document_title: Yellow line (road marking)

question_text: what does double yellow lines mean on a road

text: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Single yellow lines[edit]

text: A single yellow line is a road marking that is present on the side of the carriageway in the United Kingdom. It indicates that parking or waiting at that roadside is prohibited at certain times of day. The exact times vary by area and are indicated by signs at the roadside. Stopping to load and to pick up or set down passengers is generally allowed unless additional restrictions apply.[1]

text: Countries formerly part of the British Empire are likely to retain a modified version of the British laws including the basic principles regarding road safety.[citation needed] In Malta for example, a single yellow line, means no waiting (i.e. no parking, but alighting of passengers is permitted). The sign is applicable all day.[2]

text: In New South Wales, Australia- single yellow lines indicate a clear way, where parking is strictly prohibited during certain times of the day and/or special events. Single yellow lines are also used in areas with high snow fall to mark the far left side of the road.

text: In Malaysia, single yellow line is used in most roads leading to cities or towns or busy areas to mark parking restriction for certain times.

text: In Canada, Japan, Lebanon, and in some areas in the United States a single yellow line is used to separate traffic coming from opposite directions, where passing is allowed but with extreme caution.

text: Double yellow lines[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: Yellow road lines are used in the centre of the road in areas with large amounts of snow to contrast with the white colour of snow. These lines are white in areas where there is infrequent or no snow.

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, a double yellow line in the centre of the road means that it is unsafe for traffic travelling in either direction to pass (overtake). This is usually found on rolling hills or through corners where visibility is limited.

text: In the province of British Columbia, it is against the law to touch or cross solid double yellow line at any time, except to avoid obstructions on the highway,[3] or when a vehicle is entering or exiting the highway, if the vehicle can safely do so without affecting the flow of other vehicles.[4]

text: Finland[edit]

text: In Finland, a double yellow line in the center of the road means that it is unsafe for traffic travelling in either direction to pass (overtake).

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: Hong Kong is one of the regions outside the UK using double yellow lines on the side of carriageways.

text: India[edit]

text: A double yellow line, in contrast with a double white line, indicates a no-passing restriction. Double white is just a no-passing suggestion.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: Double yellow lines on the side of the road have a similar meaning (no parking at any time) as in the United Kingdom.[5] Single yellow line adjacent to a kerb means parking is restricted at certain times. A broken yellow line marks the edge of the carriageway.

text: Lebanon[edit]

text: In Lebanon, crossing a yellow line means you entered the area where traffic is coming from the opposite direction. A single solid yellow line means that passing is not advised but you may pass, with extreme caution. A single dashed yellow line means passing is allowed. A double solid yellow line means passing is not allowed under any circumstances. A double dashed line means passing is allowed only if there is no cars you can see coming from the opposite direction.

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: Malaysia was once part of the British Empire, and today still applies double yellow line to mark parking restriction for all times. This line can be found in major towns or cities like Kuala Lumpur.

text: Malta[edit]

text: A double yellow line means no stopping. This means that unloading of goods and alighting of passengers is not permitted.[2]

text: Mauritius[edit]

text: Mauritius was once a British colony, and today still applies double yellow lines to mark restricted parking areas at all hours on the sides of carriageways.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: Singapore, a former crown colony of the UK, also uses double yellow lines to indicate no parking at the sides.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Double yellow lines along the edge of the carriageway indicate that waiting restrictions apply to the road[6] (which includes the carriageway, footway and verge). A driver may stop for passengers to board or alight and to load or unload (unless there are also 'loading restrictions' - see below). The regulation applies to all vehicles. The restriction applies from the centre of the carriageway to the back of the footway.

text: Loading and unloading is allowed on double yellow lines at any time, unless there are additional markings indicating that there are 'loading restrictions'. Two short yellow stripes at regular intervals across the kerb or edge of the carriageway indicate that loading and unloading is not permitted at any time (these are not accompanied by sign plates). A single short yellow stripe at regular intervals across the kerb or edge of the carriageway indicates that loading and unloading is not permitted at the times shown on accompanying black and white sign plates.[7] Loading/unloading time is restricted to either 20 or 40 minutes depending upon the location (borough) if loading is observed. One must not cause an obstruction to traffic or pedestrians.[8]

text: History[edit]

text: Double yellow lines mean no waiting at any time, unless there are signs that specifically indicate seasonal restrictions.[7] They were first introduced in the UK by section 51[9] of the Road Traffic Act 1960[10] (repealed in 1972 and replaced by later legislation).

text: Countries that were once part of the British Empire are likely to retain a modified version of the British laws including the basic principles regarding road safety.

text: United States[edit]

text: A yellow line (solid or dashed) indicates that crossing the line will place a driver in a lane where opposing traffic is coming at the driver. A double yellow line is a painted marking separating two lanes of a road. It consists of two parallel, solid yellow lines, and its presence usually indicates a no-passing restriction or no passing zone, where crossing the line is prohibited. Obvious exceptions to this no-passing restriction include emergency maneuvers or temporary traffic flow changes due to road work. Often the double yellow line has sections where one of the lines becomes dashed (in which case it is no longer a "double yellow"), indicating to the drivers traveling on the side closest to the dashed line that they may pass when it is safe. Double-yellow lines may be used to separate lanes of traffic traveling in opposite directions where passing would be dangerous, or to restrict access to lanes traveling in the same direction, such as HOV and express lanes on a highway.

text: Two municipalities in the state of Rhode Island, Bristol and Warwick, replace the double yellow line with red, white, and blue striping along certain routes.

text: In some states, it is not against the law to overtake vehicles in the presence of solid yellow lines if it is safe to do so. For example, Vermont State Law also allows passing across the double yellow line when no traffic is on the opposing side, however, one must pass quickly and return to the proper side.[11] Pennsylvania does permit passing on double yellow lines when not also posted with "Do Not Pass" signage.[12][13] However, this is unusual as most states have a ban on crossing a double yellow line except when turning, when passing pedestrians or bicycles, or if an obstruction in the road makes it necessary. Overtaking another vehicle across a solid yellow line is usually considered a serious traffic violation in most states.[11]

text: Some parts of the US use a doubled set of double yellow lines to demarcate a painted median strip, which vehicles are not permitted to cross. This differs from a single set of double yellow lines, which may be crossed in certain circumstances.[14]


document_title: Sonic Drive-In

question_text: when was the first sonic drive in opened

root

text: Sonic Drive-In

text: Company profile[edit]

text: Although Sonic has operated since the early 1950s, Sonic Corp. incorporated in Delaware in 1978. It has its corporate headquarters in Oklahoma City; the headquarters building features a dine-in Sonic restaurant in an adjacent building. Its stock trades on NASDAQ with the symbol SONC.[3] Company restaurants are owned and operated by Sonic Restaurants, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary. Sonic was founded by Kimberly O'Beirne. Total 2016 revenues were around $100 million with net income of $18 million.[4]

tag: p

text: Products[edit]

text: Sonic's menu consists of hamburgers and French fries, as well as onion rings, corn dogs, chili dogs and breakfast toaster sandwiches. Drink options include soft drinks, slushes, and milkshakes. Customers can combine various drinks and flavors to create thousands of possible drink combinations.[5][6] Ice cream desserts include sundaes and banana splits.

text: At a standard Sonic Drive-In, a customer drives into a covered drive-in stall, orders through an intercom speaker system, and has the food delivered by a carhop. Most drive-ins also have patio seating, and many have drive-thru lanes.

text: In 2018, an Austin, Texas based food critic revealed that Sonic Drive-Ins were substituting regular mayonnaise with light mayonnaise without alerting customers or providing a traditional mayonnaise packet alternative. It's not clear if this substitution was simply a corporate oversight or an attempt to limit the calorie count reported on various menu items. A petition to boycott Sonic Drive-Ins until a regular mayonnaise option is provided had received 12,808 signatures as of February 2018.

text: History[edit]

text: Following World War II, Sonic founder Troy N. Smith Sr. returned to his hometown of Seminole, Oklahoma, where he became employed as a milkman. He decided to work delivering bread because bread was not as heavy as milk. Soon afterwards, Smith purchased the Cottage Cafe, a little diner in Shawnee, Oklahoma. Before long, he sold it and opened a fast food restaurant, Troy's Pan Full of Chicken, on the edge of town. In 1953, Smith went in with a business partner to purchase a five-acre parcel of land that had a log house and a walk-up root beer stand, already named the Top Hat. The two men continued with the operation of the root beer stand and converted the log house into a steak restaurant. After realizing that the stand was averaging $700 a week in the sale of root beer, hamburgers, and hot dogs, Smith decided to focus on the more-profitable root beer stand. He also bought out his business partner.[7]

text: Originally, Top Hat customers would park their automobiles anywhere on the gravel parking lot and walk up to place their orders. However, on a trip to Louisiana, Smith saw a drive-in that used speakers for ordering. He suspected that he could increase his sales by controlling the parking and having the customers order from speakers at their cars, with carhops delivering the food to the cars. Smith borrowed several automobiles from a friend who owned a used-car lot to establish a layout for controlled parking. He also had some so-called "jukebox boys" come in and wire an intercom system in the parking lot. Sales immediately tripled. Charles Woodrow Pappe, an entrepreneur, chanced upon the Shawnee drive-in and was impressed. He and Smith negotiated the first franchise location in Woodward, Oklahoma, in 1956, based on nothing more than a handshake. By 1958, two more drive-ins were built, in Enid and Stillwater.[7]

text: Upon learning that the Top Hat name was already trademarked, Smith and Pappe changed the name to Sonic in 1959. The new name worked with their existing slogan, "Service with the Speed of Sound". After the name change, the first Sonic sign was installed at the Stillwater Top-Hat Drive-In; this was the first of three Sonics that would eventually exist in Stillwater. The original Sonic to carry the first sign was demolished and renovated in May 2015. Although Smith and Pappe were being asked to help open new franchise locations, no real royalty plan was in place. The pair decided to have their paper company charge an extra penny for each Sonic-label hamburger bag it sold. The proceeds would then be split between Smith and Pappe. The first franchise contracts under this plan were drawn up, but still no joint marketing plan, standardized menu, or detailed operating requirements were in place.[7]

text: 1960s and 1970s[edit]

text: Sonic's founders formed Sonic Supply as a supply and distribution division in the 1960s. Under Smith, longtime franchise holders Marvin Jirous and Matt Kinslow were hired to run the division. In 1973, Sonic Supply was restructured as a franchise company that was briefly named Sonic Systems of America, which provided franchisees with equipment, building plans, and basic operational instructions. As the company grew into a regionally known operation during the 1960s and 1970s, the drive-ins were mainly in small towns in Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, New Mexico, Missouri, and Arkansas. In 1967, the year Pappe died, there were 41 drive-ins. By 1972, this number had risen to 165, and by 1978, 1,000.

text: In 1968, Sonic introduced the Pickle-O's, fried pickle slices.[8]

text: In 1977, the company established the Sonic School for manager training. Franchisees operated most of the drive-ins and often made the store manager a business partner, even to this day.[9][10][11]

text: 1980s and 1990s[edit]

text: In 1983, the company's board of directors hired C. Stephen Lynn as president, and, in 1984, Lynn hired J. Clifford Hudson, an attorney, to head the legal department. Under Lynn, Sonic and its major franchisees began to encourage the development of local-advertising cooperatives which was developed with the leadership of Keith Sutterfield as Advertising Manager and later as V.P. of Marketing in which Sutterfield developed a field structure to work with the franchisees. New franchises began to expand the company into new areas and redevelop markets that had been unsuccessful in the past. These developments, combined with a major advertising campaign featuring singer and actor Frankie Avalon, led to significant growth and a new image that would make Sonic a nationally recognized name. In 1986, Lynn, with a group of investors, completed a $10-million leveraged buyout and took the company private. The next year, Sonic moved its offices to leased space at 120 Robert S. Kerr Avenue in downtown Oklahoma City and began to assume a higher profile in the community.[12]

text: In 1991, Sonic became a publicly traded company again. By 1994, the corporation had renegotiated the franchise agreements with its franchisees.[13] In 1995, Hudson became president and chief executive officer, and Sonic Industries became Sonic Corp.[14]

text: During the mid-1990s, Sonic opened 100–150 new restaurants a year. Beginning in 1998, Sonic began a retrofit program, called "Sonic 2000", to redesign and update all 1,750 stores in its chain to what was called a "retro-future" look.[11]

text: Hudson was named chairman of Sonic Corp. in January 2000.[14]

text: Celebrating its 50th birthday in 2003, Sonic briefly added the Birthday Cake Shake to the menu.[15][16][17] As a part of the anniversary celebration, Pickle-O's made another appearance as a recurring item.[8] Development milestones celebrated in the 2000s include the opening of the 3,000th Sonic Drive-In in Shawnee, Oklahoma, and the 3,500th Sonic Drive-In in the Chicago market (Algonquin, Illinois).[18] In October 2004, President Pattye Moore stepped down to spend more time with her family.[19] On June 28, 2005, helped by new menu items and increased advertising exposure, Sonic Corp. reported double-digit increases in net income and revenue in the third quarter that year.[20] On January 5, 2005, the company started to roll out card readers in the drive-in stalls at its 544 company-owned restaurants by the end of January that year.[21] In 2007, the company opened its first restaurants in the Northeastern U.S., in New Jersey.[22]

text: In 2009, Sonic partnered with DonorsChoose.org on a collaborative effort, Limeades for Learning, the chain's first systemwide cause marketing initiative. Public school teachers request needed supplies and materials and Sonic customers vote on how to allocate over $500,000 each autumn. In the first seven years of the program, Sonic and its franchisees donated more than $6 million and impacted learning for more than 349,000 students nationwide.[23][24]

text: In September 2009, Omar Janjua joined the company as president of its restaurant operating subsidiary, Sonic Restaurants, Inc. ("SRI")[25][26][27] and left in 2015.

text: Despite growth into new markets outside the brand's traditional footprint, the company was hit hard by the recession of 2008–2009. In 2009, the brand had multiple quarters of declines in same-store sales for the first time in recent memory.[clarification needed] Plans to bring Sonic to Alaska have not come to fruition.[28][29] On October 26, 2015, Sonic opened its first Rhode Island location in Smithfield, reporting to have received 500 orders on its opening day.[30] In the mid-2010s, the company began a refranchising effort and began to add to its numbers of stores again.[31]

text: In January 2010, Sonic announced that they would begin switching to cage-free eggs, gestation crate-free pork, and chickens killed using controlled-atmosphere stunning methods instead of traditional shackling and water-stunning.[32]

text: Sonic reformulated its popular soft-serve ice cream to meet the FDA guidelines that define what constitutes real ice cream and introduced Real Ice Cream on May 17, 2010.[33][34][35] Several new hot dog items were also introduced in June 2010 and February 2011.[36][37][38][39][40][41]

text: Craig Miller was hired as chief information officer for Sonic in January 2010.[42][43][44][45][46] In June 2010, Danielle Vona was hired as chief marketing officer.[47][48]

text: In late 2010, Sonic announced it was ending its 17-year relationship with advertising agency Barkley. A group of specialized agencies were selected to represent the company, and in early 2011, the San Francisco-based Goodby Silverstein & Partners was named as the new creative agency for the company.[49][50][51] In 2017 Sonic added seven new stores in Hawaii.[52]

text: Sonic Beach[edit]

text: In June 2011, the first location under the name Sonic Beach was opened in Homestead, Florida. A second location, opened in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, in November 2011, lacks the usual drive-in stalls due to its beach-side location. Both locations also include outdoor seating and flatscreen televisions.[53] A third location was opened in Miami Gardens across from Hard Rock Stadium. The fourth location was opened January 2014 in Lauderhill.[54]

text: Along with the traditional menu items, Sonic Beach also offers several new items including popcorn shrimp, Philly cheesesteaks, and pulled pork sandwiches. Sonic Beach also serves beer and wine.[55]

text: Advertising[edit]

text: Sonic ran its first television advertisement in 1977.[56] During the early 1980s, actor Tom Bosley was featured in the company's commercials.[57] One of the company's most memorable advertising campaigns, which ran from 1987 to 1993, featured Frankie Avalon.[58] In May 1999, the company began a new campaign featuring the character Katie the Carhop.[59]

text: Sonic was also involved with NASCAR. The company contracted with Richard Childress Racing in late 2000 to be an associate sponsor for Dale Earnhardt, Sr. during the 2001 NASCAR Winston Cup Series season. After Earnhardt was killed on the last lap of the Daytona 500, the company continued its sponsorship with his replacement driver Kevin Harvick, through the end of the 2003 season.[60]

text: In 2004, the company became more widely known nationally by advertising in television markets hundreds of miles from its nearest franchise.[7] Improvisational actors T. J. Jagodowski and Peter Grosz became known to American television viewers from their "Two Guys" series of commercials. Similar series of ads for the company have featured other duos of improvisational performers, including Molly Erdman and Brian Huskey, Katie Rich and Sayjal Joshi, and Emily Wilson and Tim Baltz.[61] In 2010, national auditions were held and a new series of commercials began airing, some of which featured carhops from Wisconsin and Austin, Texas. In 2012 the "Two Guys" returned to the company's television ads.[62]

text: Slogans used by Sonic over the years include:

text:
"Service With the Speed of Sound" (1958)[7]
"Happy Eating" (1980s: on signs at many of the company's drive-ins)
"America's Drive-In" (1987)[7]
"Faster And Better than Ever" (1988–1990)
"No Place Hops like Sonic" (1990–1994)
"Summer's Funner" (1993)[63]
"Drive-In For A Change" (1995–1997)
"It's Sonic Good" (2003)[7]
"Sonic's Got It, Others Don't" (2007)[64]
"Even Sweeter After Dark" (2009)[65]
"This is How You Sonic" (2011-present)[66]
"Sonic Everywhere" (2016)
"You Guys Wanna Hang Out Sometime" (2016)

tag: ul


document_title: Isostasy

question_text: how is the concept of isostasy related to mountain building

text: Isostasy

text: Isostatic models[edit]

text: Three principal models of isostasy are used:

text:
The Airy–Heiskanen model – where different topographic heights are accommodated by changes in crustal thickness, in which the crust has a constant density
The Pratt–Hayford model – where different topographic heights are accommodated by lateral changes in rock density.
The Vening Meinesz, or flexural isostasy model – where the lithosphere acts as an elastic plate and its inherent rigidity distributes local topographic loads over a broad region by bending.

tag: ol

text: Airy and Pratt isostasy are statements of buoyancy, whereas flexural isostasy is a statement of buoyancy when deflecting a sheet of finite elastic strength.

text: Airy[edit]

text: The basis of the model is Pascal's law, and particularly its consequence that, within a fluid in static equilibrium, the hydrostatic pressure is the same on every point at the same elevation (surface of hydrostatic compensation). In other words:

text: h1⋅ρ1 = h2⋅ρ2 = h3⋅ρ3 = ... hn⋅ρn

text: For the simplified picture shown the depth of the mountain belt roots (b1) are:

text:
(

h

1

+
c
+

b

1

)

ρ

c

=
(
c

ρ

c

)
+
(

b

1

ρ

m

)

{\displaystyle (h_{1}+c+b_{1})\rho _{c}=(c\rho _{c})+(b_{1}\rho _{m})}

b

1

(

ρ

m

−

ρ

c

)

=

h

1

ρ

c

{\displaystyle {b_{1}(\rho _{m}-\rho _{c})}=h_{1}\rho _{c}}

b

1

=

h

1

ρ

c

ρ

m

−

ρ

c

{\displaystyle b_{1}={\frac {h_{1}\rho _{c}}{\rho _{m}-\rho _{c}}}}

text:
where

ρ

m

{\displaystyle \rho _{m}}

 is the density of the mantle (ca. 3,300 kg m−3) and

ρ

c

{\displaystyle \rho _{c}}

 is the density of the crust (ca. 2,750 kg m−3). Thus, we may generally consider:

text: b1 ≅ 5⋅h1

text: In the case of negative topography (i.e., a marine basin), the balancing of lithospheric columns gives:

text:
c

ρ

c

=
(

h

2

ρ

w

)
+
(

b

2

ρ

m

)
+
[
(
c
−

h

2

−

b

2

)

ρ

c

]

{\displaystyle c\rho _{c}=(h_{2}\rho _{w})+(b_{2}\rho _{m})+[(c-h_{2}-b_{2})\rho _{c}]}

b

2

(

ρ

m

−

ρ

c

)

=

h

2

(

ρ

c

−

ρ

w

)

{\displaystyle {b_{2}(\rho _{m}-\rho _{c})}={h_{2}(\rho _{c}-\rho _{w})}}

b

2

=
(

ρ

c

−

ρ

w

ρ

m

−

ρ

c

)

h

2

{\displaystyle b_{2}=({\frac {\rho _{c}-\rho _{w}}{\rho _{m}-\rho _{c}}}){h_{2}}}

text:
where

ρ

m

{\displaystyle \rho _{m}}

 is the density of the mantle (ca. 3,300 kg m−3),

ρ

c

{\displaystyle \rho _{c}}

 is the density of the crust (ca. 2,750 kg m−3) and

ρ

w

{\displaystyle \rho _{w}}

 is the density of the water (ca. 1,000 kg m−3). Thus, we may generally consider:

text: b2 ≅ 3.2⋅h2

text: Pratt[edit]

text:
For the simplified model shown the new density is given by:

ρ

1

=

ρ

c

c

h

1

+
c

{\displaystyle \rho _{1}=\rho _{c}{\frac {c}{h_{1}+c}}}

, where

h

1

{\displaystyle h_{1}}

 is the height of the mountain and c the thickness of the crust.

text: Vening Meinesz / flexural[edit]

text: This hypothesis was suggested to explain how large topographic loads such as seamounts (e.g. Hawaiian Islands) could be compensated by regional rather than local displacement of the lithosphere. This is the more general solution for lithospheric flexure, as it approaches the locally compensated models above as the load becomes much larger than a flexural wavelength or the flexural rigidity of the lithosphere approaches zero.

text: Isostatic effects of deposition and erosion[edit]

text: When large amounts of sediment are deposited on a particular region, the immense weight of the new sediment may cause the crust below to sink. Similarly, when large amounts of material are eroded away from a region, the land may rise to compensate. Therefore, as a mountain range is eroded, the (reduced) range rebounds upwards (to a certain extent) to be eroded further. Some of the rock strata now visible at the ground surface may have spent much of their history at great depths below the surface buried under other strata, to be eventually exposed as those other strata eroded away and the lower layers rebounded upwards.

text: An analogy may be made with an iceberg—it always floats with a certain proportion of its mass below the surface of the water. If more ice is added to the top of the iceberg, the iceberg will sink lower in the water. If a layer of ice is somehow sliced off the top of the iceberg, the remaining iceberg will rise. Similarly, Earth's lithosphere "floats" in the asthenosphere.

text: Isostatic effects of plate tectonics[edit]

text: When continents collide, the continental crust may thicken at their edges in the collision. If this happens, much of the thickened crust may move downwards rather than up as with the iceberg analogy. The idea of continental collisions building mountains "up" is therefore rather a simplification. Instead, the crust thickens and the upper part of the thickened crust may become a mountain range.[citation needed]

text: However, some continental collisions are far more complex than this, and the region may not be in isostatic equilibrium, so this subject has to be treated with caution.[citation needed]

text: Isostatic effects of ice sheets[edit]

text: The formation of ice sheets can cause Earth's surface to sink. Conversely, isostatic post-glacial rebound is observed in areas once covered by ice sheets that have now melted, such as around the Baltic Sea and Hudson Bay. As the ice retreats, the load on the lithosphere and asthenosphere is reduced and they rebound back towards their equilibrium levels. In this way, it is possible to find former sea cliffs and associated wave-cut platforms hundreds of metres above present-day sea level. The rebound movements are so slow that the uplift caused by the ending of the last glacial period is still continuing.

text: In addition to the vertical movement of the land and sea, isostatic adjustment of the Earth also involves horizontal movements. It can cause changes in Earth's gravitational field and rotation rate, polar wander, and earthquakes.

text: Eustasy and relative sea level change[edit]

text: Eustasy is another cause of relative sea level change quite different from isostatic causes. The term eustasy or eustatic refers to changes in the volume of water in the oceans, usually due to global climate change. When Earth's climate cools, a greater proportion of water is stored on land masses in the form of glaciers, snow, etc. This results in falling global sea levels (relative to a stable land mass). The refilling of ocean basins by glacial meltwater at the end of ice ages is an example of eustatic sea level rise.

text: A second significant cause of eustatic sea level rise is thermal expansion of sea water when Earth's mean temperature increases. Current estimates of global eustatic rise from tide gauge records and satellite altimetry is about +3 mm/a (see 2007 IPCC report). Global sea level is also affected by vertical crustal movements, changes in Earth's rotation rate, large-scale changes in continental margins and changes in the spreading rate of the ocean floor.

text: When the term relative is used in context with sea level change, the implication is that both eustasy and isostasy are at work, or that the author does not know which cause to invoke.

text: Post-glacial rebound can also be a cause of rising sea levels. When the sea floor rises, which it continues to do in parts of the northern hemisphere, water is displaced and has to go elsewhere.


document_title: List of Presidents of the Indian National Congress

question_text: who was the second president of indian national congress

text: History[edit]

text: During 1885-1933, the presidency had a term of 1 year only. Traditionally, the post rotated between prominent members of the party, successive terms for the same person being frowned upon. During Jawaharlal Nehru's premiership, he rarely held the Presidency of INC, even though he was always head of the Legislative Party.

text: Indira Gandhi however, institutionalized the practice of having the same person as the Congress President and the Prime Minister after the first Congress split of 1969. Her son Rajiv Gandhi continued that practice.

text: Narasimha Rao, too held both the Congress President and the Prime Minister's posts. Sitaram Kesri held the post after INC was voted out. But as the INC never returned to power under his leadership, he didn't hold the two posts together.

text: During 2000-09, INC did not host a conference for the first time in history. In 2004, when the INC was voted back into power, Manmohan Singh became the first Prime Minister, not to be the president of the party. Sonia Gandhi is the longest serving president of the Congress party, having held the office for nineteen years from 1998 to 2017.[1] Her son Rahul Gandhi is the current Congress President.

text: Presidents[edit]

text:
No.
Name of President
Picture
Life span
Year of Presidency
Place of Conference

1
Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee

29 December 1844 – 1906
1885
Bombay

2
Dadabhai Naoroji

4 September 1825 – 1917
1886
Calcutta

3
Badruddin Tyabji

10 October 1844 – 1906
1887
Madras

4
George Yule

1829–1892
1888
Allahabad

5
William Wedderburn

1838–1918
1889
Bombay

6
Pherozeshah Mehta

4 August 1845 – 1915
1890
Calcutta

7
Anandacharlu

August 1843 – 1908
1891
Nagpur

8
Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee

29 December 1844 – 1906
1892
Allahabad

9
Dadabhai Naoroji

4 September 1825 – 1917
1893
Lahore

10
Alfred Webb

1834–1908
1894
Madras

11
Surendranath Banerjee

10 November 1848 – 1925
1895
Poona

12
Rahimtulla M. Sayani

5 April 1847 – 1902
1896
Calcutta

13
C. Sankaran Nair

11 July 1857 – 1934
1897
Amravati

14
Anandamohan Bose

23 September 1847 – 1906
1898
Madras

15
Romesh Chunder Dutt

13 August 1848 – 1909
1899
Lucknow

16
N. G. Chandavarkar

2 December 1855 – 1923
1900
Lahore

17
Dinshaw Edulji Wacha

2 August 1844 – 1936
1901
Calcutta

18
Surendranath Banerjee

10 November 1825 – 1917
1902
Ahmedabad

19
Lalmohan Ghosh

1848–1909
1903
Madras

20
Henry Cotton

1845–1915
1904
Bombay

21
Gopal Krishna Gokhale

9 May 1866 – 1915
1905
Benares

22
Dadabhai Naoroji

4 September 1825 – 1917
1906
Calcutta

23
Rashbihari Ghosh

23 December 1845 – 1921
1907
Surat

24
Rashbihari Ghosh

23 December 1845 – 1921
1908
Madras

25
Madan Mohan Malaviya

25 December 1861 – 1946
1909
Lahore

26
William Wedderburn

1838–1918
1910
Allahabad

27
Bishan Narayan Dar

1864–1916
1911
Calcutta

28
Raghunath Narasinha Mudholkar

1857–1921
1912
Bankipore

29
Nawab Syed Muhammad Bahadur

 ?–1919
1913
Karachi

30
Bhupendra Nath Bose

1859–1924
1914
Madras

31
Lord Satyendra Prasanna Sinha

March 1863 – 1928
1915
Bombay

32
Ambica Charan Mazumdar

1850–1922
1916
Lucknow

33
Annie Besant

1 October 1847 – 1933
1917
Calcutta

34
Madan Mohan Malaviya

25 December 1861 – 1946
1918
Delhi

35
Syed Hasan Imam

31 August 1871 – 1933
1918
Bombay (Special Session)

36
Motilal Nehru

6 May 1861 – 6 February 1931
1919
Amritsar

37
Lala Lajpat Rai

28 January 1865 – 17 November 1928
1920
Calcutta (Special Session)

38
C. Vijayaraghavachariar

1852 – 19 April 1944
1920
Nagpur

39
Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das (President)
Hakim Ajmal Khan (Acting President)

1863 – 29 December 1927
1921
Ahmedabad

40
Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das

5 November 1870 – 16 June 1925
1922
Gaya

41
Mohammad Ali Jouhar

10 December 1878 – 4 January 1931
1923
Kakinada

42
Abul Kalam Azad

1888 – 22 February 1958
1923
Delhi (Special Session)

43
Mohandas Gandhi

2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948
1924
Belgaum

44
Sarojini Naidu

13 February 1879 – 2 March 1949
1925
Kanpur

45
S. Srinivasa Iyengar

September 11, 1874 – 19 May 1941
1926
Gauhati

46
Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari

25 December 1880 – 10 May 1936
1927
Madras

47
Motilal Nehru

6 May 1861 – 6 February 1931
1928
Calcutta

48
Jawaharlal Nehru

14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964
1929 & 30
Lahore

49
Vallabhbhai Patel

31 October 1875 – 15 December 1950
1931
Karachi

50
Madan Mohan Malaviya

25 December 1861 – 1946
1932
Delhi

51
Nellie Sengupta

1886–1973
1933
Calcutta

52
Rajendra Prasad

3 December 1884 – 28 February 1963
1934 & 35
Bombay

53
Jawaharlal Nehru

14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964
1936
Lucknow

54
Jawaharlal Nehru

14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964
1937
Faizpur

55
Subhas Chandra Bose

23 January 1897 – 18 August 1945
1938
Haripura

56
Subhas Chandra Bose (resigned)
Rajendra Prasad replaced Bose after
the session.

23 January 1897 – 18 August 1945
1939
Jabalpur

57
Abul Kalam Azad

1888 – 22 February 1958
1940–46
Ramgarh

58
J. B. Kripalani

1888 – 19 March 1982
1947
Meerut

59
Pattabhi Sitaraimayya

24 December 1880 – 17 December 1959
1948 & 49
Jaipur

60
Purushottam Das Tandon

1 August 1882 – 1 July 1961
1950
Nasik

61
Jawaharlal Nehru

14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964
1951 & 52
Delhi

62
Jawaharlal Nehru

14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964
1953
Hyderabad

63
Jawaharlal Nehru

14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964
1954
Calcutta

64
U. N. Dhebar

21 September 1905 – 1977
1955
Avadi

65
U. N. Dhebar

21 September 1905 – 1977
1956
Amritsar

66
U. N. Dhebar

21 September 1905 – 1977
1957
Indore

67
U. N. Dhebar

21 September 1905 – 1977
1958
Gauhati

68
U. N. Dhebar

21 September 1905 – 1977
1959
Nagpur

69
Indira Gandhi

19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984
1959
Delhi (Special Session)

70
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

19 May 1913 – 1 June 1996
1960
Bangalore

71
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

19 May 1913 – 1 June 1996
1961
Bhavnagar

72
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

19 May 1913 – 1 June 1996
1962 & 63
Patna

73
K. Kamaraj

15 July 1903 – 2 October 1975
1964
Bhubaneswar

74
K. Kamaraj

15 July 1903 – 2 October 1975
1965
Durgapur

75
K. Kamaraj

15 July 1903 – 2 October 1975
1966 & 67
Jaipur

76
S. Nijalingappa

10 December 1902 – 9 August 2000
1968
Hyderabad

77
S. Nijalingappa

10 December 1902 – 9 August 2000
1969
Faridabad

78
Jagjivan Ram

5 April 1908 – 6 July 1986
1970 & 71
Bombay

79
Shankar Dayal Sharma

19 August 1918 – 26 December 1999
1972–74
Calcutta

80
Devakanta Barua

22 February 1914 – 1996
1975–77
Chandigarh

81
Indira Gandhi

19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984
1978–83
Delhi

82
Indira Gandhi

19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984
1983 & 84
Calcutta

83
Rajiv Gandhi

20 August 1944 – 21 May 1991
1985–91
Bombay

84
P. V. Narasimha Rao

28 June 1921 – 23 December 2004
1992–96
Tirupati

85
Sitaram Kesri

November 1919 – 24 October 2000
1996–98
Calcutta

86
Sonia Gandhi

9 December 1946
1998–2017
Calcutta

87
Rahul Gandhi

19 June 1970
2017 -Present
Delhi

tag: table


document_title: Kentucky Wildcats football

question_text: when was the last time kentucky won a national championship in football

text: Kentucky Wildcats football

text: History[edit]

text: Early history (1881–1945)[edit]

text: Until about 1913, the modern University of Kentucky was referred to as "Kentucky State College" and nearby Transylvania University was known as "Kentucky University". In 1880, Kentucky University and Centre College played the first intercollegiate football game in Kentucky. Kentucky State first fielded a football team in 1881, playing three games against rival Kentucky University. The team was revived in 1891. Both the inaugural 1881 squad and the revived 1891 squad have unknown coaches according to university records in winning two games and losing three.[4] The 1891 team's colors were blue and light yellow, decided before the Centre–Kentucky game on December 19. A student asked "What color blue?" and varsity letterman Richard C. Stoll pulled off his necktie, and held it up. This is still held as the origin of Kentucky's shade of blue. The next year light yellow was dropped and changed to white.[5] The 1892 team was coached by A. M. Miller, and went 2–4–1.[6]

text: The greatest UK team of this era was the 1898 squad, known simply to Kentuckians as "The Immortals."[6] To this day, the Immortals remain the only undefeated, untied, and unscored upon team in UK football history.[6] The Immortals were coached by W. R. Bass and ended the year a perfect 7–0–0, despite an average weight of 147 pounds per player.[6] Victories came easily for this squad, as the Immortals raced by Kentucky University (18- 0), Georgetown (28–0), Company H of the 8th Massachusetts (59–0), Louisville Athletic Club (16–0), Centre (6–0), 160th Indiana (17–0) and Newcastle Athletic Club (36–0).[6]

text: Head coach Jack Wright led the team to a 7–1 record in 1903, losing only to rival and southern champion Kentucky University.[6]

text: Fred Schacht posted a 15–4–1 record in two seasons but died unexpectedly after his second season.[6] J. White Guyn also had success leading the Wildcats, posting a 17–7–1 record in his three years.[6]

text: Edwin Sweetland went 16–3 in three seasons (1909–1910 and 1912) but resigned due to poor health.[6] Sweetland also served as Kentucky's first athletics director.[6] The 1909 team upset the Illinois Fighting Illini. Upon their welcome home, Philip Carbusier said that they had "fought like wildcats," a nickname that stuck.[7]

text: John J. Tigert coached Kentucky for two seasons (1915–1916) with each season having one loss. 1915 captain Charles C. Schrader was All-Southern. The 1916 team fought the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) co-champion Tennessee Volunteers to a scoreless tie. The year's only a loss, 45 to 0 to the Irby Curry-led Vanderbilt Commodores, was the dedication of Stoll Field. Quarterbacks Curry and Kentucky's Doc Rodes were both selected All-Southern at year's end. Vanderbilt coach Dan McGugin stated "If you would give me Doc Rodes, I would say he was a greater player than Curry."[8]

text: Coach Harry Gamage had a 32–25–5 record during his seven seasons from 1927 to 1933.[6] A.D. Kirwan, who would go on to be the president of the university, coached the Wildcats from 1938 to 1944 and posted a 24–28–4 record in those six seasons.[6]

text: Longtime athletics director Bernie Shively also served as Kentucky's head football coach for the 1945 season.[6]

text: Paul "Bear" Bryant era (1946–1953)[edit]

text: Coach Paul "Bear" Bryant was Kentucky's head football coach for eight seasons.[9]

text: Bear Bryant came to Kentucky from Maryland.[10] Under Bryant's tutelage, the Wildcats won the 1947 Great Lakes Bowl, lost the 1950 Orange Bowl, won the 1951 Sugar Bowl and the 1952 Cotton Bowl Classic.[9] In final AP polls, the Wildcats were ranked No. 11 in 1949, No. 7 in 1950, No. 15 in 1951, No. 20 in 1952 and No. 16 in 1953.[9] The final 1950 poll was taken prior to the bowl games; Kentucky then defeated undefeated and No. 1 ranked Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl and finished with the number 1 ranking in 3 major polls,[9] ending the Sooners 31-game winning streak. Bryant won SEC Coach of the Year honors in 1950 and then left after eight seasons to accept the head football coach position at Texas A&M.

text: Assistant coaches at Kentucky under Bryant who went on to become head coaches include Paul Dietzel, Frank Moseley, Jim Owens and Phil Cutchin.[11] Notable players who played for Bryant at Kentucky include Howard Schnellenberger, Jim Mackenzie, Jerry Claiborne, Steve Meilinger, George Blanda, Vito Parilli, and Bob Gain.[12]

text: Blanton Collier era (1954–1961)[edit]

text: Cleveland Browns assistant Blanton Collier was hired to replace Bryant as head football coach at Kentucky in late 1953.[13] After completing his first season at Kentucky, Collier was named SEC Coach of the Year after posting a 7–2 record.[13] Collier's assistants during his tenure at Kentucky included the likes of Bill Arnsparger, Chuck Knox, Howard Schnellenberger, and Don Shula.[14]

text: Despite having a winning record, 41–36–3 in eight seasons, Collier was fired.[15] Collier struggled to recruit for much of his tenure, about which frustrated fans wrote letters of complaint to the university.[16] Collier is the last Kentucky head football coach to leave the Wildcats with a winning record.

text: Charlie Bradshaw era (1962–1968)[edit]

text: Charlie Bradshaw, an Alabama assistant under Bear Bryant, was hired to replace the fired Collier.[17] Despite all the hype about being a Bear Bryant assistant, Bradshaw's tenure turned out to be a disappointment, as he was unable to have much success with the Wildcats. He had a 25–41–5 record in seven seasons.[18] Bradshaw is the last Kentucky coach to defeat Tennessee twice in Knoxville, and the last Kentucky coach to defeat Auburn twice.[17] He was also the last to defeat a No. 1 ranked team in the country until Rich Brooks in 2007.[17]

text: Bradshaw, a harsh, brutal coach,[19] was the head coach of the infamous Thin Thirty Kentucky team. Kentucky had 88 players when Bradshaw arrived, but by season's end, only 30 players were on the team.[20] The story of that team is told in the 2007 book The Thin Thirty by Shannon Ragland.[19] Bradshaw also recruited Nate Northington, the first African American to play in an SEC athletic contest (1967).[21]

text: John Ray era (1969–1972)[edit]

text: Notre Dame assistant John Ray took over as head football coach in late 1969. Ray's teams consistently had solid defenses, but struggled to produce on the offensive end.[22] Ray's teams failed to win more than three games in a single season, going a dismal 10–33 overall in Ray's four seasons.[23] Ray's contract was not renewed after the 1972 season.

text: Fran Curci era (1973–1981)[edit]

text: Kentucky hired Fran Curci away from Miami after Ray was let go.[24] The 1976 Wildcats tallied their first winning season in 13 years and won the Peach Bowl,[25] finishing No. 18 in the final AP poll.[25] For all intents and purposes, however, Curci's tenure ended soon afterward, when the NCAA slapped the Wildcats with two years' probation for numerous recruiting and amateurism violations. They were banned from postseason play and live television in 1977. The most damaging sanction in the long term, however, was being limited to only 25 scholarships in 1977 and 1978.[26]

text: The 1977 Kentucky team went 10–1, went undefeated in SEC play, won a share of the SEC title and finished the season ranked No. 6 in the AP poll.[25] Due to the sanctions, however, the Wildcats were not able to go to a bowl. Kentucky finished at No. 6 and Penn State at No. 5 despite the fact that Kentucky defeated Penn State at Penn State during the regular season. Curci was unable to put together another winning team as a result of the reduced scholarships, and was fired after the 1981 season.[27]

text: Jerry Claiborne era (1982–1989)[edit]

text: Coach Jerry Claiborne returned to his alma mater from Maryland.[28] He led the Wildcats to the 1983 Hall of Fame Bowl and the 1984 Hall of Fame Bowl,[29] defeating a Wisconsin team ranked No. 20 in the polls to finish the season with a 9–3 record and a No. 19 ranking in the final AP and UPI polls.[30] Claiborne also won SEC Coach of the Year honors in 1983. The E.J. Nutter Training Facility was built in 1987. Coach Claiborne and Kentucky experienced an era of constant change at the quarterback position following the 1987 season through his departure that included Ransdell, Wright, and High School All-American and two way starter (Quarterback/Safety) Ricky Lewis, prior to landing Mr. Kentucky Football Awardee Pookie Jones of Calloway County.[31] Claiborne retired following the 1989 season[32] and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1999. He is the last coach to defeat Florida and was the last coach to defeat Tennessee until Joker Phillips in 2011.[30] His final record at Kentucky is 41–46–3.[29]

text: Bill Curry era (1990–1996)[edit]

text: Bill Curry surprised the college football world by leaving Alabama for Kentucky in late 1989.[33][34] Despite the high hopes that the Kentucky football program would rise under his leadership, Curry's Wildcats teams never achieved much success.[35] The Wildcats' best season under Curry was 1993, going on to play Clemson in the 1993 New Years Eve Peach Bowl. It would be his only winning season in seven years. On the other side of the spectrum, his 1994 team went 1-10, the worst record in modern program history.[36] Curry was asked to resign after seven seasons and just a .33 winning percentage.[37] Curry's record at Kentucky was 26–52.[30]

text: Hal Mumme era (1997–2000)[edit]

text: Coach Hal Mumme came to Kentucky from Valdosta State and brought an exciting, high-scoring, pass-oriented offense known as the "Air Raid".[38] He led the Wildcats to the 1998 Outback Bowl and the 1999 Music City Bowl.[39] Mumme achieved a 20–26 record in his four seasons.[40] Mumme coached star quarterback Tim Couch, the top overall pick in the 1999 NFL Draft. Mumme was popular among the Kentucky fans,[41] but the program was hit with severe sanctions for NCAA violations involving cash payments from an assistant coach to prospective recruits.[40] Although Mumme himself was not implicated in any violation,[42] he resigned after the 2000 season.[40] Assistant coaches under Mumme at Kentucky included Mike Leach and Sonny Dykes.[43]

text: Guy Morriss era (2001–2002)[edit]

text: Guy Morriss was promoted from offensive line coach to head coach of the Wildcats after Mumme's resignation.[44] Under coach Morriss, the Wildcats went 2–9 in 2001[45] but improved to a 7–5 record in 2002.[46] However, the Wildcats were not eligible for postseason play in 2002 due to NCAA sanctions from Mumme's tenure.[47] The most significant event of that season came in a loss to LSU (See: Bluegrass Miracle).[48] Morriss accepted an offer to become the head football coach at Baylor after the 2002 season.[49]

text: Rich Brooks era (2003–2009)[edit]

text: The team's next head coach was former Oregon head coach Rich Brooks, who was hired in December 2002.[50] He led the team out of the probationary years to an 8–5 regular season record in 2006,[51] including a memorable upset over the defending SEC champion Georgia, snapping a nine-game losing streak to the Bulldogs.[52] Brooks also led the football team to its first bowl game since 1999 and its first bowl game victory since 1984, as Kentucky defeated the Clemson University Tigers 28–20 in the Music City Bowl.[53] In 2007, the Wildcats were ranked 8th in the nation before a loss to South Carolina on October 4.[54] After the loss to South Carolina, Kentucky bounced back on October 13 to defeat No. 1 LSU in a historic triple overtime game.[55]

text: Brooks took Kentucky to four consecutive bowl games, winning the first three.[56] The 2007 Kentucky Wildcats football defeated the Florida State Seminoles 35–28 in the 2007 Music City Bowl in Nashville, Tennessee, on December 31, 2007.[57] Quarterback Andre' Woodson was named the Music City Bowl MVP for the second year in a row.[58] In 2008 the Wildcats opted to go to the Liberty Bowl instead of the Music City Bowl and defeated Conference USA champion East Carolina 25–19.[59] In 2009, Brooks and Kentucky returned to the Music City Bowl, losing in a rematch to Clemson 21–13.[60] Brooks retired after seven seasons with a 39–47 overall record.[56]

text: Joker Phillips era (2010–2012)[edit]

text: Former Wildcat wide receiver and longtime assistant coach Joker Phillips was formally named head coach January 6, 2010 after Brooks' retirement; he had been Brooks' designated successor since 2008.[61] Kentucky started off strong under Phillips with a win on the road against archrival Louisville.[62] The 2010 squad snapped a long-standing losing streak to South Carolina Coach Steve Spurrier by defeating the Gamecocks at Kroger Field.[62] However, they dropped games to both Ole Miss and Mississippi State, lost to a Florida team on a down year and once again failed to beat its other archrival Tennessee, having lost 26 in a row to the Vols,[62] the longest losing streak by one team to another in college football. The Wildcats capped the season with a 27–10 loss to Pittsburgh in the BBVA Compass Bowl.[63]

text: On November 26, 2011, Kentucky snapped the longest active FBS losing streak to any one team by defeating the Tennessee Vols 10–7 at Kroger Field.[64]

text: On November 4, 2012, the day after a 40-0 home shutout by Vanderbilt resulting with a 1–9 record, UK athletics director Mitch Barnhart released a public letter to Big Blue Nation announcing that Phillips would not return for the 2013 season, but that he would finish out the 2012 season as head coach.[65] With Joker's 5-year contract only being 3 years complete at the end of the season, the university has to pay $2.55 Million over the final 2 years of the contract.[66]

text: Mark Stoops era (2013–present)[edit]

text: Florida State defensive coordinator Mark Stoops, brother of legendary former Oklahoma head coach Bob Stoops,[67] was hired as Kentucky's head football coach in late 2012.[68] One of Stoops' first moves was hiring offensive coordinator Neal Brown, who brought back the "Air Raid" offense.[69] After nine months as the head coach of the Wildcats, Stoops and his staff signed the highest ranked recruiting class in program history.[70]

text: Stoops's first season at Kentucky was a struggle, as the Wildcats duplicated the 2–10 record from 2012.[71] Kentucky's wins in 2013 were over a winless Miami (OH) and FCS opponent Alabama State.[72][71] In Stoops's second season, the Wildcats broke a 17-game SEC losing streak when they beat Vanderbilt the fourth game into the season.[73] The Wildcats finished the 2014 season with a 5–7 record.[74] After the season, offensive coordinator Neal Brown left to take the head coaching job at Troy.[75] In 2015, Stoops's third season, the Wildcats duplicated their 5–7 record from 2014. They lost to Florida,[76] Auburn,[77] Mississippi State,[78] Tennessee,[79] Georgia,[80] Vanderbilt,[81] and Louisville,[82] and they defeated Louisiana-Lafayette,[83] South Carolina,[84] Missouri,[85] Eastern Kentucky[86] and Charlotte.[87]

text: On December 18, 2015, offensive coordinator Shannon Dawson, who was hired to replace Neal Brown, announced he would not return to the program for the 2016 season as the offensive coordinator, a result of the team's struggles over the previous few years.[88][89] In his place Kentucky hired Cincinnati offensive coordinator Eddie Gran as the assistant head coach of offense at Kentucky. Cincinnati quarterbacks coach Darin Hinshaw has also joined the UK staff as quarterbacks coach and co-offensive coordinator.[90][91] Kentucky began the 2016 season with a loss to Southern Miss by a score of 44–35, after blowing a 25-point lead.[92] Ironically, Shannon Dawson, who was fired by Kentucky as offensive coordinator just months earlier, had been hired to serve as Southern Miss' offensive coordinator.[93] Kentucky would finish 7–6 (4–4 SEC) on the season, which included snapping a five-game losing streak to archrival Louisville by a score of 41–38,[94] with a berth in the TaxSlayer Bowl, their first bowl berth since 2010, a game they lost to Georgia Tech by a score of 33–18.[95]

text: In the 2017-2018 season, the Wildcats opened the season with a victory over Southern Mississippi in Hattiesburg 24-17. The next week, the Wildcats defeated the Eastern Kentucky Colonels in their home opener at the newly renamed Kroger Field in Lexington. Following a road victory over the South Carolina Gamecocks, they failed to defeat the Florida Gators, who they have not defeated since 1986. This extended the longest losing streak in SEC history to 31 years. Responding to the criticized loss to Florida, the Wildcats defeated Eastern Michigan and Missouri at Kroger Field, improving their record to 5-1.

text: Following their bye week, the Kentucky Wildcats fell to ranked Mississippi State team in Starkville, Mississippi by a score of 45-7. However, the Wildcats improved to 6-2 by defeating the Tennessee Volunteers by a score of 29-26 at Kroger Field in Lexington, KY. The victory over Tennessee was Kentucky's second victory since 1984 over the Volunteers, and secured Kentucky in postseason eligiblity. This was followed by a loss to Ole Miss at home 37-34 on November 4th and a dominating road win over unranked Vanderbilt on November 11th, 44-21. The Wildcats face the 9-1 Georgia Bulldogs in Athens, GA on November 18th.

text: Bowl games[edit]

text: UK has played in 16 bowl games, compiling a record of 8–8. Note that in the table below, the year references the season, and not the actual date the game was played.

text:
Season
Bowl Game
Winner
Loser
Record

1947
Great Lakes Bowl
UK 24
Villanova 14
8–3

1949
Orange Bowl
Santa Clara 21
UK 13
9–3

1950
Sugar Bowl
UK 13
Oklahoma 7
11–1

1951
Cotton Bowl Classic
UK 20
TCU 7
8–4

1976
Peach Bowl
UK 21
North Carolina 0
9–3

1983
Hall of Fame Classic
West Virginia 20
UK 16
6–5–1

1984
Hall of Fame Classic
UK 20
Wisconsin 19
9–3

1993
Peach Bowl
Clemson 14
UK 13
6–6

1998
Outback Bowl
Penn State 26
UK 14
7–5

1999
Music City Bowl
Syracuse 20
UK 13
6–6

2006
Music City Bowl
UK 28
Clemson 20
8–5

2007
Music City Bowl
UK 35
Florida State 28
8–5

2008
Liberty Bowl
UK 25
East Carolina 19
7–6

2009
Music City Bowl
Clemson 21
UK 13
7–6

2010
BBVA Compass Bowl
Pittsburgh 27
UK 10
6–7

2016
TaxSlayer Bowl
Georgia Tech 33
UK 18
7–6

Totals
16

8–8

text: Current coaching staff[edit]

text:
Name
Position

Mark Stoops
Head Coach

Eddie Gran
Offensive Coordinator/Associate Head Coach, RB Coach

Matt House
Defensive Coordinator/Linebackers Coach

Vince Marrow
Tight Ends Coach/Recruiting Coordinator

Steve Clinkscale
Secondary Coach

Lamar Thomas
Wide Receivers Coach

Darin Hinshaw
Co-Offensive Coordinator, Quarterbacks Coach

John Schlarman
Offensive Line Coach

Derrick LeBlanc
Defensive Line Coach

Dean Hood
LB Coach/Special Teams Coordinator

text: Rivals[edit]

text: Louisville[edit]

text: First played in 1912, Louisville-Kentucky football series was revived in 1994 after the success of the basketball series that restarted in 1983. They played the first four games of the renewed series at Commonwealth Stadium (now Kroger Field) until Papa John's Cardinal Stadium (PJCS) was completed in 1997, at which time they began rotating the series between Louisville, Kentucky and Lexington, Kentucky. Kentucky leads the series at 15–14 but trails the modern series 14-9. Kentucky played Louisville in the Cardinals' first 4 seasons and twice in the 1920s, holding the Cardinals scoreless in all contests. Kentucky then left the SIAA in 1922 to become a charter member of the Southeastern Conference and limited its play of in-state schools. It would be 70 years before these two in-state rivals faced each other again.

text: In 2013, it was announced that the game would be moved to the final game of the season following Louisville's 2014 move to the ACC. This scheduling change fits with other end-of-year SEC vs. ACC rivalry games, such as Georgia vs. Georgia Tech, Florida vs. Florida State and South Carolina vs. Clemson.

text: Kentucky upset the #11 Louisville Cardinals 41-38 on November 26, 2016. The Wildcats were 27 point underdogs going into the game.

text: Tennessee[edit]

text: Tennessee and Kentucky have played each other 108 times over 114 years with Tennessee winning 75 games to 24 wins by Kentucky (.736). Tennessee has won the most games in Lexington, Kentucky with 35 wins to 14 by Kentucky (.702). Tennessee also has more wins than Kentucky in Knoxville, Tennessee with 45 wins to 10 (.787). Tennessee has the most wins in the series at Stoll Field with 19 wins to 11 Kentucky wins (.621). The Series is tied at 3 a piece at Baldwin Park. Tennessee leads the series at Neyland Stadium with 35 wins to 7 Kentucky wins (.792). Tennessee leads the series at Kroger Field with 17 wins to 3 Kentucky wins (.850). Like many college football rivalries, the Tennessee-Kentucky game had its own trophy for many years: a wooden beer barrel painted half blue and half orange. The trophy was awarded to the winner of the game every year from 1925 to 1997. The Barrel was introduced in 1925 by a group of former Kentucky students who wanted to create a material sign of supremacy for the rivalry. It was rolled onto the field that year with the words "Ice Water" painted on it to avoid any outcries over a beer keg symbolizing a college rivalry.

text: The barrel exchange was retired in 1998 after two Kentucky football players died in an alcohol-related crash.

text: Indiana[edit]

text: More known for its basketball rivalry, the Indiana-Kentucky series was played annually from 1987 until 2005 in what was known as the "Battle for the Bourbon Barrel" game. The series rotated between Bloomington, Indiana and Lexington, Kentucky and the two teams played for a trophy called the "Bourbon Barrel" from 1987 until both schools mutually agreed to retire the trophy in 1999 following the alcohol-related death of two Kentucky football players.[96] Indiana leads the series (18–17–1). The two haven't played since 2005.

text: Vanderbilt[edit]

text: Having started in 1896, the Kentucky-Vanderbilt football series has been played annually since 1953.[97] The two are divisional opponents in the SEC East. The series, which rotates between Nashville, Tennessee and Lexington, Kentucky, stands at 43–42–4 with Kentucky leading the series. The average score being Vanderbilt 17-Kentucky 15.6.[97]

text: Mississippi State[edit]

text: The Mississippi State-Kentucky series became a rivalry when the SEC assigned cross-divisional opponents. The Bulldogs (of the SEC West) and Wildcats (of the SEC East) were assigned to each other. They play every year which rotates between Lexington, Kentucky and Starkville, Mississippi. Mississippi State has won 8 of their last 10 vs. Kentucky. Mississippi State leads the series 23–22.

text: All-time record vs. current SEC schools[edit]

text:
Opponent
Won
Lost
Tied
Percentage
Streak
First
Last

Alabama
2
37
1
.063
Lost 6
1917
2016

Arkansas
4
3
0
.571
Lost 1
1998
2012

Auburn
6
26
1
.197
Lost 2
1934
2015

Florida
17
51
0
.254
Lost 31
1917
2017

Georgia
12
56
2
.188
Lost 6
1939
2016

LSU
16
40
1
.289
Lost 2
1949
2014

Mississippi State
22
23
0
.500
Won 1
1914
2016

Missouri
5
3
0
.625
Won 3
1965
2017

Mississippi
14
27
1
.345
Won 1
1944
2011

South Carolina
11
17
1
.397
Won 4
1937
2017

Tennessee
25
79
9
.261
Won 1
1893
2017

Texas A&M
1
1
0
.500
Lost 1
1952
1953

Vanderbilt
43
42
4
.506
Won 1
1896
2016

Totals
176
404
20
.310

text: Championships[edit]

text: National championships[edit]

text: Prior to the advent of the BCS in 1998, national champions were primarily chosen by a combination of national ranking systems and nation media poll rankings. During the last 142 years, there have been more than 30 selectors of national champions using polls, historical research and mathematical rating systems. Beginning in 1936, The Associated Press began the best-known and most widely circulated poll of sportswriters and broadcasters. Before 1936, national champions were determined by historical research and retroactive ratings and polls. It is important to remember that from 1936 to 1964, the Associated Press chose a "national champion" prior to bowl games.

text: The NCAA has never officially recognized a national champion from among the bowl coalition institutions, but in 2004 the NCAA commissioned Jeff Sagarin to use his computer model to retroactively determine the highest ranked teams for the years prior to the BCS. His champion for the 1950 season is Kentucky. The polls for the 1950 national champion, taken before the bowl games were played, list either Oklahoma (AP, Berryman, Helms, Litkenhous, UPI, Williamson), Princeton (Boand, Poling), or Tennessee (Billingsley, DeVold, Dunkel, Missouri,Don Faurot Football Research, National Championship Foundation, Sagarin (ELO-Chess)). Tennessee was the winner of the Cotton Bowl and the only team to beat Kentucky during the 1950 season. Oklahoma was named National Champion by AP and UPI Coaches' Poll, both which awarded their titles before the bowl games. Kentucky would go on to beat Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl. However, they are still not recognized as national champions for that year. [98]

text: Conference championships[edit]

text:
Season
Conference
Coach
Overall Record
Conference Record

1950
SEC
Paul "Bear" Bryant
11–1
5–1

1976
SEC
Fran Curci
9–3‡
5–1‡

Conference Titles:
2

 Denotes co-champions

text: ‡ Mississippi State forfeited their 1976 win over Kentucky, giving Kentucky an official 5–1 conference record and a share of the SEC title with Georgia.

text: Kentucky also finished the 1977 season with a 10–1 (6–0 SEC) record, but were not eligible for a share of the SEC championship or for postseason play due to NCAA probation.

text: All-Americans[edit]

text:
Player
Position
Year
Unanimous
Consensus
Selectors

Clyde Johnson
T
1942
No
No
AP

Bob Gain
T
1949
No
No
All-Players, NY Sun, NEA

Bob Gain
T
1950
Yes
Yes
AP, UPI, INS, Camp, NEA, CP, FWAA-Look, AAB, FD, NYNews

Babe Parilli
QB
1950
Yes
Yes
AP, INS, Camp, Colliers, NY News, Sporting News, AA

Babe Parilli
QB
1951
Yes
Yes
UP, INS, Camp, NEA, CP, AAB, NY News, All-Player

Doug Moseley
C
1951
No
No
AP, FWAA-Look

Steve Meilinger
DE
1952
No
No
AP, NEA, All-Player

Steve Meilinger
DE
1953
No
No
NEA, Colliers, AAB

Ray Correll
DG
1953
No
No
FWAA-Look, Chicago Tribun

Howard Schnellenberger
DE
1955
No
Yes
AP

Lou Michaels
OT
1956
No
Yes
UPI, NA, Camp, Colliers,NY News

Lou Michaels
OT
1957
No
Yes
AP, NEA, Camp, FWAA-Look, Coaches, NY News, Sporting News

Irv Goode
C
1961
No
No
Time

Herschel Turner
T
1963
No
No
Time

Sam Ball
T
1965
No
Yes
UPI, NEA, Camp, FWAA-Look, Coaches, Time, Sporting New

Rodger Bird
HB
1965
No
No
Time, NBC

Rick Norton
QB
1965
No
No
Time, NBC

Elmore Stephens
TE
1974
No
No
Time

Rick Nuzum
C
1974
No
No
NEA

Warrant Bryant
T
1976
No
No
Camp, Coaches

Art Still
DE
1977
No
Yes
AP, UPI, NEA, Coaches, FWAA, Camp, Sporting News, Football News

Mike Pfeifer
T
1989
No
No
Football News, Mizlou

Tim Couch
QB
1998
No
No
Camp, FWAA, AAF

James Whalen
TE
1999
No
Yes
AP, Camp, FWAA, AAFF, CNN/SI, CBS SportsLine

Derek Abney
KR
2002
Yes
Yes
AP, FWAA, Camp, Sporting News, ESPN, CBS SportsLine, CNN/SI, College Football News

Glenn Pakulak
P
2002
No
No
CBS SportsLine

Randall Cobb
WR
2010
No
No
AP

text: First Team All-SEC[edit]

text:
Year
Player
Position

1983
Duece Howerton
Running Back

1993
Marty Moore
Linebacker

1994
Melvin Johnson
Free Safety

1995
Moe Williams
Half Back

1997
John Schlarman
Offensive Guard

1998
Kris Comstock
Offensive Guard

1998
Tim Couch
Quarterback

1998
Craig Yeast
Wide Receiver

1999
Andy Smith
Punter

1999
Jeff Snedegar
Linebacker

1999
James Whalen
Tight End

2000
Derek Smith
Tight End

2000
Omar Smith
Offensive Tackle

2001
Derek Abney
Kick Returner

2001
Dennis Johnson
Defensive End

2001
Glenn Pakulak
Punter

2002
Derek Abney
Kick Returner

2002
Antonio Hall
Offensive Tackle

2002
Glenn Pakulak
Punter

2002
Artose Pinner
Running Back

2003
Derek Abney
Kick Returner

2003
Antonio Hall
Offensive Tackle

2005
Rafael Little
All-Purpose

2006
Keenan Burton
All-Purpose

2006
Jacob Tamme
Tight End

2006
Wesley Woodyard
Linebacker

2007
Jacob Tamme
Tight End

2007
Wesley Woodyard
Linebacker

2008
Micah Johnson
Linebacker

2008
Trevard Lindley
Defensive Back

2008
Tim Masthay
Punter

2009
Randall Cobb
All-Purpose

2010
Randall Cobb
All-Purpose

2010
Danny Trevathan
Linebacker

2011
Danny Trevathan
Linebacker

2014
Alvin Dupree
Defensive End

2014
Landon Foster
Punter

2016
Jon Toth
Center

text: Current players in the National Football League[edit]

text: The following is a list of Kentucky players in the NFL.

text:
Pos.
Name
Height
Weight
Hometown
Draft Year
Round
Overall
Current NFL Team

WR
Randall Cobb
5'11"
190 lbs.
Alcoa, TN
2011
2
64th
Green Bay

LB
Bud Dupree
6'4"
270 lbs.
Irwinton, GA
2015
1
22nd
Pittsburgh

LB
Josh Forrest
6'4"
240 lbs.
Paducah, KY
2016
6
190th
Seattle

DB
Winston Guy
6'1"
218 lbs.
Lexington, KY
2012
6
181st
Free Agent

WR
Steve Johnson
6'3"
210 lbs.
San Francisco, CA
2008
7
229th
Los Angeles Chargers

DT
Corey Peters
6'3"
295 lbs.
Louisville, KY
2010
3
83rd
Arizona

DE
Za'Darius Smith
6'6"
265 lbs.
Greenville, AL
2015
4
122nd
Baltimore

TE
Jacob Tamme
6'4"
220 lbs.
Danville, KY
2008
4
127th
Free Agent

LB
Danny Trevathan
6'1"
235 lbs.
Leesburg, FL
2012
6
188th
Chicago

OG
Larry Warford
6'3"
332 lbs.
Richmond, KY
2013
3
65th
New Orleans

LB
Avery Williamson
6'1"
238 lbs.
Milan, TN
2014
5
151st
Tennessee

LB
Wesley Woodyard
6'1"
230 lbs.
LaGrange, GA
2008
UD
–
Tennessee

text: Hall of famers[edit]

text: Pro[edit]

text:
Inductee
Position(s)
Class
Team(s), Years

George Blanda
Quarterback
Placekicker
1981
Chicago Bears, 1949, 1950–58
Baltimore Colts, 1950
Houston Oilers, 1960–66
Oakland Raiders, 1967–75

Dermontti Dawson
Center
2012
Pittsburgh Steelers, 1988–2000

text: College[edit]

text:
Inductee
Position(s)
Class
Years

Art Still
Defensive End
2015
1974–1977

Paul "Bear" Bryant
Head Coach
1986
1946–53

Jerry Claiborne
Head Coach
1999
1982–89

Bob Gain
Guard
Tackle
1980
1947–1950

Steve Meilinger
Defensive Line
2013
1951–53

Lou Michaels
Tackle
1992
1955–57

Babe Parilli
Quarterback
1982
1949–51

text: Individual award winners[edit]

text: Outland Trophy[edit]

text: Bob Gain – 1950

text: University of Kentucky 100th Anniversary Team[edit]

text: Chosen in 1990 by Kentucky Newspapers

text:
Lexington Herald-Leader
Offense
OE – Tom Hutchinson
OE – Steve Meilinger
OL – Sam Ball
OL – Warren Bryant
OL – Irv Goode
OL – Ray Correl
OL – Doug Mosely
QB – Babe Parilli
RB – Sonny Collins
RB – Rodger Bird
RB – Shipwreck Kelly
PK – Joe Worley
Defense
DE – Art Still
DT – Bob Gain
MG – Dave Roller
DT – Lou Michaels
DE – Jeff Van Note
LB – Joe Federspiel
LB – Jay Rhodemyer
DB – Paul Calhoun
DB – Jerry Claiborne
DB – Darryl Bishop
DB – Mike Siganos
KR – Dicky Lyons, Sr.

Louisville Courier-Journal
Offense
OE – Tom Hutchinson
OE – Steve Mellinger
OT – Sam Ball
OT – Warren Bryant
OG – Gene Donaldson
OG – Dermontti Dawson
OC – Jay Rhodemyer
QB – Babe Parilli
RB – Sonny Collins
RB – Bob Davis
RB – Mark Higgs
PK – Joe Worley
Defense
DL – Art Still
DL – Bob Gain
DL – Dave Correl
DL – Lou Michaels
DL – Jeff Van Note
LB – Joe Federspiel
LB – Jim Kovach
LB – Frank LeMaster
DB – Paul Calhoun
RB – Rodger Bird
DB – Mike Siganos
P – Ralph Kercheval

text: Retired numbers[edit]

text:
No. 21: Calvin Bird
No. 22: Mark Higgs

text: Future opponents and schedules[edit]

text: Conference and non-conference opponents[edit]

text: SEC West opponents[edit]

text: Kentucky plays Mississippi State as a permanent non-division opponent annually and rotates around the West division among the other six schools.[99]

text:
Year
Alabama
Auburn
Arkansas
LSU
Mississippi State
Mississippi
Texas A&M

2017

AWAY
HOME

2018

HOME

AWAY

2019

HOME

AWAY

2020

AWAY

HOME

2021

HOME
AWAY

2022

HOME
AWAY

2023
HOME

AWAY

2024

AWAY

HOME

2025

AWAY

HOME

text: Non-conference opponents[edit]

text: Announced schedules as of September 3, 2017

text:
2018
2019
2020

9/01 – Central Michigan
8/31 – Toledo
9/05 – Eastern Michigan

9/15 – Murray State
9/07 – at Eastern Michigan

11/17 – Middle Tennessee
11/23 – UT Martin

11/24 – at Louisville
11/30 – Louisville
11/28 – at Louisville

text: Schedules[edit]

text: 2018 schedule[edit]

text:
Date
Time
Opponent#
Rank#
Site
TV
Result
Attendance

September 1

Central Michigan*

Kroger Field • Lexington, KY

September 8

at Florida

Ben Hill Griffin Stadium • Gainesville, FL

September 15

Murray State*

Kroger Field • Lexington, KY

September 22

Mississippi State

Kroger Field • Lexington, KY

September 29

South Carolina

Kroger Field • Lexington, KY

October 6

at Texas A&M

Kyle Field • College Station, TX

October 20

Vanderbilt

Kroger Field • Lexington, KY

October 27

at Missouri

Faurot Field • Columbia, MO

November 3

Georgia

Kroger Field • Lexington, KY

November 10

at Tennessee

Neyland Stadium • Knoxville, TN

November 17

Middle Tennessee*

Kroger Field • Lexington, KY

November 24

at Louisville*

Papa John's Cardinal Stadium • Louisville, KY (Governor's Cup)

*Non-conference game. Homecoming. #Rankings from Coaches' Poll released prior to game. All times are in Eastern Time.


document_title: Ion channel

question_text: how many types of ion channels are there

text: Ion channel

text: Basic features[edit]

text: There are two distinctive features of ion channels that differentiate them from other types of ion transporter proteins:[3]

text:
The rate of ion transport through the channel is very high (often 106 ions per second or greater).
Ions pass through channels down their electrochemical gradient, which is a function of ion concentration and membrane potential, "downhill", without the input (or help) of metabolic energy (e.g. ATP, co-transport mechanisms, or active transport mechanisms).

text: Ion channels are located within the membrane of all excitable cells,[1] and of many intracellular organelles. They are often described as narrow, water-filled tunnels that allow only ions of a certain size and/or charge to pass through. This characteristic is called selective permeability. The archetypal channel pore is just one or two atoms wide at its narrowest point and is selective for specific species of ion, such as sodium or potassium. However, some channels may be permeable to the passage of more than one type of ion, typically sharing a common charge: positive (cations) or negative (anions). Ions often move through the segments of the channel pore in single file nearly as quickly as the ions move through free solution. In many ion channels, passage through the pore is governed by a "gate", which may be opened or closed in response to chemical or electrical signals, temperature, or mechanical force.

text: Ion channels are integral membrane proteins, typically formed as assemblies of several individual proteins. Such "multi-subunit" assemblies usually involve a circular arrangement of identical or homologous proteins closely packed around a water-filled pore through the plane of the membrane or lipid bilayer.[4][5] For most voltage-gated ion channels, the pore-forming subunit(s) are called the α subunit, while the auxiliary subunits are denoted β, γ, and so on.

text: Biological role[edit]

text: Because channels underlie the nerve impulse and because "transmitter-activated" channels mediate conduction across the synapses, channels are especially prominent components of the nervous system. Indeed, numerous toxins that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails, and others) work by modulating ion channel conductance and/or kinetics. In addition, ion channels are key components in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells, such as cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle contraction, epithelial transport of nutrients and ions, T-cell activation and pancreatic beta-cell insulin release. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a frequent target.[6][7][8]

text: Diversity[edit]

text: There are over 300 types of ion channels just in the cells of the inner ear.[9] Ion channels may be classified by the nature of their gating, the species of ions passing through those gates, the number of gates (pores) and localization of proteins.

text: Further heterogeneity of ion channels arises when channels with different constitutive subunits give rise to a specific kind of current.[10] Absence or mutation of one or more of the contributing types of channel subunits can result in loss of function and, potentially, underlie neurologic diseases.

text: Classification by gating[edit]

text: Ion channels may be classified by gating, i.e. what opens and closes the channels. Voltage-gated ion channels open or close depending on the voltage gradient across the plasma membrane, while ligand-gated ion channels open or close depending on binding of ligands to the channel.[citation needed]

text: Voltage-gated[edit]

text: Voltage-gated ion channels open and close in response to membrane potential.

text:
Voltage-gated sodium channels: This family contains at least 9 members and is largely responsible for action potential creation and propagation. The pore-forming α subunits are very large (up to 4,000 amino acids) and consist of four homologous repeat domains (I-IV) each comprising six transmembrane segments (S1-S6) for a total of 24 transmembrane segments. The members of this family also coassemble with auxiliary β subunits, each spanning the membrane once. Both α and β subunits are extensively glycosylated.
Voltage-gated calcium channels: This family contains 10 members, though these members are known to coassemble with α2δ, β, and γ subunits. These channels play an important role in both linking muscle excitation with contraction as well as neuronal excitation with transmitter release. The α subunits have an overall structural resemblance to those of the sodium channels and are equally large.

Cation channels of sperm: This small family of channels, normally referred to as Catsper channels, is related to the two-pore channels and distantly related to TRP channels.

Voltage-gated potassium channels (KV): This family contains almost 40 members, which are further divided into 12 subfamilies. These channels are known mainly for their role in repolarizing the cell membrane following action potentials. The α subunits have six transmembrane segments, homologous to a single domain of the sodium channels. Correspondingly, they assemble as tetramers to produce a functioning channel.
Some transient receptor potential channels: This group of channels, normally referred to simply as TRP channels, is named after their role in Drosophila phototransduction. This family, containing at least 28 members, is incredibly diverse in its method of activation. Some TRP channels seem to be constitutively open, while others are gated by voltage, intracellular Ca2+, pH, redox state, osmolarity, and mechanical stretch. These channels also vary according to the ion(s) they pass, some being selective for Ca2+ while others are less selective, acting as cation channels. This family is subdivided into 6 subfamilies based on homology: classical (TRPC), vanilloid receptors (TRPV), melastatin (TRPM), polycystins (TRPP), mucolipins (TRPML), and ankyrin transmembrane protein 1 (TRPA).
Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels: The opening of these channels is due to hyperpolarization rather than the depolarization required for other cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. These channels are also sensitive to the cyclic nucleotides cAMP and cGMP, which alter the voltage sensitivity of the channel’s opening. These channels are permeable to the monovalent cations K+ and Na+. There are 4 members of this family, all of which form tetramers of six-transmembrane α subunits. As these channels open under hyperpolarizing conditions, they function as pacemaking channels in the heart, particularly the SA node.
Voltage-gated proton channels: Voltage-gated proton channels open with depolarization, but in a strongly pH-sensitive manner. The result is that these channels open only when the electrochemical gradient is outward, such that their opening will only allow protons to leave cells. Their function thus appears to be acid extrusion from cells. Another important function occurs in phagocytes (e.g. eosinophils, neutrophils, macrophages) during the "respiratory burst." When bacteria or other microbes are engulfed by phagocytes, the enzyme NADPH oxidase assembles in the membrane and begins to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that help kill bacteria. NADPH oxidase is electrogenic, moving electrons across the membrane, and proton channels open to allow proton flux to balance the electron movement electrically.

text: Ligand-gated[edit]

text: Also known as ionotropic receptors, this group of channels open in response to specific ligand molecules binding to the extracellular domain of the receptor protein. Ligand binding causes a conformational change in the structure of the channel protein that ultimately leads to the opening of the channel gate and subsequent ion flux across the plasma membrane. Examples of such channels include the cation-permeable "nicotinic" Acetylcholine receptor, ionotropic glutamate-gated receptors, acid sensing ion channels (ASICs),[11] ATP-gated P2X receptors, and the anion-permeable γ-aminobutyric acid-gated GABAA receptor.

text: Ion channels activated by second messengers may also be categorized in this group, although ligands and second messengers are otherwise distinguished from each other.

text: Other gating[edit]

text: Gating also includes activation and inactivation by second messengers from the inside of the cell membrane – rather than from outside the cell, as in the case for ligands.

text:
Some potassium channels:

Inward-rectifier potassium channels: These channels allow potassium ions to flow into the cell in an "inwardly rectifying" manner: potassium flows more efficiently into than out of the cell. This family is composed of 15 official and 1 unofficial members and is further subdivided into 7 subfamilies based on homology. These channels are affected by intracellular ATP, PIP2, and G-protein βγ subunits. They are involved in important physiological processes such as pacemaker activity in the heart, insulin release, and potassium uptake in glial cells. They contain only two transmembrane segments, corresponding to the core pore-forming segments of the KV and KCa channels. Their α subunits form tetramers.
Calcium-activated potassium channels: This family of channels is activated by intracellular Ca2+ and contains 8 members.
Two-pore-domain potassium channels: This family of 15 members form what are known as leak channels, and they display Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (open) rectification.

Light-gated channels like channelrhodopsin are directly opened by photons.
Mechanosensitive ion channels open under the influence of stretch, pressure, shear, and displacement.
Cyclic nucleotide-gated channels: This superfamily of channels contains two families: the cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels and the hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels. This grouping is functional rather than evolutionary.

Cyclic nucleotide-gated channels: This family of channels is characterized by activation by either intracellular cAMP or cGMP. These channels are primarily permeable to monovalent cations such as K+ and Na+. They are also permeable to Ca2+, though it acts to close them. There are 6 members of this family, which is divided into 2 subfamilies.
Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels

Temperature-gated channels: Members of the transient receptor potential ion channel superfamily, such as TRPV1 or TRPM8, are opened either by hot or cold temperatures.

text: Classification by type of ions[edit]

text:
Chloride channels: This superfamily of channels consists of approximately 13 members. They include ClCs, CLICs, Bestrophins and CFTRs. These channels are non-selective for small anions; however chloride is the most abundant anion, and hence they are known as chloride channels.
Potassium channels

Voltage-gated potassium channels e.g., Kvs, Kirs etc.
Calcium-activated potassium channels e.g., BKCa or MaxiK, SK, etc.
Inward-rectifier potassium channels
Two-pore-domain potassium channels: This family of 15 members form what is known as leak channels, and they display Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (open) rectification.

Sodium channels

Voltage-gated sodium channels (NaVs)
Epithelial sodium channels (ENaCs)[12]

Calcium channels (CaVs)
Proton channels

Voltage-gated proton channels

Non-selective cation channels: These non-selectively allow many types of cations, mainly Na+, K+ and Ca2+, through the channel.

Most transient receptor potential channels

text: Classification by cellular localization[edit]

text: Ion channels are also classified according to their subcellular localization. The plasma membrane accounts for around 2% of the total membrane in the cell, whereas intracellular organelles contain 98% of the cell's membrane. The major intracellular compartments are endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria. On the basis of localization, ion channels are classified as:

text:
Plasma membrane channels

Examples: Voltage-gated potassium channels (Kv), Sodium channels (Nav), Calcium channels (Cav) and Chloride channels (ClC)

Intracellular channels, which are further classified into different organelles

Endoplasmic reticulum channels: RyR, SERCA, ORAi
Mitochondrial channels: mPTP, KATP, BK, IK, CLIC5, Kv7.4 at the inner membrane and VDAC and CLIC4 as outer membrane channels.

text: Other classifications[edit]

text: There are other criteria for ion channel classification, including multiple pores and transient potentials.

text: Almost all ion channels have a single pore. However, there are also those with two pores:

text: Two-pore channels: This two-member family is thought to form cation-selective ion channels. They appear to contain two KV-style six-transmembrane domains, suggesting that they form a dimer in the membrane. These channels are related to cation channels of sperm and, more distantly, TRP channels.

text: There are channels that are classified by the duration of the response to stimuli:

text: Transient receptor potential channels: This group of channels, normally referred to simply as TRP channels, is named after their role in Drosophila visual phototransduction. This family, containing at least 28 members, is diverse in its mechanisms of activation. Some TRP channels remain constitutively open, while others are gated by voltage, intracellular Ca2+, pH, redox state, osmolarity, and mechanical stretch. These channels also vary according to the ion(s) they pass, some being selective for Ca2+ while others are less selective cation channels. This family is subdivided into 6 subfamilies based on homology: canonical TRP (TRPC), vanilloid receptors (TRPV), melastatin (TRPM), polycystins (TRPP), mucolipins (TRPML), and ankyrin transmembrane protein 1 (TRPA).

text: Detailed structure[edit]

text: Channels differ with respect to the ion they let pass (for example, Na+, K+, Cl−), the ways in which they may be regulated, the number of subunits of which they are composed and other aspects of structure.[13] Channels belonging to the largest class, which includes the voltage-gated channels that underlie the nerve impulse, consists of four subunits with six transmembrane helices each. On activation, these helices move about and open the pore. Two of these six helices are separated by a loop that lines the pore and is the primary determinant of ion selectivity and conductance in this channel class and some others. The existence and mechanism for ion selectivity was first postulated in the 1960s by Clay Armstrong.[14] He suggested that the pore lining could efficiently replace the water molecules that normally shield potassium ions, but that sodium ions were too small to allow such shielding, and therefore could not pass through. This mechanism was finally confirmed when the structure of the channel was elucidated. The channel subunits of one such other class, for example, consist of just this "P" loop and two transmembrane helices. The determination of their molecular structure by Roderick MacKinnon using X-ray crystallography won a share of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

text: Because of their small size and the difficulty of crystallizing integral membrane proteins for X-ray analysis, it is only very recently that scientists have been able to directly examine what channels "look like." Particularly in cases where the crystallography required removing channels from their membranes with detergent, many researchers regard images that have been obtained as tentative. An example is the long-awaited crystal structure of a voltage-gated potassium channel, which was reported in May 2003.[15][16] One inevitable ambiguity about these structures relates to the strong evidence that channels change conformation as they operate (they open and close, for example), such that the structure in the crystal could represent any one of these operational states. Most of what researchers have deduced about channel operation so far they have established through electrophysiology, biochemistry, gene sequence comparison and mutagenesis.

text: Channels can have single (CLICs) to multiple transmembrane (K channels, P2X receptors, Na channels) domains which span plasma membrane to form pores. Pore can determine the selectivity of the channel. Gate can be formed either inside or outside the pore region.

text: Ion channel blockers[edit]

text: A variety of inorganic and organic molecules can modulate ion channel activity and conductance. Some commonly used blockers include:

text:
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), used by puffer fish and some types of newts for defense. It blocks sodium channels.
Saxitoxin is produced by a dinoflagellate also known as "red tide". It blocks voltage-dependent sodium channels.
Conotoxin is used by cone snails to hunt prey.
Lidocaine and Novocaine belong to a class of local anesthetics which block sodium ion channels.
Dendrotoxin is produced by mamba snakes, and blocks potassium channels.
Iberiotoxin is produced by the Buthus tamulus (Eastern Indian scorpion) and blocks potassium channels.
Heteropodatoxin is produced by Heteropoda venatoria (brown huntsman spider or laya) and blocks potassium channels.

text: Diseases[edit]

text: There are a number of disorders which disrupt normal functioning of ion channels and have disastrous consequences for the organism. Genetic and autoimmune disorders of ion channels and their modifiers are known as channelopathies. See Category:Channelopathies for a full list.

text:
Shaker gene mutations cause a defect in the voltage gated ion channels, slowing down the repolarization of the cell.
Equine hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis as well as human hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis (HyperPP) are caused by a defect in voltage-dependent sodium channels.
Paramyotonia congenita (PC) and potassium-aggravated myotonias (PAM)
Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+)
Episodic ataxia (EA), characterized by sporadic bouts of severe discoordination with or without myokymia, and can be provoked by stress, startle, or heavy exertion such as exercise.
Familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM)
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 13
Long QT syndrome is a ventricular arrhythmia syndrome caused by mutations in one or more of presently ten different genes, most of which are potassium channels and all of which affect cardiac repolarization.
Brugada syndrome is another ventricular arrhythmia caused by voltage-gated sodium channel gene mutations.
Cystic fibrosis is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which is a chloride channel.
Mucolipidosis type IV is caused by mutations in the gene encoding the TRPML1 channel
Mutations in and overexpression of ion channels are important events in cancer cells. In Glioblastoma multiforme, upregulation of gBK potassium channels and ClC-3 chloride channels enables glioblastoma cells to migrate within the brain, which may lead to the diffuse growth patterns of these tumors.[17]

text: History[edit]

text: The fundamental properties of currents mediated by ion channels were analyzed by the British biophysicists Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley as part of their Nobel Prize-winning research on the action potential, published in 1952. They built on the work of other physiologists, such as Cole and Baker's research into voltage-gated membrane pores from 1941.[18][19] The existence of ion channels was confirmed in the 1970s by Bernard Katz and Ricardo Miledi using noise analysis. It was then shown more directly with an electrical recording technique known as the "patch clamp", which led to a Nobel Prize to Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, the technique's inventors. Hundreds if not thousands of researchers continue to pursue a more detailed understanding of how these proteins work. In recent years the development of automated patch clamp devices helped to increase significantly the throughput in ion channel screening.

text: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2003 was awarded to two American scientists: Roderick MacKinnon for his studies on the physico-chemical properties of ion channel structure and function, including x-ray crystallographic structure studies, and Peter Agre for his similar work on aquaporins.[20]

text: Culture[edit]

text: Roderick MacKinnon commissioned Birth of an Idea, a 5-foot (1.5 m) tall sculpture based on the KcsA potassium channel.[21] The artwork contains a wire object representing the channel's interior with a blown glass object representing the main cavity of the channel structure.