document_title: Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor

question_text: why did the us imposed an oil embargo on japan

text: Background to conflict[edit]

text: Tensions between Japan and the prominent Western countries (the United States, France, Britain and the Netherlands) increased significantly during the increasingly militaristic early rule of Emperor Hirohito.  Japanese nationalists and military leaders increasingly influenced government policy, promoting a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere as part of Japan's alleged "divine right" to unify Asia under Hirohito's rule.[1]

text: During the 1930s, Japan's increasingly expansionist policies brought it into renewed conflict with its neighbors, Russia and China (Japan had fought the First Sino-Japanese War with China in 1894–95 and the Russo-Japanese War with Russia in 1904–05; Japan's imperialist ambitions had a hand in precipitating both conflicts). In March 1933, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in response to international condemnation of its conquest of Manchuria and subsequent establishment of the Manchukuo puppet government.[2] On January 15, 1936, Japan withdrew from the Second London Naval Disarmament Conference because the United States and Great Britain refused to grant the Japanese Navy parity with theirs.[3] A second war between Japan and China began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in July 1937.

text: Japan's 1937 attack on China was condemned by the U.S. and several members of the League of Nations including Britain, France, Australia and the Netherlands. Japanese atrocities during the conflict, such as the notorious Nanking Massacre that December, served to further complicate relations with the rest of the world. The U.S., Britain, France and the Netherlands each possessed colonies in East and Southeast Asia.  Japan's new military power and willingness to use it threatened these Western economic and territorial interests in Asia.

text: Beginning in 1938, the U.S. adopted a succession of increasingly restrictive trade restrictions with Japan.  This included terminating its 1911 commercial treaty with Japan in 1939, further tightened by the Export Control Act of 1940.  These efforts failed to deter Japan from continuing its war in China, or from signing the Tripartite Pact in 1940 with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, officially forming the Axis Powers.

text: Japan would take advantage of Hitler's war in Europe to advance its own ambitions in the Far East. The Tripartite Pact guaranteed assistance if a signatory was attacked by any country not already involved in conflict with the signatory; this implicitly meant the U.S. By joining the pact, Japan gained geopolitical power and sent the unmistakable message that any U.S. military intervention risked war on both of her shores[citation needed]—with Germany and Italy on the Atlantic, and with Japan on the Pacific. The Roosevelt administration would not be dissuaded; believing the American way of life would be endangered if Europe and the Far East fell under military dictatorship,[citation needed] it committed to help the British and Chinese through loans of money and materiel, and pledged sufficient continuing aid to ensure their survival. Thus, the United States slowly moved from being a neutral power to one preparing for war.[4]

text: In mid-1940, Roosevelt moved the U.S. Pacific Fleet to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, to deter Japan.[5] On October 8, 1940, Admiral James O. Richardson, Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet, provoked a confrontation with Roosevelt by repeating his earlier arguments to Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Harold R. Stark and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox that Pearl Harbor was the wrong place for his ships. Roosevelt believed relocating the fleet to Hawaii would exert a "restraining influence" on Japan.[citation needed]

text: Richardson asked the President if the United States was going to war. Roosevelt's view was:

text: At least as early as October 8, 1940, ...affairs had reached such a state that the United States would become involved in a war with Japan. ... 'that if the Japanese attacked Thailand, or the Kra Peninsula, or the Dutch East Indies we would not enter the war, that if they even attacked the Philippines he doubted whether we would enter the war, but that they (the Japanese) could not always avoid making mistakes and that as the war continued and that area of operations expanded sooner or later they would make a mistake and we would enter the war.' ... .[6][7]

text: Japan's 1940 move into Vichy-controlled Indochina further raised tensions. When combined with its war with China, withdrawal from the League of Nations, alliance with Germany and Italy and increasing militarization, the move provoked an attempt to restrain Japan economically. The United States embargoed scrap metal shipments to Japan and closed the Panama Canal to Japanese shipping.[8] This hit Japan's economy particularly hard because 74.1% of Japan's scrap iron came from the United States in 1938. Also, 93% of Japan's copper in 1939 came from the United States.[9] In early 1941, Japan moved into southern Indochina,[10] thereby threatening British Malaya, North Borneo and Brunei.

text: Japan and the U.S. engaged in negotiations during the course of 1941 in an effort to improve relations. During these negotiations, Japan considered withdrawal from most of China and Indochina after drawing up peace terms with the Chinese. Japan would also adopt an independent interpretation of the Tripartite Pact, and would not discriminate in trade, provided all other countries reciprocated. However, these compromises in China were rejected by General Tojo, then War Minister.[11] Responding to Japanese occupation of key airfields in Indochina (July 24) following an agreement between Japan and Vichy France, the U.S. froze Japanese assets on July 26, 1941, and on August 1 established an embargo on oil and gasoline exports to Japan.[12][13] The oil embargo was an especially strong response because oil was Japan's most crucial import, and more than 80% of Japan's oil at the time came from the United States.[14]

text: Japanese war planners had long looked south, especially to Brunei for oil and Malaya for rubber and tin.  In the autumn of 1940, Japan requested 3.15 million barrels of oil from the Dutch East Indies, but received a counteroffer of only 1.35 million.[15] The Navy was (mistakenly) certain any attempt to seize this region would bring the U.S. into the war,[16][page needed] but the complete U.S. oil embargo reduced Japanese options to the seizure of southeast Asia before its existing stocks of strategic materials were depleted, or submission to American demands.[17] Moreover, any southern operation would be vulnerable to attack from the Philippines, then a U.S. commonwealth, so war with the U.S. seemed necessary in any case.[18]

text: After the embargoes and the asset freezes, the Japanese ambassador to Washington, Kichisaburō Nomura, and U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull held multiple meetings in order to resolve Japanese-American relations. No solution could be agreed upon for three key reasons:

text:
Japan honored its alliance to Germany and Italy through the Tripartite Pact.
Japan wanted economic control and responsibility for southeast Asia.
Japan refused to leave mainland China (without Manchoukuo[clarification needed]).[19]

text: In their final proposal on November 20, Japan offered to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina and not to launch any attacks in southeast Asia provided the U.S., Britain, and the Netherlands ceased aiding China and lifted their sanctions against Japan.[11] The American counterproposal of November 26 (the Hull note) required Japan to evacuate all of China, without conditions, and to conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers.

text: Breaking off negotiations[edit]

text: Part of the Japanese plan for the attack included breaking off negotiations with the United States 30 minutes before the attack began. Diplomats from the Japanese embassy in Washington, including the Japanese ambassador, Admiral Kichisaburō Nomura and special representative Saburō Kurusu, had been conducting extended talks with the State Department regarding the U.S. reactions to the Japanese move into French Indochina in the summer.

text: In the days before the attack, a long 14-part message was sent to the embassy from the Foreign Office in Tokyo (encrypted with the Type 97 cypher machine, in a cipher named PURPLE by U.S. cryptanalysts), with instructions to deliver it to Secretary of State Cordell Hull at 1:00 p.m. Washington time. The last part arrived late Saturday night (Washington time), but because of decryption and typing delays, as well as Tokyo's failure to stress the crucial necessity of the timing, embassy personnel did not deliver the message to Secretary Hull until several hours after the attack.

text: The United States had decrypted the 14th part well before the Japanese managed to, and long before embassy staff composed a clean typed copy. The final part, with its instruction for the time of delivery, had been decoded Saturday night but was not acted upon until the next morning (according to Henry Clausen[citation needed]).

text: Ambassador Nomura asked for an appointment to see Hull at 1:00 p.m., but later asked it be postponed to 1:45 as the ambassador was not quite ready. Nomura and Kurusu arrived at 2:05 p.m. and were received by Hull at 2:20. Nomura apologized for the delay in presenting the message. After Hull had read several pages, he asked Nomura whether the document was presented under instructions of the Japanese government; the Ambassador replied it was. After reading the full document, Hull turned to the ambassador and said:

text: I must say that in all my conversations with you...during the last nine months I have never uttered one word of untruth. This is borne out absolutely by the record. In all my fifty years of public service I have never seen a document that was more crowded with infamous falsehoods and distortions--infamous falsehoods and distortions on a scale so huge that I never imagined until today that any Government on this planet was capable of uttering them.[20]

text: Japanese records, admitted into evidence during congressional hearings on the attack after the war, established that Japan had not even written a declaration of war until hearing news of the successful attack. The two-line declaration was finally delivered to U.S. ambassador Grew in Tokyo about ten hours after the completion of the attack. Grew was allowed to transmit it to the United States, where it was received late Monday afternoon (Washington time).

text: War[edit]

text: In July 1941, IJN headquarters informed Emperor Hirohito its reserve bunker oil would be exhausted within two years if a new source was not found. In August 1941, Japanese prime minister Fumimaro Konoe proposed a summit with President Roosevelt to discuss differences. Roosevelt replied Japan must leave China before a summit meeting could be held.[citation needed] On September 6, 1941, at the second Imperial Conference concerning attacks on the Western colonies in Asia and Hawaii, Japanese leaders met to consider the attack plans prepared by Imperial General Headquarters. The summit occurred one day after the emperor had reprimanded General Hajime Sugiyama, chief of the IJA General Staff, about the lack of success in China and the speculated low chances of victory against the United States, the British Empire and their allies.[21]

text: Prime Minister Konoe argued for more negotiations and possible concessions to avert war. However, military leaders such as Sugiyama, Minister of War General Hideki Tōjō, and chief of the IJN General Staff Fleet Admiral Osami Nagano asserted time had run out and that additional negotiations would be pointless. They urged swift military actions against all American and European colonies in Southeast Asia and Hawaii. Tōjō argued that yielding to the American demand to withdraw troops would wipe out all the gains of the Second Sino-Japanese War, depress Army morale, endanger Manchukuo and jeopardize control of Korea; hence, doing nothing was the same as defeat and a loss of face.

text: On October 16, 1941, Konoe resigned and proposed Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, who was also the choice of the army and navy, as his successor. Hirohito chose Hideki Tōjō instead, worried (as he told Konoe) about having the Imperial House being held responsible for a war against Western powers.[22]

text: On November 3, 1941, Nagano presented a complete plan for the attack on Pearl Harbor to Hirohito.[23] At the Imperial Conference on November 5, Hirohito approved the plan for a war against the United States, Great Britain and the Netherlands, scheduled to start at the beginning of December if an acceptable diplomatic settlement were not achieved before then.[24] Over the following weeks, Tōjō's military regime offered a final deal to the United States. They offered to leave only Indochina, but in return for large American economic aid.[citation needed] On November 26, the so-called Hull Memorandum (or Hull Note) rejected the offer and demanded that, in addition to leaving Indochina, the Japanese must leave China (without Manchoukuo) and agree to an Open Door Policy in the Far East.[25]

text: On November 30, 1941, Prince Takamatsu warned his brother, Hirohito, the navy felt the Empire could not fight more than two years against the United States and wished to avoid war. After consulting with Kōichi Kido (who advised him to take his time until he was convinced) and Tōjō, the Emperor called Shigetarō Shimada and Nagano, who reassured him that war would be successful.[26] On December 1, Hirohito finally approved a "war against United States, Great Britain and Holland" during another Imperial Conference, to commence with a surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet at its main forward base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.[27]

text: Intelligence gathering[edit]

text: On February 3, 1940, Yamamoto briefed Captain Kanji Ogawa of Naval Intelligence on the potential attack plan, asking him to start intelligence gathering on Pearl Harbor. Ogawa already had spies in Hawaii, including Japanese Consular officials with an intelligence remit, and he arranged for help from a German already living in Hawaii who was an Abwehr agent. None had been providing much militarily useful information. He planned to add 29-year-old Ensign Takeo Yoshikawa. By the spring of 1941, Yamamoto officially requested additional Hawaiian intelligence, and Yoshikawa boarded the liner Nitta-maru at Yokohama. He had grown his hair longer than military length, and assumed the cover name Tadashi Morimura.[28]

text: Yoshikawa began gathering intelligence in earnest by taking auto trips around the main islands, and toured Oahu in a small plane, posing as a tourist. He visited Pearl Harbor frequently, sketching the harbor and location of ships from the crest of a hill. Once, he gained access to Hickam Field in a taxi, memorizing the number of visible planes, pilots, hangars, barracks and soldiers. He was also able to discover that Sunday was the day of the week on which the largest number of ships were likely to be in harbor, that PBY patrol planes went out every morning and evening, and that there was an antisubmarine net in the mouth of the harbor.[29] Information was returned to Japan in coded form in Consular communications, and by direct delivery to intelligence officers aboard Japanese ships calling at Hawaii by consulate staff.

text: In June 1941, German and Italian consulates were closed, and there were suggestions Japan's should be closed, as well. They were not, because they continued to provide valuable information (via MAGIC) and neither President Roosevelt nor Secretary Hull wanted trouble in the Pacific.[30] Had they been closed, however, it is possible Naval General Staff, which had opposed the attack from the outset, would have called it off, since up-to-date information on the location of the Pacific Fleet, on which Yamamoto's plan depended, would no longer have been available.[31]

text: Planning[edit]

text: Expecting war, and seeing an opportunity in the forward basing of the U.S. Pacific Fleet in Hawaii, the Japanese began planning in early 1941 for an attack on Pearl Harbor. For the next several months, planning and organizing a simultaneous attack on Pearl Harbor and invasion of British and Dutch colonies to the south occupied much of the Japanese Navy's  time and attention. The plans for the Pearl Harbor attack arose out of the Japanese expectation the U.S. would be inevitably drawn into war after a Japanese attack against Malaya and Singapore.[32]

text: The intent of a preventive strike on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize American naval power in the Pacific, thus removing it from influencing operations against American, British, and Dutch colonies. Successful attacks on colonies were judged to depend on successfully dealing with the Pacific Fleet. Planning[33] had long anticipated a battle in Japanese home waters after the U.S. fleet traveled across the Pacific, under attack by submarines and other forces all the way. The U.S. fleet would be defeated in a "decisive battle", as Russia's Baltic Fleet had been in 1905. A surprise attack posed a twofold difficulty compared to longstanding expectations. First, the Pacific Fleet was a formidable force, and would not be easy to defeat or to surprise. Second, Pearl Harbor's shallow waters made using conventional aerial torpedoes ineffective. On the other hand, Hawaii's distance meant a successful surprise attack could not be blocked or quickly countered by forces from the continental U.S.

text: Several Japanese naval officers had been impressed by the British action in the Battle of Taranto, in which 21 obsolete Fairey Swordfish disabled half the Regia Marina (Italian Navy). Admiral Yamamoto even dispatched a delegation to Italy, which concluded a larger and better-supported version of Cunningham's strike could force the U.S. Pacific Fleet to retreat to bases in California, thus giving Japan the time necessary to establish a "barrier" defense to protect Japanese control of the Dutch East Indies. The delegation returned to Japan with information about the shallow-running torpedoes Cunningham's engineers had devised.[citation needed]

text: Japanese strategists were undoubtedly influenced by Admiral Togo's surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet at Port Arthur in 1904. Yamamoto's emphasis on destroying the American battleships was in keeping with the Mahanian doctrine shared by all major navies during this period, including  the U.S. Navy and Royal Navy.[34]

text: In a letter dated January 7, 1941, Yamamoto finally delivered a rough outline of his plan to Koshiro Oikawa, then Navy Minister, from whom he also requested to be made Commander in Chief of the air fleet to attack Pearl Harbor. A few weeks later, in yet another letter, Yamamoto requested Admiral Takijiro Onishi, chief of staff of the Eleventh Air Fleet, study the technical feasibility of an attack against the American base. Onishi gathered as many facts as possible about Pearl Harbor.

text: After first consulting with Kosei Maeda, an expert on aerial torpedo warfare, and being told the harbor's shallow waters rendered such an attack almost impossible, Onishi summoned Commander Minoru Genda. After studying the original proposal put forth by Yamamoto, Genda agreed: "[T]he plan is difficult but not impossible".[35] Yamamoto gave the bulk of the planning to Rear Admiral Ryunosuke Kusaka, who was very worried about the area's air defenses. Yamamoto encouraged Kusaka by telling him, "Pearl Harbor is my idea and I need your support."[36] Genda emphasized the attack should be carried out early in the morning and in total secrecy, employing an aircraft carrier force and several types of bombing.[35]

text: Although attacking the U.S. Pacific Fleet anchor would achieve surprise, it also carried two distinct disadvantages. The targeted ships would be sunk or damaged in very shallow water, meaning it would be quite likely that they could be salvaged and possibly returned to duty (as six of the eight battleships eventually were). Also, most of the crews would survive the attack, since many would be on shore leave or would be rescued from the harbor afterward. Despite these concerns, Yamamoto and Genda pressed ahead.

text: By April 1941, the Pearl Harbor plan became known as Operation Z, after the famous Z signal given by Admiral Tōgō at Tsushima.[citation needed] Over the summer, pilots trained in earnest near Kagoshima City on Kyūshū. Genda chose it because its geography and infrastructure presented most of the same problems bombers would face at Pearl Harbor. In training, each crew flew over the 5,000 ft (1,500 m) mountain behind Kagoshima and dove into the city, dodging buildings and smokestacks before dropping to 25 ft (7.6 m) at the piers. Bombardiers released torpedoes at a breakwater some 300 yd (270 m) away.[37]

text: However, even this low-altitude approach would not overcome the problem of torpedoes bottoming in the shallow waters of Pearl Harbor. Japanese weapons engineers created and tested modifications allowing successful shallow water drops. The effort resulted in a heavily modified version of the Type 91 torpedo, which inflicted most of the ship damage during the eventual attack.[citation needed] Japanese weapons technicians also produced special armor-piercing bombs by fitting fins and release shackles to 14- and 16-inch (356- and 406-mm) naval shells. These were able to penetrate the lightly armored decks of the old battleships.

text: Concept of a Japanese invasion of Hawaii[edit]

text: At several stages during 1941, Japan's military leaders discussed the possibility of launching an invasion to seize the Hawaiian Islands; this would provide Japan with a strategic base to shield its new empire, deny the United States any bases beyond the West coast and further isolate Australia and New Zealand.

text: Genda, who saw Hawaii as vital for American operations against Japan after war began, believed Japan must follow any attack on Pearl Harbor with an invasion of Hawaii or risk losing the war. He viewed Hawaii as a base to threaten the west coast of North America, and perhaps as a negotiating tool for ending the war. He believed, following a successful air attack, 10,000-15,000 men could capture Hawaii, and saw the operation as a precursor or alternative to a Japanese invasion of the Philippines. In September 1941, Commander Yasuji Watanabe of the Combined Fleet staff estimated two divisions (30,000 men) and 80 ships, in addition to the carrier strike force, could capture the islands. He identified two possible landing sites, near Haleiwa and Kaneohe Bay, and proposed both be used in an operation that would require up to four weeks with Japanese air superiority.[38]

text: Although this idea gained some support, it was soon dismissed for several reasons:

text:
Japan's ground forces, logistics, and resources were already fully committed, not only to the Second Sino-Japanese War but also for offensives in Southeast Asia that were planned to occur almost simultaneously with the Pearl Harbor attack.
The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) insisted it needed to focus on operations in China and Southeast Asia, and refused to provide substantial support elsewhere. Because of a lack of cooperation between the services, the IJN never discussed the Hawaiian invasion proposal with the IJA.[38][39]
Most of the senior officers of the Combined Fleet, in particular Admiral Nagano, believed an invasion of Hawaii was too risky.[40][38]

text: With an invasion ruled out, it was agreed a massive carrier-based three wave airstrike against Pearl Harbor to destroy the Pacific Fleet would be sufficient. Japanese planners knew that Hawaii, with its strategic location in the Central Pacific, would serve as a critical base from which the United States could extend its military power against Japan. However, the confidence of Japan's leaders that the conflict would be over quickly and that the United States would choose to negotiate a compromise, rather than fight a long, bloody war, overrode this concern.[41][42][43][44]

text: Watanabe's superior, Captain Kameto Kuroshima, who believed the invasion plan unrealistic, after the war called his rejection of it the "biggest mistake" of his life.[38]

text: Strike force[edit]

text: On November 26, 1941, the day the Hull note (which the Japanese leaders saw as an unproductive and  old proposal) was received, the carrier force under the command of Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo (already assembled in Hitokappu Wan) sortied for Hawaii under strict radio silence.

text: In 1941, Japan was one of the few countries capable of carrier aviation.[45] The Kido Butai, the Combined Fleet's main carrier force of six aircraft carriers (at the time, the most powerful carrier force with the greatest concentration of air power in the history of naval warfare),[46] embarked 359 airplanes,[47] organized as the First Air Fleet. The carriers Akagi (flag), Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, and the newest, Shōkaku and Zuikaku, had 135 Mitsubishi A6M Type 0 fighters (Allied codename "Zeke", commonly called "Zero"), 171 Nakajima B5N Type 97 torpedo bombers (Allied codename "Kate"), and 108 Aichi D3A Type 99 dive bombers (Allied codename "Val") aboard. Two fast battleships, two heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, nine destroyers, and three fleet submarines provided escort and screening. In addition, the Advanced Expeditionary Force included 20 fleet and five two-man Ko-hyoteki-class midget submarines, which were to gather intelligence and sink U.S. vessels attempting to flee Pearl Harbor during or soon after the attack. It also had eight oilers for underway fueling.[48]

text: Execute order[edit]

text: On December 1, 1941, after the striking force was en route, Chief of Staff Nagano gave a verbal directive to the commander of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, informing him:

text: Japan has decided to open hostilities against the United States, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands early in December...Should it appear certain that Japanese-American negotiations will reach an amicable settlement prior to the commencement of hostilities, it is understood that all elements of the Combined Fleet are to be assembled and returned to their bases in accordance with separate orders.[49] [The Kido Butai will] proceed to the Hawaiian Area with utmost secrecy and, at the outbreak of the war, will launch a resolute surprise attack on and deal a fatal blow to the enemy fleet in the Hawaiian Area. The initial air attack is scheduled at 0330 hours, X Day.[49]

text: Upon completion, the force was to return to Japan, re-equip, and re-deploy for "Second Phase Operations".

text: Finally, Order number 9, issued on 1 December 1941 by Nagano, instructed Yamamoto to crush hostile naval and air forces in Asia, the Pacific and Hawaii, promptly seize the main U.S., British, and Dutch bases in East Asia and "capture and secure the key areas of the southern regions".[49]

text: On the home leg, the force was ordered to be alert for tracking and counterattacks by the Americans, and to return to the friendly base in the Marshall Islands, rather than the Home Islands.[50]

text: Lack of preparation[edit]

text: U.S. civil and military intelligence had, amongst them, good information suggesting additional Japanese aggression throughout the summer and fall before the attack. At the time, no reports specifically indicated an attack against Pearl Harbor. Public press reports during summer and fall, including Hawaiian newspapers, contained extensive reports on the growing tension in the Pacific. Late in November, all Pacific commands, including both the Navy and Army in Hawaii, were separately and explicitly warned[51] war with Japan was expected in the very near future, and it was preferred Japan make the first hostile act.[52] It was felt war would most probably start with attacks in the Far East: the Philippines,[53] Indochina, Thailand, or the Russian Far East; Pearl Harbor was never mentioned as a potential target. The warnings were not specific to any area, noting only that war with Japan was expected in the near future and all commands should act accordingly. Had any of these warnings produced an active alert status in Hawaii, the attack might have been resisted more effectively, and perhaps resulted in less death and damage. On the other hand, recall of men on shore leave to the ships in harbor might have led to still more being casualties from bombs and torpedoes, or trapped in capsized ships by shut watertight doors (as the attack alert status would have required),[54] or killed (in their obsolete aircraft) by more experienced Japanese aviators. When the attack actually arrived, Pearl Harbor was effectively unprepared: anti-aircraft weapons not manned, most ammunition locked down, anti-submarine measures not implemented (e.g., no torpedo nets in the harbor), combat air patrol not flying, available scouting aircraft not in the air at first light, Air Corps aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip to reduce sabotage risks (not ready to fly at a moment's warning), and so on.

text: By 1941, U.S. signals intelligence, through the Army's Signal Intelligence Service and the Office of Naval Intelligence's OP-20-G, had intercepted and decrypted considerable Japanese diplomatic and naval cipher traffic, though nothing actually carrying significant information about Japanese military plans in 1940-41. Decryption and distribution of this intelligence, including such decrypts as were available, was capricious and sporadic, some of which can be accounted for by lack of resources and manpower.[55][page needed] At best, the information available to decision makers in Washington was fragmentary, contradictory, or poorly distributed, and was almost entirely raw, without supporting analysis. It was thus, incompletely understood. Nothing in it pointed directly to an attack at Pearl Harbor,[56] and a lack of awareness of Imperial Navy capabilities led to a widespread underlying belief Pearl Harbor was not a possible attack target. Only one message from the Hawaiian Japanese consulate (sent on 6 December), in a low level consular cipher, included mention of an attack at Pearl; it was not decrypted until 8 December.[57] While the Japanese Diplomatic codes (Purple code) could be read, the current version (JN-25C) of the Japanese Naval code (JN-25) which had replaced JN-25B on 4 December 1941 could not be read until May 1942.

text: In 1924, General William L. Mitchell produced a 324-page report warning that future wars (including with Japan) would include a new role for aircraft against existing ships and facilities. He even discussed the possibility of an air attack on Pearl Harbor, but his warnings were ignored. Navy Secretary Knox had also appreciated the possibility of an attack at Pearl Harbor in a written analysis shortly after taking office. American commanders had been warned that tests had demonstrated shallow-water aerial torpedo attacks were possible, but no one in charge in Hawaii fully appreciated this. And in a 1932 fleet problem, a surprise airstrike led by Admiral Harry E. Yarnell had been judged a success and to have caused considerable damage, a finding corroborated in a 1938 exercise by Admiral Ernest King.[58]

text: Nevertheless, because it was believed Pearl Harbor had natural defenses against torpedo attack (e.g., the shallow water), the Navy did not deploy torpedo nets or baffles, which were judged to inconvenience ordinary operations. As a result of limited numbers of long-range aircraft (including Army Air Corps bombers), reconnaissance patrols were not being made as often or as far out as required for adequate coverage against possible surprise attack (they improved considerably, with far fewer remaining planes,[citation needed] after the attack). The Navy had 33 PBYs in the islands, but only three on patrol at the time of the attack.[59] Hawaii was low on the priority list for the B-17s finally becoming available for the Pacific, largely because General MacArthur in the Philippines was successfully demanding as many as could be made available to the Pacific (where they were intended as a deterrent). The British, who had contracted for them, even agreed to accept fewer to facilitate this buildup. At the time of the attack, Army and Navy were both on training status rather than operational alert.[citation needed]

text: There was also confusion about the Army's readiness status as General Short had changed local alert level designations without clearly informing Washington. Most of the Army's mobile anti-aircraft guns were secured, with ammunition locked down in armories. To avoid upsetting property owners, and in keeping with Washington's admonition not to alarm civil populations (e.g., in the late November war warning messages from the Navy and War Departments), guns were not dispersed around Pearl Harbor (i.e., on private property)[citation needed]. Additionally, aircraft were parked on airfields to lessen the risk of sabotage, not in anticipation of air attack, in keeping with Short's interpretation of the war warnings.

text: Chester Nimitz said later, "It was God's mercy that our fleet was in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941." Nimitz believed if Kimmel had discovered the Japanese approach, he would have sortied to meet them. With the American carriers absent and Kimmel's battleships at a severe disadvantage to the Japanese carriers, the likely result would have been the sinking of the American battleships at sea in deep water, where they would have been lost forever with tremendous casualties (as many as twenty thousand dead), instead of in Pearl Harbor, where the crews could easily be rescued, and six battleships ultimately raised.[60]


document_title: List of most liked YouTube videos

question_text: the most liked youtube video in the world

root

text: List of most liked YouTube videos

text: Top videos[edit]

text: General videos[edit]

text: The following table lists the top 40 most liked videos on YouTube, with each total rounded to the nearest ten thousand likes, as well as the creator, like percentage and date of publication to YouTube.[A]

tag: p

text:
Rank
Video name
Uploader / artist
Likes (millions)
Like percentage
Upload date
Notes

1.
"Despacito"[6]
Luis Fonsi featuring Daddy Yankee
22.32
90.44%
January 12, 2017
[B]

2.
"See You Again"[7]
Wiz Khalifa featuring Charlie Puth
17.28
96.80%
April 6, 2015
[C]

3.
"Gangnam Style"[8]
Psy
13.42
87.57%
July 15, 2012
[D]

4.
"Shape of You"[11]
Ed Sheeran
12.71
94.91%
January 30, 2017

5.
"Hello"[12]
Adele
12.34
94.83%
October 22, 2015

6.
"Uptown Funk"[13]
Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars
9.47
94.19%
November 19, 2014

7.
"Sorry"[14]
Justin Bieber
9.39
88.37%
October 22, 2015

8.
"Faded"[15]
Alan Walker
8.50
97.49%
December 3, 2015

9.
"Lean On"[16]
Major Lazer and DJ Snake featuring MØ
8.20
95.38%
March 22, 2015

10.
"Sugar"[17]
Maroon 5
7.54
95.54%
January 14, 2015

11.
"Baby"[18]
Justin Bieber featuring Ludacris
7.46
47.27%
February 19, 2010
[E]

12.
"Blank Space"[22]
Taylor Swift
7.42
92.61%
November 10, 2014

13.
"Thinking Out Loud"[23]
Ed Sheeran
7.20
96.00%
October 7, 2014

14.
"Closer (Lyric video)"[24]
The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey
7.09
94.93%
July 29, 2016

15.
"Roar"[25]
Katy Perry
7.07
92.31%
September 5, 2013

16.
"Stressed Out"[26]
Twenty One Pilots
6.76
96.46%
April 27, 2015

17.
"Shake It Off"[27]
Taylor Swift
6.69
89.45%
August 18, 2014

18.
"Counting Stars"[28]
OneRepublic
6.37
96.32%
May 31, 2013

19.
"Dark Horse"[29]
Katy Perry featuring Juicy J
6.28
88.41%
February 20, 2014

20.
"Love Me like You Do"[30]
Ellie Goulding
6.26
95.66%
January 22, 2015

21.
"What Do You Mean?"[31]
Justin Bieber
6.25
87.99%
August 30, 2015

22.
"Watch Me (Whip/Nae Nae)"[32]
Silentó
6.18
88.92%
June 25, 2015

23.
"Chandelier"[33]
Sia
6.14
93.84%
May 6, 2014

24.
"All About That Bass"[34]
Meghan Trainor
6.11
89.37%
June 11, 2014

25.
"Chantaje"[35]
Shakira featuring Maluma
6.04
91.54%
November 18, 2016

26.
"Heathens"[36]
Twenty One Pilots
6.01
97.17%
June 21, 2016

27.
"This Is What You Came For"[37]
Calvin Harris featuring Rihanna
5.97
93.94%
June 16, 2016

28.
"Let Her Go"[38]
Passenger
5.96
96.74%
July 25, 2012

29.
"Work from Home"[39]
Fifth Harmony featuring Ty Dolla $ign
5.95
93.00%
February 26, 2016

30.
"Look What You Made Me Do"[40]
Taylor Swift
5.93
85.24%
August 27, 2017

31.
"Rockabye"[41]
Clean Bandit featuring Sean Paul & Anne-Marie
5.93
94.88%
October 21, 2016

32.
"Mi Gente"[42]
J Balvin and Willy William
5.93
94.36%
June 29, 2017

33.
"That's What I Like"[43]
Bruno Mars
5.79
94.89%
March 1, 2017

34.
"Rap God"[44]
Eminem
5.72
96.33%
November 27, 2013

35.
"Side to Side"[45]
Ariana Grande featuring Nicki Minaj
5.66
93.67%
August 29, 2016

36.
"Hotline Bling"[46]
Drake
5.63
91.54%
October 26, 2015

37.
"Worth It"[47]
Fifth Harmony featuring Kid Ink
5.60
94.47%
March 28, 2015

38.
"We Don't Talk Anymore"[48]
Charlie Puth featuring Selena Gomez
5.55
96.26%
August 2, 2016

39.
"All of Me"[49]
John Legend
5.51
96.89%
October 2, 2013

40.
"Thrift Shop"[50]
Macklemore & Ryan Lewis featuring Wanz
5.49
95.88%
August 29, 2012

As of October 9, 2017

tag: table

text: Non-music videos[edit]

text: The following table lists the top 10 most liked videos on YouTube that are not music videos, lyric videos and the like, with each total rounded to the nearest ten thousand likes, as well as the creator, like percentage and date of publication to YouTube.[F]

text:
Rank
Video name
Uploader
Likes (millions)
Like percentage
Upload date
Notes

NMV
GEN

1.
85.
"Criança de Rico e Criança de Pobre"[51]
whinderssonnunes
3.72
99.10%
June 9, 2016

2.
90.
"Can this video hit 1 million likes?"[52]
PewDiePie
3.72
97.74%
December 10, 2016
[G]

3.
113.
"The Ruby Playbutton / YouTube 50 Mil Sub Reward Unbox"[53]
3.17
97.39%
December 18, 2016
[H]

4.
116.
"YouTube Rewind: The Ultimate 2016 Challenge"[54]
YouTube Spotlight
3.09
86.37%
December 7, 2016

5.
148.
"Final de Ano de Rico e de Pobre"[55]
whinderssonnunes
2.71
99.09%
December 2, 2016

6.
154.
"Eu Adoro Comer"[56]
2.64
99.47%
November 8, 2016

7.
170.
"Casa de Rico e Casa de Pobre"[57]
2.46
99.35%
March 1, 2017

8.
173.
"Chistes"[58]
HolaSoyGerman.
2.42
97.82%
August 1, 2014

9.
174.
"Fiz 10 Milhões e Olha no Que Deu"[59]
whinderssonnunes
2.40
99.21%
July 26, 2016

10.
184.
"YouTube Rewind: Now Watch Me 2015"[60]
YouTube Spotlight
2.38
93.05%
December 9, 2015

As of September 25, 2017

text: Historical most liked videos[edit]

text: The following table lists the last 7 videos to become YouTube's most liked video, from the implementation of the like button in March 2010 to the present.

text:
Video name
Uploader
Likes*
Upload date
Date achieved
Days held
Ref(s)
Notes

"Despacito"[6]
LuisFonsiVEVO
16,010,000
Jan 12, 2017
Jul 25, 2017
79
[61]

"See You Again"[7]
Wiz Khalifa
11,210,000
Apr 6, 2015
Aug 27, 2016
332
[62]

"Gangnam Style"[8]
officialpsy
1,570,000
Jul 15, 2012
Sep 13, 2012
1,444
[63]
[I]

"Party Rock Anthem"[66]
LMFAOVEVO
1,390,000
Mar 8, 2011
Apr 4, 2012
162
[67]

"KONY 2012"[68]
Invisible Children
1,350,000
Mar 5, 2012
Mar 17, 2012
18
[69]
[J]

"Party Rock Anthem"[66]
LMFAOVEVO
950,000
Mar 8, 2011
Nov 3, 2011
135
[70]
[K]

"Baby"[18]
JustinBieberVEVO
760,000
Feb 19, 2010
Jul 6, 2011
120
[74]

"Evolution of Dance"[75]
Judson Laipply
620,000
Apr 6, 2006
Mar 31, 2010
462
[76]
[L]

As of October 12, 2017

text: *The approximate number of likes each video had when it became YouTube's most liked video.


document_title: Shimla

question_text: on the top of how many hill is shimla built

question_tokens: on the top of how many hill is shimla built

text: Shimla

text: History[edit]

text: Most of the area occupied by present-day Shimla city was dense forest during the 18th century. The only civilisation was the Jakhoo temple and a few scattered houses.[5] The area was called 'Shimla', named after a Hindu goddess, Shyamala Devi, an incarnation of Kali.[1]

text: The area of present-day Shimla was invaded and captured by Bhimsen Thapa of Nepal in 1806. The British East India Company took control of the territory as per the Sugauli Treaty after the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16). The Gurkha leaders were quelled by storming the fort of Malaun under the command of David Ochterlony in May 1815. In a diary entry dated 30 August 1817, the Gerard brothers, who surveyed the area, describe Shimla as "a middling-sized village where a fakir is situated to give water to the travellers". In 1819, Lieutenant Ross, the Assistant Political Agent in the Hill States, set up a wood cottage in Shimla. Three years later, his successor and the Scottish[citation needed] civil servant Charles Pratt Kennedy built the first pucca house in the area in 1822, near what is now the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly building. The accounts of the Britain-like climate started attracting several British officers to the area during the hot Indian summers. By 1826, some officers had started spending their entire vacation in Shimla. In 1827, Lord Amherst, the Governor-General of Bengal, visited Shimla and stayed in the Kennedy House. A year later, Lord Combermere, the Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in India, stayed at the same residence. During his stay, a three-mile road and a bridge were constructed near Jakhu. In 1830, the British acquired the surrounding land from the chiefs of Keonthal and Patiala in exchange for the Rawin pargana and a portion of the Bharauli pargana. The settlement grew rapidly after this, from 30 houses in 1830 to 1,141 houses in 1881.[5][6]

text: In 1832, Shimla saw its first political meeting: between the Governor-General William Bentinck and the emissaries of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In a letter to Colonel Churchill, he wrote:[7]

text:
“

Shimla is only four days march from Loodianah (Ludhiana), is easy of access, and proves a very agreeable refuge from the burning plains of Hindoostaun (Hindustan).

”

text: Combermere's successor Earl Dalhousie visited Shimla in the same year. After this, the town saw regular visits from the Governors General and Commanders-in-Chief of British India. A number of young British officers started visiting the area to socialise with the higher-ups; they were followed by ladies looking for marriage alliances for their relatives. Shimla thus became a hill station famous for balls, parties and other festivities. Subsequently, residential schools for pupils from upper-class families were established nearby. By the late 1830s, the city also became a centre for theatre and art exhibitions. As the population increased, a number of bungalows were built and a big bazaar was established in the town. The Indian businessmen, mainly from Sood[disambiguation needed] and Parsi communities, arrived in the area to cater to the needs of the growing European population. On 9 September 1844 the foundation of the Christ Church was laid. Subsequently, several roads were widened and the construction of the Hindustan-Tibet road with a 560-feet tunnel was taken up in 1851–52. This tunnel, now known as the Dhalli Tunnel, was started by a Major Briggs in 1850 and completed in the winter of 1851–52.[8] The 1857 uprising caused a panic among the European residents of the town, but Shimla remained largely unaffected by the rebellion.[5]

text: In 1863, the Viceroy of India, John Lawrence, decided to shift the summer capital of the British Raj to Shimla.[5] He took the trouble of moving the administration twice a year between Calcutta and this separate centre over 1,000 miles away, despite the fact that it was difficult to reach.[9] Lord Lytton (Viceroy of India 1876–1880) made efforts to plan the town from 1876, when he first stayed in a rented house, but began plans for a Viceregal Lodge, later built on Observatory Hill. A fire cleared much of the area where the native Indian population lived (the "Upper Bazaar" nowadays known as the Ridge[10]), and the planning of the eastern end to become the centre of the European town forced them to live in the Middle and Lower Bazaars on the lower terraces descending the steep slopes from the Ridge. The Upper Bazaar was cleared for a town hall, with many facilities such as library and theatre, as well as offices for police and military volunteers as well as municipal administration.

text: During the "Hot Weather", Shimla was also the Headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief, India, the head of the Indian Army, and many Departments of the Government. The summer capital of the regional Government of the Punjab moved from Murree, in modern-day Pakistan, to Shimla in 1876. They were joined by many of the British wives and daughters of the men who remained on the plains. Together these formed Shimla Society, which, according to Charles Allen,[11] "was as close as British India ever came to having an upper crust." This may have been helped by the fact that it was very expensive, having an ideal climate and thus being desirable, as well as having limited accommodation. British soldiers, merchants and civil servants moved here each year to escape from the heat during summer in the Indo-Gangetic plain. The presence of many bachelors and unattached men, as well as the many women passing the hot weather there, gave Shimla a reputation for adultery, and at least gossip about adultery: as Rudyard Kipling said in a letter cited by Allen, it had a reputation for "frivolity, gossip and intrigue". (See also.[12])

text: The 500-foot (150 m) Lower Bazaar tunnel was built in 1905 and christened Khachhar Surang. The Elysium tunnel (now known as the Auckland Tunnel), about 120 feet (37 m) in length, was also built in 1905.[8]

text: The Kalka–Shimla railway line, opened in 1903, added to Shimla's accessibility and popularity. The railway route from Kalka to Shimla, with more than 806 bridges and 103 tunnels, was touted as an engineering feat and came to be known as the "British Jewel of the Orient".[12] In 2008, it became part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, Mountain railways of India.[13]  In addition, Shimla was the capital of the undivided state of Punjab in 1871, and remained so until the construction of the new city of Chandigarh (the present-day capital of the Indian states of Punjab and Haryana). Upon the formation of the state of Himachal Pradesh in 1971, Shimla was named its capital.

text: [[File:Entrance the Crow Brough Rest House (built in 1921) Shimla.jpg|thumb|140px|Entrance of the Crowborough Rest House built in 1921]]

text: After independence the Chief Commissioner's Province of H.P. came into being on 15 April 1948 as a result of integration of 28 petty princely states (including feudatory princes and zaildars) in the promontories of the western Himalaya, known in full as the Shimla Hills States & four Punjab southern hill states by issue of the Himachal Pradesh (Administration) Order, 1948 under Sections 3 & 4 of the Extra-Provincial Jurisdiction Act, 1947 (later renamed as the Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947 vide A.O. of 1950). The State of Bilaspur was merged in the Himachal Pradesh on 1 April 1954 by the Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954. Himachal became a part C state on 26 January 1950 with the implementation of the Constitution of India and the Lt. Governor was appointed. Legislative Assembly was elected in 1952. Himachal Pradesh became a Union Territory on 1 November 1956.[14] Following area of Punjab State namely Shimla, Kangra, Kulu and Lahul and Spiti Districts, Nalagarh tehsil of Ambala District, Lohara, Amb and Una kanungo circles, some area of Santokhgarh kanungo circle and some other specified area of Una tehsil of Hoshiarpur District besides some parts of Dhar Kalan Tehsil of Pathankot District; were merged with Himachal Pradesh on 1 November 1966 on enactment of Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 by the Parliament. On 18 December 1970, the State of Himachal Pradesh Act was passed by Parliament and the new state came into being on 25 January 1971. Thus Himachal emerged as the eighteenth state of the Indian Union.[14]

text: Pre-independence structures still dot Shimla; buildings such as the former Viceregal Lodge, Auckland House, Christ Church, Gorton Castle, Shimla Town Hall and the Gaiety Theatre are reminders of British rule in India.[15][16] The original Peterhoff, another Viceregal residence, burned down in 1981. British Shimla extended about a mile and a half along the ridge between Jakhoo Hill and Prospect Hill. The central spine was the Mall, which ran along the length of the ridge, with a Mall Extension southwards, closed to all carriages except those of the Viceroy and his wife.

text: Geography[edit]

text: Shimla is on the south-western ranges of the Himalayas at 31°37′N 77°06′E / 31.61°N 77.10°E / 31.61; 77.10. It has an average altitude of 2,206 metres (7,238 ft) above mean sea level and extends along a ridge with seven spurs. The city stretches nearly 9.2 kilometres (5.7 mi) from east to west.[17] Shimla was built on top of seven hills: Inverarm Hill, Observatory Hill, Prospect Hill, Summer Hill, Bantony Hill, Elysium Hill and Jakhoo Hill. The highest point in Shimla is the Jakhoo hill, which is at a height of 2,454 metres (8,051 ft).

text: The city is a Zone IV (High Damage Risk Zone) per the Earthquake hazard zoning of India. Weak construction techniques and an increasing population pose a serious threat to the already earthquake prone region.[18][19] There are no water bodies near the main city and the closest river, the Sutlej, is about 21 km (13 mi) away.[20] Other rivers that flow through the Shimla district, although further from the city, are the Giri, and Pabbar (both tributaries of Yamuna).

text: The green belt in the Shimla planning area is spread over 414 hectares (1,020 acres).[12] The main forests in and around the city are of pine, deodar, oak and rhododendron.[21] Environmental degradation due to the increasing number of tourists every year without the infrastructure to support them has resulted in Shimla losing its popular appeal as an ecotourism spot.[22] Another rising concern in the region are the frequent number of landslides that often take place after heavy rains.[18][23]

text: The city is situated 88 km (55 miles) northeast of Kalka, 116 km (72 miles) northeast of Chandigarh, 247 km (154 miles) south of Manali and 350 km (219 miles) northeast of Delhi, the national capital. Kalka can be reached within 2.5 hours, Chandigarh can be reached in 3 hours and 15 minutes. Delhi and Manali are both around 7 hours away from Shimla.

text: Climate[edit]

text: Shimla features a subtropical highland climate (Cwb) under the Köppen climate classification. The climate in Shimla is predominantly cool during winters and moderately warm during summer.[24] Temperatures typically range from −4 °C (25 °F) to 31 °C (88 °F) over the course of a year.[25]

text: The average temperature during summer is between 19 and 28 °C (66 and 82 °F), and between −1 and 10 °C (30 and 50 °F) in winter. Monthly precipitation varies between 15 millimetres (0.59 in) in November and 434 millimetres (17.1 in) in August. It is typically around 45 millimetres (1.8 in) per month during winter and spring, and around 175 millimetres (6.9 in) in June as the monsoon approaches.

text: The average total annual precipitation is 1,575 millimetres (62 in), which is much less than most other hill stations but still much heavier than on the plains. Snowfall in the region, which historically has taken place in the month of December, has lately (over the last fifteen years) been happening in January or early February every year.[26]

text: The maximum snowfall received in recent times was 38.6 centimetres (15.2 in) on 18 January 2013. On two consecutive days (17 and 18 January 2013), the town received 63.6 centimetres (25.0 in) of snow.[27]

text:
hideClimate data for Shimla (1971–2000)

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high °C (°F)

21.4 (70.5)

22.6 (72.7)

25.8 (78.4)

29.6 (85.3)

32.4 (90.3)

31.5 (88.7)

28.9 (84)

27.8 (82)

28.6 (83.5)

25.6 (78.1)

23.5 (74.3)

20.5 (68.9)

32.4 (90.3)

Average high °C (°F)

9.3 (48.7)

10.3 (50.5)

14.5 (58.1)

19.8 (67.6)

23.0 (73.4)

23.8 (74.8)

21.3 (70.3)

20.5 (68.9)

20.4 (68.7)

18.9 (66)

15.4 (59.7)

11.9 (53.4)

17.5 (63.5)

Average low °C (°F)

−1.2 (29.8)

2.4 (36.3)

6.1 (43)

10.8 (51.4)

13.6 (56.5)

15.1 (59.2)

14.6 (58.3)

14.2 (57.6)

12.9 (55.2)

10.5 (50.9)

7.0 (44.6)

4.0 (39.2)

9.5 (49.1)

Record low °C (°F)

−10.6 (12.9)

−8.5 (16.7)

−6.1 (21)

−1.3 (29.7)

1.4 (34.5)

7.8 (46)

9.4 (48.9)

10.6 (51.1)

5.0 (41)

0.2 (32.4)

−1.1 (30)

−12.2 (10)

−12.2 (10)

Average precipitation mm (inches)

53.0 (2.087)

63.8 (2.512)

68.9 (2.713)

61.3 (2.413)

83.8 (3.299)

185.3 (7.295)

333.0 (13.11)

296.7 (11.681)

148.7 (5.854)

36.3 (1.429)

22.5 (0.886)

21.4 (0.843)

1,374.6 (54.118)

Average snowfall cm (inches)

42 (16.5)

43 (16.9)

7 (2.8)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

7 (2.8)

99 (39)

Average rainy days

4.5

5.3

5.9

4.6

6.3

10.1

17.2

16.2

8.8

2.2

1.5

1.8

84.5

Average snowy days

4.2

4.2

1.4

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

1.3

11.2

Source: India Meteorological Department (record high and low up to 2010, snow, 1990–2010)[28][29][30]

text: Economy[edit]

text: Employment is largely driven by the government and tourism sectors.[31] Education sector and horticultural produce processing comprise most of the remainder. Recently a Model Career Centre has been set-up at Regional Employment Exchange, Shimla to enable bridging the gap between job-seekers and employers.

text: In addition to being the local hub of transport and trade, Shimla is the area's healthcare centre, hosting a medical college and four major hospitals:[32] Indira Gandhi Hospital (Snowdown Hospital,) Deen Dayal Upadhyay Hospital (formerly called Ripon Hospital), Kamla Nehru Hospital and Indus Hospital. The city's development plan aims make Shimla an attractive health tourism spot.[31]

text: The hotel industry is one of the major source of income generation for the city. Shimla leads the list of Indian cities with the highest ranked hotels.[33]

text: Shimla had always been famous for its quality of education and many important schools have been imparting quality education throughout the state. Along with schools of higher education, several institutes are also present, namely Himachal Pradesh University and Indian Institute of Advanced Study. Recruitment to the IAAS is through the joint competitive examinations (the Civil Services Examination) and through promotion from the subordinate cadre. Once recruited to IAAS, the directly recruited officers are trained mainly at the National Academy of Audit and Accounts, Shimla.[34] Students from across India prefer to study in Shimla because of its climate and Queen of Hill Stations status. These have added to the economy of the district as well as the state.

text: Government is trying to promote technology and IT sector as the new area for growth and promotion[35] although not many companies have yet settled in Shimla. There are many new startups in and around Shimla. There are over six call centres in Shimla, including Alturist Technologies and 31 Parallel. Two notable companies that are registered in Shimla are Netgen IT Solutions, an international website development startup with partner offices in USA and Australia, and Himachal Media, a company that deals with content and media publishing.

text: Civic administration[edit]

text: The administrative responsibilities of the city of Shimla and merged areas of Dhalli, Totu and New Shimla reside with the Shimla Municipal Corporation (SMC). All three areas were taken under SMC in 2006–07. Established in 1851, the Shimla Municipal Corporation is an elected body comprising 27 councillors, three of whom are nominated by the Government of Himachal Pradesh.[17] The nominations are based on prominence in the fields of social service, academics and other activities. Thirty-three percent of the seats are reserved for women. The elections take place every five years and the mayor and deputy mayor are elected by and amongst the councilors themselves. Kusum Sadrate and Rakesh Kumar Sharma of BJP are the present Mayor and Deputy Mayor respectively.[36]

text: The administrative head of the corporation is the commissioner who is appointed by the state government.

text: The two major political parties are the Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian National Congress with a third party, Communist Party of India (Marxist), emerging.[37]

text: The city contributes one seat to the state assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and one seat to the lower house of parliament (Lok Sabha).[38] Law and order in the city is collectively maintained by the police force, Vigilance Department, enforcement directorate, forensics, fire brigade, prisons service and Home Guard. There are five police stations and three fire stations in Shimla.[39] The Superintendent of Police, Shimla heads the police force. The First Armed Police Battalion, one of the four armed police battalions in the state, is available for assistance to the local police.[40]

text: There are eleven courts in the district including a fast-track court.[41]

text: Demographics[edit]

text: Population[edit]

text: According to 2011 census, Shimla city spread over an area of 35.34 km2 had a population of 169,578 with 93,152 males and 76,426 females.[2][3] Shimla urban agglomeration had a population of 171,817 as per provisional data of 2011 census, out of which males were 94,797 and females were 77,020.[42] The literacy rate of city was 93.63 percent[3] and that of urban agglomeration was 94.14 per cent.[42]

text: The city area has increased considerably along with passage of time. It has stretched from Hiranagar to Dhalli from one side & from Tara Devi to Malyana in the other. As per the 2001 India Census,[43] the city has a population of 142,161 spread over an area of 19.55 km².[17] A floating population of 75,000 is attributed to service industries such as tourism.[17] The largest demographic, 55%, is 16–45 years of age. A further 28% of the population are younger than 15 years. The low sex ratio – 930 girls for every 1,000 boys in 2001[44] – is cause for concern, and much lower than the 974 versus 1,000 for Himachal Pradesh state as a whole.

text: The unemployment rate in the city has come down from 36% in 1992 to 22.6% in 2006. This drop is attributed to recent industrialisation, the growth of service industries, and knowledge development.[45]

text: Literacy[edit]

text:
Literacy in Shimla

Literacy

Percent

Male

94.79%

Female

92.19%

Others

93.60%

text:
The literacy rate of Shimla is 93.6%. For males it is 94.7% and 95.12% for females[46].
The majority of Shimla's population consists of natives of Himachal Pradesh.

text: Language[edit]

text: Hindi is the lingua franca of the city, it is the principal spoken language of the city and also the most commonly used language for the official purposes. English is also spoken by a sizeable population, and is the second official language of the city. Other than Hindi, Pahari languages are spoken by the ethnic Pahari people, who form a major part of the population in the city. Punjabi language is prevalent among the ethnic Punjabi migrant population of the city, most of whom are refugees from West Punjab, who settled in the city after the Partition of India in 1947.

text: Religion[edit]

text:
Religions in Shimla

Religion

Percent

Hinduism

93. 5%

Islam

2.29%

Sikhism

1.95%

Others/not stated

2.26%

text: According to 2011 census, the majority religion of the city is Hinduism practised by 93.5% of the population, followed by Islam (2.29%), Sikhism (1.95%), Buddhism (1.33%),  Christianity (0.62%), and Jainism (0.10%).[3]

text: Culture[edit]

text: The people of Shimla are informally called Shimlaites. With largely cosmopolitan crowds, a variety of festivals are celebrated here. The Shimla Summer Festival, held every year during peak tourist season,[47] and lasting 3–4 days, is celebrated on the Ridge. The highlights of this event include performances by popular singers from all over the country. Since 2015, 95.0 BIG FM[48] and Himachal Tourism have been jointly organizing a 7-days long winter carnival on the Ridge from Christmas to New year.[49][50][51]

text: Shimla has a number of places to visit. Local hangouts like the Mall and the Ridge are in the heart of the city. Most of the heritage buildings in the city are preserved in their original 'Tudorbethan' architecture. The former Viceregal Lodge, which now houses the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, and Wildflower Hall, now a luxury hotel, are some of the famous ones. A collection of paintings, jewellery and textiles of the region can be found at the State Museum (built in 1974).

text: Lakkar Bazaar, a market extending off the Ridge, is famous for souvenirs and crafts made of wood. Tatta Pani, 55 kilometres (34.2 mi) from the main city, is the name of hot sulfur springs that are believed to have medicinal value located on the banks of the River Satluj. Shimla is also home to South Asia's only natural ice skating rink.[52] State and national level competitions are often held at this venue. Shimla Ice Skating Club, which manages the rink, hosts a carnival every year in January, which includes a fancy dress competition and figure skating events. Due to effects of global warming and increasing urban development in and around Shimla, the number of sessions on ice every winter have been decreasing in the past few years.

text: Shimla has many temples and is often visited by devotees from nearby towns and cities. The Kali Bari temple, dedicated to the Hindu goddess Kali is near the mall. Jakhoo Temple, for the Hindu god Hanuman is located at the highest point in Shimla.[53] Sankat Mochan, another Hanuman temple, is famous for the numerous monkeys that are always found in its vicinity. It is located on Shimla-Kalka Highway about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the city. The nearby temple of Tara Devi is a place for performing rituals and festivals. Other prominent places of worship include a Gurudwara near the bus terminus and Christ Church on the Ridge.

text: Shimla arts and crafts are highly in demand by the tourists. They range from excellent pieces of jewellery, embroidered shawls and garments to leather made articles and sculptures. Shimla is full of pine and deodar trees. The wood has been extensively used in all major buildings of Shimla. The various kinds crafts of Shimla made out of wood includes small boxes, utensils, image carvings and souvenirs.

text: Carpet making of Shimla is a great attraction for the tourists. Different floral and other motifs are used. Wool is used to make blankets and rugs. The embroidery includes handkerchiefs, hand fans, gloves and caps.

text: The shawls of Shimla are very well known for their fine quality. The leather craft of Shimla comprises shoes, slippers and belts. The other arts and crafts of Shimla includes a huge collection of beaded and metal jewellery.

text: The culture of Shimla throwbacks religious, agnostic Kumauni people with simple lifestyle living away from the hustle and bustle of metro cities.

text: Shimla has the largest natural ice skating rink in South Asia. The ice skating season usually begins in the start of December and goes on till the end of February. The city has sporting venues like the Indira Gandhi Rajya Khel Parisar, the main sports complex. Further out from the city is the Naldehra nine-hole golf course, the oldest of its kind in India.[54] Kufri is a ski resort (winter only) located 19 kilometres (11.8 mi) from the main city.

text: Education[edit]

text: The city has 13 anganwadis and 64 primary schools.[17] There are many schools from the British era. Some of the popular convent schools in the city are Bishop Cotton School, St. Edward's School, Shimla, Auckland House School, Shimla Public School, Sacred Heart Convent, Tara Hall, Convent of Jesus & Mary (Chelsea). Other public schools include Kendriya Vidyalaya Jakhoo, DAV New Shimla, Hainault Public School, DAV Lakkar Bazaar, DAV Totu, Dayanand Public School, Himalayan International School and Chapslee Garden School. Bishop Cotton School and St. Edward's School, Shimla are for boys only, whereas, Tara Hall and Convent of Jesus & Mary (Chelsea) are for girls only.

text: The medical institutes in Shimla are Indira Gandhi Medical College and Dental College. St. Bede's and Rajkiya Kanya MahaVidayaliya (RKMV) are girls-only colleges. Government College, Sanjauli, and Government College Chaura Maidan are also located in the city. The Indian Institute of Advanced Study, housed in the Viceregal lodge, is a residential centre for research in Humanities, Indian culture, religion and social and natural sciences. The Himachal Pradesh University (state University of himachal Pradesh) is also located in Shimla. Himachal Pradesh University Business School (HPUBS), the best Business school of Himachal Pradesh and University Institute of Information Technology, Himachal Pradesh University (UIIT), a premier technical education institute are also located here.

text: There is one Private University by the name of APG (Alakh Prakash Goyal) Shimla University. The university had also been awarded as the Best University in Hills by Assocham India.[55][56]

text: Shimla has two state libraries with a collection of over 47,000 old books divided between them. The one at Gandhi Bhavan in the university has over 40,000 books and the other library, also a heritage building on the ridge, has 7,000.[57]

text: Other institutes of higher education and research located in Shimla are the Central Potato Research Institute, a member of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and National Academy of Audit and Accounts for training of officers of the Indian Audit and Accounts services (IA&AS).

text: Places of interest[edit]

text:
The Mall: The Mall is the main shopping street of Shimla. It has many restaurants, clubs, banks, bars, post offices and tourist offices. The Gaiety Theatre is situated there.
The Ridge: The Ridge is a large open space, which is situated alongside the Mall Road and hosts all the cultural activities in the city. Christ Church, The State Library and Gaiety Heritage Cultural Complex are some of the notable buildings located here.
Christ Church: Situated on the Ridge, Christ Church is the second oldest church in Northern India. Inside there are stained glass windows which represent faith, hope, charity, fortitude, patience and humility.
Jakhoo: 2 km from Shimla, at a height of 8,000 ft, Jakhu Hill is the highest peak in the city and has views of the city and of the snow-covered Himalayas. At the top of the hill is an old temple of Lord Hanuman, a Hindu deity which is popular among tourists and locals alike. A 108 feet (33 metre) statue of Lord Hanuman, at 8,500 feet (2,591 metres) above sea level, is the statue standing at the highest altitude among several other masterpieces in the world, overtaking the Christ Redeemer in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.[58]
Jakhu Ropeway: This ropeway connects Jakhu temple to the ridge ground and is the first ropeway in Shimla.[59]
Jutogh: Located 8 km from the city centre, this army cantonment is near Totu, an important suburb of Shimla city.
Shimla State Museum: The museum, which was opened in 1974, has tried to protect hill-out and the cultural wealth of the state. There is a collection of miniature Pahari paintings, sculptures, bronzes wood-carvings and also costumes, textiles and jewellery of the region.
Indian Institute of Advanced Study: This institute is housed at the former Viceregal Lodge, built in 1884–88.
Summer Hill: The township of Summer Hill is at a height of 6,500 ft on the Shimla-Kalka railway line. Mahatma Gandhi lived in these quiet surroundings during his visits to Shimla. Himachal Pradesh University is situated here.
Annandale: Developed as the racecourse of Shimla, Annandale is 2–4 km from the Ridge at a height of 6,117 ft. It is now used by the Indian Army.
Tara Devi: 11 km from the Shimla bus-stand. Tara Devi Hill has a temple dedicated to the goddess of stars on top of the hill. There is a military Dairy Town here as well as the headquarters of Bharat Scouts and Guides.
Sankat Mochan: It is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Hanuman.
Junga: Junga is nearest Tehsil, 26 km from Shimla. Its original name (with diacritics) is "Jūnga", and it is a former royal retreat of the princely state of Keonthal. It is known as the Keonthal Estate.
Anand Vilas: Midway between Shimla and Junga. "Sarva Dharma Mandir", Temple of all faiths, is a spiritual group dedicated to Mother Nature. Thousands of visitors and devotees come here every year. There is an "Art is Values" school with pupils from all over India. Classes are provided free of cost.
Totu: A major suburb of Shimla on NH-88. Houses Jutogh railway station & HimFed under Govt. of Himachal Pradesh.
Mashobra: 13 km from Shimla, site of the annual Sipi fair in June.
Kufri: 16 km from Shimla at a height of 8,600 ft, Kufri is the local winter sports centre, and has a small zoo.
Chharabra: 13 km from Shimla on route to Kufri.
Naldehra: 22 km from Shimla, with a nine-hole Naldehra Golf Club. The annual Sipi fair in June is held in Naldehra.

tag: ul

text: Chail: Situated at 45 kilometers from Shimla, Chail was built as summer retreat by the Maharaja of Patiala during the British Raj, it is known for the world’s highest cricket ground at a height of 7220 feet situated in the cantonment area.

text:
Sanjauli: The main suburb of Shimla.
Rashtrapati Niwas
Lakkar Bazar[60]

text: Transport[edit]

text: Local transport in Shimla is by bus or private vehicles. Buses ply frequently on the circular road surrounding the city centre. Like any other growing city, Shimla is also expanding with new habitats in the vicinity.Transport services in these areas are also expanding rapidly. Tourist taxis are also an option for out of town trips. Locals typically traverse the city on foot. Private vehicles are prohibited on the Mall, Ridge and nearby markets. Due to narrow roads and steep slopes, the auto rickshaws which are common in other Indian cities are largely absent.

text: Road[edit]

text: Shimla is well-connected by road network to all major cities in north India and to all major towns and district headquarters within the state. National Highway 22 (NH 22) connects Shimla to the nearest big city of Chandigarh.

text: Distance between major towns and Shimla:

text:
Kalka: 90 km
Chandigarh: 120 km
Ambala: 165 km
Patiala: 172 km
Bathinda: 330 km
Amritsar: 342 km
Panipat: 275 km
Delhi: 380 km
Dehradun: 227 km
Jammu: 482 km
Agra: 568 km
Jaipur: 629 km
Haridwar: 278 km
Srinagar: 787 km
Pithoragarh: 703 km
Kolkata: 1460 km
Mumbai: 1742 km
Kanya Kumari: 2500;km

text: Air[edit]

text: Shimla Airport is situated at Jubbarhatti, 23 kilometres (14 mi) from the city.[61] Regular flights to Delhi operate from the airport. The nearest major airport is Chandigarh Airport in Chandigarh about 116 km away.

text: Rail[edit]

text: The scenic Kalka Shimla Railway, a narrow gauge track, is listed in the Guinness Book of Records for the steepest rise in altitude in a distance of 96 km.[62] Kalka, the plains rail terminus, has daily departures to major Indian cities. The city has a total of three railway stations with Shimla the main station and two others located at Summer Hill and Totu (Jutogh) respectively. It was built to connect Shimla, the summer capital of India during the British Raj, with the Indian rail system. The route is famous for its scenery and improbable construction.

text: In 2007, the government of Himachal Pradesh declared the railway a heritage property.[63] For about a week starting on 11 September 2007, an expert team from UNESCO visited the railway to review and inspect it for possible selection as a World Heritage Site. On 8 July 2008, the Kalka–Shimla Railway became part of the World Heritage Site Mountain railways of India.[64] alongside Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway, and Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus.[65]

text: Media and communications[edit]

text: State-owned All India Radio and Reliance Broadcast owned 95.0 BIG FM have local radio stations in Shimla, which transmits various programmes of mass interest. Apart from a wide range of other national and international TV channels of different languages, the national TV broadcaster Doordarshan also broadcast channels like DD Shimla, DD National and DD Sports in the city. There are a number of private FM radio channels like 95.0 BIG FM and Radio Mirchi.

text: Amar Ujala,[66] Divya Himachal, Punjab Kesari, and Dainik Bhaskar are the widely circulated Hindi dailies while The Tribune, The Times of India, Hindustan Times and Indian Express are popular English newspapers in the city.

text: Notable people born in Shimla[edit]

text:
Ashish R Mohan, film director
Manvinder Singh Banga, businessman, former CEO, fund manager
Shahid Javed Burki, Pakistani economist, born during British rule
Charlie Chauhan, television actress
Raja Dina Nath, Sikh Khalsa Diwan member
Rubina Dilaik, television actress
Guy Penrose Gibson, WW2 RAF VC
Horatio Boileau Goad, British policeman and former secretary of the municipal corporation of Shimla
Samuel Boileau Goad, one of the principal property owners in Shimla
Robin Jackman, former England cricket player
Celina Jaitley, Bollywood actress
M.M. Kaye, novelist
Rahat Kazmi, Pakistani television actor
Anupam Kher, Bollywood actor
Ram Kumar, painter
Lady Constance Bulwer-Lytton, suffragate
Jamila Massey, British actress
Asghar Qadir, Pakistani cosmologist
Sadiq Hussain Qureshi, Governor of Punjab, Pakistan
Sheila Ramani, Miss Shimla
Anwar Shemza, Kashmiri writer and radio broadcaster
Asmita Sood, television actress
Shakti Singh (actor), Bollywood actor
Simranjit Singh Mann, Sikh politician
Hanif Ramay, former Chief Minister of Punjab
Idries Shah, writer on Sufism
Salmaan Taseer, Pakistani businessman
Nirmal Verma, Hindi writer
Priety Zinta, Bollywood actress
Motilal Rajvansh, Bollywood actor

text: .            Vivek Mohan 1st National Film Award winner and twice IFFI-IP Jury who returns to his hometown regularly to share his expertise.

text: Sister cities[edit]

text: Sister relationships with towns and regions worldwide include:

text: Carbondale, Illinois, United States[67][68]


document_title: Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)

question_text: who played juliet in romeo and juliet 1968

text: Romeo and Juliet (1968 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: One summer morning in Verona, Italy, a longstanding feud between the Montague and the Capulet clans breaks out in a street brawl. The brawl is broken up by the Prince, who warns both families that any future violence between them will result in harsh consequences. That night, two teenagers of the two families — Romeo and Juliet — meet at a Capulet masked ball and become deeply infatuated. Later, Romeo stumbles into the secluded garden under Juliet's bedroom balcony and the two exchange impassioned pledges. They are secretly married the next day by Romeo's confessor and father figure, Friar Laurence, with the assistance of Juliet's nursemaid.

text: That afternoon, Juliet's first cousin Tybalt, enraged that Romeo had attended his family's ball, insults him and challenges him to a brawl. Romeo sees Tybalt as family and he refuses to fight him, which leads Romeo's best friend, Mercutio, to fight Tybalt instead. Despite Romeo's efforts to stop the fight, Tybalt badly wounds Mercutio, who curses both the Montague and Capulet houses before dying. Enraged over his friend's death, Romeo retaliates by fighting Tybalt and killing him. Romeo is subsequently punished by the Prince with banishment from Verona, with the threat of death if he ever returns. Romeo, however, sees his banishment as worse than the death penalty, as Verona is the only home he has known and he does not want to be separated from Juliet. Friar Laurence eventually convinces Romeo that he is very lucky and that he should be more thankful for what he has. Romeo then secretly spends his wedding night together with Juliet and the couple consummate their marriage before Romeo flees.

text: Juliet's father and mother, unaware of their daughter's secret marriage, have arranged for Juliet to marry wealthy Count Paris. Juliet pleads with her parents to postpone the marriage, but they refuse and threaten to disown her. Juliet seeks out Friar Laurence for help, hoping to escape her arranged marriage to Paris and remain faithful to Romeo. At Friar Laurence's behest, she reconciles with her parents and agrees to their wishes. On the night before the wedding, Juliet consumes a potion prepared by Friar Laurence intended to make her appear dead for forty-two hours. Friar Laurence plans to inform Romeo of the hoax so that Romeo can meet Juliet after her burial and escape with her when she recovers from her swoon, so he sends Friar John to give Romeo a letter describing the plan. However, when Balthasar, Romeo's servant, sees Juliet being buried under the impression that she is dead, he goes to tell Romeo and reaches him before Friar John. In despair, Romeo goes to Juliet's tomb and kills himself by drinking poison. Soon afterwards, Juliet awakens and discovers her husband dead. Juliet refuses to leave Romeo and kills herself by piercing her abdomen with his dagger. Later, the two families attend their joint funeral and are chastised by the Prince.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Leonard Whiting as Romeo Montague
Olivia Hussey as Juliet Capulet
John McEnery as Mercutio
Milo O'Shea as Friar Laurence
Pat Heywood as The Nurse
Robert Stephens as The Prince
Michael York as Tybalt
Bruce Robinson as Benvolio
Paul Hardwick as Lord Capulet
Natasha Parry as Lady Capulet
Antonio Pierfederici as Lord Montague
Esmeralda Ruspoli as Lady Montague
Keith Skinner as Balthasar
Roberto Bisacco as Paris
Bruno Filippini as Leonardo, the singer (uncredited)
Laurence Olivier as Chorus and voice of Lord Montague (uncredited)

text: Production[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text: It is often rumored that Franco Zeffirelli considered Paul McCartney of The Beatles for the role of Romeo. Although Zeffirelli does not mention it in his autobiography, McCartney provided plenty of details on this account (including meeting with Olivia Hussay and exchanging telegrams with her) in his co-written autobiography [5]

text: The director engaged in a worldwide search for unknown teenage actors to play the parts of the two lovers. Leonard Whiting was 17 at the time, and Olivia Hussey was 16, and Zeffirelli adapted the play in such a way as to play to their strengths and hide their weaknesses: for instance, long speeches were trimmed, and he emphasized reaction shots.[6]

text: Laurence Olivier's involvement in the production was by happenstance. He was in Rome to film The Shoes of the Fisherman and visited the studio where Romeo and Juliet was being shot. He asked Zeffirelli if there was anything he could do, and was given the Prologue to read, then ended up dubbing the voice of Lord Montague as well as other assorted roles.[6]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: Set in a 14th-century Renaissance Italy in varying locations:[7]

text:
The balcony scene: At the Palazzo Borghese, built by Cardinal Scipione Borghese in the 16th century, in Artena, 20 miles south of Rome.
The interior church scenes: At a Romanesque church named St. Pietro Somaldi in, Lucca, Tuscania, 50 miles northwest of Rome.
The tomb scene: Also in Tuscania.
The palace of the Capulets' scenes: At Palazzo Piccolomini, built between 1459–62 by Pope Pius II, in the city of Pienza, in Siena province.
The dueling scenes with swords were set in the old Umbrian town of Gubbio.
The film also has some scenes filmed in Montagnana.
The street scenes: Also in Pienza, and on Cinecitta Studios back lot, Rome.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film earned $14.5 million in domestic rentals at the North American box office during 1969.[8] It was re-released in 1973 and earned $1.7 million in rentals.[9]

text: Film critic Roger Ebert has written: "I believe Franco Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet is the most exciting film of Shakespeare ever made".[10]

text: Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 'Fresh' score of 97% based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10; it is accompanied by the consensus: "The solid leads and arresting visuals make a case for Zeffirelli's Romeo and Juliet as the definitive cinematic adaptation of the play.".[11]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Academy Awards

text:
Best Picture (Anthony Havelock-Allan, John Brabourne) – Nominated
Best Director (Franco Zeffirelli) – Nominated
Best Cinematography (Pasqualino De Santis) – Won
Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati) – Won

text: Golden Globe Awards

text:
English-Language Foreign Film – Won
Best Director (Franco Zeffirelli) – Nominated
New Star of the Year – Actor (Leonard Whiting) – Won
New Star of the Year – Actress (Olivia Hussey) – Won
Best Original Score (Nino Rota) – Nominated

text: BAFTA Awards

text:
Best Direction (Franco Zeffirelli) – Nominated
Best Actor in a Supporting Role (John McEnery) – Nominated
Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Pat Heywood) – Nominated
Best Film Music (Nino Rota) – Nominated
Best Production Design (Renzo Mongiardino) – Nominated
Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati) – Won
Best Editing (Reginald Mills) – Nominated

text: Other accolades for Romeo and Juliet included the David di Donatello and National Board of Review awards for Best Director for Zeffirelli, as well as appearing on the National Board of Review's Top Ten Films list for 1968.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Two releases of the score of the film, composed by Nino Rota, have been made.[12][13]

text: "Love Theme from Romeo and Juliet" The film's love theme was widely disseminated, notably in "Our Tune", a segment of BBC disc jockey Simon Bates's radio show. In addition, various versions of the theme have been recorded and released, including a highly successful one by Henry Mancini, whose instrumental rendition was a Number One success in the United States during June 1969.[14]

text: There are two different sets of English lyrics to the song.

text:
The film's version is called "What Is a Youth?", featuring lyrics by Eugene Walter, and sung by Glen Weston. This version has been released on the complete score/soundtrack release.
An alternate version, called "A Time for Us", featuring lyrics by Larry Kusik and Eddie Snyder. This version has been recorded by Johnny Mathis and Andy Williams, among others. Josh Groban performed "Un Giorno Per Noi", an Italian version of "A Time for Us". Jonathan Antoine, classically trained tenor from Great Britain, performed "Un Giorno Per Noi" as one of the tracks on his second solo album, "Believe", which was released in August 2016. A third version is called "Ai Giochi Addio", featuring lyrics by Elsa Morante, and has been performed by opera singers such as Luciano Pavarotti and Natasha Marsh.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
Thom Yorke cites the film as one of the inspirations for the Radiohead song "Exit Music (For a Film)", which was written specifically for the ending credits of the 1996 film William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet. Said Yorke, "I saw the Zeffirelli version when I was 13, and I cried my eyes out, because I couldn't understand why the morning after they shagged, they didn't just run away. The song is written for two people who should run away before all the bad stuff starts. A personal song."
Kevin and Paul go to see the film in the episode "Wayne on Wheels" in season three of The Wonder Years.
Celine Dion referenced this film, in particular the "hand dance" scene, in the video for her 1992 single "Nothing Broken but My Heart".
Japanese manga artist Rumiko Takahashi referenced the Zeffirelli film in two of her manga and anime works. In one episode of Urusei Yatsura, devious troublemaker Ryoko Mendou invites the series' male protagonist, Ataru Moroboshi, to have a "Romeo and Juliet" rendezvous with her, and wears a dress based on Hussey's from the film. Later, Takahashi's Ranma 1/2 featured a storyline in which the lead characters, Ranma Saotome and Akane Tendo, are cast as Romeo and Juliet in a production of the play at their high school. Takahashi designed Ranma and Akane's costumes for the play with Whiting and Hussey's outfits in the Zeffirelli film in mind.[15]


document_title: Iron law of wages

question_text: who developed the concept of an iron law of wages

text: Iron law of wages

text: Lassalle[edit]

text: According to Alexander Gray,[5] Ferdinand Lassalle "gets the credit of having invented" the phrase the "iron law of wages", as Lassalle wrote about "das eiserne und grausame Gesetz" (the iron and cruel law).[6]

text: According to Lassalle, wages cannot fall below subsistence wage level because without subsistence, laborers will be unable to work.  However, competition among laborers for employment will drive wages down to this minimal level. This follows from Malthus' demographic theory, according to which population rises when wages are above the "subsistence wage" and falls when wages are below subsistence. Assuming the demand for labor to be a given monotonically decreasing function of the real wage rate, the theory then predicted that, in the long-run equilibrium of the system, labor supply (i.e. population) will rise or fall to the number of workers needed at the subsistence wage.

text: The justification for this was that when wages are higher, the supply of labor will increase relative to demand, creating an excess supply and thus depressing market real wages; when wages are lower, labor supply will fall, increasing market real wages. This would create a dynamic convergence towards a subsistence-wage equilibrium with constant population, in accordance with supply and demand theory.

text: As English political economist David Ricardo noticed, this prediction would not come true as long as a new investment, technology, or some other factor causes the demand for labor to increase faster than population: in that case, both real wages and population would increase over time. The demographic transition (a transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a country industrializes) changed this dynamic in most of the developed world, leading to wages much higher than the subsistence wage.  Even in countries which still have rapidly expanding populations, the need for skilled labor in certain occupations causes some wages to rise much faster than in others.

text: To answer the question of why wages might fall towards a subsistence  level, Ricardo put forth the law of rent. Ricardo and Malthus debated this concept in a lengthy personal correspondence.[7]

text: Ricardo[edit]

text: The content of the iron law of wages has been attributed to economists writing earlier than Lassalle. For example, Antonella Stirati[8] notes that Joseph Schumpeter claimed that Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot first formulated the concept. Some (e.g., John Kenneth Galbraith[9]) attribute the idea to David Ricardo. According to Terry Peach,[10] economists interpreting Ricardo as having a more flexible view of wages include Haney (1924), J. R. Hicks (1973), Frank Knight (1935), Ramsay (1836), George Stigler (1952), and Paul Samuelson (1979). She sees Ricardo, for example, as being closer to the more flexible views of population characteristic of economists prior to Malthus.[11] The theorist Henry George noticed that Ricardo's Law of Rent did not imply that a reduction of wages to subsistence is an immutable fact, but that it instead points the way towards reforms that could greatly increase real wages, such as a land value tax.[12] Ricardo drew a distinction between a natural price and a market price. For Ricardo, the natural price of labor was the cost of maintaining the laborer. However, Ricardo believed that the market price of labor or the actual wages paid could exceed the natural wage level indefinitely due to countervailing economic tendencies:

text: Notwithstanding the tendency of wages to conform to their natural rate, their market rate may, in an improving society, for an indefinite period, be constantly above it; for no sooner may the impulse, which an increased capital gives to a new demand for labor, be obeyed, than another increase of capital may produce the same effect; and thus, if the increase of capital be gradual and constant, the demand for labor may give a continued stimulus to an increase of people...[13]

text: Ricardo also claimed that the natural wage was not necessarily what was needed to physically sustain the laborer, but could be much higher depending on the "habits and customs" of a nation:

text: It is not to be understood that the natural price of labor, estimated even in food and necessaries, is absolutely fixed and constant. It varies at different times in the same country, and very materially differs in different countries. It essentially depends on the habits and customs of the people. An English laborer would consider his wages under their natural rate, and too scanty to support a family, if they enabled him to purchase no other food than potatoes, and to live in no better habitation than a mud cabin; yet these moderate demands of nature are often deemed sufficient in countries where 'man's life is cheap', and his wants easily satisfied. Many of the conveniences now enjoyed in an English cottage, would have been thought luxuries in an earlier period of our history.[13][excessive quote]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Mainstream criticism[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Many modern economists believe firms pay their workers a premium over subsistence levels to make them more efficient. In the theory of efficiency wages, firms pay above market clearing wages in order to incentivise employees and reduce turnover of experienced employees.

text: Workers enter and stay in a field because of the wages offered.  Booming industries offer higher wages, forcing other industries to pay more in order to keep workers, so long as the supply of workers does not exceed the demand.

text: The fact that workers can also strike out on their own and compete with their employers requires wages to be high enough to dissuade workers from doing so.

text: Socialist criticism[edit]

text: Socialist critics of Lassalle and of the alleged iron law of wages, such as Karl Marx, argued that although there was a tendency for wages to fall to subsistence levels, there were also tendencies which worked in opposing directions.[14] Marx criticized the Malthusian basis for the iron law of wages. According to Malthus, humanity is largely destined to live in poverty because an increase in productive capacity results in an increase in population. Marx criticized Lassalle for misunderstanding David Ricardo. Marx also noted that the foundation of what he called "modern political economy" needs, for the theory of value, only for wages to be a given magnitude. He did so in praising the Physiocrats.[15]