document_title: Annie (musical)

question_text: which president appears as a character in the play annie

question_tokens: which president appears as a character in the play annie

text: Annie (musical)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Act 1[edit]

text: In 1933, eleven-year-old Annie is in the Municipal Girls Orphanage, along with Molly (age 6), Kate (age 7), Tessie (age 10), Pepper (age 12), July and Duffy (both 13). When Molly awakes from a bad dream, angering Pepper and Duffy, July tells them to hush up and eventually gets into a fight with Pepper. Annie gets up and tells everyone to go back to sleep. Molly then asks if Annie could read her note from when her parents left her at the orphanage. Duffy and Pepper are yet again annoyed. Along with Kate, Pepper and Duffy imitate Annie's acting as if they were her parents ("Maybe").

text: Annie decides to escape to find her parents, but is caught by Miss Hannigan, who is currently suffering from a hangover. She is angered by this and forces all the girls to vigorously clean the orphanage ("Hard Knock Life") before their day of sweatshop labour sewing for a dress manufacturing company (from which Miss Hannigan pockets the proceeds). Shortly after, Mr. Bundles, the laundry man, comes in to pick up the blankets. While Miss Hannigan is flirting with him, Annie climbs into the laundry basket and the orphans cover her up with the blankets. Once Miss Hannigan realizes she is gone, the other orphans express their frustration ("Hard Knock Life (Reprise)").

text: Annie successfully escapes, running into a friendly stray dog. As she comforts him, she tells him of better days yet to come ("Tomorrow"). The dog catcher is after him, so she pretends the dog is hers by calling him Sandy. Though at first unsuccessful, she convinces the dog catcher, and she continues on. She later finds a Hooverville, where people made homeless by the Great Depression have come together as a community {"We'd Like to Thank You"). However, a policeman named Lt. Ward, who had been sent by Miss Hannigan, catches Annie and brings her back.

text: Grace Farrell, assistant to the billionaire Oliver Warbucks, comes to the orphanage asking for an orphan to come to his mansion for the Christmas holiday. Because Annie was in Miss Hannigan's office, Grace asks to take her, and Miss Hannigan reluctantly agrees. Once she has left, Miss Hannigan explodes with her hatred for all the girls in the orphanage ("Little Girls").

text: Meanwhile, at the Warbucks Mansion, the staff welcomes Annie with open arms ("I Think I'm Gonna Like It Here"). When Oliver Warbucks comes back, though, he is not happy to have an orphan in his mansion. He asks Grace to take Annie to a movie, but she persuades him to come too. As he and Annie begin to like each other, they enjoy a fabulous night in New York City ("N.Y.C.").

text: Back at the orphanage, Miss Hannigan's brother, Rooster, and his girlfriend, Lily, pay a visit. Miss Hannigan mentions that Annie is staying at a billionaire's house, and they think they could use this situation to their advantage, though they do not yet know how ("Easy Street").

text: Warbucks sees the locket around Annie's neck, and buys her a new one from Tiffany & Co. He debates taking her "under his wing", because he doesn't know much about children, but he realizes that he loves her and gives her the locket ("Why Should I Change A Thing?"). However, she bursts into tears, saying it was the only thing left by her parents, and refuses to accept a new one. Grace and the staff then pledge to find her parents no matter what it takes ("You Won't Be An Orphan For Long").

text: Act 2[edit]

text: Annie appears on the radio on a show by Bert Healy ("Maybe" reprise) where Warbucks announces that he is offering $50,000 to the couple who can prove they are her parents. Healy then sings a song with the Boylan Sisters ("You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile"). Back at the orphanage the girls are listening to the song. Everyone is fascinated that their friend is on the radio, except Pepper; who couldn't care less. ("You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile" reprise). When Miss Hannigan hears, she barges in and demands to know what was happening. Molly announces that Annie was on the radio, and that there is a $50,000 reward for her parents. Miss Hannigan is anything but pleased. Shortly after, a couple named Ralph and Shirley Mudge arrive, saying they left a little girl here eleven years ago and have come back for her. Miss Hannigan is shocked. They soon reveal themselves to be Rooster and Lily; they explain their plan to get the reward. They request information about Annie from Miss Hannigan for one third of the money, though she demands one half for this service, and she tells them about the note and the locket ("Easy Street" reprise).

text: Warbucks brings Annie to Washington, D.C., where she requests to meet the president. Warbucks thinks that it would be better if Annie waited outside, but Franklin D. Roosevelt asks her to stay. She begins to sing "Tomorrow", though shushed by the cabinet. Roosevelt, however, believes that people must be optimistic during tough times, and commands them to sing ("Tomorrow" Cabinet reprise). Once back home, Warbucks tells Annie how much he loves her ("Something Was Missing"). Because her parents have not shown up, he announces he would like to adopt her ("I Don't Need Anything But You"). They decide to throw a Christmas party, and Annie wants to invite Miss Hannigan and the orphans. While preparing, the delighted staff tell of how her arrival has changed their lives ("Annie").

text: Judge Louis Brandeis shows up to begin the adoption proceedings, but is interrupted by Mr. and Mrs. Mudge (Rooster and Lily in disguise) who come to pick up Annie. Grace and Warbucks are shocked, because they know about the note and the locket. Still, Warbucks does not think they are her real parents. He requests that she will be allowed to stay one more night for the Christmas party, and then they can take her away to their supposed pig farm in New Jersey. Early that morning, she wishes she could have been adopted, not sent off with her "parents" ("Maybe" reprise). Warbucks then receives a surprise visit from Roosevelt and his Secret Service. It is revealed by him that Annie's parents are actually David and Margaret Bennett, who died when she was a baby. They then realize that Mr. and Mrs. Mudge are really Rooster and Lily, just as they show up to claim her and the money. They, along with Miss Hannigan, are arrested by the Secret Service, and everyone is delighted by Roosevelt's new deal for the economy ("A New Deal for Christmas"/"Tomorrow" finale).

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Characters

Description

Oliver "Daddy" Warbucks

Billionaire businessman who opens his home – and finally opens his heart – to Annie.

Annie

The title character. The spunky and optimistic 11 year old orphan who's looking for her birth parents.  She ends up getting adopted by Oliver Warbucks.

Grace Farrell

Oliver Warbucks' faithful secretary, who loves Annie from the start.

Daniel "Rooster" Hannigan

Miss Hannigan's younger brother, a convict who escaped jail so he can rob his sister and plot to abduct Annie.

Miss Agatha Hannigan

The orphanage matron, disillusioned, she hates children, but is fond of alcoholic beverages.

Drake

The butler at the Warbucks Mansion; a good friend to Grace, Annie and Daddy Warbucks.

Lily St. Regis

Rooster's girlfriend, an egotistical gold digger. She and Rooster pose as Annie's "parents" so they can fool Warbucks and get their hands on the $50,000 reward.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

President of the United States, he aids Daddy Warbucks in the search for Annie's parents. Upon meeting Annie, he is inspired to make a new deal and restore America's economy.

Molly

The youngest orphan (6) who is also Annie's best friend.

Pepper

The bossiest orphan (12) who likes to take control and is not very good friends with Annie.

Duffy

The oldest orphan (13) who often hangs around with Pepper but is friends with everyone.

July

The quietest orphan (13) who doesn't talk much but is mother-like to all the kids.

Tessie

The crybaby orphan (10) who is known for the line "Oh my goodness".

Kate

The shyest orphan (7) who never really speaks but is friends with everyone.

Louis Brandeis

Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, he is called upon to assist in Annie's adoption.

Bert Healy

Radio announcer who agrees to broadcast Annie's search for her parents.

The Boylan Sisters

Singers on the Bert Healy Show who hope to be famous someday.

Fred McCracken and Wacky

A ventriloquist and dummy, who are guests on Bert Healy's "Oxydent Hour of Smiles."

Lt. Ward

A policeman sent after Annie, he finds her at the local homeless town (Hooverville).

Sandy

An abandoned mixed–breed dog that, once Annie rescues him, becomes her companion and pet.

Bundles

The laundry man. Miss Hannigan continuously hits on him, but he is not interested.

Cordell Hull, Frances Perkins, Louis Howe, Harold Ickes, and Henry Morgenthau Jr.

Franklin Roosevelt's Cabinet members who sing "Tomorrow" with Warbucks and Annie.

Star-To-Be

An upcoming Broadway Star, who sings a solo in N.Y.C.

Mrs. Greer, Mrs. Pugh, Cecile, and Annette

Oliver Warbucks's servants. They do a lot of housekeeping and are often supervised by Drake and Grace.

Dog Catcher and Assistant Dog Catcher

Characters in Hooverville who endanger Sandy.

Sophie and the Apple Seller

Child citizens of Hooverville who lead the town and the members of it.

Kaltenborn and Radio Announcers

Announcers on the radio.

Usherette

A female usher who seats Annie, Grace, and Warbucks in the movie theater.

Jimmy Johnson

A guest on Bery Healy's "Oxydent Hour of Smiles," who calls himself "radio's only masked announcer."

SFX Man

A member of Bert Healy's radio show, who controls the sound effects for the show and encourages crowd participation.

Men and Women of Hooverville

Men and Women who are homeless and live in shanties in the town of Hooverville.

text: Production history[edit]

text: The New York Times estimates that Annie is produced 700 to 900 times each year in the United States.[2]

text: Conceptualisation[edit]

text: Charnin first approached Meehan to write the book of a musical about Little Orphan Annie in 1972.  Meehan researched by re-reading prints of the comic strip, but was unable to find any satisfactory material for a musical other than the characters of Annie, Oliver Warbucks and Sandy, so decided to write his own story.  As all three of Meehan, Charnin and Strouse were from New York and given what he saw as the downbeat mood of the then-current Nixon era and the Vietnam War, Meehan set his story in New York during the similarly downbeat Great Depression.  Meehan saw the character of Annie as a 20th Century American female version of the titular orphan characters created by Charles Dickens in works such as Oliver Twist and David Copperfield with the mystery of Annie's abandonment and unknown parenthood as consistent with a strand of mysteries in Dickens' tales.  Meehan's book was accepted by Charnin and Strouse, but considerable material had to be trimmed out – material which Meehan would later restore for his novelisation.[3]

text: Pre-Broadway tryout[edit]

text: Annie had its world premiere on August 10, 1976 at the Goodspeed Opera House in East Haddam, Connecticut under the direction of Michael P. Price, Executive Director. Kristen Vigard was the first actress to play the title role. However, the producers soon decided that Vigard's genuinely sweet interpretation was not tough enough for the street-smart orphan. After a week of performances, Vigard was replaced by Andrea McArdle, who played one of the other orphans, Pepper. Vigard went on to become McArdle's Broadway understudy.

text: Broadway original[edit]

text:
The original Broadway production opened at the Alvin Theatre on April 21, 1977 and starred Andrea McArdle as Annie, Reid Shelton as Daddy Warbucks, Dorothy Loudon as Miss Hannigan, and Sandy Faison as Grace Farrell. Danielle Brisebois was one of the orphans. It was nominated for eleven Tony Awards and won seven, including the Best Musical, Best Score, and Best Book. Replacements in the title role on Broadway included then-child actors Shelley Bruce, Sarah Jessica Parker, Allison Smith and Alyson Kirk. Replacements in the role of Miss Hannigan included Alice Ghostley, Dolores Wilson, Betty Hutton, Marcia Lewis, and June Havoc. Ann Ungar understudied and played for Dorothy Loudon in the role of Miss Hannigan.  She also understudied Alice Ghostley and Dolores Wilson.[4]
The show closed on January 2, 1983, after a total of 2,377 performances, setting a record for the longest running show at the Alvin Theatre (now the Neil Simon Theatre), until it was surpassed by Hairspray in 2009.[1]

text: United States National touring companies[edit]

text: During the Broadway run of Annie, there were four touring companies that were launched from the original production to tour to major North American cities:

text: The 1st National Touring Company opened in Toronto in March 1978 with Kathy Jo Kelly as Annie, Norwood Smith as Daddy Warbucks, Jane Connell, Ruth Kobart as Miss Hannigan, and Gary Beach as Rooster. It played in Miami from April 12 to May 13, 1978 then continued for a few more cities until it landed in Chicago where it played for 32 weeks. In April 1979, it continued on the road in with Mary K. Lombardi now in the lead as Annie. In the fall of 1980, Theda Stemler took over the part and was replaced in Boston when she grew too old. On May 15, 1981, Louanne Sirota, who had played Annie in the long-running Los Angeles production (see below), took over the role for four months. In August 1981, Becky Snyder became the company's last Annie, closing the tour on September 6, 1981.

text: The 2nd National Touring Company (sometimes referred to as the West Coast or Los Angeles Production) opened in San Francisco on June 22, 1978 with Patricia Ann Patts starring as Annie, Jennifer Cihi as Pepper and the then-unknown Molly Ringwald as one of the orphans. The show landed in Los Angeles on October 15, 1978 for an open-ended run at the Shubert Theatre. On June 12, 1979, Sirota, just 9 years old (up until that time, all Annies had been 11 years old), took over the role from Patts. Marisa Morell took the role in December 1979, closing the Los Angeles run and continuing on tour with the show through December 1980. Kristi Coombs then played Annie until this touring company closed in Philadelphia on January 23, 1982. Alyssa Milano played one of the orphans in 1981.

text: The 3rd National Touring Company opened in Dallas on October 3, 1979 with Rosanne Sorrentino (who would later go on to portray Pepper in the 1982 film version) in the title role. This company toured to 23 cities playing mostly shorter runs of a month or less. On March 27, 1981, Bridget Walsh took over as Annie. Becky Snyder (who had closed the 1st National Tour) joined this company in the summer of 1982 and stayed with it until it closed in September of that year.

text: The 4th National Touring Company opened on September 11, 1981 with Mollie Hall playing Annie. This production was a "bus and truck" tour, with a slightly reduced cast, that traveled the country and often played in two cities a week. This company was still touring when the original Broadway production closed in January 1983, making Kathleen Sisk the final performer to play Annie from the original production team. This tour closed in September 1983.

text: West End original[edit]

text: The musical premiered in the West End at the Victoria Palace Theatre on 3 May 1978. Andrea McArdle, the original Broadway Annie, played the title role for 40 performances. British 12-year-old Ann Marie Gwatkin was also cast in the title role and appeared on the Original London cast recording. The Opening night cast and the original sound track of children were Claire Hood, Jane Collins, Dawn Napier, Annette Mason, Helen Stephenson, Jackie Ekers and Linda Brewis. Ann Marie Gwatkin alternated with Christine Hyland and four other Annies were cast at this point: Anne O'Rourke, Jacinta Whyte, Helen Thorne, Rosa Michelle who were to play the role over the next year.  Suzie Kemeys, from South Wales also performed two stints in 1980/81. The first was as the character July in the chorus and the second was playing the title role of Annie. ITV Wales commissioned two documentaries about this young Welsh girl and her rise from obscurity to a West End leading lady. Following, this Ann Marie Gwatkin and Jackie Ekers shared the title role followed by many other casts of Annie. Miss Hannigan was originally played by Sheila Hancock, and later by Maria Charles and Stella Moray; Daddy Warbucks was played by Stratford Johns and later by Charles West, with Deborah Clarke playing Pepper in the first year and Melanie Grant playing Molly.

text: Annie closed on 28 November 1981, after 1485 performances.

text: UK tour[edit]

text: The musical transferred to the Bristol Hippodrome for a special Christmas season before touring Britain. Because of strict British employment laws for juvenile actors, a succession of actresses took on the lead role every four months. One of the last girls to perform the role at the Victoria Palace before the show went on tour was 10-year-old Claudia Bradley from Leeds who was featured on a 1981 BBC programme called Fame.

text: Broadway revival (1997)[edit]

text: A 20th anniversary Broadway revival, which played at the Martin Beck Theatre (now called the Al Hirschfeld Theatre) in 1997, entitled Annie, the 20th Anniversary,[5] starred Nell Carter as Miss Hannigan, but controversy surrounded the casting of the titular character. The original actress cast in the role, Joanna Pacitti, was fired and replaced by her fellow orphan, Brittny Kissinger[6] (who usually played orphan July) just two weeks before her Broadway debut, while battling bronchitis in Boston. The Pre-Broadway Tour was playing the Colonial Theatre. 'Annie' Understudy and Swing Orphan Alexandra Keisman performed the role the first night Pacitti was absent. The producers then gave Kissinger the next performance. The show then moved on to the Oakdale in Connecticut where an insert was placed in the Playbill claiming "The Role of Annie is now being played by Brittny Kissinger". Public sentiment seemed to side with Pacitti as she was the winner of a highly publicized contest to find a new Annie sponsored by the department store Macy's. This incident, coupled with the mixed reviews the new staging garnered, doomed it to a short run, although it was followed by a successful national tour. Kissinger, then 8, became the youngest actress to ever play Annie on Broadway.

text: More controversy surrounding the show involved Nell Carter. Carter reportedly was very upset when commercials promoting the show used a different actress, Marcia Lewis, a white actress, as Miss Hannigan. The producers claimed that the commercials, which were made during an earlier production, were too costly to reshoot. Carter felt that racism played a part in the decision. "Maybe they do not want audiences to know Nell Carter is black", she told the New York Post. However, the ads did mention that Carter was in the show. "It hurts a lot", Carter told the Post, "I've asked them nicely to stop it — it's insulting to me as a black woman."[7] Later reports stated that "Nell Carter of Broadway's 'Annie' denied Thursday that she called her show's producers racist because they chose to air commercials featuring a previous Miss Hannigan—who is white—instead of her."[8] Her statement, released by the Associated Press, read: " 'Yes, it is true that I and my representatives have gone to management on more than one occasion about the commercial and were told that there was nothing they could do about it,' Carter said in a statement Thursday. 'Therefore, I have resigned myself to the fact that this is the way it is.' The statement also addressed the alleged charges of racism, first published in Thursday's New York Post. Carter is black. 'I, Nell Carter, never, ever, ever accused my producers or anyone in the show of racism,' she said. Producers have said it is too expensive to film a new commercial."[9] Carter was later replaced by another white actress, Sally Struthers. The revival closed on October 19, 1997 after 14 previews and 239 performances.[10]

text: West End revival (1998)[edit]

text: The show was revived at the Victoria Palace, running from 30 September 1998 to 28 February 1999. It starred Lesley Joseph and then Lily Savage (the female alter ego of comedian Paul O'Grady) as Miss Hannigan and Kevin Colson as Warbucks. The young girls who played Annie were Charlene Barton, Tasha Gold, Libby Gore and Sophie McShera.[11]

text: 1999–2000 United States tour[edit]

text: Starting in August 1999, the post Broadway National Tour continued with Meredith Anne Bull as Annie. In the spring of 2000, Ashley Wieronski, who had been playing Duffy, moved up to play Annie. In July 2000, Dana Benedict took over as Annie.

text: 2000–2001 Australian tour[edit]

text: In 2000/2001 a tour played Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane. Anthony Warlow starred as Daddy Warbucks with Amanda Muggleton as Miss Hannigan. A new song, "Why Should I Change a Thing", was written for Warlow.[12] Appearing as Annie in the Sydney production were Rachel Marley and Jodie McGaw. A publicist noted that "each time the show moves to a new city two casts of seven orphans plus two Annies have to be found to join the adult cast."[13]

text: 2001–2010 UK tours[edit]

text: Further UK tours of the show were also staged, including a one-month run at The Theatre Royal in Lincoln in 2001. Members of the original cast included Kate Winney and Jemma Carlisle as Annie, Louise English (Grace), Vicki Michelle (Miss Hannigan) and Simon Masterton-Smith (Daddy Warbucks). The show proved to be a success, and so for the first two tours and the Malaysian Genting Highlands Production, the role of Annie was then shared by Faye Spittlehouse and a young Lucy May Barker. Miss Hannigan was late performed by Sue Pollard and Ruth Madoc and Daddy Warbucks by Mark Wynter. This particular production toured from 2001–2007 and resumed in September 2008. The last tour of this production ended in 2011 with the role of Miss Hannigan still Su Pollard, David McAlister as Daddy Warbucks, Victoria Sian Lewis as Annie, and Simone Craddock as Grace Farrell.[14]

text: 2005–10 United States tours[edit]

text:
Starting in August 2005, a 30th anniversary traveling production of Annie[15] by NETworks Tours embarked on a multi-city tour. This production was directed by Martin Charnin. For the first year of the tour, Conrad John Schuck played Daddy Warbucks, Alene Robertson was Miss Hannigan and Annie was played by Marissa O'Donnell.[16] Throughout the run of the show, there were a couple of replacements, including Amanda Balon, who took over as Molly. For the 2nd year of the tour, Annie was played by Marissa O'Donnell again.[17] This Equity Tour closed on March 25, 2007, at the Hippodrome Theatre in Baltimore, Maryland.
The 2007–08 tour starred Amanda Balon as Annie.
The 2008–09 cast for the tour featured Tianna Stevens as Annie. Early in 2009, Amanda Balon returned temporarily to play the role of Annie until Madison Kerth was rehearsed to play the title role. Also returning were Barton, Andrews and Meisner. Other cast members included Mackenzie Aladjem (Molly). In the 2009–10 tour, Kerth returned as Annie along with most of the previous year's cast, adding Jordan Boezem (from Spotlight Kids in Sarasota, Fl) in the role of July.[18][19]

text: Broadway revival (2012)[edit]

text: A 35th Anniversary production opened on Broadway in 2012. Thomas Meehan revised the musical, with James Lapine directing.[20] Lilla Crawford starred as Annie[21] with Katie Finneran as Miss Hannigan,[22] and Anthony Warlow playing "Daddy" Warbucks.[23] Featured cast includes Brynn O'Malley, Clarke Thorell and J. Elaine Marcos as Grace Farrell, Rooster and Lily St. Regis (respectively).[24] The revival started previews at the Palace Theatre on October 3, 2012, and officially opened on November 8, 2012 receiving mostly mixed reviews.[24] Notable replacements include Jane Lynch and Faith Prince as Miss Hannigan.[25][26] On July 30, Taylor Richardson and Sadie Sink both began alternating the role of Annie, replacing Crawford.[27] This production closed on January 5, 2014, after 38 previews and 487 regular performances.[28]

text: 2014–17 United States tours[edit]

text: Starting in September 2014, a 40th anniversary traveling production of Annie was launched by TROIKA Entertainment. Directed by Martin Charnin, the tour kicked off in Detroit, Michigan. For the first year of the tour, Issie Swickle played the title character alongside Gilgamesh Tagget and Lynn Andrews as Oliver Warbucks and Miss Hannigan respectively. [29] There were many replacements throughout the tour, and by the end Gilgamesh Tagget was the only remaining original member. For most of the second year of the tour, Heidi Gray played the red head. For the third and final year of the tour Tori Bates played Annie and became the first bi-racial Annie in a professional production. [30] The 40th Anniversary performance was celebrated in Baltimore, Maryland on April 21, 2017 with Angelina Carballo as Annie. [31] The tour came to a close in Boston, Massachusetts on May 21, 2017 after 745 performances.

text: West End revival (2017)[edit]

text: A West End revival began at the Piccadilly Theatre in London opening on 5 June 2017 (previews beginning 23 May) for a limited run until 6 January 2018. Miranda Hart will make her musical debut as Miss Hannigan until 17 September, the production will be directed by Nikolai Foster and produced by Michael Harrison and David Ian. The production will be identical to the 2015–16 UK and Ireland tour.[32] The 3 girls who are sharing the main role are Madeleine Haynes (reprising her the role from the UK tour), Lola Moxom and Ruby Stokes. From 19 September, for a limited 10 week run, Craig Revel Horwood returned to the role of Miss Hannigan, reprising his role from the 2015–16 UK and Ireland tour. Due to phenomenal success at the box office, the production extended its limited run, with Meera Syal as Miss Hannigan from 27 November[33], through to the show's conclusion on 18 February 2018, when it will close to make way for the musical adaptation of Strictly Ballroom.[34]

text: International productions[edit]

text: Annie has been produced professionally in Argentina (19821), Australia (19781, 2000, 20111, 2012), Denmark (1982), Germany(1999), Hungary (1998), Ireland (2003, 20163), Israel (20011, 2010), Italy (1982,2006), Japan (1979, 1986, 2004, 2010, 2012)2, United Kingdom (19781, 1983, 1998, tours from 2000–2010), Mexico (19791,1991, 2010, 2015), Netherlands (1997–19991, 2005–20071, 2012–20131), Norway (19911, 20041, 2013 ), Philippines (1978, 1987, 1998, 2016), Portugal (1982,1, 2010), Spain (19821, 20001, 2010), Sweden (1979 (Stockholm), 1999 (Stockholm), 2005–2006 (Malmö)1), Peru (1986, 1997, 2002), Zimbabwe (2003), Russia (2002–2009), Colombia (2006), Belgium (1992, 2008–2009, 2012), Poland (1989), United Arab Emirates (2009), Denmark (2011), Puerto Rico (2012), Singapore (2012), Greece (2013).

text: 1Indicates the production made an official cast recording.

text: 2In Japan, a special demo recording of selected songs is made each year, with the new actress playing Annie.

text: 3In Ireland, in the 2016 production, the actresses playing Annie and Molly (Aoife McNamara & Simone McInerney) alternated between the roles.

text: Stage sequels[edit]

text: The first attempt at a sequel, Annie 2: Miss Hannigan's Revenge, opened at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. in December 1989 to universally disastrous reviews. Extensive reworking of the script and score proved futile, and the project ended before reaching Broadway.[35]

text: In 1993, a second attempt (with a similar plot and score) titled Annie Warbucks was developed in a workshop at the Goodspeed Opera House under the direction of Michael P. Price where the original Annie enjoyed its world premier in 1976. It subsequently opened at the Off Broadway Variety Arts Theatre, where it ran for 200 performances.

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text:
Act I
Overture – Orchestra
"Maybe" – Annie and Orphans
"It's the Hard Knock Life" – Annie and Orphans
"It's the Hard Knock Life" (Reprise) – Orphans
"Tomorrow" – Annie
"We'd Like to Thank You, Herbert Hoover" – Hooverville-ites
"Little Girls" – Miss Hannigan
"Little Girls" (Reprise) – Miss Hannigan
"I Think I'm Gonna Like It Here" – Grace, Annie and Staff
"N.Y.C." – Warbucks, Grace, Annie, Star-to-Be and Chorus
"N.Y.C." (Reprise) / "Lullaby" – Warbucks
"You Make Me Happy" – Miss Hannigan, Grace †
"Easy Street" – Rooster, Miss Hannigan and Lily
"You Won't Be an Orphan for Long" – Grace and Warbucks
"Why Should I Change a Thing?" – Warbucks ‡
"Maybe" (Reprise) – Annie

Act II
"Maybe" (Reprise II) – Annie
"You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile" – Bert Healy and the Boylan Sisters
"You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile" (Children Reprise) – Orphans
"Easy Street" (Reprise) – Rooster, Miss Hannigan and Lily
"Tomorrow" (Cabinet Reprise) – Annie, Roosevelt, Warbucks and Cabinet
"Tomorrow" (Cabinet Reprise II) – Roosevelt and the Cabinet
"Something Was Missing" – Warbucks
"Annie" – Grace, Drake and Staff
"I Don't Need Anything But You" – Warbucks and Annie
"Maybe" (Reprise III) – Annie
"A New Deal for Christmas" – Warbucks, Grace, Annie, Roosevelt and staff
"Tomorrow" (Finale) – Company

text:
† This number was added as a showcase for Nell Carter in the 1997 Broadway revival. It has not appeared in any subsequent productions.
‡ This number was added as a showcase for Anthony Warlow in a 2000 Australian production, and has since become an optional part of the show, as it notably did not appear in the 2012 Broadway revival,[36] also starring Warlow.

text: Recordings[edit]

text: The Original Broadway Cast recording was released in 1977; a CD containing bonus tracks was released on September 15, 1998 by Sony (ASIN: B00000AG6Z). The 1995 London studio cast recording, featuring the National Symphony Orchestra, stars Sarah French as Annie, Kim Criswell as Miss Hannigan and Ron Raines as Daddy Warbucks.

text: A 30th anniversary cast recording was released in 2008 on Time–Life Records. An all-star cast of former Annie cast members includes Carol Burnett, Sally Struthers, Kathie Lee Gifford, Andrea McArdle, John Schuck, Harve Presnell, Gary Beach and Amanda Balon. The rest of the cast is made up of the members of the 30th Anniversary Tour. This recording is a double CD set and includes the entire show as it is performed now on the first disc. The second one includes songs from the sequel, "Annie 2: Miss Hannigan's Revenge" as well as songs that were cut from or added to the original production. There is also a song from the 1977 Annie Christmas special. The booklet is made up of original drawings by Philo Barnhart, who is the creator of Ariel and Ursula in "The Little Mermaid", and is presented in a comic book style.[37]

text: Novelisations[edit]

text: Thomas Meehan[edit]

text: In 1980, Macmillan Books published Meehan's novelisation of his script for the musical, later reprinted by Puffin Books in 2014.  Several of the lyrics from songs from the show were adapted into dialogue and monologue for the novelisation, not least Tomorrow whose main lyric is depicted as being Annie's personal motto.  Meehan used the novel to restore material cut from his original storyline and develop the Annie story into his original concept of what he considered to be a 20th Century American version of Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist, albeit with a female rather than male orphan as the protagonist.[3]

text: The novel goes into greater depth regarding the backgrounds of many of the characters and particularly about hardship at the orphanage, at which brutal beatings and emotional abuse from Miss Hannigan are everyday occurrences. Unlike the high camp portrayal of Miss Hannigan in most productions of the musical, the novelisation – in the tradition of Dickens' original novel of Oliver Twist – emphatically depicts her as a truly sinister and malevolent villainess – "a skinny hatchet faced woman with short jet-black hair (who) reminded the orphans of a particularly unpleasant looking – and all too real – Halloween witch".[38]

text: A greater emphasis is placed on the sheer drudgery and illegality of the orphans' sewing labours in the orphanage basement. However, whereas in the musical the orphans are not enrolled in school until the final scene, in the novelisation they attend a public school, PS62, where they suffer from snobbery from teachers and harassment from non-orphan pupils, particularly from a spoiled rich girl named Myrtle Vandenmeer. The legal name of Rooster's girlfriend Lily St Regis is given in the book as being Muriel Jane Gumper.[38][39]

text: In the novel, Annie spends several months on the run from the orphanage, initially spending the winter as resident staff in Bixby's Beanery, a low-grade café run by couple Fred and Gert Bixby, before escaping after she finds Sandy.  She then spends several months living in the Hooverville with Sophie and the Apple Seller (who is named as G. Randall "Randy" Whitworth Jr, a former stockbroker left destitute by the Depression) who, in the novelisation, are adult characters and a couple.  It is revealed at the end that Randy, Sophie and all the other Hoovervillites had been released from prison and given jobs and homes by Warbucks as gratitude for taking care of Annie.  Also reappearing at the end of the book is Sandy, previously written out of the book while fleeing police during the raid on the Hooverville, who it transpires was successfully traced by agents from Pinkerton hired by Warbucks.[38][39]

text: Leonore Fleischer[edit]

text: A second novelisation of Annie, by Leonore Fleischer, was published by Random House in 1982.  This was a tie-in with the film and was adapted directly from the screenplay.[40][41]

text: Film and television[edit]

text: The Columbia Pictures film was released in 1982, starring Albert Finney as Daddy Warbucks, Carol Burnett as Miss Hannigan, Ann Reinking as Grace Farrell, Tim Curry as Rooster, Bernadette Peters as Lily, and newcomer Aileen Quinn as Annie. A sequel, Annie: A Royal Adventure! was made for television in 1995. It starred Ashley Johnson, Joan Collins, George Hearn, and Ian McDiarmid. Aside from a reprise of "Tomorrow", there are no songs in it.

text: A made-for-TV Wonderful World of Disney movie version, produced by The Walt Disney Company and directed by Rob Marshall, was broadcast in 1999; it starred Victor Garber as Daddy Warbucks, Kathy Bates as Miss Hannigan, Audra McDonald as Grace Farrell, Alan Cumming as Rooster, Kristin Chenoweth as Lily, and newcomer Alicia Morton as Annie.

text: A documentary film, Life After Tomorrow, was directed and produced by one of the original Broadway and National Tour orphans, Julie Stevens and partner, Gil Cates Jr. It reunites more than 40 women who played orphans in the show and reveals the highs and lows of their experiences as child actresses in a cultural phenomenon. The film premiered on Showtime and was released on DVD in 2008.

text: In January 2011, Will Smith announced plans for a redux of Annie set in the present day, produced with his wife Jada Pinkett Smith and rapper Jay-Z for release by Columbia Pictures, now owned by Sony Pictures Entertainment.[42] This version was to star the Smiths' daughter, Willow, as Annie; as she had aged out of the part before production began, she was replaced by Academy Award-nominated actress Quvenzhané Wallis.[43] Directed by Will Gluck and released on December 19, 2014,[44][45] this version of Annie also stars Jamie Foxx as Will Stacks (an update of Daddy Warbucks),[46] Rose Byrne as Grace Farrell, and Cameron Diaz as Miss Hannigan.[47] The film's song score includes most of the original musical's songs plus new compositions produced by Greg Kurstin and Sia.[48]

text: Annie Jr.[edit]

text: Annie Jr. is a musical licensed by Music Theatre International's Broadway Junior collection, specially edited to be performed by youngsters in a shortened version. It is performed internationally every year by acting academies, programs, schools, and theatre camps.[49][50]  MTI also licenses another youth version of the show, called Annie KIDS, a 30-minute length version meant for elementary school aged performers.[51]

text: Stage differences (1977 musical)[edit]

text: The songs "We'd Like to Thank You Herbert Hoover", "A New Deal for Christmas", "Something Was Missing" and "Tomorrow (Cabinet Reprise)" were cut. There is only one version of "You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile", which is sung by the orphans. Also, there are only two "Maybe" reprises. The song "You won't Be an Orphan For Long" only features Annie and Daddy Warbucks. The songs "Easy Street" and "Little Girls" were also shortened.

text: Pop culture references[edit]

text: Annie's popularity is reflected in its numerous mentions in popular media. References to the show appear in films such as Austin Powers: Goldmember, where Dr. Evil and Mini-Me perform Jay-Z's version of the song 'Hard Knock Life'; and in the 1994 John Waters dark comedy Serial Mom, where a woman is bludgeoned to death with a leg of mutton by the titular serial killer while watching the 1982 film version and singing along. It is parodied in Reefer Madness, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt shows up as the deus ex machina at the end of the satirical musical to tell the assembled crowd, "A little orphan girl once told me that the sun would come out tomorrow. Her adopted father was a powerful billionaire, so I suppressed the urge to laugh in her face, but now, by gum, I think she may have been on to something!"

text: References in television series include:

text:
In The X-Files episode "Die Hand Die Verletzt (The hand that hurts)", Annie is suggested as a more appropriate school production than Jesus Christ Superstar, for a high school that turns out to be run by a Satanic coven.
Pushing Daisies where Emerson referred to Chuck's father as "Daddy Dead-bucks" in the episode entitled "The Norwegians" (Season 2: Episode 10).
An episode of SCTV, features a spoof commercial of the "original" cast, now older adults still playing their kid roles, performing the 8,000th performance of Annie.
Zoey 101, where Marc wants the school production changed to Annie.
Full House, where Stephanie Tanner sings the song in several episodes
The Family Guy episode "Peter, Peter, Caviar Eater" (1999), where the Griffin family inherits a luxury mansion, and the staff puts on a large-scale production number spoofing the song "I Think I'm Gonna Like It Here". Also, in the episode "Brian's Got a Brand New Bag" (2009), a number of "orphaned" DVDs (movies nobody wants to buy such as Enemy Mine, and What Dreams May Come) at a store, sing the opening of "Maybe".
"I Think I'm Gonna Like It Here" is also spoofed in the Drawn Together episode "Alzheimer's That Ends Well".
In the first episode of Boston Legal, Alan Shore represents a black girl who was not hired as Annie in the national tour, and wins the case with the help of Al Sharpton.
In the South Park episode "Ginger Kids", Eric Cartman and his group of Ginger Supremacists protest against Annie being played by a non-freckled, non-red-haired girl.
On Yes, Dear, Dominic and his new friend Ronnie put on a show for the parents including "Hard Knock Life", to Jimmy's horror.
On 30 Rock, Liz Lemon is discovered in her office after hours listening to music on her headset and singing "Maybe".
Also in 30 Rock, "The Tuxedo Begins", an unnamed caricature of an aspiring actress (quickly revealed to be a prostitute) sings parts of "NYC" both in the beginning and end of the episode. The role was played by thespian Sarah Schenkkan. The melody and harmony of the same song are quoted by the soundtrack of the episode, and a mariachi version is played over the closing credits.
The stop-motion comedy show Robot Chicken parodied Annie in episodes including "Maurice Was Caught" (2009).[52]
In "The Potter Puppet Pals", in the episode Neville's Birthday, Ron states that he is going to try out for the lead in Annie.
NCIS has referenced Annie twice: when Israeli character Ziva David's coworkers were explaining The American Dream to her, and when forensic scientist Abby Sciuto finds out she was adopted, calling herself as 'Little Orphan Abby'.
On Friends, Chandler shows his love of Annie by saying to Monica how she also has a copy of the Annie Soundtrack CD, but in fact, both are his.
"Lights Out", an episode of Glee, has cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester (Jane Lynch) singing "Little Girls". Coincidentally, Lynch would go on to play Miss Hannigan in a 2013 revival of Annie.
In "Makeover", an episode of Glee, a guest starring Sarah Jessica Parker as Isabelle Wright from Vogue.com with Kurt Hummel and Rachel Berry sing "You're never fully dressed without a smile".
In the Netflix series Haters Back Off, Miranda Sings and her family attempt to mount a backyard production of Annie (with extensive book and score revisions) in the episode "Staring in a Musicall".

text: The song "Tomorrow" is sung in many media references, including by Joe's aunt in a scene in the film You've Got Mail; in Dave, by Kevin Kline and Sigourney Weaver; by Lewis on The Drew Carey Show; by Jane Krakowski in the fourth season of Ally McBeal; in Roseanne, by Darlene and Becky; by Reese Witherspoon in Just Like Heaven; by Donkey in the CGI movies Shrek II (although he passes out halfway through the second line) and Shrek Forever After when he is pulling the witches' cart to Rumpelstiltskin with an unconscious Shrek inside after making the deal with Rumpelstiltskin; in a commercial for Lowe's Hardware promoting their next-day delivery; by the Royle Family in the episode "The Queen of Sheba" of the eponymous series; by contestant Teresa Cooper on an episode of Survivor: Africa; in a Duel Masters episode, it is recited by Shobu; by Marta in School Of Rock; in Like Mike, by a couple hoping to be Calvin's adoptive parents; and in Addams Family Values. In the Ugly Betty episode "Lose the Boss" the song can be heard playing in the bedroom of Justin Suarez after he was sent there for fighting in school. Pastiche versions of the song are sung in the Disney theme park attraction It's Tough to be a Bug! and in the Rooms To Go next-day delivery ad campaign. The long-running Broadway parody production of Forbidden Broadway took up "Tomorrow" as sung by an adult Annie ("I'm thirty years old . . . tomorrow") pleading for a sequel to the original musical.

text: The climax of the animated film Igor involved a giant robot portraying Annie.

text: Other prominent media references include the following:

text:
Producer The 45 King heavily sampled "It's the Hard-Knock Life" from the original Broadway cast recording on rapper Jay-Z's single "Hard Knock Life (Ghetto Anthem)" (1998).[53]
The NFL Network produced two Super Bowl ads in 2004 and 2005 featuring "Tomorrow." A series of football celebrities who were retired or did not make it to that year's Super Bowl would sing the song, ending with the caption, "...Tomorrow, we're all undefeated again."[54][55]
Comedian Zach Galifianakis lip-synched to a recording of "Tomorrow" during his monologue on the March 12, 2011 episode of Saturday Night Live. He was dressed as Annie.

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Original Broadway production[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee

Result

1977

Tony Award

Best Musical

Won

Best Book of a Musical

Thomas Meehan

Won

Best Original Score

Charles Strouse and Martin Charnin

Won

Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical

Reid Shelton

Nominated

Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical

Andrea McArdle

Nominated

Dorothy Loudon

Won

Best Direction of a Musical

Martin Charnin

Nominated

Best Choreography

Peter Gennaro

Won

Best Scenic Design

David Mitchell

Won

Best Costume Design

Theoni V. Aldredge

Won

Drama Desk Award

Outstanding Musical

Won

Outstanding Book of a Musical

Thomas Meehan

Won

Outstanding Actor in a Musical

Reid Shelton

Nominated

Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical

Dorothy Loudon

Won

Outstanding Director of a Musical

Martin Charnin

Won

Outstanding Choreography

Peter Gennaro

Won

Outstanding Music

Charles Strouse

Nominated

Outstanding Lyrics

Martin Charnin

Won

Outstanding Costume Design

Theoni V. Aldredge

Won

1978

Grammy Award

Best Cast Show Album

Won

text: 1997 Broadway revival[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee

Result

1997

Tony Award

Best Revival of a Musical

Nominated

text: 1998 London revival[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee

Result

1999

Laurence Olivier Award

Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical

Andrew Kennedy

Nominated

Best Theatre Choreographer

Peter Gennaro

Nominated

text: 2013 Broadway revival[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee

Result

2013

Tony Award

Best Revival of a Musical

Nominated

Drama Desk Award

Outstanding Actor in a Musical

Anthony Warlow

Nominated


document_title: Hydrogen vehicle

question_text: when was the hydrogen fuel cell car invented

root

text: Hydrogen vehicle

text: Vehicles[edit]

text: Automobiles, buses, forklifts, trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes, golf carts, motorcycles, wheelchairs, ships, airplanes, submarines, and rockets can already run on hydrogen, in various forms. NASA used hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into space. A working toy model car runs on solar power, using a regenerative fuel cell to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy.[8] Since the advent of hydraulic fracturing the key concern for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is consumer and public policy confusion concerning the adoption of natural gas powered hydrogen vehicles with heavy hidden emissions to the detriment of environmentally friendly transportation.[7]

tag: p

text: A land-speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle of 286.476 miles per hour (461.038 km/h) was set by Ohio State University's Buckeye Bullet 2, which achieved a "flying-mile" speed of 280.007 miles per hour (450.628 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2008. A record of 207.297 miles per hour (333.612 km/h) was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power.[9]

text: Automobiles[edit]

text: As of  2016[update], there are 3 hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai, the Hyundai ix35 FCEV, and the Honda Clarity.[10]

text: Toyota launched its first production fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the Mirai, in Japan at the end of 2014 and began sales in California, mainly the Los Angeles area, in 2015.[11] The car has a range of 312 mi (502 km) and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen ($69,000).[12] Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.[13] Many automobile companies have introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see List of fuel cell vehicles and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles).[14][15] One disadvantage of hydrogen compared to other automobile fuels is its low density.[16][17][18]

text: In 2013 BMW leased hydrogen technology from Toyota, and a group formed by Ford Motor Company, Daimler AG, and Nissan announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development.[19] By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development,[20] and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.[21]

text: Buses[edit]

text: Fuel-cell buses (as opposed to hydrogen fueled buses) are being trialed by several manufacturers in different locations, for example, Ursus Lublin. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global fuel cell bus testing collaboration.[citation needed]

text: Trams[edit]

text: In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao. The chief engineer of the CSR subsidiary CSR Sifang Co Ltd., Liang Jianying, said that the company is studying how to reduce the running costs of the tram.[22] Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities. China plans to spend 200 billion yuan ($32 billion) through 2020 to increase tram tracks to more than 1,200 miles.[23]

text: Bicycles[edit]

text: In 2007, Pearl Hydrogen Power Sources of Shanghai, China, unveiled a hydrogen bicycle at the 9th China International Exhibition on Gas Technology, Equipment, and Applications.

text: Motorcycles and scooters[edit]

text: ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the Crosscage and Biplane. Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters.[24] Finally, hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-hybrid scooters are being made such as the Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter.[25] and the FHybrid.[26] The Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU.[27] The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel-cell scooters for Taiwan's Bureau of Energy.[28]

text: Quads and tractors[edit]

text: Autostudi S.r.l's H-Due[29] is a hydrogen-powered quad, capable of transporting 1-3 passengers.  A concept for a hydrogen-powered tractor has been proposed.[30]

text: Airplanes[edit]

text: Companies such as Boeing, Lange Aviation, and the German Aerospace Center pursue hydrogen as fuel for manned and unmanned airplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a manned flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Unmanned hydrogen planes have also been tested.[31] For large passenger airplanes, The Times reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet airplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard."[32]

text: In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen-powered Phantom Eye UAV, powered by two Ford internal-combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen.[33]

text: In Britain, the Reaction Engines A2 has been proposed to use the thermodynamic properties of liquid hydrogen to achieve very high speed, long distance (antipodal) flight by burning it in a precooled jet engine.

text: Fork trucks[edit]

text: A HICE forklift or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, internal combustion engine-powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials.  The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0 litre, 43 kW (58 hp) diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and direct injection.[34][35]

text: A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck) is a fuel cell powered industrial forklift truck. In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US.[36] The global market was estimated at 1 million fuel cell powered forklifts per year for 2014–2016.[37] Fleets are being operated by companies around the world.[38] Pike Research stated in 2011 that fuel-cell-powered forklifts will be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020.[39]

text: Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.[37][40] Fuel-cell-powered forklifts can provide benefits over battery powered forklifts as they can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop-in replacements.[41][42]

text: Rockets[edit]

text: Many large rockets use liquid hydrogen as fuel, with liquid oxygen as an oxidizer (LH2/LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high effective exhaust velocity compared to kerosene/LOX or UDMH/NTO engines. According to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the energy density of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel.[43] LH2/LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant.[44]

text: A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed. This increases the rocket's structural mass which reduces its delta-v significantly.  Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2/LOX-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil-off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for ICBMs and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations.

text: Overall, the delta-v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense fuelled stage, but the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which makes it particularly effective for upper stages, since they are carried by the lower stages. For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag.[45]

text: LH2/LOX were also used in the Space Shuttle to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems.[46] The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space.

text: Heavy Truck[edit]

text: In 2016 Nikola Motor Company introduced a hydrogen-powered Class 8 heavy truck powered by a 320 kWh EV battery. Nikola plans two versions of the hydrogen powered truck, long haul Nikola One and day cab Nikola Two.[47] United Parcel Service began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017.[48] US Hybrid, Toyota, and Kenworth have also announced plans to test Class 8 drayage hydrogen fuel cell trucks.[49]

text: Internal combustion vehicle[edit]

text: Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do; the main difference is the exhaust product. Gasoline combustion results in carbon dioxide and water vapor, while the only exhaust product of hydrogen combustion is water vapor.

text: In 1807 Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine.[50] In 1965, Roger Billings, then a high school student, converted a Model A to run on hydrogen.[51] In 1970 Paul Dieges patented a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen US 3844262 .

text: Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen.[citation needed] The advantage of using an internal combustion engine, like Wankel and piston engines, is the lower cost of retooling for production.[citation needed]

text: HICE forklift trucks have been demonstrated[52] based on converted diesel internal combustion engines with direct injection.[35]

text: Fuel cell[edit]

text: Fuel cell cost[edit]

text: Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce, as their designs require rare substances such as platinum as a catalyst,[53] In 2014, Toyota said it would introduce its Toyota Mirai in Japan for less than $70,000 in 2015.[12][54] Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimates that Toyota will initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.[13]

text: Freezing conditions[edit]

text: The problems in early fuel-cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have been addressed so that they "cannot be seen as show-stoppers anymore".[55] Users in 2014 said that their fuel cell vehicles perform flawlessly in temperatures below zero, even with the heaters blasting, without significantly reducing range.[56] Studies using neutron radiography on unassisted cold-start indicate ice formation in the cathode,[57] three stages in cold start[58] and Nafion ionic conductivity.[59] A parameter, defined as coulomb of charge, was also defined to measure cold start capability.[60]

text: Service life[edit]

text: The service life of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles.[61]  PEM service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions.[62]

text: Hydrogen[edit]

text: Hydrogen does not come as a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels but is first produced and then stored as a carrier,[63] much like a battery.  A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gasses and ozone precursors.[64] However, as of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from methane. It can be produced using renewable sources, but that is an expensive process.[3][65] Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power to gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy sources.[66]

text: According to Ford Motor Company, "when FCVs are run on hydrogen reformed from natural gas using this process, they do not provide significant environmental benefits on a well-to-wheels basis (due to GHG emissions from the natural gas reformation process)."[67] While methods of hydrogen production that do not use fossil fuel would be more sustainable,[68] currently renewable energy represents only a small percentage of energy generated, and power produced from renewable sources can be used in electric vehicles and for non-vehicle applications.[69]

text: The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include production, storage, transport, and distribution. The well-to-wheel efficiency for hydrogen is less than 25%.[7][70][71][72] More recent analyses confirm this.[73][74]

text: Production[edit]

text: The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process called thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production. 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas,[75] and 85% of hydrogen produced is used to remove sulfur from gasoline. Hydrogen can also be produced from water by electrolysis at working efficiencies in the 50–60% range for the smaller electrolysers and around 65–70% for the larger plants.[76] Hydrogen can also be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum.[77]  Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.,[68]

text: Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gasses, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen.[70] Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gasses would result.[7][64] Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs.[78] As of 2016, 14.9 percent of U.S. electricity was produced from renewable sources.[79] In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen,[80] and Denmark is using wind.[81]

text: Storage[edit]

text: Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology.[82]

text: Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, equal to about one-third that of methane. Even when the fuel is stored as liquid hydrogen in a cryogenic tank or in a compressed hydrogen storage tank, the volumetric energy density (megajoules per liter) is small relative to that of gasoline.[16][17][18][53] Hydrogen has three times higher specific energy by mass compared to gasoline (143 MJ/kg versus 46.9 MJ/kg).  In 2011, scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory and University of Alabama, working with the U.S. Department of Energy, found a single-stage method for recharging ammonia borane, a hydrogen storage compound.[83][84] In 2018, researchers at CSIRO in Australia powered a Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a membrane technology. Ammonia is easier to transport safely in tankers than pure hydrogen.[85]

text: Infrastructure[edit]

text: The hydrogen infrastructure consists mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and hydrogen-equipped filling stations like those found on a hydrogen highway. Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline can obtain supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.

text: According to GM, 70% of the U.S. population lives near a hydrogen-generating facility but has little access to hydrogen, despite its wide availability for commercial use.[86] The distribution of hydrogen fuel for vehicles throughout the U.S. would require new hydrogen stations that would cost, by some estimates approximately 20 billion dollars[87] and 4.6 billion in the EU.[88]  Other estimates place the cost in the United States as high as half trillion dollars.[7][89]

text: As of  2016[update], there were 23 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the USA, 20 of which were located in California.[90][91] By May 2017, there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan.[92]

text: Codes and standards[edit]

text: Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen safety and the storage of hydrogen, have been identified as an institutional barrier to deploying hydrogen technologies and developing a hydrogen economy. To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards must be developed and adopted by federal, state and local governments.[93]

text: Official support[edit]

text: US initiatives[edit]

text: In 2003, George W. Bush announced an initiative to promote hydrogen powered vehicles.[94] In 2009, President Obama and his Department of Energy Secretary Steven Chu stripped the funding of fuel cell technology due to their belief that the technology was still decades away. Under heavy criticism, the funding was partially restored.[95][96] In 2014 the Obama administration announced they want to speed up production and development of hydrogen powered vehicles.  The Department of Energy planned to spread a $7.2 million investment among the states of Georgia, Kansas, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee to support projects that fuel vehicles and support power systems. The Center for Transportation and The Environment, Fed Ex Express, Air Products and Chemicals, and Sprint have invested in the development of fuel cells. Fuel cells could also be used in handling equipment such as forklifts as well as telecommunications infrastructure.[97]

text: Senator Byron L. Dorgan stated in 2013: “The Energy and Water Appropriations bill makes investments in our nation’s efforts to develop safe, homegrown energy sources that will reduce our reliance on foreign oil. And, because ongoing research and development is necessary to develop game-changing technologies, this bill also restores funding for Hydrogen energy research”. In June 2013, the U.S. Department of Energy gave 9 million dollars in grants to speed up technology development, 4.5 million for advanced fuel cell membranes, $3 million to 3M corporation to work on membranes with improved durability and performance, and 1.5 million to the Colorado School of Mines for work on simpler and more affordable fuel cell membranes.[98]

text: Other efforts[edit]

text: In Japan, hydrogen is mainly to be sourced from outside Japan.[63][99]

text: Norway plans a series of hydrogen refueling stations along the main roads.[100][101]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Critics claim the time frame for overcoming the technical and economic challenges to implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen cars is likely to last for at least several decades, and hydrogen vehicles may never become broadly available.[69][102]  They claim that the focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles.[103]  In May 2008, Wired News reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long.  In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions."[104]

text: Critiques of hydrogen vehicles are presented in the 2006 documentary, Who Killed the Electric Car?.  According to former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph Romm, "A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases." Asked when hydrogen cars will be broadly available, Romm replied: "Not in our lifetime, and very possibly never."[105]  The Los Angeles Times wrote, in 2009, "Hydrogen fuel-cell technology won't work in cars. ... Any way you look at it, hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars."[106]

text: The Economist magazine, in 2008, quoted Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'".[107]  The magazine noted the withdrawal of California from earlier goals: "In [2008] the California Air Resources Board, an agency of California's state government and a bellwether for state governments across America, changed its requirement for the number of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) to be built and sold in California between 2012 and 2014. The revised mandate allows manufacturers to comply with the rules by building more battery-electric cars instead of fuel-cell vehicles."[107] The magazine also noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars. On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."[107]

text: A 2009 study at UC Davis, published in the Journal of Power Sources, similarly found that, over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.[108] This agrees with a 2014 analysis.[7] The Washington Post asked in 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries"?[75] The Motley Fool stated in 2013 that "there are still cost-prohibitive obstacles [for hydrogen cars] relating to transportation, storage, and, most importantly, production."[109]

text: Volkswagen's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that "no matter how excellent you make the cars themselves, the laws of physics hinder their overall efficiency. The most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity." He elaborated: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy", but ... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies" where "you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy". You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss". Krebs continued: "in the end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent."[110] The Business Insider commented:

text: Pure hydrogen can be industrially derived, but it takes energy. If that energy does not come from renewable sources, then fuel-cell cars are not as clean as they seem. ... Another challenge is the lack of infrastructure. Gas stations need to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before FCEVs [fuel cell electric vehicles] become practical, and it's unlikely many will do that while there are so few customers on the road today. ... Compounding the lack of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are "still very, very expensive".[111]

text: In 2014, Joseph Romm devoted three articles to updating his critiques of hydrogen vehicles. He stated that fuel cell vehicles still have not overcome the following issues: high cost of the vehicles, high fueling cost, and a lack of fuel-delivery infrastructure. "It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades."[112] Moreover, he wrote, "FCVs aren't green" because of escaping methane during natural gas extraction and when hydrogen is produced, as 95% of it is, using the steam reforming process. He concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now or in the future."[113] GreenTech Media's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.[114] In 2015, Clean Technica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles[115] as did Car Throttle.[116] Another Clean Technica writer concluded that "while hydrogen may have a part to play in the world of energy storage (especially seasonal storage), it looks like a dead end when it comes to mainstream vehicles."[117] A 2016 study in the November issue of the journal Energy by scientists at Stanford University and the Technical University of Munich concluded that, even assuming local hydrogen production, "investing in all-electric battery vehicles is a more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions, primarily due to their lower cost and significantly higher energy efficiency."[118]

text: A 2017 analysis published in Green Car Reports concluded that the best hydrogen-fuel-cell vehicles consume "more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle ... generate more greenhouse-gas emissions than other powertrain technologies ... [and have] very high fuel costs. ... Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure (estimated to cost as much as $400 billion), fuel-cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on U.S. oil consumption.[92] The US Department of Energy agrees, for fuel produced by grid electricity via electrolysis, but not for most other pathways for generation.[119] Argonne National Laboratory developed a model of these emission pathways, to communicate the impact of potential fuel cell vehicle advantages and disadvantages.[120] In 2017, Michael Barnard, writing in Forbes, listed the continuing disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell cars and concluded that "by about 2008, it was very clear that hydrogen was and would be inferior to battery technology as a storage of energy for vehicles. [B]y 2025 the last hold-outs should likely be retiring their fuel cell dreams."[121]

text: Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle[edit]

text: Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel powered vehicle infrastructure.[53]

text: Plug-in hybrids[edit]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. Last update: No content is presented about series production PHEVs launched starting with the BYD F3DM and the Chevrolet Volt. Figures presented do not reflect current technology available. (November 2013)

tag: table

text: Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, or PHEVs, are hybrid vehicles that can be plugged into the electric grid and contain an electric motor and also an internal combustion engine. The PHEV concept augments standard hybrid electric vehicles with the ability to recharge their batteries from an external source, enabling increased use of the vehicle's electric motors while reducing their reliance on internal combustion engines. The infrastructure required to charge PHEVs is already in place,[122] and transmission of power from grid to car is about 93% efficient.[123] This, however, is not the only energy loss in transferring power from grid to wheels. AC/DC conversion must take place from the grids AC supply to the PHEV's DC. This is roughly 98% efficient.[124] The battery then must be charged. As of 2007, the Lithium iron phosphate battery was between 80-90% efficient in charging/discharging.[125] The battery needs to be cooled; the GM Volt's battery has 4 coolers and two radiators.[126] As of 2009, "the total well-to-wheels efficiency with which a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle might utilize renewable electricity is roughly 20% (although that number could rise to 25% or a little higher with the kind of multiple technology breakthroughs required to enable a hydrogen economy). The well-to-wheels efficiency of charging an onboard battery and then discharging it to run an electric motor in a PHEV or EV, however, is 80% (and could be higher in the future)—four times more efficient than current hydrogen fuel cell vehicle pathways."[72]  A 2006 article in Scientific American argued that PHEVs, rather than hydrogen vehicles, would become standard in the automobile industry.[127][128]  A December 2009 study at UC Davis found that, over their lifetimes, PHEVs will emit less carbon than current vehicles, while hydrogen cars will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.[108]

text: Natural gas[edit]

text: Internal combustion engine-based compressed natural gas(CNG), HCNG or LNG vehicles (Natural gas vehicles or NGVs) use methane (Natural gas or Biogas) directly as a fuel source. Natural gas has a higher energy density than hydrogen gas. NGVs using biogas are nearly carbon neutral.[129] Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicles have been available for many years, and there is sufficient infrastructure to provide both commercial and home refueling stations. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by the end of 2011.[130] The other use for natural gas is in steam reforming which is the common way to produce hydrogen gas for use in electric cars with fuel cells.

text: All-electric vehicles[edit]

text: A 2008 Technology Review article stated, "Electric cars—and plug-in hybrid cars—have an enormous advantage over hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles in utilizing low-carbon electricity.  That is because of the inherent inefficiency of the entire hydrogen fueling process, from generating the hydrogen with that electricity to transporting this diffuse gas long distances, getting the hydrogen in the car, and then running it through a fuel cell—all for the purpose of converting the hydrogen back into electricity to drive the same exact electric motor you'll find in an electric car."[131]  Thermodynamically, each additional step in the conversion process decreases the overall efficiency of the process.[132][133]

text: A 2013 comparison of hydrogen and battery electric vehicles agreed with the 25% figure from Ulf Bossel in 2006 and stated that the cost of an electric vehicle battery "is rapidly coming down, and the gap will widen further", while there is little "existing infrastructure to transport, store and deliver hydrogen to vehicles and would cost billions of dollars to put into place, everyone's household power sockets are "electric vehicle refueling" station and the "cost of electricity (depending on the source) is at least 75% cheaper than hydrogen."[134] In 2013 the National Academy of Sciences[135] and DOE stated that even under optimistic conditions by 2030 the price for the battery is not expected to go below $17,000 ($200–$250/kWh) on 300 miles of range.[136] In 2013 Matthew Mench, from the University of Tennessee stated: "If we are sitting around waiting for a battery breakthrough that will give us four times the range than we have now, we are going to be waiting for a long time".[137] Navigant Research, (formerly Pike research), on the other hand, forecasts that “lithium-ion costs, which are tipping the scales at about $500 per kilowatt hour now, could fall to $300 by 2015 and to $180 by 2020.”[138] In 2013 Takeshi Uchiyamada, a designer of the Toyota Prius stated: "Because of its shortcomings – driving range, cost and recharging time – the electric vehicle is not a viable replacement for most conventional cars".[139]

text: Many electric car designs offer limited driving range causing range anxiety. For example, the 2013 Nissan Leaf has a range of 75 mi (121 km),[140] the 2014 Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive has an estimated range of 115 mi (185 km)[141] and the Tesla Model S has a range of up to 335 mi (539 km).[142] However, most US commutes are 30–40 miles (48–64 km) per day round trip[143] and in Europe, most commutes are around 20 kilometres (12 mi) round-trip[144]

text: In 2013, The New York Times stated that there are only 10 publicly accessible hydrogen-filling stations in the U.S., eight of which are in Southern California, and that BEVs' cost-per-mile expense in 2013 is one-third as much as hydrogen cars when comparing electricity from the grid and hydrogen at a filling station. The Times commented: "By the time Toyota sells its first fuel-cell sedan, there will be about half-million plug-in vehicles on the road in the United States – and tens of thousands of E.V. charging stations."[5] In 2013 John Swanton of the California Air Resources Board, who sees them as complementary technologies, stated that EVs have the jump on fuel-cell autos, which "are like electric vehicles were 10 years ago. EVs are for real consumers, no strings attached. With EVs you have a lot of infrastructure in place.[145] The Business Insider, in 2013 commented that if the energy to produce hydrogen "does not come from renewable sources, then fuel-cell cars are not as clean as they seem. ... Gas stations need to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before FCEVs become practical, and it's unlikely many will do that while there are so few customers on the road today. ... Compounding the lack of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are "still very, very expensive", even compared to battery-powered EVs.[111]


document_title: Sowing

question_text: what is the process of scattering seeds by hand known as

text: Sowing

text: Plants which are usually sown[edit]

text: Among the major field crops, oats, wheat, and rye are sown, grasses and legumes are seeded and maize and soybeans are planted. In planting, wider rows (generally 75  cm (30  in) or more) are used, and the intent is to have precise; even spacing between individual seeds in the row, various mechanisms have been devised to count out individual seeds at exact intervals.

text: Depth of sowing[edit]

text: In sowing, little if any soil is placed over the seeds, as seeds can be generally sown into the soil by maintaining a planting depth of about 2-3 times the size of the seed.

text: Sowing types and patterns[edit]

text: For hand sowing, several sowing types exist; these include:[1]

text:
Flat sowing
Ridge sowing
Wide bed sowing

tag: ul

text: Several patterns for sowing may be used together with these types; these include:

text:
Regular rows
Rows that are indented at the even rows (so that the seeds are
Symmetrical grid pattern – using the pattern described in The Garden of Cyrus placed in a crossed pattern). This method is much better, as more light may fall on the seedlings as they come out.

text: Types of sowing[edit]

text: Hand sowing[edit]

text: Hand sowing or (planting) is the process of casting handfuls of seed over prepared ground, or broadcasting (from which the technological term is derived[citation needed]). Usually, a drag or harrow is employed to incorporate the seed into the soil. Though labor-intensive for any but small areas, this method is still used in some situations. Practice is required to sow evenly and at the desired rate. A hand seeder can be used for sowing, though it is less of a help than it is for the smaller seeds of grasses and legumes.

text: Hand sowing may be combined with pre-sowing in seed trays. This allows the plants to come to strength indoors during cold periods (e.g. spring in temperate countries).

text: In agriculture, most seed is now sown using a seed drill, which offers greater precision; seed is sown evenly and at the desired rate. The drill also places the seed at a measured distance below the soil, so that less seed is required. The standard design uses a fluted feed metering system, which is volumetric in nature; individual seeds are not counted. Rows are typically about 10–30 cm apart, depending on the crop species and growing conditions. Several row opener types are used depending on soil type and local tradition. Grain drills are most often drawn by tractors, but can also be pulled by horses. Pickup trucks are sometimes used, since little draft is required.

text: A seed rate of about 100 kg of seed per hectare (2 bushels per acre) is typical, though rates vary considerably depending on crop species, soil conditions, and farmer's preference. Excessive rates can cause the crop to lodge, while too thin a rate will result in poor utilisation of the land, competition with weeds and a reduction in the yield.

text: Open field[edit]

text: Open-field planting refers to the form of sowing used historically in the agricultural context whereby fields are prepared generically and left open, as the name suggests, before being sown directly with seed. The seed is frequently left uncovered at the surface of the soil before germinating and therefore exposed to the prevailing climate and conditions like storms etc. This is in contrast to the seedbed method used more commonly in domestic gardening or more specific (modern) agricultural scenarios where the seed is applied beneath the soil surface and monitored and manually tended frequently to ensure more successful growth rates and better yields.

text: Pre-treatment of seed and soil before sowing[edit]

text: Before sowing, certain seeds first require a treatment prior to the sowing process. This treatment may be seed scarification, stratification, seed soaking or seed cleaning with cold (or medium hot) water.

text: Seed soaking is generally done by placing seeds in medium hot water for at least 24 to up to 48 hours[2] Seed cleaning is done especially with fruit, as the flesh of the fruit around the seed can quickly become prone to attack from insects or plagues.[3] Seed washing is generally done by submerging cleansed seeds 20 minutes in 50 degree Celsius water.[4] This (rather hot than moderately hot) water kills any organisms that may have survived on the skin of a seed. Especially with easily infected tropical fruit such as lychees and rambutans, seed washing with high-temperature water is vital.

text: In addition to the mentioned seed pretreatments, seed germination is also assisted when a disease-free soil is used. Especially when trying to germinate difficult seed (e.g. certain tropical fruit), prior treatment of the soil (along with the usage of the most suitable soil; e.g. potting soil, prepared soil or other substrates) is vital. The two most used soil treatments are pasteurisation and sterilisation. Depending on the necessity, pasteurisation is to be preferred as this does not kill all organisms. Sterilisation can be done when trying to grow truly difficult crops. To pasteurise the soil, the soil is heated for 15 minutes in an oven of 120 °C.[4]