document_title: State (polity)

question_text: who used the term state in modern sense for the first time

text: State (polity)

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word state and its cognates in some other European languages (stato in Italian, estado in Spanish and Portuguese, état in French, Staat in German) ultimately derive from the Latin word status, meaning "condition, circumstances".

text: The English noun state in the generic sense "condition, circumstances" predates the political sense. It is introduced to Middle English c. 1200 both from Old French and directly from Latin.

text: With the revival of the Roman law in 14th-century Europe, the term came to refer to the legal standing of persons (such as the various "estates of the realm" – noble, common, and clerical), and in particular the special status of the king. The highest estates, generally those with the most wealth and social rank, were those that held power.The word also had associations with Roman ideas (dating back to Cicero) about the "status rei publicae", the "condition of public matters". In time, the word lost its reference to particular social groups and became associated with the legal order of the entire society and the apparatus of its enforcement.[3]

text:
The early 16th-century works of Machiavelli (especially The Prince) played a central role in popularizing the use of the word "state" in something similar to its modern sense.[4]
The contrasting of church and state still dates to the 16th century.
The North American colonies were called "states" as early as the 1630s.
The expression L'Etat, c'est moi ("I am the State") attributed to Louis XIV of France is probably apocryphal, recorded in the late 18th century.[5]

text: Definition issues[edit]

text: There is no academic consensus on the most appropriate definition of the state.[6] The term "state" refers to a set of different, but interrelated and often overlapping, theories about a certain range of political phenomena.[7] The act of defining the term can be seen as part of an ideological conflict, because different definitions lead to different theories of state function, and as a result validate different political strategies.[8] According to Jeffrey and Painter, "if we define the 'essence' of the state in one place or era, we are liable to find that in another time or space something which is also understood to be a state has different 'essential' characteristics".[9]

text: The most commonly used definition is Max Weber's,[10][11][12][13][14] which describes the state as a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain territory.[1][2]  General categories of state institutions include administrative bureaucracies, legal systems, and military or religious organizations.[15]

text: Another commonly accepted definition of the state is the one given at the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States in 1933. It defined state as a space that possess the following : A permanent population, a defined territory and a government that is capable of maintaining effective control over the corresponding territory and of conducting International relations with other states.[16]

text: According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a state is "a. an organized political community under one government; a commonwealth; a nation. b. such a community forming part of a federal republic, esp the United States of America".[17]

text: Confounding the definition problem is that "state" and "government" are often used as synonyms in common conversation and even some academic discourse. According to this definition schema, the states are nonphysical persons of international law, governments are organizations of people.[18] The relationship between a government and its state is one of representation and authorized agency.[19]

text: Types of states[edit]

text: States may be classified by Political philosophers as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state.[17][20] Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union. A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation.[21] (Compare confederacies or confederations such as Switzerland.) Such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government.[17]

text:
One can commonly and sometimes readily (but not necessarily usefully) classify states according to their apparent make-up or focus. The concept of the nation-state, theoretically or ideally co-terminous with a "nation", became very popular by the 20th century in Europe, but occurred rarely elsewhere or at other times. In contrast, some states have sought to make a virtue of their multi-ethnic or multi-national character (Hapsburg Austria-Hungary, for example, or the Soviet Union), and have emphasised unifying characteristics such as autocracy, monarchical legitimacy, or ideology. Imperial states have sometimes promoted notions of racial superiority.[22]
Other states may bring ideas of commonality and inclusiveness to the fore: note the res publica of ancient Rome and the Rzeczpospolita of Poland-Lithuania which finds echoes in the modern-day republic. The concept of temple states centred on religious shrines occurs in some discussions of the ancient world.[23]
Relatively small city-states, once a relatively common and often successful form of polity in the days before folk[vague] worried about failed states,[24]
have become rarer and comparatively less prominent in modern times,[25] although a number of them survive as federated states, like the present day German city-states, or as otherwise autonomous entities with limited sovereignty, like Hong Kong, Gibraltar and Ceuta. To some extent, urban secession, the creation of a new city-state (sovereign or federated), continues to be discussed in the early 21st century in cities such as London.

text: The state and government[edit]

text: A state can be distinguished from a government. The government is the particular group of people, the administrative bureaucracy that controls the state apparatus at a given time.[26][27][28] That is, governments are the means through which state power is employed. States are served by a continuous succession of different governments.[28] States are immaterial and nonphysical social objects, whereas governments are groups of people with certain coercive powers.[29]

text: Each successive government is composed of a specialized and privileged body of individuals, who monopolize political decision-making, and are separated by status and organization from the population as a whole.

text: States and nation-states[edit]

text: States can also be distinguished from the concept of a "nation", where "nation" refers to a cultural-political community of people.  A nation-state refers to a situation where a single ethnicity is associated with a specific state.

text: The state and civil society[edit]

text:
In the classical thought, the state was identified with both political society and civil society as a form of political community, while the modern thought distinguished the nation state as a political society from civil society as a form of economic society.[30]
Thus in the modern thought the state is contrasted with civil society.[31][32][33]

text: The man versus the state[edit]

text: Antonio Gramsci believed that civil society is the primary locus of political activity because it is where all forms of "identity formation, ideological struggle, the activities of intellectuals, and the construction of hegemony take place." and that civil society was the nexus connecting the economic and political sphere. Arising out of the collective actions of civil society is what Gramsci calls "political society", which Gramsci differentiates from the notion of the state as a polity. He stated that politics was not a "one-way process of political management" but, rather, that the activities of civil organizations conditioned the activities of political parties and state institutions, and were conditioned by them in turn.[34][35] Louis Althusser argued that civil organizations such as church, schools, and the family are part of an "ideological state apparatus" which complements the "repressive state apparatus" (such as police and military) in reproducing social relations.[36][37][38]

text: Jürgen Habermas spoke of a public sphere that was distinct from both the economic and political sphere.[39]

text: Given the role that many social groups have in the development of public policy, and the extensive connections between state bureaucracies and other institutions, it has become increasingly difficult to identify the boundaries of the state. Privatization, nationalization, and the creation of new regulatory bodies also change the boundaries of the state in relation to society. Often the nature of quasi-autonomous organizations is unclear, generating debate among political scientists on whether they are part of the state or civil society. Some political scientists thus prefer to speak of policy networks and decentralized governance in modern societies rather than of state bureaucracies and direct state control over policy.[40]

text: Theories of state function[edit]

text: Most political theories of the state can roughly be classified into two categories. The first are known as "liberal" or "conservative" theories, which treat capitalism as a given, and then concentrate on the function of states in capitalist society. These theories tend to see the state as a neutral entity separated from society and the economy. Marxist theories on the other hand, see politics as intimately tied in with economic relations, and emphasize the relation between economic power and political power. They see the state as a partisan instrument that primarily serves the interests of the upper class.[28]

text: Anarchist[edit]

text: Anarchism is a political philosophy which considers the state immoral, unnecessary, and harmful and instead promotes a stateless society, or anarchy.

text: Anarchists believe that the state is inherently an instrument of domination and repression, no matter who is in control of it. Anarchists note that the state possesses the monopoly on the legal use of violence. Unlike Marxists, anarchists believe that revolutionary seizure of state power should not be a political goal. They believe instead that the state apparatus should be completely dismantled, and an alternative set of social relations created, which are not based on state power at all.[41][42]

text: Various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the State and political power as the Beast in the Book of Revelation.[43][44]

text: Marxist perspective[edit]

text: Marx and Engels were clear in that the communist goal was a classless society in which the state would have "withered away".[45] Their views are scattered throughout the Marx/Engels Collected Works and address past or the then extant state forms from an analytical or tactical viewpoint, not future social forms, speculation about which is generally anathema to groups considering themselves Marxist but who, not having conquered the existing state power(s) are not in the situation of supplying the institutional form of an actual society. To the extent that it makes sense, there is no single "Marxist theory of state", but rather many different "Marxist" theories that have been developed by adherents of Marxism.[46][47][48]

text: Marx's early writings portrayed the state as "parasitic", built upon the superstructure of the economy, and working against the public interest. He also wrote that the state mirrors class relations in society in general, acts as a regulator and repressor of class struggle, and acts as a tool of political power and domination for the ruling class.[49] The Communist Manifesto claimed that the state is nothing more than "a committee for managing the common affairs of the bourgeoisie.[46]

text: For Marxist theorists, the role of the non-socialist state is determined by its function in the global capitalist order. Ralph Miliband argued that the ruling class uses the state as its instrument to dominate society by virtue of the interpersonal ties between state officials and economic elites. For Miliband, the state is dominated by an elite that comes from the same background as the capitalist class. State officials therefore share the same interests as owners of capital and are linked to them through a wide array of social, economic, and political ties.[50]

text: Gramsci's theories of state emphasized that the state is only one of the institutions in society that helps maintain the hegemony of the ruling class, and that state power is bolstered by the ideological domination of the institutions of civil society, such as churches, schools, and mass media.[51]

text: Pluralism[edit]

text: Pluralists view society as a collection of individuals and groups, who are competing for political power. They then view the state as a neutral body that simply enacts the will of whichever groups dominate the electoral process.[52] Within the pluralist tradition, Robert Dahl developed the theory of the state as a neutral arena for contending interests or its agencies as simply another set of interest groups. With power competitively arranged in society, state policy is a product of recurrent bargaining. Although pluralism recognizes the existence of inequality, it asserts that all groups have an opportunity to pressure the state. The pluralist approach suggests that the modern democratic state's actions are the result of pressures applied by a variety of organized interests. Dahl called this kind of state a polyarchy.[53]

text: Pluralism has been challenged on the ground that it is not supported by empirical evidence. Citing surveys showing that the large majority of people in high leadership positions are members of the wealthy upper class, critics of pluralism claim that the state serves the interests of the upper class rather than equitably serving the interests of all social groups.[54][55]

text: Contemporary critical perspectives[edit]

text: Jürgen Habermas believed that the base-superstructure framework, used by many Marxist theorists to describe the relation between the state and the economy, was overly simplistic. He felt that the modern state plays a large role in structuring the economy, by regulating economic activity and being a large-scale economic consumer/producer, and through its redistributive welfare state activities. Because of the way these activities structure the economic framework, Habermas felt that the state cannot be looked at as passively responding to economic class interests.[56][57][58]

text: Michel Foucault believed that modern political theory was too state-centric, saying "Maybe, after all, the state is no more than a composite reality and a mythologized abstraction, whose importance is a lot more limited than many of us think." He thought that political theory was focusing too much on abstract institutions, and not enough on the actual practices of government. In Foucault's opinion, the state had no essence. He believed that instead of trying to understand the activities of governments by analyzing the properties of the state (a reified abstraction), political theorists should be examining changes in the practice of government to understand changes in the nature of the state.[59][60][61] Foucault argues that it is technology that has created and made the state so elusive and successful instead of looking at the state as something to be toppled we should look at the state as technological manifestation or system with many heads; Foucault argues instead of something to be overthrown as in the sense of the Marxist and Anarchist understanding of the state. Every single scientific technological advance has come to the service of the state Foucault argues and it is with the emergence of the Mathematical sciences and essentially the formation of Mathematical statistics that you get a understanding of the complex technology of producing how the modern state was so successfully created. The nation (Nation state) wasn't an historical accident insist Foucault but a deliberate production in which the modern state had to now manage coincidentally with the emerging practice of the Police (Cameral science) 'allowing' the population to now 'come in' into jus gentium and civitas (Civil society) after deliberately being excluded for several millennia.[62] Democracy wasn't (the newly formed voting franchise) as is always painted by both political revolutionaries and political philosophers as a cry for political freedom or wanting to be accepted by the 'ruling elite', Foucault insists, but was a part of a skilled endeavour of switching over new technology such as; Translatio imperii, Plenitudo potestatis and extra Ecclesiam nulla salus readily available from the past Medieval period, into mass persuasion for the future industrial 'political' population(deception over the population) in which the political population was now asked to insist upon itself “the president must be elected”. Where these political symbol agents, represented by the pope and the president are now democratised. Foucault calls these new forms of technology Biopower[63][64][62] and form part of our political inheritance which he calls Biopolitics.

text: Heavily influenced by Gramsci, Nicos Poulantzas, a Greek neo-Marxist theorist argued that capitalist states do not always act on behalf of the ruling class, and when they do, it is not necessarily the case because state officials consciously strive to do so, but because the 'structural' position of the state is configured in such a way to ensure that the long-term interests of capital are always dominant. Poulantzas' main contribution to the Marxist literature on the state was the concept of 'relative autonomy' of the state. While Poulantzas' work on 'state autonomy' has served to sharpen and specify a great deal of Marxist literature on the state, his own framework came under criticism for its 'structural functionalism'.[citation needed]

text: State autonomy (institutionalism)[edit]

text: State autonomy theorists believe that the state is an entity that is impervious to external social and economic influence, and has interests of its own.[65]

text: "New institutionalist" writings on the state, such as the works of Theda Skocpol, suggest that state actors are to an important degree autonomous. In other words, state personnel have interests of their own, which they can and do pursue independently of (at times in conflict with) actors in society. Since the state controls the means of coercion, and given the dependence of many groups in civil society on the state for achieving any goals they may espouse, state personnel can to some extent impose their own preferences on civil society.[66]

text: Theories of state legitimacy[edit]

text: States generally rely on a claim to some form of political legitimacy in order to maintain domination over their subjects.[67][68][69]

text: Divine right of kings[edit]

text: The rise of the modern day state system was closely related to changes in political thought, especially concerning the changing understanding of legitimate state power and control. Early modern defenders of absolutism (Absolute monarchy), such as Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin undermined the doctrine of the divine right of kings by arguing that the power of kings should be justified by reference to the people. Hobbes in particular went further to argue that political power should be justified with reference to the individual(Hobbes wrote in the time of the English Civil war), not just to the people understood collectively. Both Hobbes and Bodin thought they were defending the power of kings, not advocating for democracy, but their arguments about the nature of sovereignty were fiercely resisted by more traditional defenders of the power of kings, such as Sir Robert Filmer in England, who thought that such defenses ultimately opened the way to more democratic claims.[citation needed]

text: Rational-legal authority[edit]

text: Max Weber identified three main sources of political legitimacy in his works. The first, legitimacy based on traditional grounds is derived from a belief that things should be as they have been in the past, and that those who defend these traditions have a legitimate claim to power. The second, legitimacy based on charismatic leadership is devotion to a leader or group that is viewed as exceptionally heroic or virtuous. The third is rational-legal authority, whereby legitimacy is derived from the belief that a certain group has been placed in power in a legal manner, and that their actions are justifiable according to a specific code of written laws. Weber believed that the modern state is characterized primarily by appeals to rational-legal authority.[70][71][72]

text: History[edit]

text: The earliest forms of the state emerged whenever it became possible to centralize power in a durable way. Agriculture and writing are almost everywhere associated with this process: agriculture because it allowed for the emergence of a social class of people who did not have to spend most of their time providing for their own subsistence, and writing (or an equivalent of writing, like Inca quipus) because it made possible the centralization of vital information.[73]

text: The first known states were created in the Fertile Crescent, India, China, Mesoamerica, the Andes, and others, but it is only in relatively modern times that states have almost completely displaced alternative "stateless" forms of political organization of societies all over the planet.[74] Roving bands of hunter-gatherers and even fairly sizable and complex tribal societies based on herding or agriculture have existed without any full-time specialized state organization, and these "stateless" forms of political organization have in fact prevailed for all of the prehistory and much of the history of the human species and civilization.[74]

text: Initially states emerged over territories built by conquest in which one culture, one set of ideals and one set of laws have been imposed by force or threat over diverse nations by a civilian and military bureaucracy.[74] Currently, that is not always the case and there are multinational states, federated states and autonomous areas within states.

text: Since the late 19th century, virtually the entirety of the world's inhabitable land has been parcelled up into areas with more or less definite borders claimed by various states. Earlier, quite large land areas had been either unclaimed or uninhabited, or inhabited by nomadic peoples who were not organised as states. However, even within present-day states there are vast areas of wilderness, like the Amazon rainforest, which are uninhabited or inhabited solely or mostly by indigenous people (and some of them remain uncontacted). Also, there are states which do not hold de facto control over all of their claimed territory or where this control is challenged. Currently the international community comprises around 200 sovereign states, the vast majority of which are represented in the United Nations.[citation needed]

text: Pre-historic stateless societies[edit]

text: For most of human history, people have lived in stateless societies, characterized by a lack of concentrated authority, and the absence of large inequalities in economic and political power.

text: The anthropologist Tim Ingold writes:

text: It is not enough to observe, in a now rather dated anthropological idiom, that hunter gatherers live in 'stateless societies', as though their social lives were somehow lacking or unfinished, waiting to be completed by the evolutionary development of a state apparatus. Rather, the principal of their socialty, as Pierre Clastres has put it, is fundamentally against the state.[75]

text: The Neolithic period[edit]

text: During the Neolithic period, human societies underwent major cultural and economic changes, including the development of agriculture, the formation of sedentary societies and fixed settlements, increasing population densities, and the use of pottery and more complex tools.[76][77]

text: Sedentary agriculture led to the development of property rights, domestication of plants and animals, and larger family sizes. It also provided the basis for the centralized state form[78] by producing a large surplus of food, which created a more complex division of labor by enabling people to specialize in tasks other than food production.[79] Early states were characterized by highly stratified societies, with a privileged and wealthy ruling class that was subordinate to a monarch. The ruling classes began to differentiate themselves through forms of architecture and other cultural practices that were different from those of the subordinate laboring classes.[80]

text: In the past, it was suggested that the centralized state was developed to administer large public works systems (such as irrigation systems) and to regulate complex economies. However, modern archaeological and anthropological evidence does not support this thesis, pointing to the existence of several non-stratified and politically decentralized complex societies.[81]

text: The state in ancient Eurasia[edit]

text: Mesopotamia is generally considered to be the location of the earliest civilization or complex society, meaning that it contained cities, full-time division of labor, social concentration of wealth into capital, unequal distribution of wealth, ruling classes, community ties based on residency rather than kinship, long distance trade, monumental architecture, standardized forms of art and culture, writing, and mathematics and science.[82] It was the world's first literate civilization, and formed the first sets of written laws.[83][84]

text: The state in classical antiquity[edit]

text: Although state-forms existed before the rise of the Ancient Greek empire, the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of religious myths.[85]

text: Several important political innovations of classical antiquity came from the Greek city-states and the Roman Republic. The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted citizenship rights to their free population, and in Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history.

text: The feudal state[edit]

text: During Medieval times in Europe, the state was organized on the principle of feudalism, and the relationship between lord and vassal became central to social organization. Feudalism led to the development of greater social hierarchies.[86]

text: The formalization of the struggles over taxation between the monarch and other elements of society (especially the nobility and the cities) gave rise to what is now called the Standestaat, or the state of Estates, characterized by parliaments in which key social groups negotiated with the king about legal and economic matters. These estates of the realm sometimes evolved in the direction of fully-fledged parliaments, but sometimes lost out in their struggles with the monarch, leading to greater centralization of lawmaking and military power in his hands. Beginning in the 15th century, this centralizing process gives rise to the absolutist state.[87]

text: The modern state[edit]

text: Cultural and national homogenization figured prominently in the rise of the modern state system. Since the absolutist period, states have largely been organized on a national basis. The concept of a national state, however, is not synonymous with nation state. Even in the most ethnically homogeneous societies there is not always a complete correspondence between state and nation, hence the active role often taken by the state to promote nationalism through emphasis on shared symbols and national identity.[88]

text: Weak states and late state formation[edit]

text: Some states are often labeled as weak or failed. In David Samuels's words "...a failed state occurs when sovereignty over claimed territory has collapsed or was never effectively at all".[89] Authors like Samuels and Joel S. Migdal have explored the emergence of weak states, how they are different from Western "strong" states and its consequences to the economic development of developing countries.

text: Early state formation

text: To understand the formation of weak states, Samuels compares the formation of European states in the 1600 with the conditions under which more recent states were formed in the twentieth century. In this line of argument, the state allows a population to resolve a collective action problem, in which citizens recognize the authority of the state and this exercise the power of coercion over them. This kind of social organization required a decline in legitimacy of traditional forms of ruling (like religious authorities) and replaced them with an increase in the legitimacy of depersonalized rule; an increase in the central government's sovereignty; and an increase in the organizational complexity of the central government (bureaucracy).

text: The transition to this modern state was possible in Europe around 1600 thanks to the confluence of factors like the technological developments in warfare, which generated strong incentives to tax and consolidate central structures of governance to respond to external threats. This was complemented by the increasing on the production of food (as a result of productivity improvements), which allowed to sustain a larger population and so increased the complexity and centralization of states. Finally, cultural changes challenged the authority of monarchies and paved the way to the emergence of modern states.[90]

text: Late state formation

text: The conditions that enabled the emergence of modern states in Europe were different for other countries that started this process later. As a result, many of these states lack effective capabilities to tax and extract revenue from their citizens, which derives in problems like corruption, tax evasion and low economic growth. Unlike the European case, late state formation occurred in a context of limited international conflict that diminished the incentives to tax and increase military spending. Also, many of these states emerged from colonization in a state of poverty and with institutions designed to extract natural resources, which have made more difficult to form states. European colonization also defined many arbitrary borders that mixed different cultural groups under the same national identities, which has made difficult to build states with legitimacy among all the population, since some states have to compete for it with other forms of political identity.[90]

text: As a complement of this argument, Migdal gives a historical account on how sudden social changes in the Third World during the Industrial Revolution contributed to the formation of weak states. The expansion of international trade that started around 1850, brought profound changes in Africa, Asia and Latin America that were introduced with the objective of assure the availability of raw materials for the European market. These changes consisted in: i) reforms to landownership laws with the objective of integrate more lands to the international economy, ii) increase in the taxation of peasants and little landowners, as well as collecting of these taxes in cash instead of in kind as was usual up to that moment and iii) the introduction of new and less costly modes of transportation, mainly railroads. As a result, the traditional forms of social control became obsolete, deteriorating the existing institutions and opening the way to the creation of new ones, that not necessarily lead these countries to build strong states.[91] This fragmentation of the social order induced a political logic in which these states were captured to some extent by "strongmen", who were capable to take advantage of the above-mentioned changes and that challenge the sovereignty of the state. As a result, these decentralization of social control impedes to consolidate strong states.[92]


document_title: Atmosphere of Earth

question_text: what is the top layer of earth's atmosphere

question_tokens: what is the top layer of earth 's atmosphere

root

text: Atmosphere of Earth

text: Composition

text: The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor).[5] The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases,[6] among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO2) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.

tag: p

text:
Major constituents of dry air, by volume[7]

Gas
Volume(A)

Name
Formula
in ppmv(B)
in %

Nitrogen
N2
780,840
78.084

Oxygen
O2
209,460
20.946

Argon
Ar
9,340
0.9340

Carbon dioxide
CO2
400
0.04[8]

Neon
Ne
18.18
0.001818

Helium
He
5.24
0.000524

Methane
CH4
1.79
0.000179

Not included in above dry atmosphere:

Water vapor(C)
H2O
10–50,000(D)
0.001%–5%(D)

notes:
(A) volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only,
    also see volume (thermodynamics)
(B) ppmv: parts per million by volume
(C) Water vapor is about 0.25% by mass over full atmosphere
(D) Water vapor strongly varies locally[5]

tag: table

text: The relative concentration of gasses remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).[9]

text: Structure of the atmosphere

text: Principal layers

text: In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.[10] From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:

text:
Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)
Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)[11]
Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)[12]

tag: ul

text: Exosphere

text: The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.

text: This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.

text: The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.

text: Thermosphere

text: The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity.[11] Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the ionosphere.

text: The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules.[13] Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.

text: This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi).

text: Mesosphere

text: The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft) above sea level.

text: Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85 °C (−120 °F; 190 K).[14][15]

text: Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning-induced discharges known as transient luminous events (TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft.

text: Stratosphere

text: The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).

text: The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.[16]

text: The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.

text: Troposphere

text: The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator,[12] with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.[17][18]

text: Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere.[19] The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.

text: Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.

text: Other layers

text: Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:

text:
The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi; 49,000–115,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for auroras. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth.
The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence.[21] This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the turbopause found at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the very edge of space itself as accepted by the FAI, which places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause.

text: The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 metres (330 ft) on clear, calm nights to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) or more during the afternoon in dry regions.

text: The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K)[22] or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K),[23] depending on the reference.[24][25][26]

text: Physical properties

text: Pressure and thickness

text: The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×1018 kg (1.135×1019 lb),[28] about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather.

text: If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1/e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.

text: In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:[29]

text:
50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft).
90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft).
99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the Kármán line. By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered astronauts.

text: By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).

text: Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.

text: Temperature and speed of sound

text: The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above 90 km.

text: Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.

text: Density and mass

text: The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 (1.2 g/L, 0.0012 g/cm3). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites.

text: The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5×1015) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480×1018 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5×1015 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27×1016 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003×1018 kg."

text: Optical properties

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.[31][32]

text: Scattering

text: When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.

text: Absorption

text: Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H2O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.

text: The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet-C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven-meter waves.

text: Emission

text: Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.

text: Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H2O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.

text: The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are CO2 and H2O.

text: Refractive index

text: The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth's surface.

text: The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage.

text: Circulation

text: Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.

text: Evolution of Earth's atmosphere

text: Earliest atmosphere

text: The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia.[33]

text: Second atmosphere

text: Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.[33] A major part of carbon-dioxide emissions dissolved in water and reacted with metals such as calcium and magnesium during weathering of crustal rocks to form carbonates that were deposited as sediments. Water-related sediments have been found that date from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.[34]

text: About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". The influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, because hints of early life-forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago.[35] How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox".

text: The geological record however shows a continuous relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth – with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archean Eon an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle became established as early as 4 billion years ago.

text: Ancient sediments in the Gabon dating from between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago provide a record of Earth's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.[36]

text: Third atmosphere

text: The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations.

text: Before this time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. O2 showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the Precambrian.[39] The following time span from 541 million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic Eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian, oxygen-requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.

text: The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is great enough for this rapid development of animals.[40]

text: Air pollution

text: Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms.[41] Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances.

text: The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.[42]

text: Images from space

text: On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.[43]

text:
Blue light is scattered more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, giving Earth a blue halo when seen from space.

The geomagnetic storms cause beautiful displays of aurora across the atmosphere.

Limb view, of Earth's atmosphere. Colors roughly denote the layers of the atmosphere.

This image shows the Moon at the centre, with the limb of Earth near the bottom transitioning into the orange-colored troposphere. The troposphere ends abruptly at the tropopause, which appears in the image as the sharp boundary between the orange- and blue-colored atmosphere. The silvery-blue noctilucent clouds extend far above Earth's troposphere.

Earth's atmosphere backlit by the Sun in an eclipse observed from deep space onboard Apollo 12 in 1969.


document_title: Governor-General of Pakistan

question_text: who had the shortest tenure as governor general of pakistan

text: Governor-General of Pakistan

text: Key[edit]

text:
Key for governors-general' list

Party

Pakistan Muslim League

Republican Party

Independent

text: Governors-General of Pakistan[edit]

text:
List of Governors-General of Pakistan

№

Portrait

Name(Birth–Death)

Took office

Left office

Political party

1

Muhammad Ali Jinnah(1876–1948)

15 August 1947

11 September 1948(died in office)

Pakistan Muslim League

2

Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin(1894–1964)

14 September 1948

17 October 1951(became prime minister)

Pakistan Muslim League

3

Sir Ghulam Muhammad(1895–1956)

17 October 1951

7 August 1955(dismissed)

Independent

4

Iskander Mirza(1899–1969)

7 August 1955

23 March 1956(became president)

Republican Party

text: Timeline[edit]


document_title: Summary judgment

question_text: what is a partial motion for summary judgment

text: Summary judgment

text: Specific jurisdictions[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: In American legal practice, summary judgment can be awarded by the court before trial, effectively holding that no trial will be necessary. At the federal level, a summary-judgment motion in United States District Court is governed by Rule 56 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. Other pretrial motions, such as a "motion for judgment on the pleadings" or a "motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim upon which relief may be granted," can be converted by the judge to summary-judgment motions if matters outside the pleadings are presented to – and not excluded by – the trial-court judge.

text: A party seeking summary judgment (or making any other motion) is called the movant (usually, this is defendant); the opposing party is the nonmovant (usually, plaintiff). Per Rule 56(a), issuance of summary judgment can be based only upon the court's finding that, both:

text:
there exists no disputed genuine issue of material fact between the parties requiring a trial to resolve; and
in applying the law to the (undisputed) facts, one party is clearly entitled by law to judgment.

tag: ol

text: Here:

text:
An issue of (purported) fact is a (potential) event that the factfinder at trial (jury, or judge in the case of a bench trial) is charged with crediting (determining what "really happened," according to the credibility of the witnesses/experts/etc. at trial).
A disputed issue/fact means movant claims one thing, while nonmovant makes a different (conflicting/contradictory) claim.
A genuine issue/fact is one that can be resolved in favor by either party, by some rational/reasonable factfinder.
A material issue/fact is one that has the potential of affecting the outcome of the case/issue in dispute (judgment in favor of one party over the other).

text: Of cardinal importance here is that, by design: the judge had no discretion at summary judgment time: all fact-finding is done by the jury at trial, not by the judge at summary judgment (the judge only looks for the existence of disputed "facts" to be "found").

text: Summary judgment in the United States applies only in civil cases. It does not apply to criminal cases to obtain a pretrial judgment of conviction or acquittal, in part because a criminal defendant has a constitutional right to a jury trial.[1] Some federal and state-court judges publish general guidelines and sample summary-judgment forms.[2][3][4][5]

text: According to Federal Judicial Center research, summary-judgment motions are filed in 17% of federal cases.[6] Since almost two-thirds of federal civil cases are dismissed or settled, over half of the cases that reach the final judgment stage were disposed of via summary judgment.[7] 71% of summary-judgment motions were filed by defendants, 26% by plaintiffs.[6] Out of these, 36% of the motions were denied, and 64% were granted in whole or in part.[6]

text: From a tactical perspective, there are two basic types of summary-judgment motions. One requires a full evidentiary presentation, and the other requires only a more limited, targeted one.

text: First, a plaintiff may seek summary judgment on any cause of action, and similarly, a defendant may seek summary judgment in its favor on any affirmative defense. But in either case, the moving party must produce evidence in support of each and every essential element of the claim or defense (as it would have to do at trial). To be successful, this type of summary-judgment motion must be drafted as a written preview of a party's entire case-in-chief (that it would put before the finder of fact at trial) because all parts of an entire claim or defense are at issue.

text: Second, a different and very common tactic is where a defendant seeks summary judgment on a plaintiff's cause of action. The key difference is that in this latter situation, the defendant need only attack one essential element of the plaintiff's claim. A finding that the plaintiff cannot prove one essential element of its claim necessarily renders all other elements immaterial and results in summary judgment for the defendant. So these motions tend to be precisely targeted to the weakest points of the plaintiff's case. It is also possible for a plaintiff to seek summary judgment on a defendant's affirmative defense, but those types of motions are very rare.

text: Regardless of the type of summary judgment motion, there is a standardized rule(-like) framework for evaluating the first clause of Rule 56(a) (“no disputed genuine issue of material fact"), formulated as the following six core summary judgment tenets of review (SJTOR) (where the emphasized musts indicate the lack of judicial discretion permitted):

text:
All-Issues/Facts: All ("each/every", not just "some") factual issues must be considered/discussed—especially, all disputed/contested genuine issues of material facts.
Whole-Record: The entire record ("whole set/totality of circumstances", not just a "subset"), must be considered, regarding each/every issue.
In-Context: All issues must be considered in holistic relationship with one another, within the whole-record environment (not "context-free line-by-line isolation"); patterns may emerge.
Nonmovant-Trumps-Movant: Tenets 1–3 must be interpreted/construed in the light most favorable/advantageous to nonmovant (never to movant), and belief/credit awarded thereto (as to whether a "dispute exists", not as to "who wins the dispute", though either interpretation unambiguously satisfies the only question at Summary Judgment, which is whether or not a "dispute exists").
All-Inferences: All reasonable/justifiable logical/legal inferences/implications from tenets 1–3 must also be interpreted favorably to nonmovant, and credit awarded thereto.
Light-Burden: For tenets 4–5, nonmovant bears the undemanding requirement of production only of favorable facts (and law)—i.e., de minimus proof/persuasion. All fact/credibility-finding must be reserved for the jury at trial, none for the judge at summary judgment.

text: A party seeking summary judgment may refer to any evidence that would be admissible at trial, such as depositions (or deposition excerpts), party admissions, affidavits in support from witnesses, documents received during discovery (such as contracts, emails, letters, and certified government documents). The evidences should be accompanied by a declaration from the moving party that all copies of the documents are true and correct, including deposition excerpts. Each party may present to the court its view of applicable law by submitting a legal memorandum supporting, or opposing, the motion. The opposing party may also file its own summary-judgment motion (called a "cross-motion"), if deadline still allows. The court may allow for oral argument of the lawyers, generally where the judge wishes to question the lawyers on issues in the case.

text: Deadline for filing of the dispositive motions in U.S. federal court system is set by judge in the initial discovery plan order. If a party wants to file a motion or a cross-motion for summary judgment after the deadline, it needs to ask for leave of court. Normally, federal judges require valid reasons to alter case-management deadlines and only do so with reluctance.

text: There are also freely accessible web search engines to assist parties in finding court decisions that can be cited as an example or analogy to resolve similar questions of law.[8] Google Scholar is the biggest database of full-text state and federal court decisions that can be accessed without charge.[8][9] These web search engines often allow one to select specific state courts to search.[8] Summary judgment is awarded if the undisputed facts and the law make it clear that it would be impossible for one party to prevail if the matter were to proceed to trial. The court must consider all designated evidence in the light most favorable to the party opposing the summary-judgment motion.

text: If a trial could result in the jury (or judge in a bench trial) deciding in favor of the party opposing the motion, then summary judgment is inappropriate. A decision granting summary judgment can be appealed without delay. A decision denying summary judgment ordinarily cannot be immediately appealed; instead, the case continues on its normal course. In United States federal courts, a denial of summary judgment cannot be appealed until final resolution of the whole case, because of the requirements of 28 U.S.C. § 1291 and 28 U.S.C. § 1292 (the final judgment rule).

text: To defeat a summary-judgment motion, the non-moving party only has to show substantial evidence that a dispute of material facts exists, regardless of the strength of that evidence. For example, even if the moving side can produce the testimony of "a dozen bishops", and the non-moving side only has the testimony of a known liar, then summary judgment is not appropriate. Deciding on the relative credibility of witnesses is a question for the factfinder at trial.

text: Where appropriate, a court may award judgment summarily upon fewer than all claims. This is known as "partial summary judgment".

text: It is not uncommon for summary judgments of lower U.S. courts in complex cases to be overturned on appeal. A grant of summary judgment is reviewed "de novo" (meaning, without deference to the views of the trial judge) both as to the determination that there is no remaining genuine issue of material fact and that the prevailing party was entitled to judgment as a matter of law.

text: State-court practice[edit]

text: Summary-judgment practice in most states is similar to federal practice, though with minor differences. For example, the U.S. state of California requires the moving party to actually present evidence rather than merely refer to evidence. See Aguilar v. Atlantic Richfield Co., 25 Cal. 4th 826 (2001). This is done by attaching relevant documents and by summarizing all relevant factual points within those documents in a separate statement of facts. In turn, the record to be reviewed by the judge can be very large; for example, the Aguilar case involved a record of about 18,400 pages. Also, California uses the term "summary adjudication" instead of "partial summary judgment". The California view is that the latter term is an oxymoron since a judgment is supposed to be final (in the sense of completely disposing of the case). There is currently a conflict between the different districts of the California Courts of Appeal as to the availability of summary adjudication; most superior courts tend to side with the narrowest interpretation of California Code of Civil Procedure section 437c, under which a party may make such a motion only with respect to an entire cause of action, an affirmative defense, or a punitive-damages claim. There is also language in section 437c about "issues of duty," but some Courts of Appeal panels have given that phrase an extremely narrow interpretation due to evidence that the California State Legislature has been trying to stop the state courts from engaging in the piecemeal adjudication of individual issues.

text: In New York there is the procedure of summary judgment in lieu of complaint CPLR § 3213. This allows a plaintiff in an action based on an instrument to pay money only or ajudgement to file a motion for summary judgment and supporting papers with the summons instead of a complaint. The motion must be noted to be heard on the date the defendant is required to appear under CPLR 320(a). If the plaintiff sets down the hearing date later than the minimum, he may require the defendant to serve a copy of the answering paper on him within the extended period. If the motion is denied the moving and answering papers shall be deemed the complaint and answer, respectively, unless the court orders other wise.

text: Filing and privacy[edit]

text: Many U.S. district courts have developed their own requirements included in local rules for filing summary-judgment motions.[10] Local rules can set limits on the number of pages, explain if a separate factual statement is required, whether it is acceptable to combine motion petition with a response, and if a judge needs an additional copy of the documents (called a "judge's copy"), etc.[11][12] Local Rules can define page-layout elements like: margins, text font/size, distance between lines, mandatory footer text, page numbering, and provide directions on how the pages need to be bound together – i.e., acceptable fasteners, number and location of fastening holes, etc.[11][12][13] If the filed motion does not comply with the local rules, then the judge can choose to strike the motion completely, or order the party to re-file its motion, or grant a special exception to the local rules.

text: Summary-judgment motions, like many other court filings, are a matter of public record. So under Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 5.2, sensitive text like Social Security number, Taxpayer Identification Number, birthday, bank accounts and children's names, should be redacted from the summary-judgment motion and accompanying exhibits.[14] The redacted text can be erased with black-out or white-out, and the page should have an indication that it was redacted – most often by stamping the word "redacted" on the bottom. Alternately, the filing party may ask the court's permission to file some exhibits completely under seal. A minor's name of the petitions should be replaced with initials.[14]

text: A person making a redacted filing can file an unredacted copy under seal, or the court can choose to order later that an additional filing be made under seal without redaction.[14] Copies of both redacted and unredacted documents filed with court should be provided to the other parties in the case.

text: England and Wales[edit]

text: In England and Wales, Part 24[15] of the Civil Procedure Rules governs the award of summary judgment. Summary judgment is available in all claims against both the defendant and claimant with the following exceptions.

text:
There may be no summary judgment in possession proceedings against a mortgagor or a person holding over after the end of his tenancy whose occupancy is protected within the meaning of the Rent Act 1977 or the Housing Act 1988.
There may be no summary judgment against a defendant in admiralty proceedings in rem.

text: Canada[edit]

text: Summary judgment procedures were broadened in Canadian courts in the 1980s. With the exception of Quebec (which has its own procedural device for disposing of abusive claims summarily), all provinces feature a summary judgment mechanism in their respective rules of civil procedure.[16] Ontario, after a study on the issues of access to justice,[17] reformed its rules in 2010 to extend the powers of motion judges and masters for ordering summary judgment, following the introduction of similar measures in Alberta and British Columbia.[18] In 2014, the Supreme Court of Canada encouraged greater use of the procedure by the courts in its ruling in Hryniak v. Mauldin.


document_title: Mere Sapno Ki Rani

question_text: mere sapno ki rani kab aayegi tu shooting location

text: Mere Sapno Ki Rani

text:
"Mere Sapno Ki Rani"

Film song by Kishore Kumar

from the album Aradhana

Language
Hindi

Released
1969

Length
5:00

Label
Saregama

Composer(s)
Sachin Dev Burman

Lyricist(s)
Anand Bakshi

text: "Mere Sapno Ki Rani" is a popular Hindi song from the 1969 Bollywood movie Aradhana. The song was composed by Sachin Dev Burman and performed by Kishore Kumar. In the film, Rajesh Khanna, the male protagonist, sings the song atop an open jeep virtually chasing the heroine, Sharmila Tagore, who was aboard the toy train in Darjeeling (Darjeeling Himalayan Railway).[1][2] R. D. Burman composed the song after his father, S.D. Burman, became too ill to finish the film's music. The song became a superhit in India.[2] Many other versions of this song were made such as the song "Atha Dilisena Hiru" by famous Sri Lankan singer H. R. Jothipala[3] The song was re-used in the Tamil film, Eli (2015).[4]

text: Picturization[edit]

text: In the film, Rajesh Khanna stars as Arun Verma, a young pilot from the Indian Air Force. On the Darjeeling toy train, Sharmila Tagore is Vandana, a recent college graduate who is returning to her hill station home. Arun and his friend, Madan (Sujit Kumar) have taken leave without permission, and as Madan drives the open top jeep, Arun sings the song in Kishore Kumar's voice, flirtatiously eying Vandana, and later in the film, when they meet again, they fall in love.

text: Singer[edit]

text: Originally, Mohammed Rafi was supposed to have sung all the songs in the film, but the composer, Sachin Dev Burman fell ill. His son, R.D. Burman reportedly ghost-composed this song, and took a chance and gave the song to Kishore Kumar.[5] It, along with "Roop Tera Mastana", turned Kishore into an overnight sensation along with Rajesh Khanna, and the two became best friends in the industry.


document_title: List of Middlesbrough F.C. managers

question_text: who is the manager of middlesbrough football club

text: List of Middlesbrough F.C. managers

text: Managers[edit]

text: Caretaker manager

text: n/a Information not available

text: Information correct as of 6 May 2018. Only competitive matches are counted

text:
Name
Nationality
From
To
Matches
Won
Drawn
Lost
Win%[1]
Honours
Notes

Jack Robson

 England

May 1889

May 1905

7002215000000000000♠215

7001820000000000000♠82

7001470000000000000♠47

7001860000000000000♠86

7001381400000000000♠38.14

-

[2]

Alex Mackie

 Scotland

June 1905

May 1906

7001520000000000000♠52

7001130000000000000♠13

7001150000000000000♠15

7001240000000000000♠24

7001250000000000000♠25.00

-

[3]

Andy Aitken

 Scotland

October 1906

February 1909

7001950000000000000♠95

7001400000000000000♠40

7001180000000000000♠18

7001370000000000000♠37

7001421100000000000♠42.11

-

[4]

John Gunter

Unknown

February 1909

June 1910

7001790000000000000♠79

7001250000000000000♠25

7001190000000000000♠19

7001350000000000000♠35

7001316500000000000♠31.65

-

[5]

Andy Walker

 Scotland

June 1910

January 1911

7001200000000000000♠20

7000900000000000000♠9

7000700000000000000♠7

7000400000000000000♠4

7001450000000000000♠45.00

-

[6]

Thomas H. McIntosh

 England

August 1911

December 1919

7002179000000000000♠179

7001690000000000000♠69

7001420000000000000♠42

7001680000000000000♠68

7001385509999900000♠38.55

-

[7]

James Howie

 Scotland

April 1920

July 1923

7002132000000000000♠132

7001470000000000000♠47

7001370000000000000♠37

7001480000000000000♠48

7001356100000000000♠35.61

-

[8]

Herbert Bamlett

 England

August 1923

March 1927

7002110000000000000♠110

7001300000000000000♠30

7001270000000000000♠27

7001530000000000000♠53

7001272700000000000♠27.27

-

[9]

Peter McWilliam

 Scotland

April 1927

March 1934

7002328000000000000♠328

7002132000000000000♠132

7001750000000000000♠75

7002121000000000000♠121

7001402400000000000♠40.24

Second Division 1926–27, 1928–29

[10]

Wilf Gillow

 England

March 1934

March 1944

7002236000000000000♠236

7001920000000000000♠92

7001550000000000000♠55

7001890000000000000♠89

7001389809999999999♠38.98

-

[11]

David Jack

 England

November 1944

April 1952

7002270000000000000♠270

7002100000000000000♠100

7001610000000000000♠61

7002109000000000000♠109

7001370400000000000♠37.04

-

[12]

Walter Rowley

 England

June 1952

February 1954

7001730000000000000♠73

7001220000000000000♠22

7001160000000000000♠16

7001350000000000000♠35

7001301400000000000♠30.14

-

[13]

Bob Dennison

 England

July 1954

January 1963

7002381000000000000♠381

7002158000000000000♠158

7001770000000000000♠77

7002146000000000000♠146

7001414700000000000♠41.47

-

[14]

Raich Carter

 England

January 1963

February 1966

7002143000000000000♠143

7001460000000000000♠46

7001410000000000000♠41

7001560000000000000♠56

7001321700000000000♠32.17

-

[15]

Stan Anderson

 England

April 1966

25 January 1973

7002332000000000000♠332

7002139000000000000♠139

7001890000000000000♠89

7002104000000000000♠104

7001418709999900000♠41.87

-

[16]

Harold Shepherdson

 England

25 January 1973

7 May 1973

7001170000000000000♠17

7000900000000000000♠9

7000400000000000000♠4

7000400000000000000♠4

7001529400000000000♠52.94

-

[17]

Jack Charlton

 England

7 May 1973

21 April 1977

7002193000000000000♠193

7001880000000000000♠88

7001490000000000000♠49

7001560000000000000♠56

7001456000000000000♠45.60

Second Division 1973–74, Anglo-Scottish Cup 1975–76

[18]

John Neal

 England

1 May 1977

July 1981

7002196000000000000♠196

7001690000000000000♠69

7001520000000000000♠52

7001750000000000000♠75

7001352000000000000♠35.20

Kirin Cup 1980

[19]

Bobby Murdoch

 Scotland

July 1981

29 September 1982

7001540000000000000♠54

7000900000000000000♠9

7001190000000000000♠19

7001260000000000000♠26

7001166700000000000♠16.67

-

[20]

Malcolm Allison

 England

23 October 1982

28 March 1984

7001770000000000000♠77

7001240000000000000♠24

7001240000000000000♠24

7001290000000000000♠29

7001311700000000000♠31.17

-

[21]

Jack Charlton

 England

28 March 1984

June 1984

7000900000000000000♠9

7000300000000000000♠3

7000300000000000000♠3

7000300000000000000♠3

7001333300000000000♠33.33

-

[18]

Willie Maddren

 England

3 June 1984

2 February 1986

7001770000000000000♠77

7001170000000000000♠17

7001200000000000000♠20

7001400000000000000♠40

7001220800000099999♠22.08

-

[22]

Bruce Rioch

 Scotland

2 February 1986

9 March 1990

7002205000000000000♠205

7001820000000000000♠82

7001520000000000000♠52

7001710000000000000♠71

7001400000000000000♠40.00

-

[23]

Colin Todd

 England

9 March 1990

24 June 1991

7001700000000000000♠70

7001280000000000000♠28

7001160000000000000♠16

7001260000000000000♠26

7001400000000000000♠40.00

-

[24]

Lennie Lawrence

 England

10 July 1991

19 May 1994

7002157000000000000♠157

7001610000000000000♠61

7001430000000000000♠43

7001530000000000000♠53

7001388500000000000♠38.85

-

[25]

Bryan Robson

 England

June 1994

6 December 2000

7002314000000000000♠314

7002127000000000000♠127

7001860000000000000♠86

7002101000000000000♠101

7001404500000000000♠40.45

Division One 1994–95

[26]

Terry Venables

 England

6 December 2000

12 June 2001

7001250000000000000♠25

7000800000000000000♠8

7001110000000000000♠11

7000600000000000000♠6

7001320000000000000♠32.00

-

[27]

Steve McClaren

 England

12 June 2001

11 May 2006

7002250000000000000♠250

7001970000000000000♠97

7001600000000000000♠60

7001930000000000000♠93

7001388009999900000♠38.80

League Cup 2004

[28]

Gareth Southgate

 England

7 June 2006

20 October 2009

7002151000000000000♠151

7001450000000000000♠45

7001430000000000000♠43

7001630000000000000♠63

7001298000000000000♠29.80

-

[29]

Colin Cooper

 England

20 October 2009

26 October 2009

7000100000000000000♠1

5000000000000000000♠0

7000100000000000000♠1

5000000000000000000♠0

5000000000000000000♠0.00

-

[30]

Gordon Strachan

 Scotland

26 October 2009

18 October 2010

7001510000000000000♠51

7001150000000000000♠15

7001130000000000000♠13

7001230000000000000♠23

7001282600000000000♠28.26

-

[31]

Steve Agnew

 England

18 October 2010

26 October 2010

7000200000000000000♠2

5000000000000000000♠0

5000000000000000000♠0

7000200000000000000♠2

5000000000000000000♠0.00

-

[32]

Tony Mowbray

 England

26 October 2010

22 October 2013

7002153000000000000♠153

7001610000000000000♠61

7001370000000000000♠37

7001550000000000000♠55

7001398709999900000♠39.87

-

[33]

Mark Venus

 England

23 October 2013

12 November 2013

7000300000000000000♠3

7000100000000000000♠1

7000100000000000000♠1

7000100000000000000♠1

7001333300000000000♠33.33

-

[34]

Aitor Karanka

 Spain

13 November 2013

16 March 2017

7002171000000000000♠171

7001800000000000000♠80

7001420000000000000♠42

7001490000000000000♠49

7001470600000000000♠47.06

-

[35]

Steve Agnew

 England

16 March 2017

9 June 2017

7001110000000000000♠11

7000100000000000000♠1

7000300000000000000♠3

7000700000000000000♠7

7000910000000000000♠9.1

-

[32]

Garry Monk

 England

9 June 2017

23 December 2017

7001260000000000000♠26

7001120000000000000♠12

7000500000000000000♠5

7000900000000000000♠9

7001462000000000000♠46.2

-

[36]

Craig Liddle

 England

23 December 2017

26 December 2017

7000100000000000000♠1

7000100000000000000♠1

5000000000000000000♠0

5000000000000000000♠0

7002100000000000000♠100.00

-

[37]

Tony Pulis

 Wales

26 December 2017

Present

7001240000000000000♠24

7001120000000000000♠12

7000500000000000000♠5

7000700000000000000♠7

7001500000000000000♠50.00

-

[38]

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Win% is rounded to two decimal places

Jump up ^ "John Robson managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Alex Massie managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Andy Aitken managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "J Gunter managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "A Walker managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Tom McIntosh managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "James Howie managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Herbert Bamlett managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Peter McWilliam managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Wilf Gillow managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "David Jack managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Walter Rowley managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Bob Dennison managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Raich Carter managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Stan Anderson managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Harold Shepherdson managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

^ Jump up to: a b "Jack Charlton managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "John Neal managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Bobby Murdoch managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Malcolm Allison managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Willie Maddren managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

Jump up ^ "Bruce Rioch managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

Jump up ^ "Colin Todd managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

Jump up ^ "Lennie Lawrence managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

Jump up ^ "Bryan Robson managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

Jump up ^ "Terry Venables managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

Jump up ^ "Steve McClaren managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

Jump up ^ "Gareth Southgate managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Colin Cooper managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Gordon Strachan managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

^ Jump up to: a b "Steve Agnew managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Tony Mowbray managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

Jump up ^ "Mark Venus managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2013-11-13.

Jump up ^ "Aitor Karanka managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 17 May 2017.

Jump up ^ "Garry Monk managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2017-12-26.

Jump up ^ "Craig Liddle managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2017-12-26.

Jump up ^ "Tony Pulis managerial stats". Soccerbase. Retrieved 2018-01-02.