document_title: Noli Me Tángere (novel)

question_text: where was the title noli me tangere taken

question_tokens: where was the title noli me tangere taken

text: Noli Me Tángere (novel)

text: Title[edit]

text: Rizal entitled this novel as such drawing inspiration from "Touch Me Not" — the technical name of a particularly painful type of cancer (back in his time, it is unknown what is the modern name of said disease). He proposed to probe all the cancers of Filipino society that everyone else felt too painful to touch. [1]

text: Early English translations of the novel used titles like An Eagle Flight (1900) and The Social Cancer (1912), disregarding the symbolism of the title, but the more recent translations were published using the original Latin title. It has also been noted[citation needed] by the Austro-Hungarian writer Ferdinand Blumentritt that "Noli Me Tángere" was a name used by ophthalmologists for cancer of the eyelids; that as an ophthalmologist himself Rizal was influenced by this fact is suggested in the novel's dedication, "To My household".

text: Background[edit]

text: José Rizal, a Filipino nationalist and medical doctor, conceived the idea of writing a novel that would expose the ills of Philippine society after reading Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. He preferred that the prospective novel express the way Filipino culture was perceived to be backward, anti-progress, anti-intellectual, and not conducive to the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. He was then a student of medicine in the Universidad Central de Madrid.

text: In a reunion of Filipinos at the house of his friend Pedro A. Paterno in Madrid on 2 January 1884, Rizal proposed the writing of a novel about the Philippines written by a group of Filipinos. His proposal was unanimously approved by the Filipinos present at the time, among whom were Pedro, Maximino Viola and Antonio Paterno, Graciano López Jaena, Evaristo Aguirre, Eduardo de Lete, Julio Llorente and Valentin Ventura. However, this project did not materialize. The people who agreed to help Rizal with the novel did not write anything. Initially, the novel was planned to cover and describe all phases of Filipino life, but almost everybody wanted to write about women. Rizal even saw his companions spend more time gambling and flirting with Spanish women. Because of this, he pulled out of the plan of co-writing with others and decided to draft the novel alone.

text: Plot[edit]

text: Crisóstomo Ibarra, the mestizo son of recently deceased Don Rafael Ibarra, is returning to San Diego in Laguna after seven years of study in Europe. Capitan Tiago, a family friend, bids him to spend his first night in Manila where Tiago hosts a reunion party at his riverside home on Anloague Street. Crisóstomo obliges. At dinner he encounters old friends, Manila high society, the new curate of San Diego, and Padre Dámaso, San Diego’s old curate at the time Ibarra left for Europe. Dámaso treats Crisóstomo with hostility, surprising the young man who took the friar to be a friend of his father.

text: Crisóstomo excuses himself early and is making his way back to his hotel when Lieutenant Guevarra, another friend of his father, catches up with him. As the two of them walk to Crisóstomo’s stop, and away from the socialites at the party who may possibly compromise them if they heard, Guevarra reveals to the young man the events leading up to Rafael’s death and Dámaso’s role in it. Crisóstomo, who has been grieving from the time he learned of his father’s death, decides to forgive and not seek revenge. Guevarra nevertheless warns the young man to be careful.

text: The following day Crisóstomo returns to Capitan Tiago’s home in order to meet with his childhood sweetheart, Tiago’s daughter María Clara. The two flirt and reminisce in the azotea, a porch overlooking the river. María reads back to Crisóstomo his farewell letter wherein he explained to her Rafael’s wish for Crisóstomo to set out, to study in order to become a more useful citizen of the country. Seeing Crisóstomo agitated at the mention of his father, however, María playfully excuses herself, promising to see him again at her family’s San Diego home during the town fiesta.

text: As the days progress Crisóstomo carries out his plan to serve his country as his father wanted. He intends to use his family wealth to build a school, believing his paisanos would benefit from a more modern education than what is offered in the schools run by the government, whose curriculum was heavily tempered by the teachings of the friars. Enjoying massive support, and even by the Spanish authorities, Crisóstomo’s preparations for his school advance quickly in only a few days. He receives counsel from Don Anastacio, a revered local philosopher, who refers him to a progressive schoolmaster who lamented the friars’ influence on public education and wished to introduce reforms. The building was planned to begin construction with the cornerstone to be laid in a ceremony during San Diego’s town fiesta.

text: One day, taking a break, Crisóstomo, María, and their friends get on a boat and go on a picnic along the shores of the Laguna de Bay, away from the town center. It is then discovered that a crocodile had been lurking on the fish pens owned by the Ibarras. Elias, the boat’s pilot, jumps into the water with a bolo knife drawn. Sensing Elias is in danger, Ibarra jumps in as well, and they subdue the animal together. Crisóstomo mildly scolds the pilot for his rashness, while Elias proclaims himself in Crisóstomo’s debt.

text: On the day of the fiesta, Elias warns Crisóstomo of a plot to kill him at the cornerstone-laying. The ceremony involved the massive stone being lowered into a trench by a wooden derrick. Crisóstomo being the principal sponsor of the project is to lay the mortar using a trowel at the bottom of the trench. As he prepares to do so, however, the derrick fails and the stone falls into the trench, bringing the derrick down with it in a mighty crash. When the dust clears, a pale, dust-covered Crisóstomo stands stiffly by the trench, having narrowly missed the stone. In his place beneath the stone is the would-be assassin. Elias has disappeared.

text: The festivities continue at Crisóstomo’s insistence. Later that day, he hosts a luncheon to which Padre Dámaso invites himself. Over the meal the old friar berates Crisóstomo, his learning, his journeys, and the schoolbuilding project. The other guests hiss for discretion, but Dámaso ignores them and continues in an even louder voice, insulting the memory of Rafael in front of Crisóstomo. At the mention of his father, Crisóstomo strikes the friar unconscious and holds a dinner knife to his neck. In an impassioned speech Crisóstomo narrates to the astonished guests everything he heard from Lieutenant Guevarra, who was an officer of the local police, about Dámaso’s schemes that resulted in the death of Rafael. As Crisóstomo is about to stab Dámaso, however, María Clara stays his arm and pleads for mercy.

text: Crisóstomo is excommunicated from the church, but has his excommunication lifted through the intercession of the sympathetic governor general. However, upon his return to San Diego, María has turned sickly and refuses to see him. The new curate who Crisóstomo met at Tiago’s dinner, Padre Bernardo Salvi, is seen hovering around the house. Crisóstomo then meets the inoffensive Linares, a fellow Spaniard who, unlike Crisóstomo, had been born in Spain. Tiago presents Linares as María’s new suitor.

text: Sensing Crisóstomo’s influence with the government, Elias takes Crisóstomo into confidence and one moonlit night, they secretly sail out into the lake. Elias tells him about a revolutionary group, poised for open, violent clash with the government. This group has reached out to Elias in a bid for him to join them in their imminent uprising. Elias tells Crisóstomo that he managed to delay the group’s plans by offering to speak to Crisóstomo first, that Crisóstomo may use his influence to effect the reforms Elias and his group wish to see.

text: In their conversation Elias narrates his family’s history, how his grandfather in his youth worked as a bookkeeper in a Manila office but was accused of arson by the Spaniard owner when the office burned down. He was prosecuted and upon release was shunned by the community as a dangerous lawbreaker. His wife turned to prostitution to support the family but eventually they were driven into the hinterlands.

text: Crisóstomo sympathizes with Elias but insists that he could do nothing, and that the only change he was capable of was through his schoolbuilding project. Rebuffed, Elias advises Crisóstomo to avoid any association with him in the future for his own safety.

text: Heartbroken and desperately needing to speak to María, Crisóstomo turns his focus more towards his school. One evening, though, Elias returns with more information – a rogue uprising was planned for that same night, and the instigators had used Crisóstomo’s name in vain to recruit malcontents. The authorities know of the uprising and are prepared to spring a trap on the rebels.

text: In panic and ready to abandon his project, Crisóstomo enlists Elias in sorting out and destroying documents in his study that may implicate him. Elias obliges, but comes across a name familiar to him: Don Pedro Eibarramendia. Crisóstomo tells him that Pedro was his great-grandfather, and that they had to shorten his long family name. Elias tells him Eibarramendia was the same Spaniard who accused his grandfather of arson, and was thus the author of the misfortunes of Elias and his family. Frenzied, he raises his bolo to smite Crisóstomo, but regains his senses and leaves the house very upset.

text: The uprising follows through, and many of the rebels are either captured or killed. They point to Crisóstomo as instructed and Crisóstomo is arrested. The following morning the instigators are found dead. It is revealed that Padre Salvi ordered the senior sexton to kill them in order to prevent the chance of them confessing that he actually took part in the plot to frame Crisóstomo. Elias, meanwhile, sneaks back into the Ibarra mansion during the night and sorts through documents and valuables, then burns down the house.

text: Some time later Capitan Tiago hosts a dinner at his riverside house in Manila to celebrate María Clara’s engagement with Linares. Present at the party were Padre Dámaso, Padre Salvi, Lieutenant Guevarra, and other family friends. They were discussing the events that happened in San Diego and Crisóstomo’s fate.

text: Salvi, who lusted after María Clara all along, says that he has requested to be transferred to the Convent of the Poor Clares in Manila under the pretense of recent events in San Diego being too great for him to bear. A despondent Guevarra outlines how the court came to condemn Crisóstomo. In a signed letter he wrote to a certain woman before leaving for Europe, Crisóstomo spoke about his father, an alleged rebel who died in prison. Somehow this letter fell into the hands of an enemy, and Crisóstomo's handwriting was imitated to create the bogus orders used to recruit the malcontents to the San Diego uprising. Guevarra remarks that the penmanship on the orders was similar to Crisóstomo's penmanship seven years before, but not at the present day. And Crisóstomo had only to deny that the signature on the original letter was his, and the charge of sedition founded on those bogus letters would fail. But upon seeing the letter, which was the farewell letter he wrote to María Clara, Crisóstomo apparently lost the will to fight the charges and owned the letter as his.

text: Guevarra then approaches María, who had been listening to his explanation. Privately but sorrowfully, he congratulates her for her common sense in yielding Crisóstomo’s farewell letter. Now, the old officer tells her, she can live a life of peace. María is devastated.

text: Later that evening Crisóstomo, having escaped from prison with the help of Elias, climbs up the azotea and confronts María in secret. María, distraught, does not deny giving up his farewell letter, but explains she did so only because Salvi found Dámaso's old letters in the San Diego parsonage, letters from María's mother who was then pregnant with María. It turns out that Dámaso was María's father. Salvi promised not to divulge Dámaso's letters to the public in exchange for Crisóstomo’s farewell letter. Crisóstomo forgives her, María swears her undying love, and they part with a kiss.

text: Crisóstomo and Elias escape on Elias's boat. They slip unnoticed through the Estero de Binondo and into the Pasig River. Elias tells Crisóstomo that his treasures and documents are buried in the middle of the forest owned by the Ibarras in San Diego. Wishing to make restitution, Crisóstomo offers Elias the chance to escape with him to a foreign country, where they will live as brothers. Elias declines, stating that his fate is with the country he wishes to see reformed and liberated.

text: Crisóstomo then tells him of his own desire for revenge and revolution, to lengths that even Elias was unwilling to go. Elias tries to reason with him, but sentries catch up with them at the mouth of the Pasig River and pursue them across Laguna de Bay. Elias orders Crisóstomo to lie down and to meet with him in a few days at the mausoleum of Crisóstomo's grandfather in San Diego, as he jumps into the water in an effort to distract the pursuers. Elias is shot several times.

text: The following day news of the chase were in the newspapers. It is reported that Crisóstomo Ibarra, the fugitive, had been killed by sentries in pursuit. At the news María remorsefully demands of Dámaso that her wedding with Linares be called off and that she be entered into the cloister, or the grave.

text: Seeing her resolution, Dámaso admits the true reason he ruined the Ibarra family and her relationship with Crisóstomo - because he was a mere mestizo and Dámaso wanted María to be as happy as she could be, and that was possible only if she were to marry a full-blooded peninsular Spaniard. María would not hear of it and repeated her ultimatum, the cloister or the grave. Knowing fully why Salvi had earlier requested to be assigned as chaplain in the Convent of the Poor Clares, Dámaso pleads with María to reconsider, but to no avail. Weeping, Dámaso consents, knowing the horrible fate that awaits his daughter within the convent but finding it more tolerable than her suicide.

text: A few nights later in the forest of the Ibarras, a boy pursues his mother through the darkness. The woman went insane with the constant beating of her husband and the loss of her other son, an altar boy, in the hands of Padre Salvi. Basilio, the boy, catches up with Sisa, his mother, inside the Ibarra mausoleum in the middle of the forest, but the strain had already been too great for Sisa. She dies in Basilio's embrace.

text: Basilio weeps for his mother, but then looks up to see Elias staring at them. Elias was dying himself, having lost a lot of blood and having had no food or nourishment for several days as he made his way to the mausoleum. He instructs Basilio to burn their bodies and if no one comes, to dig inside the mausoleum. He will find treasure, which he is to use for his own education.

text: As Basilio leaves to fetch the wood, Elias sinks to the ground and says that he will die without seeing the dawn of freedom for his people, and that those who see it must welcome it and not forget them that died in the darkness.

text: In the epilogue, Padre Dámaso is transferred to occupy a curacy in a remote town. Distraught, he is found dead a day later. Capitan Tiago fell into depression and became addicted to opium and is forgotten by the town. Padre Salvi, meanwhile, waits to be made a bishop. He is also the head priest of the convent where María Clara currently resides. Nothing is heard of María Clara, however, on a September night, during a typhoon, two patrolmen reported seeing a specter (implied to be María Clara) on the roof of the Convent of the Poor Clares moaning and weeping in despair.

text: The next day, a representative of the authorities visited the convent to investigate last night's events and asked to inspect all the nuns. One of the nuns had a wet and torn gown and with tears told the representative of "tales of horror" and begged for "protection against the outrages of hypocrisy" (which gives the implication that Padre Salvi regularly rapes her when he is present). The abbess however, said that she was nothing more than a madwoman. A General J. also attempted to investigate the nun's case, but by then the abbess prohibited visits to the convent. Nothing more was said again about María Clara.

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Rizal finished the novel in December 1886. At first, according to one of Rizal's biographers, Rizal feared the novel might not be printed, and that it would remain unread. He was struggling with financial constraints at the time and thought it would be hard to pursue printing the novel.

text: Financial aid came from a friend named Máximo Viola; this helped him print the book at Berliner Buchdruckerei-Aktiengesellschaft in Berlin. Rizal was initially hesitant, but Viola insisted and ended up lending Rizal ₱300 for 2,000 copies. The printing was finished earlier than the estimated five months. Viola arrived in Berlin in December 1886, and by March 21, 1887, Rizal had sent a copy of the novel to his friend, Blumentritt.[2]

text: The book was banned by Spanish authorities in the Philippines, although copies were smuggled into the country. The first Philippine edition (and the second published edition) was finally printed in 1899 in Manila by Chofre y Compania in Escolta.

text: Recent English editions[edit]

text: On August 21, 2007, a 480-page English-language version of Noli me tangere was released to major Australian book stores. An Australian edition of the novel was published by Penguin Classics (an imprint by Penguin Books) to represent the company's "commitment to publish the major literary classics of the world."[3] American writer Harold Augenbraum, who first read Noli in 1992, translated the novel. A writer well-acquainted with translating other Hispanophone literary works, Augenbraum proposed to translate the novel after being asked for his next assignment in the publishing company. Intrigued by the novel and knowing more about it, Penguin nixed their plan of adapting existing English versions and instead translated it on their own.[3]

text: Reaction and legacy[edit]

text: This novel and its sequel, El filibusterismo (nicknamed El fili), were banned by Spanish authorities in the Philippines because of their allegations of corruption and abuse by the colonial government and the Catholic Church. Copies of the book were nevertheless smuggled in and hidden, and when Rizal returned to the Philippines after completing medical studies, he quickly ran afoul of the local government. A few days after his arrival, Rizal was summoned to Malacañan Palace by Governor-General Emilio Terrero, who told him of the charge that Noli me tangere contained subversive elements. After a discussion, Terrero was appeased but still unable to offer resistance to pressure from the Church against the book. The persecution can be discerned from Rizal's letter to Leitmeritz:

text:
“
My book made a lot of noise; everywhere, I am asked about it. They wanted to anathematize me ['to excommunicate me'] because of it... I am considered a German spy, an agent of Bismarck, they say I am a Protestant, a freemason, a sorcerer, a damned soul and evil. It is whispered that I want to draw plans, that I have a foreign passport and that I wander through the streets by night...
”

text: Rizal was exiled to Dapitan in Mindanao, then later arrested for "inciting rebellion" based largely on his writings. Rizal was executed by firing squad at the Luneta outside Manila's walls on December 30, 1896 at the age of thirty-five, at the park that now bears his name.

text: Influence on Filipino nationalism[edit]

text: Rizal depicted nationality by emphasizing the positive qualities of Filipinos: the devotion of a Filipina and her influence on a man's life, the deep sense of gratitude, and the solid common sense of the Filipinos under the Spanish regime.

text: The work was instrumental in creating a unified Filipino national identity and consciousness, as many natives previously identified with their respective regions. It lampooned, caricatured and exposed various elements in colonial society. Two characters in particular have become classics in Filipino culture: María Clara, who has become a personification of the ideal Filipino woman, loving and unwavering in her loyalty to her spouse; and the priest Father Dámaso, who reflects the covert fathering of illegitimate children by members of the Spanish clergy.[citation needed]

text: The book indirectly influenced the Philippine Revolution of independence from the Spanish Empire, even though Rizal actually advocated direct representation to the Spanish government and an overall larger role for the Philippines within Spain's political affairs. In 1956, Congress passed Republic Act 1425, more popularly known as the Rizal Law, which requires all levels in Philippine schools to teach the novel as part of their curriculum. Noli me tangere is being taught to third year secondary school students, while its sequel El filibusterismo is being taught for fourth year secondary school students. The novels are incorporated to their study and survey of Philippine literature.[4] Both of Rizal's novels were initially banned from Catholic educational institutions given its negative portrayal of the Church, but this taboo has been largely superseded as religious schools conformed to the Rizal Law.[citation needed]

text: Major characters[edit]

text: Crisóstomo Ibarra[edit]

text: Juan Crisóstomo Ibarra y Magsalin, commonly referred to the novel as Ibarra or Crisóstomo, is the novel's protagonist. The mestizo (mixed-race) son of Filipino businessman Don Rafael Ibarra, he studied in Europe for seven years.[5] Ibarra is also María Clara's fiancé.

text: María Clara[edit]

text: María Clara de los Santos y Alba, commonly referred to as María Clara, is Ibarra's fiancée and the most beautiful and widely celebrated girl in San Diego.[6] She was raised by Capitán Tiago de los Santos, and his cousin, Isabel. In the later parts of the novel, she was revealed to be an illegitimate daughter of Father Dámaso, the comer curate of the town, and Doña Pía Alba, Capitán Tiago's wife, who had died giving birth to María Clara.[7]

text: At the novel's end, a heartbroken yet resolved María Clara entered the Beaterio de Santa Clara (a nunnery) after learning the truth of her parentage and mistakenly believing her lover Crisóstomo to have been killed. In the epilogue, Rizal stated that it is unknown if María Clara is still living within the walls of the convent or she is already dead.[8]

text: Kapitán Tiago[edit]

text: Don Santiago de los Santos, known by his nickname Tiago and political title Kapitán Tiago is it is said that Kapitán Tiago is the richest man in the region of Binondo and he possessed real properties in Pampanga and Laguna de Bay. He is also said to be a good Catholic, a friend of the Spanish government and thus was considered a Spaniard by the colonial elite. Capitán Tiago never attended school, so he became the domestic helper of a Dominican friar who gave him an informal education. He later married Pía Alba from Santa Cruz.[6]

text: Padre Dámaso[edit]

text: Dámaso Verdolagas, or Padre Dámaso is a Franciscan friar and the former parish curate of San Diego. He is notorious for speaking with harsh words, highhandedness, and his cruelty during his ministry in the town.[9] An enemy of Crisóstomo's father, Don Rafael Ibarra, Dámaso is revealed to be María Clara's biological father.[7] Later, he and María Clara had bitter arguments whether she would marry Alfonso Linares de Espadaña (which he preferred) or to enter the nunnery (her desperate alternative).[10] At the end of the novel, he is again reassigned to a distant town and later found dead in his bed.[8]

text: Elías[edit]

text: Elías is Ibarra's mysterious friend and ally. Elías made his first appearance as a pilot during a picnic of Ibarra and María Clara and her friends.[11]

text: The 50th chapter of the novel explores the past of Elías and history of his family. About sixty years before the events of Noli me Tangere, Elias's grandfather Ingkong in his youth worked as a bookkeeper in a Manila office. One night the office burned down, and Don Pedro Eibarramendia, the Spaniard owner, accused him of arson. Ingkong was prosecuted and upon release was shunned by the community as a dangerous lawbreaker. His wife Impong turned to prostitution to support themselves but eventually they were driven into the hinterlands. There Impong bore her first son, Balat.

text: Driven to depression, Ingkong hangs himself deep in the forest. Impong was sickly for lack of nourishment in the forest and was not strong enough to cut down his corpse and bury him, and Balat was then still very young. The stench led to their discovery, and Impong was accused of killing her husband. She and her son fled to another province where she bore another son. Balat grew up to be a bandit.

text: Eventually Balat's legend grew, but so did the efforts to capture him, and when he finally fell he was cut limb by limb and his head was deposited in front of Impong's house. Seeing the head of her son, Impong died of shock. Impong's younger son, knowing their deaths would somehow be imputed upon him, fled to the province of Tayabas where he met and fell in love with a rich young heiress.

text: They have an affair and the lady got pregnant. But before they could marry, his records were dug up. Then the father, who disapproved of him from the start, had him imprisoned. The lady gave birth to Elias and his twin sister but died while they were children. Elias and his sister were well cared for, with Elias even going to Ateneo and his sister going to La Concordia, but as they wanted to become farmers they eventually returned to Tayabas.

text: He and his sister grew up not knowing about their father, being told that their father had long died. Elias grew up to be a young abusive brat who took particular joy in berating an elderly servant who, nevertheless, always submitted to his whims. His sister was more refined and eventually was betrothed to a fine young man. But before they could marry, Elias ran afoul with a distant relative. The relative struck back by telling him about his true parentage. The verbal scuffle mounted to the point where records were dug up, and Elias and his sister, as well as a good part of town, learned the truth. The elderly servant who Elias frequently abused was their father.

text: The scandal caused the engagement of Elias' sister to break off. Depressed, the girl disappeared one day and was eventually found dead along the shore of the lake. Elias himself lost face before his relatives and became a wanderer from province to province. Like his uncle Balat he became a fugitive and his legend grew, but by degrees he became the gentler, more reserved, and more noble character first introduced in the novel.

text: Pilosopo Tacio[edit]

text: Filosofo Tacio, known by his Tagalized name Pilosopo Tasyo. Tasyo was enrolled in a philosophy course and was a talented student, but his mother was a rich but superstitious matron. Like many Filipino catholics under the sway of the friars, she believed that too much learning condemned souls to hell. She then made Tasyo choose between leaving college or becoming a priest. Since he was in love, he left college and married.

text: Tasyo lost his wife and mother within a year. Seeking consolation and in order to free himself from the cockpit and the dangers of idleness, he took up his studies once more. But he became so addicted to his studies and the purchase of books that he entirely neglected his fortune and gradually ruined himself. Persons of culture called him Don Anastacio, or Pilosopo Tasyo, while the great crowd of the ignorant knew him as Tasyo el Loco on account of his peculiar ideas and his eccentric manner of dealing with others.

text: Seeking for reforms from the government, he expresses his ideals in paper written in a cryptographic alphabet similar from hieroglyphs and Coptic figures[12] hoping "that the future generations may be able to decipher it."[13]

text: Doña Victorina[edit]

text: Doña Victorina de los Reyes de Espadaña, commonly known as Doña Victorina, is an ambitious Filipina who classifies herself as a Spanish and mimics Spanish ladies by putting on heavy make-up.[9] The novel narrates Doña Victorina's younger days: she had lots of admirers, but she spurned them all because none of them were Spaniards. Later on, she met and married Don Tiburcio de Espadaña, an official of the customs bureau ten years her junior.[14] However, their marriage is childless.

text: Her husband assumes the title of medical "doctor" even though he never attended medical school; using fake documents and certificates, Tiburcio illegally practices medicine. Tiburcio's usage of the title Dr. consequently makes Victorina assume the title Dra. (doctora, female doctor).[14] Apparently, she uses the whole name Doña Victorina de los Reyes de de Espadaña, with double de to emphasize her marriage surname.[14] She seems to feel that this awkward titling makes her more "sophisticated."

text: Sisa, Crispín, and Basilio[edit]

text: Sisa, Crispín, and Basilio represent a Filipino family persecuted by the Spanish authorities:

text:
Narcisa or Sisa is the deranged mother of Basilio and Crispín. Described as beautiful and young, although she loves her children very much, she can not protect them from the beatings of her husband, Pedro.
Crispín is Sisa's 7-year-old son. An altar boy, he was unjustly accused of stealing money from the church. After failing to force Crispín to return the money he allegedly stole, Father Salví and the head sacristan killed him. It is not directly stated that he was killed, but a dream of Basilio's suggests that Crispín died during his encounter with Padre Salví and his minion.
Basilio is Sisa's 10-year-old son. An acolyte tasked with ring the church's bells for the Angelus, he faced the dread of losing his younger brother and the descent of his mother into insanity. At the end of the novel, a dying Elías requested Basilio to cremate him and Sisa in the woods in exchange for a chest of gold located nearby. He will later play a major role in El Filibusterismo.

text: Due to their tragic but endearing story, these characters are often parodied in modern Filipino popular culture.

text: Salomé is Elías' sweetheart. She lived in a little house by the lake, and though Elías would like to marry her, he tells her that it would do her or their children no good to be related to a fugitive like himself. In the original publication of Noli, the chapter that explores the identity of Elías and Salomé was omitted, classifying her as a total non-existing character. This chapter, entitled Elías y Salomé was probably the 25th chapter of the novel. However, recent editions and translations of Noli provides the inclusion of this chapter, either on the appendix or renamed as Chapter X (Ex).

text: Other characters[edit]

text: There are a number of secondary and minor characters in Noli Me Tángere. Items indicated inside the parenthesis are the standard Filipinization of the Spanish names in the novel.

text:
Padre Hernándo de la Sibyla – a Dominican friar. He is described as short and has fair skin. He is instructed by an old priest in his order to watch Crisóstomo Ibarra.
Padre Bernardo Salví – the successor of Padre Dámaso as the Franciscan curate of San Diego, and who secretly lusts after María Clara. He is described to be very thin and sickly. It is also hinted that his surname, "Salvi" is the shorter form of "Salvi" ("salvation"), or "Salvi" is short for "salvaje" ("savage", "wild") hinting at the fact that he is willing to kill an innocent child, Crispín, who he accused of stealing money worth 2 onzas.
El Alférez (Alperes) – the unnamed chief of the local Guardia Civil and husband of Doña Consolación. He is the sworn enemy of the priests in the town's power struggle.
Doña Consolación – wife of the Alférez, nicknamed as la musa de los guardias civiles ("The muse of the Civil Guard") or la Alféreza. She was a former laundrywoman who passes herself as a peninsular, and is best remembered for her abusive treatment of Sisa.
Don Tiburcio de Espadaña – A Spanish quack doctor who is weak and submissive to his pretentious wife, Doña Victorina.
Tenyente Guevarra - a close friend of Don Rafael Ibarra. He reveals to Crisóstomo how Don Rafael Ibarra's death came about.
Alfonso Linares – A distant nephew of Tiburcio de Espadaña, the would-be fiancé of María Clara. Although he presented himself as a practitioner of law, it was later revealed that he is, like Don Tiburcio, a fraud. He later died from medications Don Tiburcio had given him.
Tíya Isabel – Capitán Tiago's cousin, who helped raise María Clara and served as a surrogate mother figure.
Governor-General (Gobernador-Heneral) – Unnamed in the novel, he is the most powerful colonial official in the Philippines. He harbours great disdain for the friars and corrupt officials, and sympathises with Ibarra.
Don Filipo Lino – vice mayor of the town of San Diego, leader of the liberals.
Padre Manuel Martín – he is the linguist curate of a nearby town who delivers the sermon during San Diego's fiesta.
Don Rafael Ibarra – the deceased father of Crisóstomo Ibarra. Though he was the richest man in San Diego, he was also the most virtuous and generous.
Doña Pía Alba – wife of Capitán Tiago and mother of María Clara, she had died giving birth to her daughter. In reality, she was raped by Padre Dámaso.
Don Pedro Eibarramendia - Crisóstomo Ibarra's Basque great-grandfather who falsely accused Elias's grandfather and ruined his family. The surname was later shortened to Ibarra, hence Elias does not realize the relationship at first.
Albino - a seminarian who follows Crisóstomo Ibarra in a picnic with María Clara's friends.

text: Translations[edit]

text: Many English and Tagalog translations have been made of Noli Me Tángere, as well as a few other languages. The copyrights of the original text have expired, and the copyrights of some translators have also expired, so certain translations are in the public domain and have been put online by Project Gutenberg.

text: English[edit]

text:
Friars and Filipinos (1900) by Frank Ernest Gannett. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[15]
The Social Cancer (1912) by Charles Derbyshire. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[16]
"Noli Me Tángere": A Complete English Translation of Noli Me Tángere from the Spanish of Dr. José Rizal (1956) by Senator Camilo Osías.[17]
The Lost Eden (1961) by Leon Ma. Guerrero.[18]
Noli Me Tángere (1997) by María Soledad Locsin.[19]
Noli Me Tángere (2006) by Harold Augenbraum. Published by Penguin Classics.[20]
Noli Me Tángere: A Shortened Version in Modern English with an Introduction and Notes (2016) by Nicholas Tamblyn. [21]

text: Tagalog[edit]

text:
Noli Me Tángere (also titled Huwag Akong Salangin Nino Man/Nobody Dare Touch Me) (1906) by Dr. Pascual H. Poblete. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[22]
Noli Me Tángere (1997) by Virgilio Almario.[23]
Noli Me Tángere (1999) by Ofelia Jamilosa-Silapan, Tagalog translation of the English translation by León Ma. Guerrero.

text: Other languages[edit]

text:
Au Pays des Moines (In the Land of Monks) (1899, French) by Henri Lucas and Ramon Sempau. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[24]
N'y touchez pas! (Don't touch it!) (1980, French) Translation by Jovita Ventura Castro, Collection UNESCO, Connaissance de l'Orient, Gallimard, Paris.
Noli me tángere (1987, German) by Annemarie del Cueto-Mörth. Published by Insel Verlag.
Noli me tángere (2003, Italian) by Vasco Caini. Published by Debatte editore, Livorno, Italy, ISBN 88-86705-26-3.
Noli me Tángere: Filippijnsche roman (Noli Me Tángere: Filipino Novel) (1912, Dutch) by Abraham Anthony Fokker, published by Soerabaijasch Handelsblad. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[25]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: The Noli has been adapted for literature, theater, television, and film.

text:
1915: Noli Me Tángere, a silent film adaptation by Edward M. Gross.[26]
1930: Noli Me Tángere, another silent film adaptation, directed by José Nepomuceno under Malayan Movies.[27]
1951: National Artist for Cinema Gerardo de León directed a motion picture titled Sisa, starring Anita Linda in the role of the titular character.
1957: Noli Me Tángere: The Opera, an opera in Filipino (Tagalog) composed by National Artist for Music Felipe Padilla de Leon with libretto by National Artist for Visual Arts Guillermo Tolentino. World premiere in 1957 at Far Eastern University Auditorium.[28] Staged in 1974 at Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Main Theater. Staged in 1987 by Fides Cuyugan-Asensio's Music Theater Foundation at the CCP.[29] Staged in 2011 (Nov) and 2012 (July-Aug) by Dulaang Unibersidad ng Pilipinas at Guerrero Theater, University of the Philippines.[30][31] Staged in 2013, one night only, by Far Eastern University as part of its 85th anniversary at Far Eastern University Auditorium.[32] Staged in 2014, produced by J&S Productions at Newport Performing Arts Theater, Resorts World Manila. Staged in 2017, produced by J&S Productions at Tanghalang Nicanor Abelardo, CCP.[33]

text: International stagings: In 1988, Music Theater Foundation's 1987 production was toured in the USA with reduced performers in 1988 in Chicago, Detroit, St. Louis and Los Angeles.[34] The first documented staging by a local group in the USA was in 2012, produced by KGB Productions and staged by da Corneto Opera Company at Harris Theater for Music and Dance, Chicago, performed in Filipino with English supertitles.[35] Staged in 2013 in New York, produced by Edwin Josue at the Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse, Hunter College.[36] Staged in 2014 in Washington, DC, produced by Edwin Josue at Eisenhower Theater, Kennedy Center.[37] Staged in 2016 in Richmond, Virginia, produced by Capitol Opera Richmond at Henrico Theatre.[38] To be staged in June 2017 in Boston, produced by KGB Productions and staged by Opera Brittenica, venue TBA.[39]

text:
1961: Noli Me Tángere, a faithful film adaptation of the novel, was directed by Gerardo de León for Bayanihan-Arriva Productions, featuring Eddie del Mar[40] in the role of Crisóstomo Ibarra.[41] Released for the birth centenary of José Rizal, the motion picture was awarded the Best Picture in the 10th FAMAS Awards.
1979: Kanser (Noli Me Tangere), play in Filipino (Tagalog) written by Jomar Fleras. World premiere in 1979 at Cultural Center of the Philippines by theater group Bulwagang Gantimpala.[42] It has been staged annually by Gantimpala Theater (the group's new name) since 1989.[43] In 2015, it was adapted into a sung-through musical by Gantimpala Theater with music composed by Joed Balsamo.[44]
1992: Noli Me Tángere, a 13-episode TV series by Eddie S. Romero. This adaptation features Joel Torre in the role of Crisóstomo Ibarra, Chin Chin Gutierrez as María Clara, and Tetchie Agbayani as Sisa.
1995: Noli Me Tángere, a Filipino (Tagalog) musical adaptation of the novel staged by theater company Tanghalang Pilipino with libretto (book and lyrics) by National Artist for Literature Bienvenido Lumbera and music by Ryan Cayabyab. It premiered in 1995 at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, directed by Nonon Padilla. It went on to tour Japan. It starred John Arcilla and Audie Gemora alternating as Crisóstomo Ibarra, Monique Wilson as María Clara, and Regine Velasquez as Sisa. Bernardo Bernardo and Bodjie Pascua alternated as Padre Dámaso, and Nanette Inventor and Sheila Francisco as Dona Victorina. It was restaged in 2005, directed by Paul Morales, and in 2011, directed by Audie Gemora. In 2014, it was staged in Los Angeles, directed by Olga Natividad.[45]
Several excerpts from Noli Me Tángere were dramatized in the 1998 film José Rizal, with Joel Torre as Crisóstomo Ibarra and Monique Wilson as María Clara.
1998: Sisa, a remake of the 1951 film of the same name. Written and directed by Mario O'Hara.[46]
2005: Noli Me Tángere 2, a modern literary adaptation of the novel written by Roger Olivares.[47]
2008–2009: Noli at Fili: Dekada 2000, a stage adaptation of Noli Me Tángere and El Filibusterismo by the Philippine Educational Theater Association, set in the present day, in the fictional town of Maypajo in the province of San Lorenzo. Written by Nicanor G. Tiongson and directed by Soxie Topacio.[47][48]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
A series of streets in the Sampaloc area of Manila are named after the characters Ibarra, Sisa and Basilio.
A street in Makati city is named 'Ibarra Street,' located between Matanzas and Guernica streets.
A restaurant serving Filipino cuisine at Greenbelt in Makati is called Restaurante Pia y Dámaso,[49] after María Clara's biological parents.
A restaurant chain called Crisóstomo features dishes from Filipino history and culture such as "Atcharra ni Ibarra". Its sister restaurant is called Elías.


document_title: AV input

question_text: what does av on a tv stand for

question_tokens: what does av on a tv stand for

root

text: AV input

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: AV input is a common label on a connector to receive (AV) audio/visual signals from electronic equipment that generates AV signals (AV output).

tag: p

text: These terminals are commonly found on such equipment as a television, DVD recorder or VHS recorder, and typically take input from a DVD player, a TV tuner, VHS recorder or camcorder.

text: Types of plugs used for video input[edit]

text:
Composite video
RCA connector
BNC connector
UHF connector
1/8 inch minijack phone connector
S-video
DIN plug (also used for Apple Desktop Bus)
Component video
RCA connector
RGBHV
Digital video
HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface)
DVI (Digital Video Interface)
IEEE 1394 (FireWire)
SPDIF (Sony Philips Digital Interface)

tag: ul

text: Audiovisual connectors

text: Articles lacking sources from December 2009All articles lacking sources


document_title: Indifference curve

question_text: the rate of substitution along the indifference curve implies

text: Indifference curve

text: History[edit]

text: The theory of indifference curves was developed by Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, who explained in his 1881 book the mathematics needed for their drawing;[3] later on, Vilfredo Pareto was the first author to actually draw these curves, in his 1906 book.[4][5] The theory can be derived from William Stanley Jevons' ordinal utility theory, which posits that individuals can always rank any consumption bundles by order of preference.[6]

text: Map and properties of indifference curves[edit]

text: A graph of indifference curves for several utility levels of an individual consumer is called an indifference map. Points yielding different utility levels are each associated with distinct indifference curves and these indifference curves on the indifference map are like contour lines on a topographical map. Each point on the curve represents the same elevation. If you move "off" an indifference curve traveling in a northeast direction (assuming positive marginal utility for the goods) you are essentially climbing a mound of utility. The higher you go the greater the level of utility. The non-satiation requirement means that you will never reach the "top," or a "bliss point," a consumption bundle that is preferred to all others.

text: Indifference curves are typically[vague] represented[clarification needed] to be:

text:
Defined only in the non-negative quadrant of commodity quantities (i.e. the possibility of having negative quantities of any good is ignored).
Negatively sloped. That is, as quantity consumed of one good (X) increases, total satisfaction would increase[clarification needed] if not offset by a decrease in the quantity consumed of the other good (Y). Equivalently, satiation, such that more of either good (or both) is equally preferred to no increase, is excluded.[clarification needed] (If utility U = f(x, y), U, in the third dimension, does not have a local maximum for any x and y values.)[clarification needed] The negative slope of the indifference curve reflects the assumption of the monotonicity of consumer's preferences, which generates monotonically increasing utility functions, and the assumption of non-satiation (marginal utility for all goods is always positive); an upward sloping indifference curve would imply that a consumer is indifferent between a bundle A and another bundle B because they lie on the same indifference curve, even in the case in which the quantity of both goods in bundle B is higher. Because of monotonicity of preferences and non-satiation, a bundle with more of both goods must be preferred to one with less of both, thus the first bundle must yield a higher utility, and lie on a different indifference curve at a higher utility level. The negative slope of the indifference curve implies that the marginal rate of substitution is always positive;
Complete, such that all points on an indifference curve are ranked equally preferred and ranked either more or less preferred than every other point not on the curve. So, with (2), no two curves can intersect (otherwise non-satiation would be violated).
Transitive with respect to points on distinct indifference curves. That is, if each point on I2 is (strictly) preferred to each point on I1, and each point on I3 is preferred to each point on I2, each point on I3 is preferred to each point on I1. A negative slope and transitivity exclude indifference curves crossing, since straight lines from the origin on both sides of where they crossed would give opposite and intransitive preference rankings.
(Strictly) convex. With (2), convex preferences[clarification needed] imply that the indifference curves cannot be concave to the origin, i.e. they will either be straight lines or bulge toward the origin of the indifference curve. If the latter is the case, then as a consumer decreases consumption of one good in successive units, successively larger doses of the other good are required to keep satisfaction unchanged.

tag: ol

text: Assumptions of consumer preference theory[edit]

text: Preferences are complete. The consumer has ranked all available alternative combinations of commodities in terms of the satisfaction they provide him.

text:
A is preferred to B, formally written as A p B[7]
B is preferred to A, formally written as B p A[7]
A is indifferent to B, formally written as A I B[7]

text: Preferences are reflexive

text: A = B ⇒ A I B[7]

text: Preferences are transitive[nb 1]

text:
If A p B and B p C, then A p C.[7]
Also if A I B and B I C, then A I C.[7]

text: Preferences are continuous

text:
If A is preferred to B and C is sufficiently close to B then A is preferred to C.
A p B and C → B ⇒ A p C.

text: Preferences exhibit strong monotonicity

text: If A has more of both x and y than B, then A is preferred to B.

text: It also implies that the commodities are good rather than bad. Examples of bad commodities can be disease, pollution etc. because we always desire less of such things.

text: Indifference curves exhibit diminishing marginal rates of substitution

text:
The marginal rate of substitution tells how much 'y' a person is willing to sacrifice to get one more unit of 'x'.[clarification needed]
This assumption assures that indifference curves are smooth and convex to the origin.
This assumption also set the stage for using techniques of constrained optimization because the shape of the curve assures that the first derivative is negative and the second is positive.
Another name for this assumption is the substitution assumption. It is the most critical assumption of consumer theory: Consumers are willing to give up or trade-off some of one good to get more of another. The fundamental assertion is that there is a maximum amount that "a consumer will give up, of one commodity, to get one unit of another good, in that amount which will leave the consumer indifferent between the new and old situations"[9] The negative slope of the indifference curves represents the willingness of the consumer to make a trade off.[9]

text: Application[edit]

text: Consumer theory uses indifference curves and budget constraints to generate consumer demand curves. For a single consumer, this is a relatively simple process. First, let one good be an example market e.g., carrots, and let the other be a composite of all other goods. Budget constraints give a straight line on the indifference map showing all the possible distributions between the two goods; the point of maximum utility is then the point at which an indifference curve is tangent to the budget line (illustrated). This follows from common sense: if the market values a good more than the household, the household will sell it; if the market values a good less than the household, the household will buy it. The process then continues until the market's and household's marginal rates of substitution are equal.[10] Now, if the price of carrots were to change, and the price of all other goods were to remain constant, the gradient of the budget line would also change, leading to a different point of tangency and a different quantity demanded. These price / quantity combinations can then be used to deduce a full demand curve.[10] A line connecting all points of tangency between the indifference curve and the budget constraint is called the expansion path.[11]

text: Examples of indifference curves[edit]

text:
Figure 1: An example of an indifference map with three indifference curves represented

Figure 2: Three indifference curves where Goods X and Y are perfect substitutes. The gray line perpendicular to all curves indicates the curves are mutually parallel.

Figure 3: Indifference curves for perfect complements X and Y. The elbows of the curves are collinear.

text:
In Figure 1, the consumer would rather be on I3 than I2, and would rather be on I2 than I1, but does not care where he/she is on a given indifference curve. The slope of an indifference curve (in absolute value), known by economists as the marginal rate of substitution, shows the rate at which consumers are willing to give up one good in exchange for more of the other good. For most goods the marginal rate of substitution is not constant so their indifference curves are curved. The curves are convex to the origin, describing the negative substitution effect. As price rises for a fixed money income, the consumer seeks the less expensive substitute at a lower indifference curve. The substitution effect is reinforced through the income effect of lower real income (Beattie-LaFrance). An example of a utility function that generates indifference curves of this kind is the Cobb-Douglas function

U

(

x
,
y

)

=

x

α

y

1
−
α

,
0
≤
α
≤
1

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle U\left(x,y\right)=x^{\alpha }y^{1-\alpha },0\leq \alpha \leq 1}

. The negative slope of the indifference curve incorporates the willingness of the consumer to make trade offs.[9]

text:
If two goods are perfect substitutes then the indifference curves will have a constant slope since the consumer would be willing to switch between at a fixed ratio. The marginal rate of substitution between perfect substitutes is likewise constant. An example of a utility function that is associated with indifference curves like these would be

U

(

x
,
y

)

=
α
x
+
β
y

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle U\left(x,y\right)=\alpha x+\beta y}

.

text:
If two goods are perfect complements then the indifference curves will be L-shaped. Examples of perfect complements include left shoes compared to right shoes: the consumer is no better off having several right shoes if she has only one left shoe - additional right shoes have zero marginal utility without more left shoes, so bundles of goods differing only in the number of right shoes they include - however many - are equally preferred. The marginal rate of substitution is either zero or infinite. An example of the type of utility function that has an indifference map like that above is the Leontief function:

U

(

x
,
y

)

=
min
{
α
x
,
β
y
}

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle U\left(x,y\right)=\min\{\alpha x,\beta y\}}

.

text: The different shapes of the curves imply different responses to a change in price as shown from demand analysis in consumer theory. The results will only be stated here. A price-budget-line change that kept a consumer in equilibrium on the same indifference curve:

text: Preference relations and utility[edit]

text: Choice theory formally represents consumers by a preference relation, and use this representation to derive indifference curves showing combinations of equal preference to the consumer.

text: Preference relations[edit]

text: Let

text:
In the language of the example above, the set

A

{\displaystyle A\;}

 is made of combinations of apples and bananas. The symbol

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

 is one such combination, such as 1 apple and 4 bananas and

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

 is another combination such as 2 apples and 2 bananas.

text:
A preference relation, denoted

⪰

{\displaystyle \succeq }

, is a binary relation define on the set

A

{\displaystyle A\;}

.

text: The statement

text:
is described as '

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

 is weakly preferred to

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

.' That is,

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

 is at least as good as

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

 (in preference satisfaction).

text: The statement

text:
is described as '

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

 is weakly preferred to

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

, and

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

 is weakly preferred to

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

.' That is, one is indifferent to the choice of

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

 or

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

, meaning not that they are unwanted but that they are equally good in satisfying preferences.

text: The statement

text:
is described as '

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

 is weakly preferred to

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

, but

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

 is not weakly preferred to

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

.' One says that '

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

 is strictly preferred to

b

{\displaystyle b\;}

.'

text:
The preference relation

⪰

{\displaystyle \succeq }

 is complete if all pairs

a
,
b

{\displaystyle a,b\;}

 can be ranked. The relation is a transitive relation if whenever

a
⪰
b

{\displaystyle a\succeq b\;}

 and

b
⪰
c
,

{\displaystyle b\succeq c,\;}

 then

a
⪰
c

{\displaystyle a\succeq c\;}

.

text:
For any element

a
∈
A

{\displaystyle a\in A\;}

, the corresponding indifference curve,

C

a

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}_{a}}

 is made up of all elements of

A

{\displaystyle A\;}

 which are indifferent to

a

{\displaystyle a}

. Formally,

text:
C

a

=
{
b
∈
A
:
b
∼
a
}

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}_{a}=\{b\in A:b\sim a\}}

.

text: Formal link to utility theory[edit]

text:
In the example above, an element

a

{\displaystyle a\;}

 of the set

A

{\displaystyle A\;}

 is made of two numbers: The number of apples, call it

x
,

{\displaystyle x,\;}

 and the number of bananas, call it

y
.

{\displaystyle y.\;}

text:
In utility theory, the utility function of an agent is a function that ranks all pairs of consumption bundles by order of preference (completeness) such that any set of three or more bundles forms a transitive relation. This means that for each bundle

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle \left(x,y\right)}

 there is a unique relation,

U

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle U\left(x,y\right)}

, representing the utility (satisfaction) relation associated with

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle \left(x,y\right)}

. The relation

(

x
,
y

)

→
U

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle \left(x,y\right)\to U\left(x,y\right)}

 is called the utility function. The range of the function is a set of real numbers. The actual values of the function have no importance. Only the ranking of those values has content for the theory. More precisely, if

U
(
x
,
y
)
≥
U
(

x
′

,

y
′

)

{\displaystyle U(x,y)\geq U(x',y')}

, then the bundle

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle \left(x,y\right)}

 is described as at least as good as the bundle

(

x
′

,

y
′

)

{\displaystyle \left(x',y'\right)}

. If

U

(

x
,
y

)

>
U

(

x
′

,

y
′

)

{\displaystyle U\left(x,y\right)>U\left(x',y'\right)}

, the bundle

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle \left(x,y\right)}

 is described as strictly preferred to the bundle

(

x
′

,

y
′

)

{\displaystyle \left(x',y'\right)}

.

text:
Consider a particular bundle

(

x

0

,

y

0

)

{\displaystyle \left(x_{0},y_{0}\right)}

 and take the total derivative of

U

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle U\left(x,y\right)}

 about this point:

text: or, without loss of generality,

text:
where

U

1

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle U_{1}\left(x,y\right)}

 is the partial derivative of

U

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle U\left(x,y\right)}

 with respect to its first argument, evaluated at

(

x
,
y

)

{\displaystyle \left(x,y\right)}

. (Likewise for

U

2

(

x
,
y

)

.

{\displaystyle U_{2}\left(x,y\right).}

)

text:
The indifference curve through

(

x

0

,

y

0

)

{\displaystyle \left(x_{0},y_{0}\right)}

 must deliver at each bundle on the curve the same utility level as bundle

(

x

0

,

y

0

)

{\displaystyle \left(x_{0},y_{0}\right)}

. That is, when preferences are represented by a utility function, the indifference curves are the level curves of the utility function. Therefore, if one is to change the quantity of

x

{\displaystyle x\,}

 by

d
x

{\displaystyle dx\,}

, without moving off the indifference curve, one must also change the quantity of

y

{\displaystyle y\,}

 by an amount

d
y

{\displaystyle dy\,}

 such that, in the end, there is no change in U:

text:
Thus, the ratio of marginal utilities gives the absolute value of the slope of the indifference curve at point

(

x

0

,

y

0

)

{\displaystyle \left(x_{0},y_{0}\right)}

. This ratio is called the marginal rate of substitution between

x

{\displaystyle x\,}

 and

y

{\displaystyle y\,}

.

text: Examples[edit]

text: Linear utility[edit]

text:
If the utility function is of the form

U

(

x
,
y

)

=
α
x
+
β
y

{\displaystyle U\left(x,y\right)=\alpha x+\beta y}

 then the marginal utility of

x

{\displaystyle x\,}

 is

U

1

(

x
,
y

)

=
α

{\displaystyle U_{1}\left(x,y\right)=\alpha }

 and the marginal utility of

y

{\displaystyle y\,}

 is

U

2

(

x
,
y

)

=
β

{\displaystyle U_{2}\left(x,y\right)=\beta }

. The slope of the indifference curve is, therefore,

text:
Observe that the slope does not depend on

x

{\displaystyle x\,}

 or

y

{\displaystyle y\,}

: the indifference curves are straight lines.

text: Cobb-Douglas utility[edit]

text:
If the utility function is of the form

U

(

x
,
y

)

=

x

α

y

1
−
α

{\displaystyle U\left(x,y\right)=x^{\alpha }y^{1-\alpha }}

 the marginal utility of

x

{\displaystyle x\,}

 is

U

1

(

x
,
y

)

=
α

(

x

/

y

)

α
−
1

{\displaystyle U_{1}\left(x,y\right)=\alpha \left(x/y\right)^{\alpha -1}}

 and the marginal utility of

y

{\displaystyle y\,}

 is

U

2

(

x
,
y

)

=
(
1
−
α
)

(

x

/

y

)

α

{\displaystyle U_{2}\left(x,y\right)=(1-\alpha )\left(x/y\right)^{\alpha }}

.Where

α
<
1

{\displaystyle \alpha <1}

. The slope of the indifference curve, and therefore the negative of the marginal rate of substitution, is then

text: CES utility[edit]

text: A general CES (Constant Elasticity of Substitution) form is

text:
where

α
∈
(
0
,
1
)

{\displaystyle \alpha \in (0,1)}

 and

ρ
≤
1

{\displaystyle \rho \leq 1}

. (The Cobb-Douglas is a special case of the CES utility, with

ρ
→
0

{\displaystyle \rho \rightarrow 0\,}

.) The marginal utilities are given by

text: and

text: Therefore, along an indifference curve,

text: These examples might be useful for modelling individual or aggregate demand.

text: Biology[edit]

text: As used in biology, the indifference curve is a model for how animals 'decide' whether to perform a particular behavior, based on changes in two variables which can increase in intensity, one along the x-axis and the other along the y-axis. For example, the x-axis may measure the quantity of food available while the y-axis measures the risk involved in obtaining it. The indifference curve is drawn to predict the animal's behavior at various levels of risk and food availability.


document_title: Poultry farming in the United States

question_text: where does most of the chicken in the us come from

text: Poultry farming in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: In the United States, chickens were raised primarily on family farms or in some cases, in poultry colonies, such as Judge Emery's Poultry Colony[1] until about 1960. Originally, the primary value in poultry keeping was eggs, and meat was considered a byproduct of egg production.[2] Its supply was less than the demand, and poultry was expensive. Except in hot weather, eggs can be shipped and stored without refrigeration for some time before going bad; this was important in the days before widespread refrigeration.

text: Farm flocks tended to be small because the hens largely fed themselves through foraging, with some supplementation of grain, scraps, and waste products from other farm ventures. Such feedstuffs were in limited supply, especially in the winter, and this tended to regulate the size of the farm flocks. Soon after poultry keeping gained the attention of agricultural researchers (around 1896), improvements in nutrition and management made poultry keeping more profitable and businesslike.

text: Prior to about 1910, chicken was served primarily on special occasions or Sunday dinner. Poultry was shipped live or killed, plucked, and packed on ice (but not eviscerated). The "whole, ready-to-cook broiler" wasn't popular until the 1950s, when end-to-end refrigeration and sanitary practices gave consumers more confidence. Before this, poultry were often cleaned by the neighborhood butcher, though cleaning poultry at home was a commonplace kitchen skill.

text: Two kinds of poultry were generally offered: broilers or "spring chickens," young male chickens, a byproduct of the egg industry, which were sold when still young and tender (generally under 3 pounds live weight); and "fowls" or "stewing hens," also a byproduct of the egg industry, which were old hens past their prime for laying.[3] This is no longer practiced; modern meat chickens are a different breed. Egg-type chicken carcasses no longer appear in stores.

text: The major milestone in 20th century poultry production was the discovery of Vitamin-D (named in 1922),[4] which made it possible to keep chickens in confinement year-round. Before this, chickens did not thrive during the winter (due to lack of sunlight), and egg production, incubation, and meat production in the off-season were all very difficult, making poultry a seasonal and expensive proposition. Year-round production lowered costs, especially for broilers. Artificial daylight supplementation also started being used.

text: At the same time, egg production was increased by scientific breeding. After a few false starts, such as the Maine Experiment Station's failure at improving egg production,[5] success was shown by Professor Dryden at the Oregon Experiment Station.[6]

text: Improvements in production and quality were accompanied by lower labor requirements. In the 1930s through the early 1950s, 1,500 hens was considered to be a full-time job for a farm family. In the late 1950s, egg prices had fallen so dramatically that farmers typically tripled the number of hens they kept, putting three hens into what had been a single-bird cage or converting their floor-confinement houses from a single deck of roosts to triple-decker roosts. Not long after this, prices fell still further and large numbers of egg farmers left the business. This marked the beginning of the transition from family farms to larger, vertically integrated operations.

text: Robert Plamondon[7] reports that the last family chicken farm in his part of Oregon, Rex Farms, had 30,000 layers and survived into the 1990s. But the standard laying house of the surviving operations is around 125,000 hens.

text: This fall in profitability was accompanied by a general fall in prices to the consumer, allowing poultry and eggs to lose their status as luxury foods.

text: The vertical integration of the egg and poultry industries was a late development, occurring after all the major technological changes had been in place for years (including the development of modern broiler rearing techniques, the adoption of the Cornish Cross broiler, the use of laying cages, etc.).

text: By the late 1950s, poultry production had changed dramatically. Large farms and packing plants could grow birds by the tens of thousands, radically impacting labor practices alongside farming techniques.[8] Chickens could be sent to slaughterhouses for butchering and processing into prepackaged commercial products to be frozen or shipped fresh to markets or wholesalers. Meat-type chickens currently grow to market weight in six to seven weeks whereas only fifty years ago it took three times as long.[9] This is due to genetic selection and nutritional modifications (and not the use of growth hormones, which are illegal for use in poultry in the US and many other countries). Once a meat consumed only occasionally, the common availability and lower cost has made chicken a common meat product within developed nations. Growing concerns over the cholesterol content of red meat in the 1980s and 1990s further resulted in increased consumption of chicken.

text: Current status[edit]

text: Today, eggs are produced on large egg ranches on which environmental parameters are controlled. Chickens are exposed to artificial light cycles to stimulate egg production year-round. In addition, it is a common practice to induce molting through manipulation of light and the amount of food they receive in order to further increase egg size and production.

text: On average, a chicken lays one egg a day for a number of days (a "clutch"), then does not lay for one or more days, then lays another clutch. Originally, the hen presumably laid one clutch, became broody, and incubated the eggs. Selective breeding over the centuries has produced hens that lay more eggs than they can hatch. Some of this progress was ancient, but most occurred after 1900. In 1900, average egg production was 83 eggs per hen per year. In 2000, it was well over 300.

text: In the United States, laying hens are butchered after their second egg laying season. In Europe, they are generally butchered after a single season. The laying period begins when the hen is about 18–20 weeks old (depending on breed and season). Males of the egg-type breeds have little commercial value at any age, and all those not used for breeding (roughly fifty percent of all egg-type chickens) are killed soon after hatching. Such "day-old chicks" are sometimes sold as food for captive and falconers birds of prey.[10] The old hens also have little commercial value. Thus, the main sources of poultry meat a hundred years ago (spring chickens and stewing hens) have both been entirely supplanted by meat-type broiler chickens.

text: Traditionally, chicken production was distributed across the entire agricultural sector. In the 20th century, it gradually moved closer to major cities to take advantage of lower shipping costs. This had the undesirable side effect of turning the chicken manure from a valuable fertilizer that could be used profitably on local farms to an unwanted byproduct. This trend may be reversing itself due to higher disposal costs on the one hand and higher fertilizer prices on the other, making farm regions attractive once more.[11]

text: From the farmer's point of view, eggs used to be practically the same as currency, with general stores buying eggs for a stated price per dozen. Egg production peaks in the early spring, when farm expenses are high and income is low. On many farms, the flock was the most important source of income, though this was often not appreciated by the farmers, since the money arrived in many small payments. Eggs were a farm operation where even small children could make a valuable contribution.[12]

text: In 2015, the national flock suffered due to the spread of bird flu, affecting birds in fourteen states, leading to layoffs.[13] In a May 2015 report by the Associated Press, it reported that 10% of egg laying chickens were dead or dying due to bird flu.[14] Beginning in June 2015, rationing of eggs has begun, leading to increased egg prices.[15]

text: Production statistics[edit]

text: Eggs[edit]

text: Between 2007 and 2010 a total of about 90 billion eggs were produced per year.[16][17]

text: Individual states[edit]

text:
Egg production by state, 2010[17]

State

Eggs produced (millions)

AL

2,182

AR

2,894

CA

5,390

CO

1,066

CT

695

FL

2,592

GA

4,419

HI

69.5

IL

1,272

IN

6,493

IA

14,614

KY

1,119

LA

462

ME

1,034

MD

616

MA

36

MI

2,912

MN

2,869

MS

1,467

MO

1,949

MT

119

NE

2,751

NY

1,161

NC

3,251

OH

7,535

text:
State

Eggs produced (millions)

OK

769

OR

715

PA

6,976

SC

1,102

SD

672

TN

308

TX

4,811

UT

929

VT

59

VA

729

WA

1,739

WV

267

WI

1,312

WY

2.4

 [show]
AK, AZ, DE, ID, KS, ND, NH, NJ, NM, NV, RI

2,042

text: Meat[edit]

text: In 2008, 9.08 billion chickens were slaughtered in the United States according to United States Department of Agriculture data.[18]

text: Recommended culling practices[edit]

text: The American Veterinary Medical Association recommends cervical dislocation and asphyxiation by carbon dioxide as the best options, but has recently amended their guidelines to include maceration, putting non-anesthetized chicks through a grinder.[19]

text: The 2005–2006 American Veterinary Medical Association Executive Board held its final meeting July 13 in Honolulu, prior to the 2006 session of the House of Delegates and the AVMA Annual Convention. It proposed a policy change, which was recommended by the Animal Welfare Committee on disposal of unwanted chicks, poults, and pipped eggs. The new policy states, in part, "Unwanted chicks, poults, and pipped eggs should be killed by an acceptable humane method, such as use of a commercially designed macerator that results in instantaneous death. Smothering unwanted chicks or poults in bags or containers is not acceptable. Pips, unwanted chicks, or poults should be killed prior to disposal. A pipped egg, or pip, is one where the chick or poult has not been successful in escaping the egg shell during the hatching process."[20]

text: Safety issues[edit]

text: Poultry production is regulated by the FDA, UL and OSHA. Due to the potential safety hazards of broken glass and chemicals like mercury and phosphors in consumable products, all lights within poultry production facilities must be safety coated.[21] The USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service performs frequent checks on production facilities to ensure poultry is safe, wholesome and correctly labelled.[22]

text: Environmental issues[edit]

text: The Illinois River, which flows between Arkansas and Oklahoma, has had a high level of pollution due to water runoff contaminated with chicken manure.[23] The incineration of poultry wastes has been show to have dangerous levels of a number of airborne pollutants, including heavy metals, aresenic, and halogens such as chlorine.[24]


document_title: List of Miss Universe titleholders

question_text: when is the last time miss usa won the miss universe pageant

text: List of Miss Universe titleholders

text: Titleholders[edit]

text:
Year
Represented
Titleholder
Age [A]
Height
Hometown
Date

1952

 Finland
Armi Kuusela[1]
17
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Muhos
June 28

1953

 France
Christiane Martel[2]
21
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Créteil
July 17

1954

 United States
Miriam Stevenson[3]
21
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Winnsboro
July 24

1955

 Sweden
Hillevi Rombin[B][4][5]
21
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Alfta
July 22

1956

 United States
Carol Morris[6]
20
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Ottumwa
July 20

1957

 Peru
Gladys Zender[7]
18
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Lima
July 19

1958

 Colombia
Luz Marina Zuluaga[B][8]
19
5 ft 4 in (163 cm)
Pereira
July 26

1959

 Japan
Akiko Kojima[9]
22
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Tokyo
July 24

1960

 United States
Linda Bement[10]
18
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Salt Lake City
July 9

1961

 Germany
Marlene Schmidt[11]
24
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Stuttgart
July 15

1962

 Argentina
Norma Nolan[12]
24
5 ft 5 in (165 cm)
Buenos Aires
July 14

1963

 Brazil
Iêda Maria Vargas[13]
18
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Porto Alegre
July 20

1964

 Greece
Corinna Tsopei[14]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Athens
August 1

1965

 Thailand
Apasra Hongsakula[15]
18
5 ft 4 in (163 cm)
Bangkok
July 24

1966

 Sweden
Margareta Arvidsson[16]
18
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Gothenburg
July 16

1967

 United States
Sylvia Hitchcock[B][17]
21
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Miami
July 15

1968

 Brazil
Martha Vasconcellos[18]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Salvador
July 13

1969

 Philippines
Gloria Diaz[19]
18
5 ft 5 in (165 cm)
Aringay
July 19

1970

 Puerto Rico
Marisol Malaret[20]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
San Juan
July 11

1971

 Lebanon
Georgina Rizk[21]
18
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Beirut
July 24

1972

 Australia
Kerry Anne Wells[22]
20
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
Perth
July 29

1973

 Philippines
Margarita Moran[23]
19
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Manila
July 21

1974

 Spain
Amparo Muñoz[B][24]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Málaga
July 19

1975

 Finland
Anne Marie Pohtamo[25]
19
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Helsinki

1976

 Israel
Rina Messinger[26]
20
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Kiryat Tiv'on
July 11

1977

 Trinidad and Tobago
Janelle Commissiong[27]
24
5 ft 5 in (165 cm)
Port of Spain
July 16

1978

 South Africa
Margaret Gardiner[28]
18
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Cape Town
July 24

1979

 Venezuela
Maritza Sayalero[29]
18
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Caracas
July 20

1980

 United States
Shawn Weatherly[30]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Sumter
July 8

1981

 Venezuela
Irene Sáez[31]
19
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Caracas
July 20

1982

 Canada
Karen Dianne Baldwin[32]
18
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
London
July 26

1983

 New Zealand
Lorraine Downes[33]
19
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Auckland
July 11

1984

 Sweden
Yvonne Ryding[34]
21
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Eskilstuna
July 9

1985

 Puerto Rico
Deborah Carthy-Deu[35]
19
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
San Juan
July 15

1986

 Venezuela
Bárbara Palacios[36]
22
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Caracas
July 21

1987

 Chile
Cecilia Bolocco[37]
22
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Santiago
May 27

1988

 Thailand
Porntip Nakhirunkanok[38]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Bangkok
May 24

1989

 Netherlands
Angela Visser[39]
22
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Rotterdam
May 23

1990

 Norway
Mona Grudt[40]
19
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Trondheim
April 15

1991

 Mexico
Lupita Jones[41]
23
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Mexicali
May 17

1992

 Namibia
Michelle McLean[42]
19
6 ft 0 in (183 cm)
Windhoek
May 8

1993

 Puerto Rico
Dayanara Torres[43]
18
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Toa Alta
May 21

1994

 India
Sushmita Sen[44]
18
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
New Delhi

1995

 United States
Chelsi Smith[45]
21
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Deer Park
May 12

1996

 Venezuela
Alicia Machado[46]
19
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Maracay
May 17

1997

 United States
Brook Lee[47]
26
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Pearl City
May 16

1998

 Trinidad and Tobago
Wendy Fitzwilliam[48]
25
6 ft 0 in (183 cm)
Diego Martin
May 12

1999

 Botswana
Mpule Kwelagobe
19
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Gaborone
May 26

2000

 India
Lara Dutta[49]
22
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Mumbai
May 12

2001

 Puerto Rico
Denise Quiñones[50]
20
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Lares
May 11

2002

 Russia
Oxana Fedorova (Dethroned)
24
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Pskov
May 29

 Panama
Justine Pasek (Succeeded)[D][51]
23
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Panama City
September 24

2003

 Dominican Republic
Amelia Vega[52]
18
6 ft 2 in (188 cm)
Santiago de los Caballeros
June 3

2004

 Australia
Jennifer Hawkins[53]
20
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
Newcastle
June 1

2005

 Canada
Natalie Glebova[54]
23
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
Toronto
May 31

2006

 Puerto Rico
Zuleyka Rivera[55]
18
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Salinas
July 23

2007

 Japan
Riyo Mori[56]
20
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Shizuoka
May 28

2008

 Venezuela
Dayana Mendoza[57]
22
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Caracas
July 14

2009

Stefanía Fernández[58]
18
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Mérida
August 23

2010

 Mexico
Ximena Navarrete[59]
22
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Guadalajara

2011

 Angola
Leila Lopes[60]
25
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Benguela
September 12

2012

 United States
Olivia Culpo[61]
20
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Cranston
December 19

2013

 Venezuela
Gabriela Isler
25
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Valencia
November 9

2014

 Colombia
Paulina Vega
22
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Barranquilla
January 25, 2015

2015

 Philippines
Pia Wurtzbach
26
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Cagayan de Oro
December 20

2016

 France
Iris Mittenaere[62]
24
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Lille
January 29, 2017

2017

 South Africa
Demi-Leigh Nel-Peters
22
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Sedgefield
November 26

text: Gallery of winners[edit]

text:
Miss Universe 2016
Iris Mittenaere
France

Miss Universe 2015
Pia Wurtzbach
Philippines

Miss Universe 2014
Paulina Vega
Colombia

Miss Universe 2013
Gabriela Isler
Venezuela

Miss Universe 2012
Olivia Culpo
United States

Miss Universe 2011
Leila Lopes
Angola

Miss Universe 2010
Ximena Navarrete
Mexico

Miss Universe 2009
Stefanía Fernández,
Venezuela

Miss Universe 2008
Dayana Mendoza,
Venezuela

Miss Universe 2007
Riyo Mori,
Japan

Miss Universe 2006
Zuleyka Rivera,
Puerto Rico

Miss Universe 2005
Natalie Glebova,
Canada

Miss Universe 2004
Jennifer Hawkins
Australia

Miss Universe 2003
Amelia Vega,
Dominican Republic

Miss Universe 2002
Justine Pasek,
Panama

Miss Universe 2001
Denise Quiñones,
Puerto Rico

Miss Universe 2000
Lara Dutta,
India

Miss Universe 1999
Mpule Kwelagobe,
Botswana

Miss Universe 1997
Brook Lee,
United States

Miss Universe 1994
Sushmita Sen,
India

Miss Universe 1993
Dayanara Torres,
Puerto Rico

Miss Universe 1991
Lupita Jones,
México

Miss Universe 1989
Angela Visser, Netherlands

Miss Universe 1987
Cecilia Bolocco, Chile

Miss Universe 1984
Yvonne Ryding, Sweden

Miss Universe 1980
Shawn Weatherly, United States

Miss Universe 1977
Janelle Commissiong, Trinidad and Tobago

Miss Universe 1976
Rina Mor, Israel

Miss Universe 1967
Sylvia Hitchcock, United States

Miss Universe 1956
Carol Morris, United States

Miss Universe 1953
Christiane Martel, France

Miss Universe 1952
Armi Kuusela, Finland

text: Countries/Territory by winning the title[edit]

text:
Country/Territory
Titles
Year(s)

 USA
8
1954, 1956, 1960, 1967, 1980, 1995, 1997, 2012

 Venezuela
7
1979, 1981, 1986, 1996, 2008, 2009, 2013

 Puerto Rico
5
1970, 1985, 1993, 2001, 2006

 Philippines
3
1969, 1973, 2015

 Sweden
1955, 1966, 1984

 South Africa
2
1978, 2017

 France
1953, 2016

 Colombia
1958, 2014

 Mexico
1991, 2010

 Japan
1959, 2007

 Canada
1982, 2005

 Australia
1972, 2004

 India
1994, 2000

 Trinidad and Tobago
1977, 1998

 Thailand
1965, 1988

 Finland
1952, 1975

 Brazil
1963, 1968

 Angola
1
2011

 Dominican Republic
2003

 Panama
2002[B]

 Russia
2002[A]

 Botswana
1999

 Namibia
1992

 Norway
1990

 Netherlands
1989

 Chile
1987

 New Zealand
1983

 Israel
1976

 Spain
1974

 Lebanon
1971

 Greece
1964

 Argentina
1962

 Germany
1961

 Peru
1957

text:
Notes
A Resigned
B Took over title


document_title: Myrtle Beach Air Force Base

question_text: when did myrtle beach air force base close

text: Myrtle Beach Air Force Base

text: Early history[edit]

text: On October 16, 1939, Myrtle Beach Town Council resolved that the community "is in dire need of a modern municipal airport".[1] The town agreed to purchase 135 acres for $35 per acre from Myrtle Beach Farms, Inc., and two weeks later the airport was named Harrelson Municipal Airport after Mayor W.L. Harrelson, a supporter of the project.[1] The Army Air Corps took over the airport in June 1940. For a short time it was used by 3d Observation Sq. 105th Observation Sq and 112th Observation Sq used the site during the next year. In September 1941 it was Distribution Point 1, Morris Field. On 21 November 1941, the United States Department of War acquired the site, and during World War II the formal establishment of a base took place on 24 March 1942, with the name Myrtle Beach General Bombing and Gunnery Range, with the units 3d AAF and later 519th Base HQ and Air Base Sq. On 8 November 1943, the 5000-acre base became Myrtle Beach Army Air Field. Units included 351st AAF, 136th AAF, and 317th AAF (later AF) Air Base Unit. After the war, uses of the base included recruiting and support activities. 114 buildings had gone up. The site was deactivated and returned to the city and became Myrtle Beach Municipal Airport 1 November 1947.[2][3][4]

text: The city leased part of the base, and Aerovox, Piedmont Airlines and a turkey farm also used land on the base. The Boston Braves trained there.[4]

text: Air Force[edit]

text: The city donated its airport[3] and the United States Air Force took over 1 June 1954, and Myrtle Beach Air Force Base was activated 1 April 1956.[2] Many of the older buildings were torn down as the base modernized. The first unit in 1955 was the 727th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron. Other units were the 4434th Air Base Squadron (replaced by the 342nd Fighter-Day Wing), the 455th Fighter Day Group, and the 113th Tactical Fighter Wing, Det 1, 728th Tactical Control Squadron.[4] From 1958 to 1993 the base was home to the 354th Fighter Day Wing/Tactical Fighter Wing.[3] An agreement to use the base jointly for civilian and military operation began 19 July 1975, with Horry County Jetport using the northeast part of the base. The city of Myrtle Beach annexed the base 20 April 1977.[2][4]

text: Closing[edit]

text: In 1991, the announcement came that Myrtle Beach Air Force Base would close.

text: The Myrtle Beach base used the A-10 Warthog jet, and Pat McCullough of the Base Realignment and Closure Commission said the Air Force considered the jet “limited to a low-threat environment”, while the Army believed it was "a very powerful close-air support asset." The Air Force chose to phase out the A-10, which led to the base's closing, but the Army wanted the A-10 to continue flying; the decision to keep the A-10 came after the decision had been made.[5]

text: The base closed 31 March 1993.[6]

text: Redevelopment[edit]

text: The bases's closing was expected to mean losing over 5000 jobs, having 1500 homes to sell, 15 percent fewer students going to area schools, 20 percent unemployment, and $91 million lost in taxes and other revenues.[6]

text: McCullough believed the earlier closing gave the base the best opportunity for reuse than would have been possible had the closing occurred later, during a recession.[5]

text: Retired Air Force colonel Buddy Styers headed the Myrtle Beach Air Force Base Redevelopment Authority starting in August 1995.[6]

text: For the first several years, the Myrtle Beach area received little help from the economic development conveyance program intended to help communities struggling after bases closed. Myrtle Beach was viewed as a prosperous tourist area. A Wall Street Journal article and a new vision for tourism-related development from Burroughs & Chapin helped the area replace the jobs lost. With the state providing revenue from alcohol taxes, and later a portion of taxes paid by federal employees at bases in the state, the authority made progress toward redevelopment of the base. Later, the federal government changed the rules for helping communities affected by base closings, and Myrtle Beach received what was needed. The state legislature also made it possible to issue $41 million in bonds using the base land as a tax increment financing district.[6]

text: 20 years after the closing, the 3937 acres that were once the base included more than 1200 homes, several parks and sports facilities, an American Red Cross headquarters, a Veterans Affairs clinic, International Technology and Aerospace Park (ITAP), new terminals at Myrtle Beach International Airport,[6] and The Market Common Myrtle Beach, a retail complex. The Whispering Pines golf course went to the city of Myrtle Beach. AVX Corporation received land next to its existing plant for a research and development facility. Horry-Georgetown Technical College built a new campus.[5] Crabtree Gymnasium includes a military museum.[6] Warbird Park includes a Wall of Service on which anyone who served honorably from 1941 to 1993 could receive a granite nameplate.[3]

text: 20 years after the base closed, Styers no longer had a full-time job, but he still worked to spend $200,000 a year in federal grant money on improvements to the airport. A ramp and taxiway were being added at ITAP.[6]

text: A $200,000 grant from the redevelopment authority will help to fund Thunderbolt Park, named for the A-10 Thunderbolts that flew at the base. A former base building at the Farrow Parkway location will be renovated, and the park will have a classroom. $1.2 million had been raised as of October 2017.[7]