document_title: Scuba set

question_text: who developed an apparatus to breathe compressed air underwater

question_tokens: who developed an apparatus to breathe compressed air underwater

text: Scuba set

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word SCUBA was coined in 1952 by Major Christian Lambertsen who served in the U.S. Army Medical Corps from 1944 to 1946 as a physician.[1] Lambertsen first called the closed circuit rebreather apparatus he had invented "Laru", an (acronym for Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit) but, in 1952, rejected the term "Laru" for "SCUBA" ("Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus").[2] Lambertsen's invention, for which he held several patents registered from 1940 to 1989, was a rebreather and is different from the open-circuit diving regulator and diving cylinder assemblies also commonly referred to as scuba.[3]

text: Open-circuit-demand scuba is a 1943 invention by the Frenchmen Émile Gagnan and Jacques-Yves Cousteau, but in the English language Lambertsen's acronym has become common usage and the name Aqua-Lung, (often spelled "aqualung"), coined by Cousteau for use in English-speaking countries,[4] has fallen into secondary use. As with radar, the acronym scuba has become so familiar that it is generally not capitalized and is treated as an ordinary noun. For example, it has been translated into the Welsh language as sgwba.

text: Application[edit]

text: A diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) to breathe underwater. Scuba provides the diver with the advantages of mobility and horizontal range far beyond the reach of an umbilical hose attached to surface-supplied diving equipment (SSDE).[5]

text: Unlike other modes of diving, which rely either on breath-hold or on breathing supplied under pressure from the surface, scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air,[6] allowing them greater freedom of movement than with an air line or diver's umbilical and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold. Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface supplied diving equipment for main gas supply when this is practicable. Surface supplied divers may be required to carry scuba as an emergency breathing gas supply to get them to safety in the event of a failure of surface gas supply.[5][7][8]

text: There are divers who work, full or part-time, in the recreational diving community as instructors, assistant instructors, divemasters and dive guides. In some jurisdictions the professional nature, with particular reference to responsibility for health and safety of the clients, of recreational diver instruction, dive leadership for reward and dive guiding is recognised and regulated by national legislation.[8]

text: Other specialist areas of scuba diving include military diving, with a long history of military frogmen in various roles. Their roles include direct combat, infiltration behind enemy lines, placing mines or using a manned torpedo, bomb disposal or engineering operations. In civilian operations, many police forces operate police diving teams to perform "search and recovery" or "search and rescue" operations and to assist with the detection of crime which may involve bodies of water. In some cases diver rescue teams may also be part of a fire department, paramedical service or lifeguard unit, and may be classed as public service diving.[8]

text: There are also professional divers involved with underwater environment, such as underwater photographers or underwater videographers, who document the underwater world, or scientific diving, including marine biology, geology, hydrology, oceanography and underwater archaeology.[7][8]

text: The choice between scuba and surface supplied diving equipment is based on both legal and logistical constraints. Where the diver requires mobility and a large range of movement, scuba is usually the choice if safety and legal constraints allow. Higher risk work, particularly in commercial diving, may be restricted to surface supplied equipment by legislation and codes of practice.[8][9]

text: Alternatives to scuba for diving[edit]

text: There are alternative methods that a person can use to survive and function while underwater, currently including:

text:
free-diving - swimming underwater on a single breath of air.
snorkeling - a form of free-diving where the diver's mouth and nose can remain underwater when breathing, because the diver is able to breathe at the surface through a short tube known as a snorkel.
surface-supplied diving - originally used in professional diving for long or deep dives where an umbilical line connects the diver with the surface providing breathing gas, and sometimes warm water to heat the diving suit, and usually nowadays voice communications. Some tourist resorts now offer a surface-supplied diving arrangement, trademarked as Snuba, as an introduction to diving for the inexperienced. Using the same type of equipment as scuba diving, the diver breathes from compressed air cylinders, which float on a free-floating raft at the surface, allowing the diver only 20–30 feet (6–9 m) of depth to travel.
Atmospheric diving suit - an armored suit which protects the diver from the surrounding water pressure.

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: A scuba set is characterized by full independence from the surface during use, by providing breathing gas carried by the diver. Early attempts to reach this autonomy from the surface were made in the 18th century by the Englishman John Lethbridge, who invented and successfully built his own underwater diving machine in 1715.

text: An early diving dress using a compressed air reservoir was designed and built in 1771 by Sieur[10] Fréminet from Paris. He conceived an autonomous breathing machine equipped with a reservoir, dragged behind the diver or mounted on his back.[11][12] Fréminet called his invention machine hydrostatergatique and used it successfully for more than ten years in the harbors of Le Havre and Brest, as stated in the explanatory text of a 1784 painting.[13][14]

text: The Frenchman Paul Lemaire d'Augerville built and used autonomous diving equipment in 1824,[15] as did the British William H. James in 1825. James' helmet was made of "thin copper or sole of leather" with a plate window, and the air was supplied from an iron reservoir.[16] A similar system was used in 1831 by the American Charles Condert, who died in 1832 while testing his invention in the East River at only 20 feet (6 m) deep.

text: The oldest known oxygen rebreather was patented on June 17, 1808 by Sieur Touboulic from Brest, mechanic in Napoleon's Imperial Navy, but there is no evidence of any prototype having been manufactured. This early rebreather design worked with an oxygen reservoir, the oxygen being delivered progressively by the diver himself and circulating in a closed circuit through a sponge soaked in limewater.[17][18]

text: After having travelled to England and discovered William James' invention, the French physician Manuel Théodore Guillaumet, from Argentan (Normandy), patented in 1838 the oldest known regulator mechanism. Guillaumet's invention was air-supplied from the surface and was never mass-produced due to problems with safety. The oldest practical rebreather relates to the 1849 patent from the Frenchman Pierre Aimable De Saint Simon Sicard.[19]

text: First successful scuba equipment[edit]

text: None of those inventions solved the problem of high pressure when compressed air must be supplied to the diver (as in modern regulators); they were mostly based on a constant-flow supply of the air. The compression and storage technology was not advanced enough to allow compressed air to be stored in containers at sufficiently high pressures to allow useful dive times.

text: By the turn of the twentieth century, two basic templates for a scuba had emerged; open-circuit scuba where the diver's exhaled gas is vented directly into the water, and closed-circuit scuba where the diver's carbon dioxide is filtered from unused oxygen, which is then recirculated.

text: Open-circuit scuba[edit]

text: The first important step for the development of scuba technology was the invention of the demand regulator. In 1864, the French engineers Auguste Denayrouze and Benoît Rouquayrol designed and patented their "Rouquayrol-Denayrouze diving suit" after adapting a pressure regulator and developing it for underwater use. This would be the first diving suit that could supply air to the diver on demand by adjusting the flow of air from the tank to meet the diver’s breathing and pressure requirements. The system still had to use surface supply, as the cylinders of the 1860s would not have been able to withstand the necessary high pressures.

text: The first open-circuit scuba system was devised in 1925 by Yves Le Prieur in France. Inspired by the simple apparatus of Maurice Fernez and the freedom it allowed the diver, he conceived an idea to make it free of the tube to the surface pump by using Michelin cylinders as the air supply, containing three litres of air compressed to 150 kilograms per square centimetre (2,100 psi; 150 bar). The "Fernez-Le Prieur" diving apparatus was demonstrated at the swimming pool of Tourelles in Paris in 1926. The unit consisted of a cylinder of compressed air carried on the back of the diver, connected to a pressure regulator designed by Le Prieur adjusted manually by the diver, with two gauges, one for tank pressure and one for output (supply) pressure. Air was supplied continually to the mouthpiece and ejected through a short exhaust pipe fitted with a valve as in the Fernez design,[20] however, the lack of a demand regulator and the consequent low endurance of the apparatus limited the practical use of LePrieur’s device.

text: Le Prieur's design was the first autonomous breathing device used by the first scuba diving clubs in history - Racleurs de fond founded by Glenn Orr in California in 1933, and Club des sous-l'eau founded by Le Prieur himself in Paris in 1935.[21] Fernez had previously invented the noseclip, a mouthpiece (equipped with a one-way valve for exhalation) and diving goggles, and Yves le Prieur just joined to those three Fernez elements a hand-controlled regulator and a compressed-air cylinder. Fernez's goggles didn't allow a dive deeper than ten metres due to "mask squeeze", so, in 1933, Le Prieur replaced all the Fernez equipment (goggles, noseclip and valve) by a full face mask, directly supplied with constant flow air from the cylinder.

text: In 1942, during the German occupation of France, Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Émile Gagnan designed the first successful and safe open-circuit scuba, known as the Aqua-Lung. Their system combined an improved demand regulator with high-pressure air tanks. Émile Gagnan, an engineer employed by the Air Liquide company, miniaturized and adapted the regulator to use with gas generators, in response to constant fuel shortage that was a consequence of German requisitioning. Gagnan's boss, Henri Melchior, knew that his son-in-law Jacques-Yves Cousteau was looking for an automatic demand regulator to increase the useful period of the underwater breathing apparatus invented by Commander le Prieur,[22] so he introduced Cousteau to Gagnan in December 1942. On Cousteau's initiative, the Gagnan's regulator was adapted to diving, and the new Cousteau-Gagnan patent was registered some weeks later in 1943.[23]

text: In 1957, Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro used a modified version of the Aqua-Lung made by Nemrod and broke the world record by descending to a depth of 100 metres (330 ft).[24]

text: Closed-circuit scuba[edit]

text: The alternative concept, developed in roughly the same time frame was the closed-circuit scuba. The body consumes and metabolises only a small fraction of inhaled oxygen—the situation is even more wasteful of oxygen when the breathing gas is compressed as it is in scuba systems underwater. The rebreather therefore recycles the exhaled oxygen, while constantly replenishing it from the supply so that the oxygen level does not get depleted. The apparatus also has to chemically remove the exhaled carbon dioxide, as a buildup of CO2 levels would result in respiratory distress and hypercapnia.

text: The first commercially practical closed-circuit scuba was designed and built by the diving engineer Henry Fleuss in 1878, while working for Siebe Gorman in London.[25][26] His self contained breathing apparatus consisted of a rubber mask connected to a breathing bag, with (estimated) 50-60% O2 supplied from a copper tank and CO2 scrubbed by rope yarn soaked in a solution of caustic potash; the system giving a duration of about three hours.[26][27] Fleuss tested his device in 1879 by spending an hour submerged in a water tank, then one week later by diving to a depth of 5.5 metres (18 ft) in open water, upon which occasion he was slightly injured when his assistants abruptly pulled him to the surface.

text: His apparatus was first used under operational conditions in 1880 by the lead diver on the Severn Tunnel construction project, who was able to travel 1,000 feet (300 m) in the darkness to close several submerged sluice doors in the tunnel; this had defeated the best efforts of hard hat divers due to the danger of their air supply hoses becoming fouled on submerged debris, and the strong water currents in the workings.[26]

text: Fleuss continually improved his apparatus, adding a demand regulator and tanks capable of holding greater amounts of oxygen at higher pressure. Sir Robert Davis, head of Siebe Gorman, perfected the oxygen rebreather in 1910[26][28] with his invention of the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus, the first rebreather to be made in quantity. While intended primarily as an emergency escape apparatus for submarine crews, it was soon also used for diving, being a handy shallow water diving apparatus with a thirty-minute endurance,[28] and as an industrial breathing set.

text: The rig comprised a rubber breathing/buoyancy bag containing a canister of barium hydroxide to scrub exhaled CO2 and, in a pocket at the lower end of the bag, a steel pressure cylinder holding approximately 56 litres (2.0 cu ft) of oxygen at a pressure of 120 bars (1,700 psi). The cylinder was equipped with a control valve and was connected to the breathing bag. Opening the cylinder's valve admitted oxygen to the bag at ambient pressure. The rig also included an emergency buoyancy bag on the front of to help keep the wearer afloat. The DSEA was adopted by the Royal Navy after further development by Davis in 1927.[29]

text: In 1912 the German firm Dräger developed their own version of standard diving dress with a self-contained gas supply from a rebreather with the circulation driven by an injector.[30]

text: During the 1930s and all through World War II, the British, Italians and Germans developed and extensively used oxygen rebreathers to equip the first frogmen. The British used the Davis apparatus for submarine escape, but they soon adapted it for their frogmen during World War II. Germans used the Dräger rebreathers,[31] which were also originally designed as submarine escape sets and only adapted for use by frogmen during World War II.

text: The Italians developed similar rebreathers for the combat swimmers of the Decima Flottiglia MAS, especially the Pirelli ARO.[32] In the U.S. Major Christian J. Lambertsen invented an underwater free-swimming oxygen rebreather in 1939, which was accepted by the Office of Strategic Services.[33] In 1952 he patented a modification of his apparatus, this time named SCUBA. Although he coined the most common English word used for autonomous open-circuit diving equipment, Lambertsen did not invent that equipment.[34] After World War II, military frogmen continued to use rebreathers since they do not make bubbles which would give away the presence of the divers.

text: Post WWII[edit]

text:
1. Hose
2. Mouthpiece
3. Valve
4. Harness
5. Backplate
6. Cylinder

text: Air Liquide started selling the Cousteau-Gagnan regulator commercially as of 1946 under the name of scaphandre Cousteau-Gagnan or CG45 ("C" for Cousteau, "G" for Gagnan and 45 for the 1945 patent). The same year Air Liquide created a division called La Spirotechnique, to develop and sell regulators and other diving equipment. To sell his regulator in English-speaking countries Cousteau registered the Aqua-Lung trademark, which was first licensed to the U.S. Divers company (the American division of Air Liquide) and later sold with La Spirotechnique and U.S. Divers to finally become the name of the company, Aqua-Lung/La Spirotechnique, currently located in Carros, near Nice.[35]

text: In 1948 the Cousteau-Gagnan patent was also licensed to Siebe Gorman of England,[36][verification needed] when Siebe Gorman was directed by Robert Henry Davis.[37] Siebe Gorman was allowed to sell in Commonwealth countries, but had difficulty in meeting the demand and the U.S. patent prevented others from making the product. This demand was eventually met by Ted Eldred of Melbourne, Australia, who had been developing a rebreather called the Porpoise. When a demonstration resulted in a diver passing out, he began to develop the single-hose open-circuit scuba system, which separates the first and second stages by a low-pressure hose, and releases exhaled gas at the second stage. This avoided the Cousteau-Gagnan patent, which protected the twin-hose scuba regulator.[38] In the process, Eldred also improved performance of the regulator.[citation needed][clarification needed] Eldred sold the first Porpoise Model CA single hose scuba early in 1952.

text: Early scuba sets were usually provided with a plain harness of shoulder straps and waist belt. The waist belt buckles were usually quick-release, and shoulder straps sometimes had adjustable or quick release buckles. Many harnesses did not have a backplate, and the cylinders rested directly against the diver's back. The harnesses of many diving rebreathers made by Siebe Gorman included a large back-sheet of reinforced rubber.[citation needed]

text: Early scuba divers dived without any buoyancy aid.[39] In emergency they had to jettison their weights. In the 1960s adjustable buoyancy life jackets (ABLJ) became available. One early make, since 1961, was Fenzy. The ABLJ is used for two purposes: to adjust the buoyancy of the diver to compensate for loss of buoyancy at depth, mainly due to compression of the neoprene wetsuit) and more importantly as a lifejacket that will hold an unconscious diver face-upwards at the surface, and that can be quickly inflated. It was put on before putting on the cylinder harness. The first versions were inflated with a small carbon dioxide cylinder, later with a small direct coupled air cylinder. An extra low-pressure feed from the regulator first-stage lets the lifejacket be controlled as a buoyancy aid. This invention in 1971 of the "direct system,"[citation needed] by ScubaPro, resulted in what was called a stabilizer jacket or stab jacket, and is now increasingly known as a buoyancy compensator (device), or simply "BCD".

text: Types[edit]

text: Scuba sets are of two types:

text:
In open-circuit scuba the diver inhales from the equipment and all the exhaled gas is exhausted to the surrounding water. This type of equipment is relatively simple, economical and reliable.
In closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit, also referred to as a rebreather, the diver inhales from the set, and exhales back into the set, where the exhaled gas is processed to make it fit to breathe again.

text: Both types of scuba set include a means of supplying air or other breathing gas, nearly always from a high pressure diving cylinder, and a harness to attach it to the diver. Most open-circuit scuba sets have a demand regulator to control the supply of breathing gas, and most rebreathers have a constant-flow injector, or an electronically controlled injector to supply fresh gas, but also usually have an automatic diluent valve (ADV), which functions in the same way as a demand valve, to maintain the loop volume during descent.[citation needed]

text: Open-circuit[edit]

text: Open-circuit-demand scuba exhausts exhaled air to the environment, and requires each breath to be delivered to the diver on demand by a diving regulator, which reduces the pressure from the storage cylinder and supplies it through the demand valve when the diver reduces the pressure in the demand valve slightly during inhalation.

text: The essential subsystems of an open-circuit scuba set are;[citation needed]

text:
diving cylinders, with cylinder valves, which may be interconnected by a manifold,
a regulator mechanism to control gas pressure,
a demand valve with mouthpiece, full-face mask or helmet, with supply hose, to control flow and deliver gas to the diver.
an exhaust valve system to dispose of used gas,
A harness or other method to attach the set to the diver.

text: Additional components which when present are considered part of the scuba set are;

text:
external reserve valves and their control rods or levers, (currently uncommon)
submersible pressure gauges, (almost ubiquitous) and
secondary (backup) demand valves (common).

text: The buoyancy compensator is generally assembled as an integrated part of the set, but is not technically part of the breathing apparatus.

text: The cylinder is usually worn on the back. "Twin sets" with two low capacity back-mounted cylinders connected by a high pressure manifold were more common in the 1960s than now for recreational diving, although larger capacity twin cylinders ("doubles") are commonly used by technical divers for increased dive duration and redundancy. At one time a firm called Submarine Products sold a sport air scuba set with three manifolded back-mounted cylinders.[citation needed] Cave and wreck penetration divers sometimes carry cylinders attached at their sides instead, allowing them to swim through more confined spaces.

text: Newspapers and television news often describe open-circuit scuba wrongly as "oxygen" equipment.

text: Constant flow scuba[edit]

text: Constant flow scuba sets do not have a demand regulator; the breathing gas flows at a constant rate, unless the diver switches it on and off by hand. They use more air than demand regulated scuba. There were attempts at designing and using these for diving and for industrial use before the Cousteau-type aqualung became commonly available circa 1950. Examples were Charles Condert dress in the USA (as of 1831), "Ohgushi's Peerless Respirator" in Japan (a bite-controlled regulator, as of 1918), and Commandant le Prieur's hand-controlled regulator in France (as of 1926); see Timeline of diving technology.

text: Open circuit demand scuba[edit]

text: This system consists of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure, typically 200–300 bars (2,900–4,400 psi), connected to a diving regulator. The demand regulator supplies the diver with as much gas as needed at the ambient pressure.

text: This type of breathing set is sometimes called an aqualung. The word Aqua-Lung, which first appeared in the Cousteau-Gagnan patent, is a trademark, currently owned by Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique.[40]

text: Twin-hose demand regulator[edit]

text: This is the first type of diving demand valve to come into general use, and the one that can be seen in classic 1960s television scuba adventures, such as Sea Hunt. They were often use with manifolded twin cylinders.

text: All the stages of this type of regulator are in a large valve assembly mounted directly to the cylinder valve or manifold, behind the diver's neck. Two large bore corrugated rubber breathing hoses connect the regulator with the mouthpiece, one for supply and one for exhaust. The exhaust hose is used to return the exhaled air to the regulator, to avoid pressure differences due to depth variation between the exhaust valve and final stage diaphragm, which would cause a free-flow of gas, or extra resistance to breathing, depending on the diver's orientation in the water. In modern single-hose sets this problem is avoided by moving the second-stage regulator to the diver's mouthpiece. The twin-hose regulators came with a mouthpiece as standard, but a full-face diving mask was an option.[citation needed]

text: Single-hose regulator[edit]

text: Most modern open-circuit scuba sets have a diving regulator consisting of a first-stage pressure-reducing valve connected to the diving cylinder's output valve or manifold. This regulator reduces the pressure from the cylinder, which may be up to 300 bars (4,400 psi), to a lower pressure, generally between about 9 and 11 bar above the ambient pressure. A low-pressure hose links this with the second-stage regulator, or "demand valve", which is mounted on the mouthpiece. Exhalation occurs through a rubber one-way mushroom valve in the chamber of the demand valve, directly into the water quite close to the diver's mouth. Some early single hose scuba sets used full-face masks instead of a mouthpiece, such as those made by Desco [41] and Scott Aviation [42] (who continue to make breathing units of this configuration for use by firefighters).

text: Modern regulators typically feature high-pressure ports for pressure sensors of dive-computers and submersible pressure gauges, and additional low-pressure ports for hoses for inflation of dry suits and BC devices.[citation needed]

text: Secondary demand valve on a regulator[edit]

text:
1. Regulator first stage
2. Cylinder valve
3. Shoulder straps
4. Buoyancy compensator bladder
5. Buoyancy compensator relief and lower manual dump valve
6. DV/Regulator second stages (primary and “octopus”)
7. Console (submersible pressure gauge, depth gauge & compass)
8. Dry-suit inflator hose
9. Backplate
10. Buoyancy compensator inflator hose and inflation valve
11. Buoyancy compensator mouthpiece and manual dump valve
12. Crotch strap
13. Waist strap

text: Most recreational scuba sets have a backup second-stage demand valve on a separate hose, a configuration called a "secondary", or "octopus" demand valve, "alternate air source", "safe secondary" or "safe-second". The idea was conceived by cave-diving pioneer Sheck Exley as a way for cave divers to share air while swimming single-file in a narrow tunnel,[citation needed] but has now become the standard in recreational diving. By providing a secondary demand valve the need to alternately breathe off the same mouthpiece when sharing air is eliminated. This reduces the stress on divers who are already in a stressful situation, and this in turn reduces air consumption during the rescue and frees the donor's hand.[citation needed]

text: Some diver training agencies recommend that a diver routinely offer their primary demand valve to a diver requesting to share air, and then switch to their own secondary demand valve.[43] The idea behind this technique is that the primary demand valve is known to be working, and the diver donating the gas is less likely to be stressed or have a high carbon dioxide level, so has more time to sort out their own equipment after temporarily suspending the ability to breathe. In many instances, panicked divers have grabbed the primary regulators out of the mouths of other divers,[citation needed] so changing to the backup as a routine reduces stress when it is necessary in an emergency.

text: In technical diving donation of the primary demand valve is commonly the standard procedure, and the primary is connected to the first stage by a long hose, typically around 2 m, to allow gas sharing while swimming in single file in a narrow space as might be required in a cave or wreck. In this configuration the secondary is generally held under the chin by a loose bungee loop around the neck, supplied by a shorter hose, and is intended for backup use by the diver donating gas.[43] The backup regulator is usually carried in the diver's chest area where it can be easily seen and accessed for emergency use. It may be worn secured by a breakaway clip on the buoyancy compensator, plugged into a soft friction socket attached to the harness, secured by sliding a loop of the hose into the shoulder strap cover of a jacket style BC, or suspended under the chin on a break-away bungee loop known as a necklace. These methods also keep the secondary from dangling below the diver and being contaminated by debris or snagging on the surroundings. Some divers store it in a BC pocket, but this reduces availability in an emergency.

text: Occasionally, the secondary second-stage is combined with the inflation and exhaust valve assembly of the buoyancy compensator device. This combination eliminates the need for a separate low pressure hose for the BC, though the low pressure hose connector for combined use must have a larger bore than for standard BC inflation hoses, because it will need to deliver a higher flow rate if it is used for breathing.[citation needed] This combination unit is carried in the position where the inflator unit would normally hang on the left side of the chest. With integrated DV/BC inflator designs, the secondary demand valve is at the end of the shorter BC inflation hose, and the donor must retain access to it for buoyancy control, so donation of the primary regulator to help another diver is essential with this configuration.[citation needed]

text: The secondary demand valve is often partially yellow in color, and may use a yellow hose, for high visibility, and as an indication that it is an emergency or backup device.

text: When a side-mount configuration is used, the usefulness of a secondary demand valve is greatly reduced, as each cylinder will have a regulator and the one not in use is available as a backup. This configuration also allows the entire cylinder to be handed off to the receiver, so a long hose is also less likely to be needed.

text: Some diving instructors continue to teach buddy-breathing from a single demand valve as an obsolescent but still occasionally useful technique, learned in addition to the use of the backup DV, since availability of two second stages per diver is now assumed as standard in recreational scuba.[citation needed]

text: Cryogenic[edit]

text: There have been designs for a cryogenic open-circuit scuba which has liquid-air tanks instead of cylinders. Underwater cinematographer Jordan Klein, Sr. of Florida co-designed such a scuba in 1967, called "Mako", and made at least a prototype.[citation needed]

text: The Russian Kriolang (from Greek cryo- (= "frost" taken to mean "cold") + English "lung") was copied from Jordan Klein's "Mako" cryogenic open-circuit scuba. and were made until at least 1974.[44] It would have to be filled a short time before use.

text: Rebreathers[edit]

text: A rebreather recirculates the breathing gas already used by the diver after replacing oxygen used by the diver and removing the carbon dioxide metabolic product. Rebreather diving is used by recreational, military and scientific divers where it can have advantages over open-circuit scuba. Since 80% or more of the oxygen remains in normal exhaled gas, and is thus wasted, rebreathers use gas very economically, making longer dives possible and special mixes cheaper to use at the cost of more complicated technology and more possible failure points. More stringent and specific training and greater experience is required to compensate for the higher risk involved. The rebreather's economic use of gas, typically 1.6 litres (0.06 cu ft) of oxygen per minute, allows dives of much longer duration for an equivalent gas supply than is possible with open-circuit equipment where gas consumption may be ten times higher.[citation needed]

text: There are two main variants of rebreather — semi-closed circuit rebreathers, and fully closed circuit rebreathers, which include the subvariant of oxygen rebreathers. Oxygen rebreathers have a maximum safe operating depth of around 6 metres (20 ft), but several types of fully closed circuit rebreathers, when using a helium-based diluent, can be used deeper than 100 metres (330 ft). The main limiting factors on rebreathers are the duration of the carbon dioxide scrubber, which is generally at least 3 hours, increased work of breathing at depth, reliability of gas mixture control, and the requirement to be able to safely bail out at any point of the dive.[citation needed]

text: Rebreathers are generally used for scuba applications, but are also occasionally used for bailout systems for surface supplied diving.[citation needed]

text: The possible endurance of a rebreather dive is longer than an open-circuit dive, for similar weight and bulk of the set, if the set is bigger than the practical lower limit for rebreather size,[45] and a rebreather can be more economical when used with expensive gas mixes such as heliox and trimix,[45] but this may require a lot of diving before the break-even point is reached, due to the high initial and running costs of most rebreathers, and this point will be reached sooner for deep dives where the gas saving is more pronounced.[citation needed]

text: Breathing gases for scuba[edit]

text: Until Nitrox, which contains more oxygen than air, was widely accepted in the late 1990s,[46] almost all recreational scuba used simple compressed and filtered air. Other gas mixtures, typically used for deeper dives by technical divers, may substitute helium for some or all of the nitrogen (called Trimix, or Heliox if there is no nitrogen), or use lower proportions of oxygen than air. In these situations divers often carry additional scuba sets, called stages, with gas mixtures with higher levels of oxygen that are primarily used to reduce decompression time in staged decompression diving.[43] These gas mixes allow longer dives, better management of the risks of decompression sickness, oxygen toxicity or lack of oxygen (hypoxia), and the severity of nitrogen narcosis. Closed circuit scuba sets (rebreathers) provide a gas mix that is controlled to optimise the mix for the actual depth at the time.

text: Diving cylinders[edit]

text: Gas cylinders used for scuba diving come in various sizes and materials and are typically designated by material — usually aluminium or steel, and size. In the U.S. the size is designated by their nominal capacity, the volume of the gas they contain when expanded to normal atmospheric pressure. Common sizes include 80, 100, 120 cubic feet, etc., with the most common being the "Aluminum 80". In most of the rest of the world the size is given as the actual internal volume of the cylinder, sometimes referred to as water capacity, as that is how it is measured and marked (WC) on the cylinder (10 liter, 12 liter, etc.).[citation needed]

text: Cylinder working pressure will vary according to the standard of manufacture, generally ranging from 200 bar (2,900 psi) up to 300 bar (4,400 psi).

text: An aluminium cylinder is thicker and bulkier than a steel cylinder of the same capacity and working pressure, as suitable aluminium alloys have lower tensile strength than steel, and is more buoyant although actually heavier out of the water, which means the diver would need to carry more ballast weight. Steel is also more often used for high pressure cylinders, which carry more air for the same internal volume.[citation needed]

text: The common method of blending nitrox by partial pressure requires that the cylinder is in "oxygen service", which means that the cylinder and cylinder valve have had any non-oxygen-compatible components replaced and any contamination by combustible materials removed by cleaning.[47] Diving cylinders are sometimes colloquially called "tanks", "bottles" or "flasks" although the proper technical term for them is "cylinder".[citation needed]

text: Harness configuration[edit]

text: The scuba set can be carried by the diver in several ways. The two most common basic mounting configurations are back-mount, and side-mount, and back-mount may be expanded to include auxiliary side-mounting, including bungee-constrained low profile side-mount, and the less compact sling-mount or stage-mount arrangement.

text: Most common for recreational diving is the stabilizer jacket harness, in which a single cylinder, or occasionally twins, is strapped to the jacket style buoyancy compensator which is used as the harness. Some jacket style harnesses allow a bailout or decompression cylinder to be sling mounted from D-rings on the harness. A bailout cylinder can also be strapped to the side of the main back-mounted cylinder.[citation needed]

text: Another popular configuration is the backplate and wing arrangement, which uses a back inflation buoyancy compensator bladder sandwiched between a rigid backplate and the main gas cylinder or cylinders. This arrangement is particularly popular with twin or double cylinder sets, and can be used to carry larger sets of three or four cylinders and most rebreathers. Additional cylinders for decompression can be sling mounted at the diver's sides.[citation needed]

text: It is also possible to use a plain backpack harness to support the set, either with a horse-collar buoyancy compensator, or without any buoyancy compensator. This was the standard arrangement before the introduction of the buoyancy compensator, and is still used by some recreational and professional divers when it suits the diving operation.[citation needed]

text: Surface-supplied divers are generally required to carry an emergency gas supply, also known as a bailout set, which is usually back-mounted open circuit scuba connected into the breathing gas supply system by connecting an interstage hose to the gas switching block, (or bailout block), mounted on the side of the helmet or full-face mask, or on the diver's harness where it can easily be reached, but is unlikely to be accidentally opened. Other mounting arrangements may be used for special circumstances.

text: Side-mount harnesses support the cylinders by clipping them to D-rings at chest and hip on either or both sides, and the cylinders hang roughly parallel to the diver's torso when underwater. The harness usually includes a buoyancy compensator bladder. It is possible for a skilled diver to carry up to 3 cylinders on each side with this system.[citation needed]

text: An unusual configuration which does not appear to have become popular is the integrated harness and storage container. These units comprise a bag which contains the buoyancy bladder and the cylinder, with a harness and regulator components which are stored in the bag and unfolded to the working position when the bag is unzipped. Some military rebreathers such as the Interspiro DCSC also store the breathing hoses inside the housing when not in use.[citation needed]

text: Technical divers may need to carry several different gas mixtures. These are intended to be used at different stages of the planned dive profile, and for safety reasons it is necessary for the diver to be able to check which gas is in use at any given depth and time, and to open and close the supply vaves when required, so the gases ate generally carried in fully self-contained independent scuba sets, which are suspended from the harness at the diver's sided. This arrangement is known as stage mounting. Stage sets may be cached along a penetration guideline to be retrieved during exit for convenience. These are also sometimes called drop tanks.

text: Accessories[edit]

text: In most scuba sets, a buoyancy compensator (BC) or buoyancy control device (BCD), such as a back-mounted wing or stabilizer jacket (also known as a "stab jacket"), is built into the harness. Although strictly speaking this is not a part of the breathing apparatus, it is usually connected to the diver's air supply, to provide easy inflation of the device. This can usually also be done manually via a mouthpiece, in order to save air while on the surface, or in case of a malfunction of the pressurized inflation system. The BCD inflates with air from the low pressure inflator hose to increase the volume of the scuba equipment and cause the diver gain buoyancy. Another button opens a valve to deflate the BCD and decrease the volume of the equipment and causes the diver to lose buoyancy. Some BCDs allow for integrated weight, meaning that the BCD has special pockets for the weights that can be dumped easily in case of an emergency. The function of the BCD, while underwater, is to keep the diver neutrally buoyant, i.e., neither floating up or sinking. The BCD is used to compensate for the compression of a wet suit, and to compensate for the decrease of the diver's mass as the air from the cylinder is breathed away.[citation needed]

text: Diving weighting systems increase the average density of the scuba diver and equipment to compensate for the buoyancy of diving equipment, particularly the diving suit, allowing the diver to fully submerge with ease by obtaining neutral or slightly negative buoyancy. Weighting systems originally consisted of solid lead blocks attached to a belt around the diver's waist, but some diving weighting systems are incorporated into the BCD or harness. These systems may use small nylon bags of lead shot or small weights which are distributed around the BCD, allowing a diver to gain a better overall weight distribution leading to a more horizontal trim in the water. Tank weights can be attached to the cylinder or threaded on the cambands holding the cylinder into the BCD.[citation needed]

text: Many closed circuit rebreathers use advanced electronics to monitor and regulate the composition of the breathing gas.[citation needed]

text: Rebreather divers and some open-circuit scuba divers carry extra diving cylinders for bailout in case the main breathing gas supply is used up or malfunctions. If the bailout cylinder is small, they may be called "pony cylinders". They have their own demand regulators and mouthpieces, and are technically distinct extra scuba sets. In technical diving, the diver may carry different equipment for different phases of the dive. Some breathing gas mixes, such as trimix, may only be used at depth, and others, such as pure oxygen, may only be used during decompression stops in shallow water. The heaviest cylinders are generally carried on the back supported by a backplate while others are side slung from strong points on the harness.[citation needed]

text: When the diver carries many diving cylinders, especially those made of steel, lack of buoyancy can be a problem. High-capacity BCs may be needed to allow the diver to effectively control buoyancy.[citation needed]

text: An excess of tubes and connections passing through the water tend to decrease swimming performance by causing hydrodynamic drag.[citation needed]

text: A diffuser is a component fitted over the exhaust outlet to break up the exhaled gas into bubbles small enough not to be seen above the surface the water, and make less noise (see acoustic signature). They are used in combat diving, to avoid detection by surface observers or by underwater hydrophones, Underwater mine disposal operations conducted by clearance divers, to make less noise,[48] to reduce the risk of detonating acoustic mines, and in marine biology, to avoid disruption of fish behavior.[49]

text: Designing an adequate diffuser for a rebreather is much easier than for open-circuit scuba, as the gas flow rate is generally much lower.[citation needed] An open-circuit diffuser system called the "scuba muffler" was prototyped by Eddie Paul in the early 1990s for underwater photographers John McKenney and Marty Snyderman; the prototype had two large filter stones mounted on the back of the cylinder with a hose connected to the exhaust ports of the second-stage regulator. The filter stones were mounted on a hinged arm to float 1 to 2 feet (30 to 60 cm) above the diver, to set up a depth-pressure-differential suction effect to counteract the extra exhalation pressure needed to breathe out through the diffuser. The scuba muffler was claimed to cut the exhalation noise by 90%.[50] Closed circuit rebreathers proved more useful in letting divers get near sharks.[51]

text: Gas endurance of a scuba set[edit]

text: Gas endurance of a scuba set is the time that the gas supply will last during a dive. This is influenced by the type of scuba set and the circumstances in which it is used.

text: Open circuit[edit]

text: The gas endurance of open-circuit-demand scuba depends on factors such as the capacity (volume of gas) in the diving cylinder, the depth of the dive and the breathing rate of the diver, which is dependent on exertion, fitness, physical size of the diver, and experience among other factors. New divers frequently consume all the air in a standard "aluminum 80" cylinder in 30 minutes or less on a typical dive, while experienced divers frequently dive for 60 to 70 minutes at the same average depth, using the same capacity cylinder, as they have learned more efficient diving techniques.[citation needed]

text: An open-circuit diver whose breathing rate at the surface (atmospheric pressure) is 15 litres per minute will consume 3 x 15 = 45 litres of gas per minute at 20 metres. [(20 m/10 m per bar) + 1 bar atmospheric pressure] × 15 L/min = 45 L/min). If an 11-litre cylinder filled to 200 bar is to be used until there is a reserve of 17% there is (83% × 200 × 11) = 1826 litres available. At 45 L/min the dive at depth will be a maximum of 40.5 minutes (1826/45). These depths and times are typical of experienced recreational divers leisurely exploring a coral reef using standard 200 bar "aluminum 80" cylinders as may be rented from a commercial sport diving operation in most tropical island or coastal resorts.[citation needed]

text: Semi-closed rebreather[edit]

text: A semi-closed circuit rebreather may have an endurance of about 3 to 10 times that of the equivalent open-circuit dive, and is less affected by depth; gas is recycled but fresh gas must be constantly injected to replace at least the oxygen used, and any excess gas from this must be vented. Although it uses gas more economically, the weight of the rebreathing equipment means the diver carries smaller cylinders. Still, most semi-closed systems allow at least twice the duration of open-circuit systems (around 2 hours) and are often limited by scrubber endurance.[citation needed]

text: Closed circuit rebreathers[edit]

text: An oxygen rebreather diver or a fully closed circuit rebreather diver consumes about 1 litre of oxygen corrected to atmospheric pressure per minute. Except during ascent or descent, the fully closed circuit rebreather that is operating correctly uses very little or no diluent. A diver with a 3-litre oxygen cylinder filled to 200 bar who leaves 25% in reserve will be able to do a 450-minute = 7.5 hour dive (3 litres × 200 bar × 0.75 litres per minute = 450 minutes). This endurance is independent of depth. The life of the soda lime scrubber is likely to be less than this and so will be the limiting factor of the dive.[citation needed]

text: In practice, dive times for rebreathers are more often influenced by other factors, such as water temperature and the need for safe ascent (see Decompression (diving)), and this is generally also true for large-capacity open-circuit sets.[citation needed]


document_title: Four-point play

question_text: who has the most 4 point plays in nba history

root

text: Four-point play

text: In basketball, a four-point play is the rare occasion when an offensive player shoots and makes a three-point field goal while simultaneously being fouled by a defensive player, resulting in a shooting foul and one free throw attempt, or a two-point field goal and is intentionally or flagrantly fouled on the shot and is awarded two free throws. If the player makes his/her free throws, they will have scored four points on a single possession.[1] The short-lived American Basketball League first introduced the four-point play to the game of basketball, and it was later adopted by the American Basketball Association during its inaugural season.[2] The National Basketball Association (NBA) introduced that rule in 1979; FIBA in 1984; the NCAA in 1986 (men only) and 1987 (women); middle and high schools in 1987; and the WNBA in 1997.

tag: p

text: Sam Smith of the Chicago Bulls completed the first four-point play in NBA history on October 21, 1979, in a game against the Milwaukee Bucks.[3] Dale Ellis was the first player in NBA history to complete two four-point plays in the same game when he did so in a win against the Sacramento Kings on January 26, 1988.[4] On April 29, 2009, James Jones completed two four-point plays in a span of eleven seconds.[5] As of February 1, 2018[update], Jamal Crawford is the league's career leader in regular-season four-point plays with 51, and 56 when including postseason play.[6][7]


document_title: List of countries by external debt

question_text: who is state of the world was the highest external debtor in the first half of 2017

text: List of countries by external debt

text: This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. In particular, most readers will not understand "external" debt and will confuse with "public" debt, and for tax-haven locations like Ireland, Luxembourg and Singapore, "external debt" is a meaningless statistic, as none of it relates to the local economy. Please help us clarify the article. There might be a discussion about this on the talk page. (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: This is a list of countries by external debt, which is the total public and private debt owed to nonresidents repayable in internationally accepted currencies, goods or services, where the public debt is the money or credit owed by any level of government, from central to local, and the private debt the money or credit owed by private households or private corporations based in the country under consideration.

text: For informational purposes, several non-sovereign entities are also included in this list.

text: Note that while a country may have a relatively large external debt (either in absolute or per capita terms) it could actually be a "net international creditor" if its external debt is less than the total of the external debt of other countries held by it. For example, although the UK has more external debt than France, it has more external assets giving it a stronger NIIP.

text:
List of countries by external debt

Rank

Country/Region

External debtUS dollars

Date
Per capitaUS dollars

% of GDP

7000100000000000000♠1
 United States
7013222849000000000♠22,284,900,000,000
December 2017
7004582000000000000♠58,200
7001940000000000000♠94

7000200000000000000♠2
 United Kingdom
7012847595600000000♠8,475,956,000,000
31 December 2017[1]
7005127000000000000♠127,000
7002313000000000000♠313

7000300000000000000♠3
 France
7012568974500000000♠5,689,745,000,000
31 December 2017[2]
7004872000000000000♠87,200
7002213000000000000♠213

7000400000000000000♠4
 Germany
7012539826700000000♠5,398,267,000,000
31 December 2017[3]
7004656000000000000♠65,600
7002141000000000000♠141

7000500000000000000♠5
 Netherlands
7012451040000000000♠4,510,400,000,000
31 December 2017[4]
7004264000000000000♠26,400
7002522000000000000♠522

7000600000000000000♠6
 Luxembourg
7012378100000000000♠3,781,000,000,000
31 December 2017[5]
7006696800000000000♠6,968,000
7003630700000000000♠6,307

7000700000000000000♠7
 Japan
7012358681700000000♠3,586,817,000,000
31 December 2017[6]
7004282000000000000♠28,200
7001740000000000000♠74

7000800000000000000♠8
 Italy
7012251069000000000♠2,510,690,000,000
31 December 2017[7]
7004423000000000000♠42,300
7002124000000000000♠124

7000900000000000000♠9
 Ireland
7012238424700000000♠2,384,247,000,000
31 December 2017[8]
7005496000000000000♠496,000
7002684000000000000♠684

7001100000000000000♠10
 Spain
7012225912700000000♠2,259,127,000,000
31 December 2017[9]
7004487000000000000♠48,700
7002167000000000000♠167

7001110000000000000♠11
 Canada
7012193190000000000♠1,931,900,000,000
31 December 2017[10]
7004523000000000000♠52,300
7002115000000000000♠115

7001120000000000000♠12
 China
7012184350000000000♠1,843,500,000,000
31 March 2018[11]
7003132600000000000♠1,326
7001150000000000000♠15

—
 Hong Kong
7011108160806000000♠108,160,806,000
30 June 2017[12]
7004148200000000000♠14,820
7001350000000000000♠35

7001130000000000000♠13
  Switzerland
7012182069500000000♠1,820,695,000,000
31 December 2017[13]
7005213100000000000♠213,100
7002269000000000000♠269

7001140000000000000♠14
 Australia
7012148772000000000♠1,487,720,000,000
30 June 2017[14]
7004608000000000000♠60,800
7002126000000000000♠126

7001150000000000000♠15
 Singapore
7012132056700000000♠1,320,567,000,000
30 June 2017[15]
7005231000000000000♠231,000
7002453000000000000♠453

7001160000000000000♠16
 Belgium
7012127846500000000♠1,278,465,000,000
30 June 2017[16]
7005112000000000000♠112,000
7002265000000000000♠265

7001170000000000000♠17
 Sweden
7011135739662900000♠135,739,662,900
30 June 2017[17]
7004945000000000000♠94,500
7002177000000000000♠177

7001180000000000000♠18
 Austria
7011638340000000000♠638,340,000,000
30 June 2017[18]
7004731000000000000♠73,100
7002167000000000000♠167

7001190000000000000♠19
 Norway
7011623223000000000♠623,223,000,000
30 June 2017[19]
7005117000000000000♠117,000
7002169000000000000♠169

7001200000000000000♠20
 Brazil
7011556418000000000♠556,418,000,000
30 September 2017[20]
7003320000000000000♠3,200
7001300000000000000♠30

7001210000000000000♠21
 Russia
7011537458000000000♠537,458,000,000
30 September 2017[21]
7003370000000000000♠3,700
7001400000000000000♠40

7001220000000000000♠22
 India
7011529000000000000♠529,000,000,000
29 June 2018[22]
7002380000000000000♠380
7001200000000000000♠20

7001230000000000000♠23
 Denmark
7011491617000000000♠491,617,000,000
30 June 2017[23]
7004857000000000000♠85,700
7002163000000000000♠163

7001240000000000000♠24
 Finland
7011483369000000000♠483,369,000,000
30 June 2017[24]
7004875000000000000♠87,500
7002196000000000000♠196

7001250000000000000♠25
 Greece
7011476997000000000♠476,997,000,000
31 December 2017[25]
7004428000000000000♠42,800
7002228000000000000♠228

7001260000000000000♠26
 Turkey
7011453207000000000♠453,207,000,000
31 December 2017[26]
7003550000000000000♠5,500
7001530000000000000♠53

7001270000000000000♠27
 Portugal
7011447022000000000♠447,022,000,000
30 June 2017[27]
7004433000000000000♠43,300
7002216000000000000♠216

7001280000000000000♠28
 Mexico
7011437367000000000♠437,367,000,000
31 December 2017[28]
7003330000000000000♠3,300
7001380000000000000♠38

7001290000000000000♠29
 South Korea
7011407341000000000♠407,341,000,000
30 June 2017[29]
7003750000000000000♠7,500
7001270000000000000♠27

7001300000000000000♠30
 Poland
7011363658000000000♠363,658,000,000
30 June 2017[30]
7003950000000000000♠9,500
7001700000000000000♠70

7001310000000000000♠31
 Indonesia
7011335289000000000♠335,289,000,000
30 June 2017[31]
7003130000000000000♠1,300
7001340000000000000♠34

7001320000000000000♠32
 Malaysia
7011227844500000000♠227,844,500,000
31 March 2018[32]
7003680000000000000♠6,800
7001750000000000000♠75

7001330000000000000♠33
 United Arab Emirates
7011220400000000000♠220,400,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[33]
7004235000000000000♠23,500
7001590000000000000♠59

7001340000000000000♠34
 Saudi Arabia
7011200900000000000♠200,900,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[34]
7003610000000000000♠6,100
7001310000000000000♠31

7001350000000000000♠35
 Argentina
7011363117000000000♠363,117,000,000
31 December 2017[35]
7003828000000000000♠8,280
7001660000000000000♠66

7001360000000000000♠36
 Mauritius
7011199710000000000♠199,710,000,000
30 June 2018[36]
7005148000000000000♠148,000
7003153600000000000♠1,536

7001370000000000000♠37
 Taiwan
7011199051000000000♠199,051,000,000
30 June 2018[37]
7003740000000000000♠7,400
7001330000000000000♠33

7001380000000000000♠38
 New Zealand
7011198815000000000♠198,815,000,000
31 March 2018[38]
7004403000000000000♠40,300
7002100000000000000♠100

7001390000000000000♠39
 Chile
7011183294300000000♠183,294,300,000
31 May 2018[39]
7003900000000000000♠9,000
7001660000000000000♠66

—
 Puerto Rico
7011167400000000000♠167,400,000,000
31 January 2015 est.
7004478000000000000♠47,800
7002164000000000000♠164

7001400000000000000♠40
 Kazakhstan
7011165501000000000♠165,501,000,000
31 March 2017[40]
7003910000000000000♠9,100
7002117000000000000♠117

7001410000000000000♠41
 Qatar
7011159200000000000♠159,200,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[41]
7004681000000000000♠68,100
7002102000000000000♠102

7001420000000000000♠42
 Thailand
7011149429550000000♠149,429,550,000
31 December 2017[42]
7003217000000000000♠2,170
7001330000000000000♠33

7001430000000000000♠43
 Hungary
7011148024000000000♠148,024,000,000
30 June 2017[43]
7004150000000000000♠15,000
7002121000000000000♠121

7001440000000000000♠44
 South Africa
7011142833000000000♠142,833,000,000
31 December 2016[44]
7003260000000000000♠2,600
7001480000000000000♠48

7001450000000000000♠45
 Czech Republic
7011137606000000000♠137,606,000,000
31 December 2016[45]
7004130000000000000♠13,000
7001700000000000000♠70

7001460000000000000♠46
 Colombia
7011121097200000000♠121,097,200,000
31 January 2017[46]
7003250000000000000♠2,500
7001430000000000000♠43

7001470000000000000♠47
 Cyprus
7011119672000000000♠119,672,000,000
30 June 2017[47]
7004972000000000000♠97,200
7002597000000000000♠597

7001480000000000000♠48
 Ukraine
7011114836000000000♠114,836,000,000
30 June 2017[48]
7003260000000000000♠2,600
7002122000000000000♠122

7001490000000000000♠49
 Venezuela
7011110878000000000♠110,878,000,000
30 September 2015[49]
7003350000000000000♠3,500
7001230000000000000♠23

7001500000000000000♠50
 Romania
7011108880000000000♠108,880,000,000
31 July 2017[50]
7003510000000000000♠5,100
7001550000000000000♠55

7001510000000000000♠51
 Malta
7010962513000000000♠96,251,300,000
30 June 2017[51]
7005223000000000000♠223,000
7002879000000000000♠879

7001520000000000000♠52
 Pakistan
7010962513000000000♠96,251,300,000
17 May 2018[52]
7002380000000000000♠380
7001260000000000000♠26

7001530000000000000♠53
 Israel
7010894384000000000♠89,438,400,000
30 June 2017[53]
7004107000000000000♠10,700
7001260000000000000♠26

7001540000000000000♠54
 Slovakia
7010866300000000000♠86,630,000,000
30 June 2017[54]
7004159000000000000♠15,900
7001910000000000000♠91

7001550000000000000♠55
 Peru
7010746512000000000♠74,651,200,000
31 December 2016[55]
7003230000000000000♠2,300
7001380000000000000♠38

7001560000000000000♠56
 Philippines
7010724930000000000♠72,493,000,000
30 June 2017[56]
7002720000000000000♠720
7001250000000000000♠25

7001570000000000000♠57
 Iraq
7010680100000000000♠68,010,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[57]
7003180000000000000♠1,800
7001440000000000000♠44

7001580000000000000♠58
 Egypt
7010673226000000000♠67,322,600,000
31 December 2016[58]
7002700000000000000♠700
7001410000000000000♠41

7001590000000000000♠59
 Vietnam
7010509377000000000♠50,937,700,000
31 December 2015[59]
7002500000000000000♠500
7001260000000000000♠26

7001600000000000000♠60
 Slovenia
7010499500000000000♠49,950,000,000
30 June 2017[60]
7004240000000000000♠24,000
7002109000000000000♠109

7001610000000000000♠61
 Morocco
7010488303000000000♠48,830,300,000
30 June 2017[61]
7003140000000000000♠1,400
7001440000000000000♠44

7001620000000000000♠62
 Kuwait
7010478900000000000♠47,890,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[62]
7004117000000000000♠11,700
7001430000000000000♠43

7001630000000000000♠63
 Sri Lanka
7010465857000000000♠46,585,700,000
31 December 2016[63]
7003220000000000000♠2,200
7001590000000000000♠59

7001640000000000000♠64
 Croatia
7010460847000000000♠46,084,700,000
30 June 2017[64]
7004107000000000000♠10,700
7001870000000000000♠87

7001650000000000000♠65
 Sudan
7010450000000000000♠45,000,000,000
31 December 2015[65]
7003110000000000000♠1,100
7001470000000000000♠47

7001660000000000000♠66
 Latvia
7010411470000000000♠41,147,000,000
30 June 2017[66]
7004212000000000000♠21,200
7002147000000000000♠147

7001670000000000000♠67
 Bulgaria
7010404190000000000♠40,419,000,000
31 January 2018[67]
7003570000000000000♠5,700
7001660000000000000♠66

7001680000000000000♠68
 Belarus
7010389750000000000♠38,975,000,000
30 June 2017[68]
7003400000000000000♠4,000
7001830000000000000♠83

7001690000000000000♠69
 Angola
7010377000000000000♠37,700,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[69]
7003140000000000000♠1,400
7001410000000000000♠41

7001700000000000000♠70
 Ecuador
7010367472000000000♠36,747,200,000
31 August 2017[70]
7003210000000000000♠2,100
7001350000000000000♠35

7001710000000000000♠71
 Lithuania
7010364277000000000♠36,427,700,000
30 June 2017[71]
7004127000000000000♠12,700
7001860000000000000♠86

7001720000000000000♠72
 Serbia
7010279540000000000♠27,954,000,000
30 June 2017[72]
7003320000000000000♠3,200
7001780000000000000♠78

7001730000000000000♠73
 Lebanon
7010277960000000000♠27,796,000,000
31 December 2016[73]
7003460000000000000♠4,600
7001540000000000000♠54

7001740000000000000♠74
 Jordan
7010277564000000000♠27,756,400,000
30 June 2017[74]
7003340000000000000♠3,400
7001300000000000000♠30

7001750000000000000♠75
 Cuba
7010263200000000000♠26,320,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[75]
7003230000000000000♠2,300
7001340000000000000♠34

7001760000000000000♠76
 Uruguay
7010261492000000000♠26,149,200,000
31 December 2016[76]
7003760000000000000♠7,600
7001500000000000000♠50

7001770000000000000♠77
 Dominican Republic
7010260500000000000♠26,050,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[77]
7003240000000000000♠2,400
7001360000000000000♠36

7001780000000000000♠78
 Bangladesh
7010259630000000000♠25,963,000,000
30 June 2016[78]
7002160000000000000♠160
7001120000000000000♠12

7001790000000000000♠79
 Mongolia
7010252150000000000♠25,215,000,000
30 June 2017[79]
7003780000000000000♠7,800
7002186000000000000♠186

7001800000000000000♠80
 Tunisia
7010251247000000000♠25,124,700,000
31 December 2012[80]
7003220000000000000♠2,200
7001560000000000000♠56

7001810000000000000♠81
 Costa Rica
7010249100000000000♠24,910,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[81]
7003510000000000000♠5,100
7001430000000000000♠43

7001820000000000000♠82
 Iceland
7010243906000000000♠24,390,600,000
30 June 2017[82]
7004727000000000000♠72,700
7002118000000000000♠118

7001830000000000000♠83
 Ethiopia
7010224900000000000♠22,490,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[83]
7002220000000000000♠220
7001320000000000000♠32

7001840000000000000♠84
 Kenya
7010221719000000000♠22,171,900,000
30 June 2017[84]
7002370000000000000♠370
7001260000000000000♠26

7001850000000000000♠85
 Papua New Guinea
7010220400000000000♠22,040,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[85]
7003280000000000000♠2,800
7002111000000000000♠111

7001860000000000000♠86
 Trinidad & Tobago
7010215321000000000♠21,532,100,000
31 December 2016[86]
7004157000000000000♠15,700
7001760000000000000♠76

7001870000000000000♠87
 Ghana
7010211700000000000♠21,170,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[87]
7002700000000000000♠700
7001500000000000000♠50

7001880000000000000♠88
 Bahrain
7010211600000000000♠21,160,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[88]
7004149000000000000♠14,900
7001660000000000000♠66

7001890000000000000♠89
 Oman
7010208500000000000♠20,850,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[89]
7003440000000000000♠4,400
7001350000000000000♠35

7001900000000000000♠90
 Estonia
7010205251000000000♠20,525,100,000
31 December 2016[90]
7004157000000000000♠15,700
7001910000000000000♠91

7001910000000000000♠91
 Guatemala
7010190900000000000♠19,090,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[91]
7003110000000000000♠1,100
7001280000000000000♠28

7001920000000000000♠92
 Palau
7010183800000000000♠18,380,000,000
31 December 2014 est.[92]
7005846000000000000♠846,000
7003620900000000000♠6,209

7001930000000000000♠93
 Panama
7010183410000000000♠18,341,000,000
28 February 2018[93]
7003440000000000000♠4,400
7001300000000000000♠30

7001940000000000000♠94
 Bahamas
7010175600000000000♠17,560,000,000
31 December 2013 est.[94]
7004442000000000000♠44,200
7002194000000000000♠194

7001950000000000000♠95
 Jamaica
7010167600000000000♠16,760,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[95]
7003600000000000000♠6,000
7002122000000000000♠122

7001960000000000000♠96
 Monaco
7010165000000000000♠16,500,000,000
30 June 2010 est.
7005434000000000000♠434,000
7002240000000000000♠240

7001970000000000000♠97
 Georgia
7010164165000000000♠16,416,500,000
30 June 2017[96]
7003390000000000000♠3,900
7002108000000000000♠108

7001980000000000000♠98
 Paraguay
7010161224000000000♠16,122,400,000
31 December 2016[97]
7003240000000000000♠2,400
7001580000000000000♠58

7001990000000000000♠99
 Tanzania
7010158900000000000♠15,890,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[98]
7002280000000000000♠280
7001340000000000000♠34

7002100000000000000♠100
 Uzbekistan
7010157500000000000♠15,750,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[99]
7002500000000000000♠500
7001240000000000000♠24

7002101000000000000♠101
 Nigeria
7010150470000000000♠15,047,000,000
30 June 2017[100]
7001600000000000000♠60
7000300000000000000♠3

7002102000000000000♠102
 El Salvador
7010149000000000000♠14,900,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[101]
7003240000000000000♠2,400
7001560000000000000♠56

7002103000000000000♠103
 Laos
7010119800000000000♠11,980,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[102]
7003170000000000000♠1,700
7001870000000000000♠87

7002104000000000000♠104
 Nicaragua
7010111000000000000♠11,100,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[103]
7003180000000000000♠1,800
7001830000000000000♠83

7002105000000000000♠105
 Zimbabwe
7010109000000000000♠10,900,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[104]
7002670000000000000♠670
7001770000000000000♠77

7002106000000000000♠106
 Armenia
7010100440000000000♠10,044,000,000
30 June 2017[105]
7003330000000000000♠3,300
7001940000000000000♠94

7002107000000000000♠107
 Ivory Coast
7010100281000000000♠10,028,100,000
31 December 2015[106]
7002420000000000000♠420
7001280000000000000♠28

7002108000000000000♠108
 Cambodia
7009982440000000000♠9,824,400,000
31 December 2016[107]
7002600000000000000♠600
7001490000000000000♠49

7002109000000000000♠109
 Mozambique
7009955400000000000♠9,554,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[108]
7002320000000000000♠320
7001790000000000000♠79

7002110000000000000♠110
 Zambia
7009927000000000000♠9,270,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[109]
7002540000000000000♠540
7001450000000000000♠45

7002111000000000000♠111
 Albania
7009863150000000000♠8,631,500,000
30 June 2017[110]
7003290000000000000♠2,900
7001730000000000000♠73

7002112000000000000♠112
 Honduras
7009804200000000000♠8,042,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[111]
7003100000000000000♠1,000
7001380000000000000♠38

7002113000000000000♠113
 Kyrgyzstan
7009786680000000000♠7,866,800,000
31 December 2016[112]
7003130000000000000♠1,300
7002120000000000000♠120

7002114000000000000♠114
 Macedonia
7009764550000000000♠7,645,500,000
31 December 2016[113]
7003370000000000000♠3,700
7001740000000000000♠74

7002115000000000000♠115
 Cameroon
7009737500000000000♠7,375,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[114]
7002300000000000000♠300
7001240000000000000♠24

7002116000000000000♠116
 Yemen
7009719150000000000♠7,191,500,000
31 January 2015[115]
7002260000000000000♠260
7001210000000000000♠21

7002117000000000000♠117
 Iran
7009711600000000000♠7,116,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[116]
7001900000000000000♠90
7000200000000000000♠2

7002118000000000000♠118
 Azerbaijan
7009691320000000000♠6,913,200,000
31 December 2016[117]
7003130000000000000♠1,300
7001200000000000000♠20

7002119000000000000♠119
 Moldova
7009659470000000000♠6,594,700,000
31 December 2016[118]
7003160000000000000♠1,600
7001980000000000000♠98

7002120000000000000♠120
 Namibia
7009651500000000000♠6,515,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[119]
7003250000000000000♠2,500
7001640000000000000♠64

7002121000000000000♠121
 Myanmar
7009640120000000000♠6,401,200,000
31 December 2015[120]
7002120000000000000♠120
7001170000000000000♠17

7002122000000000000♠122
 Bolivia
7009634080000000000♠6,340,800,000
31 December 2015[121]
7002600000000000000♠600
7001190000000000000♠19

7002123000000000000♠123
 Uganda
7009624100000000000♠6,241,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[122]
7002150000000000000♠150
7001240000000000000♠24

7002124000000000000♠124
 Senegal
7009618600000000000♠6,186,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[123]
7002390000000000000♠390
7001420000000000000♠42

7002125000000000000♠125
 Syria
7009591800000000000♠5,918,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[124]
7002300000000000000♠300
7001240000000000000♠24

7002126000000000000♠126
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
7009533100000000000♠5,331,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[125]
7001700000000000000♠70
7001130000000000000♠13

7002127000000000000♠127
 Gabon
7009515800000000000♠5,158,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[126]
7003290000000000000♠2,900
7001350000000000000♠35

7002128000000000000♠128
 North Korea
7009500000000000000♠5,000,000,000
2013 est.[127]
7002200000000000000♠200
7001180000000000000♠18

7002129000000000000♠129
 Republic of the Congo
7009481700000000000♠4,817,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[128]
7003100000000000000♠1,000
7001550000000000000♠55

7002130000000000000♠130
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
7009471660000000000♠4,716,600,000
30 June 2017[129]
7003130000000000000♠1,300
7001310000000000000♠31

7002131000000000000♠131
 Barbados
7009449000000000000♠4,490,000,000
2010 est.[130]
7004157000000000000♠15,700
7002100000000000000♠100

7002132000000000000♠132
 Madagascar
7009400700000000000♠4,007,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[131]
7002160000000000000♠160
7001410000000000000♠41

7002133000000000000♠133
 Mali
7009362600000000000♠3,626,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[132]
7002200000000000000♠200
7001260000000000000♠26

7002134000000000000♠134
 Mauritania
7009358500000000000♠3,585,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[133]
7002840000000000000♠840
7001760000000000000♠76

7002135000000000000♠135
 Libya
7009353100000000000♠3,531,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[134]
7002550000000000000♠550
7000900000000000000♠9

7002136000000000000♠136
   Nepal
7009345020000000000♠3,450,200,000
31 July 2015[135]
7002120000000000000♠120
7001160000000000000♠16

7002137000000000000♠137
 Algeria
7009313900000000000♠3,139,000,000
30 June 2016[136]
7001800000000000000♠80
7000200000000000000♠2

7002138000000000000♠138
 Burkina Faso
7009309200000000000♠3,092,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[137]
7002160000000000000♠160
7001260000000000000♠26

7002139000000000000♠139
 Somalia
7009305400000000000♠3,054,000,000
31 December 2013 est.[138]
7002270000000000000♠270
7001520000000000000♠52

7002140000000000000♠140
 Niger
7009272900000000000♠2,729,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[139]
7002130000000000000♠130
7001360000000000000♠36

7002141000000000000♠141
 Montenegro
7009264000000000000♠2,640,000,000
30 June 2018[140]
7003426000000000000♠4,260
7001600000000000000♠60

7002142000000000000♠142
 Seychelles
7009255200000000000♠2,552,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[141]
7004262000000000000♠26,200
7002180000000000000♠180

7002143000000000000♠143
 Rwanda
7009244200000000000♠2,442,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[142]
7002200000000000000♠200
7001290000000000000♠29

—
 Bermuda
7009243500000000000♠2,435,000,000
2015 est.[143]
7004397000000000000♠39,700
7001470000000000000♠47

—
 Kosovo
7009238970000000000♠2,389,700,000
30 June 2017[144]
7003120000000000000♠1,200
7001340000000000000♠34

7002144000000000000♠144
 Benin
7009234000000000000♠2,340,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[145]
7002200000000000000♠200
7001260000000000000♠26

7002145000000000000♠145
 Tajikistan
7009227410000000000♠2,274,100,000
31 December 2016[146]
7002260000000000000♠260
7001350000000000000♠35

7002146000000000000♠146
 Bhutan
7009226100000000000♠2,261,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[147]
7003290000000000000♠2,900
7002108000000000000♠108

7002147000000000000♠147
 Haiti
7009202200000000000♠2,022,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[148]
7002180000000000000♠180
7001240000000000000♠24

7002148000000000000♠148
 Malawi
7009192100000000000♠1,921,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[149]
7002100000000000000♠100
7001350000000000000♠35

7002149000000000000♠149
 Chad
7009187500000000000♠1,875,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[150]
7002130000000000000♠130
7001180000000000000♠18

7002150000000000000♠150
 Botswana
7009168540000000000♠1,685,400,000
31 March 2017[151]
7002720000000000000♠720
7001100000000000000♠10

—
 Palestine
7009166200000000000♠1,662,000,000
31 March 2016 est.[152]
7002340000000000000♠340
7001170000000000000♠17

7002151000000000000♠151
 Cape Verde
7009166000000000000♠1,660,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[153]
7003310000000000000♠3,100
7001990000000000000♠99

7002152000000000000♠152
 Sierra Leone
7009156100000000000♠1,561,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[154]
7002230000000000000♠230
7001360000000000000♠36

7002153000000000000♠153
 Equatorial Guinea
7009136400000000000♠1,364,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[155]
7003150000000000000♠1,500
7001120000000000000♠12

7002154000000000000♠154
 Djibouti
7009133900000000000♠1,339,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[156]
7003150000000000000♠1,500
7001710000000000000♠71

7002155000000000000♠155
 Guinea
7009133200000000000♠1,332,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[157]
7002100000000000000♠100
7001200000000000000♠20

7002156000000000000♠156
 Belize
7009132700000000000♠1,327,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[158]
7003350000000000000♠3,500
7001750000000000000♠75

7002157000000000000♠157
 Afghanistan
7009128000000000000♠1,280,000,000
FY-2010/11[159]
7001400000000000000♠40
7000700000000000000♠7

7002158000000000000♠158
 Suriname
7009123500000000000♠1,235,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[160]
7003220000000000000♠2,200
7001300000000000000♠30

7002159000000000000♠159
 Togo
7009117300000000000♠1,173,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[161]
7002150000000000000♠150
7001260000000000000♠26

7002160000000000000♠160
 Guyana
7009114300000000000♠1,143,000,000
31 December 2015[162]
7003150000000000000♠1,500
7001360000000000000♠36

7002161000000000000♠161
 Liberia
7009111100000000000♠1,111,000,000
31 December 2016 est.[163]
7002230000000000000♠230
7001510000000000000♠51

7002162000000000000♠162
 Guinea-Bissau
7009109500000000000♠1,095,000,000
31 December 2010 est.[164]
7002570000000000000♠570
7001940000000000000♠94

7002163000000000000♠163
 Lesotho
7008948800000000000♠948,800,000
31 December 2016 est.[165]
7002430000000000000♠430
7001530000000000000♠53

—
 Faroe Islands
7008888800000000000♠888,800,000
2010[166]
7004184000000000000♠18,400
7001380000000000000♠38

7002164000000000000♠164
 Fiji
7008833400000000000♠833,400,000
31 December 2016 est.[167]
7002900000000000000♠900
7001180000000000000♠18

7002165000000000000♠165
 Eritrea
7008820200000000000♠820,200,000
31 December 2016 est.[168]
7002150000000000000♠150
7001150000000000000♠15

7002166000000000000♠166
 Maldives
7008741600000000000♠741,600,000
2014 est.[169]
7003200000000000000♠2,000
7001230000000000000♠23

7002167000000000000♠167
 Burundi
7008705200000000000♠705,200,000
31 December 2016 est.[170]
7001600000000000000♠60
7001260000000000000♠26

—
 Aruba
7008693200000000000♠693,200,000
31 December 2014 est.[171]
7003660000000000000♠6,600
7001280000000000000♠28

7002168000000000000♠168
 Central African Republic
7008686900000000000♠686,900,000
31 December 2016 est.[172]
7002130000000000000♠130
7001390000000000000♠39

7002169000000000000♠169
 Grenada
7008679000000000000♠679,000,000
2013 est.[173]
7003630000000000000♠6,300
7001660000000000000♠66

7002170000000000000♠170
 The Gambia
7008541800000000000♠541,800,000
31 December 2016 est.[174]
7002260000000000000♠260
7001610000000000000♠61

7002171000000000000♠171
 Saint Lucia
7008513200000000000♠513,200,000
31 December 2016 est.[175]
7003270000000000000♠2,700
7001360000000000000♠36

7002172000000000000♠172
 Turkmenistan
7008502800000000000♠502,800,000
31 December 2016 est.[176]
7001900000000000000♠90
7000100000000000000♠1

7002173000000000000♠173
 Solomon Islands
7008491500000000000♠491,500,000
31 December 2013 est.[177]
7002800000000000000♠800
7001400000000000000♠40

7002174000000000000♠174
 Swaziland
7008470500000000000♠470,500,000
31 December 2016 est.[178]
7002360000000000000♠360
7001140000000000000♠14

7002175000000000000♠175
 Samoa
7008447200000000000♠447,200,000
31 December 2013 est.[179]
7003230000000000000♠2,300
7001510000000000000♠51

7002176000000000000♠176
 Antigua and Barbuda
7008441200000000000♠441,200,000
31 December 2012[180]
7003470000000000000♠4,700
7001340000000000000♠34

7002177000000000000♠177
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
7008321100000000000♠321,100,000
31 December 2016 est.[181]
7003290000000000000♠2,900
7001420000000000000♠42

7002178000000000000♠178
 Timor-Leste
7008311500000000000♠311,500,000
31 December 2014 est.[182]
7002250000000000000♠250
7001120000000000000♠12

7002179000000000000♠179
 Dominica
7008288600000000000♠288,600,000
31 December 2016 est.[183]
7003390000000000000♠3,900
7001550000000000000♠55

—
 Cook Islands
7008281200000000000♠281,200,000
31 December 2011[184]
7004134000000000000♠13,400
7001230000000000000♠23

7002180000000000000♠180
 Sao Tome and Principe
7008236500000000000♠236,500,000
31 December 2016 est.[185]
7003120000000000000♠1,200
7001670000000000000♠67

7002181000000000000♠181
 Tonga
7008233100000000000♠233,100,000
31 December 2016 est.[186]
7003220000000000000♠2,200
7001540000000000000♠54

7002182000000000000♠182
 Vanuatu
7008208100000000000♠208,100,000
31 December 2016 est.[187]
7002750000000000000♠750
7001270000000000000♠27

7002183000000000000♠183
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
7008187500000000000♠187,500,000
31 December 2016 est.[188]
7003330000000000000♠3,300
7001200000000000000♠20

7002184000000000000♠184
 Comoros
7008133300000000000♠133,300,000
31 December 2016 est.[189]
7002160000000000000♠160
7001210000000000000♠21

—
 New Caledonia
7008112000000000000♠112,000,000
31 December 2013 est.[190]
7002420000000000000♠420
7000100000000000000♠1

7002185000000000000♠185
 Marshall Islands
7007979600000000000♠97,960,000
2013 est.[191]
7003180000000000000♠1,800
7001520000000000000♠52

7002186000000000000♠186
 Federated States of Micronesia
7007936000000000000♠93,600,000
2013 est.[192]
7002900000000000000♠900
7001290000000000000♠29

—
 Cayman Islands
7007790000000000000♠79,000,000
1998 est.
7003210000000000000♠2,100
7000700000000000000♠7

—
 Greenland
7007364000000000000♠36,400,000
2010[193]
7002650000000000000♠650
7000200000000000000♠2

7002187000000000000♠187
 Nauru
7007333000000000000♠33,300,000
2004 est.[194]
7003320000000000000♠3,200
7001220000000000000♠22

—
 British Virgin Islands
7007176700000000000♠17,670,000
31 December 2016[195]
7002570000000000000♠570
7000200000000000000♠2

7002188000000000000♠188
 Kiribati
7007136000000000000♠13,600,000
2013 est.[196]
7002120000000000000♠120
7000800000000000000♠8

—
 Anguilla
7006880000000000000♠8,800,000
1998[197]
7002590000000000000♠590
7000500000000000000♠5

—
 Wallis and Futuna
7006367000000000000♠3,670,000
2004[198]
7002280000000000000♠280
7000600000000000000♠6

—
 Montserrat
7006104000000000000♠1,040,000
31 December 2011[199]
7002200000000000000♠200
7000200000000000000♠2

7002189000000000000♠189
 Brunei
5000000000000000000♠0
2014[200]
5000000000000000000♠0
5000000000000000000♠0

7002190000000000000♠190
 Liechtenstein
5000000000000000000♠0
2001[201]
5000000000000000000♠0
5000000000000000000♠0

—
 Macau
5000000000000000000♠0
31 December 2013[202]
5000000000000000000♠0
5000000000000000000♠0

—
 Niue
5000000000000000000♠0
27 October 2016[203]
5000000000000000000♠0
5000000000000000000♠0

7002191000000000000♠191
 Andorra

N/A

7002192000000000000♠192
 San Marino

N/A

7002193000000000000♠193
 South Sudan

N/A

7002194000000000000♠194
 Tuvalu

N/A


document_title: Bill of lading

question_text: who is responsible for filling out a bill of lading

text: Bill of lading

text: Description[edit]

text: A bill of lading is a standard-form document that is transferable by endorsement (or by lawful transfer of possession).[9] Most shipments by sea are covered by the Hague Rules, the Hague-Visby Rules or the Hamburg Rules, which require that the carrier must issue to the shipper a bill of lading identifying the nature, quantity, quality and leading marks[10] of the goods.

text: In the case of Coventry v Gladstone, Lord Justice Blackburn defined a bill of lading as "A writing signed on behalf of the owner of ship in which goods are embarked, acknowledging the receipt of the Goods, and undertaking to deliver them at the end of the voyage, subject to such conditions as may be mentioned in the bill of lading." Therefore, it can be stated that the bill of lading was introduced to provide a receipt to the shipper in the absence of the owners.

text: History[edit]

text: While there is evidence of the existence of receipts for goods loaded aboard merchant vessels stretching back as far as Roman times,[11] and the practice of recording cargo aboard ship in the ship's log is almost as long-lived as shipping itself, the modern bill of lading only came into use with the growth of international trade in the medieval world.

text: The growth of mercantilism (which produced other financial innovations such as the charterparty (once carta partita), the bill of exchange and the insurance policy[12]) produced a requirement for a title document that could be traded in much the same way as the goods themselves. It was this new avenue of trade that produced the bill of lading in much the same form as we know today.

text: Although the term "bill of lading" is well known and well understood, it may become obsolete. Articles 1:15 & 1:16 of the Rotterdam Rules create the new term "transport document"; but (assuming the Rotterdam Rules come into force) it remains to be seen whether shippers, carriers and "maritime performing parties" (another new Rotterdam Rules coinage) will abandon the familiar term "bill of lading".

text: Roles and purposes of bill of lading[edit]

text: As cargo receipt[edit]

text: The principal use of the bill of lading is as a receipt issued by the carrier once the goods have been loaded onto the vessel. This receipt can be used as proof of shipment for customs and insurance purposes, and also as commercial proof of completing a contractual obligation,[13] especially under Incoterms such as CFR (cost and freight) and FOB (free on board).

text: There are two types where bill of lading can be used as carrier's receipt for goods.[14] The first is on board bill of lading, also known as clean bill of lading. Clean bill of lading is used when there is no discrepancy between description filled by shipper and the actual goods shipped on board. Clean bill of lading indicates that the goods have been properly loaded on board the carrier's ship according to the prima facie evidence. If the carrier finds out that the bill of lading is different from the goods on board, one can provide contradictory evidence on clean bill of lading. It is valid as long as in the hand of the carrier, but once it is transferred and negotiated to the third party, it cannot be rebutted and the carrier can no longer mark discrepancy. The second is claused bill of lading. Claused bill of lading is used when there is some discrepancy between description in the bill of lading and the actual goods. For claused bill of lading, one can mark only when the goods are loaded.

text: As evidence of the contract of carriage[edit]

text: The bill of lading from carrier to shipper can be used as an evidence of the contract of carriage by the fact that carrier has received the goods and upon the receipt the carrier would deliver the goods. In this case, the bill of lading would be used as a contract of carriage. In this case, the bill of lading can be used if shipper does not properly ship the goods then the shipper cannot receive the bill of lading from the carrier. Eventually, the shipper would have to deliver the bill of lading to the seller. In this case, the bill of lading is used as a contract of carriage between seller and carrier. However, when the bill of lading is negotiated to a bona fide third party then the bill of lading becomes a conclusive evidence where no contradictory evidence can be introduced. It is because the third party cannot examine the actual shipment and can only pay attention to the document itself, not survey or examination of the shipment itself.[14] However, the bill of lading will rarely be the contract itself, since the cargo space will have been booked previously, perhaps by telephone, email or letter. The preliminary contract will be acknowledged by both the shipper and carrier to incorporate the carrier's standard terms of business. If the Hague-Visby Rules apply, then all of the Rules will be automatically annexed to the bill of lading, thus forming a statutory contract.

text: As title[edit]

text: When the bill of lading is used as a document of title, it is particularly related to the case of buyer. When the buyer is entitled to received goods from the carrier, bill of lading in this case performs as document of title for the goods. There are two types of bill of lading that can perform as document of title. They are straight bill of lading and order bill of lading. Straight bill of lading is a bill of lading issued to a named consignee that is not negotiable. In this case, the bill of lading should be directed only to one specific consignee indicated on the bill of lading. Order bill of lading is the opposite from a straight bill of lading and there is no specific or named consignee. Therefore, an order bill of lading can be negotiated to a third party.

text: Simply, the bill of lading confers prima facie title over the goods to the named consignee or lawful holder. Under the "nemo dat quod non habet" rule ("no one gives what he doesn't have"), a seller cannot pass better title than he himself has; so if the goods are subject to an encumbrance (such as a mortgage, charge or hypothec), or even stolen, the bill of lading will not grant full title to the holder.

text: Types of bills of lading[edit]

text: Bills of lading may take various forms, such as on-board and received-for-shipment.[15]

text:
An on-board bill of lading denotes that merchandise has been physically loaded onto a shipping vessel, such as a freighter or cargo plane.
A received-for-shipment bill of lading denotes that merchandise has been received, but is not guaranteed to have already been loaded onto a shipping vessel.(Typically, it will be issued by a freight-forwarder at a port or depot). Such bills can be converted upon being loaded.[16]

tag: ul

text:
A straight bill of lading is used when payment has been made in advance of shipment and requires a carrier to deliver the merchandise to the appropriate party.
An order bill of lading is used when shipping merchandise prior to payment, requiring a carrier to deliver the merchandise to the importer, and at the endorsement of the exporter the carrier may transfer title to the importer. Endorsed order bills of lading can be traded as a security or serve as collateral against debt obligations.[17]

text: "Claused" bills of lading[edit]

text: A bill of lading that denotes that merchandise is in good condition upon being received by the shipping carrier is referred to as a "clean" bill of lading, while a bill of lading that denotes that merchandise has incurred damage prior to being received by the shipping carrier would be known as a "foul" or "claused" bill of lading. A claused bill of lading will have a statement (clause) written onto the bill of lading noting down any damage or other issues. Letters of credit usually will not allow for foul bills of lading,[17] and the buyer is not obliged to accept any bill of lading that is not clean.[18]

text: Bills of lading and charterparties compared[edit]

text: A charterparty governs the relationship between the shipowner and the charterer. The bill of lading governs the relationship between the shipper and the carrier (who will be either a shipowner or a demise charterer). If the exporter (the shipper) is shipping a small amount of cargo, he will arrange for a carrier to carry the goods for him, using a bill of lading. If the exporter needs the whole (or a very substantial part) of the ship's cargo capacity, the exporter may need to charter the vessel, and he will enter into a charterparty agreement with the shipowner.

text: If the charter party is a time or voyage charterparty, the shipowner will still have control of the ship and its crew. If there is a demise (or "bareboat") charterparty, the charterer will effectively have a long lease and will have full control of the vessel. If the master (the captain) issues a B/L to a shipper, he will be acting as an agent for the carrier, who will be either the shipowner (time or voyage) or the charterer (demise).

text: In a time-charterparty or voyage-charterparty, if the charterer is shipping his own cargo (rather than the cargo of a third party) he will receive a bill of lading from the master, acting as agent of the shipowner; but that B/L will serve solely as a receipt and document of title, and its terms will (subject to contrary intent) be secondary to the terms of the charterparty, which remains the dominant contract.[19]

text: Sea waybills and electronic data interchange (EDI)[edit]

text: Under Art. III of the Hague-Visby Rules, a carrier must, on demand, provide the shipper with a bill of lading; but if the shipper agrees, a lesser document such as a "sea waybill" may be issued instead. In recent years, the use of bills of lading has declined, and they have tended to be replaced with the sea waybill. (If a so-called bill of lading is declared to be "non-negotiable", then it is not a true B/L,[20] and instead will be treated as a sea waybill.)

text: The main difference between these two documents is that the waybill gives the bearer the right to possession of the cargo, but does not confer title in the goods. As a result, there is no need for the physical document to be presented for the goods to be released. The carrier will automatically release the goods to the consignee once the import formalities have been completed. This results in a much smoother flow of trade, and has allowed shipping lines to move towards electronic data interchange which may greatly ease the flow of global trade.

text: For some time, it has been the case that the cargo may arrive at the destination before the bill of lading; and a practice has arisen for the shipper (having sent the bill of lading to the banks for checking) to send to the consignee a letter of indemnity (LOI) which can be presented to the carrier in exchange for the cargo. The LOI indemnifies the carrier against any cargo claim, but the document is not transferable and has no established legal status. For letter of credit and documentary collection transactions, it is important to retain title to the goods until the transaction is complete. This means that the bill of lading still remains a vital document within international trade.

text: Electronic bills of lading[edit]

text: For many years, the industry has sought a solution to the difficulties, costs and inefficiencies associated with paper bills of lading. One answer is to make the bill an electronic document.[21] An electronic bill of lading (or eB/L) is the legal and functional equivalent of a paper bill of lading.[22] An electronic bill of lading must replicate the core functions of a paper bill of lading, namely its functions as a receipt, as evidence of or containing the contract of carriage and as a document of title.[23]

text: The UK Carriage of Goods Act 1992 s.1(5) enables the trade minister to make regulations for electronic transactions. As yet, no such regulations have been made, as electronic interchange is already lawful. Electronic "clubs" such as BOLERO[24] have been quite successful, but the maritime trade community is traditional and loath to move away from paper transactions, so progress has been very slow. However, in recent times, it has been proposed that Blockchain technology may be the answer to cover the myriad steps in an export trade transaction, thereby enabling electronic transactions and information transfer that is both speedy and reliable.

text: Name[edit]

text: The word "lading" means "loading", both words being derived from the Old English word hladan.[25] "Lading" specifically refers to the loading of cargo aboard a ship.[26] Despite the etymology, "bills of loading" is not a synonym for "bills of lading".[citation needed] The Dutch word "lading" has exactly the same meaning (freight, cargo, an amount of transportable goods) as it has in the English "Bill of lading", but is not restricted to shipping.

text: Typical export transaction use INCOTERMS terms such as CIF, FOB or FAS, requiring the exporter/shipper to deliver the goods to the ship, whether onboard or alongside. Nevertheless, the loading itself will usually be done by the carrier himself or by a third party stevedore; (see Scruttons Ltd v Midland Silicones Ltd and NZ Shipping Co Ltd v A M Satterthwaite & Co Ltd - The Eurymedon).

text: How to recognize a valid international bill of lading[edit]

text: The table below explains how to recognize a valid BOL for most international shipping companies, including the SCAC:

text:
Carrier
SCAC + Master BOL
ExamplesHHYHG

Cosco
(CCLU, CSLU, COSU or CBHU) 10 Numbers
CCLU1234567890

Evergreen
EGLV(12 Numbers)
EGLV123456789012

OOCL
OOLU(10 Numbers)
OOLU1234567890

Matson
MATS(10 Numbers)
MATS1234567890

Maersk
MAEU(9 Numbers)
MAEU123456789

K-Line
KKLU AA(A or 1)(Followed by 6 Numbers)
KKLUAAA123456

MSC
MSCU A(A or 1) (Followed by 6 Numbers)
MSCUAA123456

Hapag-Lloyd
HLCU AA(A or 1) (Followed by 9 NumGbers)
HLCUAAA123456789

CMA CGM
(CMAU or CMDU) AAA (Followed by 7 Numbers)
CMAUAAA1234567

Hyundai
HMDU AAAA (Followed by 7 Numbers)
HMDUAAAA1234567

NYK
NYKS AAAA (Followed by 8 Numbers)
NYKSAAAA12345678

Yang Ming
YMLU(E, B, T or W) (Followed by 9 Numbers)
YMLUE123456789

UASC Lines
UASUAAAAA (Followed by 6 Numbers)
UASUAAAAA123456

ZIM
ZIMU or SSPH AAA (Followed by 4-7 Numbers)
ZIMUAAA1234567

MOL
MOLU (11 Numbers)A
MOLU12345678901A

Hamburg Süd
SUDU55555(7-Alphnumeric)
SUDU12345AAAAAAA

APL
APLU(Sometimes has a 0) (Followed by 8 Numbers)
APLU012345678

Hyundai
QSWB ( followed by 7 numbers)
QSWB6444089

Hyundai
HDMU followed by 4 letters(YNKU) and 7 numbers
HDMU YNKY1241556

SM Lines
(SMLM) + 4letters + 8 Numbers
SMLMNJPE70038700

Turkon Lines
TRKU + 6 letters + 6 numbers
TRKUMERNYC054228

Maruba
MRUB + 6 letters (POLPOD) + 6 numbers (YYNNNN)
MRUBBUEHKG180001