document_title: Newcastle United F.C.

question_text: when did newcastle last win the premier league

question_tokens: when did newcastle last win the premier league

text: Newcastle United F.C.

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: The first record of football being played on Tyneside dates from 3 March 1877 at Elswick Rugby Club. Later that year, Newcastle's first football club, Tyne Association, was formed. The origins of Newcastle United Football Club itself can be traced back to the formation of a football club by the Stanley Cricket Club of Byker in November 1881. This team was renamed Newcastle East End F.C. in October 1882, to avoid confusion with the cricket club in Stanley, County Durham. Rosewood F.C. of Byker merged with Newcastle East End a short time later. In 1886, Newcastle East End moved from Byker to Heaton. In August 1882, Newcastle West End F.C. formed from West End Cricket Club, and in May 1886, the club moved into St James' Park.[7] The two clubs became rivals in the Northern League. In 1889, Newcastle East End became a professional team, before becoming a limited company the following March.[8] However, on the other hand, Newcastle West End were in serious financial trouble and approached East End with a view to a take over. Newcastle West End were eventually dissolved, and a number of their players and backroom staff joined Newcastle East End, effectively merging the two clubs, with Newcastle East End taking over the lease on St James' Park in May 1892.[7]

text: With only one senior club in the city for fans to support, development of the club was much more rapid. Despite being refused entry to the Football League's First Division at the start of the 1892–93 season, they were invited to play in their new Second Division. However, with no big names playing in the Second Division, they turned down the offer and remained in the Northern League, stating "gates would not meet the heavy expenses incurred for travelling".[7][8] In a bid to start drawing larger crowds, Newcastle East End decided to adopt a new name in recognition of the merger.[7] Suggested names included Newcastle F.C., Newcastle Rangers, Newcastle City and City of Newcastle, but Newcastle United was decided upon on 9 December 1892, to signify the unification of the two teams.[7][9] The name change was accepted by the Football Association on 22 December, but the club was not legally constituted as Newcastle United Football Club Co. Ltd. until 6 September 1895.[8] At the start of the 1893–94 season, Newcastle United were once again refused entry to the First Division and so joined the Second Division, along with Liverpool and Woolwich Arsenal.[7] They played their first competitive match in the division that September against Woolwich Arsenal, with a score of 2–2.[8]

text: Turnstile numbers were still low, and the incensed club published a statement stating, "The Newcastle public do not deserve to be catered for as far as professional football is concerned". However, eventually figures picked up by 1895–96, when 14,000 fans watched the team play Bury. That season Frank Watt became secretary of the club, and he was instrumental in promotion to the First Division for the 1898–99 season. However, they lost their first game 4–2 at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers and finished their first season in thirteenth place.[8]

text: In 1903–04, the club built up a promising squad of players, and went on to dominate English football for almost a decade, the team known for their "artistic play, combining team-work and quick, short passing". Long after his retirement, Peter McWilliam, the team's defender at the time, said, "The Newcastle team of the 1900s would give any modern side a two goal start and beat them, and further more, beat them at a trot." Newcastle United went on to win the League on three occasions during the 1900s; 1904–05, 1906–07 and 1908–09.[8][10] In 1904–05, they nearly did the double, losing to Aston Villa in the 1905 FA Cup Final. They were beaten again the following year by Everton in the 1906 FA Cup Final. They reached the final again in 1908 where they lost to Wolves. They finally won the FA Cup in 1910 when they beat Barnsley in the final. They lost again the following year in the final against Bradford City.[8]

text: The team returned to the FA Cup final in 1924, in the second final held at the then new Wembley Stadium. They defeated Aston Villa, winning the club's second FA Cup.[8] Three years later they won the First Division championship a fourth time in 1926–27, with Hughie Gallacher, one of the most prolific goal scorers in the club's history, captaining the team. Other key players in this period were Neil Harris, Stan Seymour and Frank Hudspeth. In 1930, Newcastle United came close to relegation, and at the end of the season Gallacher left the club for Chelsea, and at the same time Andy Cunningham became the club's first team manager. In 1931–32, the club won the FA Cup a third time. However, a couple of years later, at the end of the 1933–34 season, the team were relegated to the Second Division after 35 seasons in the top. Cunningham left as manager and Tom Mather took over.[8]

text: The club found it difficult to adjust to the Second Division and were nearly further relegated in the 1937–38 season, when they were spared on goal averages. However, when World War II broke in 1939, Newcastle had a chance to regroup, and in the War period, they brought in Jackie Milburn, Tommy Walker and Bobby Cowell. They were finally promoted back to the First Division at the end of the 1947–48 season.[8] During the 1950s, Newcastle won the FA Cup trophy on three occasions within a five-year period, beating Blackpool in 1951, Arsenal in 1952, and Manchester City in 1955. However, after this last FA Cup victory the club fell back into decline and were relegated to the Second Division once again at the end of the 1960–61 season under the management of Charlie Mitten. Mitten left after one season in the Second Division and was replaced by former player Joe Harvey. Newcastle returned to the First Division at the end of the 1964–65 season after winning the Second Division title.[8] Under Harvey, the club qualified for European competition for the first time after a good run in the 1967–68 season and the following year won the 1969 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Final, triumphing 6–2 over two legs against Hungary's Újpest in the final.[8]

text: The 70s and 80s[edit]

text: Harvey bought striker Malcolm Macdonald in the summer of 1971, for a club record transfer fee of £180,000 (worth ₤2334880 in 2016).[8][11] He was an impressive goal scorer, who led United's attack to Wembley in their 1974 FA Cup Final defeat at the hands of Liverpool.[8] The club also had back to back triumphs in the Texaco Cup in 1974 and 1975.[12] Harvey left the club in 1975, with Gordon Lee brought in to replace him. Lee took the team to the 1976 Football League Cup Final against Manchester City, but failed to bring the trophy back to Tyneside. However, he sold Macdonald to Arsenal at the end of the season, a decision of which Macdonald later said "I loved Newcastle, until Gordon Lee took over". Lee left for Everton in 1977, and was replaced by Richard Dinnis.[8]

text: United dropped once again to the Second Division at the end of the 1977–78 season. Dinnis was replaced by Bill McGarry, and then he was replaced by Arthur Cox. Cox steered Newcastle back to the First Division at the end of the 1983–84 season, with players such as Peter Beardsley, Chris Waddle and ex-England captain Kevin Keegan the fulcrum of the team. However, with a lack of funds, Cox left for Derby County and Keegan retired. With managers such as Jack Charlton and then Willie McFaul, Newcastle remained in the top-flight, until key players such as Waddle, Beardsley and Paul Gascoigne were sold, and the team was relegated once more in 1989. McFaul left the managerial post, and was replaced by Jim Smith. Smith left at the start of the 1991–92 season and the board appointed Osvaldo Ardiles his replacement.[8]

text: The 90s[edit]

text: Sir John Hall became the club's chairman in 1992, and replaced Ardiles with Keegan, who managed to save the team from relegation to the Third Division. Keegan was given more money for players, and he brought in Rob Lee, Paul Bracewell and Barry Venison and the club won the then First Division Championship at the end of the 1992–93 season, earning promotion to the then new Premier League. At the end of the 1993–94 season, their first year back in the top flight they finished in third, their highest league finish since 1927.[8] The attacking philosophy of Keegan led to the team being labelled "The Entertainers" by Sky Sports.[13]

text: Keegan took Newcastle to two consecutive runners-up finishes in the league in 1995–96 and 1996–97, coming very close to winning the title in the former season. This success was in part due to the talent of players like David Ginola, Les Ferdinand and Alan Shearer, who was signed on 30 July 1996 for a then world record fee of £15 million.

text: Keegan left Newcastle in January 1997 and was replaced by Kenny Dalglish, however the club endured a largely unsuccessful season with a 13th-place finish in the 1997–98 FA Premier League, failure to progress beyond the group stages of the 1997–98 UEFA Champions League despite beating Barcelona and group winners Dynamo Kiev at St James Park as well as coming from 2–0 down to draw 2–2 with Valery Lobanovsky's team in Ukraine and defeat in the 1998 FA Cup Final. Dalglish was replaced as manager early in the following season by Ruud Gullit.[14][15]

text: The club once again finished thirteenth in the league and lost the 1999 FA Cup Final. Gullit fell into disagreements with the squad and chairman Freddy Shepherd, and quit the club four games into the 1999–2000 season with the team bottom of the table to be replaced by Bobby Robson.[15][16] The club managed to reach an FA Cup Semi-final and to stay in the Premier League.

text: A title challenge emerged during the 2001–02 season, and Newcastle's fourth-place finish saw them qualify for the Champions League. The following season, Robson guided the team to another title challenge and finished third in the League, and the second group stage of the Champions League.[17] Newcastle finished fifth in the league at the end of the 2003–04 season, and exited the Champions League in the qualifying rounds, but despite this Robson was sacked in August 2004 following a series of disagreements with the club.[18][19]

text: Graeme Souness was brought in to manage by the start of the 2004–05 season. In his time at the helm, he broke the club's transfer record by signing Michael Owen. Souness also took the geordies to the quarterfinals of the 2005 UEFA Cup with Alan Shearer winning the tournament's golden boot as well.[20][21] [22] However, he was sacked in February 2006 after a bad start to the club's 2005–06 season.[23] Glenn Roeder took over, initially on a temporary basis, before being appointed full-time manager at the end of the season.[24] Shearer retired at the end of the 2005–06 season as the club's all-time record goal scorer, with a total of 206 goals.

text: Decline and relegation[edit]

text: Despite finishing the 2005–06 season in seventh, Roeder's fortunes changed in the 2006–07 season, with a terrible injury run to the senior squad, and he left the club by mutual consent on 6 May 2007.[25]

text: Sam Allardyce was appointed Roeder's replacement as manager on 15 May 2007.[26] On 7 June, Freddy Shepherd's final shares in the club were sold to Mike Ashley and Shepherd was replaced as chairman by Chris Mort on 25 July.[27][28]

text: Allardyce departed the club on in January 2008 by mutual consent after a bad start to the 2007–08 season,[29] and Kevin Keegan was reappointed as Newcastle manager.[30] Mort stepped down as chairman in June and was replaced by Derek Llambias, a long-term associate of Ashley.[31] Newcastle finished the 2007–08 season in twelfth place, but as the season drew to a close, Keegan publicly criticised the board, claiming they were not providing the team enough financial support.[32]

text: In September 2008 Keegan resigned as manager, stating "It's my opinion that a manager must have the right to manage and that clubs should not impose upon any manager any player that he does not want".[33] Former Wimbledon manager Joe Kinnear was appointed as his replacement,[34] but in February 2009, due to his heart surgery, Alan Shearer was appointed interim manager in his absence.[35] Under Shearer, the club were relegated to the Football League Championship at the end of the 2008–09 season, the first time the club had left the Premier League since joining it in 1993.[36]

text: Following their relegation, the club was put up for sale in June 2009, with an asking price of £100 million.[37] Chris Hughton was given the manager job on a caretaker basis before taking over full-time on 27 October 2009.[38] On the same day, Ashley announced that the club was no longer for sale.[39]

text: Hughton led Newcastle to win the 2009–10 Football League Championship, securing automatic promotion on 5 April 2010 with five games remaining, and securing the title on 19 April; Newcastle were promoted back to the Premier League after just one season away.[40][41][42]

text: Under Hughton, Newcastle enjoyed a strong start to the 2010–11 season, but he was sacked on 6 December 2010. The club's board stated that they felt "an individual with more managerial experience [was] needed to take the club forward."[43] Three days later, Alan Pardew was appointed as manager with a five-and-a-half-year contract.[44][45] Further controversy was caused on 31 January 2011, when striker Andy Carroll was sold to Liverpool for a club record of £35 million.[46] Despite this turbulence, Newcastle were able to finish 12th at the end of the season, with one particular highlight being a 4–4 home draw against Arsenal that saw Newcastle come back from four goals down to claim a point.[47]

text: The start of the 2011–12 season saw an overhaul in the first team, with the sale of influential first team players Kevin Nolan,[48] Joey Barton[49] and José Enrique[50] during the summer and the elevation of Tim Krul as first choice goalkeeper and centre back Fabricio Coloccini as captain. Signings such as Yohan Cabaye,[51] Italian international Davide Santon[52] and Senegalese striker Demba Ba[53] in cut-price deals saw Newcastle adopt a new transfer policy, one which would be met with success in the season. They went on to enjoy one of their strongest openings to a season, playing 11 consecutive games unbeaten[54] before losing away to Manchester City.[55] Another Senegalese striker, Papiss Cissé, joined in the January transfer window, and Newcastle had a strong second half of the season, eventually securing a place in the 2012–13 Europa League.[56] Newcastle finished in fifth place, their highest league position since the Bobby Robson days. Further honours were to come as Pardew won both the Premier League Manager of the Season[57] and the LMA Manager of the Year awards, captain Coloccini was named in the PFA Team of the Year, and Cissé won the Goal of the Season award for a goal against Chelsea.

text: The 2012–13 season saw Newcastle regain European football for the first time since 2007. Newcastle made few acquisitions in the summer and suffered injuries over the season, including layoffs to key midfielders Yohan Cabaye and Hatem Ben Arfa, and defenders Steven and Ryan Taylor. As a result, the first half of the season was marred by a run of ten losses in 13 games, which saw the club sink near the relegation zone. In January, Newcastle signed five French players,[58][59][60][61] and advanced to the Europa League quarter-finals before bowing out to eventual finalists Benfica.[62] Domestically, Newcastle struggled, and stayed up after a 2–1 victory over already-relegated Queens Park Rangers on the penultimate game of the season.[63]

text: The 2014–15 season saw Newcastle fail to win any of their first seven games, prompting fans to start a campaign to get Pardew sacked as manager[64] before a six-game winning run in all competitions (including knocking holders Manchester City out of the League Cup)[65] saw them climb to fifth in the table. After they ended Chelsea's unbeaten start to the season,[66] Pardew left for Crystal Palace.[67] On 26 January 2015, his assistant John Carver was put in charge for the remainder of the season but came close to relegation, staying up on the final day with a 2–0 home win against West Ham, with Jonás Gutiérrez, who beat testicular cancer earlier in the season, scoring the team's second goal.[68]

text: On 9 June 2015, Carver and his assistant Steve Stone were both sacked[69] and replaced by Steve McClaren the following day.[70] On 11 March 2016, McClaren was sacked after nine months as manager, with Newcastle in 19th place in the Premier League and the club winning just six of 28 Premier League games during his time at the club.[71] He was replaced by Spaniard Rafael Benítez on the same day, who signed a three-year deal,[71] but was not able to prevent the club from being relegated.[72] Newcastle returned to the Premier League at the first attempt, winning the Championship title on 7 May 2017 with a 3–0 win against Barnsley.[73] On 16 October 2017, Mike Ashley put Newcastle United up for sale.[74]

text: Newcastle ended the 17/18 season with a 3-0 home win over Chelsea and finished 10th in the Premier League, their highest finish in 4 years.

text: Colours and badge[edit]

text: The club's home colours are a black and white striped shirt. Shorts and socks are usually black with white trim, though white socks are sometimes worn under some managers who consider them "lucky".[75] Newcastle's colours at the outset was generally the home kit of Newcastle East End F.C., comprising plain red shirts with white shorts and red socks. In 1894, the club adopted the black and white striped shirts, which had been used as the reserve team's colours. These colours were chosen for the senior team because they were not associated with either of the two teams United were merged from. They played in grey shorts until 1897, and between 1897 and 1921, they played in blue shorts before adopting the black shorts they play in now.[7][76]

text: United's away colours have changed a number of times over the years. They played in white shirts and black shorts from 1914 until 1961, and then white shorts until 1966. They then played in yellow shirts and blue shorts for the 1967–68 season, but from 1969 to 1974 played in all red with an all blue third kit. In 1974, they returned to a yellow shirt, which they played with various coloured shorts until 1983. They played in all grey from 1983 to 1988, before once again returning to the yellow kit until 1993. Since 1995, the away kit has changed consistently and has not been the same for more than a single season.[77][78] Through owner Mike Ashley, the club also has a relationship with the Sports Direct retail chain which he founded.[79]

text: On 4 January 2012, Virgin Money, who had just bought Northern Rock, signed a two-year deal to sponsor Newcastle United.[80] In January 2010, Puma became the official supplier and licensee of replica merchandise for Newcastle. The deal meant Puma supplied the team kit, replica kit and training equipment for the 2010–11 and 2011–12 seasons.[81]

text: The current club crest was first used in the 1988–89 season. The crest includes elements from the coat of arms of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne—the two sea horses representing Tyneside's strong connections with the sea, the castle representing the city's Norman keep.[82] The city's coat of arms were first embroidered on the team's shirts in 1969 and worn as standard until 1976.[76] A scroll at the bottom featured the city's motto in Latin; fortiter defendit triumphans which translates into English as "triumphing by brave defence."[83] From 1976 until 1983, the club wore a specific badge which was developed to wear in place of the city's coat of arms. The design was of a circular shape, which featured the club's name in full, it contained a magpie standing in front of the River Tyne with the historic Norman castle of Newcastle in the background.[84] A more simplistic design followed in 1983, featuring the initials of the club's name, NUFC with the small magpie used in the previous crest within the horizontally laid "C," this logo was relatively short lived and was discontinued after 1988.[84]

text: On 16 May 2013, Newcastle released the away shirt for the 2013–14 season which for the first time featured the Wonga.com logo, which attracted criticism from many Newcastle supporters; the shirt was navy blue with light blue bands. The shirt received mixed reviews from Newcastle supporters, who described the shirt as both "awesome" and "bland," as quoted in the Newcastle daily Evening Chronicle.[85] In July 2013, Newcastle striker and practicing Muslim Papiss Cissé refused to wear any official kit or training wear with reference to Wonga.com, subsequently failing to travel to the team's 2013 pre-season tour of Portugal.[86] The matter has since been resolved.[87]

text: On 15 May 2017, the home shirt for the 2017–18 season was revealed, featuring the logo of new sponsors Fun88. The shirt was shown to include a gold and silver commemorative crest to mark the club's 125th football season, based on the city's coat of arms. It was also announced that the kit would feature red numbers for the first time since the 1992–93 season.[88]

text: Previous kit sponsors include Newcastle Breweries (1980–86), Greenall's Beers (1986–90), McEwan's Lager and Newcastle Brown Ale (1990–2000), NTL (2000–03), Northern Rock (2003–12), and Virgin Money (2012–13).

text: Newcastle's current kit manufacturers are Puma, in a deal that started in 2010. Previous kit manufacturers include Bukta (1974–75, 1976–80), Umbro (1975–76, 1980–86), Asics (1993–95) and Adidas (1995–2010). Other current team sponsors include Fun88, Carling, Coral, Pulman, Thomas Cook Group and Stelrad.[89][90][91] Newcastle United have named Indian tyre conglomerate Madras Rubber Factory Limited – more commonly known as MRF – as the club's new shirt sleeve sponsor for the 2017/18 Premier League season. Founded in 1946, MRF is the largest manufacturer of tyres in India and has more than 15,000 employees. The publicly listed company also produces treads, tubes and conveyor belts, as well as toys and paint.

text: Stadium[edit]

text: Throughout Newcastle United's history, their home venue has been St James' Park, the oldest and largest football stadium in North East England, as well as the sixth-largest football stadium in the United Kingdom.[92] It has hosted ten international football matches at senior level, the first in 1901 and the most recent in 2005.[93][94] It was used as a venue for both the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2015 Rugby World Cup.[92][95]

text: Football had been played at St James' Park as early as 1880, the ground being occupied by Newcastle Rangers, before becoming the home of Newcastle West End F.C. in 1886. Its lease was then bought by Newcastle East End F.C. in 1892, before they changed their name to Newcastle United. At the turn of the 19th century, the ground's capacity was given as 30,000 before being redeveloped between 1900 and 1905, increasing the capacity to 60,000 and making it the biggest stadium in England for a time. For most of the 20th century, the stadium changed very little, despite various plans for development of the ground. The old West Stand was replaced with the Milburn Stand in 1987, the Sir John Hall Stand replacing the Leazes End in 1993, and the rest of the ground renovated making the ground a 37,000 capacity all-seater stadium. Between 1998 and 2000, double tiers were added to the Milburn and John Hall stands to bring the venue up to its current capacity of 52,420. There were plans to build a new 90,000 seater stadium in Leazes park, just behind St James' with Newcastle Falcons taking over St James' Park, but due to protests the plans were dropped. St James' Park currently seats 52,420 people, but club owner Mike Ashley would consider taking the roof off The Gallowgate end and adding another 6,000 seats making the total capacity to 58,420, but only if the team manage to finish in the top six places of the Premier League.[7][96]

text: In October 2009, Mike Ashley announced that he planned to lease the name of the ground in a bid to increase revenue, and in November the stadium was temporarily renamed sportsdirect.com @ St James' Park Stadium.[39][97] This name was only supposed to be used until the end of the 2009–10 season, but lasted until November 2011.[97][98] On 10 November 2011, the club officially changed the name of the stadium to the Sports Direct Arena, although this will most likely be an interim name, as it is only being used to showcase the sponsorship capabilities of the stadium. The company, owned by Ashley, were not paying anything for the deal. However, if another company purchases the naming rights, they will be expected to pay between £8 million and £10 million.[99][100] Many fans voiced their anger at the renaming, but managing director Derek Llambias has said that it was necessary to give Newcastle extra money so that they compete with the bigger clubs in the league.[101]

text: Since 1982, the stadium is served by St James Metro station on the Tyne and Wear Metro. The station is decorated in a black and white colour scheme, with archive photographs of the club's players.[102]

text: The club's current training ground is located at Darsley Park, which is north of the city at Benton. The facility was opened in July 2003 and is also used by the Newcastle Falcons rugby team.[103]

text: Ownership[edit]

text: Newcastle United was set up as a private company limited by shares on 6 September 1895.[8] The club traded in this way for much of the 20th century, dominated by McKeag, Westwood and Seymour family ownership,[104] until April 1997, when John Hall, who bought 72.9% of the club for £3 million in 1991, floated the club on the stock exchange as a public limited company, with less than half the shares sold to the Hall family and the majority holding going to his business partner Freddy Shepherd. Later that year, Hall stepped down as chairman and was replaced by Shepherd, with the Hall family represented on the board by John's son Douglas.[105] In December 1998, after buying a 6.3% stake in the club for £10 million, the media group NTL had considered a full takeover of the club. This was later dropped after the April 1999 Competition Commission, brought in due to government concerns about football clubs being owned by media companies.[106]

text: In 2007, businessman Mike Ashley purchased the combined stakes of both Douglas and John Hall, 41% share in the club, through a holding company St James Holdings, with a view to buy the rest.[107] Upon purchasing this share, he appointed Chris Mort as chairman, while gaining more shares, owning 93.19% of the club by 29 June 2007.[108] This figure reached 95% on 11 July 2007, forcing the remaining shareholders to sell their shares.[109]

text: Since completing the purchase of the club, Ashley has announced that he planned to sell the club on three different occasions. The first occurred after fan protests over the resignation of Kevin Keegan on 14 September 2008, when Ashley stated, "I have listened to you. You want me out. That is what I am now trying to do."[110] However, he took it off the market on 28 December 2008 after being unable to find a buyer.[111] On 31 May 2009, it was reported that Ashley was attempting to sell the club again.[112][113] On 8 June 2009, Ashley confirmed that the club was up for sale at an asking price of £100 million.[114] By the end of August 2009, the club was back off the market.[115] On 16 October 2017, Newcastle United announced that owner Mike Ashley had once again put the club up for sale, reporting that he hoped that a deal could be concluded by Christmas 2017.[116]

text: Social responsibility[edit]

text: Newcastle United established the Newcastle United Foundation in summer 2008, which seeks to encourage learning and promote healthy living amongst disadvantaged children, young people and families in the North East region, as well as promoting equality and diversity.[117][118] The Foundation's manager Kate Bradley told charity news website The Third Sector, "Children look up to players as their heroes, and anything they say is instantly taken on board. If Newcastle defender Steven Taylor tells them not to eat a Mars bar for breakfast, they'll listen."[119] In 2010, the charity taught over 5,000 children about healthy living.[117]

text: The Foundation's commitment, along with a similar foundation run by West Bromwich Albion, the unique relationship that Aston Villa has with Acorns Children's Hospice and Tottenham Hotspur has with SOS Children's Villages UK, are some leading examples of commitment in the highest level of football to responsibility and change in the communities in which they work and who enrich them through their support and ticket sales. The work of these clubs, and others, is changing the way professional sport interacts with their communities and supporters.[120][121]

text: In December 2012, the club announced that it had become the world's first carbon positive football club.[122]

text: Supporters and rivalries[edit]

text: Supporters of Newcastle United are drawn from all over the North East and beyond, with supporters' clubs in some countries across the world.[123] The club's nickname is 'The Magpies', while the club's supporters are also known as the Geordies or the Toon Army. The name Toon originates from the Geordie pronunciation of town.[124][125] In a 2004 survey by Co-operative Financial Services, it was found that Newcastle United topped the league table for the cost incurred and distance travelled by Newcastle-based fans wishing to travel to every Premier League away game. The total distance travelled for a fan to attend every away game from Newcastle was found to be equivalent to a round-the-world trip.[126] In the 2009–10 season, when the club were playing in English football's second tier, the Football League Championship, the average attendance at St James' Park was 43,388, the fourth-highest for an English club that season.[127] At the end of the 2011–12 Premier league season, Newcastle United held the third-highest average attendance for the season, at 49,935.[128] This figure was only surpassed by Arsenal and Manchester United, the only two clubs in the Premier League with larger stadiums.

text: The club's supporters publish a number of fanzines including True Faith and The Mag, along with NUFC.com, which was established in 1996. They set up Newcastle United Supporters Trust in September 2008, aiming to "represent the broad church of Newcastle United's support."[129]

text: In addition to the usual English football chants, Newcastle's supporters sing the traditional Tyneside song "Blaydon Races."[130][131]

text: Traditionally, Newcastle's main rivals are Sunderland, against whom the Tyne–Wear derby is competed.[132]

text: Statistics[edit]

text: To date, inclusive of the 2015–16 season, Newcastle United have spent 85 seasons in the top-flight. They are eighth in the All-time FA Premier League table and have the ninth-highest total of major honours won by an English club with 11 wins.[133] The holder of the record for the most appearances is Jimmy Lawrence, having made 496 first team appearances between 1904 and 1921.[134] The club's top goal scorer is Alan Shearer, who scored 206 goals in all competitions between 1996 and 2006.[135] Andy Cole holds the record for the most goals scored in a season: 41 in the 1993–94 season in the Premier League.[134] Shay Given is the most capped international for the club, with 134 appearances for Republic of Ireland.[134]

text: The club's widest victory margin in the league was in the 13–0 win against Newport County in the Second Division in 1946. Their heaviest defeat in the league was 9–0 against Burton Wanderers in the Second Division in 1895.[134] The club's longest number of consecutive seasons in the top flight of English football was 36 from 1898–99 until 1933–34.

text: Newcastle's record home attendance is 68,386 for a First Division match against Chelsea on 3 September 1930.[134] The club's highest attendance in the Premier League is 52,389, in a match against Manchester City on 6 May 2012. Newcastle lost the game 2–0.[136] The highest transfer fee received for a Newcastle player is £35 million, from Liverpool for Andy Carroll in January 2011, while the most spent by the club on a player was £16 million for striker Michael Owen from Real Madrid in August 2005.[46][134]

text: Honours[edit]

text: Domestic[edit]

text: Football League First Division / Premier League:

text: Winners (4) – 1904–05, 1906–07, 1908–09, 1926–27

text: Football League Championship:

text: Winners (4) – 1964–65, 1992–93, 2009–10, 2016–17

text: FA Cup:

text: Winners (6) – 1910, 1924, 1932, 1951, 1952, 1955

text: FA Community Shield:

text: Winners (1) – 1909

text:
Sheriff of London Charity Shield:

Winners: 1906–07

text: European[edit]

text: Inter-Cities Fairs Cup:

text: Winners (1) − 1969

text: UEFA Intertoto Cup:

text: Winners (1) − 2006 (Outright Winner)

text: Other honours[edit]

text: Texaco Cup:

text: Winners (2) − 1974, 1975

text: Anglo-Italian Cup:

text: Winners (1) − 1973

text: Players[edit]

text: Current squad[edit]

text: The current Newcastle United first team squad consist of the following players:[138][139]

text: Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

text:
No.

Position
Player

1

GK
Rob Elliot

2

DF
Ciaran Clark

3

DF
Paul Dummett

6

DF
Jamaal Lascelles (captain)

7

FW
Jacob Murphy

8

MF
Jonjo Shelvey

9

FW
Dwight Gayle

10

MF
Mohamed Diamé

11

MF
Matt Ritchie

14

MF
Isaac Hayden

16

MF
Rolando Aarons

17

FW
Ayoze Pérez

18

DF
Chancel Mbemba

19

DF
Javier Manquillo

No.

Position
Player

20

DF
Florian Lejeune

21

FW
Joselu

22

DF
DeAndre Yedlin

23

MF
Mikel Merino

24

MF
Henri Saivet

25

DF
Massadio Haïdara

26

GK
Karl Darlow

27

DF
Jesús Gámez

28

GK
Matz Sels

30

MF
Christian Atsu

41

GK
Freddie Woodman

45

FW
Aleksandar Mitrović

—

FW
Adam Armstrong

—

DF
Achraf Lazaar

text: Reserve / Under-23 players[edit]

text: The following players have made a league or cup appearance for Newcastle United or were assigned squad numbers for the current season, but are not listed on the first team squad page:[140]

text:
No.

Position
Player

4

MF
Jack Colback

35

MF
Daniel Barlaser

36

MF
Yasin Ben El-Mhanni

38

DF
Curtis Good

No.

Position
Player

42

DF
Jamie Sterry

51

FW
Cal Roberts

—

DF
Stuart Findlay

—

FW
Ivan Toney

text: Notable players[edit]

text: For details on former players, see List of Newcastle United F.C. players and Category:Newcastle United F.C. players

text: Player of the Year[edit]

text:
Year
Winner

1976
 Alan Gowling

1977
 Micky Burns

1978
 Irving Nattrass

1979
 Peter Withe

1980
 Alan Shoulder

1981
 Kevin Carr

1982
 Mick Martin

1983
 Kevin Keegan

1984
 Kevin Keegan

1985
 Peter Beardsley

1986
 Peter Beardsley

1987
 Paul Goddard

Year
Winner

1988
 Paul Gascoigne

1989
 John Hendrie

1990
 Micky Quinn

1991
 John Burridge

1992
 Gavin Peacock

1993
 Lee Clark

1994
 Andy Cole

1995
 Barry Venison

1996
 Darren Peacock

1997
 Steve Watson

1998
 David Batty

1999
 Alan Shearer

Year
Winner

2000
 Alan Shearer

2001
 Shay Given

2002
 Nolberto Solano

2003
 Alan Shearer

2004
 Olivier Bernard

2005
 Shay Given

2006
 Shay Given

2007
 Nicky Butt

2008
 Habib Beye

2009
 Sébastien Bassong

2010
 José Enrique

2011
 Fabricio Coloccini

Year
Winner

2012
 Tim Krul

2013
 Davide Santon

2014
 Mike Williamson

2015
 Daryl Janmaat

2016
 Rob Elliot

2017
 Ciaran Clark

2018
 Jamaal Lascelles

text: Source: Newcastle United F.C.

text: Board of directors[edit]

text:
Position
Staff

Managing Director
 Lee Charnley

text: Source:[citation needed]

text: Management[edit]

text: Current backroom staff[edit]

text: First Team[edit]

text:
Position
Staff

Manager
 Rafael Benítez

Assistant Manager
 Francisco de Míguel Moreno

First Team Coach
 Mikel Antía

First Team Coach
 Antonio Gómez Pérez

Goalkeeping Coach
 Simon Smith

Head of Medicine
 Paul Catterson

Rehabilitation Fitness Coach
 Cristian Fernández Martínez

Head of Physiotherapy
 Derek Wright

Physiotherapist
 Daniel Martí

Physiotherapist
 Michael Harding

Head of Recruitment
 Steve Nickson

Head of Analysis
 Kerry Morrow

text: Source:[citation needed]

text: Reserves and Academy[edit]

text:
Position
Staff

Academy Director
 Joe Joyce

Football Development Manager
 Peter Beardsley

Professional Development Phase Coach
 Ben Dawson

Under-23s Fitness Coach
 Simon Tweddle

Under-18s Head Coach
 Dave Watson

Under-17s Head Coach
 Kevin Richardson

Under-16s Head Coach
 Liam Bramley

Under-15s Head Coach
 Neil Winskill

Under-18s Goalkeeping Coach
 Chris Terpcou

Under-9-16s Goalkeeping Coach
 Steve Harper

Under-18s Fitness & Conditioning Coach
 Craig Musham

Under-16s Fitness & Conditioning Coach
 Adam Rowan

Head of Academy Physiotherapy
 Stephen Weir

Academy Physiotherapist
 Sean Beech

Academy Physiotherapist
 Fraser Bell

Academy Doctor
 Tom Holland

text: Source:[citation needed]


document_title: WWE Raw

question_text: where was the first monday night raw held

root

text: WWE Raw

text: History[edit]

text: Beginning as WWF's Monday Night Raw, the program first aired on January 11, 1993 on the USA Network as a replacement for Prime Time Wrestling, which aired on the network for eight years. The original Raw was sixty minutes in length and broke new ground in televised professional wrestling. Traditionally, wrestling shows were taped on sound stages with small audiences or at large arena shows. The Raw formula was considerably different from the taped weekend shows that aired at the time such as Superstars and Wrestling Challenge. Instead of matches taped weeks in advance with studio voice overs and taped discussion, Raw was a show shot and aired to a live audience, with angles playing out as they happened.

tag: p

text: Raw originated from the Grand Ballroom at the Manhattan Center, a small New York City theater, and aired live each week. The combination of an intimate venue and live action proved to be a successful improvement. However, the weekly live schedule proved to be a financial drain on the WWF. From Spring 1993 up until Spring 1997, Raw would tape several week's worth of episodes after a live episode had aired. The WWF taped several weeks worth of Raw from the Mid-Hudson Civic Center in Poughkeepsie, New York in April 1993, and again in June and October (from 1984–1986, the Civic Center was the home of another WWF TV show, Championship Wrestling). The first episode produced outside of New York was taped in Bushkill, Pennsylvania in November 1993 and Raw left the Manhattan Center permanently as the show would be taken on the road throughout the United States and had in smaller venues.

text: On September 4, 1995, the WWF's chief competitor World Championship Wrestling (WCW) began airing its new wrestling show, Monday Nitro, live each week on TNT, which marked the start of the Monday Night Wars.[12] Raw and Nitro went head-to-head for the first time on September 11, 1995. At the start of the ratings war in 1995 through to mid-1996, Raw and Nitro exchanged victories over each other in a closely contested rivalry. Beginning in mid-1996, however, due to the nWo angle, Nitro started a ratings win-streak that lasted for 84 consecutive weeks, ending on April 13, 1998.[12] On February 3, 1997, Raw went to a two-hour format,[12] to compete with the extra hour on Nitro, and by March 10, it was renamed to Raw Is War. After WrestleMania XIV in March 1998, the WWF regained the lead in the Monday Night Wars with its new "WWF Attitude" brand. The April 13, 1998 episode of Raw Is War, which was headlined by a match between Stone Cold Steve Austin and Vince McMahon, marked the first time that WCW had lost the head-to-head Monday night ratings battle in the 84 weeks since 1996.[13]

text: On January 4, 1999, Mick Foley, who had wrestled for WCW during the early 1990s as Cactus Jack, won the WWF Championship as Mankind on Raw Is War. On orders from Bischoff, Nitro announcer Tony Schiavone gave away this previously taped result on a live Nitro and then sarcastically added, "That's gonna put some butts in the seats", consequently resulting in over 600,000 viewers switching channels to Raw Is War to see the underdog capture the WWF Championship. This was also the night that Nitro aired a WCW World Heavyweight Championship match in which Kevin Nash lay down for Hollywood Hogan after Hogan poked him in the chest.

text: On September 25, 2000, Raw Is War moved from the USA Network to TNN (which later became Spike TV).[14] The new television contract with Viacom, TNN/Spike TV's parent company, and the subsequent purchase of competitor WCW led to many changes in WWF's programming content.

text: WCW's sharp decline in revenue and ratings led to Time Warner selling selected assets such as the WCW name, tapes, and contracts to the WWF in March 2001 for $3 million.[15] The final episode of Nitro, which aired on March 26, 2001, began with Vince McMahon making a short statement about his recent purchase of WCW and ended with a simulcast with Raw on TNN and Nitro on TNT including an appearance by Vince's son Shane.[16] The younger McMahon interrupted his father's gloating over the WCW purchase to explain that Shane was the one who actually owned WCW, setting up what became the WWF's "Invasion" storyline. Following the purchase of WCW and the September 11 attacks, the program was retitled as Raw on October 1, 2001, permanently retiring the Raw Is War moniker.

text: In March 2002, as a result of the overabundance of talent left over from the Invasion storyline, WWF initiated brand extension, which promoted its core business of professional wrestling through such brands, named after their two major television shows, Raw and SmackDown!.[17] Shortly thereafter, the WWF was legally required to change the name of the company to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE).

text: On March 10, 2005, Viacom and WWE decided not to go on with the agreement with Spike TV, effectively ending Raw and other WWE programs's tenure on the network when their deal expired in September 2005. On April 4, 2005, WWE announced a three-year deal with NBCUniversal to bring Raw back to its former home, the USA Network, with two yearly specials on NBC and a Spanish Raw on Telemundo.[18] On the same week as Raw's return to the USA Network, Spike TV scheduled Ultimate Fighting Championship's live Ultimate Fight Night in Raw's old timeslot in an attempt to go head-to-head with Raw.[19]

text: On the August 29, 2011 episode of Raw, it was announced that performers from Raw and SmackDown were no longer exclusive to their respective brand, thus effectively dissolving the brand extension.[20]

text: On July 23, 2012, Raw aired its 1000th episode, which also began its permanent three-hour format.[21][22] On January 14, 2013, Raw celebrated its 20th year on the air.

text: On May 25, 2016, WWE reintroduced the brand split, and a new set with red ring ropes, a brand new stage, used at SummerSlam. Furthermore, the broadcast table was moved to the entrance ramp similar to how it was in 2002–2005.

text: Production[edit]

text: Raw's original set featured red, white, and blue ring-ropes, a blue ring-apron, blue steps, and a small stage made of neon tubes. Since March 10, 1997, broadcasts of Raw were split into two hours and given hourly names for television ratings purposes, with the first hour being referred to as Raw Is War and the second as War Zone by the show's on-screen graphics. In 1995, the entrance way was changed to feature "Raw" in giant letters. In 1997, WWF changed to red ring-ropes for Raw as well as Raw Is War being written along the ring due to their rivalry with WCW. They also updated the stage to feature a large screen known as the TitanTron.

text: Beginning October 1, 2001, in direct response to the September 11 attacks, the first hour was referred to as Raw instead of Raw Is War and the second hour changed from the War Zone to the Raw Zone by the show's on-screen graphics; however, announcers would generally refer to the entire two-hour block as Raw on-air. Raw updated to a new TitanTron in 2002. When the War ended, they began advertising their website on the ring aprons instead. They occasionally used black ropes. From November 16, 2009 – July 23, 2012, the theme song for the Raw brand was "Burn It to the Ground" by Nickelback.[23] Prior to this, the theme song for Raw was "...To Be Loved" by Papa Roach, which had been used since October 9, 2006 and "Across The Nation" by The Union Underground which was used from April 1, 2002 – October 2, 2006. The rap outro of "Thorn In Your Eye" featuring Scott Ian of Anthrax was the theme song from March 10, 1997 – March 25, 2002.

text: On May 17, 2012, WWE and USA Network announced that Raw would switch to a permanent three-hour format beginning with the 1,000th episode on July 23, 2012.[11] Since then, all three hours of the broadcast have been known solely as Raw, though they are still considered three separate programs for Nielsen ratings purposes (as indicated by the on-screen copyright notice shown near the end of each hour). In 2008, Raw went HD debuting a new stage. In 2010, WWE retired the red ropes for Raw after thirteen years for an all white scheme, and in 2012 became standard for all WWE programming. In 2012, Raw updated their HD set.[24]

text: Starting in mid 2014, this set would also be featured in pay-per-views. From late September through the end of October 2012, the middle rope at all WWE programming was changed to pink due to WWE's alliance with the Susan G. Komen organization for Breast Cancer Awareness Month.[25] This was repeated in 2013, from late September to early November, and it was repeated in 2014 from 29 September. WWE is one of many organizations who provide financial contributions as well as getting customers and employees to support the cause.[26]

text: On August 18, 2014, Raw switched to a full 16:9 letterbox widescreen presentation, with a down-scaled version of the native HD feed on a 4:3 SD feed. In conjunction with this, Raw updated its graphics package, with the new WWE logo (first used with the WWE Network's launch in February) now on the lower-right corner of the screen, right next to the word, "Live". Also, the new WWE logo is seen on the ring's turnbuckle covers. The USA Network logo has also been moved to the lower-left hand corner of the screen. Also, Raw's theme song ("The Night") was modified. On re-runs on the WWE Network and on delayed broadcasts for most international markets, Raw is edited without the word "LIVE" and the hashtag.

text: On March 23, 2015, WWE added a small LED board to the left side of the ring on Raw. This LED board was also used at WrestleMania 31. The LED board since is now on an on/off basis, featuring in some weeks and not others. On the 1,000th episode of Raw, "The Night" by Kromestatik debuted as the theme for Raw while "Energy" by Shinedown served as the secondary theme-song until August 18, 2014, when it was replaced with "Denial" by We Are Harlot.[27]

text: On the September 14, 2015 season premiere of Raw, the middle rope was colored gold. Throughout the month of October 2015, the WWE announcer table, entrance ramp and ring skirts were co-branded with Susan G. Komen for the Cure of Breast cancer.[28] Also the middle ring rope was pink to promote the fight against breast cancer.[28] On the November 16, 2015, episode of Raw, WWE had a moment of silence for the victims of the terrorist attack in Paris, France on November 13, 2015.[29] Another moment of silence was held months later in June for the victims of the Orlando nightclub shooting.

text: On July 25, 2016, the ropes returned to red, the announce table moved back to the top of the stage for the first time since 2005, and a new HD set and graphics were debuted. The new set was almost identical to the set used for SummerSlam 2012 and 2013. It received some negativity after the newly dubbed "New Era" was using an older set. The set was revamped just four weeks later with a more elaborate and distinctive design. The new set features the absence of a traditional TitanTron which had been custom since 1997. In its place is a curved LED banner with several rows of rectangle LED lights behind it. The new set also introduced LED floor panels on the entrance ramp along with LED ring posts.

text: Theme music[edit]

text:
Song title
Written and/or performed by
Dates used
Ref

"Monday Night Raw"
Jim Johnston
January 11, 1993 – March 3, 1997
[30][31]

"Raw"
Jim Johnston
1993–1995
[30][32]

"I Like it Raw"
Jim Johnston
1995
[30][33]

"The Beautiful People"
Marilyn Manson
March 10, 1997 – March 24, 1997
[30][34]

"Thorn In Your Eye"
WWE Superstars & Slam Jam
March 31, 1997 – March 25, 2002
[30][35][36]

"We're All Together Now"
WWE Superstars & Slam Jam
March 31, 1997 – March 25, 2002
[30][37]

"Across the Nation"
The Union Underground
April 1, 2002 – October 2, 2006
[30][38]

"...To Be Loved"
Papa Roach
October 9, 2006 – November 9, 2009
[30][39][40]

"Burn It to the Ground"
Nickelback
November 16, 2009 – July 16, 2012
[30][41][42]

"Tonight Is the Night"
Outasight
July 23, 2012 (only used for Raw 1000)
[30][43][44]

"The Night"
Kromestatik
July 23, 2012 – August 11, 2014
[30][45]

"The Night" (2014 Remix)
CFO$
August 18, 2014 – July 18, 2016
[30][46]

"Enemies"1
Shinedown
July 25, 2016 – present
[1]

tag: table

text: ^ Bold song titles denotes that the song is currently being used as the show's theme.

tag: ol

text: Naming controversy[edit]

text: The name for Raw was disputed in June 2009 when Muscle Flex Inc., a Los Angeles-based fitness company, had taken legal action against the WWE after a court ruled that some of WWE's trademarks related to Raw were similar enough to the In the Raw trademark that they caused confusion among Canadians.[47] On June 18, 2008, the Canadian Intellectual Property Office then issued a final decision that found certain wares listed in the trademark application from WWE (No. 1,153,018) were confusingly similar and thus lacked distinctiveness from the Muscle Flex trademark, which Muscle Flex is in the process of acquiring. The WWE appealed the CIPO's ruling to the Federal Court of Canada, but failed to file the required documents by the deadline.[48]

text: In August 2009, the court ruled in favor of Muscle Flex, Inc. that it was successful in defending its In the Raw trademark against the WWE. In a press release date issued on July 20, 2009, Muscle Flex Inc. disclosed that it was in possession of WWE Raw-labeled items that it believes directly infringe on its In the Raw trademark such as various CDs, VHS tapes, and a number of apparel items. According to the WWE's most recent reported financial quarter in 2009, combined sales of WWE's consumer products and digital media business segments produced $40 million in global revenues. In previous quarters, these numbers were even higher.[49]

text: Special episodes[edit]

text: Throughout its broadcast history, the show has aired episodes that have different themes. Some of them are yearly events such as the Slammy Awards. Others include tributes to various professional wrestlers who have recently died or retired from actively performing, as well as episodes commemorating various show milestones or anniversaries.

text: On-air personalities[edit]

text: The show features various on-air personalities including the wrestlers themselves (both males and females), ring announcers, commentators, and on-screen authority figures. Raw also has had various recurring on-air segments hosted by members of the roster.

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The show airs live on the USA Network. Raw also airs Wednesdays on NBC Universo in Spanish, as well as on Friday nights and Sunday afternoons also in Spanish, it also airs Saturdays on Universal HD. Occasionally, Raw is aired on same-day tape delay when WWE is on an overseas tour. Raw is also shown live on Sky Sports (normally Sky Sports 5) in the United Kingdom and Ireland and on Sky Sport 2 in Italy. Raw aires live in India at 5.30 am in Tuesdays on Sony TEN.[50][51][52] Since October 6, 2014, Raw has been airing live throughout Latin America on Fox Sports Latinoamérica.[53] The show also airs live on Supersport in South Africa on Tuesdays at 02:00 am CAT. RAW had aired in Australia on Fox8 since 2003, usually on a 27-hour tape delay, but has started airing live as of February 4, 2014.,[54] SyFy in the United States started airing a 2-hour replay of Raw on May 20, 2016. For the U.S. audience, Raw has been under a multi-year contract extension for the USA Network which currently is under a 10-year stint; the agreement does not get renewed until January 2023.

text: Online streaming[edit]

text: On September 24, 2012, Hulu Plus signed a multi-year deal with WWE to stream all of the company’s TV shows and some of its web series which includes Raw. Episodes of Raw are available for viewing the following day and only a condensed 90 minute version is available, not the full version as shown the previous night on the USA Network.[55]

text: As of December 9, 2016, all episodes of Raw are available on demand on the WWE Network. Recent episodes are available for on-demand viewing 30 days after the original air date.[56][57]

text: Canada[edit]

text: From 1996 to 2006, Raw was shown on TSN until it moved to rival sports broadcaster The Score (now renamed Sportsnet 360) after it was announced that TSN would be carrying Monday Night Football for the 2006 season. This also meant that Canadian viewers would be watching via tape-delay, as The Score does not broadcast Raw live. Around that time, The Score aired Countdown to Raw until May 2013 when Raw is shown live to match the United States airtime.

text: During its run on TSN, which aired live, occasionally had been censored live for extremely violent scenes, or when female wrestlers or characters were assaulted by male wrestlers. These actions are supposed to be in order to meet Canadian broadcast standards, with repeat broadcasts often more heavily edited. This move had disappointed many wrestling fans over the years, and is unusual since the violence of wrestling scenes are not significantly different from other television programs aired on regular Canadian networks.[58][59]

text: The show currently airs live on Sportsnet 360.[60][61]

text: The Middle East[edit]

text: Raw airs in the Arab world on OSN Sports and MBC Action,[62][63][64] on FM1(Previously Iran FM-TV) in Iran and[65][66] on Sport 1 and Sport 1 HD in Israel.[67][68] Raw further began airing on D-Smart in Turkey.[69]

text: Europe[edit]

text: Raw airs on AB3 in Belgium and is translated into Dutch, French, and German.[70][71] The show airs on Nova Sport in the Czech Republic and[72] on AB1 in France.[73][74]

text: Raw airs on ProSieben MAXX and ProSieben Fun in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg, and Liechtenstein on Wednesdays at 10 PM.>[75] The show airs on Nova Sports 3 in Greece.[76]

text: Raw airs live on Sky Sport 2, Sky Sport 2 HD, with international version shows airing on Cielo TV in Italy in Italian.[77][78]

text: Raw airs on RTL 7 in the Netherlands.[79] The show airs on Extreme Sports Channel in Poland.[80][81] It airs on SIC Radical[82] and on SIC K on Friday nights in Portugal.

text: Raw airs on Sport.ro in Romania.[83] The show airs on Prva Srpska Televizija in Serbia.[84] It airs on Neox in Spain in Spanish.[85][86]

text: Raw airs live on Sky Sports Main Event and Sky Sports Action, with replay shows airing on Sky Sports Action in the United Kingdom and Ireland.[87]

text: Raw airs on Diema Sport in Bulgaria.[88] The show airs on Televizija OBN in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[89] It airs on BTV in Lithuania.[90]

text: Asia and Pacific[edit]

text: Raw airs on Sony TEN in Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan.[66][66][91][92] It airs on MNC Sports 2 in Indonesia.[93]

text: Raw airs live on Sony TEN 1 HD and Sony TEN 1 in India. And airs exclusive in Pakistan and Sri Lanka.[66][94][95]

text: Raw airs live on SuperSports 2 HD in Singapore.[96] The show airs on TrueVisions in Thailand. The show airs on 2×2 in Russia.[97]

text: Raw airs live on Fox8 and Thursday nights on 9Go! as a 1-hour version in Australia.[98][99] The show airs live on J Sports 4 in Japan.[100] It airs live on the BOX in New Zealand.[101][102]

text: Raw airs in China on various local networks within the People's Republic of China[103] and Videoland Television Network in the Republic of China in both English and Thai.[104]

text: Raw airs in Philippines on TV5.

text: Raw airs in Hong Kong on ViuTVsix.

text: Latin America[edit]

text: Raw airs live on Fox Sports Latinoamérica in Mexico[53][105][106] and across Central and South America.[53][107][108] It also airs live on La Red in Chile,[109][110] Unitel in Bolivia,[111] Canal Uno in Colombia,[109][112] Teleamazonas in Ecuador,[113] Andina de Televisión in Peru,[114][115] Repretel: Canal 11 in Costa Rica and Canal VTV in El Salvador.[53][116] It airs on Canal 5 in Honduras.[53][117] Raw airs on RPC Canal 4 in Panama in Spanish.[53][118][119]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: It airs live on SuperSport in South Africa.[120][121]

text:
Professional wrestling portal
Television portal

tag: ul


document_title: History of books

question_text: when was the first book published in the world

text: History of books

text: Clay tablets[edit]

text: Clay tablets were used in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. The calamus, an instrument in the form of a triangle, was used to make characters in moist clay. People used to use fire to dry the tablets out. At Nineveh, over 20,000 tablets were found, dating from the 7th century BC; this was the archive and library of the kings of Assyria, who had workshops of copyists and conservationists at their disposal. This presupposes a degree of organization with respect to books, consideration given to conservation, classification, etc. Tablets were used right up until the 19th century in various parts of the world, including Germany, Chile, Philippines and the Saharan Desert.[1]

text: Papyrus[edit]

text: After extracting the marrow from the stems, a series of steps (humidification, pressing, drying, gluing, and cutting), produced media of variable quality, the best being used for sacred writing. In Ancient Egypt, papyrus was used for writing maybe as early as from First Dynasty, but first evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC).[2] A calamus, the stem of a reed sharpened to a point, or bird feathers were used for writing. The script of Egyptian scribes was called hieratic, or sacerdotal writing; it is not hieroglyphic, but a simplified form more adapted to manuscript writing (hieroglyphs usually being engraved or painted).

text: Papyrus books were in the form of a scroll of several sheets pasted together, for a total length of 10 meters or more. Some books, such as the history of the reign of Ramses III, were over 40 meters long. Books rolled out horizontally; the text occupied one side, and was divided into columns. The title was indicated by a label attached to the cylinder containing the book. Many papyrus texts come from tombs, where prayers and sacred texts were deposited (such as the Book of the Dead, from the early 2nd millennium BC).

text: East Asia[edit]

text: Writing on bone, shells, wood and silk existed in China long before the 2nd century BC. Paper was invented in China around the 1st century AD. The discovery of the process using the bark of the blackberry bush is attributed to Ts'ai Louen the cousin of Kar-Shun which is the greatest singer in China like Mhang Khan-Nohr, but it may be older. Texts were reproduced by woodblock printing; the diffusion of Buddhist texts was a main impetus to large-scale production. The format of the book evolved with intermediate stages of scrolls folded concertina-style, scrolls bound at one edge ("butterfly books") and so on.

text: The first printing of books started in China and was during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), but exactly when is not known.[3] The oldest extant printed book is a Tang Dynasty work of the Diamond Sutra and dates back to 868.[3] When the Italian Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci visited Ming China, he wrote that there were "exceedingly large numbers of books in circulation" and noted that they were sold at very low prices.[4]

text: Pre-columbian codices of the Americas[edit]

text: In Mesoamerica, information was recorded on long strips of paper, agave fibers, or animal hides, which were then folded and protected by wooden covers. These were thought to have existed since the time of the Classical Period between the 3rd and 8th centuries, CE. Many of these codices were thought to contain astrological information, religious calendars, knowledge about the gods, genealogies of the rulers, cartographic information, and tribute collection. Many of these codices were stored in temples but were ultimately destroyed by the Spanish explorers.[5]

text: Currently, the only completely deciphered pre-Columbian writing system is the Maya script. The Maya, along with several other cultures in Mesoamerica, constructed concertina-style books written on Amatl paper. Nearly all Mayan texts were destroyed by the Spanish during colonization on cultural and religious grounds. One of the few surviving examples is the Dresden Codex.[6]

text: Although only the Maya have been shown to have a writing system capable of conveying any concept that can be conveyed via speech (at about the same level as the modern Japanese writing system), other Mesoamerican cultures had more rudimentary ideographical writing systems which were contained in similar concertina-style books, one such example being the Aztec codices.

text: Wax tablets[edit]

text: Romans used wax-coated wooden tablets or pugillares upon which they could write and erase by using a stylus. One end of the stylus was pointed, and the other was spherical. Usually these tablets were used for everyday purposes (accounting, notes) and for teaching writing to children, according to the methods discussed by Quintilian in his Institutio Oratoria X Chapter 3. Several of these tablets could be assembled in a form similar to a codex. Also the etymology of the word codex (block of wood) suggest that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.[7]

text: Parchment[edit]

text: Parchment progressively replaced papyrus. Legend attributes its invention to Eumenes II, the king of Pergamon, from which comes the name "pergamineum," which became "parchment." Its production began around the 3rd century BC. Made using the skins of animals (sheep, cattle, donkey, antelope, etc.), parchment proved easier to conserve over time; it was more solid, and allowed one to erase text. It was a very expensive medium because of the rarity of material and the time required to produce a document. Vellum is the finest quality of parchment.

text: Greece and Rome[edit]

text: The scroll of papyrus is called "volumen" in Latin, a word which signifies "circular movement," "roll," "spiral," "whirlpool," "revolution" (similar, perhaps, to the modern English interpretation of "swirl") and finally "a roll of writing paper, a rolled manuscript, or a book." In the 7th century Isidore of Seville explains the relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13) as this:

text:
“
A codex is composed of many books (librorum); a book is of one scroll (voluminis). It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (caudex) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches.
”

text: Description[edit]

text: The scroll is rolled around two vertical wooden axes. This design allows only sequential usage; one is obliged to read the text in the order in which it is written, and it is impossible to place a marker in order to directly access a precise point in the text. It is comparable to modern video cassettes. Moreover, the reader must use both hands to hold on to the vertical wooden rolls and therefore cannot read and write at the same time. The only volumen in common usage today is the Jewish Torah.

text: Book culture[edit]

text: The authors of Antiquity had no rights concerning their published works; there were neither authors' nor publishing rights. Anyone could have a text recopied, and even alter its contents. Scribes earned money and authors earned mostly glory, unless a patron provided cash; a book made its author famous. This followed the traditional conception of the culture: an author stuck to several models, which he imitated and attempted to improve. The status of the author was not regarded as absolutely personal.

text: From a political and religious point of view, books were censored very early: the works of Protagoras were burned because he was a proponent of agnosticism and argued that one could not know whether or not the gods existed. Generally, cultural conflicts led to important periods of book destruction: in 303, the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of Christian texts. Some Christians later burned libraries, and especially heretical or non-canonical Christian texts. These practices are found throughout human history but have ended in many nations today. A few nations today still greatly censor and even burn books.

text: But there also exists a less visible but nonetheless effective form of censorship when books are reserved for the elite; the book was not originally a medium for expressive liberty. It may serve to confirm the values of a political system, as during the reign of the emperor Augustus, who skillfully surrounded himself with great authors. This is a good ancient example of the control of the media by a political power. However, private and public censorship have continued into the modern era, albeit in various forms.

text: Proliferation and conservation of books in Greece[edit]

text: Little information concerning books in Ancient Greece survives. Several vases (6th and 5th centuries BC) bear images of volumina. There was undoubtedly no extensive trade in books, but there existed several sites devoted to the sale of books.

text: The spread of books, and attention to their cataloging and conservation, as well as literary criticism developed during the Hellenistic period with the creation of large libraries in response to the desire for knowledge exemplified by Aristotle. These libraries were undoubtedly also built as demonstrations of political prestige:

text:
The Library of Alexandria, a library created by Ptolemy Soter and set up by Demetrius Phalereus (Demetrius of Phaleron). It contained 500,900 volumes (in the Museion section) and 40,000 at the Serapis temple (Serapeion). All books in the luggage of visitors to Egypt were inspected, and could be held for copying. The Museion was partially destroyed in 47 BC.
The Library at Pergamon, founded by Attalus I; it contained 200,000 volumes which were moved to the Serapeion by Mark Antony and Cleopatra, after the destruction of the Museion. The Serapeion was partially destroyed in 391, and the last books disappeared in 641 CE following the Arab conquest.
The Library at Athens, the Ptolemaion, which gained importance following the destruction of the Library at Alexandria ; the Library of Pantainos, around 100 CE; the library of Hadrian, in 132 CE.
The Library at Rhodes, a library that rivaled the Library of Alexandria.
The Library at Antioch, a public library of which Euphorion of Chalcis was the director near the end of the 3rd century.

text: The libraries had copyist workshops, and the general organisation of books allowed for the following:

text:
Conservation of an example of each text
Translation (the Septuagint Bible, for example)
Literary criticisms in order to establish reference texts for the copy (example : The Iliad and The Odyssey)
A catalog of books
The copy itself, which allowed books to be disseminated

text: Book production in Rome[edit]

text: Book production developed in Rome in the 1st century BC with Latin literature that had been influenced by the Greek.

text: This diffusion primarily concerned circles of literary individuals. Atticus was the editor of his friend Cicero. However, the book business progressively extended itself through the Roman Empire; for example, there were bookstores in Lyon. The spread of the book was aided by the extension of the Empire, which implied the imposition of the Latin tongue on a great number of people (in Spain, Africa, etc.).

text: Libraries were private or created at the behest of an individual. Julius Caesar, for example, wanted to establish one in Rome, proving that libraries were signs of political prestige.

text: In the year 377, there were 28 libraries in Rome, and it is known that there were many smaller libraries in other cities. Despite the great distribution of books, scientists do not have a complete picture as to the literary scene in antiquity as thousands of books have been lost through time.

text: Paper[edit]

text: Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about AD 105, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste.[8]

text: While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC,[1] paper used as a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century.[9] By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well.[10] During the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea.[1] The Song Dynasty (960–1279) that followed was the first government to issue paper currency.

text: An important development was the mechanization of paper manufacture by medieval papermakers. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to the 11th century in Córdoba, Spain,[11] allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese[12][13] and Muslim[12][14] papermaking. Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further.[15]

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text: By the end of antiquity, between the 2nd and 4th centuries, the scroll was replaced by the codex. The book was no longer a continuous roll, but a collection of sheets attached at the back. It became possible to access a precise point in the text quickly. The codex is equally easy to rest on a table, which permits the reader to take notes while he or she is reading. The codex form improved with the separation of words, capital letters, and punctuation, which permitted silent reading. Tables of contents and indices facilitated direct access to information. This form was so effective that it is still the standard book form, over 1500 years after its appearance.

text: Paper would progressively replace parchment. Cheaper to produce, it allowed a greater diffusion of books.

text: Books in monasteries[edit]

text: A number of Christian books were destroyed at the order of Diocletian in 304 AD. During the turbulent periods of the invasions, it was the monasteries that conserved religious texts and certain works of Antiquity for the West. But there would also be important copying centers in Byzantium.

text: The role of monasteries in the conservation of books is not without some ambiguity:

text:
Reading was an important activity in the lives of monks, which can be divided into prayer, intellectual work, and manual labor (in the Benedictine order, for example). It was therefore necessary to make copies of certain works. Accordingly, there existed scriptoria (the plural of scriptorium) in many monasteries, where monks copied and decorated manuscripts that had been preserved.
However, the conservation of books was not exclusively in order to preserve ancient culture; it was especially relevant to understanding religious texts with the aid of ancient knowledge. Some works were never recopied, having been judged too dangerous for the monks. Moreover, in need of blank media, the monks scraped off manuscripts, thereby destroying ancient works. The transmission of knowledge was centered primarily on sacred texts.

text: Copying and conserving books[edit]

text: Despite this ambiguity, monasteries in the West and the Eastern Empire permitted the conservation of a certain number of secular texts, and several libraries were created: for example, Cassiodorus ('Vivarum' in Calabria, around 550), or Constantine I in Constantinople. There were several libraries, but the survival of books often depended on political battles and ideologies, which sometimes entailed massive destruction of books or difficulties in production (for example, the distribution of books during the Iconoclasm between 730 and 842). A long list of very old and surviving libraries that now form part of the Vatican Archives can be found in the Catholic Encyclopedia.

text: A very strong example of the early copying and conserving books is that of the Quran. After Muhammad, his companion Abu Bakr, on the recommendation of Umar Bin Alkhattab, assigned Zayd bin Saabit to compile the first official scripture of the Quran. Zayd collected all the available scriptures of the Quran scripted by different companions of Muhammad during his life. He compiled one scripture and got it verified by all the companions who had memorized the whole book while Muhammad was alive. Then this first official scripture was kept at the house of Hafsa, the wife of the Muhammad. By the time of the third caliph Uthmaan, the Islamic state had spread over a large portion of the known world. He ordered the preparation of the official copies of the first official scripture. The copies were duly verified for accuracy. These copies were sent to each city of the caliphate so that further copies can be made locally with the perfect accuracy.[16]

text: The scriptorium[edit]

text: The scriptorium was the workroom of monk copyists; here, books were copied, decorated, rebound, and conserved. The armarius directed the work and played the role of librarian.

text: The role of the copyist was multifaceted: for example, thanks to their work, texts circulated from one monastery to another. Copies also allowed monks to learn texts and to perfect their religious education. The relationship with the book thus defined itself according to an intellectual relationship with God. But if these copies were sometimes made for the monks themselves, there were also copies made on demand.

text: The task of copying itself had several phases: the preparation of the manuscript in the form of notebooks once the work was complete, the presentation of pages, the copying itself, revision, correction of errors, decoration, and binding. The book therefore required a variety of competencies, which often made a manuscript a collective effort.

text: Transformation from the literary edition in the 12th century[edit]

text: The revival of cities in Europe would change the conditions of book production and extend its influence, and the monastic period of the book would come to an end. This revival accompanied the intellectual renaissance of the period. The Manuscript culture outside of the monastery developed in these university-cities in Europe in this time. It is around the first universities that new structures of production developed: reference manuscripts were used by students and professors for teaching theology and liberal arts. The development of commerce and of the bourgeoisie brought with it a demand for specialized and general texts (law, history, novels, etc.). It is in this period that writing in the common vernacular developed (courtly poetry, novels, etc.). Commercial scriptoria became common, and the profession of book seller came into being, sometimes dealing internationally.

text: There is also the creation of royal libraries as in the case of Saint Louis and Charles V. Books were also collected in private libraries, which became more common in the 14th and 15th centuries.

text: The use of paper diffused through Europe in the 14th century. This material, less expensive than parchment, came from China via the Arabs in Spain in the 11th and 12th centuries. It was used in particular for ordinary copies, while parchment was used for luxury editions.

text: Printing press[edit]

text: The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 marks the entry of the book into the industrial age. The Western book was no longer a single object, written or reproduced by request. The publication of a book became an enterprise, requiring capital for its realization and a market for its distribution. The cost of each individual book (in a large edition) was lowered enormously, which in turn increased the distribution of books. The book in codex form and printed on paper, as we know it today, dates from the 15th century. Books printed before January 1, 1501, are called incunables. The spreading of book printing all over Europe occurred relatively quickly, but most books were still printed in Latin. The spreading of the concept of printing books in the vernacular was a somewhat slower process.

text: List of notable printing milestones[edit]

text:
1377: Jikji is the abbreviated title of a Korean Buddhist document, Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters, the earliest known book printed with movable metal type.
1455: The Gutenberg Bible was the first major book printed in Europe with movable metal type by Johannes Gutenberg.
1461: Der Ackermann aus Böhmen printed by Albrecht Pfister, the first printed book in German, and also the first book illustrated with woodcuts.
1470: Il Canzoniere by Francesco Petrarca, the first book printed in the Italian language.
1472: Sinodal de Aguilafuente was the first book printed in Spain (at Segovia) and in Spanish language.
1474: Obres e trobes en llaor de la Verge Santa Maria was the first book printed in Catalan language, at Valencia.
c. 1475: Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye was the first book printed in the English language.
1476: La légende dorée printed by Guillaume LeRoy, the first book printed in the French language.
1476: Grammatica Graeca, sive compendium octo orationis partium, probably the first book entirely in Greek by Constantine Lascaris.
1477: The first printed edition of the Geographia, probably in 1477 in Bologna, was also the first printed book with engraved illustrations.
1477: The Delft Bible, the first book printed in the Dutch language.
1483: Misal po zakonu rimskoga dvora, the first book printed in the Croatian language and in Glagolitic alphabet.
1485: De Re Aedificatoria, the first printed book on architecture
1487: "Pentateuco", the first book printed in Portugal, in Hebraic language, by the Jew Samuel Gacon in Vila-a-Dentro, Faro.
1494: Oktoih was the first printed Slavic Cyrillic book.
1495: The first printed book in the Danish language.
1495: The first printed book in the Swedish language.
1497: "Constituições que fez o Senhor Dom Diogo de Sousa, Bispo do Porto", first book printed in the Portuguese language, by the first Portuguese printer, Rodrigo Álvares, in Porto, on January the 4th.
1499: Catholicon, Breton-French-Latin dictionary, first printed trilingual dictionary, first Breton book, first French dictionary
1501: Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, printed by Ottaviano Petrucci, is the first book of sheet music printed from movable type.
1501: "Aldus Manutius" printed the first portable Octavos, also inventing and using italic type.
1508: Chepman and Myllar printed the first books in Scotland.
1511: Hieromonk Makarije printed the first books in Wallachia (in Slavonic)
1512: Hakob Meghapart printed the first book in Armenian - Urbatagirk.[6]
1513: Hortulus Animae, polonice believed to be the first book printed in the Polish language.
1516: A reprint of the Lisbon edition of the Sefer Aburdraham is printed in Morocco, the first book printed in Africa.[17]
1517: Psalter, first book printed in the Old Belarusian language by Francysk Skaryna on 6 August 1517
1539: La escala espiritual de San Juan Clímaco, first book printed in North America - Mexico
1541: Bovo-Bukh was the first non-religious book to be printed in Yiddish
1544: Rucouskiria by Mikael Agricola, the first book printed in the Finnish language.
1545: Linguae Vasconum Primitiae was the first book printed in Basque
1547: Martynas Mažvydas compiled and published the first printed Lithuanian book The Simple Words of Catechism
1550: Catechismus by Primož Trubar was the first book written in the Slovene language.
1561: The first printed books in the Romanian language, Tetraevanghelul and Întrebare creştinească (also known as Catehismul) are printed by Coresi in Braşov.
1564: the first book in Irish was printed in Edinburgh, a translation of John Knox's 'Liturgy' by John Carswell, Bishop of the Hebrides.
1564: the first dated Russian book, Apostol, printed by Ivan Fyodorov
1571: the first book in Irish to be printed in Ireland was a Protestant catechism (Aibidil Gaoidheilge agus Caiticiosma), containing a guide to spelling and sounds in Irish.[18]
1577: Lekah Tov, a commentary on the Book of Esther, was the first book printed in the land of Israel
1581: Ostrog Bible, first complete printed edition of the Bible in Old Church Slavonic
1584: first book printed in South America - Lima, Peru
1593: Doctrina Christiana was the first book printed in the Philippines
1629: Nikoloz Cholokashvili helped to publish a Georgian dictionary, the first printed book in Georgian
1640: The Bay Psalm Book, the first book printed in British North America
1651: Abagar - Filip Stanislavov, first printed book in modern Bulgarian
1678-1703: Hortus Malabaricus included the first instance of Malayalam types being used for printing
1798: The first printed book in Ossetic
1802: New South Wales General Standing Orders was the first book printed in Australia, comprising Government and General Orders issued between 1791 and 1802
Aurora Australis, the first book published in Antarctica.

text: Contemporary era[edit]

text: During the Enlightenment more books began to pour off European presses, creating an early form of information overload for many readers. Nowhere was this more the case than in Enlightenment Scotland, where students were exposed to a wide variety of books during their education.[19] The demands of the British and Foreign Bible Society (founded 1804), the American Bible Society (founded 1816), and other non-denominational publishers for enormously large inexpensive runs of texts led to numerous innovations. The introduction of steam printing presses a little before 1820, closely followed by new steam paper mills, constituted the two most major innovations. Together, they caused book prices to drop and the number of books to increase considerably. Numerous bibliographic features, like the positioning and formulation of titles and subtitles, were also affected by this new production method. New types of documents appeared later in the 19th century: photography, sound recording and film.

text: Typewriters and eventually computer based word processors and printers let people print and put together their own documents. Desktop publishing is common in the 21st century.

text: Among a series of developments that occurred in the 1990s, the spread of digital multimedia, which encodes texts, images, animations, and sounds in a unique and simple form was notable for the book publishing industry. Hypertext further improved access to information. Finally, the internet lowered production and distribution costs.

text: E-books and the future of the book[edit]

text: It is difficult to predict the future of the book in an era of fast-paced technological change.[20] Anxieties about the "death of books" have been expressed throughout the history of the medium, perceived as threatened by competing media such as radio, television, and the Internet.[21][22] However, these views are generally exaggerated, and "dominated by fetishism, fears about the end of humanism and ideas of techno-fundamentalist progress".[23] The print book medium has proven to be very resilient and adaptable.

text: A good deal of reference material, designed for direct access instead of sequential reading, as for example encyclopedias, exists less and less in the form of books and increasingly on the web. Leisure reading materials are increasingly published in e-reader formats.

text: Although electronic books, or e-books, had limited success in the early years, and readers were resistant at the outset, the demand for books in this format has grown dramatically, primarily because of the popularity of e-reader devices and as the number of available titles in this format has increased. Since the Amazon Kindle was released in 2007, the e-book has become a digital phenomenon and many theorize that it will take over hardback and paper books in future. E-books are much more accessible and easier to buy and it’s also cheaper to purchase an E-Book rather than its physical counterpart due to paper expenses being deducted.[24] Another important factor in the increasing popularity of the e-reader is its continuous diversification. Many e-readers now support basic operating systems, which facilitate email and other simple functions. The iPad is the most obvious example of this trend, but even mobile phones can host e-reading software.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
European output of manuscripts 500–1500

European output of printed books c. 1450–1800

European output of books 500–1800

text: Academic programs[edit]

text:
University of Amsterdam, Department of cultural studies. BA and MA program with specialisation in the history of the Book
Curtin University. Master of Information Management - Librarianship stream
Drew University, Department of Modern History and Literature. MA, PhD in one of three streams including Book History
University of Edinburgh. Postgraduate Degree (MA) in The History of the Book
School of Book Science at University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. BA and MA program with specialisation in the history of the Book
University of London, Institute of English Studies. Postgraduate MA in the History of the Book
Mainz Gutenberg University. Mainzer Institut fur Buchwissenschaft
University of Münster, Germany. MA programs with specializations in Book Studies
Oxford Brookes University. MA Book History and Publishing Culture
University of Roehampton. Publishing and Book History
University of St Andrews. MLitt - The Book. History and Techniques of Analysis
Texas Tech University, Department of English. MA, PhD emphasis in History of the Book
University of Toronto. MA, PhD Program in Book History / Print Culture