document_title: Rockwell B-1 Lancer

question_text: what is the payload of a b1 bomber

question_tokens: what is the payload of a b1 bomber

text: Rockwell B-1 Lancer

text: Development[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: In 1955, the USAF issued requirements for a new bomber combining the payload and range of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress with the Mach 2 maximum speed of the Convair B-58 Hustler.[4] In December 1957, the USAF selected North American Aviation's B-70 Valkyrie for this role.[5] The Valkyrie was a six-engine bomber that could cruise at Mach 3 at high altitude (70,000 ft or 21,000 m).[6] Soviet interceptor aircraft, the only effective anti-bomber weapon in the 1950s,[7] were already unable to intercept the high-flying Lockheed U-2;[8] the Valkyrie would fly at similar altitudes, but much higher speeds, and was expected to fly right by the fighters.[7]

text: By the late 1950s, however, antiaircraft surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) could threaten high-altitude aircraft,[9] as demonstrated by the 1960 downing of Gary Powers' U-2.[10] The USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) was aware of these developments and had begun moving its bombers to low-level penetration even before the U-2 downing. This tactic greatly reduces radar detection distances through the use of terrain masking; using features of the terrain like hills and valleys, the line-of-sight from the radar to the bomber can be broken, rendering the radar (and human observers) incapable of seeing the target.[11] Additionally, radars of the era were subject to "clutter" from stray returns from the ground and other objects, which meant a minimum angle existed above the horizon where they could detect a target. Bombers flying at low altitudes could remain under these angles simply by keeping their distance from the radar sites. This combination of effects made SAMs of the era ineffective against low-flying aircraft.[11][12] The same effects also meant that low-flying aircraft were difficult to detect by higher-flying interceptors, since their radar systems could not readily pick out opposing aircraft against the clutter from ground reflections (lack of look-down/shoot-down capability).

text: The switch from high-altitude to low-altitude flight profiles severely affected the B-70, whose design was highly tuned to provide the desired high-altitude performance. Planners outlined a series of low-level profiles for the B-70, but higher aerodynamic drag at low level limited the B-70 to subsonic speed while dramatically decreasing its range.[9] The result would be an aircraft with somewhat higher subsonic speed than the B-52, but less range. Unsuited for the new low-altitude role, and because of a growing shift to the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) force, the B-70 bomber program was cancelled in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy,[7][13] and the two XB-70 prototypes were used in a supersonic research program.[14]

text: Although never intended for the low-level role, the B-52's flexibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52's huge fuel load allowed it to operate at lower altitudes for longer times, and the large airframe allowed the addition of improved radar jamming and deception suites to deal with radars.[15] During the Vietnam War, the concept that all future wars would be nuclear was turned on its head, and the "big belly" modifications increased the B-52's total bomb load to 60,000 pounds (27,000 kg),[16] turning it into a powerful tactical aircraft which could be used against ground troops along with strategic targets from high altitudes.[12] The much smaller bomb bay of the B-70 would have made it much less useful in this role.

text: Design studies and delays[edit]

text: Although effective, the B-52 was not ideal for the low-level role. This led to a number of aircraft designs known as penetrators, which were tuned specifically for long-range low-altitude flight. The first of these designs to see operation was the supersonic F-111 fighter-bomber, which used variable-sweep wings for tactical missions.[17] Similar aircraft also emerged for other users as well, notably the BAC TSR-2, and later, Panavia Tornado and Sukhoi Su-24. A number of studies on a strategic-range counterpart followed.

text: The first post-B-70 strategic penetrator study was known as the Subsonic Low-Altitude Bomber (SLAB), which was completed in 1961. This produced a design that looked more like an airliner than a bomber, with a large swept wing, T-tail, and large high-bypass engines.[18] This was followed by the similar Extended Range Strike Aircraft (ERSA), which added a variable-sweep wing, then in vogue in the aviation industry. ERSA envisioned a relatively small aircraft with a 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) payload and a range of 8,750 nautical miles (16,200 kilometres), with 2,500 nmi (4,600 km) being flown at low altitudes. In August 1963, the similar Low-Altitude Manned Penetrator design was completed, which called for an aircraft with a 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) bomb load and somewhat shorter range of 7,150 nmi (13,240 km).[19][20]

text: These all culminated in the October 1963 Advanced Manned Precision Strike System (AMPSS), which led to industry studies at Boeing, General Dynamics, and North American.[21][22] In mid-1964, the USAF had revised its requirements and retitled the project as Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft (AMSA), which differed from AMPSS primarily in that it also demanded a high-speed high-altitude capability, similar to that of the existing Mach 2 class Convair B-58 Hustler.[23] Given the lengthy series of design studies, Rockwell engineers joked that the new name actually stood for "America's Most Studied Aircraft".[24][25]

text: The arguments that led to the cancellation of the B-70 program had led some to question the need for a new strategic bomber of any sort. The USAF was adamant about retaining bombers as part of the nuclear triad concept that included bombers, ICBMs, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) in a combined package that complicated any potential defense. They argued that the bomber was needed to attack hardened military targets and to provide a safe counterforce option because the bombers could be quickly launched into safe loitering areas where they could not be attacked. However, the introduction of the SLBM made moot the mobility and survivability argument, and a newer generation of ICBMs, such as the Minuteman III, had the accuracy and speed needed to attack point targets. During this time, ICBMs were seen as a less costly option based on their lower unit cost,[26] but development costs were much higher.[9] Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara preferred ICBMs over bombers for the Air Force portion of the deterrent force[27] and felt a new expensive bomber was not needed.[28][29] McNamara limited the AMSA program to studies and component development beginning in 1964.[29]

text: Program studies continued; IBM and Autonetics were awarded AMSA advanced avionics study contracts in 1968.[29][30] McNamara remained opposed to the program in favor of upgrading the existing B-52 fleet and adding nearly 300 FB-111s for shorter range roles then being filled by the B-58.[12][29] He again vetoed funding for AMSA aircraft development in 1968.[30]

text: B-1A program[edit]

text: President Richard Nixon reestablished the AMSA program after taking office, keeping with his administration's flexible response strategy that required a broad range of options short of general nuclear war.[32] Nixon's Secretary of Defense, Melvin Laird, reviewed the programs and decided to lower the numbers of FB-111s, since they lacked the desired range, and recommended that the AMSA design studies be accelerated.[32] In April 1969, the program officially became the B-1A.[12][32] This was the first entry in the new bomber designation series, first created in 1962. The Air Force issued a request for proposals in November 1969.[33]

text: Proposals were submitted by Boeing, General Dynamics and North American Rockwell in January 1970.[33][34] In June 1970, North American Rockwell's design was selected and was awarded a development contract.[33] The original program called for two test airframes, five flyable aircraft, and 40 engines. This was cut in 1971 to one ground and three flight test aircraft.[35] The company changed its name to Rockwell International and named its aircraft division North American Aircraft Operations in 1973.[36] A fourth prototype, built to production standards, was ordered in the fiscal year 1976 budget. Plans called for 240 B-1As to be built, with initial operational capability set for 1979.[37]

text: Rockwell's design featured a number of features common to 1960s U.S. designs. Among these was the use of a crew escape capsule that ejected as a unit during emergencies, which was introduced to improve survivability in the case of an ejection at high speed. Additionally, the design featured large variable-sweep wings in order to provide both high lift during takeoff and landing, and low drag during a high-speed dash phase.[38] With the wings set to their widest position the aircraft had considerably better lift and power than the B-52, allowing it to operate from a much wider variety of bases. Penetration of the Soviet Union's defenses would take place at supersonic speed, crossing them as quickly as possible before entering into the less defended "heartland" where speeds could be reduced again.[38] The large size and fuel capacity of the design would allow the "dash" portion of the flight to be relatively long.

text: In order to achieve the required Mach 2 performance at high altitudes, the exhaust nozzles and air intake ramps were variable.[39] Initially, it had been expected that a Mach 1.2 performance could be achieved at low altitude, which required that titanium be used in critical areas in the fuselage and wing structure. The low altitude performance requirement was later lowered to Mach 0.85, reducing the amount of titanium and therefore cost.[35] A pair of small vanes mounted near the nose are part of an active vibration damping system that smooths out the otherwise bumpy low-altitude ride.[40] The first three B-1As featured the escape capsule that ejected the cockpit with all four crew members inside. The fourth B-1A was equipped with a conventional ejection seat for each crew member.[41]

text: The B-1A mockup review occurred in late October 1971.[42] The first B-1A prototype (Air Force serial no. 74-0158) flew on 23 December 1974. Three more B-1A prototypes followed.[43] As the program continued the per-unit cost continued to rise in part because of high inflation during that period. In 1970, the estimated unit cost was $40 million, and by 1975, this figure had climbed to $70 million.[44]

text: New problems and cancellation[edit]

text: In 1976, Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko defected to Japan with his MiG-25 "Foxbat".[45] During debriefing he described a new "super-Foxbat" (almost certainly referring to the MiG-31) that had look-down/shoot-down radar in order to attack cruise missiles. This would also make any low-level penetration aircraft "visible" and easy to attack.[46] Given that the B-1's armament suite was similar to the B-52, and it now appeared no more likely to survive Soviet airspace than the B-52, the program was increasingly questioned.[47] In particular, Senator William Proxmire continually derided the B-1 in public, arguing it was an outlandishly expensive dinosaur. During the 1976 federal election campaign, Jimmy Carter made it one of the Democratic Party's platforms, saying "The B-1 bomber is an example of a proposed system which should not be funded and would be wasteful of taxpayers' dollars."[48]

text: When Carter took office in 1977 he ordered a review of the entire program. By this point the projected cost of the program had risen to over $100 million per aircraft, although this was lifetime cost over 20 years. He was informed of the relatively new work on stealth aircraft that had started in 1975, and he decided that this was a better avenue of approach than the B-1. Pentagon officials also stated that the AGM-86 Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) launched from the existing B-52 fleet would give the USAF equal capability of penetrating Soviet airspace. With a range of 1,500 miles (2,400 km), the ALCM could be launched well outside the range of any Soviet defenses and penetrate at low altitude like a bomber (with a much lower radar cross-section due to smaller size), and in much greater numbers at a lower cost.[49] A small number of B-52s could launch hundreds of ALCMs, saturating the defense. A program to improve the B-52 and develop and deploy the ALCM would cost perhaps 20% of the price to deploy the planned 244 B-1As.[48]

text: On 30 June 1977, Carter announced that the B-1A would be canceled in favor of ICBMs, SLBMs, and a fleet of modernized B-52s armed with ALCMs.[37] Carter called it "one of the most difficult decisions that I've made since I've been in office." No mention of the stealth work was made public with the program being top secret, but today it is known that in early 1978 he authorized the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) project, which eventually led to the B-2 Spirit.[50]

text: Domestically, the reaction to the cancellation was split along partisan lines. The Department of Defense was surprised by the announcement; internal expectations were that the number of B-1s ordered would be reduced to around 150.[51] Congressman Robert Dornan (R-CA) claimed, "They're breaking out the vodka and caviar in Moscow."[52] In contrast, it appears the Soviets were more concerned by large numbers of ALCMs representing a much greater threat than a smaller number of B-1s. Soviet news agency TASS commented that "the implementation of these militaristic plans has seriously complicated efforts for the limitation of the strategic arms race."[48] Western military leaders were generally happy with the decision. NATO commander Alexander Haig described the ALCM as an "attractive alternative" to the B-1. French General Georges Buis stated "The B-1 is a formidable weapon, but not terribly useful. For the price of one bomber, you can have 200 cruise missiles."[48]

text: Flight tests of the four B-1A prototypes for the B-1A program continued through April 1981. The program included 70 flights totaling 378 hours. A top speed of Mach 2.22 was reached by the second B-1A. Engine testing also continued during this time with the YF101 engines totaling almost 7,600 hours.[53]

text: Shifting priorities[edit]

text: It was during this period that the Soviets started to assert themselves in several new theaters of action, in particular through Cuban proxies during the Angolan Civil War starting in 1975 and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. U.S. strategy to this point had been focused on containing Communism and preparation for war in Europe. The new Soviet actions revealed that the military lacked capability outside these narrow confines.[54]

text: The U.S. Department of Defense responded by accelerating its Rapid Deployment Forces concept but suffered from major problems with airlift and sealift capability.[55] In order to slow an enemy invasion of other countries, air power was critical; however the key Iran-Afghanistan border was outside the range of the U.S. Navy's carrier-based attack aircraft, leaving this role to the U.S. Air Force. Although the B-52 had the range to support on-demand global missions, its long runway requirements limited the forward basing possibilities.[56]

text: During the 1980 presidential campaign, Ronald Reagan campaigned heavily on the platform that Carter was weak on defense, citing the cancellation of the B-1 program as an example, a theme he continued using into the 1980s.[57] During this time Carter's defense secretary, Harold Brown, announced the stealth bomber project, apparently implying that this was the reason for the B-1 cancellation.[58]

text: B-1B program[edit]

text: On taking office, Reagan was faced with the same decision as Carter before: whether to continue with the B-1 for the short term, or to wait for the development of the ATB, a much more advanced aircraft. Studies suggested that the existing B-52 fleet with ALCM would remain a credible threat until 1985. It was predicted that 75% of the B-52 force would survive to attack its targets.[59] After this, the introduction of the SA-10 missile, the MiG-31 interceptor and the first Soviet Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) systems would make the B-52 increasingly vulnerable.[60] During 1981, funds were allocated to a new study for a bomber for the 1990s time-frame which led to developing the Long-Range Combat Aircraft (LRCA) project. The LRCA evaluated the B-1, F-111, and ATB as possible solutions; an emphasis was placed on multi-role capabilities, as opposed to purely strategic operations.[59]

text: In 1981, it was believed the B-1 could be in operation before the ATB, covering the transitional period between the B-52's increasing vulnerability and the ATB's introduction. Reagan decided the best solution was to procure both the B-1 and ATB, and on 2 October 1981 he announced that 100 B-1s were to be ordered to fill the LRCA role.[38][61]

text: In January 1982, the U.S. Air Force awarded two contracts to Rockwell worth a combined $2.2 billion for the development and production of 100 new B-1 bombers.[62] Numerous changes were made to the design to make it better suited to the now expected missions, resulting in the new B-1B.[49] These changes included a reduction in maximum speed,[58] which allowed the variable-aspect intake ramps to be replaced by simpler fixed geometry intake ramps in the newer design. This reduced the B-1B's radar signature or radar cross-section; this reduction was seen as a good trade off for the speed decrease.[38] High subsonic speeds at low altitude became a focus area for the revised design,[58] and low-level speeds were increased from about Mach 0.85 to 0.92. The B-1B has a maximum speed of Mach 1.25 at higher altitudes.[38][63]

text: The B-1B's maximum takeoff weight was increased to 477,000 pounds (216,000 kg) from the B-1A's 395,000 pounds (179,000 kg).[38][64] The weight increase was to allow for takeoff with a full internal fuel load and for external weapons to be carried. Rockwell engineers were able to reinforce critical areas and lighten non-critical areas of the airframe, so the increase in empty weight was minimal.[64] To deal with the introduction of the MiG-31 equipped with the new Zaslon radar system, and other aircraft with look-down capability (which reduced the B-1s low-flying advantage), the B-1B's electronic warfare suite was significantly upgraded.[38]

text: Opposition to the plan was widespread within Congress. Critics pointed out that many of the original problems remained in both areas of performance and expense.[65] In particular it seemed the B-52 fitted with electronics similar to the B-1B would be equally able to avoid interception, as the speed advantage of the B-1 was now minimal. It also appeared that the "interim" time frame served by the B-1B would be less than a decade, being rendered obsolete shortly after the introduction of a much more capable ATB design.[66] The primary argument in favor of the B-1 was its large conventional weapon payload, and that its takeoff performance allowed it to operate with a credible bomb load from a much wider variety of airfields. The USAF spread production subcontracts across many congressional districts, making the aircraft more popular on Capitol Hill.[59]

text: B-1A #1 was disassembled and used for radar testing at the Rome Air Development Center at the former Griffiss Air Force Base, New York.[67] B-1As #2 and #4 were then modified to include B-1B systems. The first B-1B was completed and began flight testing in March 1983. The first production B-1B was rolled out on 4 September 1984 and first flew on 18 October 1984.[68] The 100th and final B-1B was delivered on 2 May 1988;[43] before the last B-1B was delivered, the USAF had determined that the aircraft was vulnerable to Soviet air defenses.[69]

text: Design[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text: The B-1 has a blended wing body configuration, with variable-sweep wing, four turbofan engines, triangular fin control surfaces and cruciform tail. The wings can sweep from 15 degrees to 67.5 degrees (full forward to full sweep). Forward-swept wing settings are used for takeoff, landings and high-altitude maximum cruise. Aft-swept wing settings are used in high subsonic and supersonic flight.[70] The B-1's variable-sweep wings and thrust-to-weight ratio provide it with improved takeoff performance, allowing it to use shorter runways than previous bombers.[71] The length of the aircraft presented a flexing problem due to air turbulence at low altitude. To alleviate this, Rockwell included small triangular fin control surfaces or vanes near the nose on the B-1. The B-1's Structural Mode Control System rotates the vanes automatically to counteract turbulence and smooth out the ride.[72]

text: Unlike the B-1A, the B-1B cannot reach Mach 2+ speeds; its maximum speed is Mach 1.25 (about 950 mph or 1,530 km/h at altitude),[73] but its low-level speed increased to Mach 0.92 (700 mph, 1,130 km/h).[63] The speed of the current version of the aircraft is limited by the need to avoid damage to its structure and air intakes. To help lower its radar cross section (RCS), the B-1B uses serpentine air intake ducts (see S-duct) and fixed intake ramps, which limit its speed compared to the B-1A. Vanes in the intake ducts serve to deflect and shield radar emissions from the highly reflective engine compressor blades.[74]

text: The B-1A's engine was modified slightly to produce the GE F101-102 for the B-1B, with an emphasis on durability, and increased efficiency.[75] The core of this engine has since been re-used in several other engine designs, including the GE F110 which has seen use in the F-14 Tomcat, F-15K/SG variants and most recent versions of the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon.[76] It is also the basis for the non-afterburning GE F118 used in the B-2 Spirit and the U-2S.[76] The F101 engine was the basis for the core of the extremely popular CFM56 civil engine, which can be found on some versions of practically every small-to-medium-sized airliner.[77] The nose gear cover door has controls for the auxiliary power units (APUs), which allow for quick starts of the APUs upon order to scramble.[78][79]

text: Avionics[edit]

text: The B-1's main computer is the IBM AP-101, which is also used on the Space Shuttle orbiter and the B-52 bomber.[80] The computer is programmed with the JOVIAL programming language.[81] The Lancer's offensive avionics include the Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman) AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive passive electronically scanned array radar set with electronic beam steering (and a fixed antenna pointed downward for reduced radar observability), synthetic aperture radar, ground moving target indication (GMTI), and terrain-following radar modes, Doppler navigation, radar altimeter, and an inertial navigation suite.[82] The B-1B Block D upgrade added a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver beginning in 1995.[83]

text: The B-1's defensive electronics include the Eaton AN/ALQ-161A radar warning and defensive jamming equipment,[84] which has three sets of antennas; one at the front base of each wing and the third rear-facing in the tail radome.[85][86] Also in the tail radome is the AN/ALQ-153 missile approach warning system (pulse-Doppler radar).[87] The ALQ-161 is linked to a total of eight AN/ALE-49 flare dispensers located on top behind the canopy, which are handled by the AN/ASQ-184 avionics management system.[88] Each AN/ALE-49 dispenser has a capacity of 12 MJU-23A/B flares. The MJU-23A/B flare is one of the world's largest infrared countermeasure flares at a weight of over 3.3 pounds (1.5 kg).[89] The B-1 has also been equipped to carry the ALE-50 towed decoy system.[90]

text: Also aiding the B-1's survivability is its relatively low radar cross-section (RCS). Although not technically a stealth aircraft in a comprehensive sense, thanks to the aircraft's structure, serpentine intake paths and use of radar-absorbent material its RCS is about 1/50th of the similar sized B-52's RCS; this is about 26 ft² or 2.4 m², roughly equivalent to the RCS of a small fighter aircraft.[88][91][92]

text: Upgrades[edit]

text: The B-1 has been upgraded since production, beginning with the "Conventional Mission Upgrade Program" (CMUP), which added a new MIL-STD-1760 smart-weapons interface to enable the use of precision-guided conventional weapons. CMUP began with Block A, which was the standard B-1B with the capability to deliver non-precision gravity bombs. Block B brought an improved Synthetic Aperture Radar, and upgrades to the Defensive Countermeasures System and was fielded in 1995. Block C provided an "enhanced capability" for delivery of up to 30 cluster bomb units (CBUs) per sortie with modifications made to 50 bomb racks.[93]

text: Block D added a "Near Precision Capability" via improved weapons and targeting systems, and added advanced secure communications capabilities.[93] The first part of the electronic countermeasures upgrade added Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), ALE-50 towed decoy system, and anti-jam radios.[84][94][95] Block E upgraded the avionics computers and incorporated the Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) and the AGM-158 JASSM (Joint Air to Surface Standoff Munition), substantially improving the bomber's capability. Upgrades were completed in September 2006.[96] Block F was the Defensive Systems Upgrade Program (DSUP) to improve the aircraft's electronic countermeasures and jamming capabilities, but it was canceled in December 2002 due to cost overruns and schedule slips.[97]

text: In 2005, a program began to upgrade crew stations and integrate data linking.[98] A B-1 equipped with the fully integrated data link (FIDL) first flew on 29 July 2009; the FIDL enables electronic data sharing, eliminating the need to enter information between systems by hand.[99] In January 2013, Boeing delivered the first integrated battle station (IBS) equipped B-1. This replaced several displays with new multi-function color display units, an upgraded central integrated test system, and a newer aircraft performance monitoring computer.[100][101][102] In June 2012, the B-1Bs are receiving Sustainment-Block 16 upgrades to add Link 16 networking and digital flight instrumentation.[103]

text: In 2007, the Sniper XR targeting pod was integrated on the B-1 fleet. The pod is mounted on an external hardpoint at the aircraft's chin near the forward bomb bay.[104] Following accelerated testing, the Sniper pod was fielded in summer 2008.[105][106] Future precision munitions include the Small Diameter Bomb.[107] In 2011, the Air Force was considering upgrading B-1s with multiple ejector racks so that they can carry three times as many smaller JDAMs than previously.[108]

text: In February 2014, work began on a multi-year upgrade of 62 B-1Bs, scheduled to be completed by 2019. The vertical situation display upgrade (VSDU) replaces existing flight instruments with multifunction color displays, a second display aids with threat evasion and targeting, and act as a back-up display. Additional memory capacity is to be installed for the diagnostics database. Procurement and installation of the IBS upgrades is expected to cost $918 million, research and engineering costs are estimated at $391 million. Other additions are to replace the two spinning mass gyroscopic inertial navigation system with ring laser gyroscopic systems and a GPS antenna, replacement of the APQ-164 radar with the Scalable Agile Beam Radar – Global Strike (SABR-GS) active electronically scanned array,[109] and a new attitude indicator.[110]

text: Operational history[edit]

text: Strategic Air Command[edit]

text: The second B-1B, "The Star of Abilene", was the first B-1B delivered to the USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) in June 1985. Initial operational capability was reached on 1 October 1986 and the B-1B was placed on nuclear alert status.[111][112] The B-1 received the official name "Lancer" on 15 March 1990. However, the bomber has been commonly called the "Bone"; a nickname that appears to stem from an early newspaper article on the aircraft wherein its name was phonetically spelled out as "B-ONE" with the hyphen inadvertently omitted.[113]

text: In late 1990, engine fires in two Lancers led to a grounding of the fleet. The cause was traced back to problems in the first-stage fan, the aircraft were placed on "limited alert"; in other words, they were grounded unless a nuclear war broke out. Following inspections and repairs they were returned to duty beginning on 6 February 1991.[114][115] By 1991, the B-1 had a fledgling conventional capability, forty of them able to drop the 500 pounds (230 kg) Mk-82 General Purpose (GP) bomb, although mostly from low altitude. Despite being cleared for this role, the problems with the engines prevented their use in Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War.[69][116] B-1s were primarily reserved for strategic nuclear strike missions at this time, providing the role of airborne nuclear deterrent against the Soviet Union.[116] The B-52 was more suited to the role of conventional warfare and it was used by coalition forces instead.[116]

text: Originally designed strictly for nuclear war, the B-1's development as an effective conventional bomber was delayed. The collapse of the Soviet Union had brought the B-1's nuclear role into question, leading to President George H. W. Bush ordering a $3 billion conventional refit.[117]

text: After the inactivation of Strategic Air Command (SAC) and the establishment of the Air Combat Command (ACC) in 1992, the B-1 developed a greater conventional weapons capability. Part of this development was the start-up of the U.S. Air Force Weapons School B-1 Division.[118] In 1994, two additional B-1 bomb wings were also created in the Air National Guard, with former fighter wings in the Kansas Air National Guard and the Georgia Air National Guard converting to the aircraft.[119] By the mid-1990s, the B-1 could employ GP weapons as well as various CBUs. By the end of the 1990s, with the advent of the "Block D" upgrade, the B-1 boasted a full array of guided and unguided munitions.

text: The B-1B no longer carries nuclear weapons;[38] its nuclear capability was disabled by 1995 with the removal of nuclear arming and fuzing hardware.[120] Under provisions of the New START treaty with Russia, further conversion were performed. These included modification of aircraft hardpoints to prevent nuclear weapon pylons from being attached, removal of weapons bay wiring bundles for arming nuclear weapons, and destruction of nuclear weapon pylons. The conversion process was completed in 2011, and Russian officials inspect the aircraft every year to verify compliance.[121]

text: Conventional role[edit]

text: The B-1 was first used in combat in support of operations in Iraq during Operation Desert Fox in December 1998, employing unguided GP weapons. B-1s have been subsequently used in Operation Allied Force (Kosovo) and, most notably, in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[38] The B-1's role in Operation Allied Force has been criticized as the aircraft was not used until after enemy defenses had been suppressed by aircraft like the older B-52 it was intended to replace.[69] The B-1 has deployed an array of conventional weapons in war zones, most notably the GBU-31, 2,000 pounds (910 kg) Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM).[38] In the first six months of Operation Enduring Freedom, eight B-1s dropped almost 40 percent of aerial ordnance, including some 3,900 JDAMs.[110] JDAM munitions were heavily used by the B-1 over Iraq, notably on 7 April 2003 in an unsuccessful attempt to kill Saddam Hussein and his two sons.[122] At the height of the Iraq War, a B-1 was continuously kept airborne to provide rapid precision bombardment upon important targets as intelligence identified them.[123] During Operation Enduring Freedom, the B-1 was able to raise its mission capable rate to 79%.[90]

text: The B-1 has higher survivability and speed than the older B-52, which it was intended to replace. It also holds 61 FAI world records for speed, payload, distance, and time-to-climb in different aircraft weight classes.[124][125] In November 1993, three B-1Bs set a long distance record for the aircraft, which demonstrated its ability to conduct extended mission lengths to strike anywhere in the world and return to base without any stops.[126] The National Aeronautic Association recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record flights for 1994.[90]

text: Of the 100 B-1Bs built, 93 remained in 2000 after losses in accidents. In June 2001, the Pentagon sought to place one-third of its then fleet into storage; this proposal resulted in several U.S. Air National Guard officers and members of Congress lobbying against the proposal, including the drafting of an amendment to prevent such cuts.[69] The 2001 proposal was intended to allow money to be diverted to further upgrades to the remaining B-1Bs, such as computer modernization.[69] In 2003, accompanied by the removal of B-1Bs from the two bomb wings in the Air National Guard, the USAF decided to retire 33 aircraft to concentrate its budget on maintaining availability of remaining B-1Bs.[127] In 2004, a new appropriation bill called for some of the retired aircraft to return to service,[128] and the USAF returned seven mothballed bombers to service to increase the fleet to 67 aircraft.[129] Currently (Sept 2017) the Air Force retains an active inventory of 62 aircraft assigned to squadrons at Dyess AFB, Texas and Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota.[130]

text: On 14 July 2007, the Associated Press reported on the growing USAF presence in Iraq, including reintroduction of B-1Bs as a close-at-hand platform to support Coalition ground forces.[131] Since 2008, B-1s have been used in Iraq and Afghanistan in an "armed overwatch" role, loitering for surveillance purposes while ready to deliver guided bombs in support of ground troops if contacted.[132][133]

text: The B-1B underwent a series of flight tests using a 50/50 mix of synthetic and petroleum fuel; on 19 March 2008, a B-1B from Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, became the first USAF aircraft to fly at supersonic speed using a synthetic fuel during a flight over Texas and New Mexico. This was conducted as part of an ongoing Air Force testing and certification program to reduce reliance on traditional oil sources.[134] On 4 August 2008, a B-1B flew the first Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod equipped combat sortie where the crew successfully targeted enemy ground forces and dropped a GBU-38 guided bomb in Afghanistan.[105]

text: In March 2011, B-1Bs from Ellsworth Air Force Base attacked undisclosed targets in Libya as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn.[135]

text: With upgrades to keep the B-1 viable, the Air Force may keep it in service until approximately 2038.[136] Despite upgrades, the B-1 has repair and cost issues; every flight hour needs 48.4 hours of repair. The fuel, repairs, and other needs for a 12-hour mission cost $720,000 as of 2010.[137] The $63,000 cost per flight hour is, however, less than the $72,000 for the B-52 and the $135,000 of the B-2.[138] In June 2010, senior USAF officials met to consider retiring the entire fleet to meet budget cuts.[139] The Pentagon plans to begin replacing the aircraft with the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider after 2025.[140] In the meantime, its "capabilities are particularly well-suited to the vast distances and unique challenges of the Pacific region, and we'll continue to invest in, and rely on, the B-1 in support of the focus on the Pacific" as part of President Obama's "Pivot to East Asia".[141]

text: In August 2012, the 9th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron returned from a six-month tour in Afghanistan. Its 9 B-1Bs flew 770 sorties, the most of any B-1B squadron on a single deployment. The squadron spent 9,500 hours airborne, keeping one of its bombers in the air at all times. They accounted for a quarter of all combat aircraft sorties over the country during that time and fulfilled an average of two to three air support requests per day.[142] On 4 September 2013, a B-1B participated in a maritime evaluation exercise, deploying munitions such as laser-guided 500 lb GBU-54 bombs, 500 lb and 2,000 lb Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM), and Long Range Anti-Ship Missiles (LRASM). The aim was to detect and engage several small craft using existing weapons and tactics developed from conventional warfare against ground targets; the B-1 is seen as a useful asset for maritime duties such as patrolling shipping lanes.[143]

text: The USAF had 66 B-1Bs in service in September 2012, split among four squadrons organized into two Bomb Wings: the 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB, Texas, and the 28th Bomb Wing at Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota.[101][144]

text: Beginning in 2014, the B-1 was used by the U.S. against the Islamic State (IS) in the Syrian Civil War.[145] From August 2014 to January 2015, the B-1 accounted for eight percent of USAF sorties during Operation Inherent Resolve.[146] The 9th Bomb Squadron was deployed to Qatar in July 2014 to support missions in Afghanistan, but when the air campaign against IS began on 8 August, the aircraft were employed in Iraq. During the Battle of Kobane in Syria, the squadron's B-1s dropped 660 bombs over 5 months in support of Kurdish forces defending the city, one-third of all bombs used during OIR during the period, killing some 1,000 ISIL fighters. The 9th Bomb Squadron’s B-1s went "Winchester", dropping all weapons on board, 31 times during their deployment. They dropped over 2,000 JDAMs during the 6-month rotation.[147] B-1s from the 28th Bomb Wing flew 490 sorties where they dropped 3,800 munitions on 3,700 targets during a six-month deployment. In February 2016, the B-1s were sent back to the U.S. for cockpit upgrades.[148]

text: As part of a USAF organizational realignment announced in April 2015, all B-1B aircraft are to be reassigned from Air Combat Command to Global Strike Command (GSC) effective 1 October 2015.[149]

text: On 8 July 2017, the USAF flew two B-1 Lancers near the North Korean border in a show of force amid increasing tensions, particularly in response to North Korea's 4 July test of an ICBM capable of reaching Alaska.[150]

text: Variants[edit]

text: Operators[edit]

text: The USAF had 66 B-1Bs in service as of 2012.[144]

text:
7th Bomb Wing – Dyess AFB, Texas

9th Bomb Squadron 1993–present
13th Bomb Squadron 2000–2005
28th Bomb Squadron 1994–present
337th Bomb Squadron 1993–1994

28th Bomb Wing – Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota

34th Bomb Squadron 1994–1997, 2002–present
37th Bomb Squadron 1986–present
77th Bomb Squadron 1985–95, 1997–2002

53d Test and Evaluation Group – Nellis AFB, Nevada

337th Test and Evaluation Squadron (Dyess AFB, Texas) 2004–present

57th Wing – Nellis AFB, Nevada

77th Weapons Squadron (Dyess AFB, Texas) 2003–present

96th Bomb Wing – Dyess AFB, Texas

337th Bomb Squadron 1985–1993
338th Combat Crew Training Squadron 1986–1993
4018th Combat Crew Training Squadron 1985–1986

319th Bomb Wing – Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota 1987–1994

46th Bomb Squadron

366th Wing – Mountain Home AFB, Idaho 1997–2002

34th Bomb Squadron

384th Bomb Wing – McConnell AFB, Kansas 1987–1994

28th Bomb Squadron

text:
116th Bomb Wing (Georgia Air National Guard) – Robins AFB, Georgia 1996–2002

128th Bomb Squadron

184th Bomb Wing (Kansas Air National Guard) – McConnell AFB, Kansas 1994–2002

127th Bomb Squadron

text:
412th Operations Group 1989–1992

410th Flight Test Squadron

412th Test Wing 1992–present

419th Flight Test Squadron

6510th Test Wing 1974–1989

6519th Flight Test Squadron

text: Aircraft on display[edit]

text:
74-0160 – Wings Over the Rockies Museum at the former Lowry Air Force Base in Denver, Colorado.[154]
76-0174 – Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum near Ashland, Nebraska. This aircraft has conventional ejection seats and other features used on the B-1B variant.[155]

text:
83-0065 Star of Abilene – Dyess Linear Air Park at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas. This was the first aircraft delivered to the U.S. Air Force. Dyess AFB is home to one of two active Air Force B-1B wings.[156]
83-0066 Ole Puss – Heritage Park at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho with wheels in the wells.[157]
83-0067 Texas Raider – South Dakota Air and Space Museum at Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota. Ellsworth AFB is home to one of two active Air Force B-1B wings.[158]
83-0068 Spuds – Reflections of Freedom Air Park at McConnell Air Force Base in Wichita, Kansas, a former Air Force and Air National Guard B-1B base.[159]
83-0069 Silent Penetrator – Museum of Aviation at Robins Air Force Base in Warner Robins, Georgia, a former Air National Guard B-1B base. This aircraft was the sixth B-1 produced, and was delivered to the 96th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB, Texas on 13 March 1986. This aircraft arrived at Robins AFB in September 2002. Robins AFB was previously home to one of two Air National Guard B-1B wings.[160] Renamed Midnight Train From Georgia by April 2015
83-0070 7 Wishes – Hill Aerospace Museum at Hill Air Force Base in Ogden, Utah.[161]
83-0071 Spit Fire – near the main gate at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma. This aircraft was one of two that suffered an in-flight engine failure in 1990 that led to grounding of the fleet.[162]
84-0051 Boss Hawg – National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio. It is displayed in the Museum's Cold War Gallery, and replaces the B-1A (76-0174) formerly on display.[163]

text: Accidents and incidents[edit]

text: Ten B-1s have been lost due to accidents. Between 1984 and 2001, 17 crew members and people on board were killed in B-1 accidents.[164]

text: Crashes[edit]

text:
On 29 August 1984, B-1A (AF Ser. No. 74-0159) stalled and crashed while performing minimum control speed tests at low altitude. The crew used the escape capsule to leave the bomber, but the parachutes deployed improperly, causing the capsule to hit nose down. The impact killed the B-1's pilot, Rockwell test pilot Doug Benefield, and seriously injured two other crew members.[165][166]
In September 1987, B-1B (s/n 84-0052) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 338th Combat Crew Training Squadron, Dyess AFB crashed near La Junta, Colorado while flying on a low-level training route. This was the only B-1B crash to occur with six crew members aboard. The two crew members in jump seats, and one of the four crew members in ejection seats perished. The root cause of the accident was thought to be a bird strike on a wing's leading edge during the low-level flight. The impact was severe enough to sever fuel and hydraulic lines on one side of the aircraft, the other side's engines functioned long enough to allow for ejection. The B-1B fleet was later modified to protect these supply lines.[167]
In November 1988, B-1B (s/n 85-0063) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB crashed near Tye, Texas after a fire broke out above the left engines. All four crew members successfully ejected from the aircraft.[167]
In November 1988, B-1B (s/n 85-0076) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB crashed short of the runway at Ellsworth AFB during adverse weather. All four crew members ejected successfully.[167]
In November 1992, B-1B (s/n 86-0106) from the 7th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, flying on a low-level training flight crashed into a mountain near Van Horn, Texas. All four members of the crew were killed, and the cause was attributed to pilot error.[167]
In September 1997, B-1B (s/n 85-0078) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, flying in the Powder River Military Operating Area crashed 25 miles (40 kilometres) north of Alzada, Montana. All four members of the crew were killed.[167][168] The review board found that the bomber struck the ground due to pilot error, while performing a defensive maneuver during training.[169]
On 18 February 1998, B-1B (s/n 84-0057) from the 7th Bomb Wing, Dyess AFB, Texas crashed near Marion, Kentucky when a fire detected by a cockpit instrument panel shut down the aircraft's power.[170] All four crew members were able to eject and were rescued safely.[171]
In December 2001, B-1B (s/n 86-0114) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, was lost over the Indian Ocean. All four crew members successfully ejected and were rescued.[172] The bomber was flying en route to a long-range combat mission over Afghanistan when the crew declared an in-flight emergency. The pilot, Captain William Steele, attributed the crash to "multiple malfunctions" causing the bomber to go "out of control".[164] Because of the water's depth, the structural data collector (SDC) or "Black Box" was not recovered and the cause was not positively determined. The aircraft had recently returned from a routine Phase Inspection, and was on its first combat mission after returning to the island of Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory. This was the first B-1B to be lost during combat operations.[164][173]
On 4 April 2008, B-1B (s/n 86-0116) lost hydraulic power while taxiing, then crashed into a concrete barrier and caught fire at Al Udeid AB, Qatar. The crew safely evacuated the aircraft. The aircraft was carrying several bombs at the time, most of which detonated in succession during the fire. The aircraft was destroyed.[174]
On 19 August 2013, B-1B (AF Ser. No. 85-0091) out of Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota crashed in a remote area near Broadus, Montana. All four crew members survived by ejecting before the aircraft crashed.[175] A report found that the crash was due to a mechanical failure leading to a fuel leak and explosions.[176][177]

text: Other accidents and notable incidents[edit]

text:
On 4 October 1989, B-1B (s/n 85-0070) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, was forced to make an emergency landing at Edwards Air Force Base after suffering an in-flight failure of the No. 2 hydraulic system, which required use of the No 3 system to deploy the landing gear. After the nose gear failed to deploy, the crew attempted to lower the nose gear via the alternate emergency gear-extension method. After several hours of attempting different means to lower the nose gear, the decision was made to perform a nose-gear-up landing on Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards. The lower portion of the forward bulkhead used to mount the radar antenna was the only part of the aircraft to suffer damage, and after repairs, the jet was returned to Dyess in January 1990 by the same crew which performed the emergency landing.[178]
In October 1990, while flying a training route in eastern Colorado, B-1B (s/n 86-0128) from the 384th Bomb Wing, 28th Bomb Squadron, McConnell AFB, experienced an explosion as the engines reached full power without afterburners. Fire on the aircraft's left was spotted. The #1 engine was shut down and its fire extinguisher was activated. The accident investigation determined that the engine had suffered catastrophic failure, engine blades had cut through the engine mounts and the engine became detached from the aircraft.[167]
In December 1990, B-1B (s/n 83-0071) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, experienced a jolt that caused the #3 engine to shut down with its fire extinguisher activating. This event, coupled with the October 1990 engine incident, led to a 50+ day grounding of the B-1Bs not on nuclear alert status. The problem was eventually traced back to problems in the first-stage fan, and all B-1Bs were equipped with modified engines.[167]
In June 1994, B-1B (s/n 84-0057) from the 7th Bomb Wing, 9th Bomb Squadron, made an emergency diversion to Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany due to a wing sweep malfunction. The crew made a high speed landing at Rhein-Main and stopped 100 feet short of the end of the runway. Afterward the overheated brakes led to a fire in the right main landing gear, but it was quickly extinguished.[179]
On 15 September 2005, B-1B (s/n 85-0066) was extensively damaged by fire while landing at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam. The investigation into the incident concluded that leaking hydraulic fluid and sparks from a wheel being gouged caused a fire to start in the aircraft's right main landing gear as it touched down. The resulting fire damaged the B-1's right wing, engine nacelle, airframe and landing gear, leading to an estimated repair cost of more than $32 million.[180]
On 8 May 2006, B-1B (s/n 86-0132) from the 7th Bomb Wing, 9th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, landed "gear-up" during recovery from an 11-hour ferry flight to the island of Diego Garcia. A resulting fire was quickly extinguished and the crew escaped through the top hatch with only a minor back injury to the co-pilot. The air force investigation concluded that the crew "forgot to lower the landing gear" based on the following reasons: 1) co-pilot task oversaturation, 2) co-pilot's wanting to complete a long mission, 3) neither pilot completed the landing checklist, 4) co-pilot's belief that the pilot had lowered the landing gear when he had not, 5) pilot had turned over control to the co-pilot on the final approach and the pilot had reported to base that the landing gear was down when it was not – indicator lights showing the landing gear was still up were working and apparently ignored. As a result, the B-1B impacted and slid on the runway, which caused approximately $8 million of damage to the aircraft and runway.[181]

text: Specifications (B-1B)[edit]

text:
External image

Rockwell B-1A Cutaway

 Rockwell B-1A Cutaway from Flightglobal.com

text: Data from USAF Fact Sheet,[90] Jenkins,[182] Pace,[63] Lee[84] except where noted

text: General characteristics

text:
Crew: 4 (aircraft commander, copilot, offensive systems officer, and defensive systems officer)
Payload: 125,000 lb (56,700 kg) ; internal and external ordnance combined
Length: 146 ft (44.5 m)
Wingspan:

Extended: 137 ft (42 m)
Swept: 79 ft (24 m)

Height: 34 ft (10.4 m)
Wing area: 1,950 ft² (181.2 m²)
Airfoil: NACA69-190-2
Empty weight: 192,000 lb (87,100 kg)
Loaded weight: 326,000 lb (148,000 kg)
Max. takeoff weight: 477,000 lb (216,400 kg)
Fuel capacity, optional: 10,000 U.S. gal (37,900 L) fuel tank each in 1–3 internal weapons bays
Powerplant: 4 × General Electric F101-GE-102 augmented turbofans

Dry thrust: 17,390 lbf (77.4 kN) each
Thrust with afterburner: 30,780 lbf (136.92 kN) each

text: Performance

text:
Maximum speed:

At altitude: Mach 1.25 (830 mph, 720 kn, 1,340 km/h) at 40,000 ft (12,000 m) altitude
At low level: Mach 0.92 (700 mph, 610 kn, 1,100 km/h) at 200–500 ft (60–150 m) altitude

Range: 5,100 nmi (5,900 mi; 9,400 km)
Combat radius: 2,993 nmi (3,444 mi; 5,543 km)
Service ceiling: 60,000 ft (18,000 m)
Rate of climb: 5,678 ft/min[183] (28.86 m/s)
Wing loading: 167 lb/ft² (816 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 0.28

text: Armament

text:
Hardpoints: 6 external hardpoints for 50,000 pounds (23,000 kg) of ordnance (use for weapons restricted by arms treaties[105][189]) and 3 internal bomb bays for 75,000 pounds (34,000 kg) of ordnance.[190]
Bombs:

84× Mk-82 Air inflatable retarder (AIR) general purpose (GP) bombs[184]
81× Mk-82 low drag general purpose (LDGP) bombs[185]
84× Mk-62 Quickstrike sea mines[186]
24× Mk-84 general purpose bombs
24× Mk-65 naval mines[187]
30× CBU-87/89/CBU-97 Cluster Bomb Units (CBU)[N 2]
30× CBU-103/104/105 Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD) CBUs
24× GBU-31 JDAM GPS guided bombs (Mk-84 GP or BLU-109 warhead)[N 3]
15× GBU-38 JDAM GPS guided bombs (Mk-82 GP warhead)[N 4]
48× GBU-38 JDAM (using rotary launcher mounted multiple ejector racks)[188]
48× GBU-54 LaserJDAM (using rotary launcher mounted multiple ejector racks)[188]
96× or 144× GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb GPS guided bombs[N 5] (not fielded on B-1 yet)
24× AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW)
24× AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM)

text: Avionics

text:
1× AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive Passive electronically scanned array radar
1× AN/ALQ-161 radar warning receiver and defensive jamming equipment
1× AN/ASQ-184 defensive management system
1× Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod (optional)[191][192]

text:
[show]B-1B Lancer internal weapons loads

Bomb rack & stores[193]
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Total

Conventional

CBM
2816 to 3513 lb
1
1
1

Mk-82
Mk-82 AIR
Mk-36
Mk-62

28
28
28
84

Conventional

SECBM
(CBM w/ TMD upgrade)
2816 lb empty
1
1
1

CBU-87
CBU-89
CBU-97
CBU-103
CBU-104
CBU-105

10
10
10
30

GBU-38
6
6
3
15

Multi-purpose

MPRL
1300 to 2055 lb
1
1
1

Mk-84
GBU-31
AGM-154
AGM-158

8
8
8
24

Mk-65 naval mines
4
4
4
12

4-pack GBU-39
6-pack GBU-39

8
8
8
96 or 144

Multi-purpose (mixed)

MPRL
(MER upgrade)[194]
1
1
1

GBU-38, GBU-32, GBU-31

4
4
4
36

GBU-38
16
16
16
48

Ferry/range extension

Fuel tank
2975 gal[195]
1
1
1
3
9157 gal[196]

Nuclear (uniform; out of use)

MPRL
1300 to 2055 lb

1
1
1

B28[197]
4
4
4
12

AGM-69
B61
B83

8
8
8
24

Nuclear (mixed)(out of use)[198]

CSRL

1

AGM-86B
Small fuel tank
8

8

text:
[show]External weapons loads (mostly unused due to RCS)

Bomb rack & stores[193]
Fwd stations 1–2
Int. stations 3–6
Aft stations 7–8
Total

Nuclear (out of use)

Dual-pylon
2
2
2

Single-pylon

2

AGM-86B
B-61

2×2
2×2 + 2
2×2
14
(restricted to 12 under SALT II)[198]

Conventional (uniform)

Mk-82
2×6
2×6 + 2×6
2×6
44

Targeting[199]

Pylon
884 lb
1 (right station)

Sniper XR targeting pod
1 (right station)

1
440 lb

Ferry/range extension[196][200]

Fuel tank
923 gal
2
2
2
6
5538 gal

text: Notable appearances in media[edit]


document_title: The Forest (TV series)

question_text: where does the show the forest take place

root

text: The Forest (TV series)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Police investigate after a teenaged girl, Jennifer Lenoir, disappears in a forest in the Ardennes, France,[3][4] and are assisted by her teacher, who had a traumatic experience in the same forest when she was young.[5]

tag: p

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Suzanne Clément as Virginie Musso
Samuel Labarthe as Gaspard Decker
Alexia Barlier as Ève Mendel
Frédéric Diefenthal as Vincent Musso
Patrick Ridremont as Thierry Rouget
Nicolas Marié as Gilles Lopez
Martha Canga Antonio as Maya Musso
François Neycken as Julien
Gilles Vandeweerd as Philippe
Mélusine Loveniers as Lola Decker
Christian Crahay as Abraham Mendel
Inès Bailly as Océane Rouget
Isis Guillaume as Jennifer Lenoir

tag: ul

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.TitleDirected byWritten by1"Episode 1"Julius BergDelinda Jacobs
When Jennifer, 16, disappears in the woods around the quiet village of Montfaucon, her best friends, Océane and Maya, seem at first unconcerned. Maya is accused of writing a threatening message on Jennifer's locker. Their mysterious teacher Ève Mendel receives a panicked call from Jennifer before it was disconnected. Lieutenant Virginie Musso (Maya's adopted mother) and Captain Decker investigate and discover other strange occurrences in the forest, including the unsolved case of two missing women, camper Louise Martin, who disappeared in 2005, and schoolgirl Mélanie Krootz, who disappeared in 2006. Ève also has a strange history with the forest, having been found there as a 6-year-old child injured and with no memory of what happened to her. Jennifer's clothes arrive in the mail at the Musso house, addressed to Virginie.
2"Episode 2"Julius BergDelinda Jacobs
Maya confronts her father, Vincent, about his affair with Jennifer, which she uncovered. He claims it was a horrible mistake and was over. A map is found on Ève's windshield that leads to Jennifer's body, buried naked in the forest surrounded by a makeshift shrine. An autopsy determines she was raped and murdered. CCTV footage leads them to believe Jennifer was first raped and mailed her own clothes to Virginie as evidence before her disappearance. Océane and Maya suddenly vanish, their phones shut off like Jennifer's was. A local man, Manoa Willem, is found at Jennifer's grave and attacks a police officer in the forest. He had grown up like a hermit in the forest before eventually killing his father at age 17, and spent seven years in an institution, and was released three weeks before the first girl disappeared a decade earlier. Diagnosed autistic, Manoa only says the name "Joe" and draws spirals in response to police questioning. But he is not a DNA match to the semen found on Jennifer's body and clothes.
3"Episode 3"Julius BergDelinda Jacobs
Ève follows a white wolf in the forest and discovers Manoa's dwelling, with female undergarments and a doll. Virginie doesn't recognize them as belonging to Maya. They discover all three girls had been visiting an internet cafe, usually together, where they chatted with the same individual. A video reveals the teens had been auctioning off their virginity. Ève sees old video tape of her as a child after she was found, acting feral and playing with a similar doll as the one found in Manoa's cabin. Manoa escapes from police custody, attacking Virginie in the process, and breaks into Ève's home. He points to a photo of Jennifer and calls her "Joe" and indicates the other two girls are in the forest. Ève drives with him to the forest, but when Manoa is startled by a car, he jumps on her and covers her mouth. She escapes and drives away. Vincent sneaks into the police station to take the DNA sample police took from him in a mass screening of local men, but can't locate his. Ève tells Decker of the video from her taking by the psychiatrist who adopted her and that she had drawn the same spirals Manoa was drawing. They go to her home and discover the tapes burned and Manoa's body, hanging from the roof.
4"Episode 4"Julius BergDelinda Jacobs
Manoa's death appears to be a suicide, but Decker wonders if he had an accomplice who killed him. Vincent is arrested after the DNA test results come back. He admits to having unprotected sex with Jennifer the day she disappeared but denies raping or killing her. He claims he broke up with her and the reason she sent her clothes to Virginie was to get revenge. The police arrest a man they tracked online who hired Océane as a prostitute, and he claims she is alive and with Maya, and they will be at a two-day party. The police locate Océane but the girl she is with isn't Maya. Océane admits talking Maya into prostitution as well, but Maya backed out at the last moment. Ève searches the forest and finds a cave with children's clothing and the spirals carved into rock. She thinks as a child, before she was found, Manoa took care of her in the cave. Autopsy results confirm Manoa was murdered, and Decker suspects he was a witness to the actual murder and is the one who led police to Jennifer's body. Ève follows another white wolf and discovers bones in a shallow grave.
5"Episode 5"Julius BergDelinda Jacobs
Two sets of bones are unearthed, one of which belonged to Mélanie Krootz, the missing schoolgirl. The other skeleton was buried much earlier and belonged to a woman who had given birth, and DNA confirms it was Ève's mother. Someone abducts Ève and attempts to kill her, but she is saved by Océane's father, Thierry, who is arrested after police discover he had been burglarizing homes. Océane comes to stay with Ève and her father. Someone vandalizes the high school and steals old photos from a display case. Ève tracks down photos of the display case and discovers the principal, Mr. Lopez, in an Olympic team jacket (Jeux Olympiques) and realizes that he is "JO."
6"Episode 6"Julius BergDelinda Jacobs
Police raid Lopez's house and discover video message from Maya for Virginie, pleading with her to follow Lopez's instructions.

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: The Forest was shot mostly in the Belgian region of Wallonia[6] around Brussels, as well as Dinant, Namur, Rixensart and Court-Saint-Étienne. Filming also took place in France in the Ardennes, particularly around the River Meuse and communes of Haybes and Fumay. The final sequence was shot in Bray-Dunes near Dunkirk.[7]


document_title: St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)

question_text: what is the largest cathedral in new york city

text: St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)

text: History[edit]

text: Purchase of the property[edit]

text: The land on which the present cathedral stands was purchased in 1810.[5][6] The Jesuit community built a college on the site,[7] three miles north of the city. It contained a "fine old house" which was fitted with a chapel of St. Ignatius.[8] The school closed in 1814 and the Jesuits sold the lot to the diocese. In 1813, the diocese gave use of the property to Dom Augustin LeStrange, abbot of a community of Trappists (from the original monastery of La Trappe) who came to America fleeing persecution by French authorities. In addition to a small monastic community, they also looked after some thirty-three orphans. With the downfall of Napoleon in that year, the Trappists returned to France in 1815, abandoning the property. The property at this point was designated for a future cemetery. The neighboring orphanage was maintained by the diocese into the late nineteenth century. Some of the Trappists resettled to Canada and eventually founded St. Joseph's Abbey in Spencer, Massachusetts.[9]

text: Bishop DuBois reopened the chapel in 1840 for Catholics employed at the Deaf and Dumb Asylum and in the general neighborhood.[8] A modest frame church was built for the parish of St. John the Evangelist and dedicated May 9, 1841 by the Rev. John Hughes, administrator of the diocese. Tickets were sold to the dedication to ease the parish's debt level, managed by a lay Board of Trustees, but to no avail and the property mortgage was finally foreclosed on and the church sold at auction in 1844.[8] The stress is said to have contributed to the death that year of the church's pastor, the Rev. Felix Larkin.[8] The experience was blamed on the management of the trustees and this incident is said to have played a significant role in the abolishment of the lay trusteeship, which occurred shortly thereafter.[8] The young and energetic Rev. Michael A. Curran was appointed to raise funds for the devastated parish, and shortly fitted up an old college hall as a temporary church.[8] Fr. Curran continued raising funds to buy back the church during the Great Famine in Ireland, eventually succeeding and taking the deed in his own name.[8] "The site of St. Patrick's Cathedral, hence, came to the Church through the labors of this young priest and the self-denial of his countrymen and not by the gift of the city."[8] The debt was finally all paid for by 1853 when it was clear a large church was needed and the site was selected as appropriate for the new cathedral.[8]

text: Construction of the cathedral[edit]

text: The Diocese of New York, created in 1808, was made an archdiocese by Pope Pius IX on July 19, 1850. In 1853, Archbishop John Joseph Hughes announced his intention to erect a new cathedral to replace the Old Saint Patrick's Cathedral in Lower Manhattan. The new cathedral was designed by James Renwick Jr. in the Gothic Revival style. On August 15, 1858, the cornerstone was laid, just south of the diocese's orphanage. At that time, present-day midtown Manhattan was far north of the populous areas of New York City.[10]

text: Work began in 1858 but was halted during the Civil War and resumed in 1865. The cathedral was completed in 1878 and dedicated on May 25, 1879, its huge proportions dominating the midtown of that time. The archbishop's house and rectory were added in 1880, both by James Renwick Jr., and an adjacent school (no longer in existence) opened in 1882.[11] The spires were added in 1888, and at 329 feet and 6 inches (100.4 meters) were the tallest structures in New York City and the second highest in the United States.[1] An addition on the east, including a Lady chapel, designed by Charles T. Mathews, was constructed from 1901 to 1906.[11] The Lady Chapel's stained-glass windows were made between 1912 and 1930 by English stained glass artist and designer Paul Vincent Woodroffe.[12] In 1927 and 1931, the cathedral was renovated, which included enlarging the sanctuary and installing the great organ.[13] The cathedral and associated buildings were declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976.[5][14][15]

text: Restoration[edit]

text: An extensive restoration of the cathedral was begun in 2012 and lasted 3 years at a cost of $177 million.[16] Overseen by MBB Architects  (Murphy Burnham & Buttrick) and Construction Manager Structure Tone, the award-winning restoration reversed decades of decay and soot.[17][18] The restoration was completed by September 17, 2015, before Pope Francis visited the cathedral on September 24 and 25, 2015.[19] The restoration cleaned the exterior marble, repaired stained glass windows, and painted the ceiling, repaired the flooring and steps, among many restorations.[20] The cathedral and the renovations were featured on WNET's television program Treasures of New York.[21]

text: In 2017, MBB Architects and Structure Tone, along with Landmark Facilities Group and P.W. Grosser, completed the design and installation of a new geothermal system believed to be the largest in New York City.[22] The geothermal system replaced the steam radiators and 1960s-era air conditioning in the cathedral.

text: Terrorism[edit]

text: On October 13, 1914, a bomb exploded on the northwest corner of St. Patrick's Cathedral. It caused a panic, but not severe damage, splintering some and tearing an 18-inch hole in the floor. Despite a full church that day, there was only one victim – a young boy – whose head was grazed by a flying piece of metal. Authorities believed this event was linked to another bombing earlier that day, downtown at St. Alphonsus Church on West Broadway.[23] The Communists reportedly celebrated bombings at this and other churches, while police suspected an Industrial Workers of the World plot.[24] There were no arrests made that day.

text: In March 1915, Italian anarchists, Frank Abarno, and Carmine Carbone were arrested for attempting to detonate a bomb in the cathedral. Arbarno and Carbone were under the influence of Luigi Galleani. Abarno was in St. Patrick's ready to light the bomb fuse when Amedeo Polignani, a New York City police detective, who had gone undercover to infiltrate the group, intervened. Polignani had been operating under the direction of the head of the bomb squad, Thomas Tunney. Arbano was arrested at the scene and Carbone was arrested at his home. The two defendants claimed entrapment, but were nonetheless convicted and given sentences of between 6 and 12 years.[25][26][27]

text: In the 1950s, starting in January 1951, a letter threatened that a bomb would be set off at a Sunday mass, and there would be five more threats between December 1951 and July 1952. On July 12, a voice over the telephone warned "your beautiful cathedral will be blown up before midnight."[28]

text: Architectural features[edit]

text: St. Patrick's Cathedral is the largest decorated Neo-Gothic-style Catholic cathedral in North America. The cathedral, which can accommodate 3,000 people, is built of brick clad in marble, quarried in Massachusetts and New York. The main block of the cathedral is made of Tuckahoe marble.[29] It takes up a whole city block, between 50th and 51st streets, Madison Avenue and Fifth Avenue. At the transepts, it is 174 feet (53.0 meters) wide and 332 feet (101.2 meters) long. The spires rise 330 feet (100.6 meters) from street level. The slate for the roof came from Monson, Maine.[12]

text: Stained glass[edit]

text: The windows were made by artists in Boston, Massachusetts, and European artists from Chartres, France, and Birmingham, England. Charles Connick created the rose window.[12]

text: Altar[edit]

text: The Roman artist Paolo Medici designed the Saint Elizabeth altar. The Saint Jean-Baptiste de La Salle altar, one of the few original side-chapel altars, was sculpted by Dominic Borgia. The Papal bull is featured in the adjoining stained-glass window. Tiffany & Co. designed the Saint Louis and the Saint Michael altar.[12]

text: In the late 1930s and early 1940s, there was a renovation of the cathedral's main altar area under the guidance of Archbishop Francis Spellman, who later became cardinal. The previous high altar and reredos were removed and are now located at Spellman's alma mater, Fordham University, in the University Church. The new items include the sanctuary bronze baldachin and the rose stained glass window. The altar was further renovated in the 1980s, under the direction of Cardinal John Joseph O'Connor. To be more visible to the congregation, a stone altar was built from sections of the side altars and added to the middle of the sanctuary.[12] However, this altar was removed in 2013.

text: Art works[edit]

text: The Pietà, sculpted by William Ordway Partridge, is three times larger than Michelangelo's Pietà. The cathedral's Stations of the Cross won an 1893 artistry prize at Chicago's World's Columbian Exposition. Commemorating his visit to the city in 1979, Pope John Paul II's bust is located in the rear of the cathedral.[12]

text: Music[edit]

text: Organs[edit]

text: St. Patrick's Cathedral has two pipe organs. The Gallery Organ is located in the Choir Gallery below the Rose Window over the Fifth Avenue entrance and in the Triforium, near the South Transept. The Chancell Organ is located in the North Ambulatory next to the Chapel of St. Joseph.

text: First organs[edit]

text: The first organ in the Cathedral was built by George Jardine & Son, one of New York's most distinguished organ builders, and installed in 1879. It was composed of 4 manuals with 51 stops and 56 ranks.

text: In 1880, J.H. & C.S. Odell, then also from New York City, installed an organ in the chancel. It was composed of 2 manuals with 20 stops and 23 ranks.

text: Kilgen organs[edit]

text: With the addition to the music staff of Pietro Yon in 1927, plans were initiated to replace the organs. The firm of George Kilgen & Son of St. Louis, Missouri, was engaged to build two new instruments according to designs which were heavily influenced by the Cathedral's world-renowned organist.

text: During the building period it was determined that the Gallery would need to be extended to accommodate the new Gallery Organ. In the late 1920s, a concrete reinforced extension to the original Gallery was constructed.

text: The Chancel Organ was dedicated on January 30, 1928. It is encased in a carved oak screen ornamented with Gothic elements of design and symbolism. It had 1,480 pipes; located on the opposite side of the Ambulatory, diagonally across from the console.

text: The Gallery Organ, dedicated on February 11, 1930, required three years to build at a cost of $250,000. It has one of the nation's most glorious wood facades. It was designed by Robert J. Reiley, consulting architect of the Cathedral, and is adorned with angels and Latin inscriptions. It contained 7,855 pipes ranging in length from thirty-two feet to one-half inch. The longest pipes run horizontally across the North and South Triforia.

text: In the 1940s and 1950s tonal changes were made. In the 1970s and 1980s additional renovations were made by Jack Steinkampf of Yonkers, New York, particularly in the revoicing of flutes and reeds, and the addition of the Trumpette en Chamade.

text: Peragallo restoration[edit]

text: In 1993, it was decided that the organs need to undergo major restoration. The first and most essential part of the restoration project was to acquire new consoles for both the Gallery and Chancel Organs to replace the original ones which had deteriorated beyond repair. Twin five-manual consoles were constructed by Robert Turner of Hacienda Heights, California. Solid State Logic, Ltd. of England designed and engineered the combination action. The use of fiber-optic wiring enables both consoles to control the Gallery, Chancel and Nave Organs at the same time. Installation of the Gallery console was finished in time for Christmas Midnight Mass in 1993. The Chancel console was installed in early 1994.

text: For six weeks in January and February 1994, scaffolding filled the Gallery to provide access for wood craftsmen to begin the arduous process of cleaning, repairing, and oiling the hand-carved organ facade. Meanwhile, the Peragallo Pipe Organ Company of Paterson, New Jersey had been awarded the contract to clean and restore all of the pipework as well as the chests and wind systems. Their first task was to remove all the facade pipes for cleaning and refinishing. It was decided to return the pipework to its original zinc finish, only adding a protective coating to avoid oxidation in the future. After completing work on the facade, Peragallo moved to the interior of the instrument for the purpose of restoring the Great, Choir, Swell, Solo, String and Pedal divisions. The entire Chancel Organ was restored in 1995. Finally, the Echo Organ, situated in the triforium near the center crossing, underwent tonal modifications, making it more useful as the Nave Organ. The organ work was finished in 1997.

text: The Organs were blessed on September 15, 2007 celebrating the 10th anniversary of their renovations and inaugurating the Bicentennial Concert Series with a performance James E. Goettsche, the Vatican Organist.

text: The Organs consist of more than 9,000 pipes, 206 stops, 150 ranks and 10 divisions.

text: Organists and music directors[edit]

text:
Name
Title
Years

William F. Pecher
Organist (and Director of Music)
1879–1904

Jacques C. Ungerer
Assistant Organist and Director of Chancel ChoirOrganist (and Director of Music)
1893-19041904–1929

Pietro A. Yon
Assistant OrganistDirector of Music
1927–1929  1929–1943

Msgr. Joseph I. Rostagno
Vice-Director of Music
1929–1935

Paolo Giaquinto
First Assistant Organist
1930–1933

Edward Rivetti
Assistant Organist
1933–1972

Dr. Charles M. Courboin
Director of Music
1943–1970

John Grady
Director of Music and Organist
1970–1990

Donald Dumler
Associate OrganistPrincipal OrganistPrincipal Organist Emeritus
1970–19901990–2014 Named 2014

John-Michael Caprio
Director of Music
1990–1997

Alan Davis
Associate Organist
1991–1995

Stephen J. Tharp
Associate Organist
1995–1996

Stanley H. Cox
Associate Organist
1997–2007

Robert Long
Director of Music
1999–2001

Don Stefano Concordia
Director of Music
2001

Johannes Somary
Director of Music
2001–2003

Jennifer Pascual
Director of Music
2003–present

Christopher Berry
Assistant Organist
2006–2007

Daniel Brondel
Assistant OrganistAssociate Director of Music and Organist
2007–20082008–present

Stephen Fraser
Assistant Organist
2008–2011

Stephen Rapp
Assistant Organist
2012–present

Michael Hey
Assistant Director of Music and Organist
2015–present

text: Burials and funeral masses[edit]

text: Located underneath the high altar is a crypt in which notable Catholic figures that served the Archdiocese are entombed. They include:

text: The nine past deceased Archbishops of New York:

text:
Archbishop John Joseph Hughes (interred 1883)
John Cardinal McCloskey (interred 1885)
Archbishop Michael Augustine Corrigan (interred 1902)
John Murphy Cardinal Farley (interred 1918)
Patrick Joseph Cardinal Hayes (interred 1938)
Francis Joseph Cardinal Spellman (interred 1967)
Terence James Cardinal Cooke (interred 1983)
John Joseph Cardinal O'Connor (interred 2000)
Edward Michael Cardinal Egan (interred 2015)

text: Other interments:

text:
Michael J. Lavelle (Cathedral Rector and Vicar General; interred 1939)
Joseph F. Flannelly (Auxiliary Bishop, 1948–1969; interred 1973)
Fulton J. Sheen (Auxiliary Bishop, 1951–1965, later bishop of Rochester; interred 1979)
John Maguire (Coadjutor Archbishop, 1965–1980; interred 1989)
Pierre Toussaint (interred 1990)

text: In the above list, Cardinal O'Connor declared Pierre Toussaint and Cardinal Cooke to be servants of God, a step in process of being declared a saint of the Catholic Church. Toussaint was declared venerable in 1996 by Pope John Paul II and Archbishop Sheen was declared venerable by Pope Benedict XVI on June 28, 2012.

text: Four of the Cardinals' galeros (those of Cardinals McCloskey, Farley, Hayes, and Spellman) are located high above the crypt at the back of the sanctuary. Cardinal Spellman's galero was also worn by Pope Pius XII (as Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli) until the latter's election to the papacy at the 1939 Papal conclave. In 1965, the ceremony of the consistory was revised by Pope Paul VI and therefore no galero was presented to Cardinal Cooke or any of his successors.

text: Some notable people whose Requiem Masses were said at the cathedral include New York Yankees greats Babe Ruth, Roger Maris, and Billy Martin; legendary football coach Vince Lombardi, New York City Police Department officer Steven McDonald, singer Celia Cruz, entertainer and host Ed Sullivan, actor and dancer George M. Cohan, former Attorney General and U.S. Senator from New York Robert F. Kennedy, New York Giants owner Wellington Mara, and former Governor of New York Hugh Carey. Special memorial Masses were also held at the cathedral following the deaths of artist Andy Warhol, baseball player Joe DiMaggio, and noted author William F. Buckley Jr.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, using references to reliable sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017)

text:
The underground ruins were the setting for the climax of Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970) where Taylor destroyed Earth with the Alpha-Omega bomb. Centuries earlier, mutant humans surviving a nuclear holocaust founded a religion on the bomb (later depicted in Battle for the Planet of the Apes), reconsecrated the cathedral to their new religion, and installed the bomb in front of the organ pipes in place of the crucifix.
Nelson DeMille's 1981 novel, Cathedral, concerns a fictional seizure and threatened destruction of the cathedral by members of the Irish Republican Army on Saint Patrick's Day. Much of the novel is set in and around the cathedral and details of the cathedral's structure contribute important elements to the plot.
The cathedral is also featured in the 1990 film Gremlins 2: The New Batch.
In Giannina Braschi's novel Empire of Dreams (1994), the ringing of the church bells at the cathedral marks a pastoral revolution in New York City.


document_title: ILOVEYOU

question_text: where did the i love you virus originate

text: ILOVEYOU

text: Key to success[edit]

text: On the machine system level, ILOVEYOU relied on the scripting engine system setting (which runs scripting language files such as .vbs files) being enabled, and took advantage of a feature in Windows that hid file extensions by default, which malware authors would use as an exploit. Windows would parse file names from right to left, stopping at the first period character, showing only those elements to the left of this. The attachment, which had two periods, could thus display the inner fake "txt" file extension. Text files are considered to be innocuous, as they are normally incapable of running executable code. The worm also used social engineering to entice users to open the attachment (out of actual desire to connect or simple curiosity) to ensure continued propagation. Systemic weaknesses in the design of Microsoft Outlook and Microsoft Windows were exploited that allowed malicious code capable of complete access to the operating system, secondary storage, and system and user data simply by unwitting users clicking on an icon.

text: Spread[edit]

text: Messages generated in the Philippines began to spread westwards through corporate email systems. Because the worm used mailing lists as its source of targets, the messages often appeared to come from acquaintances and were therefore often regarded as "safe" by their victims, providing further incentive to open them. Only a few users at each site had to access the attachment to generate millions more messages that crippled mail systems and overwrote millions of files on computers in each successive network.

text: Impact[edit]

text: The malware originated in the Pandacan neighborhood of Manila in the Philippines on May 5, 2000, thereafter following daybreak westward across the world, moving first to Hong Kong, then to Europe, and finally the United States, as employees began their workday that Friday morning.[2] [3] The outbreak was later estimated to have caused US$5.5–8.7 billion in damages worldwide,[4][5] and estimated to cost US$15 billion to remove the worm.[6] Within ten days, over fifty million infections had been reported,[7] and it is estimated that 10% of internet-connected computers in the world had been affected.[5] Damage cited was mostly the time and effort spent getting rid of the infection and recovering files from backups. To protect themselves, The Pentagon, CIA, the British Parliament and most large corporations decided to completely shut down their mail systems.[8] The ILOVEYOU virus infected computers all over the world. At the time it was one of the world's most destructive computer related disasters ever.

text: The events inspired the song E-mail on the Pet Shop Boys' UK top-ten album of 2002, Release, the lyrics of which play thematically on the human desires which enabled the mass destruction of this computer infection.

text: Architecture[edit]

text: The ILOVEYOU Script (the attachment) was written in Microsoft Visual Basic Scripting (VBS) which runs in Microsoft Outlook and was enabled by default. The script added Windows Registry data for automatic startup on system boot.

text: The worm then searched connected drives and replaced files with extensions JPG, JPEG, VBS, VBE, JS, JSE, CSS, WSH, SCT, DOC, HTA, MP2, and MP3 with copies of itself, while appending the additional file extension VBS, making the user's computer unbootable. However, MP3s and other sound related files were hidden rather than overwritten.

text: The worm propagated itself by sending out one copy of the payload to each entry in the Microsoft Outlook address book (Windows Address Book). It also downloaded the Barok trojan renamed for the occasion as "WIN-BUGSFIX.EXE".

text: The fact that the virus was written in VBS provided users a way to modify the virus. A user could easily modify the virus to replace important files in the system, and destroy it. This allowed many variations of ILOVEYOU to spread across the internet, each one doing different kinds of damage.[9]

text: Some mail messages sent by ILOVEYOU:

text:
VIRUS ALERT!![10]
Important! Read Carefully!![10]

text: Developments[edit]

text: On 5 May 2000, two young Filipino computer programmers named Reonel Ramones and Onel de Guzman became targets of a criminal investigation by agents of the Philippines' National Bureau of Investigation (NBI).[11] Local Internet service provider Sky Internet had reported receiving numerous contacts from European computer users alleging that malware (in the form of the "ILOVEYOU" worm) had been sent via the ISP's servers.

text: After surveillance and investigation by Darwin Bawasanta of Sky Internet, the NBI traced a frequently appearing telephone number to Ramones' apartment in Manila. His residence was searched and Ramones was arrested and placed on inquest investigation before the Department of Justice (DOJ). Onel de Guzman was likewise charged in absentia.

text: At that point, the NBI were unsure what felony or crime would apply.[11] It was suggested they be charged with violating Republic Act 8484 (the Access Device Regulation Act), a law designed mainly to penalise credit card fraud, since both used pre-paid (if not stolen) Internet cards to purchase access to ISPs. Another idea was that they be charged with malicious mischief, a felony (under the Philippines Revised Penal Code of 1932) involving damage to property. The drawback here was that one of its elements, aside from damage to property, was intent to damage, and de Guzman had claimed during custodial investigations that he may have unwittingly released the worm.[12]

text: To show intent, the NBI investigated AMA Computer College, where de Guzman had dropped out at the very end of his final year.[11] They found that, for his undergraduate thesis, de Guzman had proposed the implementation of a trojan to steal Internet login passwords.[13] This way, he proposed, users would finally be able to afford an Internet connection. The proposal was rejected by the College of Computer Studies board,[12] prompting de Guzman to cancel his studies the day before graduation.

text: Legislative aftermath[edit]

text: Since there were no laws in the Philippines against writing malware at the time, both Ramones and de Guzman were released with all charges dropped by state prosecutors.[14] To address this legislative deficiency,[11] the Philippine Congress enacted Republic Act No. 8792,[15] otherwise known as the E-Commerce Law, in July 2000, just two months after the worm outbreak. In 2002, the ILOVEYOU virus obtained a world record for being the most virulent computer virus at the time.[16]


document_title: History of cricket in India to 1918

question_text: when was cricket played first time in india

text: History of cricket in India to 1918

text: Beginnings[edit]

text: The entire history of cricket in India and the sub-continent as a whole is based on the existence and development of the British Raj via the East India Company.

text:
On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted a Royal Charter to the (EIC)
East India Company, often colloquially referred to as "John Company".  It was initially a joint-stock company that sought trading privileges in India and the East Indies, but the Royal Charter effectively gave it a 21-year monopoly on all trade in the region.  In time, the East India Company transformed from a commercial trading venture to one which virtually ruled India as it acquired auxiliary governmental and military functions, until its dissolution in 1858 following the Indian Mutiny.  The East India Company was the means by which cricket was introduced into India.

text: In 1639, the Company effectively founded the city of Madras, and in 1661 acquired Portuguese territory on the west coast of India that included Bombay. In 1690, an Anglo-Mughal treaty allowed English merchants to establish a trading settlement on the Hooghly River, which became Calcutta. All of these places became leading centres of cricket as the popularity of the game grew among the native population.

text: Early developments[edit]

text:
The first definite reference to cricket being played anywhere in the sub-continent is a report of English sailors of the East India Company written in 1737. It refers to cricket being played at Cambay, near Baroda in 1721.
The Calcutta Cricket and Football Club was known to be in existence by 1792, but was possibly founded more than a decade earlier. In 1799, another club was formed at Seringapatam in south India after the successful British siege and the defeat of Tipu Sultan.

text: Beginning of first-class cricket[edit]

text: In 1864, a Madras v. Calcutta match was arguably the start of first-class cricket in India. The British played the Indians to build relationships with the Indians and if the Indian elite had connections with the British, the British could have more control of India because of Cricket.

text: The most important fixture in the 19th century was the Bombay Presidency Match which evolved, first, into the Bombay Triangular and then into the Bombay Quadrangular.  The match was first played in 1877 and then intermittently for several seasons until finally being given first-class status in 1892-93.

text: An English team led by George Vernon in 1889–90 was the first foreign team to tour India but none of the matches that it played are considered first-class.

text: First-class cricket definitely began in the 1892–93 season with two Europeans v Parsees matches, at Bombay (match drawn) and Poona (Parsees won by 3 wickets). In the same season, Lord Hawke captained an English team that played four first-class matches including a game against "All India" on 26–28 January 1893.

text: Domestic cricket[edit]

text: Bombay Presidency winners[edit]

text:
1892-93 – Parsees
1893-94 – Europeans
1894-95 – Europeans shared with Parsees
1895-96 – Europeans shared with Parsees
1896-97 – Europeans
1897-98 – Parsees
1898-99 – Europeans
1899-00 – Europeans shared with Parsees
1900-01 – Parsees
1901-02 – Europeans shared with Parsees
1902-03 – Europeans shared with Parsees
1903-04 – Parsees
1904-05 – Parsees
1905-06 – Hindus shared with Parsees
1906-07 – Hindus

text: Bombay Triangular winners[edit]

text:
1907-08 – Parsees
1908-09 – Europeans
1909-10 – Europeans shared with Parsees
1910-11 – Europeans shared with Hindus
1911-12 – Parsees

text: Bombay Quadrangular winners[edit]

text:
1912-13 – Parsees
1913-14 – Hindus shared with Muslims
1914-15 – Hindus shared with Parsees
1915-16 – Europeans
1916-17 – Europeans shared with Parsees
1917-18 – Hindus shared with Parsees

text: Leading players by season[edit]

text: The lists below give the leading first-class runscorers and wicket-takers in each domestic season.

text: Batsmen[edit]

text:
1892-93 – Ledger Hill (Lord Hawke's XI) – 212 runs @ 35.33 (HS 132); the leading Indian batsman was Nasarvanji Bapasola with 155 @ 38.75 (HS 65)
1893-94 –

text: Bowlers[edit]

text:
1892-93 – John Hornsby (Lord Hawke's XI) – 28 wickets @ 10.67 (BB 8–40); the leading Indian bowler was Dinshaw Writer with 19 @ 4.94 (BB 8–35)
1893-94 –

text: International cricket[edit]

text: The first Indian ventures into international cricket were by the Parsees cricket team which toured England twice in the 1880s.  See: Parsee cricket team in England in 1886 and Parsee cricket team in England in 1888.

text: International tours of India[edit]

text: G. F. Vernon's XI 1889–90[edit]

text: An English cricket team led by G F Vernon toured Ceylon and India in the winter of 1889-90.  The team played no first-class matches but it was a pioneering tour being the first visit by an English team to India and the second to Ceylon.  In all, the team played 13 matches of which 10 were won, 1 was lost and 2 drawn.

text: Lord Hawke's XI 1892–93[edit]

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
Rowland Bowen, Cricket: A History of its Growth and Development, Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1970
Vasant Raiji, India's Hambledon Men, Tyeby Press, 1986
Mihir Bose, A History of Indian Cricket, Andre-Deutsch, 1990
Ramachandra Guha, A Corner of a Foreign Field – An Indian History of a British Sport, Picador, 2001