document_title: Turnover (employment)

question_text: what is the difference between voluntary and involuntary turnover

text: Turnover (employment)

text: Varieties[edit]

text: There are four types of turnovers: Voluntary is the first type of turnover, which occurs when an employee voluntarily chooses to resign from the organization. Voluntary turnover could be the result of a more appealing job offer, staff conflict, or lack of advancement opportunities.[1]

text: The second type of turnover is involuntary, which occurs when the employer makes the decision to discharge an employee and the employee unwillingly leaves his or her position.[1] Involuntary turnover could be a result of poor performance, staff conflict, the at-will employment clause, etc.

text: The third type of turnover is functional, which occurs when a low-performing employee leaves the organization.[1] Functional turnover reduces the amount of paperwork that a company must file in order to rid itself of a low-performing employee. Rather than having to go through the potentially difficult process of proving that an employee is inadequate, the company simply respects his or her own decision to leave.

text: The fourth type of turnover is dysfunctional, which occurs when a high-performing employee leaves the organization.[1] Dysfunctional turnover can be potentially costly to an organization, and could be the result of a more appealing job offer or lack of opportunities in career advancement. Too much turnover is not only costly, but it can also give an organization a bad reputation. However, there is also good turnover, which occurs when an organization finds a better fit with a new employee in a certain position. Good turnover can also transpire when an employee has outgrown opportunities within a certain organization and must move forward with his or her career in a new organization.[6]

text: Turnover as with the non resolution of an employee asset issue (E.g. Cyber : Opportunity & risk) and their course of work in the digital era.

text: Costs[edit]

text: When accounting for the costs (both real costs, such as time taken to select and recruit a replacement, and also opportunity costs, such as lost productivity), the cost of employee turnover to for-profit organizations has been estimated to be between 30% (the figure used by the American Management Association) to upwards of 150% of the employees' remuneration package.[7] There are both direct and indirect costs. Direct costs relate to the leaving costs, replacement costs and transitions costs, and indirect costs relate to the loss of production, reduced performance levels, unnecessary overtime and low morale. The true cost of turnover is going to depend on a number of variables including ease or difficulty in filling the position and the nature of the job itself. Estimating the costs of turnover within an organization can be a worthwhile exercise, especially since “turnover costs” are unlikely to appear in an organization’s balance sheets. Some of the direct costs can be readily calculated, while the indirect costs can often be more difficult to determine and may require “educated guesses.” Nevertheless, calculating even a rough idea of the total expenses relating to turnover can spur action planning within an organization to improve the work environment and reduce turnover. Surveying employees at the time they leave an organization can also be an effective approach to understanding the drivers of turnover within a particular organization.[8]

text: In a healthcare context, staff turnover has been associated with worse patient outcomes.[9]

text: Internal versus external[edit]

text: Like recruitment, turnover can be classified as "internal" or "external".[10] Internal turnover involves employees leaving their current positions and taking new positions within the same organization. Both positive (such as increased morale from the change of task and supervisor) and negative (such as project/relational disruption, or the Peter Principle) effects of internal turnover exist, and therefore, it may be equally important to monitor this form of turnover as it is to monitor its external counterpart. Internal turnover might be moderated and controlled by typical HR mechanisms, such as an internal recruitment policy or formal succession planning.

text: Internal turnover, called internal transfers, is generally considered an opportunity to help employees in their career growth while minimizing the more costly external turnover. A large amount of internal transfers leaving a particular department or division may signal problems in that area unless the position is a designated stepping stone position.

text: Skilled vs. unskilled employees[edit]

text: Unskilled positions often have high turnover, and employees can generally be replaced without the organization or business incurring any loss of performance.[citation needed] The ease of replacing these employees provides little incentive to employers to offer generous employment contracts; conversely, contracts may strongly favour the employer and lead to increased turnover as employees seek, and eventually find, more favorable employment.

text: Voluntary versus involuntary[edit]

text: Practitioners can differentiate between instances of voluntary turnover, initiated at the choice of the employee, and involuntary turnover initiated by the employer due to poor performance or reduction in force (RIF).

text: The US Bureau of Labor Statistics uses the term "Quits" to mean voluntary turnover and "Total Separations" for the combination of voluntary and involuntary turnover.

text: Causes of high or low turnover[edit]

text: High turnover often means that employees are dissatisfied with their jobs, especially when it is relatively easy to find a new one.[11] It can also indicate unsafe or unhealthy conditions, or that too few employees give satisfactory performance (due to unrealistic expectations, inappropriate processes or tools, or poor candidate screening). The lack of career opportunities and challenges, dissatisfaction with the job-scope or conflict with the management have been cited as predictors of high turnover.

text: Each company has its own unique turnover drivers so companies must continually work to identify the issues that cause turnover in their company. Further the causes of attrition vary within a company such that causes for turnover in one department might be very different from the causes of turnover in another department. Companies can use exit interviews to find out why employees are leaving and the problems they encountered in the workplace.

text: Low turnover indicates that none of the above is true: employees are satisfied, healthy and safe, and their performance is satisfactory to the employer. However, the predictors of low turnover may sometimes differ than those of high turnover. Aside from the fore-mentioned career opportunities, salary, corporate culture, management's recognition, and a comfortable workplace seem to impact employees' decision to stay with their employer.

text: Many psychological and management theories exist regarding the types of job content which is intrinsically satisfying to employees and which, in turn, should minimise external voluntary turnover. Examples include Herzberg's two factor theory, McClelland's Theory of Needs, and Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model.[12]

text: Stress[edit]

text: Evidence suggests that distress is the major cause of turnover in organizations.[13]

text: Bullying[edit]

text: A number of studies report a positive relationship between bullying, intention to leave and high turnover. In some cases, the number people who actually leave is a “tip of the iceberg”. Many more who remain have considered leaving. In O’Connell et al.’s (2007) Irish study, 60% of respondents considered leaving whilst 15% actually left the organisation.[14] In a study of public-sector union members, approximately one in five workers reported having considered leaving the workplace as a result of witnessing bullying taking place. Rayner explained these figures by pointing to the presence of a climate of fear in which employees considered reporting to be unsafe, where bullies had “got away with it” previously despite management knowing of the presence of bullying.[14]

text: One can rather easily spot an office with a bullying problem - there is an exceptionally high rate of turnover. While not all places with high personnel turnover are sites of workplace bullying, nearly every place that has a bully in charge will have elevated staff turnover and absenteeism.[15]

text: Narcissism and psychopathy[edit]

text: According to Thomas, there tends to be a higher level of stress with people who work or interact with a narcissist, which in turn increases absenteeism and staff turnover.[16] Boddy finds the same dynamic where there is a corporate psychopath in the organisation.[17]

text: Investments[edit]

text: Low turnover may indicate the presence of employee "investments" (also known "side bets")[18] in their position: certain benefits may be enjoyed while the employee remains employed with the organization, which would be lost upon resignation (e.g., health insurance, discounted home loans, redundancy packages). Such employees would be expected to demonstrate lower intent to leave than if such "side bets" were not present.

text: Perceptions of injustice and unfairness[edit]

text: Research suggests that organizational justice plays a significant role in an employee’s intention to exit an organization. Perceptions of fairness are antecedents and determinants of turnover intention, especially in how employees are treated, outcomes are distributed fairly, and processes and procedures are consistently followed.[19]

text: How to prevent[edit]

text: Employees are important in any running of a business; without them the business would be unsuccessful. However, more and more employers today are finding that employees remain for approximately 23 to 24 months, according to the 2006 Bureau of Labor Statistics[citation needed]. The Employment Policy Foundation states that it costs a company an average of $15,000 per employee, which includes separation costs, including paperwork, unemployment; vacancy costs, including overtime or temporary employees; and replacement costs including advertisement, interview time, relocation, training, and decreased productivity when colleagues depart. Providing a stimulating workplace environment, which fosters happy, motivated and empowered individuals, lowers employee turnover and absentee rates.[20] Promoting a work environment that fosters personal and professional growth promotes harmony and encouragement on all levels, so the effects are felt company wide.[20]

text: Continual training and reinforcement develops a work force that is competent, consistent, competitive, effective and efficient.[20] Beginning on the first day of work, providing the individual with the necessary skills to perform their job is important.[21] Before the first day, it is important the interview and hiring process expose new hires to an explanation of the company, so individuals know whether the job is their best choice.[22] Networking and strategizing within the company provides ongoing performance management and helps build relationships among co-workers.[22] It is also important to motivate employees to focus on customer success, profitable growth and the company well-being .[22] Employers can keep their employees informed and involved by including them in future plans, new purchases, policy changes, as well as introducing new employees to the employees who have gone above and beyond in meetings.[22] Early engagement and engagement along the way, shows employees they are valuable through information or recognition rewards, making them feel included.[22]

text: When companies hire the best people, new talent hired and veterans are enabled to reach company goals, maximizing the investment of each employee.[22] Taking the time to listen to employees and making them feel involved will create loyalty, in turn reducing turnover allowing for growth.[23]

text: Calculation[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Labour turnover is equal to the number of employees leaving, divided by the average total number of employees (in order to give a percentage value). The number of employees leaving and the total number of employees are measured over one calendar year.

text:
Labour Turnover

=

NELDY
(NEBY + NEEY)/2

{\displaystyle {\mbox{Labour Turnover}}={\frac {\mbox{NELDY}}{\mbox{(NEBY + NEEY)/2}}}}

text:
Where:
NELDY = Number of Employees who Left During the Year
NEBY = Number of Employees at the Beginning of the Year
NEEY = Number of Employees at the End of the Year

text: For example, at the start of the year a business had 40 employees, but during the year 9 staff resigned with 2 new hires, thus leaving 33 staff members at the end of the year. Hence this year's turnover is 25%. This is derived from, (9/((40+33)/2)) = 25%. However the above formula should be applied with caution if data is grouped. For example, if attrition rate is calculated for Employees with tenure 1 to 4 years, above formula may result artificially inflated attrition rate as employees with tenure more than 4 years are not counted in the denominator.

text: Models[edit]

text: Over the years there have been thousands of research articles exploring the various aspects of turnover,[24] and in due course several models of employee turnover have been promulgated. The first model, and by far the one attaining most attention from researchers, was put forward in 1958 by March & Simon. After this model there have been several efforts to extend the concept. Since 1958 the following models of employee turnover have been published.

text:
March and Simon (1958) Process Model of Turnover
Porter & Steers (1973) Met Expectations Model
Price (1977) Causal Model of Turnover
Mobley (1977) Intermediate Linkages Model
Hom and Griffeth (1991) Alternative Linkages Model of Turnover
Whitmore (1979) Inverse Gaussian Model for Labour Turnover
Steers and Mowday (1981) Turnover Model
Sheridan & Abelson (1983) Cusp Catastrophe Model of Employee Turnover
Jackofsky (1984) Integrated Process Model
Lee et al. (1991) Unfolding Model of Voluntary Employee Turnover[25]
Aquino et al. (1997) Referent Cognitions Model
Mitchell & Lee (2001) Job Embeddedness Model


document_title: Vice President of India

question_text: the term of vice president of india is

question_tokens: the term of vice president of india is

root

text: Vice President of India

text: Election, Oath and Term[edit]

text: Qualifications[edit]

text: As in the case of the President, in order to be qualified to be elected as Vice-President, a person must:

tag: p

text:
Have completed more than 35 years of age
Not hold any office of profit

tag: ul

text: While in order to be a President, a person must be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha (House of Peoples), the Vice-President must be qualified for election as a member of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).[2] This difference is because the Vice-President is to act as the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

text: Election[edit]

text: The Vice-President is elected indirectly, by an electoral college consisting of members {elected as well as nominated} of both houses of the Parliament. The election of the Vice-President is slightly different from the election of the President as the members of state legislatures are not part of the electoral college but the nominated members of both the houses are part of electoral college for the vice-presidential election.

text: The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the Vice-President must be subscribed by at least 20 electors as proposers and 20 electors as seconders. Every candidate has to make a security deposit of Rs.15,000 in the Reserve Bank of India. The Election Commission of India, which is a constitutional autonomous body, conducts the election. The election is to be held no later than 60 days of the expiry of the term of office of the outgoing Vice-President. A Returning Officer is appointed for the election, usually the Secretary-General of either House of the Parliament, by rotation. The Returning Officer issues a public notice of the intended election, inviting nomination of candidates. Any person qualified to be elected and intending to stand for election is required to be nominated by at least twenty Members of Parliament as proposers, and at least twenty other Members of Parliament as seconders. The nomination papers are scrutinized by the Returning Officer, and the names of all eligible candidates are added to the ballot.

text: The election is proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote by secret ballot. Voters stack-rank the candidates, assigning 1 to their first preference, 2 to their second preference, and so on. The number of votes required by a candidate to secure the election is calculated by dividing the total number of votes by two, and adding one to the quotient by disregarding any remainder. If no candidate obtains the required number of first-preference votes, the candidate with the least number of first-preference votes is eliminated and his/her second-preference votes are transferred. The process is repeated until a candidate obtains the requisite number of votes. Nominated members can also participate in the election.[4]

text: After the election has been held and the votes counted, the Returning Officer declares the result of the election to the electoral college. Thereafter, he/she reports the result to the Central Government (Ministry of Law and Justice) and the Election Commission of India and the Central Government publishes the name of the person elected as Vice-President, in the Official Gazette.

text: The Vice-President may resign his office by submitting his resignation to the President. The resignation becomes effective from the day it is accepted.

text: Election disputes[edit]

text: All disputes arising in connection with the election of the Vice-President are petitioned to the Supreme Court of India, which inquires into the matter. The petition is heard by a five-member bench of the Supreme Court, which decides on the matter. The decision of the Supreme Court is final.[4]

text: Supreme Court shall inquire and decide regarding doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the election of a Vice-President per Article 71(1) of the constitution. Supreme Court can remove the Vice-President for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be Rajya Sabha member under the Representation of the People Act, 1951.[5] Subject to Article 71 (3), Parliament made applicable rules/procedure to petition the Supreme Court for resolving the disputes only that arise during the election process of the vice-president but not the doubts that arise from his unconstitutional actions/deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of vice-president which may violate the requisite election qualifications.[6] Supreme Court shall also expeditiously decide any doubt raised by which the elected vice-president could be ineligible to be Rajya Sabha member for the unconstitutional acts committed before becoming vice-president.

text: Oath or Affirmation[edit]

text:
The article 69 of the Constitution of India provides the Oath or Affirmation for the Office of Vice President as follows:-
"I, ________ do swear in the name of God/solemnly affirm that I will bear true faith and allegiance to solemnly affirm the Constitution of India as by law established and that I will faithfully discharge the duty upon which I am about to enter."
The President administers the oath of office and secrecy to the Vice-President.

text: Term[edit]

text: The Vice-President holds office for five years. The Vice-President can be re-elected any number of times. However, the office may be terminated earlier by death, resignation or removal. The Constitution does not provide a mechanism of succession to the office of Vice-President in the event of an extraordinary vacancy, apart from a re-election. However, the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha can perform the Vice-President's duties as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha in such an event.

text: Removal[edit]

text: The Constitution states that the Vice-President can be removed by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an effective majority (50% of effective strength of house, here effective strength equals the total number strength minus the number of vacancies) and a simple majority (50% of total members who are present and voting) of the Lok Sabha (Article 67(b)).[7] But no such resolution may be moved unless at least 14 days' advance notice has been given. Notably, the Constitution does not list grounds for removal. No Vice-President or ex officio Vice-President has ever faced removal proceedings.[8]

text: The omissions in the procedure committed by the chairman or the deputy chairman in the Rajya Sabha cannot be challenged in the court of law per Article 122[9]

text: Salary and pension[edit]

text: There is no provision for the salary of the Vice-President of India in that capacity. He or she receives a salary in the capacity as the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), which is currently Rs. 1,25,000 per month. In addition, he or she is entitled to a daily allowance, free furnished residence, medical, travel and other facilities. The constitution provides that when the ex officio Vice-President acts as the President or discharges the duties of the President, he or she is entitled to the salary and privileges of the President. The pension for the Vice-President is 50% of the salary.[10][dead link]

text: List of Vice Presidents of India[edit]


document_title: Collective bargaining

question_text: who had used the term collective bargaining for the first time

text: Collective bargaining

text: History[edit]

text: The term "collective bargaining" was first used in 1891 by Beatrice Webb, a founder of the field of industrial relations in Britain.[2] It refers to the sort of collective negotiations and agreements that had existed since the rise of trade unions during the 18th century.

text: In the United States, the National Labor Relations Act of 1935  made it illegal for any employer to deny union rights to an employee. The issue of unionizing government employees in a public-sector trade union was much more controversial until the 1950s. In 1962 President John F. Kennedy issued an executive order granting federal employees the right to unionize.

text: An issue of jurisdiction surfaced in National Labor Relations Board v. Catholic Bishop of Chicago (1979) when the Supreme Court held that the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) could not assert jurisdiction over a church-operated school because such jurisdiction would violate the First Amendment establishment of freedom of religion and the separation of church of state.[3]

text: International protection[edit]

text:
...where free unions and collective bargaining are forbidden, freedom is lost.[4]
Ronald Reagan, Labor Day Speech at Liberty State Park, 1980

tag: div

text: The right to collectively bargain is recognized through international human rights conventions. Article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights identifies the ability to organize trade unions as a fundamental human right.[5]  Item 2(a) of the International Labour Organization's Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work defines the "freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining" as an essential right of workers.[6] The Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (C087) and several other conventions specifically protect collective bargaining through the creation of international labour standards that discourage countries from violating workers' rights to associate and collectively bargain.[7]

text: In June 2007 the Supreme Court of Canada extensively reviewed the rationale for regarding collective bargaining as a human right. In the case of Facilities Subsector Bargaining Association v. British Columbia, the Court made the following observations:

text: The right to bargain collectively with an employer enhances the human dignity, liberty and autonomy of workers by giving them the opportunity to influence the establishment of workplace rules and thereby gain some control over a major aspect of their lives, namely their work… Collective bargaining is not simply an instrument for pursuing external ends…rather [it] is intrinsically valuable as an experience in self-government… Collective bargaining permits workers to achieve a form of workplace democracy and to ensure the rule of law in the workplace. Workers gain a voice to influence the establishment of rules that control a major aspect of their lives.[8]

text: Empirical findings[edit]

text:
Union members and other workers covered by collective agreements get, on average, a wage markup over their nonunionized (or uncovered) counterparts. Such a markup is typically 5 to 10 percent in industrial countries.[9]
Unions tend to equalize the income distribution, especially between skilled and unskilled workers.[9]
The welfare loss associated with unions is 0.2 to 0.5 of GDP, which is similar to monopolies in product markets.[9]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, the National Labor Relations Act (1935) covers most collective agreements in the private sector. This act makes it illegal for employers to discriminate, spy on, harass, or terminate the employment of workers because of their union membership or to retaliate against them for engaging in organizing campaigns or other "concerted activities," to form company unions, or to refuse to engage in collective bargaining with the union that represents their employees. It is also illegal to require any employee to join a union as a condition of employment.[10] Unions are also able to secure safe work conditions and equitable pay for their labor.

text: At a workplace where a majority of workers have voted for union representation, a committee of employees and union representatives negotiate a contract with the management regarding wages, hours, benefits, and other terms and conditions of employment, such as protection from termination of employment without just cause. Individual negotiation is prohibited. Once the workers' committee and management have agreed on a contract, it is then put to a vote of all workers at the workplace. If approved, the contract is usually in force for a fixed term of years, and when that term is up, it is then renegotiated between employees and management. Sometimes there are disputes over the union contract; this particularly occurs in cases of workers fired without just cause in a union workplace. These then go to arbitration, which is similar to an informal court hearing; a neutral arbitrator then rules whether the termination or other contract breach is extant, and if it is, orders that it be corrected.

text: In 24 U.S. states,[11] employees who are working in a unionized shop may be required to contribute towards the cost of representation (such as at disciplinary hearings) if their fellow employees have negotiated a union security clause in their contract with management. Dues are generally 1–2% of pay. However, union members and other workers covered by collective agreements get, on average, a 5-10% wage markup over their nonunionized (or uncovered) counterparts.[9]  Some states, especially in the south-central and south-eastern regions of the U.S., have outlawed union security clauses; this can cause controversy, as it allows some net beneficiaries of the union contract to avoid paying their portion of the costs of contract negotiation.  Regardless of state, the Supreme Court has held that the Act prevents a person's union dues from being used without consent to fund political causes that may be opposed to the individual's personal politics. Instead, in states where union security clauses are permitted, such dissenters may elect to pay only the proportion of dues which go directly toward representation of workers.[12]

text:
The industrial revolution brought a swell of labour organizing in the US.[citation needed] The American Federation of Labor was formed in 1886, providing unprecedented bargaining powers for a variety of workers.[13]
The Railway Labor Act (1926) required employers to bargain collectively with unions.

text: In 1931, the Supreme Court, in the case of Texas & N.O.R. Co. v. Brotherhood of Railway Clerks, upheld the act's prohibition of employer interference in the selection of bargaining representatives.[13] In 1962, President Kennedy signed an executive order giving public-employee unions the right to collectively bargain with federal government agencies.[13]

text: The Office of Labor-Management Standards, part of the United States Department of Labor, is required to collect all collective bargaining agreements covering 1,000 or more workers, excluding those involving railroads and airlines.[14] They provide public access to these collections through their website.

text: OECD[edit]

text: Only one in three OECD employees have wages which were agreed on through collective bargaining. The organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, with its 36 members, has become an outspoken proponent for collective bargaining as a way to ensure that the falling unemployment also leads to higher wages.[15]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden the coverage of collective agreements is very high despite the absence of legal mechanisms to extend agreements to whole industries. In 2016, 84% of all private sector employees were covered by collective agreements, 100% of public sector employees and in all 90% (referring to the whole labor market).[16] This reflects the dominance of self-regulation (regulation by the labour market parties themselves) over state regulation in Swedish industrial relations.[17]


document_title: Red blood cell

question_text: where do red blood cells die in the body

question_tokens: where do red blood cells die in the body

text: Red blood cell

text: Structure

text: Vertebrates

text: Almost all vertebrates, including all mammals and humans, have red blood cells. Red blood cells are cells present in blood in order to transport oxygen. The only known vertebrates without red blood cells are the crocodile icefish (family Channichthyidae); they live in very oxygen-rich cold water and transport oxygen freely dissolved in their blood.[8] While they no longer use hemoglobin, remnants of hemoglobin genes can be found in their genome.[9]

text: Vertebrate red blood cells consist mainly of hemoglobin, a complex metalloprotein containing heme groups whose iron atoms temporarily bind to oxygen molecules (O2) in the lungs or gills and release them throughout the body. Oxygen can easily diffuse through the red blood cell's cell membrane. Hemoglobin in the red blood cells also carries some of the waste product carbon dioxide back from the tissues; most waste carbon dioxide, however, is transported back to the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs as bicarbonate (HCO3−) dissolved in the blood plasma. Myoglobin, a compound related to hemoglobin, acts to store oxygen in muscle cells.[10]

text: The color of red blood cells is due to the heme group of hemoglobin. The blood plasma alone is straw-colored, but the red blood cells change color depending on the state of the hemoglobin: when combined with oxygen the resulting oxyhemoglobin is scarlet, and when oxygen has been released the resulting deoxyhemoglobin is of a dark red burgundy color. However, blood can appear bluish when seen through the vessel wall and skin.[11] Pulse oximetry takes advantage of the hemoglobin color change to directly measure the arterial blood oxygen saturation using colorimetric techniques. Hemoglobin also has a very high affinity for carbon monoxide, forming carboxyhemoglobin which is a very bright red in color. Flushed, confused patients with a saturation reading of 100% on pulse oximetry are sometimes found to be suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning.

text: Having oxygen-carrying proteins inside specialized cells (as opposed to oxygen carriers being dissolved in body fluid) was an important step in the evolution of vertebrates as it allows for less viscous blood, higher concentrations of oxygen, and better diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the tissues. The size of red blood cells varies widely among vertebrate species; red blood cell width is on average about 25% larger than capillary diameter, and it has been hypothesized that this improves the oxygen transfer from red blood cells to tissues.[12]

text: Mammals

text: The red blood cells of mammals are typically shaped as biconcave disks: flattened and depressed in the center, with a dumbbell-shaped cross section, and a torus-shaped rim on the edge of the disk. This distinctive biconcave shape optimises the flow properties of blood in the large vessels, such as maximization of laminar flow and minimization of platelet scatter, which suppresses their atherogenic activity in those large vessels.[13] Moreover, this shape allows for a high surface-area-to-volume (SA/V) ratio to facilitate diffusion of gases.[14] However, there are some exceptions concerning shape in the artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulates including cattle, deer, and their relatives), which displays a wide variety of bizarre red blood cell morphologies: small and highly ovaloid cells in llamas and camels (family Camelidae), tiny spherical cells in mouse deer (family Tragulidae), and cells which assume fusiform, lanceolate, crescentic, and irregularly polygonal and other angular forms in red deer and wapiti (family Cervidae). Members of this order have clearly evolved a mode of red blood cell development substantially different from the mammalian norm.[7][15] Overall, mammalian red blood cells are remarkably flexible and deformable so as to squeeze through tiny capillaries, as well as to maximize their apposing surface by assuming a cigar shape, where they efficiently release their oxygen load.[16]

text: Red blood cells in mammals are unique amongst vertebrates as they do not have nuclei when mature. Red blood cells of mammals cells have nuclei during early phases of erythropoiesis, but extrude them during development as they mature in order to provide more space for hemoglobin. The red blood cells without nuclei, called reticulocytes, go on to lose all other cellular organelles such as their mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.

text: The spleen acts as a reservoir of red blood cells, but this effect is somewhat limited in humans. In some other mammals such as dogs and horses, the spleen sequesters large numbers of red blood cells which are dumped into the blood during times of exertion stress, yielding a higher oxygen transport capacity.

text: Human

text: A typical human red blood cell has a disk diameter of approximately 6.2–8.2 µm[17] and a thickness at the thickest point of 2–2.5 µm and a minimum thickness in the centre of 0.8–1 µm, being much smaller than most other human cells. These cells have an average volume of about 90 fL[18] with a surface of about 136 μm2, and can swell up to a sphere shape containing 150 fL, without membrane distension.

text: Adult humans have roughly 20–30 trillion red blood cells at any given time, constituting approximately 70% all cells by number.[19] Women have about 4–5 million red blood cells per microliter (cubic millimeter) of blood and men about 5–6 million; people living at high altitudes with low oxygen tension will have more. Red blood cells are thus much more common than the other blood particles: there are about 4,000–11,000 white blood cells and about 150,000–400,000 platelets per microliter.

text: Human red blood cells take on average 60 seconds to complete one cycle of circulation.[3][5][20]

text: The blood's red color is due to the spectral properties of the hemic iron ions in hemoglobin. Each human red blood cell contains approximately 270 million[citation needed] of these hemoglobin molecules. Each hemoglobin molecule carries four heme groups; hemoglobin constitutes about a third of the total cell volume. Hemoglobin is responsible for the transport of more than 98% of the oxygen in the body (the remaining oxygen is carried dissolved in the blood plasma). The red blood cells of an average adult human male store collectively about 2.5 grams of iron, representing about 65% of the total iron contained in the body.[21][22]

text: Microstructure

text: Nucleus

text: Red blood cells in mammals anucleate when mature, meaning that they lack a cell nucleus. In comparison, the red blood cells of other vertebrates have nuclei; the only known exceptions are salamanders of the Batrachoseps genus and fish of the Maurolicus genus with closely related species.[23][24]

text: The elimination of the nucleus in vertebrate red blood cells has been offered as an explanation for the subsequent accumulation of non-coding DNA in the genome.[25] The argument runs as follows: Efficient gas transport requires red blood cells to pass through very narrow capillaries, and this constrains their size. In the absence of nuclear elimination, the accumulation of repeat sequences is constrained by the volume occupied by the nucleus, which increases with genome size.

text: Nucleated red blood cells in mammals consist of two forms: normoblasts, which are normal erythropoietic precursors to mature red blood cells, and megaloblasts, which are abnormally large precursors that occur in megaloblastic anemias.

text: Membrane composition

text: Red blood cells are deformable, flexible, are able to adhere to other cells, and are able to interface with immune cells. Their membrane plays many roles in this. These functions are highly dependent on the membrane composition. The red blood cell membrane is composed of 3 layers: the glycocalyx on the exterior, which is rich in carbohydrates; the lipid bilayer which contains many transmembrane proteins, besides its lipidic main constituents; and the membrane skeleton, a structural network of proteins located on the inner surface of the lipid bilayer. Half of the membrane mass in human and most mammalian red blood cells are proteins. The other half are lipids, namely phospholipids and cholesterol.[26]

text: Membrane lipids

text: The red blood cell cell membrane comprises a typical lipid bilayer, similar to what can be found in virtually all human cells. Simply put, this lipid bilayer is composed of cholesterol and phospholipids in equal proportions by weight. The lipid composition is important as it defines many physical properties such as membrane permeability and fluidity. Additionally, the activity of many membrane proteins is regulated by interactions with lipids in the bilayer.

text: Unlike cholesterol, which is evenly distributed between the inner and outer leaflets, the 5 major phospholipids are asymmetrically disposed, as shown below:

text: Outer monolayer

text:
Phosphatidylcholine (PC);
Sphingomyelin (SM).

text: Inner monolayer

text:
Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE);
Phosphoinositol (PI) (small amounts).
Phosphatidylserine (PS);

text: This asymmetric phospholipid distribution among the bilayer is the result of the function of several energy-dependent and energy-independent phospholipid transport proteins. Proteins called “Flippases” move phospholipids from the outer to the inner monolayer, while others called “floppases” do the opposite operation, against a concentration gradient in an energy dependent manner. Additionally, there are also “scramblase” proteins that move phospholipids in both directions at the same time, down their concentration gradients in an energy independent manner. There is still considerable debate ongoing regarding the identity of these membrane maintenance proteins in the red cell membrane.

text: The maintenance of an asymmetric phospholipid distribution in the bilayer (such as an exclusive localization of PS and PIs in the inner monolayer) is critical for the cell integrity and function due to several reasons:

text:
Macrophages recognize and phagocytose red cells that expose PS at their outer surface. Thus the confinement of PS in the inner monolayer is essential if the cell is to survive its frequent encounters with macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system, especially in the spleen.
Premature destruction of thallassemic and sickle red cells has been linked to disruptions of lipid asymmetry leading to exposure of PS on the outer monolayer.
An exposure of PS can potentiate adhesion of red cells to vascular endothelial cells, effectively preventing normal transit through the microvasculature. Thus it is important that PS is maintained only in the inner leaflet of the bilayer to ensure normal blood flow in microcirculation.
Both PS and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) can regulate membrane mechanical function, due to their interactions with skeletal proteins such as spectrin and protein 4.1R. Recent studies have shown that binding of spectrin to PS promotes membrane mechanical stability. PIP2 enhances the binding of protein band 4.1R to glycophorin C but decreases its interaction with protein band 3, and thereby may modulate the linkage of the bilayer to the membrane skeleton.

text: The presence of specialized structures named "lipid rafts" in the red blood cell membrane have been described by recent studies. These are structures enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids associated with specific membrane proteins, namely flotillins, stomatins (band 7), G-proteins, and β-adrenergic receptors. Lipid rafts that have been implicated in cell signaling events in nonerythroid cells have been shown in erythroid cells to mediate β2-adregenic receptor signaling and increase cAMP levels, and thus regulating entry of malarial parasites into normal red cells.[27][28]

text: Membrane proteins

text: The proteins of the membrane skeleton are responsible for the deformability, flexibility and durability of the red blood cell, enabling it to squeeze through capillaries less than half the diameter of the red blood cell (7–8 μm) and recovering the discoid shape as soon as these cells stop receiving compressive forces, in a similar fashion to an object made of rubber.

text: There are currently more than 50 known membrane proteins, which can exist in a few hundred up to a million copies per red blood cell. Approximately 25 of these membrane proteins carry the various blood group antigens, such as the A, B and Rh antigens, among many others. These membrane proteins can perform a wide diversity of functions, such as transporting ions and molecules across the red cell membrane, adhesion and interaction with other cells such as endothelial cells, as signaling receptors, as well as other currently unknown functions. The blood types of humans are due to variations in surface glycoproteins of red blood cells. Disorders of the proteins in these membranes are associated with many disorders, such as hereditary spherocytosis, hereditary elliptocytosis, hereditary stomatocytosis, and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria.[26][27]

text: The red blood cell membrane proteins organized according to their function:

text: Transport

text:
Band 3 – Anion transporter, also an important structural component of the red blood cell cell membrane, makes up to 25% of the cell membrane surface, each red cell contains approximately one million copies. Defines the Diego Blood Group;[30]
Aquaporin 1 – water transporter, defines the Colton Blood Group;
Glut1 – glucose and L-dehydroascorbic acid transporter;
Kidd antigen protein – urea transporter;
RhAG – gas transporter, probably of carbon dioxide, defines Rh Blood Group and the associated unusual blood group phenotype Rhnull;
Na+/K+ – ATPase;
Ca2+ – ATPase;
Na+ K+ 2Cl− – cotransporter;
Na+-Cl− – cotransporter;
Na-H exchanger;
K-Cl – cotransporter;
Gardos Channel.

text: Cell adhesion

text:
ICAM-4 – interacts with integrins;
BCAM – a glycoprotein that defines the Lutheran blood group and also known as Lu or laminin-binding protein.

text: Structural role – The following membrane proteins establish linkages with skeletal proteins and may play an important role in regulating cohesion between the lipid bilayer and membrane skeleton, likely enabling the red cell to maintain its favorable membrane surface area by preventing the membrane from collapsing (vesiculating).

text:
Ankyrin-based macromolecular complex – proteins linking the bilayer to the membrane skeleton through the interaction of their cytoplasmic domains with Ankyrin.

Band 3 – also assembles various glycolytic enzymes, the presumptive CO2 transporter, and carbonic anhydrase into a macromolecular complex termed a "metabolon," which may play a key role in regulating red cell metabolism and ion and gas transport function);
RhAG – also involved in transport, defines associated unusual blood group phenotype Rhmod.

Protein 4.1R-based macromolecular complex – proteins interacting with Protein 4.1R.

Protein 4.1R – weak expression of Gerbich antigens;
Glycophorin C and D – glycoprotein, defines Gerbich Blood Group;
XK – defines the Kell Blood Group and the Mcleod unusual phenotype (lack of Kx antigen and greatly reduced expression of Kell antigens);
RhD/RhCE – defines Rh Blood Group and the associated unusual blood group phenotype Rhnull;
Duffy protein – has been proposed to be associated with chemokine clearance;[31]
Adducin – interaction with band 3;
Dematin- interaction with the Glut1 glucose transporter.

text: Surface electrostatic potential

text: The zeta potential is an electrochemical property of cell surfaces that is determined by the net electrical charge of molecules exposed at the surface of cell membranes of the cell. The normal zeta potential of the red blood cell is −15.7 millivolts (mV).[32] Much of this potential appears to be contributed by the exposed sialic acid residues in the membrane: their removal results in zeta potential of −6.06 mV.

text: Function

text: Secondary functions

text: When red blood cells undergo shear stress in constricted vessels, they release ATP, which causes the vessel walls to relax and dilate so as to promote normal blood flow.[33]

text: When their hemoglobin molecules are deoxygenated, red blood cells release S-nitrosothiols, which also act to dilate blood vessels,[34] thus directing more blood to areas of the body depleted of oxygen.

text: Red blood cells can also synthesize nitric oxide enzymatically, using L-arginine as substrate, as do endothelial cells.[35] Exposure of red blood cells to physiological levels of shear stress activates nitric oxide synthase and export of nitric oxide,[36] which may contribute to the regulation of vascular tonus.

text: Red blood cells can also produce hydrogen sulfide, a signalling gas that acts to relax vessel walls. It is believed that the cardioprotective effects of garlic are due to red blood cells converting its sulfur compounds into hydrogen sulfide.[37]

text: Red blood cells also play a part in the body's immune response: when lysed by pathogens such as bacteria, their hemoglobin releases free radicals, which break down the pathogen's cell wall and membrane, killing it.[38][39]

text: Cellular processes

text: As a result of not containing mitochondria, red blood cells use none of the oxygen they transport; instead they produce the energy carrier ATP by the glycolysis of glucose and lactic acid fermentation on the resulting pyruvate.[40][41] Furthermore the pentose phosphate pathway plays an important role in red blood cells; see glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency for more.

text: As red blood cells contain no nucleus, protein biosynthesis is currently assumed to be absent in these cells.

text: Because of the lack of nuclei and organelles, mature red blood cells do not contain DNA and cannot synthesize any RNA, and consequently cannot divide and have limited repair capabilities.[42] The inability to carry out protein synthesis means that no virus can evolve to target mammalian red blood cells.[43] However, infection with parvoviruses (such as human parvovirus B19) can affect erythroid precursors, as recognized by the presence of giant pronormoblasts with viral particles and inclusion bodies, thus temporarily depleting the blood of reticulocytes and causing anemia.[44]

text: Life cycle

text: Human red blood cells are produced through a process named erythropoiesis, developing from committed stem cells to mature red blood cells in about 7 days. When matured, in a healthy individual these cells live in blood circulation for about 100 to 120 days (and 80 to 90 days in a full term infant).[45] At the end of their lifespan, they are removed from circulation. In many chronic diseases, the lifespan of the red blood cells is reduced.

text: Creation

text: Erythropoiesis is the process by which new red blood cells are produced; it lasts about 7 days. Through this process red blood cells are continuously produced in the red bone marrow of large bones. (In the embryo, the liver is the main site of red blood cell production.) The production can be stimulated by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), synthesised by the kidney. Just before and after leaving the bone marrow, the developing cells are known as reticulocytes; these constitute about 1% of circulating red blood cells.

text: Functional lifetime

text: The functional lifetime of an red blood cell is about 100–120 days, during which time the red blood cells are continually moved by the blood flow push (in arteries), pull (in veins) and a combination of the two as they squeeze through microvessels such as capillaries. They are also recycled in the bone marrow.[46]

text: Senescence

text: The aging red blood cell undergoes changes in its plasma membrane, making it susceptible to selective recognition by macrophages and subsequent phagocytosis in the mononuclear phagocyte system (spleen, liver and lymph nodes), thus removing old and defective cells and continually purging the blood. This process is termed eryptosis, red blood cell programmed cell death.[47] This process normally occurs at the same rate of production by erythropoiesis, balancing the total circulating red blood cell count. Eryptosis is increased in a wide variety of diseases including sepsis, haemolytic uremic syndrome, malaria, sickle cell anemia, beta-thalassemia, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, phosphate depletion, iron deficiency and Wilson's disease. Eryptosis can be elicited by osmotic shock, oxidative stress, energy depletion as well as a wide variety of endogenous mediators and xenobiotics. Excessive eryptosis is observed in red blood cells lacking the cGMP-dependent protein kinase type I or the AMP-activated protein kinase AMPK. Inhibitors of eryptosis include erythropoietin, nitric oxide, catecholamines and high concentrations of urea.

text: Much of the resulting breakdown products are recirculated in the body. The heme constituent of hemoglobin are broken down into iron (Fe3+) and biliverdin. The biliverdin is reduced to bilirubin, which is released into the plasma and recirculated to the liver bound to albumin. The iron is released into the plasma to be recirculated by a carrier protein called transferrin. Almost all red blood cells are removed in this manner from the circulation before they are old enough to hemolyze. Hemolyzed hemoglobin is bound to a protein in plasma called haptoglobin, which is not excreted by the kidney.[48]

text: Clinical significance

text: Disease

text: Blood diseases involving the red blood cells include:

text: Anemias (or anaemias) are diseases characterized by low oxygen transport capacity of the blood, because of low red cell count or some abnormality of the red blood cells or the hemoglobin.

text: Iron deficiency anemia is the most common anemia; it occurs when the dietary intake or absorption of iron is insufficient, and hemoglobin, which contains iron, cannot be formed

text: Sickle-cell disease is a genetic disease that results in abnormal hemoglobin molecules. When these release their oxygen load in the tissues, they become insoluble, leading to mis-shaped red blood cells. These sickle shaped red cells are less deformable and viscoelastic meaning that they have become rigid and can cause blood vessel blockage, pain, strokes, and other tissue damage.

text: Thalassemia is a genetic disease that results in the production of an abnormal ratio of hemoglobin subunits.

text: Hereditary spherocytosis syndromes are a group of inherited disorders characterized by defects in the red blood cell's cell membrane, causing the cells to be small, sphere-shaped, and fragile instead of donut-shaped and flexible. These abnormal red blood cells are destroyed by the spleen. Several other hereditary disorders of the red blood cell membrane are known.[49]

text: Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune disease wherein the body lacks intrinsic factor, required to absorb vitamin B12 from food. Vitamin B12 is needed for the production of hemoglobin.

text: Aplastic anemia is caused by the inability of the bone marrow to produce blood cells.

text: Pure red cell aplasia is caused by the inability of the bone marrow to produce only red blood cells.

text: Hemolysis is the general term for excessive breakdown of red blood cells. It can have several causes and can result in hemolytic anemia.

text: The malaria parasite spends part of its life-cycle in red blood cells, feeds on their hemoglobin and then breaks them apart, causing fever. Both sickle-cell disease and thalassemia are more common in malaria areas, because these mutations convey some protection against the parasite.

text: Polycythemias (or erythrocytoses) are diseases characterized by a surplus of red blood cells. The increased viscosity of the blood can cause a number of symptoms.

text: In polycythemia vera the increased number of red blood cells results from an abnormality in the bone marrow.

text: Several microangiopathic diseases, including disseminated intravascular coagulation and thrombotic microangiopathies, present with pathognomonic (diagnostic) red blood cell fragments called schistocytes. These pathologies generate fibrin strands that sever red blood cells as they try to move past a thrombus.

text: Transfusion

text: Red blood cells may be given as part of a blood transfusion. Blood may be donated from another person, or stored by the recipient at an earlier date. Donated blood usually requires screening to ensure that donors do not contain risk factors for the presence of blood-borne diseases, or will not suffer themselves by giving blood. Blood is usually collected and tested for common or serious Blood-borne diseases including Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV. The blood type (A, B, AB, or O) or the blood product is identified. This relates to the presence of antigens on the cell's surface. After this process, the blood is stored, and within a short duration is used. Blood can be given as a whole product or the red blood cells separated as packed red blood cells.

text: Blood is often transfused when there is known anaemia, active bleeding, or when there is an expectation of serious blood loss, such as prior to an operation. Before blood is given, a small sample of the recipient's blood is tested with the transfusion in a process known as cross-matching. In addition to the transmission of infection, certain types of transfusion reaction.

text: In 2008 it was reported that human embryonic stem cells had been successfully coaxed into becoming red blood cells in the lab. The difficult step was to induce the cells to eject their nucleus; this was achieved by growing the cells on stromal cells from the bone marrow. It is hoped that these artificial red blood cells can eventually be used for blood transfusions.[50]

text: Tests

text: Several blood tests involve red blood cells. These include a RBC count (the number of red blood cells per volume of blood), calculation of the hematocrit (percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells), and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. The blood type needs to be determined to prepare for a blood transfusion or an organ transplantation.

text: Many diseases involving red blood cells are diagnosed with a blood film (or peripheral blood smear), where a thin layer of blood is smeared on a microscope slide. This may reveal abnormalities of red blood cell shape and form. When red blood cells sometimes occur as a stack, flat side next to flat side. This is known as rouleaux formation, and it occurs more often if the levels of certain serum proteins are elevated, as for instance during inflammation.

text: Separation and blood doping

text: Red blood cells can be obtained from whole blood by centrifugation, which separates the cells from the blood plasma in a process known as blood fractionation. Packed red blood cells, which are made in this way from whole blood with the plasma removed, are used in transfusion medicine.[51] During plasma donation, the red blood cells are pumped back into the body right away and only the plasma is collected.

text: Some athletes have tried to improve their performance by blood doping: first about 1 litre of their blood is extracted, then the red blood cells are isolated, frozen and stored, to be reinjected shortly before the competition. (Red blood cells can be conserved for 5 weeks at −79 °C or −110 °F) This practice is hard to detect but may endanger the human cardiovascular system which is not equipped to deal with blood of the resulting higher viscosity. Another method of blood doping involves injection with erythropoietin in order to stimulate production of red blood cells. Both practices are banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency.

text: History

text: The first person to describe red blood cells was the young Dutch biologist Jan Swammerdam, who had used an early microscope in 1658 to study the blood of a frog.[52] Unaware of this work, Anton van Leeuwenhoek provided another microscopic description in 1674, this time providing a more precise description of red blood cells, even approximating their size, "25,000 times smaller than a fine grain of sand".

text: In 1901, Karl Landsteiner published his discovery of the three main blood groups—A, B, and C (which he later renamed to O). Landsteiner described the regular patterns in which reactions occurred when serum was mixed with red blood cells, thus identifying compatible and conflicting combinations between these blood groups. A year later Alfred von Decastello and Adriano Sturli, two colleagues of Landsteiner, identified a fourth blood group—AB.

text: In 1959, by use of X-ray crystallography, Dr. Max Perutz was able to unravel the structure of hemoglobin, the red blood cell protein that carries oxygen.[53]

text: The oldest intact red blood cells ever discovered were found in Ötzi the Iceman, a natural mummy of a man who died around 3255 BCE. These cells were discovered in May 2012.[54]


document_title: Country Strong

question_text: who does tim mcgraw play in country strong

text: Country Strong

text: Plot[edit]

text: Beau sings with Kelly, a recovering alcoholic going through rehab. He is clearly smitten by her, and it is later revealed that the two have been having an affair, even though Kelly is married to James. Kelly is checked out of rehab a month early by James, who wants her to go on a three-city tour to restore her image. She agrees on the condition that Beau becomes her opening act. James has already planned to see Chiles Stanton, a beauty queen with potential to become a rising singer, perform that night in hopes that she will be Kelly's opener instead.

text: On the night of Chiles' performance, Beau dismisses Chiles as a "Country Barbie" and does not want her on the tour. Chiles' performance nearly falls apart as she gets stage fright and can not sing; however, Beau steps in and begins to sing "Friends in Low Places". The two sing the song together, and it gives Chiles the courage to continue on her own. James is impressed by Beau's performance, and offers the opening act to both of them. He suggests that Beau and Chiles could make quite the duo, but Beau disagrees. Nevertheless, Beau agrees to go on the tour because he cares about Kelly.

text: The first show is a disaster: before going on, Kelly receives an anonymous package containing a bloody baby doll with a note reading "Baby Killer," referring to the baby Kelly miscarried when she fell off the stage in Dallas during her last concert before she went into rehab. At that concert, she was five months pregnant and was found to have a blood alcohol level of 0.19 when she was in the hospital for the injuries related to the fall. Kelly falls apart, starts drinking, and almost refuses to go on. However, she is coerced into going on stage by James. She begins to sing "Country Strong" but breaks down on stage. She attempts to try another song, "A Fighter", but breaks down again and is led off stage by her husband, ending the show. They tell the media at a press conference that they had to cancel the show due to food poisoning and head off to the next show.

text: Beau ends his relationship with Kelly, and begins to spend more time with Chiles, whose fame has been increasing as the tour progresses. Chiles and Beau form a bond and Beau lets go of his earlier hostilities towards her. She even finishes the chorus to his song "Give in to Me". Later, Beau confronts James about Kelly's worsening condition. James insists that Kelly may get better, and says that he can't let her go out with a failure. Beau disagrees and subtly admits their affair. Enraged, James punches him in the jaw.

text: Before the next show in Austin, Kelly is unable to go on stage after drinking. Beau and Chiles still do their opening act, where they perform "Give in to Me" for the first time together. JJ, Kelly's agent, nearly cancels the tour but is dissuaded by Kelly's offer of sex; having witnessed this, Beau becomes frustrated with Kelly. That same night, Chiles and Beau have sex, and Beau confesses to Chiles that he likes her. In Dallas, Beau gives Chiles a pair of star-shaped earrings and asks her to move with him to California. Chiles immediately agrees, but then asks for more time to consider the offer.

text: The two perform and Kelly comes out, this time sober and ready, and performs her entire set for the first time. Kelly performs "Country Strong", "Shake That Thing", and "Coming Home". After the concert, James and JJ immediately begin making plans for Kelly's future. That night, Kelly commits suicide by overdosing on prescription medication. She leaves a letter to Beau, echoing his earlier words that "Love and fame can't live in the same place." In the letter, she gives him the advice to choose "love". Beau takes her advice, and after Kelly's funeral, he moves to California.

text: Later on, Beau is singing in a bar in California, when Chiles walk in, wearing the earrings he gave her. They begin singing "Give in to Me" together.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gwyneth Paltrow as Kelly Canter
Tim McGraw as James Canter
Leighton Meester as Chiles Stanton
Garrett Hedlund as Beau Hutton
Marshall Chapman as Winnie
Lari White as Hair Stylist
Jeremy Childs as J.J.
Jim Lauderdale as Kelly's Bandmate
Amanda Shires as Kelly's Bandmate
Chris Scruggs as Beau's Bandmate

text: Production[edit]

text: With a budget of $15 million, pre-production work on the project began in November 2009.[2] Shana Feste was working as a nanny for Tobey Maguire, caring for his daughter, when she wrote the screenplay of Country Strong. She showed him her "work-in-progress" at his request and he agreed to co-produce the film.[3] She had real country stars in mind when she wrote the script.[4]

text: Garrett Hedlund took guitar lessons because he could not play the guitar nor sing before the film.[5] He explained: "When I read the script and started playing guitar I knew I wanted to get there. I mean I wasn't going to have a hand double come in and be playing the chords, having to have two different set ups just because I couldn't get it down."[6] Gwyneth Paltrow also took guitar lessons.[4] Paltrow stated she had trouble understanding her character's alcohol abuse and sought advice in playing the character from Robert Downey Jr, who has suffered from addiction in the past.[7] In interviews, Feste has said that American pop singer Britney Spears inspired Paltrow's character in the film.[8]

text: Principal photography took place in Nashville, Tennessee.[2] Locations used for the film include the Ryman Auditorium, the Union Station Hotel, Belle Meade Plantation, Mount Olivet Cemetery, the Nashville Municipal Auditorium, and the Andrew Jackson Hall.[9] Filming also took place in Liberty, Tennessee.[9] The film was shot in 2010 from early January to the first week of March.[2]

text: Release[edit]

text: On December 14, 2010, the official screening took place at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in Beverly Hills, California. It was attended by the film's stars and included Tim McGraw, Gwyneth Paltrow, Leighton Meester, Garrett Hedlund, and many other stars of Hollywood and country music.[10]

text: In the United States, the film received a wide release on January 7, 2011.[11]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Country Strong has received mixed to negative reviews. Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 22% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 130 reviews, with an average score of 4.5/10. However, Gwyneth Paltrow was praised for her role. The critical consensus is: "The cast gives it their all, and Paltrow handles her songs with aplomb, but Country Strong's cliched, disjointed screenplay hits too many bum notes."[12] Another review aggregate, Metacritic, gave the film a 45/100, indicating mixed or average reviews.

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film opened to a wide release on January 7, 2011, taking in $7.5 million and coming in sixth place that weekend.[13] It eventually grossed just $20.6 million, beating its $15 million budget.

text: Home Media[edit]

text: The film was released on DVD/Blu-ray on April 12, 2011. The special features include the soundtrack, deleted scenes, music videos, extended performances, the original ending, as well as featurettes about the cast, the songwriters, and the costumes.

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s)
Result

Academy Awards[14]
February 27, 2011
Best Original Song
"Coming Home"
Tom Douglas, Hillary Lindsey and Troy Verges
Nominated

Golden Globe Awards[15]
January 16, 2011
Best Original Song
"Coming Home"
Nominated

Satellite Awards[16]
December 19, 2010
Best Original Song
"Country Strong"
Jennifer Hanson and Gwyneth Paltrow
Nominated

Las Vegas Film Critics Society Awards 2010[17]
December 16, 2010
Best Song
"Country Strong"
Nominated

Denver Film Critics Society Awards 2010[18]
January 21, 2011
Best Original Song
"Me and Tennessee"
Nominated

Golden Reel Awards[19]
February 20, 2011
Best Sound Editing: Music in a Musical Feature Film
N/A
Won

Teen Choice Awards[20]
August 7, 2011
Actress in a Drama
Leighton Meester
Nominated

Academy of Country Music Awards[21]
2010
Tex Ritter Film Award
Country Strong
Won

tag: table

text: Music[edit]

text: The film's title track was recorded by Paltrow and released as a single to country radio on August 23, 2010.[22] Country artist Sara Evans' single "A Little Bit Stronger", is featured on the film's soundtrack[23] and was released as a single in September 2010 (which also served as a single for her sixth studio album, Stronger).[22] Both singles were promoted by RCA Nashville. The soundtrack debuted at #16 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart upon its release on October 26, 2010. Following the film's release in January 2011, the soundtrack rose to a new peak of #2 on that chart, as well as #6 on the all-genre Billboard 200 albums chart.

text: The film's score was composed by Michael Brook. "Coming Home" by Bob DiPiero, Tom Douglas, Lindsey, Troy Verges and performed by Gwyneth Paltrow was nominated for Best Original Song at the 68th Golden Globe Awards and 83rd Academy Awards, but it lost both to "You Haven't Seen The Last of Me" from Burlesque and "We Belong Together" from Toy Story 3, respectively.


document_title: When Calls the Heart

question_text: who plays henry on when calls the heart

question_tokens: who plays henry on when calls the heart

text: When Calls the Heart

text: Plot[edit]

text: When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high-society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal-mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple—but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher’s wealthy father has doomed the lawman's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate’s daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.

text: Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son—along with 45 other miners—have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen—a result of the mining-company site manager's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town's teacher.[9]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired112January 11, 2014 (2014-01-11)March 29, 2014 (2014-03-29)27April 25, 2015 (2015-04-25)June 13, 2015 (2015-06-13)New Year's WishDecember 26, 2015 (2015-12-26)38February 21, 2016 (2016-02-21)April 10, 2016 (2016-04-10)ChristmasDecember 25, 2016 (2016-12-25)410February 19, 2017 (2017-02-19)April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)The Christmas Wishing TreeDecember 25, 2017 (2017-12-25)510February 18, 2018 (2018-02-18)April 22, 2018 (2018-04-22)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Erin Krakow as Elizabeth Thatcher Thornton
Daniel Lissing as Jack Thornton (Seasons 1-5)
Lori Loughlin as Abigail Stanton
Jack Wagner as Bill Avery
Martin Cummins as Henry Gowen
Pascale Hutton as Rosemary LeVeaux Coulter
Kavan Smith as Leland Coulter

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Paul Greene as Carson Shepherd
Gracyn Shinyei as Emily Montgomery
Loretta Walsh as Florence Blakeley
Erica Carroll as Dottie Ramsey
Mark Humphrey as Frank Hogan
Johannah Newmarch as Molly Sullivan
Mitchell Kummen as Gabe Montgomery
Logan Williams as Miles Montgomery
Ben Rosenbaum as Mike Hickam
Carter Ryan Evancic as Cody Hastings
Chelah Horsdal as Cat Montgomery
Steve Bacic as Charles Spurlock
Kristina Wagner as Nora Avery
Aren Buchholz as Jesse Flynn
Charlotte Hegele as Julie Thatcher
Andrea Brooks as Faith Carter
Eva Bourne as Clara Stanton
Ava Grace Cooper as Opal
Max Lloyd-Jones as Tom Thornton
Brooke Shields as Charlotte Thornton
Devon Weigel as Viola Thatcher
Marcus Rosner as Charles Kensington
Mamie Laverock as Rosaleen Sullivan
Adrian Hough as Reverend Anderson
Lynda Boyd as Grace Thatcher
Will Verchere-Gopaulsingh as Caleb Dunbar
Ali Skovbye as Becky Hastings
Garwin Sanford as William Thatcher
Laura Bertram as Mary Dunbar
Derek Hamilton as Dewitt Graves
Niall Matter as Shane Cantrell (season 4)
Spencer Drever as Cyrus Rivera (season 4)
Josie Bissett as AJ Foster

text: Characters[edit]

text: This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Elizabeth Thatcher Thornton is an independent, strong-minded, passionate and dedicated young teacher from the city. The middle daughter of William and Grace Thatcher, Elizabeth has two sisters, older sister Viola and younger sister Julie.  Elizabeth finds herself in Coal Valley, a small community on the Canadian frontier in need of a teacher, and quickly discovers it is not an easy place to live, lacking the creature comforts and luxuries of her privileged life with her family. She soon meets the newly appointed and charismatic Mountie Jack Thornton and develops an immediate dislike for him. However, over time they become good friends, and develop an obvious attraction to one another. In the final episode of season 1, "Prelude to a Kiss" (also titled as "Final Adieu"), after overcoming many obstacles throughout the season, Jack tells Elizabeth "You're the one, you're the only one" and they share a kiss. Throughout season 2, Elizabeth's feelings for Jack are high at times as well as low. Finally, in the season 2 finale, she admits that his job as a Mountie scares her. After being comforted both admitting that they love each other, Jack and Elizabeth kiss.
Jack Thornton is a laid back country boy. Jack is the son of Mountie Thomas Thornton and his wife Charlotte Thornton. Jack has a younger brother, Tom (named after his father). As a Mountie and a man of stout character and integrity, he often finds himself protecting and saving people. In season 1's "A Telling Silence," Jack finds a basset hound whom he names Rip (after Rip Van Winkle) and takes home with him. A source of comfort and companion in the small town, Jack often goes to Rip when times in his life are difficult. In season 2's "With All My Heart," Rip, who's afraid of thunder, hides in the mine shafts during a storm. Jack and Elizabeth search for him; in their search, their relationship grows stronger. Upon his first meeting of Elizabeth, Jack developed an instant dislike and it appeared she irritated him. However, he grew to like and then fall madly and completely in love with her over time. In "Rules of Engagement" (S.1), it is revealed that Jack was briefly engaged to Rosemary LeVeaux when she comes looking for him. However, they have both changed and realize that they cannot have a relationship as they once did ever again. In "Prelude to a Kiss" (S.1), Jack found out that Elizabeth may be leaving Coal Valley. Taking her on a walk and giving her a framed picture of them that he had sketched, he asks her not to leave Coal Valley and tells her, "You're the one, you're the only one." She replied that she was "not going anywhere", Coal Valley was where she belonged before they share a kiss. In season 2, Elizabeth and Jack share a hot-and-cold relationship until the finale, "With All My Heart." They both admit that they love each other and share another kiss. Jack's brother, Tom, is introduced season 2's "Trials of the Heart," and their rocky relationship continues until "Coming Together, Coming Apart." Jack gently reminds his younger brother how their father was so proud of him, but he wouldn't be proud of the way he was currently living. Both in tears, Jack tells his younger brother that he believes in him and that he can turn his life around. More recently, Jack has become good friends with the sawmill operator, Lee Coulter. In season 3, Jack begins the new year knowing that Elizabeth only has eyes for him and that her relationship with Charles is over for good. In "Hearts In Question," Jack's mother Charlotte shows up unexpectedly. She meets Elizabeth and is suspicious of her, but through staying her sees Elizabeth for who she really is: a trustworthy, dedicated teacher. In the season finale, "Prayers From The Heart," Jack is injured in a flood. But he miraculously recovers in time to serve as Lee's best man at his wedding.
Abigail Stanton is a Coal Valley woman who tragically lost her husband and son in the mining accident. Abigail is a very kind woman, and she stands strongly for the things she believes in. She is one of the first women to welcome Elizabeth and the two women quickly become friends.  When Elizabeth accidentally burns down the little teacherage, Abigail gladly welcomes her into her home to live. After being complimented on her cooking, Abigail decides to open a cafe in Coal Valley. Together, Abigail and Elizabeth move into the rooms above the cafe. At the end of season 1, Abigail enjoys the company of Bill Avery, a Mountie, serving as a Forensic Investigator and friend of Jack Thornton's. In season 2, Abigail takes in her daughter-in-law, Clara, the wife of her late son Peter whom Abigail sees as the daughter she never had. With Bill's past being revealed, Abigail ends their friendship and spends more time with the new pastor, Frank Hogan.  Also, she is a strong independent woman that is set on doing the things that are right and tries to help Elizabeth.
Bill Avery is a mysterious, quiet man. He first appears in season 1's "Rules of Engagement," in order to help Jack expose Mr. Gowen's wrongdoings. Bill is immediately attracted to widow Abigail Stanton. Things are going well until Abigail discovers a picture of Bill's family and his wedding ring. He later tells her that his son died, as well as his wife. However, his wife, Nora, comes to confront him in season 2's "Heart's Desire."
Henry Gowen is a cold, cynical man who formerly owned the coal mine. After the mine was shut down, Henry became the mayor of Hope Valley and still creates a cold, cynical presence whenever people are around him. Henry is highly disliked and feared in the town. He frequently uses bribery to get what he wants, which is never for the good of the town.
Rosemary "Rosie" LeVeaux Coulter is a flamboyant, enthusiastic actress from New York. She was briefly engaged to Jack Thornton, but they both realized that it wouldn't work out. Rosie immediately disliked Elizabeth and viewed her as "the competition," but eventually came to really care about Elizabeth, even if she has a hard time showing it. At the beginning of season 2, Rosemary began working at the cafe with Abigail and the two quickly became friends. Spending time with Abigail helped tone down some of Rosemary's enthusiasm and made her a more likable person. Rosemary even came to like Elizabeth, even if only on an acquaintance level. Truthfully, she cares about everyone in Hope Valley, especially Lee, with whom she shares an mutual attraction. When Rosie is not spending time with Lee, talking to Abigail, or dreaming about the glamorous life of an actress, she can often be found somewhere writing her weekly advice column for Hope Valley's newspaper! In season 3, Rosemary's friendship with Elizabeth deepened. Instead of viewing her as an adversary, she finds a friend in Elizabeth. Throughout season 3, Rosemary's relationship with Lee becomes more romantic. In "Heart Of A Hero," seeing that Lee needs to spend more time at the sawmill to help the new settlers find jobs, Rosemary tells Lee that the theatre doesn't have to be built. He insists, but she says how important his job is. He smiles and tells her he will one day build her theatre, telling her that she is "the best part of his life." The couple shares in their first kiss. In "A Gentle Heart," Lee is injured. Thinking he is asleep, Rosemary pours out her heart to him, telling how much she loves him. In "Heartbreak," Rosemary is offered a job in Hollywood filming. This has always been Rosemary's dream, to be an actress. Lee unselfishly tells her to do whatever she feels best, but it is obvious that the thought of her leaving Hope Valley hurts him. Rosemary considers her options and realizes that her place is in Hope Valley, with Lee. Lee then tells her that he has another "role" that he thinks would be perfect for her and proposes marriage. She happily accepts. In "Hearts In Question," Rosemary enthusiastically plans for their wedding. The couple weds in the season 3 finale "Prayers From The Heart," with Elizabeth and Abigail as her maids of honor.
Leland "Lee" Coulter is a kind, laidback, patient man who opens a sawmill in Hope Valley. When timber becomes Coal Valley's major source of natural resources, the town is renamed Hope Valley.  He shares a mutual attraction to Rosemary and proves to be one of the few people who can outwit her.  When she declines his romantic intentions, Lee recruits his friend, Molly Sullivan, to make Rosemary jealous; the ploy succeeds and Rosemary accepts his suit, appreciating Lee's good qualities.  Despite her dramatic and occasionally prickly personality, Lee's compassion and patience never fails with her.  With Rosemary's help, Lee beat Mr. Gowen at his own game in "Heart and Home."  When not at work, Lee enjoys being with friends, including Jack Thornton, who shares Lee's simple and laidback outlook, allowing the men to discuss their lives and exchange romantic advice. In season 3, Lee's mill is unfortunately sabotaged by a man inside. Through Bill and Jack's investigation, they find the culprit. In season 3's "Heart Of A Hero," Rosemary unselfishly gives up the theatre that Lee promised to build her. Lee promises that one day, he will build her the theatre at a time when he isn't so involved with the sawmill and finding people jobs. In "A Gentle Heart," Lee is injured. Thinking Lee is asleep, Rosemary pours out her heart to Lee, telling him how afraid she was when she heard he had been injured. He however hears each and every word. She told him how much she loves him and to never leave her. In the episode "Heartbreak," Lee thinks Rosemary may leave Hope Valley when she is offered a movie job in Hollywood. When she gives up the movie, seeing her future in Hope Valley with him, he asks her to marry him. The couple weds in the season 3 finale, "Prayers From The Heart." Jack serves the role of Lee's best man.
Julie Thatcher is Elizabeth's hopeless romantic younger sister. She often gets herself into sticky situations by falling head over heels for men who aren't quite what they seem. In season 2 she gets involved with Jack's brother Tom, which causes trouble with her family and for Jack and Elizabeth's relationship.
Cat Montgomery is a kind, encouraging woman in Coal Valley. She is a widow and mother of three: Gabe, Miles, and Emily. Cat was one of the first mothers to show kindness to Elizabeth when she first came. She desperately wants her children to remember the good memories of their father as seen by her self-sacrificing acts in "Secrets and Lies."  Possessing a great sense of teamwork and encouragement, Cat supports the women of Coal Valley while working in the mines in "Cease and Desist." She is good friends with Elizabeth and Abigail. In "These Games," she also helps Jack catch a thief.
Florence Blakeley is a feisty gossip in Hope Valley. She often has a pessimistic perspective and always seems to find the negative, even in a very positive situation. In "Heart and Home," Abigail told Florence what she really thought about her, which causes Florence to rein in her negativity somewhat, though she remains fairly outspoken.  While not always likable, Florence adds spice to life in Hope Valley.
Molly Sullivan is a friend of Lee Coulter and Elizabeth Thatcher. Molly's husband was killed in the mine disaster. She has a daughter Rosaleen. In season 1's "A Telling Silence," Rosaleen has trouble in school because she misses her father so much. When she runs away, Elizabeth finds her in the mine, feeling guilty that she didn't bring her father his lunch the day of the disaster because she wanted to play with a friend instead. She fears her mother will blame her, but Elizabeth convinces her that Molly will "say that she loves her more than life itself." Molly is reunited with her daughter, to the joy of the town's people. In season 2's "With All My Heart," Lee feels it's time to "play hard to get" with Rosemary, so he enlists help from Molly. She pretends to be interested in him romantically. This ploy works and Rosemary admits that she does in fact like him. Molly is a kind woman and was among the first to welcome Elizabeth to town.
Clara Stanton is the wife of Abigail's late son Peter, and is a sweet, quiet, and sensitive young woman.  Abigail never knew she had a daughter-in-law until season 2's "Trials of the Heart;" with Peter having married Clara only three days before he was killed. In "Heart's Desire," Abigail invites Clara to come live with her in Hope Valley, an offer that Clara accepts.
Charles Kensington III is an old friend of Elizabeth with whom she reconnects while in Hamilton. He is interested in her, though her feelings for Jack get in the way of their relationship.

text: Production[edit]

text: The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set.[10] The Thatcher home is the University Women's Club of Vancouver.[11]

text: The series was renewed for a second season,[12] which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016,[13] with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.[14]

text: In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two-hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.[15][16]

text: Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.[17][18]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015.[19] The network has since aired all five seasons.[20][21] The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.


document_title: Last surviving United States war veterans

question_text: when did the last spanish american veteran died

text: Pre U.S. independence[edit]

text:
Veteran
Lifespan
Notes

French and Indian War (1754–1763)

Jonathan Benjamin
1738–1841
Also fought in American Revolutionary War. Settled in Granville, Ohio in 1802.[1]

text: Post U.S. independence[edit]

text: The book The Last Men of the Revolution was compiled by Rev. E. B. Hillard and published by N. A. & R. A. Moore in the year 1864, the book claimed to include photos and biographies of six of the last surviving Revolutionary War veterans. None of the men interviewed in the book would become the last surviving Revolutionary War veteran but the photos published in the book are some of the few surviving photos of American Revolutionary War veterans.[2]

text:
Veteran
Lifespan
Notes

American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)

Ralph Farnham [Farnum]
1756-1860
Massachusetts. Biography:"Biographical Sketch of Ralph Farnham" by C.W. Clarence 1860

Barnabas Cochran
1758–1864
Pennsylvania Militia. Longest living verified veteran.[3]

Adam Link
1761-1864
Pennsylvania Militia. Photograph/biography listed in 1864 publication The Last Men of the Revolution

Rev. Daniel Waldo
1762-1864
Connecticut Militia. Served as Chaplain of the US House of Representatives. Photograph/biography listed in 1864 publication The Last Men of the Revolution

James Barham
1764-1865
Virginia State Militia. Was to have had a Photograph/biography listed in 1864 publication The Last Men of the Revolution; but was not located by author Hillard. Photograph/biography listed on Find a Grave website.[4]

Alexander Millener
1770?-1865
Enlisted under stepfathers surname as "Alexander Maroney". Claimed to have been born in 1760 and to have served in Washington's life Guard {not verified} although he did serve in New York line. Photograph/biography listed in 1864 publication The Last Men of the Revolution

William Hutchings
1764-1866
Massachusetts Militia. Photograph/biography listed in 1864 publication The Last Men of the Revolution

Lemuel Cook
1769-1866
2nd Continental Light Dragoons. Photograph/biography listed in 1864 publication The Last Men of the Revolution

Samuel Downing
1761-1867
Served in New Hampshire Line. Photograph/biography listed in 1864 publication The Last Men of the Revolution

John Gray
1764–1868
Virginia Militia. 6 months Service period was too short to qualify for pension.[5]Granted a pension in 1867.

William Taylor
1757-1868
New Jersey Militia. See story at Find a Grave memorial[6]

Daniel Frederick Bakeman
1759–1869
Last veteran drawing a pension awarded by Congress; granted a pension in 1867 even though he could not prove his service.[7]

Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787)

David Whitney
1767–1867
Massachusetts State Militia.[8]

Whiskey Rebellion (1791–1794)

Michael Edwards
1767?–1876
Pennsylvania State Militia.

War of 1812 (1812–1815)

Hiram Cronk
1800–1905
U.S. Army.[9]

Black Hawk War (1832)

Henry L. Riggs
1812–1911
Illinois State Militia.[10]

Toledo War (1835–1836)

Riley Crooks Crawford
1817–1910
Michigan State Militia.[11][12]

Texas Revolution (1835–1836)

William P. Zuber
1820–1913
Texas Volunteers.[13][14]

Bear Flag Revolt (1846)

John Grider
1826–1924
Californian Rebel.[15][16]

Mexican–American War (1846–1848)

Owen Thomas Edgar
1831–1929
U.S. Navy.[17]

Bleeding Kansas (1854–1861)

Luke F. Parsons
1833–1926
Last survivor of the Battle of Osawatomie.[18][19]

George Roe
1834–1927
Last of John Brown's forces at the Battle of Black Jack[20]

John Brown
1844-1940
Last of Quantrill's Raiders at the Lawrence Massacre. Also served in the John S. Marmaduke Cavalry Division

American Civil War (1861–1865)

James Albert Hard
1843–1953
Last verified combat veteran. Fought for the Union.[21]

Albert Henry Woolson
1850–1956
Last Union veteran.[22]

Pleasant Riggs Crump
1847–1951
Last verified Confederate veteran. See Last surviving Confederate veterans.

Thomas Edwin Ross
1850–1952
Insufficient evidence. See Last surviving Confederate veterans.

Richard William Cumpston
1841?–1952
No evidence. See Last surviving Confederate veterans.

William Murphy Loudermilk[23]
1847?–1952
Insufficient evidence. See Last surviving Confederate veterans.

William Joshua Uncle Josh Bush[24]
1846?–1952
Insufficient evidence. See Last surviving Confederate veterans.

William Daniel Uncle Eli Townsend[24]
1846–1953
Insufficient evidence. See Last surviving Confederate veterans.

William Albert Kinney
1846?–1953
Insufficient evidence. See Last surviving Confederate veterans.

William Allen Uncle Bill Lundy[24]
1859–1957
Debunked.[25] See Last surviving Confederate veterans.

American Indian Wars (1622–1924}

Noah Johnson
1698–1798
New England colonists. Last survivor of Lovewell's War[26][27]

Samuel Murphy
1758–1851
Virginia colonists. Last participant of Lord Dunmore's War[28]

John Winchell Cullen
1838–1939
U.S. Army. Last survivor of the Yakima War.[29][30]

Dewey Beard
1857–1955
Native American from Lakota tribe. Last survivor of Battle of the Little Big Horn.[31] He also fought at Wounded Knee.[32]

John Daw
1870–1965
U.S. Army. Last surviving Indian Scout.[33][34]

Frederick Fraske
1872–1973
U.S. Army.[35]

Boxer Rebellion (1897–1901)

Nathan E. Cook
1885–1992
U.S. Navy.[36]

Spanish–American War (1898)

Jones Morgan
1882–1993
U.S. Army.

Philippine–American War (1899–1902)

Nathan E. Cook
1885–1992
U.S. Navy.[36]

Border War (1910–1919)

Samuel Goldberg
1900–2006
U.S. Army.[37]

World War I (1914–1918)

Frank Woodruff Buckles
1901–2011
U.S. Army.[38]

Pancho Villa Expedition (1916–1917)

Mark Matthews
1894?–2005
U.S. Army.[39]

Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War

American and other Allied forces were involved in the Polar Bear Expedition which began during World War I and continued into the Russian Civil War

Harold Gunnes
1899–2003
Served in a naval brigade attached to the 339th Infantry Regiment as part of American Expeditionary Force North Russia.[40]

Warren V. Hileman
1901–2005
Served in the 27th Infantry Regiment as part of the American Expeditionary Force Siberia.[41]

Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)

Delmer Berg
1915–2016[42]
Volunteered in 1938. Served in anti-aircraft in the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. Lived in Columbia, California.[43]


document_title: Levator scapulae muscle

question_text: what is the action of the levator scapula

text: Levator scapulae muscle

text: Structure[edit]

text: The levator scapulae originates from the posterior tubercle of the transverse process of cervical vertebrae one to four. The muscle is inserted into medial border of the scapula extending from superior angle to junction of spine and medial border of scapula.[1]

text: The levator scapulae may lie deep to the sternocleidomastoideus at its origin, deep or adjacent to the splenius capitis at its origin and mid-portion, and deep to the trapezius in its lower portion.

text: Relations[edit]

text: One of the muscles within the floor of the posterior triangle of the neck, the superior part of levator scapula is covered by sternocleidomastoid and its inferior part by the trapezius.[2] It is bounded in front by the scalenus medius and behind by splenius cervicis. The spinal accessory nerve crosses laterally in the middle part of the muscle and the dorsal scapular nerve may lie deep to or pass through it.[3]

text: Variation[edit]

text: The number of vertebral attachments varies; a slip may extend to the occipital or mastoid, to the trapezius, scalene or serratus anterior, or to the first or second rib. The muscle may be subdivided into several distinct parts from origin to insertion. Levator claviculæ from the transverse processes of one or two upper cervical vertebræ to the outer end of the clavicle corresponds to a muscle of lower animals. More or less union with the serratus anterior muscle.[4]

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text: The levator scapulae is supplied by two or three branches of the fourth and fifth cervical nerves,[1] and frequently by a branch from the dorsal scapular nerve.[4]

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The levator scapulae is supplied by the dorsal scapular artery. Normally, this artery has a small branch which passes laterally to the supraspinatus fossa of the scapula, and in a third of cases, this branch supplies the muscle. If the dorsal scapular artery comes off the transverse cervical artery, the parent transverse cervical artery splits, the dorsal scapular artery passes medially, while the transverse cervical artery passes laterally.[3]

text: Function[edit]

text: When the spine is fixed, levator scapulae elevates the scapula and rotates its inferior angle medially.[1] It often works in combination with other muscles like the rhomboids and pectoralis minor to rotate down.

text: Elevating or rotating one shoulder at a time would require muscles to stabilize the cervical spine and keep it immobile so it does not flex or rotate. Elevating both at once with equal amounts of pull on both side of cervical spinal origins would counteract these forces. Downward rotation would be prevented by co-contraction of other muscles that elevate the spine, the upper fibers of the trapezius, which is an upward rotator.

text: When the shoulder is fixed, levator scapula rotates to the same side and flexes the cervical spine laterally.[5] When both shoulders are fixed, a simultaneous co-contraction of both levator scapulae muscles in equal amounts would not produce lateral flexion or rotation, and may produce straight flexion or extension of the cervical spine.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The muscles of the shoulder can be categorized into three topographic units: the scapulohumeral, axiohumeral, and axioscapular groups. Levator scapulae forms part of the latter group together with rhomboid major, rhomboid minor, serratus anterior, and trapezius. The trapezius evolved separately, but the other three muscles in this group evolved from the first eight or ten ribs and the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae (homologous to the ribs). The serratus anterior formed the basal unit for these three muscles. In higher primates it has evolved into two separate muscles — serratus anterior and levator scapulae — by concentration of the proximal and distal fibers and progressive reduction of the intermediate fibers. The fibers concerned with the cranial displacement of the scapula became the levator scapulae.[6]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Position of levator scapulae muscle.

A cervical vertebra

Side view of a typical cervical vertebra

Left scapula. Dorsal surface.

Section of the neck at about the level of the sixth cervical vertebra.

Muscles of the neck. Lateral view.

Hypoglossal nerve, cervical plexus, and their branches.

The right brachial plexus with its short branches, viewed from in front.

Levator scapulae muscle

Brachial plexus. Deep dissection.

Brachial plexus. Deep dissection. Anterolateral view