
"Hva mener du om drikking? (What do you think about drinking?)"
28 min
28 April 2017 (2017-04-28)

37
4
"Allah hadde digget deg (Allah would dig you)"
30 min
5 May 2017 (2017-05-05)

38
5
"Hvis du er trist er jeg trist (If you're sad then I'm sad)"
27 min
12 May 2017 (2017-05-12)

39
6
"Har du en dårlig dag? (Are you having a bad day?)"
30 min
26 May 2017 (2017-05-26)

40
7
"Vi må stå sammen (We must stand together)"
36 min
2 June 2017 (2017-06-02)

41
8
"De største loserne på skolen (The biggest losers at school)"
35 min
9 June 2017 (2017-06-09)

42
9
"Livet smiler (Life smiles)"
48 min
16 June 2017 (2017-06-16)

43
10
"Takk for alt (Thanks for everything)"
59 min
24 June 2017 (2017-06-24)

text: Production[edit]

text: Julie Andem created Skam. In an interview with Rushprint in April 2016, Andem discussed production of the series. Originally developed for 16-year-old girls, Andem made use of the "NABC" production model ("Needs/Approach/Benefit/Competition"), and instead of collecting information from a vast amount of sources, she had extensive, hours-long interviews with a single representative to uncover what needs that specific target audience had in order to cover that story. In contrast to American shows, which were the primary competition for shows attracting attention from teenagers, Andem stated that she had one advantage; knowing who the audience were and what culture they grew up in. One major area of exploration Andem found through research was pressure; she stated that "the pressure to perform is very high for this target audience. They strive to perform in so many ways. That's fine, and it doesn't necessarily have to be dangerous or unhealthy. But what is unhealthy is that many feel like they can't live up to the demands, and therefore feel that they failed. They are comparing themselves to each other, not themselves. And then a thought occurred: How to get them to let go of the pressure through a series like Skam".[15] Andem wanted the show to be a combination of social realism, soap opera, and sitcom, transitioning between the genres as the scenes switch, for example from the comical scenes of a doctor's office to the make-out scenes on the stairs. She admitted it didn't always work, saying that one particular scene change in episode 5 of season 1 from the stairs to the doctor's office was "a dramatic jump", and elaborated that "in a later scene, I told the photographer that we maybe should try to go a little closer. But we didn't get the humor, so: fuckit, we'll shoot sitcom-ish and blend the genres."[15]

text: Andem created nine characters, without any backstory. Everyone was supposed to be able to lead a season, and the show was going to switch character season-to-season. 1,200 people auditioned for the roles in the first round of casting. As production started, Andem wrote scripts for the shows, and there was no improvisation. "A lot of people think much of the show is improvised. It's not. A lot is written for the actors. And before and after a scene, I'll wait for a while before I say thank you and let them play a little in the scene. If a scene doesn't work, we'll fix it and see what in the script doesn't work."[15] Production had a short deadline, with scripts written in three days, one-and-a-half days to shoot, and four-to-five days to edit. "The plan must be there, and we just have to finish through".[15] The series' use of real-time was planned from early on, and Andem wrote the series in episodic format, although the content also had to work for daily releases, including a cliffhanger ending in each scene. Andem read the comments for each day, and looked for feedback from the audience on how to end each season while still keeping her original plans in some way.[15]

text: As the series premiered, there was little or no promotion for the show, due to the production's and NRK's wish for teenagers to find it on their own, spread the news through social media, and avoid the older generation even noticing the series.[15] There were no launch interviews, no reviews,[15] and the actors were shielded from the media, with NRK P3 editorial chief Håkon Moslet saying that "We want most of the focus to be on the show. These actors are very young, I think it's good they're being shielded a little. They do also notice the popularity of the series".[16]

text: The Norwegian newspaper Dagbladet reported in December 2016 that the production of seasons 2 and 3 of Skam had cost a combined sum of NOK10 million. NRK P3 editorial chief Håkon Moslet stated: "For being a drama of high quality, Skam is a very cost-efficient production."[17]

text: In December 2016, the series was renewed for a fourth season.[18][19] In early April 2017, it was announced that the first clip from the fourth season would premiere on 10 April, and that it would be the last season of the series.[20][21][1] NRK P3 editorial chief Håkon Moslet stated that the making of Skam had been "an extreme sport",[1] and in an Instagram post, creator, writer and director Julie Andem wrote that "Skam has been a 24/7 job. It has also been amazingly fun to work on, and I really believe that has given the series a unique energy, and ensured that Skam continues to surprise and entertain. We recently decided that we won't be making a new season this fall. I know many of you out there will be upset and disappointed to hear this, but I'm confident this is the right decision."[2]

text: On 23 June 2017, one day before the series finale, the entire cast officially met the press before the series' wrap party, answering questions from fans around the world and describing their experiences and memories from production. It was notably the first time all the actors were allowed to break their silence and speak to the public.[22][23]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: In late 2016, Simon Fuller's XIX Entertainment production company signed a letter of intent with NRK to produce an American version of the series called Shame for the U.S. and Canada.[24][25][26][27] Production will reportedly begin in the third quarter of 2017, and the show is said to retain the original characters and scripts from Skam.[28][29]

text: In April 2017, the Danish theatre Aveny-T was reported to have acquired exclusive rights to produce a stage version of Skam. Four different performances will be made, one for each season, with the first show having taking place in Copenhagen on 15 September 2017,[30][31] and the remaining three performances produced once a year through the year 2020.[32]

text: In September 2017, French entertainment website AlloCiné reported on the imminent production of a French remake of the series.[33]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: In Norway, the series is available on the radio channel NRK P3's website,[9] and on the web television solution NRK TV.[34] The weekly episodes are also aired on Fridays on TV channel NRK3.[34] The series has been licensed to air as a Nordvision co-production by public service broadcasters in other Nordic countries, specifically:[35][36]

text:
In Denmark, the series is shown by DR on the DR TV streaming service and aired on TV channel DR3 since December 2016.[37][35]
In Finland, the series is shown by Yle on the Yle Areena streaming service since December 2016.[38]
In Iceland, the series is shown by RÚV on both its streaming service and television channel.[35]
In Sweden, the series is shown by SVT on the SVT Play streaming service since December 2016.[39]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Norway and Nordic countries[edit]

text: In Norway, on average, about 192,000 viewers watched the first season, with the first episode being one of the most viewed of all time on NRK TV online.[40] In the first week of June 2016, streaming of Skam was responsible for over half of the traffic on NRK TV.[41] Following the release of the third season finale, NRK stated that the second season had an average audience of 531,000, while the third season broke all streaming records on its NRK TV service with an average audience of 789,000 people.[42][43] The trailer for the fourth season, released on 7 April 2017, was watched by 900,000 people within four days.[44] During the start of the fourth season, 1.2 million unique users had visited Skam's website, and the first episode had been watched by 317,000 people. NRK P3 editorial chief Håkon Moslet told Verdens Gang that "We see that there is high traffic and high interest for season 4. Since the end of the season we have seen a pattern around viewer interest. We lie high in the first week and towards the end of the season when the drama kicks in."[45] In May 2017, NRK published a report on 2016 viewing statistics, writing that the third season broke both the streaming record for a series on NRK TV and for streaming of any series in Norway.[46]

text: An October 2016 Aftenposten report detailed that Skam had become popular in Sweden, with "well over 5000" viewers with Swedish IP addresses watching the episodes, not counting the individual clips.[47] A later report from Verdens Gang in January 2017 stated that Skam had "broken all records" in Sweden, with over 25 million plays on SVT Play.[48] Following the series' licensing deal for broadcasting in Denmark,[49] the series broke records in January 2017, with the show's first episode scoring 560,000 viewers on DR TV.[50] In Finland, the first episode had more than 130,000 views by the end of February 2017, two and half months after its release, described by Yle audience researcher Anne Hyvärilä as "quite exceptional".[51]

text: Skam has received critical acclaim. The newspaper NATT&DAG selected it as the best TV series of 2015.[52] In its second season, Kripos, Norway's National Criminal Investigation Service, praised the series' handling of sexual abuse, including the girls' encouraging the victim, Noora, to go to the emergency room to explain the situation and gather evidence of the abuse, and Noora confronting her abuser with relevant laws he has broken to prevent the sharing of photographs showing her naked.[53][54] The National Center for Prevention of Sexual Assault also praised the portrayal, adding that they wish for the series to become a syllabus in schools.[55] In the third season, Martine Lunder Brenne of Verdens Gang praised the theme of homosexuality and wrote that "I praise it first and foremost because young homosexual people, both in and outside the closet, finally get some long-awaited and modern role models. It doesn't matter if it's a character in a fictional drama - right now, Skam is Norway's coolest show".[56] In the fourth season, Christopher Pahle of Dagbladet praised a conversation about religion, writing: "two young people, with Muslim backgrounds, have a reflected, respectful and enlightening conversation about religion without arguing or taking it to the trenches. Think about that. They pick flowers and dribble a ball, and even if they don't necessarily convince each other, that's not the purpose either. The point is that they understand each other".[57]

text: Skam has been recognised for its contributions to promote Norwegian language and culture, and to foster affinity between Nordic countries. In December 2016, the Nordic Association awarded Skam the annual Nordic Language Prize for its ability to engage a young Nordic audience, connecting with young people across the Nordic region and fostering positive attitudes about the region’s neighbouring languages.[58] In April 2017, Skam and its creator Julie Andem were awarded the Peer Gynt Prize, an award given to a person or institution that has had a positive impact on society and made Norway famous abroad.[59][60]

text: In June 2017, just prior to the show's ending, Aftenposten published a report featuring interviews with many well-known Norwegian television creators, writers and directors, all praising Skam showrunner Julie Andem for her creative work on the show. Praise was directed at the series' "unpolished" nature, her ability to maintain "such a high level of quality over a long period of time", the series' blend of different sexualities and ethnicities and use of dialogue to resolve issues, and the show's compassion, thereby its ability to truly capture its generational audience.[61]

text: The show's series finale received positive reviews. Vilde Sagstad Imeland of Verdens Gang praised the final clip for being a "worthy and emotional ending".[62] Cecilie Asker of Aftenposten wrote that "The very last episode of Skam leaves us with a big sorrow, a sore loss, and a craving for more. It couldn't have been better."[63]

text: On 1 July 2017, during the celebration of Oslo Pride, Skam, its creator Julie Andem, and actors Tarjei Sandvik Moe, Henrik Holm and Carl Martin Eggesbø were awarded the "Fryd" award, an award given to persons or organizations that break the norms in gender and sexuality in a positive manner.[64][65]

text: International success[edit]

text: Starting with season 3, the show was able to reach a foreign audience, and NRK was therefore heavily asked to add English subtitles to the Skam episodes online. The demands were declined and NRK explained the decision by explaining that the licenses for the music presented throughout the series was restricted to a Norwegian audience, and that easy availability outside Norway would violate the terms of their license agreements. They also took action against attempts to unofficially spread substantial amount of video content with English subtitles on the internet.[66]

text: When denied official subtitling, fans started making their own translations of the episodes into several world languages, greatly expanding the online fanbase.[67] Norwegian viewers have been fast to share translated clips quickly after availability through Google Drive, blogs, and language courses.[67][68]

text: By the end of 2016, Skam had been trending globally several times on Twitter and Tumblr, and its Facebook, Instagram and Vine presence grew rapidly.[68] On social media, fandoms developed creative paintings, screensavers, phone covers, and fan videos.[68][69][70] Filming locations, including Sagene Church,[71] and the Hartvig Nissen school, were visited by fans, and the actors were receiving worldwide attention.[67] After being featured in an episode in the third season, Gabrielle's song "5 fine frøkner" saw a 3,018 percent increase in listening on Spotify, with over 13 million streams and, at one point, rising to 8th place on the Swedish top music rankings.[72] Continuing into its fourth season in April 2017, Skam continued to be an active topic worldwide on social media, with over 20,000 tweets containing #skamseason4 in 24 hours, with over 1/4 of the tweets originating from the United States.[73]

text: In January 2017, Skam was geoblocked for foreign viewers. NRK attorney Kari Anne Lang-Ree stated that "NRK has a right to publish content to the Norwegian audience and foreign countries. The music industry is reacting to the fact that many international viewers are listening to music despite NRK not having international licensing deals. NRK takes the concerns from the music industry seriously. We are in dialogue with [the music industry] to find a solution".[74] NRK stated that "We want to thank our international fans and followers who have embraced SKAM. We are blown away by your dedication – it is something we never expected. That is why it hurts to tell you guys that due to a necessary clarification with the music right holders, SKAM will until further notice not be available outside Norway. We are working hard to figure out how to solve this issue so that the fans can continue to enjoy SKAM from where they are".[74] After the release of the trailer for the fourth season in April 2017, the geoblock was removed for Nordic countries, with NRK P3 editorial chief Håkon Moslet telling Verdens Gang that "We've been working hard so that viewers can watch this from foreign countries, and we worked deliberately this winter to make it accessible outside Norway. The trailer was just released, so we hope that has worked well."[20]

text: The series has received significant attention from international media publications for its unique distribution model of real-time snippet-based information.[75][76][77][70]

text: Two editorial posts, one by Anna Leszkiewicz of New Statesman and the other by Dylan Kickham from Elite Daily, were posted in March 2017 that discussed several aspects of the series. Leszkiewicz wrote that "You may not be aware of it, but it’s the best show on TV", and highlighted the second season's handling of sexual abuse. She wrote that "It’s a far cry from the shocking, gratuitous rape scenes in shows like Game of Thrones and Poldark. Nico’s hand on Noora’s leg is all we need to see to sense how predatory he is. There are no egregious scenes of violence, but we still feel deeply uncomfortable, especially when the next episode begins with Noora waking up the next day: confused, and naked, with Nico at her side." However, Leszkiewicz criticized the show for taking the "escape route", in which "Noora finally finds the courage to speak to another girl who was at the party. She insists that Nico and Noora never slept together, only slept soundly in the same bed as her", and commented that "So many women go through what Noora went through in Skam. Most of them don’t get offered the same escape route. Instead, they have to live with the shame and confusion of an “ambiguous” assault."[78] Dylan Kickham wrote that "I don’t think I’ve ever excitedly devoured a show more quickly than Skam, a Norwegian teen drama that you’re either already obsessed with, or haven’t yet seen." He further wrote that "the audience for Skam is much larger than I ever would have predicted, taking up huge pockets of Twitter and Facebook, and most especially Tumblr". Kickham explained that "The reason its latest season blew up so much? It deals with a main character’s coming out story in an incredibly intimate and profound way", further writing that "While seasons one and two do an amazing job telling stories about issues in relationships and friendships, season three stands above the rest by shining a light on aspects of sexuality that are very rarely depicted in mainstream media. [...] [Isak] comes out to his gay roommate Eskild, and rationalizes his recent man-on-man hookup by basically saying he’s still straight-acting, unlike the flamboyant Eskild. I won’t spoil Eskild’s response, but it is a magnificent and timely take on the toxic “masc-for-masc” discrimination within the gay community. It’s these small, incisive moments that show just how much Skam understands and cares about the issues it portrays."[79]

text: In March 2017, voters of E! Online's poll regarding "Top Couple 2017" declared characters Isak and Even, main stars of the show's third season, the winners.[80]

text: Anna Leszkiewicz of New Statesman wrote in April 2017 about the show and its impact, explaining that "In its three short seasons, Skam has explored date rape, coming out, mental health issues from anorexia to bipolar disorder, stereotypical perceptions of Islam, and teen pregnancy without ever feeling issue-based: instead, it approaches all these things through universal emotions like loneliness, or feeling misunderstood".[67]

text: Verdens Gang wrote in April that Skam had become popular in China, where publicly discussing homosexuality is illegal. It reported that almost four million Chinese people had watched the third season through piracy and a total of six million had watched all episodes so far translated to Chinese. The report also stated that NRK has no plans to stop piracy in China, and NRK P3 editorial chief Håkon Moslet told Verdens Gang that "It was Isak and Even that captured a young Chinese audience. There's a lot of censorship in China, and they are role models and have a relationship that Chinese people have a need to see."[81]

text: In June 2017, Anna Leszkiewicz wrote another report on the series, particularly the decision to end it. Noting that the series originally had nine characters designed to each lead a season, she quoted fans who said that "It seems like such an abrupt decision. It doesn’t serve the storyline at all." Acknowledging the pressure of the show's global popularity as potentially a key element to end it, she wrote that some fans "feel that Sana’s season has been overshadowed by other characters and plotlines, something that is particularly frustrating for those who were keen to see greater Muslim representation in the show"; two prominent examples being the emphasis on characters Noora and William, and a conversation about religion in which Sana's "white, non-Muslim friend, Isak, discuss Islamophobia, was whitesplainy". Giving further attention to negative feedback, the report cites commentary such as "Sana has been disrespected and disregarded and erased and sidelined and that is fucking gross. She deserved better".[82]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Organization
Category
Nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

2016
Gullruten
Best TV drama
N/A
Won

[83]

Best new show
Won

Innovation of the year
Won

Best film editing TV drama
Ida Vennerød Kolstø
Won

Newcomer of the year
Julie Andem
Mari Magnus
Won

People's Choice Award
Noora (Josefine Pettersen)
Nominated

C21Media International Drama Awards
Best digital original
N/A
Won

[84][85]

Foreningen Norden
Nordic language prize
Won

[58][86]

2017
Gullruten
Best TV drama
Nominated

[87][88]

Best Actor
Tarjei Sandvik Moe
Nominated

Best Writing for a Drama
Julie Andem
Won

Best Directing for a Drama
Won

TV Moment of the Year
"O helga natt"
Won

People's Choice Award
Henrik Holm
Tarjei Sandvik Moe
Won

Peer Gynt AS
Peer Gynt Prize
N/A
Won

[59]

Nordiske Seriedagers Awards
Best Nordic TV-drama
Skam season 4
Won


document_title: Iceberg

question_text: what is the largest iceberg in the arctic ocean

root

text: Iceberg

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word "iceberg" is a partial loan translation from the Dutch word ijsberg, literally meaning ice mountain,[3] cognate to Danish isbjerg, German Eisberg, Low Saxon Iesbarg and Swedish isberg.

tag: p

text: Overview[edit]

text: Because the density of pure ice is about 920 kg/m3, and that of seawater about 1025 kg/m3, typically one-tenth of the volume of an iceberg is above water (due to Archimedes's Principle). The shape of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface. This has led to the expression "tip of the iceberg", for a problem or difficulty that is only a small manifestation of a larger problem.

text: Icebergs generally range from 1 to 75 metres (3.3 to 246.1 ft) above sea level and weigh 100,000 to 200,000 metric tons (110,000 to 220,000 short tons). The largest known iceberg in the North Atlantic was 168 metres (551 ft) above sea level, reported by the USCG icebreaker East Wind in 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have an interior temperature of −15 to −20 °C (5 to −4 °F).[4]

text: Icebergs are usually confined by winds and currents to move close to the coast. The largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica. Iceberg B-15, photographed by satellite in 2000, measured 295 by 37 kilometres (183 by 23 mi), with a surface area of 11,000 square kilometres (4,200 sq mi). The largest iceberg on record was an Antarctic tabular iceberg of over 31,000 square kilometres (12,000 sq mi) [335 by 97 kilometres (208 by 60 mi)] sighted 150 miles (240 km) west of Scott Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, by the USS Glacier on November 12, 1956. This iceberg was larger than Belgium.[5]

text: When a piece of iceberg ice melts, a fizzing sound called the "Bergie Seltzer" is produced. This sound is made when the water-ice interface reaches compressed air bubbles trapped in the ice. As this happens, each bubble bursts, making a 'popping' sound. The bubbles contain air trapped in snow layers very early in the history of the ice, that eventually got buried to a given depth (up to several kilometers) and pressurized as it transformed into firn then to glacial ice.[4]

text: Recent large icebergs[edit]

text:
Iceberg B-15 11,000 km2 (4,200 sq mi), 2000
Iceberg A-38, about 6,900 km2 (2,700 sq mi), 1998[6]
Iceberg A-68, (Larsen C) 5,800 km2 (2,200 sq mi), 2017[7]
Iceberg C-19, 5,500 km2 (2,100 sq mi), 2002
Iceberg B-9, 5,390 km2 (2,080 sq mi), 1987
Iceberg B-15A, 3,100 km2 (1,200 sq mi), broke off 2003
Iceberg B-31, 615 km2 (237 sq mi), 2014[8]
Iceberg D-16, 310 km2 (120 sq mi), 2006
Ice sheet, 260 km2 (100 sq mi), broken off of Petermann Glacier in northern Greenland on Aug 5, 2010, considered to be the largest Arctic iceberg since 1962.[9] About a month later, this iceberg split into two pieces upon crashing into Joe Island in the Nares Strait next to Greenland.[10] In June 2011, large fragments of the Petermann Ice Islands were observed off the Labrador coast.[11]
Iceberg B-17B 140 km2 (54 sq mi), 1999, shipping alert issued December 2009.[12]

tag: ul

text: Shape[edit]

text: In addition to size classification, icebergs can be classified on the basis of their shape. The two basic types of iceberg forms are tabular and non-tabular. Tabular icebergs have steep sides and a flat top, much like a plateau, with a length-to-height ratio of more than 5:1.[13] This type of iceberg, also known as an ice island,[14] can be quite large, as in the case of Pobeda Ice Island. Antarctic icebergs formed by breaking off from an ice shelf, such as the Ross Ice Shelf or Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, are typically tabular. The largest icebergs in the world are formed this way.

text: Non-tabular icebergs have different shapes and include:[15]

text:
Dome: An iceberg with a rounded top.
Pinnacle: An iceberg with one or more spires.
Wedge: An iceberg with a steep edge on one side and a slope on the opposite side.
Dry-Dock: An iceberg that has eroded to form a slot or channel.
Blocky: An iceberg with steep, vertical sides and a flat top. It differs from tabular icebergs in that its shape is more like a block than a flat sheet.

text: Monitoring[edit]

text: Icebergs are monitored worldwide by the U.S. National Ice Center (NIC), established in 1995, which produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic, Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay ice conditions. More than 95% of the data used in its sea ice analyses are derived from the remote sensors on polar-orbiting satellites that survey these remote regions of the Earth.

text: The NIC is the only organization that names and tracks all Antarctic Icebergs. It assigns each iceberg larger than 10 nautical miles (19 km) along at least one axis a name composed of a letter indicating its point of origin and a running number. The letters used are as follows:[16]

text: Iceberg B15 calved from the Ross Ice Shelf in 2000 and initially had an area of 11,000 square kilometres (4,200 sq mi). It broke apart in November 2002. The largest remaining piece of it, Iceberg B-15A, with an area of 3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi), was still the largest iceberg on Earth until it ran aground and split into several pieces October 27, 2005, an event that was observed by seismographs both on the iceberg and across Antarctica.[17] It has been hypothesized that this breakup may also have been abetted by ocean swell generated by an Alaskan storm 6 days earlier and 13,500 kilometres (8,400 mi) away.[18][19]

text: History[edit]

text: In the 20th century, several scientific bodies were established to study and monitor the icebergs. The International Ice Patrol, formed in 1914 in response to the April 1912 sinking of the Titanic, which killed 1,517 of its 2,223 passengers and crew, monitors iceberg dangers near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and provides the "limits of all known ice" in that vicinity to the maritime community.

text: Technology history[edit]

text: Before the early 1910s, there was no system in place to track icebergs to guard ships against collisions, most likely because they weren't considered a serious threat as[citation needed] ships had managed to survive even direct crashes. In 1907, SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg and suffered a crushed bow, but was still able to complete her voyage. The April 1912 sinking of the Titanic however changed all that, and created the demand for a system to observe icebergs. For the remainder of the ice season of that year, the United States Navy patrolled the waters and monitored ice flow. In November 1913, the International Conference on the Safety of Life at Sea met in London to devise a more permanent system of observing icebergs. Within three months the participating maritime nations had formed the International Ice Patrol (IIP). The goal of the IIP was to collect data on meteorology and oceanography to measure currents, ice-flow, ocean temperature, and salinity levels. They published their first records in 1921, which allowed for a year-by-year comparison of iceberg movement.

text: New technologies monitor icebergs. Aerial surveillance of the seas in the early 1930s allowed for the development of charter systems that could accurately detail the ocean currents and iceberg locations. In 1945, experiments tested the effectiveness of radar in detecting icebergs. A decade later, oceanographic monitoring outposts were established for the purpose of collecting data; these outposts continue to serve in environmental study. A computer was first installed on a ship for the purpose of oceanographic monitoring in 1964, which allowed for a faster evaluation of data. By the 1970s, icebreaking ships were equipped with automatic transmissions of satellite photographs of ice in Antarctica. Systems for optical satellites had been developed but were still limited by weather conditions. In the 1980s, drifting buoys were used in Antarctic waters for oceanographic and climate research. They are equipped with sensors that measure ocean temperature and currents.

text: Side looking airborne radar (SLAR) made it possible to acquire images regardless of weather conditions. On November 4, 1995, Canada launched RADARSAT-1. Developed by the Canadian Space Agency, it provides images of Earth for scientific and commercial purposes. This system was the first to use synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which sends microwave energy to the ocean surface and records the reflections to track icebergs. The European Space Agency launched ENVISAT (an observation satellite that orbits the Earth's poles)[20] on March 1, 2002. ENVISAT employs advanced synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) technology, which can detect changes in surface height accurately. The Canadian Space Agency launched RADARSAT-2 in December 2007, which uses SAR and multi-polarization modes and follows the same orbit path as RADARSAT-1.[21]


document_title: 1918 flu pandemic

question_text: where did the influenza epidemic first occur in 1918

text: 1918 flu pandemic

text: History

text: Hypotheses about source

text: Historian Alfred W. Crosby recorded that the flu originated in the U.S. state of Kansas,[22] and popular writer John Barry echoed Crosby in describing Haskell County, as the point of origin[23] although already in late 1917 there had been a first wave in at least 14 US military camps.[24]

text: Investigative work in 1999 by a British team led by virologist John Oxford[25] of St Bartholomew's Hospital and the Royal London Hospital identified the major troop staging and hospital camp in Étaples, France, as being the center of the 1918 flu pandemic. In late 1917, military pathologists reported the onset of a new disease with high mortality that they later recognized as the flu. The overcrowded camp and hospital — which treated thousands of victims of chemical attacks and other casualties of war — was an ideal site for the spreading of a respiratory virus; 100,000 soldiers were in transit every day. It also was home to a live piggery, and poultry was regularly brought in from surrounding villages. Oxford and his team postulated that a significant precursor virus, harbored in birds, mutated so it could migrate to pigs that were kept near the front.[26][27]

text: Earlier hypotheses of the epidemic's origin have varied. Some hypothesized the flu originated in East Asia.[28] Claude Hannoun, the leading expert on the 1918 flu for the Pasteur Institute, asserted the former virus was likely to have come from China, mutating in the United States near Boston and spreading to Brest, France, Europe's battlefields, Europe, and the world using Allied soldiers and sailors as main spreaders.[29] He considered several other hypotheses of origin, such as Spain, Kansas, and Brest, as being possible, but not likely.

text: Political scientist Andrew Price-Smith published data from the Austrian archives suggesting the influenza had earlier origins, beginning in Austria in early 1917.[30]

text: In 2014, historian Mark Humphries of Canada's Memorial University of Newfoundland stated that newly unearthed records confirmed that one of the side stories of the war, the mobilization of 96,000 Chinese laborers to work behind the British and French lines on World War I's western front, might have been the source of the pandemic. In the report, Humphries found archival evidence that a respiratory illness that struck northern China in November 1917 was identified a year later by Chinese health officials as identical to the "Spanish" flu.[31][32] A report published in 2016 in the Journal of the Chinese Medical Association found no evidence that the 1918 virus was imported to Europe via Chinese and Southeast Asian soldiers and workers. It found evidence that the virus had been circulating in the European armies for months and possibly years before the 1918 pandemic.[33]

text: Spread

text: When an infected person sneezes or coughs, more than half a million virus particles can be spread to those close by.[34] The close quarters and massive troop movements of World War I hastened the pandemic, and probably both increased transmission and augmented mutation; the war may also have increased the lethality of the virus. Some speculate the soldiers' immune systems were weakened by malnourishment, as well as the stresses of combat and chemical attacks, increasing their susceptibility.[35]

text: A large factor in the worldwide occurrence of this flu was increased travel. Modern transportation systems made it easier for soldiers, sailors, and civilian travelers to spread the disease.[36]

text: In the United States, the disease was first observed in Haskell County, Kansas, in January 1918, prompting local doctor Loring Miner to warn the U.S. Public Health Service's academic journal. On 4 March 1918, company cook Albert Gitchell reported sick at Fort Riley, an American military facility that at the time was training American troops during World War I, making him the first recorded victim of the flu.[37][38] Within days, 522 men at the camp had reported sick.[39] By 11 March 1918, the virus had reached Queens, New York.[40] Failure to take preventive measures in March/April was later criticised.[5]

text: In August 1918, a more virulent strain appeared simultaneously in Brest, France; in Freetown, Sierra Leone; and in the U.S. in Boston, Massachusetts. The Spanish flu also spread through Ireland, carried there by returning Irish soldiers. The Allies of World War I came to call it the Spanish flu, primarily because the pandemic received greater press attention after it moved from France to Spain in November 1918. Spain was not involved in the war and had not imposed wartime censorship.[41]

text: Mortality

text: Around the globe

text: The global mortality rate from the 1918/1919 pandemic is not known, but an estimated 10% to 20% of those who were infected died. With about a third of the world population infected, this case-fatality ratio means 3% to 6% of the entire global population died.[2] Influenza may have killed as many as 25 million people in its first 25 weeks. Older estimates say it killed 40–50 million people,[4] while current estimates say 50–100 million people worldwide were killed.[44]

text: This pandemic has been described as "the greatest medical holocaust in history" and may have killed more people than the Black Death.[45] It is said that this flu killed more people in 24 weeks than AIDS killed in 24 years, and more in a year than the Black Death killed in a century.[11] However, a 2016 article in The Atlantic states that the Black Death, over the course of the decade of the 1340s, killed more than 10% of the world population whereas the 1918 flu pandemic killed less than half this percentage.[46]

text: The disease killed in every corner of the globe. As many as 17 million died in India, about 5% of the population.[47] The death toll in India's British-ruled districts alone was 13.88 million.[48]

text: In Japan, of the 23 million people who were affected, 390,000 died.[49] In the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), 1.5 million were assumed to have died among 30 million inhabitants.[50] In Tahiti 13% of the population died during only a month. Similarly, in Samoa 22% of the population of 38,000 died within two months.[51]

text: In Iran, the impact was enormous and according to an estimate, between 902,400 and 2,431,000 or 8.0% and 21.7% of the total population died.[52]

text: In the U.S., about 28% of the population became infected, and 500,000 to 675,000 died.[53] Native American tribes were particularly hard hit. In the Four Corners area alone, 3,293 deaths were registered among Native Americans.[54] Entire village communities perished in Alaska.[55] In Canada 50,000 died.[56] In Brazil 300,000 died, including president Rodrigues Alves.[57] In Britain, as many as 250,000 died; in France, more than 400,000.[58] In West Africa an influenza epidemic killed at least 100,000 people in Ghana.[59] Tafari Makonnen (the future Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia) was one of the first Ethiopians who contracted influenza but survived,[60][61] although many of his family's subjects did not; estimates for the fatalities in the capital city, Addis Ababa, range from 5,000 to 10,000, or higher.[62] In British Somaliland one official estimated that 7% of the native population died.[63]

text: This huge death toll was caused by an extremely high infection rate of up to 50% and the extreme severity of the symptoms, suspected to be caused by cytokine storms.[4] Symptoms in 1918 were so unusual that initially influenza was misdiagnosed as dengue, cholera, or typhoid. One observer wrote, "One of the most striking of the complications was hemorrhage from mucous membranes, especially from the nose, stomach, and intestine. Bleeding from the ears and petechial hemorrhages in the skin also occurred".[44] The majority of deaths were from bacterial pneumonia,[64][65] a common secondary infection associated with influenza, but the virus also killed people directly, by causing massive hemorrhages and edema in the lung.[65]

text: The unusually severe disease killed up to 20% of those infected, as opposed to the usual flu epidemic mortality rate of 0.1%.[2][44]

text: Patterns of fatality

text: The pandemic mostly killed young adults. In 1918–1919, 99% of pandemic influenza deaths in the U.S. occurred in people under 65, and nearly half in young adults 20 to 40 years old. In 1920, the mortality rate among people under 65 had decreased sixfold to half the mortality rate of people over 65, but still 92% of deaths occurred in people under 65.[66] This is unusual, since influenza is normally most deadly to weak individuals, such as infants (under age two), the very old (over age 70), and the immunocompromised. In 1918, older adults may have had partial protection caused by exposure to the 1889–1890 flu pandemic, known as the Russian flu.[67] According to historian John M. Barry, the most vulnerable of all – "those most likely, of the most likely", to die – were pregnant women. He reported that in thirteen studies of hospitalized women in the pandemic, the death rate ranged from 23% to 71%.[68] Of the pregnant women who survived childbirth, over one-quarter (26%) lost the child.[69]

text: Another oddity was that the outbreak was widespread in the summer and autumn (in the Northern Hemisphere); influenza is usually worse in winter.[70]

text: Modern analysis has shown the virus to be particularly deadly because it triggers a cytokine storm, which ravages the stronger immune system of young adults.[23]

text: In fast-progressing cases, mortality was primarily from pneumonia, by virus-induced pulmonary consolidation. Slower-progressing cases featured secondary bacterial pneumonias, and there may have been neural involvement that led to mental disorders in some cases. Some deaths resulted from malnourishment.

text: A study – conducted by He et al. – used a mechanistic modelling approach to study the three waves of the 1918 influenza pandemic. They tried to study the factors that underlie variability in temporal patterns, and the patterns of mortality and morbidity. Their analysis suggests that temporal variations in transmission rate provide the best explanation and the variation in transmission required to generate these three waves is within biologically plausible values.[71]

text: Another study by He et al. used a simple epidemic model, to incorporate three factors including school opening and closing, temperature changes over the course of the outbreak, and human behavioral changes in response to the outbreak to infer the cause of the three waves of the 1918 influenza pandemic. Their modelling results showed that all three factors are important but human behavioral responses showed the largest effects.[72]

text: Deadly second wave

text: The second wave of the 1918 pandemic was much deadlier than the first. The first wave had resembled typical flu epidemics; those most at risk were the sick and elderly, while younger, healthier people recovered easily. But in August, when the second wave began in France, Sierra Leone and the United States,[73] the virus had mutated to a much deadlier form. As the American Experience Influenza 1918 episode says, October 1918 was the deadliest month of the whole pandemic.[citation needed]

text: This increased severity has been attributed to the circumstances of the First World War.[74] In civilian life, natural selection favors a mild strain. Those who get very ill stay home, and those mildly ill continue with their lives, preferentially spreading the mild strain. In the trenches, natural selection was reversed. Soldiers with a mild strain stayed where they were, while the severely ill were sent on crowded trains to crowded field hospitals, spreading the deadlier virus. The second wave began and the flu quickly spread around the world again. Consequently, during modern pandemics health officials pay attention when the virus reaches places with social upheaval (looking for deadlier strains of the virus).[75]

text: The fact that most of those who recovered from first-wave infections were now immune showed that it must have been the same strain of flu. This was most dramatically illustrated in Copenhagen, which escaped with a combined mortality rate of just 0.29% (0.02% in the first wave and 0.27% in the second wave) because of exposure to the less-lethal first wave.[76] On the rest of the population it was far more deadly now; the most vulnerable people were those like the soldiers in the trenches – young previously healthy adults.[77]

text: Devastated communities

text: Even in areas where mortality was low, so many were incapacitated that much of everyday life was hampered. Some communities closed all stores or required customers to leave orders outside. There were reports that health-care workers could not tend the sick nor the gravediggers bury the dead because they too were ill. Mass graves were dug by steam shovel and bodies buried without coffins in many places.[78]

text: Several Pacific island territories were particularly hard-hit. The pandemic reached them from New Zealand, which was too slow to implement measures to prevent ships carrying the flu from leaving its ports. From New Zealand, the flu reached Tonga (killing 8% of the population), Nauru (16%) and Fiji (5%, 9,000 people).[79]

text: Worst affected was German Samoa, today the independent state of Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand in 1914. 90% of the population was infected; 30% of adult men, 22% of adult women and 10% of children died. By contrast, the flu was kept away from American Samoa when Governor John Martin Poyer imposed a blockade.[79] In New Zealand itself, 8,573 deaths were attributed to the 1918 pandemic influenza, resulting in a total population fatality rate of 0.74%.[80] In Ireland, the Spanish Flu accounted for 10% of the total deaths in 1918.

text: Data analysis revealed 6,520 recorded deaths in Savannah-Chatham County, Georgia (population = 83,252) for the three-year period from January 1, 1917, to December 31, 1919. Of these deaths, influenza was specifically listed as the cause of death in 316 cases, representing 4.85 percent of all causes of death for the total time period.[81]

text: Less-affected areas

text: In Japan, 257,363 deaths were attributed to influenza by July 1919, giving an estimated 0.425% mortality rate, much lower than nearly all other Asian countries for which data are available. The Japanese government severely restricted maritime travel to and from the home islands when the pandemic struck.

text: In the Pacific, American Samoa[82] and the French colony of New Caledonia[83] also succeeded in preventing even a single death from influenza through effective quarantines. In Australia, nearly 12,000 perished.[84]

text: By the end of the pandemic, the isolated island of Marajó, in Brazil's Amazon River Delta had not reported an outbreak.[85]

text: Saint Helena also reported no deaths.[86]

text: Aspirin poisoning

text: In a 2009 paper published in the journal Clinical Infectious Diseases, Karen Starko proposed that aspirin poisoning contributed substantially to the fatalities. She based this on the reported symptoms in those dying from the flu, as reported in the post mortem reports still available, and also the timing of the big "death spike" in October 1918 which happened right after the Surgeon General of the United States Army, and the Journal of the American Medical Association both recommended very large doses of 8 to 31 grams of aspirin per day. These levels will produce hyperventilation in 33% of patients, as well as lung edema in 3% of patients.[87] Starko also points out that many early deaths showed "wet," sometimes hemorrhagic lungs, whereas late deaths showed bacterial pneumonia. She suggests that the wave of aspirin poisonings was due to a "perfect storm" of events: Bayer's patent on aspirin expired, so that many companies rushed in to make a profit and greatly increased the supply; this coincided with the flu pandemic; and the symptoms of aspirin poisoning were not known at the time.[87]

text: As an explanation for the universally high mortality rate, this hypothesis was questioned in a letter to the journal published in April 2010 by Andrew Noymer and Daisy Carreon of the University of California, Irvine, and Niall Johnson of the Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care. They questioned this universal applicability given the high mortality rate in countries such as India, where there was little or no access to aspirin at the time compared to the rate where aspirin was plentiful.[88] They concluded that "the salicylate [aspirin] poisoning hypothesis [was] difficult to sustain as the primary explanation for the unusual virulence of the 1918–1919 inﬂuenza pandemic".[88] In response, Starko pointed to anecdotal evidence of aspirin use in India and argued that even if aspirin over-prescription had not contributed to the high Indian mortality rate, it could still have been a factor for other high rates in areas where other exacerbating factors present in India played less of a role.[89]

text: End of the pandemic

text: After the lethal second wave struck in late 1918, new cases dropped abruptly – almost to nothing after the peak in the second wave.[11] In Philadelphia, for example, 4,597 people died in the week ending 16 October, but by 11 November, influenza had almost disappeared from the city. One explanation for the rapid decline of the lethality of the disease is that doctors got better at preventing and treating the pneumonia that developed after the victims had contracted the virus, although John Barry stated in his book that researchers have found no evidence to support this.[23]

text: Another theory holds that the 1918 virus mutated extremely rapidly to a less lethal strain. This is a common occurrence with influenza viruses: there is a tendency for pathogenic viruses to become less lethal with time, as the hosts of more dangerous strains tend to die out[23] (see also "Deadly Second Wave", above).

text: Long-term impact

text: A 2006 study in the Journal of Political Economy found that "cohorts in utero during the pandemic displayed reduced educational attainment, increased rates of physical disability, lower income, lower socioeconomic status, and higher transfer payments compared with other birth cohorts."[90]

text: Legacy

text: Academic Andrew Price-Smith has made the argument that the virus helped tip the balance of power in the later days of the war towards the Allied cause. He provides data that the viral waves hit the Central Powers before they hit the Allied powers, and that both morbidity and mortality in Germany and Austria were considerably higher than in Britain and France.[30]

text: In the United States, Britain and other countries, despite the relatively high morbidity and mortality rates that resulted from the epidemic in 1918–1919, the Spanish flu began to fade from public awareness over the decades until the arrival of news about bird flu and other pandemics in the 1990s and 2000s.[91] This has led some historians to label the Spanish flu a "forgotten pandemic".[22]

text: Various theories of why the Spanish flu was "forgotten" include the rapid pace of the pandemic, which killed most of its victims in the United States, for example, within a period of less than nine months, resulting in limited media coverage. The general population was familiar with patterns of pandemic disease in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: typhoid, yellow fever, diphtheria, and cholera all occurred near the same time. These outbreaks probably lessened the significance of the influenza pandemic for the public.[92] In some areas, the flu was not reported on, the only mention being that of advertisements for medicines claiming to cure it.[93]

text: In addition, the outbreak coincided with the deaths and media focus on the First World War.[94] Another explanation involves the age group affected by the disease. The majority of fatalities, from both the war and the epidemic, were among young adults. The deaths caused by the flu may have been overlooked due to the large numbers of deaths of young men in the war or as a result of injuries. When people read the obituaries, they saw the war or postwar deaths and the deaths from the influenza side by side. Particularly in Europe, where the war's toll was extremely high, the flu may not have had a great, separate, psychological impact, or may have seemed a mere extension of the war's tragedies.[66]

text: The duration of the pandemic and the war could have also played a role. The disease would usually only affect a certain area for a month before leaving, while the war, which most had initially expected to end quickly, had lasted for four years by the time the pandemic struck. This left little time for the disease to have a significant impact on the economy.

text: Regarding global economic effects, many businesses in the entertainment and service industries suffered losses in revenue, while the health care industry reported profit gains.[95]

text: Historian Nancy Bristow has argued that the pandemic, when combined with the increasing number of women attending college, contributed to the success of women in the field of nursing. This was due in part to the failure of medical doctors, who were predominantly men, to contain and prevent the illness. Nursing staff, who were predominantly women, felt more inclined to celebrate the success of their patient care and less inclined to identify the spread of the disease with their own work.[96]

text: In Spain, sources from the period explicitly linked the Spanish flu to the cultural figure of Don Juan. The nickname for the flu, the "Naples Soldier", was adopted from Federico Romero and Guillermo Fernández Shaw's operetta, The Song of Forgetting (La canción del olvido), the protagonist of which is a stock Don Juan type. Federico Romero, one of the librettists, quipped that the play's most popular musical number, Naples Soldier, was as catchy as the flu. Davis has argued the Spanish flu–Don Juan connection served a cognitive function, allowing Spaniards to make sense of their epidemic experience by interpreting it through a familiar template, namely the Don Juan story.[97]

text: Spanish flu research

text: The origin of the Spanish flu pandemic, and the relationship between the near-simultaneous outbreaks in humans and swine, have been controversial. One hypothesis is that the virus strain originated at Fort Riley, Kansas, in viruses in poultry and swine which the fort bred for food; the soldiers were then sent from Fort Riley around the world, where they spread the disease.[98] Similarities between a reconstruction of the virus and avian viruses, combined with the human pandemic preceding the first reports of influenza in swine, led researchers to conclude the influenza virus jumped directly from birds to humans, and swine caught the disease from humans.[99][100]

text: Others have disagreed,[101] and more recent research has suggested the strain may have originated in a nonhuman, mammalian species.[102] An estimated date for its appearance in mammalian hosts has been put at the period 1882–1913.[103] This ancestor virus diverged about 1913–1915 into two clades (or biological groups), which gave rise to the classical swine and human H1N1 influenza lineages. The last common ancestor of human strains dates to between February 1917 and April 1918. Because pigs are more readily infected with avian influenza viruses than are humans, they were suggested as the original recipients of the virus, passing the virus to humans sometime between 1913 and 1918.

text: An effort to recreate the 1918 flu strain (a subtype of avian strain H1N1) was a collaboration among the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, the USDA ARS Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory and Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City. The effort resulted in the announcement (on 5 October 2005) that the group had successfully determined the virus's genetic sequence, using historic tissue samples recovered by pathologist Johan Hultin from a female flu victim buried in the Alaskan permafrost and samples preserved from American soldiers.[104]

text: On 18 January 2007, Kobasa et al. (2007) reported that monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) infected with the recreated flu strain exhibited classic symptoms of the 1918 pandemic, and died from a cytokine storm[105]—an overreaction of the immune system. This may explain why the 1918 flu had its surprising effect on younger, healthier people, as a person with a stronger immune system would potentially have a stronger overreaction.[106]

text: On 16 September 2008, the body of British politician and diplomat Sir Mark Sykes was exhumed to study the RNA of the flu virus in efforts to understand the genetic structure of modern H5N1 bird flu. Sykes had been buried in 1919 in a lead coffin which scientists hoped had helped preserve the virus.[107] The coffin was found to be split because of the weight of soil over it, and the cadaver was badly decomposed. Nonetheless, samples of lung and brain tissue were taken through the split, with the coffin remaining in situ in the grave during this process.[108]

text: In December 2008, research by Yoshihiro Kawaoka of the University of Wisconsin linked the presence of three specific genes (termed PA, PB1, and PB2) and a nucleoprotein derived from 1918 flu samples to the ability of the flu virus to invade the lungs and cause pneumonia. The combination triggered similar symptoms in animal testing.[109]

text: In June 2010, a team at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine reported the 2009 flu pandemic vaccine provided some cross-protection against the 1918 flu pandemic strain.[110]

text: One of the few things known for certain about the influenza in 1918 and for some years after was that it was, out of the laboratory, exclusively a disease of human beings.[111]

text: In 2013, the AIR Worldwide Research and Modeling Group "characterized the historic 1918 pandemic and estimated the effects of a similar pandemic occurring today using the AIR Pandemic Flu Model". In the model, "a modern day "Spanish flu" event would result in additional life insurance losses of between USD 15.3–27.8 billion in the United States alone" with 188,000–337,000 deaths in the United States.[112]

text: In popular culture

text: The 1995 film Outbreak,[113] the 2011 film Contagion and the 2013 film World War Z make reference to the pandemic.[114]

text: Twentieth-century fiction includes at least three novels with the flu pandemic as a major theme: Katherine Anne Porter's Pale Horse, Pale Rider, Thomas Mullen's The Last Town on Earth, and Thomas Wolfe's Look Homeward, Angel.

text: In the one-act play 1918 by Horton Foote (part of his Orphans' Home Cycle (1979)), the presence and threat of the flu (and the tragedy it ultimately causes) is a major element of the plot. The play was made into a film of the same title, released in 1985, which was subsequently edited for broadcast by PBS as the last part of the miniseries "The Story of A Marriage".

text: Gallery

text:
Two American Red Cross nurses demonstrating treatment practices during the influenza pandemic of 1918.

Albertan farmers wearing masks to protect themselves from the flu.

Policemen wearing masks provided by the American Red Cross in Seattle, 1918

A street car conductor in Seattle in 1918 refusing to allow passengers aboard who are not wearing masks

Red Cross workers remove a flu victim in St. Louis, Missouri (1918)

Influenza ward at Walter Reed Hospital during the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918–1919

Burying flu victims, North River, Canada (1918)

1919 Tokyo, Japan

Japanese poster in 1919

Demonstration at the Red Cross Emergency Ambulance Station in Washington, D.C., during the influenza pandemic of 1918

Cavalry memorial on the hill Lueg, memory of the Bernese cavalrymen victims of the 1918 flu pandemic; Emmental, Bern, Switzerland

The Spanish flu as the Naples Soldier (Spain, 1918)

Spanish biologists and the flu microbe (Spain, 1918)


document_title: Bronchus

question_text: what is the function of bronchi in respiratory system

text: Bronchus

text: Structure[edit]

text: The trachea (windpipe) divides at the carina into two main or primary bronchi, the left bronchus and the right bronchus. The carina of the trachea is located at the level of the sternal angle and the fifth thoracic vertebra (at rest).

text: The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left main bronchus.[3] It enters the right lung at approximately the fifth thoracic vertebra. The right main bronchus subdivides into three secondary bronchi (also known as lobar bronchi), which deliver oxygen to the three lobes of the right lung—the superior, middle and inferior lobe. The azygos vein arches over it from behind; and the right pulmonary artery lies at first below and then in front of it. About 2 cm from its commencement it gives off a branch to the superior lobe of the right lung, which is also called the eparterial bronchus. Eparterial refers to its position above the right pulmonary artery. The right bronchus now passes below the artery, and is known as the hyparterial branch which divides into the two lobar bronchi to the middle and lower lobes.

text: The left main bronchus is smaller in caliber but longer than the right, being 5 cm long. It enters the root of the left lung opposite the sixth thoracic vertebra. It passes beneath the aortic arch, crosses in front of the esophagus, the thoracic duct, and the descending aorta, and has the left pulmonary artery lying at first above, and then in front of it. The left bronchus has no eparterial branch, and therefore it has been supposed by some that there is no upper lobe to the left lung, but that the so-called upper lobe corresponds to the middle lobe of the right lung. The left main bronchus divides into two secondary bronchi or lobar bronchi, to deliver air to the two lobes of the left lung—the superior and the inferior lobe.

text: The secondary bronchi divide further into tertiary bronchi, (also known as segmental bronchi), each of which supplies a bronchopulmonary segment. A bronchopulmonary segment is a division of a lung separated from the rest of the lung by a septum of connective tissue. This property allows a bronchopulmonary segment to be surgically removed without affecting other segments. Initially, there are ten segments in each lung, but during development with the left lung having just two lobes, two pairs of segments fuse to give eight, four for each lobe. The tertiary bronchi divide further in another three branchings known as 4th order, 5th order and 6th order segmental bronchi which are also referred to as subsegmental bronchi. These branch into many smaller bronchioles which divide into terminal bronchioles, each of which then gives rise to several respiratory bronchioles, which go on to divide into two to eleven alveolar ducts. There are five or six alveolar sacs associated with each alveolar duct. The alveolus is the basic anatomical unit of gas exchange in the lung.

text: The main bronchi have relatively large lumens that are lined by respiratory epithelium. This cellular lining has cilia departing towards the mouth which removes dust and other small particles. There is a smooth muscle layer below the epithelium arranged as two ribbons of muscle that spiral in opposite directions. This smooth muscle layer contains seromucous glands, which secrete musus, in its wall. Hyaline cartilage is present in the bronchi, surrounding the smooth muscle layer. In the main bronchi, hyaline cartilage forms an incomplete ring, giving a "D"-shaped appearance, while in the smaller bronchi, hyaline cartilage is present in irregularly arranged plates and islands. These plates give structural support to the bronchi and keep the airway open.

text: Histology[edit]

text: The cartilage and mucous membrane of the primary bronchi are similar to those in the trachea. They are lined with respiratory epithelium, which is classified as ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium.[4] The epithelium in the main bronchi contains goblet cells, which are glandular, modified simple columnar epithelial cells that produce mucins, the main component of mucus. Mucus plays an important role in keeping the airways clear in the mucociliary clearance process. As branching continues through the bronchial tree, the amount of hyaline cartilage in the walls decreases until it is absent in the bronchioles. As the cartilage decreases, the amount of smooth muscle increases. The mucous membrane also undergoes a transition from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium to simple cuboidal epithelium to simple squamous epithelium.[4]

text: Variation[edit]

text: In 0.1 to 5% of people there is a right superior lobe bronchus arising from the main stem bronchus prior to the carina. This is known as a tracheal bronchus, and seen as an anatomical variation. It can have multiple variations and, although usually asymptomatic, it can be the root cause of pulmonary disease such as a recurrent infection. In such cases resection is often curative[5] [6]

text: The cardiac bronchus has a prevalence of ≈0.3% and presents as an accessory bronchus arising from the bronchus intermedius between the upper lobar bronchus and the origin of the middle and lower lobar bronchi of the right main bronchus.[7] Accessory cardiac bronchus is usually an asymptomatic condition but may be associated with persistent infection or hemoptysis.[8][9] In about half of observed cases the cardiac bronchus presents as a short dead ending bronchial stump, in the remainder the bronchus may exhibit branching and associated aerated lung parenchyma.

text: Function[edit]

text: Mgi The alveolar ducts and alveoli consist primarily of simple squamous epithelium, which permits rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries occurs across the walls of the alveolar ducts and alveoli.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Bronchitis[edit]

text: Bronchitis is defined as inflammation of the bronchi, which can either be acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viral or bacterial infections. Most sufferers of chronic bronchitis also suffer from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and this is usually associated with smoking or long-term exposure to irritants.

text: Aspiration[edit]

text: The left main bronchus departs from the trachea at a greater angle than that of the right main bronchus. The right bronchus is also wider than the left and these differences predispose the right lung to aspirational problems. If food, liquids, or foreign bodies are aspirated, they will tend to lodge in the right main bronchus. Bacterial pneumonia and aspiration pneumonia may result.

text: If a tracheal tube used for intubation is inserted too far, it will usually lodge in the right bronchus, allowing ventilation only of the right lung.

text: Asthma[edit]

text: Asthma is marked by hyperresponsiveness of the bronchi with an inflammatory component, often in response to allergens.

text: In asthma, the constriction of the bronchi can result in a difficulty in breathing giving shortness of breath; this can lead to a lack of oxygen reaching the body for cellular processes. In this case an asthma puffer (or inhaler) can be used to rectify the problem. The puffer administers a bronchodilator, which serves to soothe the constricted bronchi and to re-expand the airways. This effect occurs quite quickly.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Transverse section of thorax, showing relations of pulmonary artery

Illustration depicting respiratory system

Mainstem bronchi seen branching off the trachea (labeled at top), with the left mainstem bronchi passing below the aortic arch before branching into smaller bronchi.


document_title: Herbert Hoover High School (West Virginia)

question_text: where is herbert hoover high school in wv

text:
Herbert Hoover High School

Address

5856 Elk River Road North
Clendenin, West Virginia 25045
United States

Coordinates
38°28′23″N 81°23′42″W / 38.47306°N 81.39500°W / 38.47306; -81.39500Coordinates: 38°28′23″N 81°23′42″W / 38.47306°N 81.39500°W / 38.47306; -81.39500

Information

Type
Public

Motto
Promoting Achievements and Creating Successes at Herbert Hoover High School

Established
September, 1963

School district
Kanawha County Schools

Principal
Mike Kelley

Faculty
69

Grades
9 - 12

Enrollment
795

Color(s)
Scarlet and royal blue

Mascot
Husky

Website
School website

tag: table

text: Herbert Hoover High School is a public high school in Clendenin, West Virginia, United States. It was formed by consolidation in 1963. It serves the northeastern part of Kanawha County, West Virginia.

text: During the 2016 West Virginia flood the school building was damaged beyond repair on June 23, 2016 when the Elk River put 7 feet of water into the school. On July 21, 2016 the Federal Emergency Management Agency declared the building a total loss and the Kanawha County School Board began expedited plans for a new building. The new building is expected to be open by the 2018–19 school year. For the 2016–17 school year, student will share space via a split schedule with Elkview Middle School, with each group attending school for four-and-one-half hours per day with reading and homework assignments. A temporary campus of modified mobile home-type units known as "modulars" will then be constructed on the middle school's football field and a normal schedule will be resumed. FEMA will provide the modulars and will fund approximately 75 to 80% of the cost of the new building.[1]

text: Athletics[edit]

text: The school's nickname is the Huskies. The following sports are offered at Herbert Hoover:[2]

text:
Baseball
Basketball (boys' and girls')
Cheerleading
Football
Golf
Lacrosse
Soccer (boys' and girls')
Softball
Track
Volleyball
Wrestling

text: The school's athletic equipment was mostly destroyed in the flood. Several major college coaches, including Jimbo Fisher and Nick Saban, both of whom were born in the state, have donated and led fundraising to ensure the students will have athletic and other extra curricular opportunities for the new school year. Rival schools have also sharing equipment and facilities.