document_title: Amelia Heinle

question_text: who is jd on young and the restless

question_tokens: who is jd on young and the restless

text: Amelia Heinle

text: Early life[edit]

text: Amelia March Heinle was born in Phoenix, Arizona, and has four younger siblings.[3] She grew up in Arizona and moved to New Jersey with her family when she was 15 years old.[2]

text: Career[edit]

text: From 1993 to 1995 she played the role of Stephanie "Steffi" Brewster on the soap opera Loving. She also played the character for two months in that show's short-lived spin off The City from November 1995 until January 1996. In 1994 she was nominated for a Soap Opera Digest Award for "Outstanding Female Newcomer".

text: Through the 1990s she appeared in many made for TV movies, as well as a role in the 1999 Steven Soderbergh film, The Limey, as Peter Fonda's girlfriend. She appeared in the music video for "I Will Buy You a New Life" by Everclear.

text: In 2001 she returned to the world of daytime television, this time in the role of Mia Saunders on All My Children, the heretofore unknown half-sister of Liza Colby (Marcy Walker). Although she started as a front-burner character, her romantic pairing with Jake Martin (J. Eddie Peck) didn't work out because of the actor's exit from the show, and so Mia was limited to being a background character. In 2004, Heinle opted not to renew her contract with All My Children and left the show.

text: On March 21, 2005, Heinle joined the cast of the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless, as Victoria Newman, replacing the popular Heather Tom in the role. She won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2014 and again in 2015[4] for the role.

text: In April 2009 Heinle appeared in season 4, episode 20, of Ghost Whisperer, entitled "Stage Fright", with husband Thad Luckinbill and fellow daytime drama actress Lesli Kay.

text: Personal life[edit]

text: In February 1995, she married her Loving co-star and on-screen love interest, Michael Weatherly, who played the role of "Cooper Alden". On January 10, 1996, Heinle gave birth to her first child, a son. She and Weatherly divorced in 1997.

text: In March 2007 she married her Young and the Restless co-star, Thad Luckinbill, who portrayed her onscreen ex-husband, J.T. Hellstrom, until 2010. The couple welcomed their first child together, a son, on November 2, 2007.[5] They welcomed their second child, a daughter, on December 17, 2009.[6][7] On March 1, 2017, Luckinbill filed for divorce from Heinle, citing "irreconcilable differences".[8]

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Film

Year
Film
Role
Notes

1997
Quicksilver Highway
Darlene
TV Movie

1998
At Sachem Farm
Laurie

1998
Black Cat Run
Sara Jane Bronnel
TV Movie

1999
Purgatory
Rose / Betty McCullough
TV Movie

1999
Liar's Poker
Rebecca

1999
Limey, TheThe Limey
Adhara

2000
Only Living Boy in New York, TheThe Only Living Boy in New York
Olivia
TV Movie

2000
Sally Hemings: An American Scandal
Harriet Hemings
TV Movie

2001
Earth vs. the Spider
Stephanie Lewis
TV Movie

2003
Another Night
Woman
Short

Television

Year
Title
Role
Notes

1993–95
Loving
Steffi Brewster

1995–96
City, TheThe City
Steffi Brewster

1999
Jack & Jill
Jacqueline "Jack" Barrett
Pilot;
Replaced by Amanda Peet

2001–04
All My Children
Mia Saunders
July 19, 2001 – June 15, 2004

2005–present
Young and the Restless, TheThe Young and the Restless
Victoria Newman
March 21, 2005 – present

2009
CSI: Miami
Elizabeth Corbett
Episode 7.21: "Chip/Tuck"

2009
Ghost Whisperer
Brook Dennis
Episode 4.20: "Stage Fright"

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
List of acting awards and nominations

Year
Award
Category
Title
Result
Ref.

2014

Daytime Emmy Award
Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series
Young and the Restless, TheThe Young and the Restless
Won

[9]

2015

Daytime Emmy Award
Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series
The Young and the Restless
Won

[10]


document_title: List of Major League Baseball batting champions

question_text: who was the last red sox player to win a batting title

root

text: Key[edit]

text:
Winner
Player with the highest batting average (AVG) in the league

AVG
The winner's batting average

Runner-up
Player with the second-highest batting average in the league

2nd AVG
The second-highest batting average

League
Denoted only for players outside of the modern major leagues

†
Member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum

tag: table

text: National League[edit]

text:
Year

Winner

AVG

Team(s)

Runner-up

2nd AVG

Ref

1876

Ross Barnes

.429

Chicago White Stockings

George Hall

.366

[28]

1877

Deacon White†

.387

Boston Red Caps

John Cassidy

.378

[29]

1878

Paul Hines

.358

Providence Grays

Abner Dalrymple

.354

[30]

1879

Paul Hines

.357

Providence Grays

Jim O'Rourke†

.348

[31]

1880

George Gore

.360

Chicago White Stockings

Cap Anson†

.337

[32]

1881

Cap Anson†

.399

Chicago White Stockings

Martin Powell

.338

[33]

1882

Dan Brouthers†

.368

Buffalo Bisons

Cap Anson†

.362

[34]

1883

Dan Brouthers†

.374

Buffalo Bisons

Roger Connor†

.357

[35]

1884

King Kelly†

.354

Chicago White Stockings

Jim O'Rourke†

.347

[36]

1885

Roger Connor†

.371

New York Giants

Dan Brouthers†

.359

[37]

1886

King Kelly†

.388

Chicago White Stockings

Cap Anson†

.371

[38]

1887

Sam Thompson†

.372

Detroit Wolverines

Cap Anson†

.347

[39]

1888

Cap Anson†

.344

Chicago White Stockings

Jimmy Ryan

.332

[40]

1889

Dan Brouthers†

.373

Boston Beaneaters

Jack Glasscock

.352

[41]

1890

Jack Glasscock

.336

New York Giants

Billy Hamilton†

.325

[42]

1891

Billy Hamilton†

.340

Philadelphia Phillies

Bug Holliday

.319

[43]

1892

Dan Brouthers†

.335

Brooklyn Grooms

Billy Hamilton†

.330

[44]

1893

Billy Hamilton†

.380

Philadelphia Phillies

Sam Thompson†

.370

[45]

1894

Hugh Duffy†

.440

Boston Beaneaters

Tuck Turner†

.418

[46]

1895

Jesse Burkett†

.405

Cleveland Spiders

Ed Delahanty†

.404

[47]

1896

Jesse Burkett†

.410

Cleveland Spiders

Hughie Jennings†

.401

[48]

1897

Willie Keeler†

.424

Baltimore Orioles

Fred Clarke†

.390

[49]

1898

Willie Keeler†

.385

Baltimore Orioles

Billy Hamilton†

.369

[50]

1899

Ed Delahanty†

.410

Philadelphia Phillies

Jesse Burkett†

.396

[51]

1900

Honus Wagner†

.381

Pittsburgh Pirates

Elmer Flick†

.367

[52]

1901

Jesse Burkett†

.376

St. Louis Cardinals

Ed Delahanty†

.354

[53]

1902

Ginger Beaumont

.357

Pittsburgh Pirates

Sam Crawford†

.333

[54]

1903

Honus Wagner†

.355

Pittsburgh Pirates

Fred Clarke†

.351

[55]

1904

Honus Wagner†

.349

Pittsburgh Pirates

Mike Donlin

.329

[56]

1905

Cy Seymour

.377

Cincinnati Reds

Honus Wagner†

.363

[57]

1906

Honus Wagner†

.339

Pittsburgh Pirates

Harry Steinfeldt

.327

[58]

1907

Honus Wagner†

.350

Pittsburgh Pirates

Sherry Magee

.328

[59]

1908

Honus Wagner†

.354

Pittsburgh Pirates

Mike Donlin

.334

[60]

1909

Honus Wagner†

.339

Pittsburgh Pirates

Mike Mitchell

.310

[61]

1910

Sherry Magee

.331

Philadelphia Phillies

Vin Campbell

.326

[62]

1911

Honus Wagner†

.334

Pittsburgh Pirates

Doc Miller

.333

[63]

1912

Heinie Zimmerman

.372

Chicago Cubs

Chief Meyers

.358

[64]

1913

Jake Daubert

.350

Brooklyn Superbas

Gavvy Cravath

.341

[65]

1914

Jake Daubert

.329

Brooklyn Robins

Beals Becker

.325

[66]

1915

Larry Doyle

.320

New York Giants

Fred Luderus

.315

[67]

1916

Hal Chase

.339

Cincinnati Reds

Jake Daubert

.316

[68]

1917

Edd Roush†

.341

Cincinnati Reds

Rogers Hornsby†

.327

[69]

1918

Zack Wheat†

.335

Brooklyn Robins

Edd Roush†

.333

[70]

1919

Edd Roush†

.321

Cincinnati Reds

Rogers Hornsby†

.318

[71]

1920

Rogers Hornsby†

.370

St. Louis Cardinals

Ross Youngs†

.351

[72]

1921

Rogers Hornsby†

.397

St. Louis Cardinals

Edd Roush†

.352

[73]

1922

Rogers Hornsby†

.401

St. Louis Cardinals

Ray Grimes

.354

[74]

1923

Rogers Hornsby†

.384

St. Louis Cardinals

Jim Bottomley†

.371

[75]

1924

Rogers Hornsby†

.424

St. Louis Cardinals

Zack Wheat†

.375

[76]

1925

Rogers Hornsby†

.403

St. Louis Cardinals

Jim Bottomley†

.367

[77]

1926

Bubbles Hargrave

.353

Cincinnati Reds

Cuckoo Christensen

.350

[78]

1927

Paul Waner†

.380

Pittsburgh Pirates

Rogers Hornsby†

.361

[79]

1928

Rogers Hornsby†

.387

Boston Braves

Paul Waner†

.370

[80]

1929

Lefty O'Doul

.398

Philadelphia Phillies

Babe Herman

.381

[81]

1930

Bill Terry†

.401

New York Giants

Babe Herman

.393

[82]

1931

Chick Hafey†

.349

St. Louis Cardinals

Bill Terry†

.349

[83]

1932

Lefty O'Doul

.368

Brooklyn Dodgers

Bill Terry†

.350

[84]

1933

Chuck Klein†

.368

Philadelphia Phillies

Spud Davis

.349

[85]

1934

Paul Waner†

.362

Pittsburgh Pirates

Bill Terry†

.354

[86]

1935

Arky Vaughan†

.385

Pittsburgh Pirates

Joe Medwick†

.353

[87]

1936

Paul Waner†

.373

Pittsburgh Pirates

Babe Phelps

.367

[88]

1937

Joe Medwick†

.374

St. Louis Cardinals

Johnny Mize†

.364

[89]

1938

Ernie Lombardi†

.342

Cincinnati Reds

Johnny Mize†

.337

[90]

1939

Johnny Mize†

.349

St. Louis Cardinals

Frank McCormick

.332

[91]

1940

Debs Garms

.355

Pittsburgh Pirates

Ernie Lombardi†

.319

[92]

1941

Pete Reiser

.343

Brooklyn Dodgers

Johnny Cooney

.319

[93]

1942

Ernie Lombardi†

.330

Boston Braves

Enos Slaughter†

.318

[94]

1943

Stan Musial†

.357

St. Louis Cardinals

Billy Herman†

.330

[95]

1944

Dixie Walker

.357

Brooklyn Dodgers

Stan Musial†

.347

[96]

1945

Phil Cavarretta

.355

Chicago Cubs

Tommy Holmes

.352

[97]

1946

Stan Musial†

.365

St. Louis Cardinals

Johnny Hopp

.333

[98]

1947

Harry Walker

.363

St. Louis CardinalsPhiladelphia Phillies

Bob Elliott

.317

[99]

1948

Stan Musial†

.376

St. Louis Cardinals

Richie Ashburn†

.333

[100]

1949

Jackie Robinson†

.342

Brooklyn Dodgers

Stan Musial†

.338

[101]

1950

Stan Musial†

.346

St. Louis Cardinals

Jackie Robinson†

.328

[102]

1951

Stan Musial†

.355

St. Louis Cardinals

Richie Ashburn†

.344

[103]

1952

Stan Musial†

.336

St. Louis Cardinals

Frank Baumholtz

.325

[104]

1953

Carl Furillo

.344

Brooklyn Dodgers

Red Schoendienst†

.342

[105]

1954

Willie Mays†

.345

New York Giants

Don Mueller

.342

[106]

1955

Richie Ashburn†

.338

Philadelphia Phillies

Willie Mays†

.319

[107]

1956

Hank Aaron†

.328

Milwaukee Braves

Bill Virdon

.319

[108]

1957

Stan Musial†

.351

St. Louis Cardinals

Willie Mays†

.333

[109]

1958

Richie Ashburn†

.350

Philadelphia Phillies

Willie Mays†

.347

[110]

1959

Hank Aaron†

.355

Milwaukee Braves

Joe Cunningham

.345

[111]

1960

Dick Groat

.325

Pittsburgh Pirates

Norm Larker

.323

[112]

1961

Roberto Clemente†

.351

Pittsburgh Pirates

Vada Pinson

.343

[113]

1962

Tommy Davis

.346

Los Angeles Dodgers

Frank Robinson†

.342

[114]

1963

Tommy Davis

.326

Los Angeles Dodgers

Roberto Clemente†

.320

[115]

1964

Roberto Clemente†

.339

Pittsburgh Pirates

Rico Carty

.330

[116]

1965

Roberto Clemente†

.329

Pittsburgh Pirates

Hank Aaron†

.318

[117]

1966

Matty Alou

.342

Pittsburgh Pirates

Felipe Alou

.327

[118]

1967

Roberto Clemente†

.357

Pittsburgh Pirates

Tony González

.339

[119]

1968

Pete Rose

.335

Cincinnati Reds

Matty Alou

.332

[120]

1969

Pete Rose

.348

Cincinnati Reds

Roberto Clemente†

.345

[121]

1970

Rico Carty

.366

Atlanta Braves

Joe Torre†

.325

[122]

1971

Joe Torre†

.363

St. Louis Cardinals

Ralph Garr

.343

[123]

1972

Billy Williams†

.333

Chicago Cubs

Ralph Garr

.325

[124]

1973

Pete Rose

.338

Cincinnati Reds

César Cedeño

.320

[125]

1974

Ralph Garr

.353

Atlanta Braves

Al Oliver

.321

[126]

1975

Bill Madlock

.354

Chicago Cubs

Ted Simmons

.332

[127]

1976

Bill Madlock

.339

Chicago Cubs

Ken Griffey, Sr.

.336

[128]

1977

Dave Parker

.338

Pittsburgh Pirates

Rennie Stennett

.336

[129]

1978

Dave Parker

.334

Pittsburgh Pirates

Steve Garvey

.316

[130]

1979

Keith Hernandez

.344

St. Louis Cardinals

Pete Rose

.331

[131]

1980

Bill Buckner

.324

Chicago Cubs

Keith Hernandez

.321

[132]

1981

Bill Madlock

.341

Pittsburgh Pirates

Pete Rose

.325

[133]

1982

Al Oliver

.331

Montreal Expos

Bill Madlock

.319

[134]

1983

Bill Madlock

.323

Pittsburgh Pirates

Lonnie Smith

.321

[135]

1984

Tony Gwynn†

.351

San Diego Padres

Lee Lacy

.321

[136]

1985

Willie McGee

.353

St. Louis Cardinals

Pedro Guerrero

.320

[137]

1986

Tim Raines†

.334

Montreal Expos

Steve Sax

.332

[138]

1987

Tony Gwynn†

.370

San Diego Padres

Pedro Guerrero

.338

[139]

1988

Tony Gwynn†

.313

San Diego Padres

Rafael Palmeiro

.307

[140]

1989

Tony Gwynn†

.336

San Diego Padres

Will Clark

.333

[141]

1990

Willie McGee

.335

St. Louis Cardinals

Eddie Murray†

.330

[142]

1991

Terry Pendleton

.319

Atlanta Braves

Hal Morris

.318

[143]

1992

Gary Sheffield

.330

San Diego Padres

Andy Van Slyke

.324

[144]

1993

Andrés Galarraga

.370

Colorado Rockies

Tony Gwynn†

.358

[145]

1994

Tony Gwynn†

.394

San Diego Padres

Jeff Bagwell†

.368

[146]

1995

Tony Gwynn†

.368

San Diego Padres

Mike Piazza†

.346

[147]

1996

Tony Gwynn†

.353

San Diego Padres

Ellis Burks

.344

[5]

1997

Tony Gwynn†

.372

San Diego Padres

Larry Walker

.366

[148]

1998

Larry Walker

.363

Colorado Rockies

John Olerud

.354

[149]

1999

Larry Walker

.379

Colorado Rockies

Luis Gonzalez

.336

[150]

2000

Todd Helton

.372

Colorado Rockies

Moisés Alou

.355

[151]

2001

Larry Walker

.350

Colorado Rockies

Todd Helton

.336

[152]

2002

Barry Bonds

.370

San Francisco Giants

Larry Walker

.338

[153]

2003

Albert Pujols

.359

St. Louis Cardinals

Todd Helton

.358

[25]

2004

Barry Bonds

.362

San Francisco Giants

Todd Helton

.347

[154]

2005

Derrek Lee

.335

Chicago Cubs

Albert Pujols

.330

[155]

2006

Freddy Sanchez

.344

Pittsburgh Pirates

Miguel Cabrera

.339

[156]

2007

Matt Holliday

.340

Colorado Rockies

Chipper Jones†

.337

[157]

2008

Chipper Jones†

.364

Atlanta Braves

Albert Pujols

.357

[158]

2009

Hanley Ramírez

.342

Florida Marlins

Pablo Sandoval

.330

[159]

2010

Carlos González

.336

Colorado Rockies

Joey Votto

.324

[160]

2011

José Reyes

.337

New York Mets

Ryan Braun

.332

[161]

2012

Buster Posey

.336

San Francisco Giants

Andrew McCutchen

.327

[162]

2013

Michael Cuddyer

.331

Colorado Rockies

Chris Johnson

.321

[163]

2014

Justin Morneau

.319

Colorado Rockies

Josh Harrison

.315

[164]

2015

Dee Gordon

.333

Miami Marlins

Bryce Harper

.330

[165]

2016

DJ LeMahieu

.348

Colorado Rockies

Daniel Murphy

.347

[166]

2017

Charlie Blackmon

.330

Colorado Rockies

Justin Turner

.321

[167]

text: American League[edit]

text:
Year

Winner

AVG

Team(s)

Runner-up

2nd AVG

Ref

1901

Nap Lajoie†

.426

Philadelphia Athletics

Mike Donlin

.340

[168]

1902

Disputed[1902b]

—

1903

Nap Lajoie†

.344

Cleveland Naps

Sam Crawford†

.335

[169]

1904

Nap Lajoie†

.376

Cleveland Naps

Willie Keeler†

.343

[170]

1905

Elmer Flick†

.308

Cleveland Naps

Willie Keeler†

.302

[171]

1906

George Stone

.358

St. Louis Browns

Nap Lajoie†

.355

[172]

1907

Ty Cobb†

.350

Detroit Tigers

Sam Crawford†

.323

[173]

1908

Ty Cobb†

.324

Detroit Tigers

Sam Crawford†

.311

[174]

1909

Ty Cobb†

.377

Detroit Tigers

Eddie Collins†

.347

[175]

1910

Ty Cobb†

—

1911

Ty Cobb†

.420

Detroit Tigers

Shoeless Joe Jackson

.408

[176]

1912

Ty Cobb†

.409

Detroit Tigers

Shoeless Joe Jackson

.395

[177]

1913

Ty Cobb†

.390

Detroit Tigers

Shoeless Joe Jackson

.373

[178]

1914

Ty Cobb†

.368

Detroit Tigers

Eddie Collins†

.344

[179]

1915

Ty Cobb†

.369

Detroit Tigers

Eddie Collins†

.332

[180]

1916

Tris Speaker†

.386

Cleveland Indians

Ty Cobb†

.371

[181]

1917

Ty Cobb†

.383

Detroit Tigers

George Sisler†

.353

[182]

1918

Ty Cobb†

.382

Detroit Tigers

George Burns

.352

[183]

1919

Ty Cobb†

.384

Detroit Tigers

Bobby Veach

.355

[184]

1920

George Sisler†

.407

St. Louis Browns

Tris Speaker†

.388

[185]

1921

Harry Heilmann†

.394

Detroit Tigers

Ty Cobb†

.389

[186]

1922

George Sisler†

.420

St. Louis Browns

Ty Cobb†

.401

[187]

1923

Harry Heilmann†

.403

Detroit Tigers

Babe Ruth†

.393

[188]

1924

Babe Ruth†

.378

New York Yankees

Charlie Jamieson

.359

[189]

1925

Harry Heilmann†

.393

Detroit Tigers

Tris Speaker†

.389

[190]

1926

Heinie Manush†

.378

Detroit Tigers

Babe Ruth†

.372

[191]

1927

Harry Heilmann†

.398

Detroit Tigers

Al Simmons†

.392

[192]

1928

Goose Goslin†

.379

Washington Senators

Heinie Manush†

.378

[193]

1929

Lew Fonseca

.369

Cleveland Indians

Al Simmons†

.365

[194]

1930

Al Simmons†

.381

Philadelphia Athletics

Lou Gehrig†

.379

[195]

1931

Al Simmons†

.390

Philadelphia Athletics

Babe Ruth†

.373

[196]

1932

Dale Alexander

.367

Detroit TigersBoston Red Sox

Jimmie Foxx†

.364

[197]

1933

Jimmie Foxx†

.356

Philadelphia Athletics

Heinie Manush†

.336

[198]

1934

Lou Gehrig†

.363

New York Yankees

Charlie Gehringer†

.356

[199]

1935

Buddy Myer

.349

Washington Senators

Joe Vosmik

.348

[200]

1936

Luke Appling†

.388

Chicago White Sox

Earl Averill†

.378

[201]

1937

Charlie Gehringer†

.371

Detroit Tigers

Lou Gehrig†

.351

[202]

1938

Jimmie Foxx†

.349

Boston Red Sox

Jeff Heath

.343

[203]

1939

Joe DiMaggio†

.381

New York Yankees

Jimmie Foxx†

.360

[204]

1940

Joe DiMaggio†

.352

New York Yankees

Luke Appling†

.348

[205]

1941

Ted Williams†

.406

Boston Red Sox

Cecil Travis

.359

[206]

1942

Ted Williams†

.356

Boston Red Sox

Johnny Pesky

.331

[207]

1943

Luke Appling†

.328

Chicago White Sox

Dick Wakefield

.316

[208]

1944

Lou Boudreau†

.327

Cleveland Indians

Bobby Doerr†

.325

[209]

1945

Snuffy Stirnweiss

.309

New York Yankees

Tony Cuccinello

.308

[24]

1946

Mickey Vernon

.353

Washington Senators

Ted Williams†

.342

[210]

1947

Ted Williams†

.343

Boston Red Sox

Barney McCosky

.328

[211]

1948

Ted Williams†

.369

Boston Red Sox

Lou Boudreau†

.355

[212]

1949

George Kell†

.343

Detroit Tigers

Ted Williams†

.343

[213]

1950

Billy Goodman

.354

Boston Red Sox

George Kell†

.340

[214]

1951

Ferris Fain

.344

Philadelphia Athletics

Minnie Miñoso

.326

[215]

1952

Ferris Fain

.327

Philadelphia Athletics

Dale Mitchell

.323

[216]

1953

Mickey Vernon

.337

Washington Senators

Al Rosen

.336

[217]

1954

Bobby Ávila

.341

Cleveland Indians

Ted Williams†

.345[1954]

[218]

1955

Al Kaline†

.340

Detroit Tigers

Vic Power

.319

[219]

1956

Mickey Mantle†

.353

New York Yankees

Ted Williams†

.345

[220]

1957

Ted Williams†

.388

Boston Red Sox

Mickey Mantle†

.365

[221]

1958

Ted Williams†

.328

Boston Red Sox

Pete Runnels

.322

[222]

1959

Harvey Kuenn

.353

Detroit Tigers

Al Kaline†

.327

[223]

1960

Pete Runnels

.320

Boston Red Sox

Al Smith

.315

[224]

1961

Norm Cash

.361

Detroit Tigers

Al Kaline†

.324

[225]

1962

Pete Runnels

.326

Boston Red Sox

Mickey Mantle†

.321

[226]

1963

Carl Yastrzemski†

.321

Boston Red Sox

Al Kaline†

.312

[227]

1964

Tony Oliva

.323

Minnesota Twins

Brooks Robinson†

.317

[228]

1965

Tony Oliva

.321

Minnesota Twins

Carl Yastrzemski†

.312

[229]

1966

Frank Robinson†

.316

Baltimore Orioles

Tony Oliva

.307

[230]

1967

Carl Yastrzemski†

.326

Boston Red Sox

Frank Robinson†

.311

[231]

1968

Carl Yastrzemski†

.301

Boston Red Sox

Danny Cater

.290

[232]

1969

Rod Carew†

.332

Minnesota Twins

Reggie Smith

.309

[233]

1970

Alex Johnson

.329

California Angels

Carl Yastrzemski†

.329

[234]

1971

Tony Oliva

.337

Minnesota Twins

Bobby Murcer

.331

[235]

1972

Rod Carew†

.318

Minnesota Twins

Lou Piniella

.312

[236]

1973

Rod Carew†

.350

Minnesota Twins

George Scott

.306

[237]

1974

Rod Carew†

.364

Minnesota Twins

Jorge Orta

.316

[238]

1975

Rod Carew†

.359

Minnesota Twins

Fred Lynn

.331

[239]

1976

George Brett†

.333

Kansas City Royals

Hal McRae

.332

[240]

1977

Rod Carew†

.388

Minnesota Twins

Lyman Bostock

.336

[241]

1978

Rod Carew†

.333

Minnesota Twins

Al Oliver

.324

[242]

1979

Fred Lynn

.333

Boston Red Sox

George Brett†

.329

[243]

1980

George Brett†

.390

Kansas City Royals

Cecil Cooper

.352

[244]

1981

Carney Lansford

.336

Boston Red Sox

Tom Paciorek

.326

[245]

1982

Willie Wilson

.332

Kansas City Royals

Robin Yount†

.331

[246]

1983

Wade Boggs†

.361

Boston Red Sox

Rod Carew†

.339

[247]

1984

Don Mattingly

.343

New York Yankees

Dave Winfield†

.340

[248]

1985

Wade Boggs†

.368

Boston Red Sox

George Brett†

.335

[249]

1986

Wade Boggs†

.357

Boston Red Sox

Don Mattingly

.352

[250]

1987

Wade Boggs†

.363

Boston Red Sox

Paul Molitor†

.353

[251]

1988

Wade Boggs†

.366

Boston Red Sox

Kirby Puckett†

.356

[252]

1989

Kirby Puckett†

.339

Minnesota Twins

Carney Lansford

.336

[253]

1990

George Brett†

.329

Kansas City Royals

Rickey Henderson†

.325

[254]

1991

Julio Franco

.341

Texas Rangers

Wade Boggs†

.332

[255]

1992

Edgar Martínez

.343

Seattle Mariners

Kirby Puckett†

.329

[256]

1993

John Olerud

.363

Toronto Blue Jays

Paul Molitor†

.332

[257]

1994

Paul O'Neill

.359

New York Yankees

Albert Belle

.357

[258]

1995

Edgar Martínez

.356

Seattle Mariners

Chuck Knoblauch

.333

[259]

1996

Alex Rodriguez

.358

Seattle Mariners

Frank Thomas†

.349

[260]

1997

Frank Thomas†

.347

Chicago White Sox

Edgar Martínez

.330

[261]

1998

Bernie Williams

.339

New York Yankees

Mo Vaughn

.337

[262]

1999

Nomar Garciaparra

.357

Boston Red Sox

Derek Jeter

.349

[263]

2000

Nomar Garciaparra

.372

Boston Red Sox

Darin Erstad

.355

[264]

2001

Ichiro Suzuki

.350

Seattle Mariners

Jason Giambi

.342

[265]

2002

Manny Ramirez

.349

Boston Red Sox

Mike Sweeney

.340

[266]

2003

Bill Mueller

.326

Boston Red Sox

Manny Ramirez

.325

[267]

2004

Ichiro Suzuki

.372

Seattle Mariners

Melvin Mora

.340

[268]

2005

Michael Young

.331

Texas Rangers

Alex Rodriguez

.321

[269]

2006

Joe Mauer

.347

Minnesota Twins

Derek Jeter

.344

[270]

2007

Magglio Ordóñez

.363

Detroit Tigers

Ichiro Suzuki

.351

[271]

2008

Joe Mauer

.328

Minnesota Twins

Dustin Pedroia

.326

[272]

2009

Joe Mauer

.365

Minnesota Twins

Ichiro Suzuki

.352

[273]

2010

Josh Hamilton

.359

Texas Rangers

Miguel Cabrera

.328

[274]

2011

Miguel Cabrera

.344

Detroit Tigers

Michael Young

.338

[275]

2012

Miguel Cabrera

.330

Detroit Tigers

Mike Trout

.326

[276]

2013

Miguel Cabrera

.348

Detroit Tigers

Joe Mauer

.324

[277]

2014

José Altuve

.341

Houston Astros

Victor Martinez

.335

[278]

2015

Miguel Cabrera

.338

Detroit Tigers

Xander Bogaerts

.320

[279]

2016

José Altuve

.338

Houston Astros

Mookie Betts

.318

[280]

2017

José Altuve

.346

Houston Astros

Avisail García

.330

[281]

text: Other major leagues[edit]

text:
Year

Winner

AVG

Team

League

Runner-up

2nd AVG

Ref

1882

Pete Browning

.378

Louisville Eclipse

American Association

Hick Carpenter

.342

[282]

1883

Ed Swartwood

.357

Pittsburgh Alleghenys

American Association

Pete Browning

.338

[283]

1884

Dave Orr

.354

New York Metropolitans

American Association

John Reilly†

.339

[284]

1884

Fred Dunlap

.412

St. Louis Maroons

Union Association

Orator Shafer

.360

[285]

1885

Pete Browning

.362

Louisville Colonels

American Association

Dave Orr

.342

[286]

1886

Guy Hecker

.341

Louisville Colonels

American Association

Pete Browning

.340

[287]

1887

Tip O'Neill

.435

St. Louis Browns

American Association

Pete Browning

.402

[288]

1888

Tip O'Neill

.335

St. Louis Browns

American Association

John Reilly

.321

[289]

1889

Tommy Tucker

.372

Baltimore Orioles

American Association

Tip O'Neill

.335

[290]

1890

Chicken Wolf

.363

Louisville Colonels

American Association

Denny Lyons

.354

[291]

1890

Pete Browning

.373

Cleveland Infants

Players' League

Dave Orr

.371

[292]

1891

Dan Brouthers†

.350

Boston Reds

American Association

Hugh Duffy†

.326

[293]

1914

Benny Kauff

.370

Indianapolis Hoosiers

Federal League

Steve Evans

.348

[294]

1915

Benny Kauff

.342

Brooklyn Tip-Tops

Federal League

William Fischer

.329

[295]

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
L Recognized "major leagues" include the current American and National Leagues and several defunct leagues – the American Association, the Federal League, the Players' League, and the Union Association.[296]
1902a 1902b Sources differ as to whether Nap Lajoie or Ed Delahanty won the American League batting title in 1902 and differ slightly over Lajoie's precise statistics that season. The Hall of Fame credits Lajoie with 129 hits in 352 at bats (.368)[297] while MLB and Baseball-Reference.com show 133 hits in 352 at bats (.378).[298][299] According to Baseball-Reference a player qualified for a batting title prior to 1920 by appearing in 60% of his team's games—82 games in the 136 game schedule in 1902—and Lajoie appeared in 87 team games.[298][300][301] As such, Baseball-Reference credits Lajoie with the 1902 title, with Delahanty's .376 batting average placing second.[302] MLB's historical statistics leaderboards, however, use the modern standard of 3.1 plate appearances per team game (422 in that season) which Lajoie fell 37 short of.[298] Thus, MLB credits Delahanty with the 1902 title with his .376 average.[303] Similarly the Hall of Fame lists the 1902 title on Delahanty's plaque and not Lajoie's.[297][304]
1910a 1910b Before the 1910 season, Hugh Chalmers of Chalmers Automobile announced he would present a Chalmers Model 30 automobile to the player with the highest batting average at the end of the season. The 1910 race for best average in the American League was between Nap Lajoie of the Cleveland Indians and the Detroit Tigers' widely disliked[305][306][307] Cobb. On the last day of the season, Lajoie overtook Cobb's batting average with seven bunt hits in a doubleheader against the St. Louis Browns. Browns' manager Jack O'Connor supposedly told his third baseman Red Corriden to play back down the line all day, which allowed Lajoie easy bunt hits.[308] Cobb complained about the move, though American League President Ban Johnson said that a recalculation showed that Cobb had won the race anyway and Chalmers ultimately awarded cars to both players.[305][308]
1954 Rules in 1954 required 2.6 at bats per team game, 400 for a 154-game schedule (the rule was changed in 1957 to the current requirement of 3.1 plate appearances per team game), to qualify for the title and hitless at bats could be added to reach this total.[300] Ted Williams posted a .345 average in 1954 over only 386 at bats, and the required hitless at bats drop him below Avila's league-leading .341 average.[218]

tag: ul


document_title: Period 6 element

question_text: what 6th period metal is liquid at room temperature

question_tokens: what 6th period metal is liquid at room temperature

text: Period 6 element

text: Properties[edit]

text: This period contains the lanthanides, also known as the rare earths. Many lanthanides are known for their magnetic properties, such as neodymium. Many period 6 transition metals are very valuable, such as gold, however many period 6 other metals are incredibly toxic, such as thallium. Period 6 contains the last stable element, lead. All subsequent elements in the periodic table are radioactive. After bismuth, which has a half-life or more than 1019 years, polonium, astatine, and radon are some of the shortest-lived and rarest elements known; less than a gram of astatine is estimated to exist on earth at any given time.[1]

tag: p

text: Atomic characteristics[edit]

text:
Chemical element
Chemical series
Electron configuration

55
Cs
Caesium
Alkali metal
[Xe] 6s1

56
Ba
Barium
Alkaline earth metal
[Xe] 6s2

57
La
Lanthanum
Lanthanide [a]
[Xe] 5d1 6s2 [b]

58
Ce
Cerium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2 [b]

59
Pr
Praseodymium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f3 6s2

60
Nd
Neodymium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f4 6s2

61
Pm
Promethium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f5 6s2

62
Sm
Samarium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f6 6s2

63
Eu
Europium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f7 6s2

64
Gd
Gadolinium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2 [b]

65
Tb
Terbium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f9 6s2

66
Dy
Dysprosium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f10 6s2

67
Ho
Holmium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f11 6s2

68
Er
Erbium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f12 6s2

69
Tm
Thulium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f13 6s2

70
Yb
Ytterbium
Lanthanide
[Xe] 4f14 6s2

71
Lu
Lutetium
Lanthanide [a]
[Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2

72
Hf
Hafnium
Transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d2 6s2

73
Ta
Tantalum
Transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d3 6s2

74
W
Tungsten
Transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2

75
Re
Rhenium
Transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d5 6s2

76
Os
Osmium
Transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2

77
Ir
Iridium
Transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d7 6s2

78
Pt
Platinum
Transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s1 [b]

79
Au
Gold
Transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1 [b]

80
Hg
Mercury
Post-transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2

81
Tl
Thallium
Post-transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p1

82
Pb
Lead
Post-transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2

83
Bi
Bismuth
Post-transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3

84
Po
Polonium
Post-transition metal
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4

85
At
Astatine
Halogen
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5

86
Rn
Radon
Noble gas
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6

text:
a Note that lutetium (or, alternatively, lanthanum) is considered to be a transition metal, but marked as a lanthanide, as it is considered so by IUPAC.
b An exception to the Madelung rule.

text: s-block elements[edit]

text: Caesium[edit]

text: Caesium or cesium[note 1] is the chemical element with the symbol Cs and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a melting point of 28 °C (82 °F), which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at (or near) room temperature.[note 2] Caesium is an alkali metal and has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium. The metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric, reacting with water even at−116 °C (−177 °F). It is the least electronegative element having a stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite, while the radioisotopes, especially caesium-137, a fission product, are extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors.

text: Two German chemists, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy. The first small-scale applications for caesium have been as a "getter" in vacuum tubes and in photoelectric cells. In 1967, a specific frequency from the emission spectrum of caesium-133 was chosen to be used in the definition of the second by the International System of Units. Since then, caesium has been widely used in atomic clocks.

text: Since the 1990s, the largest application of the element has been as caesium formate for drilling fluids. It has a range of applications in the production of electricity, in electronics, and in chemistry. The radioactive isotope caesium-137 has a half-life of about 30 years and is used in medical applications, industrial gauges, and hydrology. Although the element is only mildly toxic, it is a hazardous material as a metal and its radioisotopes present a high health risk in case of radioactivity releases.

text: Barium[edit]

text: Barium is a chemical element with the symbol Ba and atomic number 56. It is the fifth element in Group 2, a soft silvery metallic alkaline earth metal. Barium is never found in nature in its pure form due to its reactivity with air. Its oxide is historically known as baryta but it reacts with water and carbon dioxide and is not found as a mineral. The most common naturally occurring minerals are the very insoluble barium sulfate, BaSO4 (barite), and barium carbonate, BaCO3(witherite). Barium's name originates from Greek barys (βαρύς), meaning "heavy", describing the high density of some common barium-containing ores.

text: Barium has few industrial applications, but the metal has been historically used to scavenge air in vacuum tubes. Barium compounds impart a green color to flames and have been used in fireworks. Barium sulfate is used for its density, insolubility, and X-ray opacity. It is used as an insoluble heavy additive to oil well drilling mud, and in purer form, as an X-ray radiocontrast agent for imaging the human gastrointestinal tract. Soluble barium compounds are poisonous due to release of the soluble barium ion, and have been used as rodenticides. New uses for barium continue to be sought. It is a component of some "high temperature" YBCOsuperconductors, and electroceramics.

text: f-block elements (lanthanides)[edit]

text: The lanthanide or lanthanoid (IUPAC nomenclature)[6] series comprises the fifteen metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71, from lanthanum through lutetium.[1]:240[7][8] These fifteen elements, along with the chemically similar elements scandium and yttrium, are often collectively known as the rare earth elements.

text: The informal chemical symbol Ln is used in general discussions of lanthanide chemistry. All but one of the lanthanides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling of the 4f electron shell; lutetium, a d-block element, is also generally considered to be a lanthanide due to its chemical similarities with the other fourteen. All lanthanide elements form trivalent cations, Ln3+, whose chemistry is largely determined by the ionic radius, which decreases steadily from lanthanum to lutetium.

text:
Chemical element
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

Atomic number
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71

Image

Density (g/cm3)
6.162
6.770
6.77
7.01
7.26
7.52
5.244
7.90
8.23
8.540
8.79
9.066
9.32
6.90
9.841

Melting point (°C)
920
795
935
1024
1042
1072
826
1312
1356
1407
1461
1529
1545
824
1652

Atomic electron configuration*
5d1
4f15d1
4f3
4f4
4f5
4f6
4f7
4f75d1
4f9
4f10
4f11
4f12
4f13
4f14
4f145d1

Ln3+ electron configuration*[9]
4f0[10]
4f1
4f2
4f3
4f4
4f5
4f6
4f7
4f8
4f9
4f10
4f11
4f12
4f13

4f14

Ln3+ radius (pm)[11]
103
102
99
98.3
97
95.8
94.7
93.8
92.3
91.2
90.1
89
88
86.8
86.1

text: Between initial [Xe] and final 6s2 electronic shells

text: The lanthanide elements are the group of elements with atomic number increasing from 57 (lanthanum) to 71 (lutetium). They are termed lanthanide because the lighter elements in the series are chemically similar to lanthanum. Strictly speaking, both lanthanum and lutetium have been labeled as group 3 elements, because they both have a single valence electron in the d shell. However, both elements are often included in any general discussion of the chemistry of the lanthanide elements.

text: In presentations of the periodic table, the lanthanides and the actinides are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table,[1] with placeholders or else a selected single element of each series (either lanthanum or lutetium, and either actinium or lawrencium, respectively) shown in a single cell of the main table, between barium and hafnium, and radium and rutherfordium, respectively. This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table inserts the lanthanide and actinide series in their proper places, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods).

text: d-block elements[edit]

text: Lutetium[edit]

text: Lutetium (/ljuːˈtiːʃiəm/ lew-TEE-shee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Lu and atomic number 71. It is the last element in the lanthanide series, which, along with the lanthanide contraction, explains several important properties of lutetium, such as it having the highest hardness or density among lanthanides. Unlike other lanthanides, which lie in the f-block of the periodic table, this element lies in the d-block; however, lanthanum is sometimes placed on the d-block lanthanide position. Chemically, lutetium is a typical lanthanide: its only common oxidation state is +3, seen in its oxide, halides and other compounds. In an aqueous solution, like compounds of other late lanthanides, soluble lutetium compounds form a complex with nine water molecules.

text: Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain, Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, and American chemist Charles James. All of these men found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia, which was previously thought to consist entirely of ytterbium. The dispute on the priority of the discovery occurred shortly after, with Urbain and von Welsbach accusing each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other; the naming honor went to Urbain as he published his results earlier. He chose the name lutecium for the new element but in 1949 the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium. In 1909, the priority was finally granted to Urbain and his names were adopted as official ones; however, the name cassiopeium (or later cassiopium) for element 71 proposed by von Welsbach was used by many German scientists until the 1950s. Like other lanthanides, lutetium is one of the elements that traditionally were included in the classification "rare earths."

text: Lutetium is rare and expensive; consequently, it has few specific uses. For example, a radioactive isotope lutetium-176 is used in nuclear technology to determine the age of meteorites. Lutetium usually occurs in association with the element yttrium and is sometimes used in metal alloys and as a catalyst in various chemical reactions. 177Lu-DOTA-TATE is used for radionuclide therapy (see Nuclear medicine) on neuroendocrine tumours.

text: Hafnium[edit]

text: Hafnium (/ˈhæfniəm/ HAF-nee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Hf and atomic number 72. A lustrous, silvery gray, tetravalent transition metal, hafnium chemically resembles zirconium and is found in zirconium minerals. Its existence was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Hafnium was the penultimate stable isotope element to be discovered (rhenium was identified two years later). Hafnium is named for Hafnia, the Latin name for "Copenhagen", where it was discovered.

text: Hafnium is used in filaments and electrodes. Some semiconductor fabrication processes use its oxide for integrated circuits at 45 nm and smaller feature lengths. Some superalloys used for special applications contain hafnium in combination with niobium, titanium, or tungsten.

text: Hafnium's large neutron capture cross-section makes it a good material for neutron absorption in control rods in nuclear power plants, but at the same time requires that it be removed from the neutron-transparent corrosion-resistant zirconium alloys used in nuclear reactors.

text: Tantalum[edit]

text: Tantalum (/ˈtæntələm/ TAN-təl-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Ta and atomic number 73. Previously known as tantalium, the name comes from Tantalus, a character from Greek mythology.[12] Tantalum is a rare, hard, blue-gray, lustrous transition metal that is highly corrosion resistant. It is part of the refractory metals group, which are widely used as minor component in alloys. The chemical inertness of tantalum makes it a valuable substance for laboratory equipment and a substitute for platinum, but its main use today is in tantalum capacitors in electronic equipment such as mobile phones, DVD players, video game systems and computers. Tantalum, always together with the chemically similar niobium, occurs in the minerals tantalite, columbite and coltan (a mix of columbite and tantalite).

text: Tungsten[edit]

text: Tungsten /ˈtʌŋstən/, also known as wolfram /ˈwʊlfrəm/ (WUUL-frəm), is a chemical element with the chemical symbol W and atomic number 74. The word tungsten comes from the Swedish language tung sten directly translatable to heavy stone,[13] though the name is volfram in Swedish to distinguish it from Scheelite, in Swedish alternatively named tungsten.

text: A hard, rare metal under standard conditions when uncombined, tungsten is found naturally on Earth only in chemical compounds. It was identified as a new element in 1781, and first isolated as a metal in 1783. Its important ores include wolframite and scheelite. The free element is remarkable for its robustness, especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the non-alloyed metals and the second highest of all the elements after carbon. Also remarkable is its high density of 19.3 times that of water, comparable to that of uranium and gold, and much higher (about 1.7 times) than that of lead.[14] Tungsten with minor amounts of impurities is often brittle[15] and hard, making it difficult to work. However, very pure tungsten, though still hard, is more ductile, and can be cut with a hard-steel hacksaw.[16]

text: The unalloyed elemental form is used mainly in electrical applications. Tungsten's many alloys have numerous applications, most notably in incandescent light bulb filaments, X-ray tubes (as both the filament and target), electrodes in TIG welding, and superalloys. Tungsten's hardness and high density give it military applications in penetrating projectiles. Tungsten compounds are most often used industrially as catalysts.

text: Tungsten is the only metal from the third transition series that is known to occur in biomolecules, where it is used in a few species of bacteria. It is the heaviest element known to be used by any living organism. Tungsten interferes with molybdenum and copper metabolism, and is somewhat toxic to animal life.[17][18]

text: Rhenium[edit]

text: Rhenium (/ˈriːniəm/ REE-nee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a silvery-white, heavy, third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table. With an estimated average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. The free element has the third-highest melting point and highest boiling point of any element. Rhenium resembles manganese chemically and is obtained as a by-product of molybdenum and copper ore's extraction and refinement. Rhenium shows in its compounds a wide variety of oxidation states ranging from −1 to +7.

text: Discovered in 1925, rhenium was the last stable element to be discovered. It was named after the river Rhine in Europe.

text: Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines, these alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element, with the chemical industry's catalytic uses being next-most important. Because of the low availability relative to demand, rhenium is among the most expensive of metals, with an average price of approximately US$4,575 per kilogram (US$142.30 per troy ounce) as of August 2011; it is also of critical strategic military importance, for its use in high performance military jet and rocket engines.[19]

text: Osmium[edit]

text: Osmium (/ˈɒzmiəm/ OZ-mee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Os and atomic number 76. It is a hard, brittle, blue-gray or blue-black transition metal in the platinum family and is the densest naturally occurring element, with a density of 7004225900000000000♠22.59 g/cm3 (slightly greater than that of iridium and twice that of lead). It is found in nature as an alloy, mostly in platinum ores; its alloys with platinum, iridium, and other platinum group metals are employed in fountain pen tips, electrical contacts, and other applications where extreme durability and hardness are needed.[20]

text: Iridium[edit]

text: Iridium (/ɪˈrɪdiəm/ i-RID-ee-əm) is the chemical element with atomic number 77, and is represented by the symbol Ir. A very hard, brittle, silvery-white transition metal of the platinum family, iridium is the second-densest element (after osmium) and is the most corrosion-resistant metal, even at temperatures as high as 2000 °C. Although only certain molten salts and halogens are corrosive to solid iridium, finely divided iridium dust is much more reactive and can be flammable.

text: Iridium was discovered in 1803 among insoluble impurities in natural platinum. Smithson Tennant, the primary discoverer, named the iridium for the goddess Iris, personification of the rainbow, because of the striking and diverse colors of its salts. Iridium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust, with annual production and consumption of only three tonnes. 191Ir and 193Ir are the only two naturally occurring isotopes of iridium as well as the only stable isotopes; the latter is the more abundant of the two.

text: The most important iridium compounds in use are the salts and acids it forms with chlorine, though iridium also forms a number of organometallic compounds used in industrial catalysis, and in research. Iridium metal is employed when high corrosion resistance at high temperatures is needed, as in high-end spark plugs, crucibles for recrystallization of semiconductors at high temperatures, and electrodes for the production of chlorine in the chloralkali process. Iridium radioisotopes are used in some radioisotope thermoelectric generators.

text: Iridium is found in meteorites with an abundance much higher than its average abundance in the Earth's crust. For this reason the unusually high abundance of iridium in the clay layer at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary gave rise to the Alvarez hypothesis that the impact of a massive extraterrestrial object caused the extinction of dinosaurs and many other species 66 million years ago. It is thought that the total amount of iridium in the planet Earth is much higher than that observed in crustal rocks, but as with other platinum group metals, the high density and tendency of iridium to bond with iron caused most iridium to descend below the crust when the planet was young and still molten.

text: Platinum[edit]

text: Platinum (/ˈplætɪnəm/) is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Pt and an atomic number of 78.

text: Its name is derived from the Spanish term platina, which is literally translated into "little silver".[21][22] It is a dense, malleable, ductile, precious, gray-white transition metal.

text: Platinum has six naturally occurring isotopes. It is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust and has an average abundance of approximately 5 μg/kg. It is the least reactive metal. It occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with some native deposits, mostly in South Africa, which accounts for 80% of the world production.

text: As a member of the platinum group of elements, as well as of the group 10 of the periodic table of elements, platinum is generally non-reactive. It exhibits a remarkable resistance to corrosion, even at high temperatures, and as such is considered a noble metal. As a result, platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum. Because it occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of various rivers, it was first used by pre-Columbian South American natives to produce artifacts. It was referenced in European writings as early as 16th century, but it was not until Antonio de Ulloa published a report on a new metal of Colombian origin in 1748 that it became investigated by scientists.

text: Platinum is used in catalytic converters, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts and electrodes, platinum-resistance thermometers, dentistry equipment, and jewelry. Because only a few hundred tonnes are produced annually, it is a scarce material, and is highly valuable and is a major precious metal commodity. Being a heavy metal, it leads to health issues upon exposure to its salts, but due to its corrosion resistance, it is not as toxic as some metals.[23] Its compounds, most notably cisplatin, are applied in chemotherapy against certain types of cancer.[24]

text: Gold[edit]

text: Gold /ˈɡoʊld/ is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. It is a chemical element with the symbol Au and atomic number 79.

text: Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements solid under standard conditions. The metal therefore occurs often in free elemental (native) form, as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, usually with tellurium.

text: Gold resists attacks by individual acids, but it can be dissolved by the aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), so named because it dissolves gold. Gold also dissolves in alkaline solutions of cyanide, which have been used in mining. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys. Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which dissolves silver and base metals, a property that has long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, giving rise to the term the acid test.

text: Gold has been a valuable and highly sought-after precious metal for coinage, jewelry, and other arts since long before the beginning of recorded history. Gold standards have been a common basis for monetary policies throughout human history[citation needed], later being supplanted by fiat currency starting in the 1930s. The last gold certificate and gold coin currencies were issued in the U.S. in 1932. In Europe, most countries left the gold standard with the start of World War I in 1914 and, with huge war debts, failed to return to gold as a medium of exchange.

text: A total of 165,000 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, as of 2009.[25] This is roughly equivalent to 5.3 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 8500 m3, or a cube 20.4 m on a side. The world consumption of new gold produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry.[26]

text: Besides its widespread monetary and symbolic functions, gold has many practical uses in dentistry, electronics, and other fields. Its high malleability, ductility, resistance to corrosion and most other chemical reactions, and conductivity of electricity led to many uses of gold, including electric wiring, colored-glass production and even gold leaf eating.

text: It has been claimed that most of the Earth's gold lies at its core, the metal's high density having made it sink there in the planet's youth. Virtually all of the gold that mankind has discovered is considered to have been deposited later by meteorites which contained the element. This supposedly explains why, in prehistory, gold appeared as nuggets on the earth's surface.[27][28][29][30][31]

text: Mercury[edit]

text: Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is also known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum ( < Greek "hydr-" water and "argyros" silver). A heavy, silvery d-block element, mercury is the only metal that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is bromine, though metals such as caesium, francium, gallium, and rubidium melt just above room temperature. With a freezing point of −38.83 °C and boiling point of 356.73 °C, mercury has one of the narrowest ranges of its liquid state of any metal.[32][33][34]

text: Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). The red pigment vermilion is mostly obtained by reduction from cinnabar. Cinnabar is highly toxic by ingestion or inhalation of the dust. Mercury poisoning can also result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury (such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury), inhalation of mercury vapor, or eating seafood contaminated with mercury.

text: Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves, mercury switches, and other devices though concerns about the element's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers being largely phased out in clinical environments in favor of alcohol-filled, galinstan-filled, digital, or thermistor-based instruments. It remains in use in scientific research applications and in amalgam material for dental restoration. It is used in lighting: electricity passed through mercury vapor in a phosphor tube produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor to fluoresce, making visible light.

text: p-block elements[edit]

text: Thallium[edit]

text: Thallium (/ˈθæliəm/ THAL-ee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic number 81. This soft gray other metal resembles tin but discolors when exposed to air. The two chemists William Crookes and Claude-Auguste Lamy discovered thallium independently in 1861 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy. Both discovered the new element in residues of sulfuric acid production.

text: Approximately 60–70% of thallium production is used in the electronics industry, and the remainder is used in the pharmaceutical industry and in glass manufacturing.[35] It is also used in infrared detectors. Thallium is highly toxic and was used in rat poisons and insecticides. Its use has been reduced or eliminated in many countries because of its nonselective toxicity. Because of its use for murder, thallium has gained the nicknames "The Poisoner's Poison" and "Inheritance Powder" (alongside arsenic).[36]

text: Lead[edit]

text: Lead /ˈlɛd/ is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb (from Latin: plumbum) and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable other metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is melted into a liquid.

text: Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shots, weights, as part of solders, pewters, fusible alloys and as a radiation shield. Lead has the highest atomic number of all of the stable elements, although the next higher element, bismuth, has a half-life that is so long (much longer than the age of the universe) that it can be considered stable. Its four stable isotopes have 82 protons, a magic number in the nuclear shell model of atomic nuclei.

text: Lead, at certain exposure levels, is a poisonous substance to animals as well as for human beings. It damages the nervous system and causes brain disorders. Excessive lead also causes blood disorders in mammals. Like the element mercury, another heavy metal, lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates both in soft tissues and the bones. Lead poisoning has been documented from ancient Rome, ancient Greece, and ancient China.

text: Bismuth[edit]

text: Bismuth (/ˈbɪzməθ/ BIZ-məth) is a chemical element with symbol Bi and atomic number 83. Bismuth, a trivalent other metal, chemically resembles arsenic and antimony. Elemental bismuth may occur naturally uncombined, although its sulfide and oxide form important commercial ores. The free element is 86% as dense as lead. It is a brittle metal with a silvery white color when newly made, but often seen in air with a pink tinge owing to the surface oxide. Bismuth metal has been known from ancient times, although until the 18th century it was often confused with lead and tin, which each have some of the metal's bulk physical properties. The etymology is uncertain but possibly comes from Arabic "bi ismid" meaning having the properties of antimony[37] or German words weisse masse or wismuth meaningwhite mass.[38]

text: Bismuth is the most naturally diamagnetic of all metals, and only mercury has a lower thermal conductivity.

text: Bismuth has classically been considered to be the heaviest naturally occurring stable element, in terms of atomic mass. Recently, however, it has been found to be very slightly radioactive: its only primordial isotope bismuth-209 decays via alpha decay into thallium-205 with a half-life of more than a billion times the estimated age of the universe.[39]

text: Bismuth compounds (accounting for about half the production of bismuth) are used in cosmetics, pigments, and a few pharmaceuticals. Bismuth has unusually low toxicity for a heavy metal. As the toxicity of lead has become more apparent in recent years, alloy uses for bismuth metal (presently about a third of bismuth production), as a replacement for lead, have become an increasing part of bismuth's commercial importance.

text: Polonium[edit]

text: Polonium (/poʊˈloʊniəm/ po-LOH-nee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Po and atomic number 84, discovered in 1898 by Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie. A rare and highly radioactive element, polonium is chemically similar to bismuth[40] and tellurium, and it occurs in uraniumores. Polonium has been studied for possible use in heating spacecraft. As it is unstable, all isotopes of polonium are radioactive. There is disagreement as to whether polonium is a post-transition metal or metalloid.[41][42]

text: Astatine[edit]

text: Astatine (/ˈæstətiːn/ AS-tə-teen or /ˈæstətɪn/ AS-tə-tin) is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol At and atomic number 85. It occurs on the Earth only as the result of decay of heavier elements, and decays away rapidly, so much less is known about this element than its upper neighbors in the periodic table. Earlier studies have shown this element follows periodic trends, being the heaviest known halogen, with melting and boiling points being higher than those of lighter halogens.

text: Until recently most of the chemical characteristics of astatine were inferred from comparison with other elements; however, important studies have already been done. The main difference between astatine and iodine is that the HAt molecule is chemically a hydride rather than a halide; however, in a fashion similar to the lighter halogens, it is known to form ionic astatides with metals. Bonds to nonmetals result in positive oxidation states, with +1 best portrayed by monohalides and their derivatives, while the higher are characterized by bond to oxygen and carbon. Attempts to synthesize astatine fluoride have been met with failure. The second longest-living astatine-211 is the only one to find a commercial use, being useful as an alpha emitter in medicine; however, only extremely small quantities are used, and in larger ones it is very hazardous, as it is intensely radioactive.

text: Astatine was first produced by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè in the University of California, Berkeley in 1940. Three years later, it was found in nature; however, with an estimated amount of less than 28 grams (1 oz) at given time, astatine is the least abundant element in Earth's crust among non-transuranium elements. Among astatine isotopes, six (with mass numbers 214 to 219) are present in nature as the result of decay of heavier elements; however, the most stable astatine-210 and the industrially used astatine-211 are not.

text: Radon[edit]

text: Radon (/ˈreɪdɒn/ RAY-don) is a chemical element with symbol Rn and atomic number 86. It is a radioactive, colorless, odorless, tasteless[citation needed] noble gas, occurring naturally as the decay product of uranium or thorium. Its most stable isotope, 222Rn, has a half-life of 3.8 days. Radon is one of the densest substances that remains a gas under normal conditions. It is also the only gas that is radioactive under normal conditions, and is considered a health hazard due to its radioactivity. Intense radioactivity also hindered chemical studies of radon and only a few compounds are known.

text: Radon is formed as part of the normal radioactive decay chain of uranium and thorium. Uranium and thorium have been around since the earth was formed and their most common isotope has a very long half-life (14.05 billion years). Uranium and thorium, radium, and thus radon, will continue to occur for millions of years at about the same concentrations as they do now.[43] As the radioactive gas of radon decays, it produces new radioactive elements called radon daughters or decay products. Radon daughters are solids and stick to surfaces such as dust particles in the air. If contaminated dust is inhaled, these particles can stick to the airways of the lung and increase the risk of developing lung cancer.[44]

text: Radon is responsible for the majority of the public exposure to ionizing radiation. It is often the single largest contributor to an individual's background radiation dose, and is the most variable from location to location. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as attics and basements. It can also be found in some spring waters and hot springs.[45]

text: Epidemiological studies have shown a clear link between breathing high concentrations of radon and incidence of lung cancer. Thus, radon is considered a significant contaminant that affects indoor air quality worldwide. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking, causing 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States. About 2,900 of these deaths occur among people who have never smoked. While radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, it is the number one cause among non-smokers, according to EPA estimates.[46]

text: Biological role[edit]

text: Of the period 6 elements, only tungsten is known to have any biological role in organisms. However, gold, platinum, mercury, and some lanthanides such as gadolinium have applications as drugs.

text: Toxicity[edit]

text: Most of the period 6 elements are toxic(for instance lead) and produce heavy-element poisoning. Promethium, polonium, astatine and radon are radioactive, and therefore present radioactive hazards.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Caesium is the spelling recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).[2] The American Chemical Society (ACS) has used the spelling cesium since 1921,[3][4] following Webster's New International Dictionary. The element was named after the Latin word caesius, meaning "bluish gray". More spelling explanation at ae/oe vs e.
Jump up ^ Along with rubidium (39 °C [102 °F]), francium (estimated at 27 °C [81 °F]), mercury (−39 °C [−38 °F]), and gallium (30 °C [86 °F]); bromine is also liquid at room temperature (melting at −7.2 °C, 19 °F) but it is a halogen, not a metal.[5]

tag: ol


document_title: United States Capitol

question_text: who won the contest to design the capitol building

text: United States Capitol

text: History[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: Prior to establishing the nation's capital in Washington, D.C., the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia (Independence Hall and Congress Hall), New York City (Federal Hall), and a number of other locations (York, Pennsylvania; Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Maryland State House in Annapolis, Maryland; and Nassau Hall in Princeton, New Jersey).[2] In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, which met from May 1775 to March 1781.

text: After adopting the Articles of Confederation in York, Pennsylvania, the Congress of the Confederation was formed and convened in Philadelphia from March 1781 until June 1783, when a mob of angry soldiers converged upon Independence Hall, demanding payment for their service during the American Revolutionary War. Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21, 1783,[3] and met in Annapolis, Maryland, and Trenton, New Jersey, before ending up in New York City.

text: The United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4, 1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790,[4] when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. The decision to locate the capital was contentious, but Alexander Hamilton helped broker a compromise in which the federal government would take on war debt incurred during the American Revolutionary War, in exchange for support from northern states for locating the capital along the Potomac River. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a temporary capital for ten years (until December 1800), until the nation's capital in Washington, D.C., would be ready.[5]

text: Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city.[6] L'Enfant chose Jenkin's Hill as the site for the "Congress House", with a "grand avenue" (now Pennsylvania Avenue, NW) connecting it with the President's House, and a public space containing a broader "grand avenue" (now the National Mall) stretching westward to the Potomac River (see: L'Enfant Plan).[7][8]

text: Name[edit]

text: In reviewing L'Enfant's plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the "Capitol" rather than "Congress House".[7] The word "Capitol" comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, one of the seven hills of Rome.[9][10] The connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear.[11] In addition to coming up with a city plan, L'Enfant had been tasked with designing the Capitol and President's House; however, he was dismissed in February 1792 over disagreements with President George Washington and the commissioners, and there were no plans at that point for the Capitol.[12]

text: Design competition[edit]

text: In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a design competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the "President's House", and set a four-month deadline. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City. At least ten individuals submitted designs for the Capitol; however the drawings were regarded as crude and amateurish, reflecting the level of architectural skill present in the United States at the time.[13] The most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect.[14] However, Hallet's designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, and were deemed too costly.[15]

text: A late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31, 1793, to much praise for its "Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty" by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the center portion of the design.[16][17] Thornton's design was officially approved in a letter dated April 5, 1793, from Washington, and Thornton served as the first Architect of the Capitol (and later first Superintendent of the United States Patent Office).[18] In an effort to console Hallet, the commissioners appointed him to review Thornton's plans, develop cost estimates, and serve as superintendent of construction. Hallet proceeded to pick apart and make drastic changes to Thornton's design, which he saw as costly to build and problematic.[19] In July 1793, Jefferson convened a five-member commission, bringing Hallet and Thornton together, along with James Hoban (winning architect of the "President's Palace") to address problems with and revise Thornton's plan. Hallet suggested changes to the floor plan, which could be fitted within the exterior design by Thornton.[20][21] The revised plan was accepted, except that Secretary Jefferson and President Washington insisted on an open recess in the center of the East front, which was part of Thornton's original plan.[22]

text: The original design by Thornton was later modified by the famous British-American architects Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Sr., and then Charles Bulfinch.[23] The current cast-iron dome and the House's new southern extension and Senate new northern wing were designed by Thomas U. Walter and August Schoenborn, a German immigrant, in the 1850s,[24] and were completed under the supervision of Edward Clark.[25]

text: Construction[edit]

text: L'Enfant secured the lease of quarries at Wigginton Island and along Aquia Creek in Virginia for use in the foundations and outer walls of the Capitol in November 1791.[26] Surveying was under way soon after the Jefferson conference plan for the Capitol was accepted.[20] On September 18, 1793, President George Washington, along with eight other Freemasons dressed in masonic regalia, laid the cornerstone, which was made by silversmith Caleb Bentley.[27][28]

text: Construction proceeded with Hallet working under supervision of James Hoban, who was also busy working on construction of the "President's House" (also later known as the "Executive Mansion"). Despite the wishes of Jefferson and the President, Hallet went ahead anyway and modified Thornton's design for the East Front and created a square central court that projected from the center, with flanking wings which would house the legislative bodies. Hallet was dismissed by Secretary Jefferson on November 15, 1794.[29] George Hadfield was hired on October 15, 1795, as Superintendent of Construction, but resigned three years later in May 1798, because of his dissatisfaction with Thornton's plan and quality of work done thus far.[30]

text: The Senate (north) wing was completed in 1800. The Senate and House shared quarters in the north wing until a temporary wooden pavilion was erected on the future site of the House wing which served for a few years for the Representatives to meet in, until the House of Representatives (south) wing was finally completed in 1811, with a covered wooden temporary walkway connecting the two wings with the Congressional chambers where the future center section with rotunda and dome would someday rise. However, the House of Representatives moved early into their House wing in 1807. Though the Senate wing building was incomplete, the Capitol held its first session of the United States Congress with both chambers in session on November 17, 1800. The National Legislature was moved to Washington prematurely, at the urging of President John Adams, in hopes of securing enough Southern votes in the Electoral College to be re-elected for a second term as President.[31]

text: Early religious use[edit]

text: For several decades, beginning when the federal government moved to Washington in the fall of 1800, the Capitol building was used for Sunday religious services as well as for governmental functions. The first services were conducted in the "hall" of the House in the north wing of the building. In 1801 the House moved to temporary quarters in the south wing, called the "Oven," which it vacated in 1804, returning to the north wing for three years. Then, from 1807 to 1857, they were held in the then-House Chamber (now called Statuary Hall). When held in the House chamber, the Speaker's podium was used as the preacher's pulpit. According to the U.S. Library of Congress exhibit Religion and the Founding of the American Republic:

text: It is no exaggeration to say that on Sundays in Washington during the administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) and of James Madison (1809-1817) the state became the church. Within a year of his inauguration, Jefferson began attending church services in the chamber of the House of Representatives. Madison followed Jefferson's example, although unlike Jefferson, who rode on horseback to church in the Capitol, Madison came in a coach and four. Worship services in the House—a practice that continued until after the Civil War—were acceptable to Jefferson because they were nondiscriminatory and voluntary. Preachers of every Protestant denomination appeared. (Catholic priests began officiating in 1826.) As early as January 1806 a female evangelist, Dorothy Ripley, delivered a camp meeting-style exhortation in the House to Jefferson, Vice President Aaron Burr, and a "crowded audience."[32]

text: War of 1812[edit]

text: Not long after the completion of both wings, the Capitol was partially burned by the British on August 24, 1814, during the War of 1812. George Bomford and Joseph Gardner Swift, both military engineers, were called upon to help rebuild the Capitol. Reconstruction began in 1815 and included redesigned chambers for both Senate and House wings (now sides), which were completed by 1819. During the reconstruction, Congress met in the Old Brick Capitol, a temporary structure financed by local investors. Construction continued through to 1826, with the addition of the center section with front steps and columned portico and an interior Rotunda, rising above the first low dome of the Capitol. Latrobe is principally connected with the original construction and many innovative interior features; his successor, Bulfinch, also played a major role, such as the design of the first low dome covered in copper.

text: The House and Senate Wings[edit]

text: By 1850, it became clear that the Capitol could not accommodate the growing number of legislators arriving from newly admitted states. A new design competition was held, and President Millard Fillmore appointed Philadelphia architect Thomas U. Walter to carry out the expansion. Two new wings were added – a new chamber for the House of Representatives on the south side, and a new chamber for the Senate on the north.[33]

text: When the Capitol was expanded in the 1850s, some of the construction labor was carried out by slaves "who cut the logs, laid the stones and baked the bricks".[34] The original plan was to use workers brought in from Europe; however, there was a poor response to recruitment efforts, and African Americans, some free and some enslaved, composed the majority of the work force.[35]

text: Capitol dome[edit]

text: The 1850 expansion more than doubled the length of the Capitol, dwarfing the original, timber-framed, copper-sheeted, low dome of 1818, designed by Charles Bulfinch and no longer in proportion with the increased size of the building. In 1855, the decision was made to tear it down and replace it with the "wedding-cake style" cast-iron dome that stands today. Also designed by Thomas U. Walter, the new dome would stand three times the height of the original dome and 100 feet (30 m) in diameter, yet had to be supported on the existing masonry piers. Like Mansart's dome at "Les Invalides" (which he had visited in 1838), Walter's dome is double, with a large oculus in the inner dome, through which is seen "The Apotheosis of Washington" painted on a shell suspended from the supporting ribs, which also support the visible exterior structure and the tholos that supports The "Statue of Freedom", a colossal statue that was raised to the top of the dome in 1863. This statue was cast by a slave named Philip Reid. The weight of the cast iron for the dome has been published as 8,909,200 pounds (4,041,100 kg).[36]

text: Later expansion[edit]

text: When the Capitol's new dome was finally completed, its massive visual weight, in turn, overpowered the proportions of the columns of the East Portico, built in 1828. The East Front of the Capitol building was rebuilt in 1904, following a design of the architects Carrère and Hastings, who also designed the Russell Senate and Cannon House office buildings.

text: The next major expansion to the Capitol started in 1958, with a 33.5 feet (10.2 m) extension of the East Portico.[citation needed] During this project, in 1960 the dome underwent a restoration.[37] A marble duplicate of the sandstone East Front was built 33.5 feet (10.2 m) from the old Front. (In 1962, a connecting extension incorporated what had been an outside wall as an inside wall.) In the process, the Corinthian columns were removed. It was not until 1984 that landscape designer Russell Page created a suitable setting for them in a large meadow at the U.S. National Arboretum in northeast Washington as the National Capitol Columns, where they are combined with a reflecting pool in an ensemble that reminds some visitors of the ruins of Persepolis, in Persia. Besides the columns, hundreds of blocks of the original stone were removed and are stored behind a National Park Service maintenance yard in Rock Creek Park.[38]

text: On December 19, 1960, the Capitol was declared a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service.[39] The building was ranked #6 in a 2007 survey conducted for the American Institute of Architects' "America's Favorite Architecture" list.[40] The Capitol draws heavily from other notable buildings, especially churches and landmarks in Europe, including the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican and St. Paul's Cathedral in London.[41] On the roofs of the Senate and House Chambers are flagpoles that fly the U.S. flag when either is in session. On September 18, 1993, to commemorate the Capitol's bicentennial, the Masonic ritual cornerstone laying with George Washington was reenacted. U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond was one of the Freemason politicians who took part in the ceremony.

text: On June 20, 2000, ground was broken for the Capitol Visitor Center, which opened on December 2, 2008.[42] From 2001 through 2008, the East Front of the Capitol (site of most presidential inaugurations until Ronald Reagan began a new tradition in 1981) was the site of construction for this massive underground complex, designed to facilitate a more orderly entrance for visitors to the Capitol. Prior to the center being built, visitors to the Capitol had to line up in the basement of the Cannon House Office Building or the Russell Senate Office Building. The new underground facility provides a grand entrance hall, a visitors theater, room for exhibits, and dining and restroom facilities, in addition to space for building necessities such as an underground service tunnel.

text: A large-scale Capitol dome restoration project, the first extensive such work since 1959–1960, began in 2014, with completion scheduled before the 2017 presidential inauguration.[43] As of 2012, $20 million in work around the skirt of the dome had been completed, but other deterioration, including at least 1,300 cracks in the brittle iron that have led to rusting and seepage inside, needed to be addressed. Before the August 2012 recess, the Senate Appropriations Committee voted to spend $61 million to repair the exterior of the dome. The House wanted to spend less on government operations,[37] but in late 2013, it was announced that renovations would take place over two years, starting in spring 2014.[44] Extensive scaffolding was erected in 2014, enclosing and obscuring the dome.[43] All exterior scaffolding was removed by mid-September 2016.[45]

text: Interior[edit]

text: The Capitol building is marked by its central dome above a rotunda in the central section of the structure (which also includes, the older original smaller center flanked by the two original (designed 1793, occupied 1800) smaller two wings (inner north) and inner south) containing the two original smaller meeting chambers for the Senate and the House of Representatives (between 1800 and late 1850s) and then flanked by two further extended (newer) wings, one also for each chamber of the larger, more populous Congress: the new north wing is the Senate chamber and the new south wing is the House of Representatives chamber. Above these newer chambers are galleries where visitors can watch the Senate and House of Representatives. It is an example of the neoclassical architecture style.

text: Underground tunnels and internal subways connect the Capitol building with the Congressional office buildings in the Capitol Complex. All rooms in the Capitol are designated as either S (for Senate) or H (for House), depending on whether they are in the Senate or House wing of the Capitol.

text: Art[edit]

text: The Capitol has a long history in art of the United States, beginning in 1856 with Italian/Greek American artist Constantino Brumidi and his murals in the hallways of the first floor of the Senate side of the Capitol. The murals, known as the Brumidi Corridors,[46] reflect great moments and people in United States history. Among the original works are those depicting Benjamin Franklin, John Fitch, Robert Fulton, and events such as the Cession of Louisiana. Also decorating the walls are animals, insects and natural flora indigenous to the United States. Brumidi's design left many spaces open so that future events in United States history could be added. Among those added are the Spirit of St. Louis, the Moon landing, and the Space Shuttle Challenger shuttle crew.

text: Brumidi also worked within the Rotunda. He is responsible for the painting of "The Apotheosis of Washington" beneath the top of the dome, and also the famous "Frieze of American History".[47] "The Apotheosis of Washington" was completed in 11 months and painted by Brumidi while suspended nearly 180 feet (55 m) in the air. It is said to be the first attempt by the United States to deify a founding father. Washington is depicted surrounded by 13 maidens in an inner ring with many Greek and Roman gods and goddesses below him in a second ring. The frieze is located around the inside of the base of the dome and is a chronological, pictorial history of the United States from the landing of Christopher Columbus to the Wright Brothers's flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The frieze was started in 1878 and was not completed until 1953. The frieze was therefore painted by four different artists: Brumidi, Filippo Costaggini, Charles Ayer Whipple, and Allyn Cox. The final scenes depicted in the fresco had not yet occurred when Brumidi began his "Frieze of the United States History".

text: Within the Rotunda there are eight large paintings about the development of the United States as a nation. On the east side are four paintings depicting major events in the discovery of America. On the west are four paintings depicting the founding of the United States. The east side paintings include The Baptism of Pocahontas by John Gadsby Chapman, The Embarkation of the Pilgrims by Robert Walter Weir, The Discovery of the Mississippi by William Henry Powell, and The Landing of Columbus by John Vanderlyn. The paintings on the west side are by John Trumbull: Declaration of Independence, Surrender of General Burgoyne, Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, and General George Washington Resigning His Commission. Trumbull was a contemporary of the United States' founding fathers and a participant in the American Revolutionary War; he painted a self-portrait into Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.

text: First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln hangs over the west staircase in the Senate wing.[48]

text: The Capitol also houses the National Statuary Hall Collection, comprising two statues donated by each of the fifty states to honor persons notable in their histories. One of the most notable statues in the National Statuary Hall is a bronze statue of King Kamehameha donated by the state of Hawaii upon its accession to the union in 1959. The statue's extraordinary weight of 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg) raised concerns that it might come crashing through the floor, so it was moved to Emancipation Hall of the new Capitol Visitor Center. The 100th, and last statue for the collection, that of Po'pay from the state of New Mexico, was added on September 22, 2005. It was the first statue moved into the Emancipation Hall.

text: Crypt[edit]

text: On the ground floor is an area known as the Crypt. It was intended to be the burial place of George Washington, with a ringed balustrade at the center of the Rotunda above looking down to his tomb. However, under the stipulations of his last will, Washington was buried at Mount Vernon. The Crypt houses exhibits on the history of the Capitol. A compass star inlaid in the floor marks the point at which Washington, D.C. is divided into its four quadrants and is the basis for how addresses in Washington, D.C., are designated (NE, NW, SE, or SW). However, due to the retrocession of the Virginia portions of the District, the geographic center of the city lies near the White House.

text: Within the Crypt is Gutzon Borglum's massive Abraham Lincoln Bust. The sculptor had a fascination with large-scale art and themes of heroic nationalism, and carved the piece from a six-ton block of marble. Borglum carved the bust in 1908, and it was donated to the Congress by Eugene Meyer, Jr., and accepted by the Joint Committee on the Library, in the same year. The pedestal was specially designed by the sculptor and installed in 1911. The bust and pedestal were on display in the Rotunda for many years until 1979 when, after a rearrangement of all sculpture in the Rotunda, they were placed in the Crypt.[49] Borglum was a patriot; believing that the "monuments we have built are not our own," he looked to create art that was "American, drawn from American sources, memorializing American achievement", according to a 1908 interview article. Borglum's depiction of Lincoln was so accurate, that Robert Todd Lincoln, the president's son, praised the bust as "the most extraordinarily good portrait of my father I have ever seen."[49] Supposedly, according to legend, the marble head remains unfinished (missing a left ear) to symbolize Lincoln's unfinished life.

text: Features[edit]

text: At one end of the room near the Old Supreme Court Chamber is a statue of John C. Calhoun. On the right leg of the statue, a mark from a bullet fired during the 1998 shooting incident is clearly visible. The bullet also left a mark on the cape, located on the back right side of the statue.

text: Eleven presidents have lain in state in the Rotunda for public viewing, most recently Gerald Ford. The tomb meant for Washington stored the catafalque which is used to support coffins lying in state or honor in the Capitol. The catafalque is now on display in the Capitol Visitors Center for the general public to see when not in use.

text: The Hall of Columns is located on the House side of the Capitol, home to twenty-eight fluted columns and statues from the National Statuary Hall Collection. In the basement of the Capitol building in a utility room are two marble bathtubs, which are all that remain of the once elaborate Senate baths. These baths were a spa-like facility designed for members of Congress and their guests before many buildings in the city had modern plumbing. The facilities included several bathtubs, a barbershop, and a massage parlor.

text: A steep, metal staircase, totaling 365 steps, leads from the basement to an outdoor walkway on top of the Capitol's dome.[50] The number of steps represents each day of the year.[51] Also in the basement, the weekly Jummah prayer is held on Fridays by Muslim staffers.[52]

text: Height[edit]

text: Contrary to a popular myth, D.C. building height laws have never referred to the height of the Capitol building, which rises to 289 feet (88 m).[53] Indeed, the Capitol is only the fifth-tallest structure in Washington.

text: House Chamber[edit]

text: The House of Representatives Chamber has 448 permanent seats. Unlike Senators, Representatives do not have assigned seats.[54] The chamber is large enough to accommodate members of all three branches of the federal government and invited guests for joint sessions of Congress such as the State of the Union speech and other events. It is adorned with relief portraits of famous lawmakers and lawgivers throughout history. Of the twenty-three relief portraits only Moses is sculpted from a full front view and is located across from the dais where the Speaker of the House ceremonially sits.

text: In order clockwise around the chamber:

text:
George Mason
Robert Joseph Pothier
Jean Baptiste Colbert
Edward I of England
Alfonso X of Castile
Pope Gregory IX
Louis IX of France
Justinian I
Tribonian
Lycurgus of Sparta
Hammurabi
Moses
Solon
Aemilius Papinianus
Gaius
Maimonides
Suleiman the Magnificent
Pope Innocent III
Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester
Hugo Grotius
William Blackstone
Napoleon[55]
Thomas Jefferson

text: There is also a quote etched in the marble of the chamber, as stated by venerable statesman Daniel Webster: "Let us develop the resources of our land, call forth its powers, build up its institutions, promote all its great interests, and see whether we also, in our day and generation, may not perform something worthy to be remembered."[56]

text: Old Supreme Court Chamber[edit]

text: From 1800 to 1806, this room served as the Senate Chamber and from 1806 until 1860, the room was used as the Supreme Court Chamber. In 1860, the Supreme Court began using the newly vacated Old Senate Chamber. Since 1935, the Supreme Court has met in the United States Supreme Court Building.

text: Senate Chamber[edit]

text: The current Senate Chamber opened in 1859[57] and is adorned with white marble busts of the former Presidents of the Senate (Vice Presidents).[58]

text: Floor plans[edit]

text: Exterior[edit]

text: Grounds[edit]

text: The Capitol Grounds cover approximately 274 acres (1.11 km²), with the grounds proper consisting mostly of lawns, walkways, streets, drives, and planting areas. Several monumental sculptures used to be located on the east facade and lawn of the Capitol including The Rescue and George Washington. The current grounds were designed by noted American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, who planned the expansion and landscaping performed from 1874 to 1892. In 1875, as one of his first recommendations, Olmsted proposed the construction of the marble terraces on the north, west, and south sides of the building that exist today.

text: Olmsted also designed the Summer House, the open-air brick building that sits just north of the Capitol. Three arches open into the hexagonal structure, which encloses a fountain and twenty-two brick chairs. A fourth wall holds a small window that looks onto an artificial grotto. Built between 1879 and 1881, the Summer House was intended to answer complaints that visitors to the Capitol had no place to sit and no place to obtain water for their horses and themselves. Modern drinking fountains have since replaced Olmsted's fountain for the latter purpose. Olmsted intended to build a second, matching Summer House on the southern side of the Capitol, but congressional objections led to the project's cancellation.

text: Flags[edit]

text: Up to four U.S. flags can be seen flying over the Capitol. Two flagpoles are located at the base of the dome on the East and West sides. These flagpoles have flown the flag day and night since World War I. The other two flagpoles are above the North (Senate) and South (House of Representatives) wings of the building, and fly only when the chamber below is in session. The flag above the House of Representatives is raised and lowered by House pages. The flag above the United States Senate is raised and lowered by Senate Doorkeepers. To raise the flag, Doorkeepers access the roof of the Capitol from the Senate Sergeant at Arms's office. Several auxiliary flagpoles, to the west of the dome and not visible from the ground, are used to meet congressional requests for flags flown over the Capitol.[citation needed] Constituents pay for U.S. flags flown over the Capitol to commemorate a variety of events such as the death of a veteran family member.

text: Major events[edit]

text: The Capitol, as well as the grounds of Capitol Hill, have played host to major events, including presidential inaugurations held every four years. During an inauguration, the front of the Capitol is outfitted with a platform and a grand staircase. Annual events at the Capitol include Independence Day celebrations, and the National Memorial Day Concert.

text: The general public has paid respect to a number of individuals lying in state at the Capitol, including numerous former presidents, senators, and other officials. Other Americans lying in honor include Officers Jacob Chestnut and John Gibson, the two officers killed in the 1998 shooting incident. Chestnut was the first African American ever to lie in honor in the Capitol. The public also paid respect to Rosa Parks, an icon of the Civil Rights Movement, at the Capitol in 2005. She was the first woman and second African American to lie in honor in the Capitol. On September 24, 2015, Pope Francis gave a joint address to Congress, the first Pope to do so.[59]

text: Security[edit]

text: On January 30, 1835, what is believed to be the first attempt to kill a sitting President of the United States occurred just outside the United States Capitol. When President Andrew Jackson was leaving the Capitol out of the East Portico after the funeral of South Carolina Representative Warren R. Davis, Richard Lawrence, an unemployed and deranged housepainter from England, either burst from a crowd or stepped out from hiding behind a column and aimed a pistol at Jackson which misfired. Lawrence then pulled out a second pistol which also misfired. It has since been postulated that the moisture from the humid weather of the day contributed to the double misfiring.[60] Lawrence was then restrained, with legend saying that Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane, prompting his aides to restrain him. Others present, including Davy Crockett, restrained and disarmed Lawrence.

text: On July 2, 1915, prior to the United States' entry into World War I, Eric Muenter (aka Frank Holt), a German professor who wanted to stop American support of the Allies of World War I, exploded a bomb in the reception room of the U.S. Senate. The next morning he tried to assassinate J. P. Morgan, Jr., son of the financier, at his home on Long Island, New York. In a letter to the Washington Evening Star published after the explosion, Muenter, writing under an assumed name, said he hoped that the detonation would "make enough noise to be heard above the voices that clamor for war." J.P. Morgan's company served as Great Britain's principal U.S. purchasing agent for munitions and other war supplies.

text: In 1954, Puerto Rican nationalists opened fire on members of Congress from the visitors' gallery, injuring five representatives. On March 1, 1971, a bomb exploded on the ground floor of the Capitol, placed by the radical left domestic terrorist group, the Weather Underground. They placed the bomb as a demonstration against U.S. involvement in Laos. On November 7, 1983, a group called the Armed Resistance Unit claimed responsibility for a bomb that detonated in the lobby outside the office of Senate Minority Leader Robert Byrd.[61] Six people associated with the John Brown Anti-Klan Committee were later found in contempt of court for refusing to testify about the bombing.[62] In 1990, three members of the Armed Resistance Unit were convicted of the bombing, which they claimed was in response to the invasion of Grenada.[63] On July 24, 1998, Russell Eugene Weston Jr. burst into the Capitol and opened fire, killing two Capitol Police officers. The Capitol is believed to have been the intended target of the hijacked United Airlines Flight 93 on September 11, 2001, before it crashed near Shanksville in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, after passengers tried to take over control of the plane from hijackers.[64][65]

text: Since the September 11 attacks, the roads and grounds around the Capitol have undergone dramatic changes. The United States Capitol Police have also installed checkpoints to inspect vehicles at specific locations around Capitol Hill,[66][67] and have closed a section of one street indefinitely.[67] The level of screening employed varies. On the main east-west thoroughfares of Constitution and Independence Avenues, barricades are implanted in the roads that can be raised in the event of an emergency. Trucks larger than pickups are interdicted by the Capitol Police and are instructed to use other routes. On the checkpoints at the shorter cross streets, the barriers are typically kept in a permanent "emergency" position, and only vehicles with special permits are allowed to pass. All Capitol visitors are screened by a magnetometer, and all items that visitors may bring inside the building are screened by an x-ray device. In both chambers, gas masks are located underneath the chairs in each chamber for members to use in case of emergency.[citation needed] Structures ranging from scores of Jersey barriers to hundreds of ornamental bollards have been erected to obstruct the path of any vehicles that might stray from the designated roadways.[68]

text: In 2004 the capitol was briefly evacuated after a plane carrying the then governor of Kentucky strayed into restricted airspace over the district. A shooting incident occurred in March 2016. One female bystander was wounded by police but not seriously injured; a man pointing a gun was shot and arrested, in critical but stable condition.[69] The city police of Washington D.C. described the shooting incident as "isolated".[70]

text: Capitol Visitor Center[edit]

text: The United States Capitol Visitor Center (CVC), located below the East Front of the Capitol and its plaza, between the Capitol building and 1st Street East, opened on December 2, 2008. The CVC provides a single security checkpoint for all visitors, including those with disabilities, and an expansion space[clarification needed] for the US Congress.[71][72] The complex contains 580,000 square feet (54,000 m2) of space below ground on three floors,[73] and offers visitors a food court, restrooms, and educational exhibits, including an 11-foot scale model of the Capitol dome.[74] It also features skylights affording views of the actual dome. Long in the planning stages, construction began in the fall of 2001, following the killing of two Capitol police officers in 1998. The estimated final cost of constructing the CVC was $621 million.[75]