document_title: The Good Dinosaur

question_text: who plays the t rex in the good dinosaur

text: The Good Dinosaur

text: Plot[edit]

text: In an alternate history, the asteroid that would have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago passes safely over Earth.

text: Sixty-five million years later, Apatosaurus farmers Henry and Ida have children Libby, Buck, and the runt Arlo, who has trouble adjusting to farm life. While his successful siblings are allowed to "make their mark" (a mud-print on the family's corn silo), Arlo's timid nature makes tasks difficult for him. Henry attempts to give Arlo a sense of purpose by putting him in charge of guarding their silo, and helps him set a trap. It captures a feral caveboy, but Arlo doesn't have the heart to kill him, and sets him free. Disappointed, Henry takes Arlo to track the caveboy, leading them into a ravine. Henry saves Arlo from a flash flood before being swept away and killed.

text: Without his father, Arlo shoulders more of the workload. He spots the same caveboy inside the silo and, blaming him for his father's death, chases him until both fall into a river. Arlo cannot swim, and is swept downstream where he hits his head on a rock and is knocked unconscious. Awakening, he finds himself far from home and tries to survive on his own, but becomes trapped when a boulder pins his leg. The next day Arlo wakes to find his leg has been freed, and the caveboy appears with food for him. The caveboy then leads Arlo to a berry tree, where the caveboy fends off a large snake, amazing Arlo and impressing a nearby eccentric Styracosaurus who wants to keep the boy. He forces Arlo to compete with him to give the boy a name he will respond to, which Arlo finally wins when he calls him "Spot". Arlo and Spot bond as Arlo laments his lost family, and Spot reveals that his own parents are dead. Later, when a storm strikes, Arlo runs away in fear and loses the riverbank he has been following home.

text: The next morning, Arlo wakes to find Spot at his side. They are noticed by a band of pterodactyls, led by Thunderclap, who appear to be conducting a rescue operation but turn out to be savagely carnivorous. When the pterodactyls try to take Spot, Arlo and Spot flee, happening upon a pair of Tyrannosaurus named Nash and Ramsey, who ward off the pterodactyls. Nash, Ramsey, and their father Butch have lost their herd of longhorns, so Arlo offers Spot's help in sniffing them out. They locate the herd, but Butch recognizes the work of cattle rustlers, and uses Arlo as a lure. Arlo and Spot attract the attention of rustler Velociraptor, allowing Butch and his family to attack. During the fight, Arlo musters his courage and fends off two raptors who have overwhelmed Butch, helping to turn the fight in their favor. Having gained their respect, Arlo joins the Tyrannosaurus in driving the cattle south when he sees the familiar mountain peaks of his homeland in the distance, and leaves with Spot to return home. Along the way, they encounter an adult feral caveman in the distance, and though Spot shows interest, Arlo dissuades him and they continue on.

text: As another storm approaches, Thunderclap and the pterodactyls return and attack and carry Spot away. Arlo becomes entangled in vines, where he has a vision of Henry leading him home. Arlo instead resolves to save Spot, making the vision of his father proud before it fades away. Arlo finds and attacks the pterodactyls, who have cornered Spot at the river. Arlo and Spot together plunge Thunderclap and the pterodactyls into the water, where they are swept helplessly downstream. When another flash flood occurs, Arlo leaps into the water to rescue Spot as the two are swept away toward a waterfall. Arlo protects Spot as the two plummet down the fall, and carries him to shore.

text: As they approach Arlo's home, the two again hear the unknown caveman call, and are approached by an entire cave family. With great reluctance, Arlo pushes Spot to join his adoptive family, and the two of them share a tearful goodbye.

text: Arlo finally arrives home to his mother and siblings, and makes his mark on the silo between those of his mother and father.

text: Voice cast[edit]

text:
Raymond Ochoa as Arlo, the youngest of the Apatosaurus family[10][11]

Jack McGraw as Young Arlo

Jack Bright as Spot, a 6-7-year-old human caveboy who befriends Arlo.[10][11]
Sam Elliott as Butch, a Tyrannosaurus who runs a "ranch" filled with prehistoric "longhorns".[10]
Anna Paquin as Ramsey, Butch's daughter[10][11]
A. J. Buckley as Nash, Butch's son[10][11]
Jeffrey Wright as Poppa Henry, the father of the Apatosaurus family.[10][11]
Frances McDormand as Momma Ida, the mother of the Apatosaurus family.[10][11]
Marcus Scribner as Buck, Arlo's brother[10]

Ryan Teeple as Young Buck[12]

Maleah Padilla as Libby, Arlo's sister[12]
Steve Zahn as Thunderclap, a Nyctosaurus and the leader of a gang of pterodactyls.[10]
Mandy Freund as Downpour, a pterodactyl who is a member of Thunderclap's flock[12]
Steven Clay Hunter as Coldfront, a pterodactyl who is a member of Thunderclap's flock[12]
Peter Sohn as Forrest Woodbush, a Styracosaurus who has various animals perched on his horns.[12][13]
Dave Boat as Bubbha, the leader of a gang of Velociraptor rustlers[12]
Carrie Paff as Lurleane, a Velociraptor who is a member of Bubbha's pack.[12]
John Ratzenberger as Earl, a Velociraptor who is a member of Bubbha's pack.[12]
Calum Mackenzie Grant as Pervis, a Velociraptor who is a member of Bubbha's pack.[12]

text: Production[edit]

text: Bob Peterson and Peter Sohn started working on the film in 2009, when Peterson came up with the idea.[14] The film's first release date of November 27, 2013 was first announced in June 2011.[15] The plot, director and co-director, producer, and other small details were announced at the D23 Expo on August 20, 2011.[16] Peterson and John Walker announced the film as The Untitled Pixar Movie About Dinosaurs.[16] On April 24, 2012, Pixar announced that it would be titled The Good Dinosaur.[17]

text: The filmmakers wanted to explore what dinosaurs represent today, and how they are represented in stereotypes. Peterson stated: "It's time to do a movie where you get to know the dinosaur, what it's really like to be a dinosaur and to be with a dinosaur."[18] Peterson said the inspiration for the project came from a childhood visit to the 1964 New York World's Fair where he was impressed by some dinosaur Audio-Animatronics.[18]

text: On the film's title, Sohn stated, "The title is deceptively simple. It has more meaning than it seems."[18] He additionally explained: "Arlo has a lot of issues when he's born. He's fearful and he's weak and he's disconnected from the family because of these issues and he feels like he's not worthy, and so he finds a way to become worthy."[19]

text: In April 2012, Pixar announced that the film's release date had been shifted from November 27, 2013 to May 30, 2014.[17][20] On August 9, 2013, it was announced at the D23 Expo that Lucas Neff, John Lithgow, Frances McDormand, Neil Patrick Harris, Judy Greer, and Bill Hader had joined the cast of the film.[21]

text: Revisions[edit]

text: By summer 2013, Peterson and Walker had been removed from the film due to story problems.[1] Peterson, who could not crack the film's third act,[22] was absent from the D23 Expo, where Sohn and producer Denise Ream presented footage from the film.[23][24] Ed Catmull, Pixar's president, explained the departure: "All directors get really deep in their film. Sometimes you just need a different perspective to get the idea out. Sometimes directors… are so deeply embedded in their ideas it actually takes someone else to finish it up."[1] Peterson moved on to another project he is developing at Pixar, while Ream replaced Walker, who left to work on Disney's Tomorrowland. On the subject of changing directors, Ream stated, "Sadly, it happens more often than any of us would like… It's given a lot of thought and care. Bob still works at Pixar [and] he's a beloved member of the studio. He helps out on a lot of the movies. We care about him, but he just needed help getting the movie done."[25] John Lasseter, Lee Unkrich, Mark Andrews, and Sohn stepped in temporarily to work on various sections of the film.[1] In September 2013, The Good Dinosaur was pushed back from May 30, 2014 to November 25, 2015 (the scheduled release date for Pixar's Finding Dory). According to Ream, the primary reason for the rescheduling was "the story was not working, period, full stop, it just was not where it needed to be."[26] In November 2013, due to the delay, Pixar laid off 67 employees of its 1,200-person workforce,[22] following the closure of Pixar Canada a month before, when about 80 employees had been laid off, officially to refocus Pixar's efforts at its main headquarters.[27]

text: In the footage shown at the 2013 D23 Expo, Arlo was a huge dinosaur, Sohn recalled: "In the original version of the film, Spot was so tiny, we really wanted to make him feel like a bug. But people had a tough time connecting that these two had a relationship, because Arlo was so large. It was fun, but at the same time we never believed the growth that they could have together. It was really like, 'I’m best friends with a bee!' Bob Peterson, the original director, his first pitch was just a boy and his dog, and so when I took it I said, 'I want to honor that as much as I can.'"[28]

text: In August 2014, Lithgow revealed in an interview that the film had been dismantled and "completely reimagined" and that he was expected to re-record his role in the next month, while mentioning that McDormand was still part of the film.[29] In November 2014, it was reported that new elements had been added to the story, such as treating nature as the film's antagonist.[30] Pixar's general manager and president Jim Morris stated, "We all liked the movie from the beginning, but… the story had some kind of fatal flaws in it that none of us really saw. It was kind of a Billy Elliot story. It was a very different kind of movie—there was a whole dinosaur culture and community and so forth. It was one where the Arlo character was kind of repressed by the community. It never quite felt right. It always felt like that we were vilifying this group [of dinosaur characters] that was otherwise a very likeable group. It just didn't feel like it resonated truly."[31] Morris additionally explained: "We give people the chance to work on a story, and we give them our support, but it doesn't always work out… there were story issues that were just not solvable. So we changed the story to make it better, and we're very proud of the film we have now."[32] In October 2014, Sohn was announced as the new director of the film.[33]

text: In June 2015, it was announced that the majority of the cast had been revised.[10] Of the original cast, only McDormand retained her role in the film. It was revealed that Neff had been replaced by Raymond Ochoa, and Lithgow had been replaced by Jeffrey Wright.[10] Arlo's three siblings, to be voiced by Harris, Hader, and Greer had been cut down to a single brother named Buck, voiced by Marcus Scribner,[10] and later, a sister named Libby, voiced by Maleah Padilla. On the cast revisions, Sohn explained: "It was all about finding a younger Arlo, it was really about finding a boy [to play Arlo], so that we could push into that idea of him growing up and becoming a man, so the actor previous—who is a great actor—he was already a man, and so I needed to push that arc and find that compassionate kid, so that was the major kind of change. Then everything else, all the other characters that supported that story came in and out and changed and evolved and through that evolution, some of those performers changed out of it."[19] It was also confirmed that the farmer aspect was still part of the film.[34]

text: Design and setting[edit]

text: The filmmakers wanted nature to be the antagonist for the main character Arlo. Ream noted "Nature can overcome anything, including a massive dinosaur." In order to achieve the needed realism, the film's team traveled to the American Northwest, spending time in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, Juntura, Oregon, and southern Montana. Production designer Harley Jessup stated: "The area has a fantastic variety of landscapes, ranging from the Jackson Valley and the Tetons to the amazing geysers and waterfalls in Yellowstone, we studied the grasslands of Montana and the Red Desert, then incorporated all of it in Arlo’s journey." To use the landscapes that they had experienced, the filmmakers used data from the U.S. Geological Survey, and satellite images from Google Earth. The geographical data provided a foundation that the team then built on. According to supervising technical director Sanjay Bakshi, this gave Sohn "the freedom to shoot in any direction he wanted to make the world feel big and real." In addition, The Good Dinosaur features three-dimensional, volumetric clouds. In previous Pixar films, clouds have been "painted" onto the sets. Light and photography director Sharon Calahan explained: "Storm clouds are almost like a villain in the film. Plus, it’s very labor-intensive to paint clouds, and they’re in almost every scene." Calahan also noted "These particular clouds can be rendered and we can light them, which we’ve never been able to properly do before."[35][36]

text: According to the filmmakers, the environments and landscapes in the film are not photo-realistic, they are just detailed in a way that advanced technology and style decisions allow. In terms of animating Arlo, animators Rob Thompson and Kevin O’Hara went to a zoo and shot video of elephants in motion. Thompson stated: "One of the most intimidating things to animate is a quadruped, because there’s so much to them and there’s so much to manage. It’s very easy to make it not work if you don’t know what you’re managing. Locomotion is all about efficiency, a lot of times you think, 'We’re animating a big, heavy character. We should slam those feet. That’ll make it feel heavy.' The truth is, that’s not efficient. That wouldn’t be great for the legs."[35][36][37] A system where Arlo's head goes up and his chest goes down when his hips goes up, was therefore created. To get an idea of the scale of Arlo, a complete full-size model was built out of card and foam core. In total The Good Dinosaur took up 300TB of server space, ten times as much space as Monsters University (2013).[38]

text: Arlo was designed so that the audience could identify with him and be able to see the "boy" inside the dinosaur. Sohn explained "When Arlo gets lost in the wilderness, you need to worry that he's out of his element and in danger of getting killed, rather than just thinking 'You're an animal. Why don’t you just turn around and eat some leaves?'" He additionally stated "If you put like a realistic dinosaur in the woods, eat some leaves, you’re fine… But we really wanted to play with that twist of this is a boy out there. A dinosaur boy for sure, but trying to infuse those qualities into him… And also keeping him in a world that had an arc to itself. That it would start off being beautiful and then become dangerous. When we had these designs of the trees where they were a little bit more blocky and a little bit more graphic. We put Arlo in front of it, it’s like 'ooh that kind of is cool, but boy, it doesn’t feel like it's that dangerous.' Like when we get a rock stuck on him, it didn’t feel like anything ’cause when we went on our research trips, boy that idea of like you can get, you could die by a small thing like having a rock on your foot. Or you could die by a huge thing like an avalanche, which we tried to kind of explore in the film. So that was one of our main intents."[25][39]

text: In terms of the film's setting, Sohn stated "Pixar is all about the 'what if' question… 'What if the asteroid missed the earth?' Yeah, we went down the road of: they could be cooking in a dino diner; they could be in space; they could be in anything. But then there was a drawing of a dinosaur farming that kind of sparked people of the idea of 'he’s working hard and this character needs to survive out there.' All of the American dinosaur bones are found in the northwest—from Montana, to Oregon, to Wyoming, and the Dakotas, so the combination of hardworking farm families and the west really brought us into that frontier world immediately… [S]o we started doing research. We started finding all of these people who were surviving out there on the land. They were either cultivating the cattle, or were ranchers in Oregon, or were farmers in the Midwest. It just kept teaching us how much we want to honor this world, and how hard it is to survive out there. It started dictating the world itself."[28]

text: Since The Good Dinosaur is set in a world in which dinosaurs never became extinct, they were instead able to evolve. Herbivores like Arlo and his family become farmers, and carnivores like the T. rex become ranchers. Because they are meant to be reminiscent of cowboys, when the T. rex run, their lower bodies mimic a galloping horse, while their upper bodies have the feel of a riding cowboy. To help inspire Butch's physical look and performance, the filmmakers looked at classic film cowboys such as characters portrayed by Clint Eastwood and Jack Palance.[37]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
The Good Dinosaur

Film score by Mychael Danna and Jeff Danna

Released
November 20, 2015

Recorded
2015

Studio
Eastwood Scoring Stage, Warner Bros., Los Angeles

Genre
Soundtrack, film score

Length
63:22

Label
Walt Disney

Producer
Chris Montan

Pixar film soundtrack chronology

Inside Out: Original Soundtrack
(2015)Inside Out: Original Soundtrack2015
The Good Dinosaur
(2015)
Finding Dory
(2016)Finding Dory2016

Mychael Danna chronology

The Captive
(2014) The Captive2014
The Good Dinosaur
(2015) The Good Dinosaur2015
Storks
(2016) Storks2016

Jeff Danna chronology

Montage of Heck
(2015) Montage of Heck2015
The Good Dinosaur
(2015) The Good Dinosaur2015
Storks
(2016) Storks2016

text: The film's score was composed by Mychael Danna and his brother, Jeff Danna.[3] It marks the first Pixar film to be scored by two composers.[3] Danna was approached by Sohn and Ream due to his score for Life of Pi, which won an Academy Award.[3] Having a lot of work, he invited his brother Jeff Danna as a co-writer.[3] Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on November 20, 2015.[40]

text: All music composed by Mychael Danna and Jeff Danna.

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Homestead"
2:11

2.
"Hello Arlo"
2:49

3.
"Chores"
0:55

4.
"Make Your Mark"
2:07

5.
"Fireflies"
2:16

6.
"Critter Problem"
1:04

7.
"You're Me and More"
3:05

8.
"Family Struggle"
1:23

9.
"Swept Away"
1:33

10.
"Mountain Top"
0:51

11.
"Lost in the World"
3:35

12.
"Offerings"
1:32

13.
"Unexpected Friend"
2:56

14.
"Pet Collector"
2:24

15.
"Swimming Lessons"
2:29

16.
"Orphans"
4:39

17.
"The Storm"
1:17

18.
"I'm Never Getting Home"
0:44

19.
"Storm Chasers"
1:22

20.
"Bloodhound"
1:37

21.
"Fight Them Rustlers"
1:46

22.
"Run With the Herd"
3:51

23.
"Returned Call"
1:25

24.
"Sky Sharks"
1:46

25.
"Arlo's Vision"
1:35

26.
"Rescue"
2:31

27.
"Over the Falls"
2:41

28.
"Goodbye Spot"
4:12

29.
"Homecoming"
1:24

30.
"Arlo Makes His Mark"
1:22

Total length:
63:22

text: Video game[edit]

text: A figure of Spot and Power Discs of Arlo, Ramsey, Nash, and Butch have been released for Disney Infinity 3.0.[41]

text: Release[edit]

text: The Good Dinosaur was theatrically released on November 25, 2015.[42] Before the rescheduling from 2014 to 2015, a Monsters University short film titled Party Central was set to accompany the film, but was instead shown with the theatrical release of Disney's Muppets Most Wanted.[43] In April 2015, it was announced that a new Pixar short, Sanjay's Super Team, directed by Sanjay Patel, would be shown in front of The Good Dinosaur instead.[44]

text: The film's teaser trailer was released on June 2, 2015,[45][46] and the first official trailer was released on July 21, 2015.[47] The film received an exclusive run at The Grand Rex in Paris a week before its U.S. and European premiere.[48]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Good Dinosaur was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu-ray (2D and 3D), DVD, and digital download in the United States on February 23, 2016. Blu-ray bonus features include Sanjay's Super Team, audio commentary, behind-the-scenes featurettes, deleted scenes, and the "Hide and Seek" short promotional clip.[49][50]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Good Dinosaur grossed $123.1 million in the United States and Canada and $209.1 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $332.2 million[7] against a production budget of $175–200 million,[5][6] making it Pixar's lowest-grossing film. Adding in the marketing budget, the film had a cost of $350 million,[51] which it was not able to recoup.[52][53][54][55] However, the film proved to be much more financially successful in terms of home video sales.[56][57]

text: In North America, The Good Dinosaur opened on Wednesday, November 25, 2015 alongside Creed and Victor Frankenstein, as well as the wide releases of Brooklyn, Spotlight, and Trumbo. The film was projected to gross $60–65 million from 3,749 theaters in its first five days, including $45 million in its opening weekend.[58] It made $1.3 million from its Tuesday night previews and $9.8 million on its first day. The film ended up grossing $55.6 million in its first five days, including $39.2 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office behind the second weekend of Mockingjay – Part 2, the final installment in the Hunger Games film series.[59]

text: Outside North America, it earned $28.7 million from 39 markets, including 8 significant markets. Unlike the USA, where it had the benefit of the Thanksgiving weekend, it did not have the same benefit internationally. Rather, its release date was designed to set it up to run through the December holiday.[60] The top openings were in the United Kingdom ($4.3 million), Mexico ($3.6 million), France ($3.2 million), Argentina ($2.2 million), and Russia ($2.1 million). Of those, it opened at No. 1 in Mexico, Argentina and Russia.[61] In terms of total earnings, its leading markets are the United Kingdom ($10.1 million), Mexico ($8.7 million), and France ($8.1 million).[62]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 76%, based on 198 reviews, with a rating average of 6.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Good Dinosaur delivers thrillingly beautiful animation in service of a worthy story that, even if it doesn't quite live up to the lofty standards set by Pixar, still adds up to charming, family-friendly entertainment."[63] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."[64] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[59]

text: Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described it as "antic and unexpected as well as homiletic, rife with subversive elements, wacky critters and some of the most beautiful landscapes ever seen in a computer animated film."[65] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times felt the film "has a few things on its mind, but its tone is overwhelmingly playful, not hectoring."[66] Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal opined that "As Pixar productions go, this one isn't a groundbreaker, but it's heartfelt and endearing, as well as visually splendiferous, and kids will love it for sure."[67] "Clever and cloying by turns, it's a movie that always seems to be trying to evolve beyond its conventional trappings, and not succeeding as often as Pixar devotees have come to expect," wrote Justin Chang of Variety.[68] Many of the reviewers praised the sophistication of its nearly photorealistic backgrounds.[66][69][70][71]

text: Christopher Orr of The Atlantic felt it to be the studio's first film explicitly targeted towards children, though it is "by no means a bad movie […] It's a simple story, well-told."[69] Mark Feeney, writing for The Boston Globe, felt similarly, deeming it a "very middling movie […] The Good Dinosaur generally features a sort of sentimentality and emotional reductiveness that make it seem meant for small children as no previous Pixar movie has."[70] The Washington Post's Stephanie Merry dubbed it "a nice, conventional story, but it’s not Pixar-level imaginative."[71] Richard Roeper, for the Chicago Sun-Times, felt it "one strange, aggressively gross and dark adventure […] Inconsistent and weird, The Good Dinosaur is second-level Pixar all the way."[72] Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter derided its "disappointingly derivative" screenplay.[73]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient
Outcome

American Cinema Editors Awards
January 29, 2016
Best Edited Animated Feature Film
Stephen Schaffer
Nominated

Annie Awards[74]
February 6, 2016
Best Animated Feature
The Good Dinosaur

Outstanding Achievement in Animated Effects in an Animated Production
John Reisch and Stephen Marshall
Won

Outstanding Achievement in Character Animation in a Feature Production
Mark C. Harris
Nominated

K.C. Roeyer

Outstanding Achievement in Character Design in an Animated Feature Production
Matt Nolte

Outstanding Achievement in Music in an Animated Feature Production
Mychael Danna and Jeff Danna

Outstanding Achievement in Production Design in an Animated Feature Production
Harley Jessup, Sharon Calahan, Bryn Imagire, Noah Klocek and Huy Nguyen

Outstanding Achievement in Storyboarding in an Animated Feature Production
Bill Presing

Rosana Sullivan

J.P. Vine, Tony Rosenast and Enrico Casarosa

Austin Film Critics Association Awards[75]
December 29, 2015
Best Animated Film
The Good Dinosaur

Black Reel Awards
February 18, 2016
Best Voice Performance
Jeffrey Wright (Poppa Henry)

British Academy Children's Awards[76][77]
November 20, 2016
Feature Film
Peter Sohn and Meg LeFauve

BAFTA Kids' Vote
The Good Dinosaur

Chicago Film Critics Association Awards
December 16, 2015
Best Animated Film

Critics' Choice Awards
January 17, 2016
Best Animated Feature

Florida Film Critics Circle Awards
December 23, 2015
Best Animated Film

Golden Globe Awards[78]
January 10, 2016
Best Animated Feature Film

Golden Reel Awards[79]
February 27, 2016
Best Sound Editing: Sound Effects, Foley, Dialogue & ADR in an Animation Feature Film
Shannon Mills

Houston Film Critics Society Awards
January 9, 2016
Best Animated Feature Film
The Good Dinosaur

Online Film Critics Society Awards[80]
December 14, 2015
Best Animated Film

Producers Guild of America Awards
January 23, 2016
Outstanding Producer of Animated Theatrical Motion Pictures
Denise Ream

San Diego Film Critics Society Awards[81][82]
December 14, 2015
Best Animated Film
The Good Dinosaur

Satellite Awards[83]
February 21, 2016
Best Motion Picture, Animated or Mixed Media

Saturn Awards[84]
June 22, 2016
Best Animated Film

St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Awards[85]
December 20, 2015
Best Animated Film

Village Voice Film Poll[86]
January 7, 2016
Best Animated Film
10th Place

Visual Effects Society Awards
February 2, 2016
Outstanding Visual Effects in an Animated Feature
Sanjay Bakshi, Denise Ream, Michael Venturini, and Jon Reisch
Won

Outstanding Animated Performance in an Animated Feature
Ana Gabriela Lacaze, Jacob Brooks, Lou Hamou-Lhadj, and Mark C. Harris (Spot)
Nominated

Outstanding Created Environment in an Animated Feature
David Munier, Matthew Webb, Matt Kuruc, and Tom Miller (The Farm)
Won

Outstanding Effects Simulations in an Animated Feature
Stephen Marshall, Magnus Wrenninge, Michael Hall, and Hemagiri Arumugam


document_title: The Fox and the Hound

question_text: what is the fox's name in fox and the hound

question_tokens: what is the fox 's name in fox and the hound

root

text: The Fox and the Hound

text: Plot

text: After a young red fox is orphaned, Big Mama the owl, with the help of her friends Dinky the finch and Boomer the woodpecker, arranges for him to be adopted by a kindly farmer named Widow Tweed. Tweed names him Tod, because he reminds her of a toddler. Meanwhile, her neighbor, a hunter named Amos Slade, brings home a young hound puppy named Copper and introduces him to his hunting dog Chief. One day, Tod and Copper meet and become playmates, vowing to remain "friends forever". Amos grows frustrated at Copper for constantly wandering off to play, and places him on a leash. While playing with Copper outside his doghouse, Tod awakens Chief. Amos and Chief chase Tod until they are stopped by Tweed. After an argument, Amos threatens to kill Tod if he trespasses on his farm again. Hunting season comes and Amos takes his dogs into the wilderness for the interim. Meanwhile, Big Mama, Dinky, and Boomer attempt to explain to Tod that his friendship with Copper will not continue, as they are natural enemies, but Tod naively refuses to believe them, hoping that he and Copper will remain friends forever.

tag: p

text: As months pass, Tod and Copper both reach adulthood. Copper has become an experienced hunting dog, while Tod has grown up into a handsome fox. On the night of Copper's return, Tod sneaks over to visit him. Copper explains that while he still values Tod as a friend, he is now a hunting dog and things are different. Their conversation awakens Chief, who alerts Amos. In the ensuing chase Copper catches Tod. Against better judgement, Copper lets Tod go and diverts Chief and Amos. Tod tries escaping onto a railroad track, but is caught and pursued by Chief as a train suddenly passes by them. Tod ducks under the train, but Chief is struck by the train and falls into the river below, breaking his leg. Angered by this, Copper and Amos blame Tod for the accident and vow vengeance. Tweed, realizing that Tod is no longer safe with her, takes him on a drive and leaves him at a game preserve.

text: Tod's first night alone in the woods proves disastrous, as he inadvertently trespasses into an irritable old badger's den. Thankfully, a friendly porcupine offers Tod shelter. That same night, Amos and Copper plan to poach Tod. The next morning, Big Mama finds Tod and introduces him to a female fox named Vixey. Wanting to impress her, Tod tries to catch a fish, but fails due to his lack of survival skills. Vixey and the other animals laugh at him, but Big Mama straightens the matter by directing Tod to be himself. The two foxes reconcile and Vixey helps Tod adapt to life in the forest.

text: Meanwhile, Amos and Copper trespass into the preserve to hunt Tod. As Tod manages to escape Amos' leghold traps, Copper and Amos pursue both foxes. They hide in their burrow while Amos tries trapping them by setting fire to the other end of the burrow. The foxes narrowly escape without getting burned as Amos and Copper chase them up the top of a hill until they reach a waterfall. There, Amos and Copper close in for the kill, but a large bear suddenly emerges from the bushes and attacks Amos. Amos trips and falls into one of his own traps, dropping his gun slightly out of reach. Copper tries fighting the bear but is no match for it. Not willing to let his former friend die, Tod intervenes and fights the bear until they both fall down the waterfall.

text: With the bear gone, a bewildered Copper approaches Tod as he lies exhausted near the bank of a waterfall-created lake. When Amos appears, Copper positions himself in front of Tod to prevent his owner from shooting him, refusing to move away. Amos lowers his gun and leaves with Copper. Tod and Copper share one last smile before parting. At home, Tweed nurses Amos back to health while the dogs rest. Copper, before resting, smiles as he remembers the day when he first met Tod. On a hill, Vixey joins Tod as they look down on the homes of Amos and Tweed.

text: Cast

text:
Mickey Rooney as Tod

Keith Mitchell as Young Tod

Kurt Russell as Copper

Corey Feldman as Young Copper

Pearl Bailey as Big Mama
Jack Albertson as Amos Slade
Sandy Duncan as Vixey
Jeanette Nolan as Widow Tweed
Pat Buttram as Chief
John Fiedler as The Porcupine
John McIntire as The Badger
Dick Bakalyan as Dinky
Paul Winchell as Boomer

tag: ul

text: Production

text: Development

text: Wolfgang Reitherman read the original novel and found it particularly touching because one of his sons had once owned a pet fox years before. He decided that it would make for a good animated feature. Thus the film began production in spring 1977.[4][3] Reitherman, Art Stevens, and Ron Miller quarreled over key sections of the film with Miller supporting the younger Stevens. Miller instructed Reitherman to surrender reins over the junior personnel,[5] but Reitherman resisted due to a lack of trust in the young animators.[6] Thinking the film had a weak second act, Reitherman decided to add a musical sequence of two swooping cranes voiced by Phil Harris and Charo who would sing a silly song titled "Scoobie-Doobie Doobie Doo, Let Your Body Turn Goo". Live-action reference footage was shot of Charo in a sweaty pink leotard, but the scene was strongly disliked by studio personnel who felt the song was a distraction from the main plot with Stevens stating "We can't let that sequence in the movie! It's totally out of place!"[7] Stevens notified studio management and after many story conferences, the scene was removed. Reitherman later walked into Stevens's office, slumped in a chair, and said, "I dunno, Art, maybe this is a young man's medium." He later moved on to undeveloped projects such as Catfish Bend and died in a car accident in 1985.[8]

text: Animation

text: By late 1978, Frank Thomas, Ollie Johnston, and Cliff Nordberg had completed their animation. Thomas had animated scenes of Tod and Cooper using dialogue Larry Clemmons had written and recorded with the child actors.[9] This project would mark the last film to have the involvement of the Disney's Nine Old Men who had retired early during production,[10] and animation was turned over the next generation of directors and animators, which included John Lasseter, John Musker, Ron Clements, Glen Keane, Tim Burton, Brad Bird, Henry Selick, Chris Buck, and Mark Dindal, all of whom would finalize the animation and complete the film's production. These animators had moved through the in-house animation training program, and would play an important role in the Disney Renaissance of the 1980s and 1990s.[11]

text: However, the transition between the old guard and the new resulted in arguments over how to handle the film. Reitherman had his own ideas on the designs and layouts that should be used, but the newer team backed Stevens. Animator Don Bluth animated several scenes including of Widow Tweed milking her cow, Abigail, while his team worked on the rest of the sequence, and when Tweed fires at Amos Slade's automobile. Nevertheless, he declared Disney's work "stale" and on his 42nd birthday, September 13, 1979, Bluth, along with Gary Goldman and John Pomeroy, entered Ron Miller's office and turned in their resignation. Following their resignations, 13 animators followed suit in their resignations. Though Bluth and his team had animated substantial scenes, they asked not to receive screen credit.[10] With 17% of the animators now gone,[3] Miller ordered all of the resigning animators off the studio lot by noon of that same day and would later push the release of The Fox and the Hound from Christmas 1980 to summer 1981. New animators were hired and promoted to fill the ranks. To compensate for the lack of experience of the new animators, much of the quality control would rely upon a corp of veteran assistant animators.[12][13] Four years after production started, the film was finished with approximately 360,000 drawings, 110,000 painted cels and 1,100 painted backgrounds making up the finished product. A total of 180 people, including 24 animators, worked on the film.[3]

text: Writing

text: In an earlier version of the film, Chief was slated to die as he did in the novel. However, the scene was modified to have Chief survive with a cast on his back paw. Animator Ron Clements, who had briefly transitioned into the story department, protested that "Chief has to die. The picture doesn't work if he just breaks his leg. Copper doesn't have motivation to hate the fox." Likewise, younger members of the story team pleaded with Stevens to have Chief killed. Stevens countered that "Geez, we never killed a main character in a Disney film and we're not starting now!" The younger crew members took the problem to upper management who would also back Stevens.[14] Ollie Johnston's test animation of Chief stomping around the house with his leg in a cast was eventually kept, and Randy Cartwright re-animated the scene where Copper finds Chief's body and had him animate Chief's eyes opening and closing so the audience knew that he was not dead.[13]

text: Casting

text: Early into production, the principal characters such as young Tod and Copper, Big Mama, and Amos Slade had already been cast. The supporting characters were cast by Disney voice regulars including Pat Buttram for Chief, Paul Winchell for Boomer, and Mickey Rooney for adult Tod who had just finished filming Pete's Dragon. Jeanette Nolan was the second choice for Widow Tweed after Helen Hayes turned down the part.[15] The last role to be cast was for adult Cooper. Jackie Cooper had auditioned for the role, but left the project when he demanded more money than the studio was willing to pay. While filming the Elvis television film, former Disney child actor Kurt Russell was cast following a reading that had impressed the filmmakers, and completed his dialogue in two recording sessions.[16]

text: Soundtrack

text:
The Fox and the Hound

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
1981

Recorded
1980-1981

Genre
Children's, Classical

Label
Walt Disney

tag: table

text: The soundtrack album for the film was released in 1981 by Walt Disney Records.[17] It contains songs written by Stan Fidel, Jim Stafford, and Jeffrey Patch.[18]

text: Track listing

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Performer(s)
Length

1.
"Best of Friends"
Stan Fidel
Pearl Bailey

2.
"Lack of Education"
Jim Stafford
Pearl Bailey

3.
"A Huntin' Man"
Jim Stafford
Jack Albertson

4.
"Appreciate the Lady"
Jim Stafford
Pearl Bailey

5.
"Goodbye May Seem Forever"
Jeffrey Patch
Jeanette Nolan and Chorus

text: Release

text: Home media

text: The Fox and the Hound was first released on North American VHS on March 4, 1994 as the last video of the "Walt Disney Classics" collection (it was not included in the "Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection") and in the UK in 1995. On May 2, 2000, it was released to Region 1 DVD for the first time under the "Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection".[19] A 25th anniversary special edition DVD was released on October 10, 2006.[20]

text: The Fox and the Hound was released on Blu-ray Disc on August 9, 2011 to commemorate the film's 30th anniversary. The film was released in a 3-disc Blu-ray/DVD Combo pack alongside its direct-to video followup The Fox and the Hound 2 in a 2-movie Collection Edition. Featuring a new digital restoration, the Blu-ray transfer presents the film for the first time in 1.66:1 widescreen and also features 5.1 DTS-HD Master Audio. The Fox and the Hound 2 is presented in 1.78:1 widescreen and features the same sound as the first film.[21] A DVD-only edition was also released on the same day.[21]

text: Reception

text: Critical reception

text: In The Animated Movie Guide, Jerry Beck considered the film "average", though he praises the voice work of Pearl Bailey as Big Mama, and the extreme dedication to detail shown by animator Glen Keane in crafting the fight scene between Copper, Tod, and the bear.[22] In his book The Disney Films, Leonard Maltin also notes that the fight scene between Copper, Tod, and the bear received great praise in the animation world. However, Maltin felt the film relied too much on "formula cuteness, formula comedy relief, and even formula characterizations".[23] Overall, he considered the film "charming" stating that it is "warm, and brimming with personable characters" and that it "approaches the old Disney magic at times."[24]

text: Craig Butler from All Movie Guide stated that the film was a "warm and amusing, if slightly dull, entry in the Disney animated canon." He also called it "conventional and generally predictable" with problems in pacing. However, he praised the film's climax and animation, as well as the ending. His final remark is that "Two of the directors, Richard Rich and Ted Berman, would next direct The Black Cauldron, a less successful but more ambitious project."[25] Richard Corliss of Time, praised the film for an intelligent story about prejudice. He argued that the film shows that biased attitudes can poison even the deepest relationships, and the film's bittersweet ending delivers a powerful and important moral message to audiences.[26]

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Times also praised the film, saying that "for all of its familiar qualities, this movie marks something of a departure for the Disney studio, and its movement is in an interesting direction. The Fox and the Hound is one of those relatively rare Disney animated features that contains a useful lesson for its younger audiences. It's not just cute animals and frightening adventures and a happy ending; it's also a rather thoughtful meditation on how society determines our behavior."[27] TV Guide gave the film four out of five stars, saying that "The animation here is better than average (veteran Disney animators Wolfgang Reitherman and Art Stevens supervised the talents of a new crop of artists that developed during a 10-year program at the studio), though not quite up to the quality of Disney Studios in its heyday. Still, this film has a lot of "heart" and is wonderful entertainment for both kids and their parents. Listen for a number of favorites among the voices."[28]

text: Michael Scheinfeld of Common Sense Media gave the film's quality a rating of 4 out of 5 stars, stating that the film "develops into a thoughtful examination of friendship and includes some mature themes, especially loss."[29]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received a 69% approval rating with an average rating of 6.6/10 based on 26 reviews. The website's consensus states that "The Fox and the Hound is a likeable, charming, unassuming effort that manages to transcend its thin, predictable plot".[30]

text: Box office

text: In its original release, The Fox and the Hound grossed $39.9 million in domestic grosses. Its distributor rentals were reported to be $14.2 million while its international rentals grossed $43 million.[31] The film was re-released theatrically on March 25, 1988,[3] where it grossed $23.5 million.[32] The Fox and the Hound has had a lifetime gross of $63.5 million across its original release and reissue.[33]

text: Accolades

text: The film was awarded a Golden Screen Award (German: Goldene Leinwand) in 1982. In the same year, it was also nominated for a Young Artist Award and the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film.[34]

text:
Year
Ceremony
Award
Result

1982
10th Saturn Awards[35]
Best Fantasy Film
Nominated

1982 Golden Screen Awards[34]

Won

5th Youth in Film Awards[34][36]
Best Motion Picture - Fantasy or Comedy - Family Enjoyment
Nominated

text: Legacy

text: As well as adaptations of the film itself, comic strips featuring the characters also appeared in stories unconnected to the film. Examples include The Lost Fawn, in which Copper uses his sense of smell to help Tod find a fawn who has gone astray;[37] The Chase, in which Copper must safeguard a sleepwalking Chief;[38] and Feathered Friends, in which the birds Dinky and Boomer have to go to desperate lengths to save one of Widow Tweed's chickens from a wolf.[39]

text: A comic adaptation of the film, drawn by Richard Moore, was published in newspapers as part of Disney's Treasury of Classic Tales.[40] A comic-book titled The Fox and the Hound followed, with new adventures of the characters. Since 1981 and up to 2007, a few Fox and the Hound Disney comics stories were produced in Italy, Netherlands, Brazil, France, and the United States.[41]

text: Followup

text: A direct-to-video followup, The Fox and the Hound 2, was released to DVD on December 12, 2006. The film takes place during the youth of Tod and Copper, before the events of the later half of the first film. The story-line involves Copper being tempted to join a band of singing stray dogs, thus threatening his friendship with Tod. The film was critically panned, with critics calling it a pale imitation of its predecessor.


document_title: Postscript

question_text: where does the p.s. go in a letter

question_tokens: where does the p.s . go in a letter

text: Postscript

text: A postscript (P.S.) is an afterthought, thought of occurring after the letter has been written and signed.[1] The term comes from the Latin postscriptum, an expression meaning "written after"[2][3] (which may be interpreted in the sense of "that which comes after the writing").[4]

text: A postscript may be a sentence, a paragraph, or occasionally many paragraphs added, often hastily and incidentally, after the signature of a letter or (sometimes) the main body of an essay or book. In a book or essay, a more carefully composed addition (e.g., for a second edition) is called an afterword. The word "postscript" has, poetically, been used to refer to any sort of addendum to some main work, even if it is not attached to a main work, as in Søren Kierkegaard's book titled Concluding Unscientific Postscript.

text: Sometimes, when additional points are made after the first postscript, abbreviations such as PSS (post-super-scriptum), PPS (postquam-post-scriptum or post-post-scriptum) and PPPS (post-post-post-scriptum), and so on, ad infinitum are used, though only PPS has somewhat common usage.


document_title: Greek alphabet

question_text: o with a vertical line through it greek

question_tokens: o with a vertical line through it greek

text: Greek alphabet

text: Letters

text:
Letter
Name
Sound

Ancient[7]
Modern[8]

Α α
alpha, άλφα
[a] [aː]
[a]

Β β
beta, βήτα
[b]
[v]

Γ γ
gamma, γάμμα
[ɡ], [ŋ][ex 1]
[ɣ] ~ [ʝ],
[ŋ][ex 2] ~ [ɲ][ex 3]

Δ δ
delta, δέλτα
[d]
[ð]

Ε ε
epsilon, έψιλον
[e]

Ζ ζ
zeta, ζήτα
[zd]A
[z]

Η η
eta, ήτα
[ɛː]
[i]

Θ θ
theta, θήτα
[tʰ]
[θ]

Ι ι
iota, ιώτα
[i] [iː]
[i], [ʝ],[ex 4] [ɲ][ex 5]

Κ κ
kappa, κάππα
[k]
[k] ~ [c]

Λ λ
lambda, λάμδα
[l]

Μ μ
mu, μυ
[m]

 A Or [dz].[9]

Letter
Name
Sound

Ancient[7]
Modern[8]

Ν ν
nu, νυ
[n]

Ξ ξ
xi, ξι
[ks]

Ο ο
omicron, όμικρον
[o]

Π π
pi, πι
[p]

Ρ ρ
rho, ρώ
[r]

Σ σ/ς[note 1]
sigma, σίγμα
[s]
[s] ~ [z]

Τ τ
tau, ταυ
[t]

Υ υ
upsilon, ύψιλον
[y] [yː]
[i]

Φ φ
phi, φι
[pʰ]
[f]

Χ χ
chi, χι
[kʰ]
[x] ~ [ç]

Ψ ψ
psi, ψι
[ps]

Ω ω
omega, ωμέγα
[ɔː]
[o]

text:
Jump up ^ For example, ἀγκών.
Jump up ^ For example, εγγραφή.
Jump up ^ For example, εγγεγραμμένος.
Jump up ^ For example, βια.
Jump up ^ For example, μια.

tag: ol

text: Sound values

text: In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.[11]

text: Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants (/b, d, g/) and aspirated plosives (/pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows:

text:
Former voiced plosives
Former aspirates

Letter
Ancient
Modern
Letter
Ancient
Modern

Labial
Β β
/b/
/v/
Φ φ
/pʰ/
/f/

Dental
Δ δ
/d/
/ð/
Θ θ
/tʰ/
/θ/

Dorsal
Γ γ
/ɡ/
[ɣ] ~ [ʝ]
Χ χ
/kʰ/
[x] ~ [ç]

text: Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.

text: The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers:

text:
Letter
Ancient
Modern
Letter
Ancient
Modern

Η η
ɛː
> i
Ω ω
ɔː
> o

Ι ι
i(ː)
Ο ο
o

ΕΙ ει
ei
Ε ε
e
> e

Υ υ
u(ː) > y
ΑΙ αι
ai

ΟΙ οι
oi > y

ΥΙ υι
yː > y

text: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.

text: Digraphs and letter combinations

text: Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the three mentioned above (⟨ει, αι, οι⟩) (and in some cases the ancient Greek υι, for example υιός), there is also ⟨ου⟩, pronounced /u/. The Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυ⟩, ⟨ευ⟩ and ⟨ηυ⟩ are pronounced [av], [ev] and [iv] respectively in voicing environments in Modern Greek (or alternatively as [af], [ef] and [if] respectively in devoicing environments) The more ancient combination ⟨ωυ⟩ or ⟨ωϋ⟩ can occur in ancient especially in Ionic texts or in personal names. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩ stand for [b] and [d] (or [mb] and [nd]) respectively; ⟨τζ⟩ stands for [dz] and ⟨τσ⟩ stands for [t͡s]. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal [ŋ]; thus ⟨γγ⟩ and ⟨γκ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩. (Analogously to ⟨μπ⟩ and ⟨ντ⟩, ⟨γκ⟩ is also used to stand for [g].) There are also the combinations ⟨γχ⟩ and ⟨γξ⟩.

text:
Combination
Pronunciation
Devoiced pronunciation

⟨αυ⟩
[av]
[af]

⟨ευ⟩
[ev]
[ef]

⟨ηυ⟩
[iv]
[if]

⟨μπ⟩
[b]

⟨ντ⟩
[d]

⟨τζ⟩
[dz]

⟨τσ⟩
[t͡s]

text: Diacritics

text: In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (ά), the grave accent (ὰ), or the circumflex accent (α̃ or α̑). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the rough breathing (ἁ), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (ἀ), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transiliteration rrh.

text: The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ω⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨ι⟩ below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωι⟩ (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/), which became monophthongized during antiquity.

text: Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (¨), indicating a hiatus.

text: In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as tonos, i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek.

text: Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, "whatever") from ότι (óti, "that").[12]

text: Romanization

text: There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨κ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ (or ⟨æ,œ⟩) respectively; and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ respectively. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, ⟨κ⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨k⟩, and the vowel combinations ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩ respectively. The letters ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨φ⟩ are generally rendered as ⟨th⟩ and ⟨ph⟩; ⟨χ⟩ as either ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨kh⟩; and word-initial ⟨ρ⟩ as ⟨rh⟩.

text: For Modern Greek, there are multiple different transcription conventions. They differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843),[13] by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names,[14] by the Library of Congress,[15] and others.

text: History

text: Origins

text: During the Mycenaean period, from around the 16th century to the 12th century BC, Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the 13th century BC. In the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC, the Greek alphabet emerged.[2] The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense,[6] as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants.[16]

text: Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants /j/ (yodh) and /w/ (waw) were used for [i] (Ι, iota) and [u] (Υ, upsilon) respectively; the glottal stop consonant /ʔ/ (|aleph) was used for [a] (Α, alpha); the pharyngeal /ʕ/ (ʿayin) was turned into [o] (Ο, omicron); and the letter for /h/ (he) was turned into [e] (Ε, epsilon). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal /ħ/ (heth) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long /ɛː/ (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long /ɔː/ (Ω, omega) was introduced.

text: Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (phi) for /pʰ/, Χ (chi) for /kʰ/ and Ψ (psi) for /ps/. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for /ks/ and Ψ for /kʰ/. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.

text:
Phoenician
Greek

aleph
/ʔ/

Α
alpha
/a/, /aː/

beth
/b/

Β
beta
/b/

gimel
/ɡ/

Γ
gamma
/ɡ/

daleth
/d/

Δ
delta
/d/

he
/h/

Ε
epsilon
/e/, /eː/[note 2]

waw
/w/

Ϝ
(digamma)
/w/

zayin
/z/

Ζ
zeta
[zd](?)

heth
/ħ/

Η
eta
/h/, /ɛː/

teth
/tˤ/

Θ
theta
/tʰ/

yodh
/j/

Ι
iota
/i/, /iː/

kaph
/k/

Κ
kappa
/k/

lamedh
/l/

Λ
lambda
/l/

mem
/m/

Μ
mu
/m/

nun
/n/

Ν
nu
/n/

text:
Phoenician
Greek

samekh
/s/

Ξ
xi
/ks/

ʿayin
/ʕ/

Ο
omicron
/o/, /oː/[note 2]

pe
/p/

Π
pi
/p/

ṣade
/sˤ/

Ϻ
(san)
/s/

qoph
/q/

Ϙ
(koppa)
/k/

reš
/r/

Ρ
rho
/r/

šin
/ʃ/

Σ
sigma
/s/

taw
/t/

Τ
tau
/t/

(waw)
/w/

Υ
upsilon
/u/, /uː/

–

Φ
phi
/pʰ/

–

Χ
chi
/kʰ/

–

Ψ
psi
/ps/

–

Ω
omega
/ɔː/

text: Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ (san), which had been in competition with Σ (sigma) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ (qoppa), which was redundant with Κ (kappa) for /k/, and Ϝ (digamma), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period.

text: Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called boustrophedon, literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line.

text: Archaic variants

text: There were initially numerous local variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. A form of western Greek native to Euboea, which among other things had Χ for /ks/, was transplanted to Italy by early Greek colonists, and became the ancestor of the Old Italic alphabets and ultimately, through Etruscan, of the Latin alphabet. Athens used a local form of the alphabet until the 5th century BC; it lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. The classical 24-letter alphabet that became the norm later was originally the local alphabet of Ionia; this was adopted by Athens in 403 BC under archon Eucleides and in most other parts of the Greek-speaking world during the 4th century BC.

text: Letter names

text: When the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph, the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop /ʔ/, bet, or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma.

text: The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of beta, ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as λάβδα besides λάμβδα;[17] in Modern Greek the spelling is often λάμδα, reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled γιώτα in Modern Greek ([ʝ] is conventionally transcribed ⟨γ{ι,η,υ,ει,οι}⟩ word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and /a/). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.

text:
Greek alphabet

The names of the letters in spoken Standard Modern Greek

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
Phoenician original
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Α
ἄλφα
aleph
alpha
[alpʰa]
[ˈalfa]
/ˈælfə/ ( listen)

Β
βῆτα
beth
beta
[bɛːta]
[ˈvita]
/ˈbiːtə/, US: /ˈbeɪtə/

Γ
γάμμα
gimel
gamma
[ɡamma]
[ˈɣama]
/ˈɡæmə/

Δ
δέλτα
daleth
delta
[delta]
[ˈðelta]
/ˈdɛltə/

Η
ἦτα
heth
eta
[hɛːta], [ɛːta]
[ˈita]
/ˈiːtə/, US: /ˈeɪtə/

Θ
θῆτα
teth
theta
[tʰɛːta]
[ˈθita]
/ˈθiːtə/, US: /ˈθeɪtə/ ( listen)

Ι
ἰῶτα
yodh
iota
[iɔːta]
[ˈʝota]
/aɪˈoʊtə/ ( listen)

Κ
κάππα
kaph
kappa
[kappa]
[ˈkapa]
/ˈkæpə/ ( listen)

Λ
λάμβδα
lamedh
lambda
[lambda]
[ˈlamða]
/ˈlæmdə/ ( listen)

Μ
μῦ
mem
mu
[myː]
[mi]
/ˈmjuː/ ( listen); occasionally US: /ˈmuː/

Ν
νῦ
nun
nu
[nyː]
[ni]
/ˈnjuː/ (US: /ˈnuː/)

Ρ
ῥῶ
reš
rho
[rɔː]
[ro]
/ˈroʊ/ ( listen)

Τ
ταῦ
taw
tau
[tau]
[taf]
/ˈtaʊ/ or /ˈtɔː/

text: In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
Phoenician original
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ζ
ζῆτα
zayin
zeta
[zdɛːta]
[ˈzita]
/ˈziːtə/, US: /ˈzeɪtə/

Ξ
ξεῖ, ξῖ
samekh
xi
[kseː]
[ksi]
/ˈzaɪ/, /ˈksaɪ/

Σ
σίγμα
šin
siɡma
[siɡma]
[ˈsiɣma]
/ˈsɪɡmə/

text: In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with -εῖ, indicating an original pronunciation with -ē. In Modern Greek these names are spelled with -ι.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ξ
ξεῖ, ξῖ
xi
[kseː]
[ksi]
/ˈzaɪ/, /ˈksaɪ/

Π
πεῖ, πῖ
pi
[peː]
[pi]
/ˈpaɪ/

Φ
φεῖ, φῖ
phi
[pʰeː]
[fi]
/ˈfaɪ/

Χ
χεῖ, χῖ
chi
[kʰeː]
[çi]
/ˈkaɪ/ ( listen)

Ψ
ψεῖ, ψῖ
psi
[pseː]
[psi]
/ˈsaɪ/, /ˈpsaɪ/ ( listen)

text: The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔ. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters ⟨ο⟩ and ⟨ω⟩, pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o") and o mega ("big o") respectively. The letter ⟨ε⟩ was called e psilon ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨αι⟩, while, similarly, ⟨υ⟩, which at this time was pronounced [y], was called y psilon ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨οι⟩.

text:
Letter
Name
Pronunciation

Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Medieval)
Greek (Modern)
English
Greek (Ancient)
Greek (Modern)
English

Ε
εἶ
ἐ ψιλόν
ἔψιλον
epsilon
[eː]
[ˈepsilon]
/ˈɛpsɪlɒn/, some UK: /ɛpˈsaɪlən/

Ο
οὖ
ὀ μικρόν
ὄμικρον
omicron
[oː]
[ˈomikron]
/ˈɒmɪkrɒn/ ( listen), traditional UK: /oʊˈmaɪkrɒn/

Υ
ὖ
ὐ ψιλόν
ὔψιλον
upsilon
[uː], [yː]
[ˈipsilon]
/juːpˈsaɪlən/, /ˈʊpsɪlɒn/, also UK: /ʌpˈsaɪlən/, US: /ˈʌpsɪlɒn/

Ω
ὦ
ὠ μέγα
ὠμέγα
omega
[ɔː]
[oˈmeɣa]
US: /oʊˈmeɪɡə/, traditional UK: /ˈoʊmɪɡə/

text: Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce [ˈɣamːa] and [ˈkapʰa]; also, ήτα has come to be pronounced [ˈitʰa] in Cypriot.[18]

text: Letter shapes

text: Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting.

text: The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes.[19] The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters.

text: In the 9th and 10th century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive.[19] This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages.

text:
Inscription
Manuscript
Modern print

Archaic
Classical
Uncial
Minuscule
Lowercase
Uppercase

α
Α

β
Β

γ
Γ

δ
Δ

ε
Ε

ζ
Ζ

η
Η

θ
Θ

ι
Ι

κ
Κ

λ
Λ

μ
Μ

ν
Ν

ξ
Ξ

ο
Ο

π
Π

ρ
Ρ

σς
Σ

τ
Τ

υ
Υ

φ
Φ

χ
Χ

ψ
Ψ

ω
Ω

text: Derived alphabets

text: The Greek alphabet was the model for various others:[6]

text:
The Latin alphabet, together with various other ancient scripts in Italy, adopted from an archaic form of the Greek alphabet brought to Italy by Greek colonists in the late 8th century BC, via Etruscan
The Gothic alphabet, devised in the 4th century AD to write the Gothic language, based on a combination of Greek and Latin models[20]
The Glagolitic alphabet, devised in the 9th century AD for writing Old Church Slavonic
The Cyrillic script, which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards

text: It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, which in turn influenced the development of the Georgian alphabet.[21]

text: Other uses

text: Use for other languages

text: Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.[22] For some of them, additional letters were introduced.

text: Antiquity

text:
Most of the alphabets of Asia Minor, in use c. 800–300 BC to write languages like Lydian and Phrygian, were the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications – as were the original Old Italic alphabets.
Some Paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as Ancient Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
The Greco-Iberian alphabet was used for writing the ancient Iberian language in parts of modern Spain.
Gaulish inscriptions (in modern France) used the Greek alphabet until the Roman conquest
The Hebrew and Aramaic text of the Bible was written in Greek letters in Origen's Hexapla.
The Bactrian language, an Iranian language spoken in what is now Afghanistan, was written in the Greek alphabet during the Kushan Empire (65–250 AD). It adds an extra letter ⟨þ⟩ for the sh sound [ʃ].[23]
The Coptic alphabet adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write Coptic, the liturgical language of Egyptian Christians. Letters usually retain an uncial form different from the forms used for Greek today.

text: Middle Ages

text:
An 8th-century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.
An Old Ossetic inscription of the 10th–12th centuries found in Arxyz, the oldest known attestation of an Ossetic language.
The Old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from Meroitic script, and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the velar nasal sound.
Various South Slavic dialects, similar to the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, have been written in Greek script.[24][25][26][27] The modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets.

text: Early modern

text:
Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called Karamanlidika.
Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500.[28] The printing press at Moschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.
Aromanian (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the Romanian orthography will be adopted.
Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans.
Surguch, a Turkic language spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece.
Urum or Greek Tatar.
Pomak language in Western Thrace.
Judaeo-Spanish language, a Jewish dialect of Spanish, has occasionally been published in Greek characters in Greece.[29]

text: In mathematics and science

text: Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation.

text: Astronomy

text: Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

text: International Phonetic Alphabet

text: Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).[30] Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:[31]

text:
β
beta
U+03B2
voiced bilabial fricative

θ
theta
U+03B8
voiceless dental fricative

χ
chi
U+03C7
voiceless uvular fricative

text: On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.

text:
Greek letter
Phonetic letter
Uppercase

φ
phi
ɸ
U+0278
Latin small letter phi
Voiceless bilabial fricative
–

γ
gamma
ɣ
U+0263
Latin small letter gamma
Voiced velar fricative
Ɣ U+0194

ε
epsilon
ɛ
U+025B
Latin small letter open e
(alias: epsilon)
Open-mid front unrounded vowel
Ɛ U+0190

α
alpha
ɑ
U+0251
Latin small letter alpha
Open back unrounded vowel
Ɑ U+2C6D

υ
upsilon
ʊ
U+028A
Latin small letter upsilon
near-close near-back rounded vowel
Ʊ U+01B1

ι
iota
ɩ
U+0269
Latin small letter iota
Obsolete for near-close near-front unrounded vowel now ɪ
Ɩ U+0196

text: The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda ⟨λ⟩, but ⟨ɬ⟩ in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is ⟨ʎ⟩, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase y.

text: Use as numerals

text: Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma ⟨Ϝ⟩ for 6, koppa ⟨Ϙ⟩ for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called sampi ⟨Ͳ⟩, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as ⟨ϛ⟩, ⟨ϟ⟩ and ⟨ϡ⟩ respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called keraia is added to the right of it.

text:
Αʹ αʹ
alpha
1

Βʹ βʹ
beta
2

Γʹ γʹ
gamma
3

Δʹ δʹ
delta
4

Εʹ εʹ
epsilon
5

ϛʹ
digamma (stigma)
6

Ζʹ ζʹ
zeta
7

Ηʹ ηʹ
eta
8

Θʹ θʹ
theta
9

text:
Ιʹ ιʹ
iota
10

Κʹ κʹ
kappa
20

Λʹ λʹ
lambda
30

Μʹ μʹ
mu
40

Νʹ νʹ
nu
50

Ξʹ ξʹ
xi
60

Οʹ οʹ
omicron
70

Πʹ πʹ
pi
80

ϟʹ
koppa
90

text:
Ρʹ ρʹ
rho
100

Σʹ σʹ
sigma
200

Τʹ τʹ
tau
300

Υʹ υʹ
upsilon
400

Φʹ φʹ
phi
500

Χʹ χʹ
chi
600

Ψʹ ψʹ
psi
700

Ωʹ ωʹ
omega
800

ϡʹ
sampi
900

text: Use in naming student fraternities and sororities

text: In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, in 1776.[32]

text: Glyph variants

text: Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode.

text:
The symbol ϐ ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of beta (β). In the French tradition of Ancient Greek typography, β is used word-initially, and ϐ is used word-internally.
The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped

ϵ

{\displaystyle \epsilon \,\!}

 ('lunate epsilon', like a semicircle with a stroke) or

ε

{\displaystyle \varepsilon \,\!}

 (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol ϵ (U+03F5) is designated specifically for the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϑ ("script theta") is a cursive form of theta (θ), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϰ ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of kappa (κ), used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϖ ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of pi (π), also used as a technical symbol.
The letter rho (ρ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or curled to the right. The symbol ϱ (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
The letter sigma, in standard orthography, has two variants: ς, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form ϲ ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without the final/non-final distinction.
The capital letter upsilon (Υ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like a Latin Y, or slightly curled. The symbol ϒ (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, (

Υ

{\displaystyle \,\Upsilon }

) used as a technical symbol, e.g. in physics.
The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as

ϕ

{\displaystyle \textstyle \phi \,\!}

 (a circle with a vertical stroke through it) or as

φ

{\displaystyle \textstyle \varphi \,\!}

 (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol ϕ (U+03D5) is designated specifically for the closed form, used as a technical symbol.

text: Computer encodings

text: For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947.

text: The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies.

text: ISO/IEC 8859-7

text: For the range A0–FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex).

text: Greek in Unicode

text: Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be represented as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: ᾱ́.[citation needed]

text: There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.

text: This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF).

text: To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).

text:
Greek and Coptic[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+037x
Ͱ
ͱ
Ͳ
ͳ
ʹ
͵
Ͷ
ͷ

ͺ
ͻ
ͼ
ͽ
;
Ϳ

U+038x

΄
΅
Ά
·
Έ
Ή
Ί

Ό

Ύ
Ώ

U+039x
ΐ
Α
Β
Γ
Δ
Ε
Ζ
Η
Θ
Ι
Κ
Λ
Μ
Ν
Ξ
Ο

U+03Ax
Π
Ρ

Σ
Τ
Υ
Φ
Χ
Ψ
Ω
Ϊ
Ϋ
ά
έ
ή
ί

U+03Bx
ΰ
α
β
γ
δ
ε
ζ
η
θ
ι
κ
λ
μ
ν
ξ
ο

U+03Cx
π
ρ
ς
σ
τ
υ
φ
χ
ψ
ω
ϊ
ϋ
ό
ύ
ώ
Ϗ

U+03Dx
ϐ
ϑ
ϒ
ϓ
ϔ
ϕ
ϖ
ϗ
Ϙ
ϙ
Ϛ
ϛ
Ϝ
ϝ
Ϟ
ϟ

U+03Ex
Ϡ
ϡ
Ϣ
ϣ
Ϥ
ϥ
Ϧ
ϧ
Ϩ
ϩ
Ϫ
ϫ
Ϭ
ϭ
Ϯ
ϯ

U+03Fx
ϰ
ϱ
ϲ
ϳ
ϴ
ϵ
϶
Ϸ
ϸ
Ϲ
Ϻ
ϻ
ϼ
Ͻ
Ͼ
Ͽ

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text:
Greek Extended[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

U+1F0x
ἀ
ἁ
ἂ
ἃ
ἄ
ἅ
ἆ
ἇ
Ἀ
Ἁ
Ἂ
Ἃ
Ἄ
Ἅ
Ἆ
Ἇ

U+1F1x
ἐ
ἑ
ἒ
ἓ
ἔ
ἕ

Ἐ
Ἑ
Ἒ
Ἓ
Ἔ
Ἕ

U+1F2x
ἠ
ἡ
ἢ
ἣ
ἤ
ἥ
ἦ
ἧ
Ἠ
Ἡ
Ἢ
Ἣ
Ἤ
Ἥ
Ἦ
Ἧ

U+1F3x
ἰ
ἱ
ἲ
ἳ
ἴ
ἵ
ἶ
ἷ
Ἰ
Ἱ
Ἲ
Ἳ
Ἴ
Ἵ
Ἶ
Ἷ

U+1F4x
ὀ
ὁ
ὂ
ὃ
ὄ
ὅ

Ὀ
Ὁ
Ὂ
Ὃ
Ὄ
Ὅ

U+1F5x
ὐ
ὑ
ὒ
ὓ
ὔ
ὕ
ὖ
ὗ

Ὑ

Ὓ

Ὕ

Ὗ

U+1F6x
ὠ
ὡ
ὢ
ὣ
ὤ
ὥ
ὦ
ὧ
Ὠ
Ὡ
Ὢ
Ὣ
Ὤ
Ὥ
Ὦ
Ὧ

U+1F7x
ὰ
ά
ὲ
έ
ὴ
ή
ὶ
ί
ὸ
ό
ὺ
ύ
ὼ
ώ

U+1F8x
ᾀ
ᾁ
ᾂ
ᾃ
ᾄ
ᾅ
ᾆ
ᾇ
ᾈ
ᾉ
ᾊ
ᾋ
ᾌ
ᾍ
ᾎ
ᾏ

U+1F9x
ᾐ
ᾑ
ᾒ
ᾓ
ᾔ
ᾕ
ᾖ
ᾗ
ᾘ
ᾙ
ᾚ
ᾛ
ᾜ
ᾝ
ᾞ
ᾟ

U+1FAx
ᾠ
ᾡ
ᾢ
ᾣ
ᾤ
ᾥ
ᾦ
ᾧ
ᾨ
ᾩ
ᾪ
ᾫ
ᾬ
ᾭ
ᾮ
ᾯ

U+1FBx
ᾰ
ᾱ
ᾲ
ᾳ
ᾴ

ᾶ
ᾷ
Ᾰ
Ᾱ
Ὰ
Ά
ᾼ
᾽
ι
᾿

U+1FCx
῀
῁
ῂ
ῃ
ῄ

ῆ
ῇ
Ὲ
Έ
Ὴ
Ή
ῌ
῍
῎
῏

U+1FDx
ῐ
ῑ
ῒ
ΐ

ῖ
ῗ
Ῐ
Ῑ
Ὶ
Ί

῝
῞
῟

U+1FEx
ῠ
ῡ
ῢ
ΰ
ῤ
ῥ
ῦ
ῧ
Ῠ
Ῡ
Ὺ
Ύ
Ῥ
῭
΅
`

U+1FFx

ῲ
ῳ
ῴ

ῶ
ῷ
Ὸ
Ό
Ὼ
Ώ
ῼ
´
῾

Notes

1.^ As of Unicode version 10.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

text: Combining and letter-free diacritics

text: Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:

text:
Combining
Spacing
Sample
Description

U+0300
U+0060
(  ̀)
"varia / grave accent"

U+0301
U+00B4, U+0384
(  ́)
"oxia / tonos / acute accent"

U+0304
U+00AF
(  ̄)
"macron"

U+0306
U+02D8
(  ̆)
"vrachy / breve"

U+0308
U+00A8
(  ̈)
"dialytika / diaeresis"

U+0313
U+02BC
(  ̓)
"psili / comma above" (spiritus lenis)

U+0314
U+02BD
(  ̔)
"dasia / reversed comma above" (spiritus asper)

U+0342

(  ͂)
"perispomeni" (circumflex)

U+0343

(  ̓)
"koronis" (= U+0313)

U+0344
U+0385
(  ̈́)
"dialytika tonos" (deprecated, = U+0308 U+0301)

U+0345
U+037A
(  ͅ)
"ypogegrammeni / iota subscript".

text: Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet

text: IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternate interpretation for ß).

text: Chapter letters

text: Not to be confused with the Greek-letter acronyms for the names of entire fraternities (or sororities), different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) named using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each respective organization is its A Chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B Chapter, a Γ Chapter, and so on and so forth.

text: In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω Chapter is AA Chapter, followed by AB Chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "Chapter Letter," albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization.