document_title: Kingdom of France

question_text: what city was the seat of the french monarchy

text: Kingdom of France

text: Political history[edit]

text: West Francia[edit]

text: During the later years of the elderly Charlemagne's rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks. After Charlemagne's death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France.[1] Charles the Bald was also crowned King of Lotharingia after the death of Lothair II in 869, but in the Treaty of Meerssen (870) was forced to cede much of Lotharingia to his brothers, retaining the Rhone and Meuse basins (including Verdun, Vienne and Besançon) but leaving the Rhineland with Aachen, Metz and Trier in East Francia.

text: Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longships were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other inland waterways, wreaking havoc and spreading terror. During the reign of Charles the Simple (898–922), Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy.[2][3]

text: High Middle Ages[edit]

text: The Carolingians were to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent power struggle between the two dynasties, the accession in 987 of Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, established the Capetian dynasty on the throne. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years.[4]

text: The old order left the new dynasty in immediate control of little beyond the middle Seine and adjacent territories, while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11th-century counts of Blois accumulated large domains of their own through marriage and through private arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support.

text: The area around the lower Seine became a source of particular concern when Duke William took possession of the kingdom of England by the Norman Conquest of 1066, making himself and his heirs the King's equal outside France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown).

text: Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married France's newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, who ruled much of southwest France, in 1152. After defeating a revolt led by Eleanor and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned, made the Duke of Brittany his vassal, and in effect ruled the western half of France as a greater power than the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's descendants over the division of his French territories, coupled with John of England's lengthy quarrel with Philip II, allowed Philip II to recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne.[5]

text: Late Middle Ages and the Hundred Years' War[edit]

text: The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was Isabella, whose son was Edward III of England), so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois. This, in addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to Gascony in the south of France, and the relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to the Hundred Years' War of 1337–1453. The following century was to see devastating warfare, peasant revolts (the English peasants' revolt of 1381 and the Jacquerie of 1358 in France) and the growth of nationalism in both countries.[6]

text: The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the Black Death, usually considered an outbreak of bubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348, spreading rapidly up the Rhone valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that a population of some 18–20 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328 hearth tax returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50 percent or more.[7]

text: Renaissance and Reformation[edit]

text: The Renaissance era was noted for the emergence of powerful centralized institutions, as well as a flourishing culture ( much of it imported from Italy).[8] The kings built a strong fiscal system, which heightened the power of the king to raise armies that overawed the local nobility.[9] In Paris especially there emerged strong traditions in literature, art and music. The prevailing style was classical.[10][11]

text: The Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts was signed into law by Francis I in 1539. Largely the work of Chancellor Guillaume Poyet, it dealt with a number of government, judicial and ecclesiastical matters. Articles 110 and 111, the most famous, called for the use of the French language in all legal acts, notarised contracts and official legislation.

text: Italian Wars[edit]

text: After the Hundred Years' War, Charles VIII of France signed three additional treaties with Henry VII of England, Maximilian I of Habsburg, and Ferdinand II of Aragon respectively at Étaples (1492), Senlis (1493) and in Barcelona (1493). These three treaties cleared the way for France to undertake the long Italian Wars (1494–1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. French efforts to gain dominance resulted only in the increased power of the Habsburg house.

text: Wars of Religion[edit]

text: Barely were the Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with far-reaching consequences. Despite the conclusion of a Concordat between France and the Papacy (1516), granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was deeply affected by the Protestant Reformation's attempt to break the hegemony of Catholic Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority (later dubbed Huguenots) faced ever harsher repression under the rule of Francis I's son King Henry II. After Henry II's death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widow Catherine de' Medici and her sons Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful dukes of Guise culminated in a massacre of Huguenots (1562), starting the first of the French Wars of Religion, during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic forces. Opposed to absolute monarchy, the Huguenot Monarchomachs theorized during this time the right of rebellion and the legitimacy of tyrannicide.[12]

text: The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys in which Henry III assassinated Henry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league, and the king was murdered in return. After the assassination of both Henry of Guise (1588) and Henry III (1589), the conflict was ended by the accession of the Protestant king of Navarre as Henry IV (first king of the Bourbon dynasty) and his subsequent abandonment of Protestantism (Expedient of 1592) effective in 1593, his acceptance by most of the Catholic establishment (1594) and by the Pope (1595), and his issue of the toleration decree known as the Edict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed freedom of private worship and civil equality.[13]

text: Early Modern period[edit]

text: Colonial France[edit]

text: France's pacification under Henry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise to European hegemony. France was expansive during all but the end of the seventeenth century: the French began trading in India and Madagascar, founded Quebec and penetrated the North American Great Lakes and Mississippi, established plantation economies in the West Indies and extended their trade contacts in the Levant and enlarged their merchant marine.

text: Thirty Years' War[edit]

text: Henry IV's son Louis XIII and his minister (1624–1642) Cardinal Richelieu, elaborated a policy against Spain and the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War (1618–48) which had broken out in Germany. After the death of both king and cardinal, the Peace of Westphalia (1648) secured universal acceptance of Germany's political and religious fragmentation, but the Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin experienced a civil uprising known as the Fronde (1648–1653) which expanded into a Franco-Spanish War (1653–59). The Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory of Roussillon after the crushing of the ephemeral Catalan Republic and ushered a short period of peace.[14]

text: Administrative structures[edit]

text: The Ancien Régime, a French term rendered in English as "Old Rule", or simply "Former Regime", refers primarily to the aristocratic, social and political system of early modern France under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties. The administrative and social structures of the Ancien Régime were the result of years of state-building, legislative acts (like the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts), internal conflicts and civil wars, but they remained a confusing patchwork of local privilege and historic differences until the French Revolution brought about a radical suppression of administrative incoherence.

text: Louis XIV, the Sun King[edit]

text: For most of the reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715), ("The Sun King"), France was the dominant power in Europe, aided by the diplomacy of Cardinal Richelieu's successor as the King's chief minister, (1642–61) Cardinal Jules Mazarin, (1602–61). Cardinal Mazarin oversaw the creation of a French Royal Navy that rivalled England's, expanding it from 25 ships to almost 200. The size of the Army was also considerably increased. Renewed wars (the War of Devolution, 1667–68 and the Franco-Dutch War, 1672–78) brought further territorial gains (Artois and western Flanders and the free county of Burgundy, previously left to the Empire in 1482), but at the cost of the increasingly concerted opposition of rival royal powers, and a legacy of an increasingly enormous national debt. An adherent of the theory of the "Divine Right of Kings", which advocates the divine origin of temporal power and any lack of earthly restraint of monarchical rule, Louis XIV continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from the capital of Paris. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism still persisting in parts of France and, by compelling the noble elite to regularly inhabit his lavish Palace of Versailles, built on the outskirts of Paris, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which had participated in the earlier "Fronde" rebellion during Louis' minority youth. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured 150 years until the French Revolution.[15] McCabe says critics used fiction to portray the degraded Turkish Court, using "the harem, the Sultan court, oriental despotism, luxury, gems and spices, carpets, and silk cushions" as an unfavorable analogy to the corruption of the French royal court.[16]

text: The king sought to impose total religious uniformity on the country, repealing the "Edict of Nantes" in 1685. The infamous practice of "dragonnades" was adopted, whereby rough soldiers were quartered in the homes of Protestant families and allowed to have their way with them—stealing, raping, torturing and killing adults and infants in their hovels. Scores of Protestants then fled France, (following "Huguenots" beginning a hundred and fifty years earlier until the end of the 18th Century) costing the country a great many intellectuals, artisans, and other valuable people. Persecution extended to unorthodox Roman Catholics like the Jansenists, a group that denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes. Louis was no theologian and understood little of the complex doctrines of Jansenism, satisfying himself with the fact that they threatened the unity of the state. In this, he garnered the friendship of the papacy, which had previously been hostile to France because of its policy of putting all church property in the country under the jurisdiction of the state rather than that of Rome.[17]

text: In November 1700, the Spanish king Charles II died, ending the Habsburg line in that country. Louis had long waited for this moment, and now planned to put a Bourbon relative, Philip, Duke of Anjou, (1683–1746), on the throne. Essentially, Spain was to become a perpetual ally and even obedient satellite of France, ruled by a king who would carry out orders from Versailles. Realizing how this would upset the balance of power, the other European rulers were outraged. However, most of the alternatives were equally undesirable. For example, putting another Habsburg on the throne would end up recreating the grand multi-national empire of Charles V (1500–58), of the Holy Roman Empire (German First Reich), Spain, and the Two Sicilies which would also grossly upset the power balance. After nine years of exhausting war, the last thing Louis wanted was another conflict. However, the rest of Europe would not stand for his ambitions in Spain, and so the long War of the Spanish Succession began (1701–14), a mere three years after the War of the Grand Alliance, (1688–97, aka "War of the League of Augsburg") had just concluded.[18]

text: Dissent and revolution[edit]

text: The reign (1715–74) of Louis XV saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under the regency (1715–23) of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, whose policies were largely continued (1726–1743) by Cardinal Fleury, prime minister in all but name. The exhaustion of Europe after two major wars resulted in a long period of peace, only interrupted by minor conflicts like the War of the Polish Succession from 1733–35. Large-scale warfare resumed with the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48). But alliance with the traditional Habsburg enemy (the "Diplomatic Revolution" of 1756) against the rising power of Britain and Prussia led to costly failure in the Seven Years' War (1756–63) and the loss of France's North American colonies.[19]

text: On the whole, the 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established order. Louis XV was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses, overall weakness, and for losing Canada to the British. A strong ruler like Louis XIV could enhance the position of the monarchy, while Louis XV weakened it. The writings of the philosophes such as Voltaire were a clear sign of discontent, but the king chose to ignore them. He died of smallpox in 1774, and the French people shed few tears at his passing. While France had not yet experienced the Industrial Revolution that was beginning in Britain, the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly, frivolous, aloof, and antiquated, even if true feudalism no longer existed in France.

text: Upon Louis XV's death, his grandson Louis XVI became king. Initially popular, he too came to be widely detested by the 1780s. He was married to an Austrian archduchess, Marie Antoinette. French intervention in the American War of Independence was also very expensive.[20]

text: With the country deeply in debt, Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms of Turgot and Malesherbes, but noble disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes' resignation in 1776. They were replaced by Jacques Necker. Necker had resigned in 1781 to be replaced by Calonne and Brienne, before being restored in 1788. A harsh winter that year led to widespread food shortages, and by then France was a powder keg ready to explode.[21] On the eve of the French Revolution of July 1789, France was in a profound institutional and financial crisis, but the ideas of the Enlightenment had begun to permeate the educated classes of society.[22]

text: Limited monarchy[edit]

text: On September 3, 1791, the absolute monarchy which had governed France for 948 years was forced to limit its power and become a provisional constitutional monarchy. However, this too would not last very long and on September 21, 1792 the French monarchy was effectively abolished by the proclamation of the French First Republic. The role of the King in France in a Revolution gone berserk, was finally brought to a shattering end with the "guillotined" execution (beheading) in the public square of the "Place de la Revolution" of Louis XVI on Monday, January 21, 1793, which was followed by the infamous "Reign of Terror", mass executions and the provisional "Directory" form of republican government, and the eventual beginnings of twenty-five years of reform, upheaval, dictatorship, wars and renewal, with the various Napoleonic Wars.

text: Restoration[edit]

text: The monarchy was briefly restored following the successive events of the French Revolution (1789–99), and the First French Empire under Napoleon (1804–1814/15) – when a coalition of European powers restored by arms the monarchy to the heirs of the House of Bourbon in 1814. However the deposed Emperor Napoleon I returned triumphantly to Paris from his exile in Elba and ruled France for a short period known as the Hundred Days.

text: When a Seventh European Coalition deposed Napoleon after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Bourbon monarchy was once again restored. The Count of Provence, brother of the Louis XVI, who was guillotined in 1793, was crowned as Louis XVIII, nicknamed "The Desired". Louis XVIII tried to conciliate the legacies of the Revolution and Ancien Régime both, also permitting the formation of a Parliament and constitutional Charter, usually "Charte octroyée" ("Granted Charter"). His reign was characterized by disagreements between the Doctrinaires, liberal thinkers who supported the Charter and rising bourgeoisie, and the Ultra-royalists, aristocrats and clergymen who totally refused the Revolution's heritage. However, the peace was granted by and statesmen like Talleyrand and the Duke of Richelieu, as well as King's moderation and prudent intervention.[23][24] In 1823, the liberal agitations in Spain brought to a French intervention on the royalist's side, who permitted to King Ferdinand VII to reject the Constitution.

text: However, the work of Louis XVIII was frustrated when, after his death in 16 September 1824, his brother the Count of Artois became King under the name of Charles X. Charles X was a strong reactionary who supported ultra-royalists and Catholic Church. Under his reign, the censorship of newspapers was reinforced, the Anti-Sacrilege Act passed and compensations to French Émigré were increased. However, there were also the intervention in the Greek Revolution and the first phase of the conquest of Algeria.

text: The absolutist tendencies of the King were disliked by Doctrinaire majority in the Chamber of Deputies, that in 18 March 1830 sent and cordial address to the King, remembering to him his vote on the Charter. However, Charles X received this address as a veiled threat, and in 25 July of the same year, he emanated the St. Cloud Ordinances, a plot to reduce Parliament powers and re-establish an absolute rule.[25] The opposition reacted with riots in Parliament and barricades in Paris, that erupteds in the July Revolution.[26] The King abdicated, such as his son the Prince Louis Antoine, in favour to his grandson Count of Chambord, nominating his cousin the Duke of Orléans as regent.[27] However, it was too late, and the liberal opposition won over the monarchy.

text: Aftermath and July Monarchy[edit]

text: On 9 August 1830, the Chamber of Deputies elected Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans as "King of the French": for the first time since French Revolution, the King reigned on a people and not on a country. The Bourbon white flag was substituted with the French tricolour,[28] and a new Charter was introduced in August 1830.[29] The conquest of Algeria continued, and new settlements were established in the Gulf of Guinea, Gabon, Madagascar, Mayotte and also put Tahite under protectorate.[30]

text: However, despite the initial reforms, Louis Philippe was little different than his predecessors. The old nobility was replaced by urban bourgeoisie, and the working class was excluded from voting.[31] Louis Philippe appointed notable bourgeois as Prime Minister, like banker Casimir Périer, academic François Guizot, general Jean-de-Dieu Soult, and thus obtained the nickname of "Citizen King" (Roi Bourgeois). The July Monarchy was beset by corruption scandals and financial crisis. The opposition of the King was composed of Legitimists, supporting the Count of Chambord, Bourbon claimant to the Throne, and of Bonapartists and Republicans who fought against royalty and supported the principles of democracy. The King tried to suppress the opposition with censorship, but when the Campagne des banquets ("Banquets' Campaign") was repressed in February 1848,[32] riots and seditions erupted in Paris and later all France, resulting in the February Revolution. The National Guard refused to repress the rebellion, resulting in Louis Philippe abdicating and fleeing to England. On 24 February 1848, the monarchy was abolished and the Second Republic was proclaimed.[33] Despite later attempts to re-establish the Kingdom in the 1870s, during the Third Republic, the original French monarchy never returned.

text: Territories and provinces[edit]

text: Before the 13th century, only a small part of what is now France was under control of the Frankish king; in the north there were Viking incursions leading to the formation of the Duchy of Normandy; in the west, the counts of Anjou established themselves as powerful rivals of the king, by the late 11th century ruling over the "Angevin Empire", which included the kingdom of England. It was only with Philip II of France that the bulk of the territory of Western Francia came under the rule of the Frankish kings, and Philip was consequently the first king to call himself "king of France" (1190). The division of France between the Angevin (Plantagenet) kings of England and the Capetian kings of France would lead to the Hundred Years' War, and France would regain control over these territories only by the mid 15th century. What is now eastern France (Lorraine, Arelat) was not part of Western Francia to begin with and was only incorporated into the kingdom during the early modern period.

text: Territories inherited from Western Francia:

text:
Ile de France
Reims
Bourges
Orleans

text:
County of Champagne (to the royal domain in 1316)
 County of Blois (to the royal domain in 1391)
 Duchy of Burgundy (until 1477, then divided between France and the Habsburgs)
 County of Flanders (to Burgundy in 1369)
 Duchy of Bourbon (1327–1523)

text: Acquisitions during the 13th to 14th centuries:

text:
Duchy of Normandy (1204)
County of Tourain (1204)
County of Anjou (1225)
County of Maine (1225)
County of Auvergne (1271)
 County of Toulouse (1271), including:

County of Quercy
County of Rouergue

County of Rodez

County of Gevaudan
Viscounty of Albi
Marquisat of Gothia

 County of Champagne (to the royal domain in 1316)
 Dauphiné (1349), hereditary possession of the kings of France, to be held by the heir apparent, but technically not part of the kingdom of France because it remained nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire.
 County of Blois (to the royal domain in 1391)

text: Acquisitions from the Plantagenet kings of England with the French victory in the Hundred Years' War 1453

text:
Duchy of Aquitaine (Guyenne), including:

 County of Poitou
 County of La Marche
 County of Angoulême
 County of Périgord

County of Velay

 County of Saintonge
 Viscounty of Limousin
 Lordship of Issoudun
Lordship of Déols
Duchy of Gascogne (Gascony)

County of Agenais

 Duchy of Bretagne (disputed since the War of the Breton Succession, to France in 1453, to the royal demesne in 1547)

text: Acquisitions after the end of the Hundred Years' War:

text:
Duchy of Burgundy (1477)
 Pale of Calais (1558)
 Kingdom of Navarre (1620)
 Alsace: Peace of Westphalia (1648), Treaty of Nijmegen, Truce of Ratisbon (1684)
 County of Artois (1659)
Roussillon and Perpignan, Montmédy and other parts of Luxembourg, parts of Flanders, including Arras, Béthune, Gravelines and Thionville (Treaty of the Pyrenees 1659)
 Free County of Burgundy (1668, 1679)
French Hainaut (1679)
 Principality of Orange (1713)
 Duchy of Lorraine (1766)
French conquest of Corsica (1769)
 Comtat Venaissin (1791)


document_title: Meditations in an Emergency

question_text: who did don draper send meditations in an emergency to

root

text: Meditations in an Emergency

text:
Meditations in an Emergency

Author
Frank O'Hara

Language
English

Publisher
Grove Press

Publication date

1957[1]

ISBN
978-0-8021-3452-3

tag: table

text: Meditations in an Emergency is a book of poetry by American poet Frank O'Hara, first published by Grove Press in 1957. Its title poem was first printed in the November 1954 issue of Poetry: A Magazine of Verse.[2]

tag: p

text: The name of the book is purported to derive from English poet John Donne's prose work, Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, stemming from a joke between O'Hara and other members of the renowned New York School of poets.[3] Critics have noted the influence of impressionism and abstract expressionism in the collection, with most of the poems detailing the theme of identity and everyday life in New York City.

text: The book is dedicated to painter Jane Freilicher.[1]

text: Poems[edit]

text:
To the Harbormaster
Poem: "The eager note on my door..."
To the Film industry in Crisis
Poem: "At night Chinamen jump"
Blocks
Les Etiquette juanes
Aus einem April
River
Poem: "There I could never be a boy"
On Rachmaninoff's Birthday
The Hunter
For Grace, After a Party
On Looking at "La Grande Jatte," the Czar Wept Anew
Romanze, or The Music Students
The Three-Penny Opera
A Terrestrial Cuckoo
Jane Awake
A Mexican Guitar
Chez Jane
Two Variations
Ode
Invincibility
Poem in January
Meditations in an Emergency
For James Dean
Sleeping on the Wing
Radio
On Seeing Larry Rivers' "Washington Crossing the Delaware" at the Museum of Modern Art
For Janice and Kenneth to Voyage
Mayakovsky

tag: ul

text: Mentions in popular culture[edit]

text: The book, and references to it, are seen on several occasions in Season 2 of the AMC television drama Mad Men.

text:
In the season's first episode, "For Those Who Think Young," the book is read by an unknown character in a bar and later by the show's main character, Don Draper. At the conclusion of the episode, a passage from the fourth section of the poem "Mayakovsky" is read as Draper inscribes the book to a then-unknown recipient with the message, "Made me think of you -D", and subsequently places the book in an envelope and drops it in the mailbox.[4]
In the season's 12th episode, "The Mountain King", Draper, visiting California on business, visits Anna Draper and finds the book he sent on her bookshelf—revealing that she was the previously unknown recipient.
Episode 13, "Meditations in an Emergency", is set at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis and takes its title directly from O'Hara's book.


document_title: Gram staining

question_text: what is the purpose of crystal violet used in the gram stain procedure

text: Gram staining

text: History[edit]

text: The method is named after its inventor, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938), who developed the technique while working with Carl Friedländer in the morgue of the city hospital in Berlin in 1884. Gram devised his technique not for the purpose of distinguishing one type of bacterium from another but to make bacteria more visible in stained sections of lung tissue.[2] He published his method in 1884, and included in his short report the observation that the typhus bacillus did not retain the stain.[3]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Gram staining is a bacteriological laboratory technique[4] used to differentiate bacterial species into two large groups (gram-positive and gram-negative) based on the physical properties of their cell walls.[5][page needed] Gram staining is not used to classify archaea, formerly archaeabacteria, since these microorganisms yield widely varying responses that do not follow their phylogenetic groups.[6]

text: The Gram stain is not an infallible tool for diagnosis, identification, or phylogeny, and it is of extremely limited use in environmental microbiology. It is used mainly to make a preliminary morphologic identification or to establish that there are significant numbers of bacteria in a clinical specimen. It cannot identify bacteria to the species level, and for most medical conditions, it should not be used as the sole method of bacterial identification. In clinical microbiology laboratories, it is used in combination with other traditional and molecular techniques to identify bacteria. Some organisms are gram-variable (meaning they may stain either negative or positive); some are not stained with either dye used in the Gram technique and are not seen. In a modern environmental or molecular microbiology lab, most identification is done using genetic sequences and other molecular techniques, which are far more specific and informative than differential staining.

text: Gram staining has been suggested to be as effective a diagnostic tool as PCR in one primary research report regarding gonococcal urethritis.[7][non-primary source needed]

text: Medical[edit]

text: Gram stains are performed on body fluid or biopsy when infection is suspected. Gram stains yield results much more quickly than culturing, and is especially important when infection would make an important difference in the patient's treatment and prognosis; examples are cerebrospinal fluid for meningitis and synovial fluid for septic arthritis.[4][8]

text: Staining mechanism[edit]

text: Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made of peptidoglycan (50–90% of cell envelope), and as a result are stained purple by crystal violet, whereas gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer (10% of cell envelope), so do not retain the purple stain and are counter-stained pink by safranin. There are four basic steps of the Gram stain:

text:
Applying a primary stain (crystal violet) to a heat-fixed smear of a bacterial culture. Heat fixation kills some bacteria but is mostly used to affix the bacteria to the slide so that they don't rinse out during the staining procedure
The addition of iodide, which binds to crystal violet and traps it in the cell
Rapid decolorization with ethanol or acetone
Counterstaining with safranin.[9] Carbol fuchsin is sometimes substituted for safranin since it more intensely stains anaerobic bacteria, but it is less commonly used as a counterstain.[10]

text: Crystal violet (CV) dissociates in aqueous solutions into CV+ and chloride (Cl−) ions. These ions penetrate through the cell wall and cell membrane of both gram-positive and gram-negative cells. The CV+ ion interacts with negatively charged components of bacterial cells and stains the cells purple.[11]

text:
Iodide (I− or I−
3) interacts with CV+ and forms large complexes of crystal violet and iodine (CV–I) within the inner and outer layers of the cell. Iodine is often referred to as a mordant, but is a trapping agent that prevents the removal of the CV–I complex and, therefore, color the cell.[12]

text: When a decolorizer such as alcohol or acetone is added, it interacts with the lipids of the cell membrane.[13] A gram-negative cell loses its outer lipopolysaccharide membrane, and the inner peptidoglycan layer is left exposed. The CV–I complexes are washed from the gram-negative cell along with the outer membrane.[14][citation needed] In contrast, a gram-positive cell becomes dehydrated from an ethanol treatment. The large CV–I complexes become trapped within the gram-positive cell due to the multilayered nature of its peptidoglycan.[14][citation needed] The decolorization step is critical and must be timed correctly; the crystal violet stain is removed from both gram-positive and negative cells if the decolorizing agent is left on too long (a matter of seconds).[15][citation needed]

text: After decolorization, the gram-positive cell remains purple and the gram-negative cell loses its purple color.[15][citation needed] Counterstain, which is usually positively charged safranin or basic fuchsine, is applied last to give decolorized gram-negative bacteria a pink or red color.[16][17]

text: Examples[edit]

text: Gram-positive bacteria[edit]

text: Gram-positive bacteria generally have a single membrane (monoderm) surrounded by a thick peptidoglycan. This rule is followed by two phyla: Firmicutes (except for the classes Mollicutes and Negativicutes) and the Actinobacteria.[5][18] In contrast, members of the Chloroflexi (green non-sulfur bacteria) are monoderms but possess a thin or absent (class Dehalococcoidetes) peptidoglycan and can stain negative, positive or indeterminate; members of the Deinococcus-Thermus group, stain positive but are diderms with a thick peptidoglycan.[5][page needed] [18]

text: Historically, the gram-positive forms made up the phylum Firmicutes, a name now used for the largest group. It includes many well-known genera such as Bacillus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, and Clostridium.[19][citation needed] It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria like Mycoplasma that lack cell walls and so cannot be stained by Gram, but are derived from such forms.[20][citation needed]

text: Some bacteria have cell walls which are particularly adept at retaining stains. These will appear positive by Gram stain even though they are not closely related to other gram-positive bacteria. These are called acid fast bacteria, and can only be differentiated from other gram-positive bacteria by special staining procedures.[21][citation needed]

text: Gram-negative bacteria[edit]

text: Gram-negative bacteria generally possess a thin layer of peptidoglycan between two membranes (diderms). Most bacterial phyla are gram-negative, including the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, and green sulfur bacteria, and most Proteobacteria (exceptions being some members of the Rickettsiales and the insect-endosymbionts of the Enterobacteriales).[5][page needed][18]

text: Gram variable and gram-indeterminate bacteria[edit]

text: Some bacteria, after staining with the Gram stain, yield a gram-variable pattern: a mix of pink and purple cells are seen.[14][citation needed] In cultures of Bacillus, Butyrivibrio, and Clostridium, a decrease in peptidoglycan thickness during growth coincides with an increase in the number of cells that stain gram-negative.[22] In addition, in all bacteria stained using the Gram stain, the age of the culture may influence the results of the stain.[23]

text: Gram-indeterminate bacteria do not respond predictably to Gram staining and, therefore, cannot be determined as either gram-positive or gram-negative. Examples include many species of Mycobacterium, including M. tuberculosis and M. leprae.[24][25]

text: Orthographic note[edit]

text: The term Gram staining is derived from the surname of Hans Christian Gram, the eponym (Gram) is therefore capitalized but not the common noun (stain) as is usual for scientific terms.[26] The adjectives 'gram-positive' and 'gram-negative'; as eponymous adjectives, their initial letter can be either lowercase 'g' or capital 'G', depending on whose style guide (if any) governs the document being written. Lowercase style is used by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other style regimens such as the AMA style.[27] Dictionaries may use lowercase,[28][29] uppercase,[30][31][32][33] or both.[34][35] Uppercase 'Gram-positive' or 'Gram-negative' usage is also common in many scientific journal articles and publications.[35][36][37] When articles are submitted to journals, each journal may or may not apply house style to the postprint version. Preprint versions contain whichever style the author happened to use. Even style regimens that use lowercase for the adjectives 'gram-positive' and 'gram-negative' still use capital for 'Gram stain'.


document_title: I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (Australian TV series)

question_text: who won i m a celebrity australia 2017

question_tokens: who won i m a celebrity australia 2017

text: Format[edit]

text: The premise of the show is that there is a group of well known personalities living together in a specially constructed camp site in a jungle. During their time in the jungle they are isolated from the outside world and are not commonly aware of outside events. The contestants compete for $100,000 to be donated to a charity of their choosing, in addition to being personally reimbursed for their participation.[9] While in the jungle, some of the contestants (generally voted by the viewing public) compete in challenges for food and luxuries for the camp. These challenges often involve local wildlife and are meant to take the contestants out of their comfort zone. Each week one or more of the contestants are evicted from the jungle, based on viewer votes. In addition, if the contestants become overwhelmed by their situation they can leave the series by speaking the phrase "I'm a celebrity get me out of here!". However, it is reported that if contestants do quit they will have their income for participating in the series markedly reduced.[10] Throughout the show, additional contestants (called "intruders") enter the competition; and beginning with season two, some contestants are only included temporarily (i.e. having a guest appearance).[11] In the end, a final viewer vote occurs to determine the winner of the series, who is given the title of "King and/or Queen of the Jungle".

text: Tucker trials[edit]

text: The contestants take part in daily trials to earn food. These trials aim to test both physical and mental abilities. The winner is usually determined by the number of stars collected during the trial, with each star representing a meal earned by the winning contestant for their camp mates.

text: Celebrity chest challenges[edit]

text: Two or more celebrities are chosen to take part in the celebrity chest challenge to win luxuries for camp. Each challenge involves completing a task to win a chest to take back to camp. However, to win the luxury item in the chest, the campmates must correctly answer a question. If they fail to answer correctly, the luxury item is forfeited and a joke prize is won. The luxury item is "donated" by a celebrity from the outside.

text: Secret mission[edit]

text: This is a challenge where some celebrities have to take part without alerting the other celebrities - if they are successful in their 'missions', they are rewarded.

text: Mystery box[edit]

text: A mystery box sees a box delivered to the campsite, each time containing a different gift for the contestants.

text: Production[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The show is broadcast Sunday to Thursday at 7.30 pm, with a weekly eviction show on Sunday (except for the first week, where the celebrities arrive in the 'jungle'). All shows are presented by Julia Morris & Chris Brown from a nearby studio. The program is live to AEDT States (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory), in other states the program is delayed to accommodate local time zones.

text: The fallout zone[edit]

text: In addition to the television broadcast, for the first season a live feed from the camp site aired for an hour after the AEDT airing of the show on Ten's website and mobile app, titled The Fallout Zone but more commonly referred to as FOZ. The content of feed was available on the website after the fact so viewers in other states could watch the show after their airing of the main show. The feed was hosted by comedian Sam Mac and producer Ciaran "The Butcher" Flannery, also known as "The C-Word". On 8 and 12 March 2015, producer Dominic "The Domin8or" Sullivan filled in during Flannery's absence. The duo interact with viewers through Twitter, using the hashtag #FOZ. Mac and Flannery have no control over the shots used in the stream which has resulted in one episode featuring a 20-minute shot of a waterfall and, on 16 February 2015, a 15-minute conversation featuring a sound technician looking for Bob being picked up. On 5 March 2015 the show famously featured audio problems during which Mac and Flannery's voices fluctuated between chipmunk and Darth Vader filters for the first thirty minutes. The show's theme song is Highway to the Fallout Zone sung by Sam Mac. The show did not return for the second season.

text: Public voting[edit]

text: Throughout the show the public votes on who competes in the following tucker trial and who to evict from the campsite. Viewers can either vote via SMS (by texting the name of the celebrity to 1995 1010) or vote via Social Media (namely Facebook or Twitter) by using the celebrity's hashtag (#celeb[name]). Voting via social media is limited to 20 votes per account. For tucker trial voting, viewers vote for celebrity they wish to compete. For eviction voting, viewers vote for a celebrity to stay. Voting closes at approximately 7:30pm AEDT for Sunday's eviction vote and at approximately 8pm AEDT for voting on other days.

text: Prior to the premiere of the second season, it was announced that the voting process would change slightly compared to the inaugural season. SMS voting wil be used for both trial and eviction voting while Twitter voting will be used exclusively for trial voting. This change was implemented to even the playing field between celebrities with a larger international fan base (who are more likely to receive Twitter votes from said fan base) and celebrities with a smaller fan base who are only known in Australia.[12] However, this decision was later reversed, allowing Twitter and Facebook votes for the finals.[13]

text: Series overview[edit]

text: Winners crowned King or Queen of their respective year.

text: Key:

text:
Season
Presenters
Start date
End date
Days in camp
Campmates
Honour places

Winner
Second place
Third place

1
Chris Brown and Julia Morris
1 February 2015 (2015-02-01)
15 March 2015 (2015-03-15)
45
14
Freddie Flintoff
Barry Hall
Chrissie Swan

2
31 January 2016 (2016-01-31)
13 March 2016 (2016-03-13)
45
12
Brendan Fevola
Paul Harragon
Laurina Fleure

3
29 January 2017 (2017-01-29)
13 March 2017 (2017-03-13)
46
14
Casey Donovan
Dane Swan
Natalie Bassingthwaighte

4
28 January 2018 (2018-01-28)
12 March 2018 (2018-03-12)
45
15
Fiona O'Loughlin
Shannon Noll
Danny Green

5

2019
2019

text: Series results[edit]

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
Celebrity
Known for
Day Entered
Day Exited
Result

 Freddie Flintoff
England and Wales cricketer
17
45
Winner

 Barry Hall
Former AFL forward
1
45
Runner-up

 Chrissie Swan
Television & radio broadcaster
1
45
Third Place

 Maureen McCormick
The Brady Bunch actress
1
42
Evicted 11th

 Joel Creasey
Comedian
1
41
Evicted 10th

 Anna Heinrich
The Bachelor Australia star
10
41
Evicted 9th

 Julie Goodwin
Chef & cookbook author
17
40
Evicted 8th

 Merv Hughes
Former test match cricketer
1
39
Evicted 7th

 Tyson Mayr
Model
1
38
Evicted 6th

 Andrew Daddo
Television & radio presenter
1
31
Evicted 5th

 Lauren Brant
Hi-5 singer
1
24
Evicted 4th

 Laura Dundovic
Miss Universe Australia 2008
1
17
Evicted 3rd

 Tim Robards
The Bachelor Australia star
10
17
Evicted 2nd

 Leisel Jones
Olympic swimmer
1
10
Evicted 1st

text: Season 2 (2016)[edit]

text:
Celebrity
Known for
Day Entered
Day Exited
Result

 Brendan Fevola
AFL full-forward
1
45
Winner

 Paul Harragon
Former NRL prop forward
1
45
Runner-up

 Laurina Fleure
The Bachelor Australia 2 star
1
45
Third Place

 Anthony Callea
Singer-songwriter
1
42
Evicted 9th

 Shane Warne
Retired international cricketer
2
41
Evicted 8th

 Havana Brown
DJ
1
40
Evicted 7th

 Jo Beth Taylor
Television presenter
1
39
Evicted 6th

 Val Lehman
Prisoner actress
1
38
Evicted 5th

 Dean Geyer
Glee actor
1
31
Evicted 4th

 Bonnie Lythgoe
So You Think You Can Dance Australia judge
1
24
Evicted 3rd

 Akmal Saleh
Comedian
1
17
Evicted 2nd

 Courtney Hancock
Ironwoman
1
10
Evicted 1st

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
Celebrity
Known for
Day Entered
Day Exited
Result

 Casey Donovan
Singer-songwriter (Australian Idol Winner)
1
46
Winner

 Dane Swan
AFL Legend
1
46
Runner-Up

 Natalie Bassingthwaighte
Singer & Actress
1
46
Third Place

 Nazeem Hussain
Comedian
1
45
Evicted 11th

 Steve Price
Radio Shock Jock
1
42
Evicted 10th

 Lisa Curry
Olympic Swimmer
1
41
Evicted 9th

 Ash Pollard
My Kitchen Rules contestant
1
40
Evicted 8th

 Carson Kressley
TV Personality
25
39
Evicted 7th

 Tegan Martin
Beauty Queen
1
38
Evicted 6th

 Keira Maguire
The Bachelor Australia 4 star
19
35
Evicted 5th

 Kris Smith
TV Personality & Model
2
35
Evicted 4th

 Tziporah Malkah
Former Model
2
31
Evicted 3rd

 Jay Laga'aia
Actor & Singer
1
24
Evicted 2nd

 Tom Arnold
Hollywood Actor
1
17
Evicted 1st

text: Season 4 (2018)[edit]

text:
Celebrity
Known for
Day Entered
Day Exited
Result

 Fiona O'Loughlin
Comedian
1
45
Winner

 Shannon Noll
Singer
1
45
Runner-up

 Danny Green
Boxer
7
45
Third place

 Vicky Pattison
Reality TV Star (I'm a Celeb UK, Winner)
17
44
Evicted 10th

 Simone Holtznagel
Model
1
41
Evicted 9th

 Peter Rowsthorn
Actor & Comedian
1
40
Evicted 8th

 Jackie Gillies
Psychic & Reality TV Star
1
39
Evicted 7th

 Josh Gibson
AFL Player
1
38
Evicted 6th

 Paul Burrell
Former Royal Butler (I'm a Celeb UK, Runner Up)
17
37
Evicted 5th

 Lisa Oldfield
Reality TV Star
24
34
Evicted 4th

 David Oldfield
Former Politician
24
30
Evicted 3rd

 Kerry Armstrong
Actress
1
23
Evicted 2nd

 Tiffany Darwish
Singer
1
16
Evicted 1st

 Anthony Mundine
Boxer
2
12
Withdrew

 Bernard Tomic
Tennis Player
1
3
Withdrew

text: Season 5 (2019)[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Premiere
Finale
Source

Premiere date
Premiere viewers
(Opening Night)
Rank
Premiere viewers
(Welcome to the Jungle)
Rank
Finale date
Finale viewers
(Grand final)
Rank
Finale viewers
(Winner announced)
Rank

1
31
1 February 2015 (2015-02-01)
1.199
4
1.136
5
15 March 2015 (2015-03-15)
0.999
8
1.144
3
[14][15]

2
31
31 January 2016 (2016-01-31)
1.324
3
1.081
5
13 March 2016 (2016-03-13)
0.719
8
0.858
6
[16][17]

3
32
29 January 2017 (2017-01-29)
1.103
7
0.963
8
13 March 2017
0.989
6
1.056
2
[18][19]

4
31
28 January 2018 (2018-01-28)
1.274
4
1.108
5
12 March 2018
0.684
11
0.804
8
[20][21]

5

2019

2019

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result
Refs.

2016
Logie Awards of 2016
Best Reality Program
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!
Nominated
[22]

2017
Logie Awards of 2017
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!
Nominated
[23]

2018
Logie Awards of 2018
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!
N/A

text: Lawsuit[edit]

text: In June 2017, Tom Arnold filed a lawsuit against Network Ten and A List Entertainment for defrauding him for being on I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!. Arnold claims that he was promised a payment of $425,000 and a comedy tour in Australia, however he was missing $140,000 in payment and that Network Ten backed out of the comedy tour.[24]


document_title: Book of Daniel

question_text: who was the book of daniel written to

question_tokens: who was the book of daniel written to

text: Book of Daniel

text: Structure[edit]

text: Divisions[edit]

text: The Book of Daniel is divided between the court tales of chapters 1–6 and the apocalyptic visions of 7–12, and between the Hebrew of chapters 1 and 8–12 and the Aramaic of chapters 2–7.[8][9] The division is reinforced by the chiastic arrangement of the Aramaic chapters (see below), and by a chronological progression in chapters 1–6 from Babylonian to Median times, and from Babylonian to Persian in chapters 7–12.[10] Various suggestions have been made by scholars to explain the fact that the genre division does not coincide with the other two, but it appears that the language division and concentric structure of chapters 2–6 are artificial literary devices designed to bind the two halves of the book together.[10]  The following outline is provided by Collins in his commentary on Daniel:[11]

text: PART I: Tales (chapters 1:1–6:29)

text:
1: Introduction (1:1–21 – set in the Babylonian era, written in Hebrew)
2: Nebuchadnezzar's dream of four kingdoms (2:1–49 – Babylonian era; Aramaic)
3: The fiery furnace (3:1–30 – Babylonian era; Aramaic)
4: Nebuchadnezzar's madness (3:31–4:34 – Babylonian era; Aramaic)
5: Belshazzar's feast (5:1–6:1 – Babylonian era; Aramaic)
6: Daniel in the lions' den (6:2–29 – Median era with mention of Persia; Aramaic)

text: PART II: Visions (chapters 7:1–12:13)

text:
7: The beasts from the sea (7:1–28 – Babylonian era: Aramaic)
8: The ram and the he-goat (8:1–27 – Babylonian era; Hebrew)
9: Interpretation of Jeremiah's prophecy of the seventy weeks (9:1–27 – Median era; Hebrew)
10: The angel's revelation: kings of the north and south (10:1–12:13 – Persian era, mention of Greek era; Hebrew)

text: Chiastic structure in the Aramaic section[edit]

text: There is a clear chiasm (a concentric literary structure in which the main point of a passage is placed in the centre and framed by parallel elements on either side in "ABBA" fashion) in the chapter arrangement of the Aramaic section. The following is taken from Paul Redditt's "Introduction to the Prophets":[12]

text:
A1 (2:4b-49) – A dream of four kingdoms replaced by a fifth
B1 (3:1–30) – Daniel's three friends in the fiery furnace
C1 (4:1–37) – Daniel interprets a dream for Nebuchadnezzar
C2 (5:1–31) – Daniel interprets the handwriting on the wall for Belshazzar
B2 (6:1–28) – Daniel in the lions' den
A2 (7:1–28) – A vision of four world kingdoms replaced by a fifth

text: Content[edit]

text:
Chapters of the Book of Daniel
Chapter 1: Induction into Babylon
Chapter 2: Nebuchadnezzar's Dream
Chapter 3: The Fiery Furnace
Chapter 4: Nebuchadnezzar's Madness
Chapter 5: Belshazzar's Feast
Chapter 6: Daniel in the Lions's Den
Chapter 7: The Four Beasts
Chapter 8: The Ram, He-Goat and Horn
Chapter 9: The Seventy Weeks
Chapters 10-12: Daniel's final vision
Additions to Daniel

Song of the Three Holy Children
Susanna and the Elders
Bel and the Dragon
vte

text: Introduction in Babylon (chapter 1)[edit]

text: In the third year of King Jehoiakim, God allows Jerusalem to fall into the power of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon.[Notes 1] Young Israelites of noble and royal family, "without physical defect, and handsome," versed in wisdom and competent to serve in the palace of the king, are taken to Babylon to be taught the literature and language of that nation. Among them are Daniel and his three companions, who refuse to touch the royal food and wine. Their overseer fears for his life in case the health of his charges deteriorates, but Daniel suggests a trial and the four emerge healthier than their counterparts from ten days of nothing but vegetables and water. They are allowed to continue to refrain from eating the king's food, and to Daniel God gives insight into visions and dreams. When their training is done Nebuchadnezzar finds them 'ten times better' than all the wise men in his service and therefore keeps them at his court, where Daniel continues until the first year of King Cyrus.[13][Notes 2]

text: Nebuchadnezzar's dream of four kingdoms (chapter 2)[edit]

text: In the second year of his reign Nebuchadnezzar has a dream. When he wakes up, he realizes that the dream has some important message, so he consults his wise men. Wary of their potential to fabricate an explanation the king refuses to tell the wise men what he saw in his dream. Rather, he demands that his wise men tell him what the content of the dream was, and then interpret it. When the wise men protest that this is beyond the power of any man, he sentences all, including Daniel and his friends, to death. Daniel receives an explanatory vision from God: Nebuchadnezzar had seen an enormous statue with a head of gold, breast and arms of silver, belly and thighs of bronze, legs of iron, and feet of mixed iron and clay, then saw the statue destroyed by a rock that turned into a mountain filling the whole earth. Daniel explains the dream to the king: the statue symbolized four successive kingdoms, starting with Nebuchadnezzar, all of which would be crushed by God's kingdom, which would endure forever. Nebuchadnezzar acknowledges the supremacy of Daniel's god, raises Daniel over all his wise men, and places Daniel and his companions over the province of Babylon.[14]

text: The fiery furnace (chapter 3)[edit]

text: Daniel's companions Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego refuse to bow to King Nebuchadnezzar's golden statue and are thrown into a fiery furnace. Nebuchadnezzar is astonished to see a fourth figure in the furnace with the three, one "with the appearance like a son of the gods." So the king called the three to come out of the fire, and blessed the God of Israel, and decreed that any who blasphemed against him should be torn limb from limb.[15]

text: Nebuchadnezzar's madness (chapter 4)[edit]

text: Nebuchadnezzar recounts a dream of a huge tree that is suddenly cut down at the command of a heavenly messenger. Daniel is summoned and interprets the dream. The tree is Nebuchadnezzar himself, who for seven years will lose his mind and live like a wild beast. All of this comes to pass until, at the end of the specified time, Nebuchadnezzar acknowledges that "heaven rules" and his kingdom and sanity are restored.[16]

text: Belshazzar's feast (chapter 5)[edit]

text: Belshazzar and his nobles blasphemously drink from sacred Jewish temple vessels, offering praise to inanimate gods, until a hand mysteriously appears and writes upon the wall. The horrified king summons Daniel, who upbraids him for his lack of humility before God and interprets the message: Belshazzar's kingdom will be given to the Medes and Persians. Belshazzar rewards Daniel and raises him to be third in the kingdom, and that very night Belshazzar is slain and Darius the Mede takes the kingdom.[17][Notes 3]

text: Daniel in the lions' den (chapter 6)[edit]

text: Darius elevates Daniel to high office, exciting the jealousy of other officials. Knowing of Daniel's devotion to his God, his enemies trick the king into issuing an edict forbidding worship of any other god or man for a 30-day period. Daniel continues to pray three times a day to God towards Jerusalem; he is accused and King Darius, forced by his own decree, throws Daniel into the lions' den. But God shuts up the mouths of the lions, and the next morning Darius rejoices to find him unharmed. The king casts Daniel's accusers into the lions' pit together with their wives and children to be instantly devoured, while he himself acknowledges Daniel's God as he whose kingdom shall never be destroyed.[18]

text: Vision of the beasts from the sea (chapter 7)[edit]

text: In the first year of Belshazzar Daniel has a dream of four monstrous beasts arising from the sea.[Notes 4] The fourth, a beast with ten horns, devours the whole earth, treading it down and crushing it, and a further small horn appears and uproots three of the earlier horns. The Ancient of Days judges and destroys the beast, and "one like a son of man" is given everlasting kingship over the entire world. A divine being explains that the four beasts represent four kings, but that "the holy ones of the Most High" would receive the everlasting kingdom. The fourth beast would be a fourth kingdom with ten kings, and another king who would pull down three kings and make war on the "holy ones" for "a time, two times and a half," after which the heavenly judgement will be made against him and the "holy ones" will receive the everlasting kingdom.[19]

text: Vision of the ram and goat (chapter 8)[edit]

text: In the third year of Belshazzar Daniel has vision of a ram and goat. The ram has two mighty horns, one longer than the other, and it charges west, north and south, overpowering all other beasts. A goat with a single horn appears from the west and destroys the ram. The goat becomes very powerful until the horn breaks off and is replaced by four lesser horns. A small horn that grows very large, it stops the daily temple sacrifices and desecrates the sanctuary for two thousand three hundred "evening and mornings" (which could be either 1150 or 2300 days) until the temple is cleansed. The angel Gabriel informs him that the ram represents the Medes and Persians, the goat is Greece, and the "little horn" is a wicked king.[20]

text: Vision of the Seventy Weeks (chapter 9)[edit]

text: In the first year of Darius the Mede, Daniel meditates on the word of Jeremiah that the desolation of Jerusalem would last seventy years; he confesses the sin of Israel and pleads for God to restore Israel and the "desolated sanctuary" of the Temple. The angel Gabriel explains that the seventy years stand for seventy "weeks" of years (490 years), during which the Temple will first be restored, then later defiled by a "prince who is to come," "until the decreed end is poured out."[21]

text: Vision of the kings of north and south (chapters 10–12)[edit]

text: Daniel 10: In the third year of Cyrus[Notes 5] Daniel sees in his vision an angel (called "a man", but clearly a supernatural being) who explains that he is in the midst of a war with the "prince of Persia", assisted only by Michael, "your prince." The "prince of Greece" will shortly come, but first he will reveal what will happen to Daniel's people.

text: Daniel 11: A future king of Persia will make war on the king of Greece, a "mighty king" will arise and wield power until his empire is broken up and given to others, and finally the king of the south (identified in verse 8 as Egypt) will go to war with the "king of the north." After many battles (described in great detail) a "contemptible person" will become king of the north; this king will invade the south two times, the first time with success, but on his second he will be stopped by "ships of Kittim." He will turn back to his own country, and on the way his soldiers will desecrate the Temple, abolish the daily sacrifice, and set up the abomination of desolation. He will defeat and subjugate Libya and Egypt, but "reports from the east and north will alarm him," and he will meet his end "between the sea and the holy mountain."

text: Daniel 12: At this time Michael will come. It will be a time of great distress, but all those whose names are written will be delivered. "Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake, some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt; those who are wise will shine like the brightness of the heavens, and those who lead many to righteousness, like the stars for ever and ever." In the final verses the remaining time to the end is revealed: "a time, times and half a time" (three years and a half). Daniel fails to understand and asks again what will happen, and is told: "From the time that the daily sacrifice is abolished and the abomination that causes desolation is set up, there will be 1,290 days. Blessed is the one who waits for and reaches the end of the 1,335 days."

text: Additions to Daniel (Greek text tradition)[edit]

text: The Greek text of Daniel is considerably longer than the Hebrew, due to three additional stories: they were accepted by all branches of Christianity until the Protestant movement rejected them in the 16th century on the basis that they were absent from Hebrew Bibles, but remain in Catholic and Orthodox Bibles.[22]

text:
The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children, placed after Daniel 3:23;
The story of Susanna and the Elders, placed before chapter 1 in some Greek versions and after chapter 12 in others;
The story of Bel and the Dragon, placed at the end of the book.

text: Historical background[edit]

text: The visions of chapters 7–12 reflect the crisis which took place in Judea in 167–164 BC when Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the Greek king of the Seleucid Empire, threatened to destroy traditional Jewish worship in Jerusalem.[23] When Antiochus came to the throne the Jews were largely pro-Seleucid. The High Priestly family was split by rivalry, and one member, Jason, offered the king a large sum to be made High Priest. Jason also asked—or more accurately, paid—to be allowed to make Jerusalem a polis, or Greek city. This meant, among other things, that city government would be in the hands of the citizens, which meant in turn that citizenship would be a valuable commodity, to be purchased from Jason. None of this threatened the Jewish religion, and the reforms were widely welcomed, especially among the Jerusalem aristocracy and the leading priests. Three years later Jason was deposed when another priest, Menelaus, offered Antiochus an even larger sum for the post of High Priest.[24]

text: Antiochus invaded Egypt twice, in 169 BC with success, but on the second incursion, in late 168 BC, he was forced to withdraw by the Romans.[25] Jason, hearing a rumour that Antiochus was dead, attacked Menelaus to take back the High Priesthood.[25] Antiochus drove Jason out of Jerusalem, plundered the Temple, and introduced measures to pacify his Egyptian border by imposing complete Hellenisation: the Jewish Book of the Law was prohibited and on 15 December 167 BC an "abomination of desolation", probably a Greek altar, was introduced into the Temple.[26] With the Jewish religion now clearly under threat a resistance movement sprang up, led by the Maccabee brothers, and over the next three years it won sufficient victories over Antiochus to take back and purify the Temple.[25]

text: The crisis which the author of Daniel addresses is the defilement of the altar in Jerusalem in 167 BC (first introduced in chapter 8:11): the daily offering which used to take place twice a day, at morning and evening, stopped, and the phrase "evenings and mornings" recurs through the following chapters as a reminder of the missed sacrifices.[27] But whereas the events leading up to the sacking of the Temple in 167 BC and the immediate aftermath are remarkably accurate, the predicted war between the Syrians and the Egyptians (11:40–43) never took place, and the prophecy that Antiochus would die in Palestine (11:44–45) was inaccurate (he died in Persia).[28] The obvious conclusion is that the account must have been completed near the end of the reign of Antiochus but before his death in December 164 BC, or at least before news of it reached Jerusalem, and the consensus of modern scholarship is accordingly that the book dates to the period 167-163 BCE.[29][30]

text: Composition[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: It is generally accepted that Daniel originated as a collection of Aramaic court tales later expanded by the Hebrew revelations.[31] The court tales may have originally circulated independently, but the edited collection was probably composed in the third or early second century BC.[32] When the full collection was assembled, it is likely that the brief Aramaic introduction of chapter 1 was composed to provide historical context, introduce the characters of the tales, and explain how Daniel and his friends came to Babylon.[33] In the third stage the visions of chapters 7–12 were added and chapter 1 was translated into Hebrew.[33]

text: Authorship[edit]

text: Daniel is one of a large number of Jewish apocalypses, all of them pseudonymous.[34]. The stories of the first half are considered legendary in origin, and the visions of the second the product of anonymous authors in the Maccabean period (2nd century BC).[5]

text: Although the entire book is traditionally ascribed to Daniel the seer, chapters 1–6 are in the voice of an anonymous narrator, except for chapter 4 which is in the form of a letter from king Nebuchadnezzar; only the second half (chapters 7–12) is presented by Daniel himself, introduced by the anonymous narrator in chapters 7 and 10.[35] The real author/editor of Daniel was probably an educated Jew, knowledgeable in Greek learning, and of high standing in his own community. The book is a product of "Wisdom" circles, but the type of wisdom is mantic (the discovery of heavenly secrets from earthly signs) rather than the wisdom of learning—the main source of wisdom in Daniel is God's revelation.[36][37]

text: It is possible that the name of Daniel was chosen for the hero of the book because of his reputation as a wise seer in Hebrew tradition.[38] Ezekiel, who lived during the Babylonian exile, mentioned him in association with Noah and Job (Ezekiel 14:14) as a figure of legendary wisdom (28:3), and a hero named Daniel (more accurately Dan'el, but the spelling is close enough for the two to be regarded as identical) features in a late 2nd millennium myth from Ugarit.[39] "The legendary Daniel, known from long ago but still remembered as an exemplary character ... serves as the principal human "hero" in the biblical book that now bears his name"; Daniel is the wise and righteous intermediary who is able to interpret dreams and thus convey the will of God to humans, the recipient of visions from on high that are interpreted to him by heavenly intermediaries.[40]

text: Dating[edit]

text: The prophecies of Daniel are accurate down to the career of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, king of Syria and oppressor of the Jews, but not in its prediction of his death: the author seems to know about Antiochus' two campaigns in Egypt (169 and 167 BC), the desecration of the Temple (the "abomination of desolation"), and the fortification of the Akra (a fortress built inside Jerusalem), but he seems to know nothing about the reconstruction of the Temple or about the actual circumstances of Antiochus' death in late 164 BC. Chapters 10–12 must therefore have been written between 167 and 164 BC. There is no evidence of a significant time lapse between those chapters and chapters 8 and 9, and chapter 7 may have been written just a few months earlier again.[41]

text: Further evidence of the book's date is in the fact that Daniel is excluded from the Hebrew Bible's canon of the prophets, which was closed around 200 BC, and the Wisdom of Sirach, a work dating from around 180 BC, draws on almost every book of the Old Testament except Daniel, leading scholars to suppose that its author was unaware of it. Daniel is, however, quoted in a section of the Sibylline Oracles commonly dated to the middle of the 2nd century BC, and was popular at Qumran at much the same time, suggesting that it was known from the middle of that century.[42]

text: Manuscripts[edit]

text: The Book of Daniel is preserved in the 12-chapter Masoretic Text and in two longer Greek versions, the original Septuagint version, c. 100 BC, and the later Theodotion version from c. 2nd century AD. Both Greek texts contain three additions to Daniel: The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children; the story of Susannah and the Elders; and the story of Bel and the Dragon. Theodotion is much closer to the Masoretic Text and became so popular that it replaced the original Septuagint version in all but two manuscripts of the Septuagint itself.[43][44][8] The Greek additions were apparently never part of the Hebrew text.[45]

text: Eight copies of the Book of Daniel, all incomplete, have been found at Qumran, two in Cave 1, five in Cave 4, and one in Cave 6. Between them, they preserve text from eleven of Daniel's twelve chapters, and  the twelfth is quoted in the Florilegium (a compilation scroll) 4Q174, showing that the book at Qumran did not lack this conclusion. All eight manuscripts were copied between 125 BC (4QDanc) and about 50 AD (4QDanb), showing that Daniel was being read at Qumran only about 40 years after its composition. All appear to preserve the 12-chapter Masoretic version rather than the longer Greek text. None reveal any major disagreements against the Masoretic, and the four scrolls that preserve the relevant sections (1QDana, 4QDana, 4QDanb, and 4QDand) all follow the bilingual nature of Daniel where the book opens in Hebrew, switches to Aramaic at 2:4b, then reverts to Hebrew at 8:1.[46]

text: Genre, meaning, symbolism and chronology[edit]

text: (This section deals with modern scholarly reconstructions of the meaning of Daniel to its original authors and audience)

text: Genre[edit]

text: The Book of Daniel is an apocalypse, a literary genre in which a heavenly reality is revealed to a human recipient; such works are characterized by visions, symbolism, an other-worldly mediator, an emphasis on cosmic events, angels and demons, and pseudonymity (false authorship).[47] The production of apocalypses occurred commonly from 300 BC to 100 AD, not only among Jews and Christians, but also among Greeks, Romans, Persians and Egyptians.[48] Daniel, the book's hero, is a representative apocalyptic seer, the recipient of divine revelation: he has learned the wisdom of the Babylonian magicians and surpassed them, because his God is the true source of knowledge; he is one of the maskilim (משכלים), the wise ones, who have the task of teaching righteousness and whose number may be considered to include the authors of the book itself.[48] The book is also an eschatology, as the divine revelation concerns the end of the present age, a predicted moment in which God will intervene in history to usher in the final kingdom.[49] It gives no real details of the end-time, but it seems that God's kingdom will be on this earth, that it will be governed by justice and righteousness, and that the tables will be turned on the Seleucids and those Jews who have cooperated with them.[50]

text: Meaning, symbolism and chronology[edit]

text: The message of the Book of Daniel is that, just as the God of Israel saved Daniel and his friends from their enemies, so he would save all Israel in their present oppression.[3] The book is filled with monsters, angels, and numerology, drawn from a wide range of sources, both biblical and non-biblical, that would have had meaning in the context of 2nd century Jewish culture, and while Christian interpreters have always viewed these as predicting events in the New Testament—"the Son of God", "the Son of Man", Christ and the Antichrist—the book's intended audience is the Jews of the 2nd century BC.[51] The following explains a few of these predictions, as understood by modern biblical scholars.

text:
The four kingdoms and the little horn (Daniel 2 and 7): The concept of four successive world empires stems from Greek theories of mythological history;[52] most modern interpreters agree that the four represent Babylon, the Medes, Persia and the Greeks, ending with Hellenistic Seleucid Syria and with Hellenistic Ptolemaic Egypt.[53] The symbolism of four metals in the statue in chapter 2 comes from Persian writings,[52] while the four "beasts from the sea" in chapter 7 reflect Hosea 13:7–8, in which God threatens that he will be to Israel like a lion, a leopard, a bear or a wild beast.[54] The consensus among scholars is that the four beasts of chapter 7, like the metals of chapter 2, symbolise Babylon, Media, Persia and the Seleucids, with Antiochus IV (reigned 175–164 BC) as the "small horn" that uproots three others (Antiochus usurped the rights of several other claimants to become king of the Seleucid Empire).[55]
The Ancient of Days and the one like a son of man (Daniel 7): The portrayal of God in Daniel 7:13 resembles the portrayal of the Canaanite god El as an ancient divine king presiding over the divine court.[56] The "Ancient of Days" gives dominion over the earth to "one like a son of man", and then in Daniel 7:27 to "the people of the holy ones of the Most High", whom scholars consider the son of man to represent. These people can be understood as the maskilim (sages), or as the Jewish people broadly.[57][Notes 6]
The ram and he-goat (Daniel 8) as conventional astrological symbols represent Persia and Syria, as the text explains. The "mighty horn" stands for Alexander the Great  (reigned 336–323 BC) and the "four lesser horns" represent the four principal generals (Diadochi) who fought over the Greek empire following Alexander's death. The "little horn" again represents Antiochus IV. The key to the symbols lies in the description of the little horn's actions: he ends the continual burnt offering and overthrows the Sanctuary, a clear reference to Antiochus' desecration of the Temple.[58]
The anointed ones and the seventy years (Chapter 9): Daniel reinterprets Jeremiah's "seventy years" prophecy regarding the period Israel would spend in bondage to Babylon. From the point of view of the Maccabean era, Jeremiah's promise was obviously not true—the gentiles still oppressed the Jews, and the "desolation of Jerusalem" had not ended. Daniel therefore reinterprets the seventy years as seventy "weeks" of years, making up 490 years. The 70 weeks/490 years are subdivided, with seven "weeks" from the "going forth of the word to rebuild and restore Jerusalem" to the coming of an "anointed one", while the final "week" is marked by the violent death of another "anointed one", probably the High Priest Onias III (ousted to make way for Jason and murdered in 171 BC), and the profanation of the Temple. The point of this for Daniel is that the period of gentile power is predetermined, and is coming to an end.[59][60]
Kings of north and south: Chapters 10 to 12 concern the war between these kings, the events leading up to it, and its heavenly meaning. In chapter 10 the angel (Gabriel?) explains that there is currently a war in heaven between Michael, the angelic protector of Israel, and the "princes" (angels) of Persia and Greece; then, in chapter 11, he outlines the human wars which accompany this—the mythological concept sees standing behind every nation a god/angel who does battle on behalf of his people, so that earthly events reflect what happens in heaven. The wars of the Ptolemies ("kings of the south") against the Seleucids ("kings of the north") are reviewed down to the career of Antiochus the Great (Antiochus III (reigned 222–187 BC), father of Antiochus IV), but the main focus is Antiochus IV, to whom more than half the chapter is devoted. The accuracy of these predictions lends credibility to the real prophecy with which the passage ends, the death of Antiochus—which, in the event, was not accurate.[61]
Predicting the end-time (Daniel 8:14 and 12:7–12): Biblical eschatology does not generally give precise information as to when the end will come,[62] and Daniel's attempts to specify the number of days remaining is a rare exception.[63] Daniel asks the angel how long the "little horn" will be triumphant, and the angel replies that the Temple will be reconsecrated after 2300 "evenings and mornings" have passed (Daniel 8:14). The angel is counting the two daily sacrifices, so the period is 1150 days from the desecration in December 167. In chapter 12 the angel gives three more dates: the desolation will last "for a time, times and half a time", or a year, two years, and a half a year (Daniel 12:8); then that the "desolation" will last for 1290 days (12:11); and finally, 1335 days (12:12). Verse 12:11 was presumably added after the lapse of the 1150 days of chapter 8, and 12:12 after the lapse of the number in 12:11.[64]

text: Influence[edit]

text: Religion[edit]

text: The concepts of immortality and resurrection, with rewards for the righteous and punishment for the wicked, have roots much deeper than Daniel, but the first clear statement is found in the final chapter of that book: "Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to everlasting shame and contempt."[65] Without this belief, Christianity, in which the resurrection of Jesus plays a central role, would have disappeared, like the movements following other charismatic Jewish figures of the 1st century.[66]

text: Daniel was quoted and referenced by both Jews and Christians in the 1st century AD as predicting the imminent end-time.[67] Moments of national and cultural crisis continually reawakened the apocalyptic spirit, through the Montanists of the 2nd/3rd centuries, persecuted for their millennialism, to the more extreme elements of the 16th century Reformation such as the Zwickau prophets and the Münster Rebellion.[7] During the English Civil War, the Fifth Monarchy Men took their name and political program from Daniel 7, demanding that Oliver Cromwell allow them to form a "government of saints" in preparation for the coming of the Messiah; when Cromwell refused, they identified him instead as the Beast usurping the rightful place of King Jesus.[68] Daniel remains one of the most influential apocalypses in modern America, foretelling the history of Jesus and the Second Coming.[69]

text: The influence of Daniel has not been confined to Judaism and Christianity: In the Middle Ages Muslims created horoscopes whose authority was attributed to Daniel. More recently the Bahá'í movement, which originated in Persian Shi'ite Islam, justified its existence on the 1260-day prophecy of Daniel, holding that it foretold the coming of the Twelfth Imam and an age of peace and justice in the year 1844, which is the year 1260 of the Muslim era.[70]

text: Western culture[edit]

text: Daniel belongs not only to the religious tradition but also to the wider Western intellectual and artistic heritage. It was easily the most popular of the prophetic books for the Anglo-Saxons, who nevertheless treated it not as prophecy but as a historical book, "a repository of dramatic stories about confrontations between God and a series of emperor-figures who represent the highest reach of man".[71] In the early modern period the physicist Isaac Newton paid special attention to it, and Francis Bacon borrowed a motto from it for his work Novum Organum. Philosophers, such as Baruch Spinoza drew on it. In the 20th century its apocalyptic second half attracted the attention of Carl Jung. The book has also inspired musicians, from medieval liturgical drama to the 20th century compositions of Darius Milhaud.  Artists including Michelangelo, Rembrandt and Eugène Delacroix have all drawn on its imagery.[70]


document_title: Steel industry in China

question_text: the biggest centre of iron and steel industry in china is

text: Steel industry in China

text: History[edit]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: The steel industry was small and sparsely populated at the start of the twentieth century and during both world wars. Most of the steel infrastructure was destroyed during the wars, and were using Soviet technologies. China lagged behind the western countries in its steel industry development even though they were using central planning techniques during the early days of communist rule.[2]

text: China underwent rapid economic industrialisation since Deng Xiaoping's capitalist reforms which took place three decades ago in 1978.[3]

text: The steel industry gradually increased its output. China's annual crude steel output was 100 million tons in 1996.[4]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: China produced 123 million tons of steel in 1999. After its ascension to the WTO it aggressively expanded its production for its growing appetite of manufacturing industries such as automotive vehicles, consumer electronics and building materials.[5]

text: The Chinese steel industry is dominated by a number of large state-owned groups which are owned via shareholdings by local authorities, provincial governments and even the central authorities. According to China Iron and Steel Association, The top 5 steel groups by production volume in 2015 are Baosteel Group–Wuhan Iron and Steel Corporation, Hesteel Group, Shagang Group, Ansteel Group and Shougang Group.[6]

text: By 2008 raw materials such as Iron ore prices grew and China had to reluctantly agree to price increases by the three largest iron ore producers in the world; BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto and Vale.[5] During the Global financial crisis the Chinese steel mills won price reprieves as demand from their customers slowed. When the demand started to pick up again in 2009 and in 2010, the price crept back up due to higher demand for automobiles, low interest rates, government fiscal stimuli around the world.[7] Prices for iron ore were negotiated on an annual contract pricing scheme.[8] [9][10][11] Australian iron ore producers were not happy that iron prices did not reflect Spot market pricing. In 2010 pressure from BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto to move to a quarterly based index pricing succeeded.[12] Many Japanese steel mills and Chinese steel companies had to follow as demand for raw materials heated up.[12][13][14] Spot-basis pricing has caused problems for steel manufacturers such as exposing them to price fluctuation in the market and reducing the stability of resource supply. Steel mills prefer long term pricing to hedge against cost and maintain raw material supply stability.[15] Rio Tinto has said it will cancel contracts and sell the steel on the spot markets if Chinese steel mills back down on the new quarterly pricing regime.[15]

text: In 2011 China was the largest producer of steel in the world producing 45% of the world's steel, 683 million tons, an increase of 9% from 2010. 6 of 10 of largest steel producers in the world are in China. Profits are low despite continued high demand due to high debt and overproduction of high end products produced with the equipment financed by the high debt. The central government is aware of this problem but there is no easy way to resolve it as local governments strongly support local steel production. Meanwhile, each firm aggressively increases production.[16] Iron ore production kept pace with steel production in the early 1990s but was soon outpaced by imported iron ore and other metals in the early 2000s. Steel production, an estimated 140 million tons in 2000 increased to 419 million tons in 2006. Much of the country's steel output comes from a large number of small-scale producing centers, one of the largest being Anshan in Liaoning.

text: China was the top exporter of steel in the world in 2008. Export volumes in 2008 were 59.23 million tons, a 5.5% fall over the previous year.[17] The decline ended China's decade-old steel export growth. As of 2012 steel exports faced widespread anti-dumping taxes and had not returned to pre-2008 levels. Domestic demand remained strong, particularly in the developing west where steel production in Xinjiang was expanding.[16]

text: On 26 April 2012 a warning was issued by China's bank regulator to use caution with respect to lending money to steel companies who, as profits from the manufacture and sale of steel have fallen, have sometimes used borrowed money for speculative purposes. According to the China Iron and Steel Association the Chinese steel industry lost 1 billion Rmb in the first quarter of 2012, its first loss since 2000.[18]

text: As of 2015 the global steel market was weak with both Ukraine and Russia attempting to export large amounts of steel.[19] Weak domestic demand in 2014 resulted in record exports of 100 million metric tons of steel by the Chinese steel industry.[20]

text: Efforts by the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection under the Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution has resulted in pressure on steel mills in Linyi and Chengde to employ environmental protection measures on pain of being closed down.[21]

text: In the context of lowered demand (see also 2015–16 Chinese stock market crash), in 2016 the Chinese state announced large scale closures and redundancies in heavy and primary industries, many of which were functioning as zombie companies, with 1.8 million redundancies (15% of workforce) in the coal and steel industries planned to take place by 2020.[22]